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 Ex Libria 
 C. K. OGDEN 
 
 THE 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 ROBERT GORDON LATHAM, M.D., F.R.S., 
 
 L.VTE FELLOW OF KINg's COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE; FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF 
 
 PHYSICIANS, LONDON ; MEMBER OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, 
 
 NEW YORK; LATE PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 AND LITEEATUEE, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON. 
 
 THIRD EDITION, 
 
 REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED. 
 
 LONDON: 
 TAYLOR, WALTON, AND MABERLY, 
 
 UPPER GOWER STREET, AND IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW. 
 
 1850.
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PrinteJ by Samuel Kentli'v & Co. 
 
 B;ini;or House, Shoe Lane,
 
 LIBRARY 
 UNIVERSITY Oi CALIFORNIA 
 ^ SANTA BA.iiiAKA 
 
 /o75 
 185-0 
 
 TO 
 
 THE REV, WILLIAM BUTCHER, M.A, 
 
 OF 
 
 ROPSLEY, LINCOLNSHIRE, 
 
 IN ADMIRATION OF HIS ACCOMPLISHMENTS AS A LINGUIST, 
 
 AND AS A TESTIMONY OF PRIVATE REGARD, 
 
 Cfje folIotDtng ^3agfs are Jnsnilielr, 
 
 BY HIS FRIEND, 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 London, 
 Nov. 4, 1841.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The first edition of the present work was laid 
 before the public, with the intention of representing 
 in a form as systematic as the extent of the subject 
 would allow, those views concerning the structure and 
 relations of the English language, which amongst 
 such scholars as had studied them with the proper 
 means and opportunities, were then generally re- 
 ceived ; and which, so being received', might take 
 their stand as established and recognized facts. With 
 the results of modern criticism, as applied to his 
 native tongue, it was conceived that an educated 
 Englishman should be familiar. To this extent the 
 special details of the language were exhibited ; and 
 to this extent the work was strictly a Grammar of the 
 English Language. 
 
 But besides this, it was well known that the cur- 
 rent grammarians, and the critical philologists, had 
 long ceased to write alike upon the English, or in-
 
 VI I'KKKACE. 
 
 deed upon any other, language. For this reason the 
 sphere of the work became enlarged ; so that, on 
 many occasions, general principles had to be enounced, 
 fresh terms to be defined, and old classifications 
 to be remodelled. Tliis introduced extraneous ele- 
 ments of criticism, and points of discussion Avhich, in 
 a more advanced stage of English philology, would 
 have been superfluous. It also introduced elements 
 which had a tendency to displace the account of some 
 of the more special and proper details of the lan- 
 guage. There was not room for the exposition of 
 general principles, for the introduction of the neces- 
 sary amount of preliminary considerations, and for 
 the minuticB of an extreme analysis. Nor is there 
 room for all this at present. A work that should, 
 at one and the same time, prove its principles, in- 
 stead of assuming them, supply the full and necessary 
 preliminaries in the way of logic, phonetics, and 
 ethnology, and, besides this, give a history of every 
 variety in the form of every word, although, perhaps, 
 a work that one man might write, would be a full 
 and perfect Thesaurus of the English Language, and, 
 would probably extend to many volumes. For, in 
 the English language, there are many first princi})les 
 to be established, and much historical knowledge to 
 be applied. Besides which, the particular jioints 
 both of etymology and syntax are far more numer- 
 ous than is imagined. Scanty as is the amount of 
 declension and conjugation in current use, there are 
 to be found in every de])artment of our grammars.
 
 PREFACE. Vll 
 
 numerous isolated words wliich exhibit the fragments 
 of a fuller inflection, and of a more highly developed 
 etymology. This is well-known to every scholar who 
 has not only viewed our language as a derivative 
 of the Anglo-Saxon, and observed that there are 
 similar relations between many other languages {e. g. 
 the Italian and Latin, the German and Moeso-Gothic, 
 &c.), but who has, also, generalized the phenomena 
 of such forms of relationship and derivation, and 
 enabled himself to see in the most uninflected 
 languages of the nineteenth century, the fragments 
 of a fuller and more systematic inflection, altered 
 by time, but altered in a uniform and a general 
 manner. 
 
 The point, however, upon which, in the prefaces 
 both of the first edition of the present work and 
 of his English Grammar, the writer has most urgently 
 insisted is the disciplinal character of grammatical 
 studies in general, combined with the fact, that 
 the grammatical study of one's own language is al- 
 most ej7clusively disciplinal. It is undoubtedly true, 
 that in schools something that is called English 
 Grammar is taught : and it is taught pretty ge- 
 nerally. It is taught so generally that, I believe, 
 there are only two classes of English boys and girls 
 who escape it — those who are taught nothing at all 
 in any school whatever, and those who are sent so 
 early to the great classical schools (where nothing is 
 taught but Latin and Greek), as to escape altogether 
 the English part of their scholastic education. But
 
 VIII PREPACK. 
 
 Avliat is it that is thus <reiK'rally taught ? not the 
 familiar practice of spcakinu; English — that has boci? 
 already attaincMl by the siiiii)le fact of the pu|)il hav- 
 ing been born on English soil, and of English parents. 
 Not the scientific theory of the language — that is an 
 impossibility with the existing text-books. Neither, 
 then, of these matters is taught. Nevertheless labour 
 is expended, and time is consumed. What is taught? 
 Something undoubtedly. The facts, that language is 
 more or less regular {i. e. capable of having its struc- 
 ture exhibited by rules) ; that there is such a thing 
 as grammar ; and that certain expressions should be 
 avoided, are all matters worth knowing. And they 
 are all taught e\en by the worst method of teaching. 
 But are these the proper objects of s^/stematic teach- 
 ing? Is the importance of their acquisition equiva- 
 lent to the time, the trouble, and the displacement of 
 more valuable subjects, which are involved in their 
 explanation? I think not. Gross vulgarity of lan- 
 guage is a fault to be prevented ; but the proper 
 prevention is to be got from habit — not rules. The 
 proprieties of the English language are to be learned, 
 like the proprieties of English manners, by conversa- 
 tion and intercourse ; and the proper school for both, 
 is the best society in which the learner is placed. If 
 this be good, systematic teaching is superfluous ; if 
 bad, insufficient. There are undoubted points where 
 a young person may doubt as to the grammatical 
 propriety of a certain expression. In this case let him 
 ask some one older, and more instructed. Grammar,
 
 PREFACE. IX 
 
 as an art, is, undoubtedly, the art of speaking and writ- 
 ing correctly — but then, as an art, it is only required 
 for foreign languages. For our own we have the 
 necessary practice and familiarity. 
 
 The claim of English grammar to form part and 
 parcel of an English education stands or falls with 
 the value of the philological and historical knowledge 
 to which grammatical studies may serve as an intro- 
 duction, and with the value of scientific grammar as 
 a disciplinal study. I have no fear of being supposed 
 to undervalue its importance in this respect. Indeed 
 in assuming that it is very great, I also assume that 
 wherever grammar is studied as grammar, the lan- 
 guage which the grammar so studied should repre- 
 sent, must be the mother-tongue of the student ; 
 whatever that mother-tongue may be — English for Eng- 
 lishmen, Welsh for Welshmen, French for French- 
 men, German for Germans, &:c. This study is the 
 study of a theory ; and for this reason it should be 
 complicated as little as possible by points of practice. 
 For this reason a man's mother-tongue is the best 
 medium for the elements of scientific philology, 
 simply because it is the one which he knows best 
 in practice. 
 
 Now if, over and above the remarks upon the 
 English language, and the languages allied to it, 
 there occur in the present volume, episodical discus- 
 sions of points connected with other languages, es])e- 
 cially the Latin and Greek, it is because a greater 
 portion of the current ideas on phih)logical subjects
 
 X PREFACE. 
 
 is t:ikoii from those languages than from our own. 
 Besides which, a second question still stands over. 
 There is still the question as to the relative discipliual 
 merits of the different ?iOw-vernacular languages of 
 the world. What is the next best vehicle for philo- 
 logical philosophy to our mother-tongue, whatever that 
 mother-tongue may be ? Each Athenian who fought 
 at Salamis considered his own contributions to that 
 great naval victory the greatest ; and he considered 
 tliem so because they were his own. So it is with the 
 language which we speak, and use, and have learned 
 as our own. Yet each same Athenian awarded the 
 second place of honour to Themistocles. The great 
 classical languages of Greece and Rome are in the 
 position of Themistocles. They are the best when the 
 question of ourselves and our possessions is excluded. 
 They are the best in the eyes of an indifferent umpire. 
 More than this; if we take into account the studies of 
 the learned world, they are second only to the particu- 
 lar mother-tongue of the particular student, in the way 
 of practical familiarity. Without either affirming or 
 denying that, on the simple scores of etymological re- 
 gularity, etymological variety, and syntactic logic, the 
 Sanskrit may be their equal, it must still be admitted 
 that this last-named language has no claims to a high 
 value as a practical ])hilological discipline upon the 
 grounds of its universality as a point of education ; 
 nor will it have. Older than the Greek, it may (or 
 may not) be ; more multiform than the Latin, it may 
 (or may not) be : but equally rich in the attractions
 
 PREFACE. XI 
 
 of an unsurpassed literature, and equally influential as a 
 standard of imitation, it neither has been nor can be. 
 We may admit all that is stated by those who admire 
 its epics, or elucidate its philosophy ; we may admire 
 all this and much more besides, but we shall still miss 
 the great elements of oratory and history, that con- 
 nect the ancient languages of Greece and Italy with 
 the thoughts, and feelings, and admiration of recent 
 Europe. 
 
 The same sort of reasoning applies to the Semitic 
 languages. One element they have, in their gram- 
 matical representation, which gives them a value in 
 philological philosophy, in the abstract, above all other 
 languages — the generality of the expression of their 
 structure. This is symholic^ and its advantage is that 
 it exhibits the naturally universal phenomena of their 
 construction in a universal language. Yet neither 
 this nor their historical value raises them to the level 
 of the classical languages. 
 
 Now, what has just been written has been written 
 with a view towards a special inference, and as the 
 preliminary to a practical deduction ; and it would 
 not have been written but for some such ulterior 
 application. If these languages have so high a dis- 
 ciplinal value, how necessary it is that the expression 
 of their philological phenomena should be accurate, 
 scientific, and representative of their true growth and 
 form ? How essential that their grammars should ex- 
 hibit nothing that may hereafter be unlearned? Pace 
 grammaticcyrum dijcerhn, this is not the case. Bad
 
 XU PRKFAOE. 
 
 as is Jjiiidlev Miiiiav in Jmi^HsIi, lUisby and Lilly are 
 worse in Creek and Latin. Tliis is the comparison 
 of the men on the h)\v rounds of the ladder. What 
 do we find as we ascend ? Is the grammatical science 
 of even men like IMathia) and Zump much above that 
 of Wallis ? Does Buttmann's Greek give so little 
 to be unlearned as Grimm's German? By any one 
 wlio lias gone far in comparative pliilology, the 
 answer will be given in the negative. 
 
 This is not written in the spirit of a destructive 
 criticism. If an opinion as to the fact is stated with- 
 out reserve, it is accompanied by an explanation, and 
 (partially, perhaps) by a justification. It is the busi- 
 ness of a Greek and Latin grammarian to teach Greek 
 and Latin ci7o, tute, ac jucunde^ — cito, that is, between 
 the years of twelve and twenty-four ; tute, that is, in a 
 May that quantities may be read truly, and hard pas- 
 sages translated accurately ; jucunde, that is, as the 
 taste and memory of the pupil may determine. With 
 this view the grammar must be artificial. Granted. 
 But then it should profess to be so. It should 
 profess to address the memory only, not the under- 
 standing. Above all it should prefer to leave a point 
 untaught, than to teach it in a way that must be 
 unlearned. 
 
 In 1840, so little had been done by Englishmen 
 for tlie English language, that in acknowledging my 
 great obligations to foreign scholars, I was only able 
 to speak to what might he done by my own country- 
 men. Since then, however, there has been a good
 
 PREFACE. XIU 
 
 beginning of what is likely to be done well. My 
 references to the works of Messrs. Kemble, Garnet, 
 and Guest, show that my authorities are now a? much 
 English as German. And this is likely to be the 
 case. The details of the syntax, the illustrations 
 drawn from our provincial dialects, the minute his- 
 tory of individual words, and the whole system of 
 articulate sounds can, for the English, only be done 
 safely by an Englishman : or, to speak more gene- 
 rally, can, for any language, only be dealt with pro- 
 perly by the grammarian whose mother-tongue is that 
 language. The Deutsche Grammatik of Grimm is the 
 work not of an nge nor of a century, but, like the great 
 history of the Athenian, a z,rri[JM ilc, kzL It is the maga- 
 zine from whence all draw their facts and illustrations. 
 Yet it is only the proper German portion that pre- 
 tends to be exhaustive. The Dutch and Scandina- 
 vians have each improved the exhibition of their own 
 respective languages. Monument as is the Deutsche 
 Grammatik of learning, industry, comprehensiveness, 
 and arrangement, it is not a book that should be read 
 to the exclusion of others : nor must it be considered 
 to exhibit the grammar of the Gothic languages, in 
 a form unsusceptible of improvement. Like all great 
 works, it is more easily improved than imitated. One 
 is almost unwilling to recur to the old comparison 
 between Aristotle, who absorbed the labour of his pre- 
 decessors, and the Eastern sultans, who kill-off their 
 younger brothers. But such is the case with Grimm 
 and his fore-runners in philology. Germany, that, in
 
 XIV PRRFAOK. 
 
 respect to the TJeformation, is content to be told 
 tliat Erasmus laid tlie eijfg- which Luther hatched, 
 must iriso acknowledge that accurate and systt^matic 
 schohirs of other countries prepared the way for the 
 Deutsche Grammatilx, — Ten Kate in Holland ; Dow- 
 browsky, a Slavonian ; and Rask, a Dane. 
 
 Nor are there wanting older works in English that 
 have a value in Gothic philology. I should be sorry 
 to speak as if, beyond the writers of what may be 
 called the modern school of philology, there was 
 nothing for the English grammarian both to read and 
 study. The fragments of Ben Jonson's English Gram- 
 mar are worth the entireties of many later writers. 
 The work of Wallis is eminently logical and precise. 
 The voice of a mere ruler of rules is a sound to flee 
 from ; but the voice of a truly powerful understand- 
 ing is a thing to be heard on all matters. It is 
 this Mhich gives to Cobbett and Priestley, to Home 
 Tooke as a subtle etymologist, and to Johnson as 
 a practical lexicographer, a value in literary history, 
 which they never can have in grammar. It con- 
 verts unwholesome doctrines into a fertile discipline 
 of thought. 
 
 The method of the present work is mixed. It is 
 partly historical, and partly logical. The historical 
 portions exhibit the way in which words and inflec- 
 tions have been used ; the logical, the way in which 
 they ought to he used. Now I cannot conceal from 
 either my readers or myself the fact that philological 
 criticism at the present moment is of an essentially
 
 PREFACE. XV 
 
 historical character. Tt has l^eon by worlving tlie 
 historical niothofl tliat all the great results both in 
 general and special scholarship have been arrived at ; 
 and it is on liistorical investigation that the whole in- 
 duction of modern philology rests. All beyond is d 
 priori argument ; and, according to many, cl priori 
 argument out of place. Now, this gives to the ques- 
 tions in philology, to questions concerning the phe- 
 nomena of concord, government, &c. a subordinate 
 character. It does so, however, improperly. Logic 
 is in language what it is in reasoning, — a rule and 
 standard. But in its application to reasoning and 
 to language there is this difference. Whilst illogical 
 reasoning, and illogical grammar are equally pheno- 
 mena of the human mind, even as physical disease is 
 a phenomenon of the human body, the illogical gram- 
 mar can rectify itself by its mere continuance, propa- 
 gation, and repetition. In this respect the pheno- 
 mena of language stand apart from the other pheno- 
 mena of either mind or organized matter. No amount 
 of false argument can make a fallacy other than a 
 fallacy. No amount of frequency can make physical 
 disease other than a predisposing cause to physical 
 disorganization. The argument that halts in its logic, 
 is not on a par with the argument that is sound. 
 Such also is the case with any bodily organ. No 
 prevalence of sickness can ever evolve health. Lan- 
 guage, however, as long as it preserves the same 
 amount of intelligibility is always language. Pro- 
 vided it serve as a medium, it does its proper work;
 
 XVI PREFACE. 
 
 and as loiio- as it docs this, it is, as far as its a])plioa- 
 tion is concerncMl, faultless. Now there is a limit in 
 logical- regularity which language is perpetually over- 
 step])ing ; just as there is a logical limit which the 
 reasoning of common life is perpetually overstepping, 
 and just as there is a physiological limit which the 
 average health of meu and women may depart from. 
 This limit is investigated by the historical method ; 
 which shows the amount of latitude in which lan- 
 guage may indulge and yet maintain its great essential 
 of intelligibility. Nay, more, it can show that it 
 sometimes transgresses the limit in so remarkable a 
 manner, as to induce writers to talk about the cor- 
 ruption of a language^ or the imthology of a language, 
 with the application of many similar metaphors. Yet 
 it is very doubtful whether all languages, in all their 
 stages, are not equally intelligible, and, consequently, 
 equally what they ought to be, viz., mediums of inter- 
 course between man and man ; whilst, in respect to 
 their growth, it is almost certain that so far from ex- 
 hibiting signs of dissolution, they are, on the contrary, 
 like the Tithonus of mythology, the Strulbrugs of 
 Laputa, or, lastly, such monsters as Frankenstein, very 
 liable to the causes of death, but utterly unable to 
 die. Hence, in language, whatever is, is right ; a fact 
 which, taken by itself, gives great value to the histo- 
 rical method of inquiry, and leaves little to the d 
 priori considerations of logic. 
 
 But, on the other hand, there is a limit in logical 
 regularity, which language never oversteps: and as
 
 PREFACE. XVII 
 
 long as this is the case, the stiuly of the logical 
 standard of what language is in its normal form must 
 go hand in hand with the study of the processes that 
 deflect it. The investigation of the irregularities of 
 language — and be it remembered that almost all 
 change implies original irregularity — is analogous to 
 the investigation of fallacies in logic. It is the 
 comparison between the rule and the practice, with 
 this difference, that in language the practice can 
 change the rule, which in logic is impossible. I 
 am sure that these remarks are necessary in order 
 to antici])ate objections that may be raised against 
 certain statements laid down in the syntax. 1 often 
 write as if I took no account of the historical evi- 
 dence, in respect to particular uses of particular 
 words. I do so, not because I undervalue that de- 
 partment of philology, but because it is out of place. 
 To show that one or more writers, generally correct, 
 have used a particular expression is to show that they 
 speak, in a few instances, as the vulgar speak in many. 
 To show that the vulgar use one expression for an- 
 other is to show that two ideas are sufficiently allied 
 to be expressed in the same manner : in other words, 
 the historical fact is accompanied by a logical expla- 
 nation ; and the historical deviation is measured by 
 a logical standard. 
 
 I am not desirous of sacrificing a truth to an anti- 
 thesis, but so certain is language to change from 
 logical accuracy to logical licence, and, at the same 
 time, so certain is language, when so changed, to be
 
 XVlll PREFACE. 
 
 just as intelligible as before, that I venture upon as- 
 serting- that, not only whatever is, is right, but also, 
 that in many cases, ivhatcver teas, was lurong. There is 
 an antagonism, between logic and practice ; and the 
 phenomena, on both sides must be studied.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 GENERAL ETHNOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE — DATE. 
 
 SECTION PAGE 
 
 1. English not originally British . . . • 1 
 
 2. Germanic in origin . . . . .2 
 3 — ]0. Accredited details of the diiFerent immigrations from Gcr- ^ 
 
 many into Britain ..... 2 — 4 
 10 — 12. Accredited relations of the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons to each 
 
 other as Germans . . . . .4 
 
 13. Criticism of evidence .... 5 
 Extract from Mr. Kemhle . . . . 6 
 
 14. Inference ...... 9 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 GERMAIWC ORIGIN OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE — THE IMMIGRANT TRIBES 
 AND THEIR RELATION TO EACH OTHER. 
 
 15 — 20. The Jute immigration doubtful . . 10—12 
 
 22. Difficulties in identifying the Saxons . . .13 
 
 23. Difficulties in identifying the Angles . . .13 
 25 — 29. Populations with the greatest a piioi-i likelihood of having 
 
 immigrated ..... 14, 15 
 
 26. Menapians . . . . .15 
 
 27. Batavians . . . . .15 
 
 28. Frisians . . . . .15 
 
 29. Chauci ..... 15 
 
 30. Inference , . . . .16 
 
 12
 
 XX 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION 
 
 31 — 34. Siftxons nnd Nordnlbinginns 
 
 36 — 50. Populations, whereof the continental relation.*; help us in 
 
 the original country of the Angles and Saxons . 
 3(). Gornmns of the Middle Hliiiie 
 
 Franks ..... 
 
 Sulians .... 
 
 Chaniavi .... 
 
 37. Thuringians .... 
 
 38. Catti ..... 
 
 39. Geographical conditions of the Saxon Area 
 
 40. Its Kiislcrn limit . . . . 
 41 — 60. Slavonian frontier 
 
 41. 
 
 
 >» 
 
 Polabi . 
 
 42. 
 
 
 » 
 
 "Wagrians 
 
 43. 
 
 
 » 
 
 Obotriti . 
 
 44. 
 
 
 » 
 
 Lini . 
 
 45. 
 
 
 » 
 
 Warnabi . 
 
 46. 
 
 
 >j 
 
 ]\Iorizani 
 
 47. 
 
 
 » 
 
 Doxani 
 
 48. 
 
 
 J) 
 
 Ilcvclli 
 
 49. 
 
 
 » 
 
 Slavonians of Altniark 
 
 50. 
 
 
 >5 
 
 Sorabians 
 
 51. 
 
 Saxon 
 
 area 
 
 
 PAOF. 
 
 16, 17 
 fixing 
 17—21 
 
 17 
 . 18 
 
 18 
 . 18 
 
 18 
 . 18 
 
 18 
 . 19 
 20,21 
 . 20 
 
 20 
 . 20 
 
 20 
 . 21 
 
 21 
 . 21 
 
 21 
 . 21 
 
 21 
 . 21 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OF THE DIALECTS OP THE SAXON AREA AND OF THE SO-CALLED OLD 
 
 SAXON. 
 
 62. 53. Extent and frontier 
 
 54 — 62. Anglo-Saxon and Old Saxon 
 
 63. Old-Saxon data 
 
 64. Specimen 
 
 23 
 
 23—25 
 
 25 
 
 . 26 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 AFFINITIES OF THE ENGLISH WITH THE LANGUAGES OF GERMANY AND 
 SCANDINAVIA. 
 
 65. General affinities of the English language 
 
 67. The term Gothic 
 
 69. Scandinavian branch 
 
 70. Tvutonic branch 
 
 28 
 28 
 28 
 31
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 XXI 
 
 SECTION 
 
 71. Moeso-Gothic 
 
 73. Origin of the Moeso-Goths 
 
 76. Name not Germanic 
 
 77. Old High German 
 
 78. Low Germanic division 
 
 79. Frisian .... 
 
 81. Old Frisian 
 
 82. Platt-Deutsch 
 
 83. Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic compound . 
 
 84. Scandinavian article 
 88. Scandinavian verb . 
 
 91. Declension in -7i , 
 
 92. Difference between languages of the same division 
 9.3. Weak and strong nouns 
 
 Moeso-Gothic inflections . 
 94. Old Frisian and Anglo-Saxon 
 
 98. The term German . 
 
 99. The term Dutch 
 
 100. The term Teutonic 
 
 101. The term Anglo-Saxon . 
 
 102. Icelandic, Old Norse 
 
 PAGE 
 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 35 
 36 
 36 
 37 
 38 
 38 
 40 
 44 
 45 
 46 
 46 
 47 
 50 
 56 
 57 
 58 
 59 
 59 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE — GERMANIC ELEMENTS. 
 
 106. The Angles ...... 
 
 109. Extract from Tacitus . . . . 
 
 „ Ptolemy . . . . . 
 
 110. Extracts connecting them with the inhabitants of the Cimbric 
 Chersonesus ..... 
 
 111. The district called Angle . . . . 
 
 113. Inferences and remarks .... 
 
 114. What were the Langobardi with whom the Angles were connected 
 by Tacitus ? . . . 
 
 115. What were the Suevi, &c. .... 
 
 116. What were the AVerini, &c. . . . . 
 
 117. What were the Thuringians, &c. 
 121. Difficulties respecting the Angles 
 
 12.3 — 128. Patronymic forms, and the criticism based on them 
 129 — 131. Probably German immigrants not Anglo-Saxon . 
 
 62 
 63 
 63 
 
 64 
 65 
 65 
 
 , 66 
 
 66 
 
 . 67 
 
 67 
 . 68 
 
 68—72 
 72, 73
 
 XX 11 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE CELTIC STOCK OP LANGUAGES, AND THEIR RELATIONS TO THE 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 SF.CTIOJ( PAGE 
 
 132. Cambrian Celtic . . . . .74 
 
 133. Gaelic Celtic . . . . .77 
 136. Structure of Celtic tongues . . . 79—83 
 138. The Celtic of Gaul . ' . . .84 
 130. Tlie Pictish . . . . . .84 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE AXGLO-NORJIAN AND THE LANGUAGES OP THE CLASSICAL STOCK. 
 
 140. The Classical languages . . . .86 
 
 141. Extension of the Roman language . . . 86 
 
 142. The divisions . . . . .87 
 
 Specimen of the Romanese , . .88 
 
 Specimen of the Wallacliian . . . .88 
 
 143. Frencli dialects ..... 89 
 
 Oath of Ludwig . . . . .90 
 
 144. Norman-French ..... 91 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE POSITION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS INDO-EUROPEAN. 
 
 147. The term Indo-Europeaii . . • .94 
 
 148. Is the Celtic Indo-European ? . . .95 
 
 PART II. 
 
 HISTORY AND ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 HISTORICAL AND LOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 149. Celtic elements . . . . .97 
 
 150. Latin of the First Period . . . .98 
 
 151. Anglo-Saxon . , . . . .98 
 
 152. Danish or Norse ..... 98 
 
 153. Roman of tile Second Period .... 100
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 XXlll 
 
 SECTION 
 
 154. Anglo-Norman 
 
 155. Indirect Scandinavian . . 
 
 156. Latin of the Third Period . 
 
 157. Greek elements 
 
 158. Classical elements 
 
 159. Latin words . . 
 
 160. Greek elements 
 
 161. 162. Miscellaneous elements 
 163, 164. Direct and ultimate origin of words 
 165. Distinction .... 
 
 166 — 168. Words of foreign simulating a vernacular origin 
 169—171. Hybridism 
 
 172. Incompletion of radical 
 
 173. Historical and logical analysis 
 
 PAGE 
 101 
 
 . 101 
 
 101 
 
 . 102 
 
 102 
 
 . 103 
 
 104 
 
 . 105 
 
 106, 107 
 
 .107 
 
 107—109 
 
 109, 110 
 
 110 
 
 . Ill 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 THE RELATION OP THE ENGLISH TO THE ANGLO-SAXON AND THE STAGES 
 OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 174. Ancient and modern languages 
 
 175. English and Anglo-Saxon compared 
 
 176. Semi-Saxon stage . 
 177—179. Old English stage 
 
 180. Middle English . 
 
 181. Present tendencies of the English 
 
 182. Speculative question 
 
 112 
 . 113 
 
 117 
 119, 122 
 
 122 
 . 123 
 
 123 
 
 CHAPTER in. 
 
 THE LOWLAND SCOTCH. 
 
 183—188. Lowland Scotch . 
 
 189. Extracts 
 
 190. Points of difference with the English 
 
 124—127 
 
 127 
 
 . 130 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ON CERTAIN UNDETERMINED AND FICTITIOUS LANGUAGES OP GREAT 
 BRITAIN. 
 
 191, 192. The Belgze 
 
 193. Caledonians, Iberians 
 
 194. Sujiposed affinities of the Irish 
 
 Extract from Plautus 
 
 195. Hypothesis of a Finnic race 
 
 132—135 
 135 
 
 . 135 
 133 
 
 . 139
 
 XXIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAllT III. 
 
 SOUNDS, LETTERS, PRONUNCIATION, AND SPELLING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 (iKNERAL NATURE OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 
 
 SKCTION ""AOE 
 
 196. Preliminary remarks . . . .141 
 
 197. Vowels ami consonants . . . .143 
 ins. Divisions of articulate sounds . . . 143 
 
 199. Explanation of terms ..... 143 
 
 Sharp audjhit .... 143 
 
 Continuous and explosive .... 144 
 
 200. General statements .... 144 
 
 201 . H no articulation ..... 144 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SYSTEM OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 
 
 202. System of vowels . 
 
 145 
 
 e ferme, 6 cbiuso, u German . 
 
 . 145 
 
 203. System of mutes . 
 
 145 
 
 Lenes and aspirates 
 
 . 146 
 
 204. Affinities of the liquids 
 
 147 
 
 20.5. Diplithongs .... 
 
 . 147 
 
 206. Compound sibilants 
 
 148 
 
 207. Ng .... 
 
 . 148 
 
 208 — 210. Further explanation of terms 
 
 148—150 
 
 211. System of vowels 
 
 . 150 
 
 212. System of mutes 
 
 150 
 
 213. Varieties 
 
 . 150 
 
 214. Connection in phonetics 
 
 151 
 
 CHAPTER III, 
 
 ON CERTAIN COMBINATIONS OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 
 
 215. Unpronounceable combinations . . . .152 
 
 216. Unstable combinations .... 153 
 
 217. Effect of ^ . . . . . . 153 
 
 218. 219. Evolution of new sounds . . 153,154 
 220. Value of a sufficient system of sounds . . . 154
 
 CONTENTS. XXV 
 
 SECTION PAGE 
 
 221. Double consonants rare .... 154 
 
 222. lleiluplications of consonants rare , . . . 155 
 
 223. True as])i rates rare .... 155 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 EUPHONY ; THE PERMUTATION AND TRANSITION OP LETTERS. 
 
 224. Euphonic change exhibited .... 157 
 22o. The /-(/^ioM^/e of it ..... 157 
 
 226. The combinations -tnt, -nt .... 158 
 
 227. The combinations •plli ..... 158 
 
 228. Accommodation of vowels .... 158 
 
 229. Permutation of letters ..... 159 
 2.30. Transition of letters .... 160 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ON THE FORJIATION OP SYLLABLES. 
 
 231. Distribution of consonants between two syllables . . 161 
 
 CHAPTER VI, 
 
 ON QUANTITY, 
 
 232. Long and short ..... 164 
 
 233. How far coincident with independent and dependent . . 164 
 
 234. Length of vowels and length of syllables . . 165 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ON ACCENT. 
 
 2.35. Accent . . . . . .167 
 
 236. How far accent always on the root . . . 168 
 
 237. Verbal accent and logical accent .... 168 
 
 238. Effect of accent on orthography , . . 169 
 
 239. Accent and quantity 7iot the same . . . 170 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OP ORTHOEPY. 
 
 240. Meaning of the word or</(()c/jj/ . . . 172 
 
 241. Classification of errors in pronunciation . . . 172 
 242 — 244. Causes of erroneous enunciation . . 172 — 175
 
 XXVI CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION I'ACK 
 
 i4r>. Approfiiition of stnndanls oF oitliocpy , . . 175 
 
 240, riiiic'ij)lcs of ciiticul oitlioopy . . . 176 
 
 ClIArXEll IX. 
 GENERiUi PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 247. Province of ortliogiapliy .... 178 
 
 248. Inipeifoctioiis of alplinbcts . . . .178 
 
 249. Applications of alpliubcts .... 180 
 
 250. Changes of sound, and original false spelling . . 181 
 
 251. Theory of a perfect alphabet .... 181 
 
 252. Sounds and letters in English , . . 182 
 
 253. Certain conventional modes of spelling . . . 187 
 
 254. The inconvenience of them .... 189 
 
 255. Criticism upon the details of the English orthography , 189 — 200 
 
 CHAPTER X, 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. 
 
 256. Bearings of the question . . , . 200 
 
 257. Phoenician Period . . . . , 200 
 
 258. 259, Greek Period . . . 201—203 
 260—262. Latin Period .... 203—205 
 
 263. The MoKSO-Gotliic alphabet . . . .205 
 
 264. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet .... 205 
 
 265. The Anglo-Norman Period .... 207 
 
 266. Extract from the Ormulura .... 208 
 
 267. The Rwies , . . . .209 
 
 268. The order of the alphabet .... 210 
 
 269. Parallel and equivalent orthographies . . . 213 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ON THE PROVINCE OF ETYMOLOGY. 
 270. Meaning of the term etymology . . . . 214
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 XXVll 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ON GEi^TOER. 
 
 SECTION 
 
 271. Latin genders 
 
 272. Words like he-gout 
 
 273. Words like genitrix 
 
 274. Words like domina 
 
 275. Sex 
 
 276. True Genders in English 
 
 277. Neuters in -t 
 
 278. Personification 
 
 279. True and apparent genders 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE NUMBERS. 
 
 280, 281. Dual number 
 282—284. Plural in -s . 
 
 285. The form in child-r-en 
 
 286. The form in -en . 
 
 287. Men, feet, &c. 
 
 288. Brethren, &c. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ON THE CASES. 
 
 289, 290. Meaning of word case 
 
 291. Cases in English . 
 
 292, 293. Determination of cases 
 294, 295. Analysis of cases 
 296. Case in -s . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 217 
 . 217 
 
 217 
 . 218 
 
 219 
 • 219 
 
 220 
 . 220 
 
 221 
 
 . 225 
 
 226—230 
 
 . 230 
 
 232 
 . 232 
 
 232 
 
 . 234 
 
 237 
 
 . 239 
 
 241 
 . 241 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 297. True personal pronoun 
 
 298. We and me . 
 
 243 
 . 244 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ON THE TRUE REFLECTIVE PRONOUN IN THE GOTHIC LANGUAGES AND ON 
 ITS ABSENCE IN THE ENGLISH. 
 
 209. Tlie Latin se, sui . 
 
 247
 
 XXVlll 
 
 c;ONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. 
 
 SECTION 
 
 300. He, s/«', it, this, that, the 
 
 301. 'iy/«.-if 
 
 302. Those 
 
 PAUB 
 
 . 24'J 
 
 251 
 
 . 253 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE REIiATIVB, INTERROGATIVE, AND CERTAIN OTHER PRONOUNS. 
 
 303. Who, what, &c. . 
 
 304. liulo-Eiiiopean forms . . . . . 
 
 305. Miscellaneous observations .... 
 
 255 
 255 
 25G 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ON CERTAIN FORJIS IN -ER. 
 
 306, 307. Eit/i-cr, ov-er, und-er, belt-er, 
 
 308. IlliLstration from the Laplandic 
 
 309. Itlea of alternative 
 
 260, 261 
 
 261 
 
 . 262 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 
 
 310. Forms in -tara and -Ij/as 
 
 311. Change from -s to -r 
 
 312. Mceso-Gothic comj)arativc 
 
 313. Comparison of adverbs 
 
 314. Elder . 
 
 315. Rather 
 
 316. Excess of expression 
 
 317. Better, &c. . 
 
 318. Seqncnce in logic . 
 319-325. [Vurse, &c. 
 
 263 
 . 2G3 
 
 264 
 . 264 
 
 2G5 
 . 265 
 
 266 
 . 266 
 
 266 
 267—270 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 ON THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 
 
 326. Different modes of expression 
 
 327. The termination -st 
 
 271 
 
 272
 
 CONTENTS. XXIX 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 SECTION PAGE 
 
 328, 329. Their ethnological value . . . 273 
 
 Variations in form .... 274 
 
 10+2 and 10X2 .... 27.5 
 
 330. Limits to the inflection of the numeral . . . 276 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 ON THE ORDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 331. First . . . . . .277 
 
 332. Second ...... 277 
 
 333. Third, fourth, &c. . . . . . 278 
 
 334. 335. Ordinal and superlative forms . . 278—280 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE ARTICLES. 
 
 336. A, the, no . . . . . .281 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 DrMINUnVES, AUGMENTATIVES, AND PATRONYMICS. 
 
 337, 338. Diminutives, .... 283 
 
 339. Augmentatives ..... 285 
 
 340. Patronymics ..... 286 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 GENTILE FORMS. 
 
 341. Wales ..... 288 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 ON THE CONNECTION BETWEEN THE NOUN AND VERB, AND ON THE 
 INFLECTION OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 342 — ,344. Substantival character of verbs . . , 289 
 
 .345, 346. Declension of the infinitive .... 290 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 ON DERIVED VERBS. 
 347. Rise, raise, &(i. ..... 292
 
 X\X CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 ON THE PERSONS. 
 
 SECTION PAGE 
 
 348—351. Persons in Englisli . . . 294—298 
 
 352. Person in -/, -iirt, &c. . . . .298 
 
 353. Forms like spakest, sungest, &c. .... 299 
 
 354. Plurals in -s . . . . . 299 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 ON THE NUifBERS OF VERBS. 
 
 355. Personal signs of numbers .... 300 
 
 Run, ran ..... 301 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 ON MOODS. 
 
 356. The infinitive mood , . . . .302 
 
 357. The imperative mood .... 302 
 
 358. The subjunctive mood ..... .302 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 OF TENSES IN GENERAL. 
 
 359. General nature of tenses .... 303 
 
 360. Latin preterites ..... 304 
 
 361. Moeso-Gothic perfects .... 304 
 
 Reduplication ..... 305 
 
 362. Strong and weak verbs .... 305 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 THE STRONG TENSES. 
 
 303. Sang, sung . . . . . .307 
 
 364— 376. Classification of strong verbs . . 308—316 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 THE WEAK TENSES. 
 
 377. The weak inflection . . . . .317 
 
 378. First division ..... 318 
 
 379. Second division ..... 318
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 XXXI 
 
 SECTION 
 
 380. Tliird division 
 
 381. Preterites in -ed and -t 
 
 382. Preterites like made, had 
 
 Would, should 
 
 Aught 
 
 Durst 
 
 Must 
 
 Wist 
 
 Do 
 
 Mind 
 
 Yode 
 
 PAGE 
 
 319 
 
 . 319 
 
 . 321—327 
 
 . 322 
 
 322 
 
 . 322 
 
 323 
 
 . 324 
 
 325 
 
 . 325 
 
 327 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 ON CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 383. So-called irregularities . 
 
 384. Principles of criticism 
 
 Coincidence of form . ; 
 
 Coincidence of distribution 
 Coincidence of order 
 
 385. Strong verbs once weak 
 
 386. Division of verbs into strong and weak natural 
 
 387. Obsolete forms 
 
 388. Double forms 
 
 . 328 
 
 329 
 . 329 
 
 329 
 . 329 
 
 332 
 . 333 
 
 334 
 . 334 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 DEFECTIVENESS AND IRREGULARITY. 
 
 389. Difference between defectiveness and irregularity . 
 
 Vital and obsolete processes . 
 
 Processes of necessity . . , 
 
 Ordinary processes . 
 
 Positive processes 
 
 Processes of confusion 
 
 390. Could ..... 
 
 391. Quoth .... 
 
 335 
 336 
 337 
 338 
 S38 
 339 
 339 
 340 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 THE IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 392 — 394. Meseems, wethinks, me listcth . 
 
 342
 
 XX XII CONTKNTS. 
 
 CHAl'TFR X XVII I. 
 
 TIIK VKRB SUBSTANTn'E. 
 
 SKCTIOK 
 
 3!>;">. Tlio vcrli substantive ilcfcctive 
 
 3!)(i. Was . ..... 
 
 397. Ik ...... 
 
 .398, 399. Future jiower of he . 
 
 40(). Am ..... 
 
 Worth ..... 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 THE TRESEXT PARTICIPLE. 
 
 401. Tlic form in -ing .... 
 
 402. Substantival power of participle . 
 
 403. Taylor's theory .... 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 THE P/VST PARTICTPLE. 
 
 404 — 40G. Similarity to the preterite 
 
 407. Forlorn, frore ..... 
 
 408. The form in -ed, -d, ox -t . 
 
 409. The y- in y-cleped, &c. .... 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 ON CXDMPOSinON. 
 
 410—414. Definition of composition . . 355 — 357 
 
 415 — 417. Parity of accent .... 358 
 
 418. Obscure compounds .... 361 
 
 419. Exceptions . . . . . . 362 
 
 420. Peacock, peahen, &c. .... 364 
 
 421. Third element in compound words . . . 365 
 
 422. Improper compounds .... 365 
 
 423. Decomposites ..... 365 
 
 424. Combinations ..... 366 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 ON DERIVATION AND INFLECTION. 
 
 425. Derivation ...... .367 
 
 426. Classification of derived words . . . 368 
 
 427. Words like (ibaent and absent, &c. . . . 369
 
 CONTENTS. XXXlll 
 
 SECTION PAGB 
 
 428. Words like churl, tail, &c. .... 370 
 
 429. Forms like tip and top, &c. .... 370 
 
 430. Obscure derivatives .... 370 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 431. Classification of adverbs .... 371 
 
 432. Adverbs of deflection ..... 372 
 
 433. Words like darkling ..... 373 
 
 434. Words like brightly . . • .374 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 ON CERTAESf ADVERBS OF PLACE. 
 
 435—439. Here, hither, hence .... 374 
 
 440. Yonder . . . . .375 
 
 Anon ..... 375 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 ON WHEN, THEN, AND THAN. 
 
 441. Origin of the words ..... 377 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 ON PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 
 
 442. Prepositions ...... 378 
 
 443. Conjunctions ..... 378 
 
 444. Yes and no . . . . . • 379 
 
 445. Particles . . . . .379 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 ON THE GRAMMATICAL POSITION OP THE WORDS MINE AND THINE. 
 
 446. Peculiarities of inflection of pronouns . . . 380 
 
 447. Powers of the genitive case .... 381 
 
 448. Ideas of possession and partition . . . 382 
 
 449. Adjectival expressions .... 382 
 
 450. Evolution of cases ..... 383 
 
 451. Idea of possession ..... 383 
 
 452. Idea of partition ..... 383
 
 XXXIV 
 
 CONTKNTS. 
 
 SBCTION 
 
 4.')3. A posteriori arpmnciit 
 
 4,')4 — 458. Aimlojjy of riici niid ffiov 
 
 459. Etymological oviiloncc 
 
 400. Syntactic evidence 
 
 401. Value of the evidence of certain constructions 
 462, 463. Double adjectival form 
 
 PAGE 
 
 384 
 384 
 386 
 387 
 
 387 
 388 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE WEAK PRETERITE. 
 
 464. Form.? like salh-mlidnw 
 466, 466. The Slavonic pwrtcrite 
 
 390 
 391 
 
 
 PART V. 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 
 ON 
 
 SYNTAX IN GENERAL 
 
 
 467. The term syntax 
 
 . 
 
 . 392 
 
 468. What is not syntax . 
 
 
 392 
 
 469. What is syntax 
 
 
 . 394 
 
 470. Pure syntax 
 
 
 395 
 
 471, 472. Mixed syntax 
 
 
 . 395 
 
 473. Figures of speech . 
 
 
 395 
 
 4ii-i. Personification 
 
 
 . 395 
 
 475. Ellip.sis . 
 
 
 395 
 
 476. Pleonasm 
 
 
 . 395 
 
 477. Zeugma 
 
 
 397 
 
 478. Upbs TO ar] fimv6fj.fi/ov 
 
 
 . 397 
 
 479. Apposition 
 
 
 398 
 
 480. Collective nouns 
 
 
 . 398 
 
 481, 482. Complex forms . 
 
 
 399 
 
 483. Convertibility 
 
 
 . 399 
 
 484. Etymological convertibility . 
 
 400 
 
 485. Syntactic convertibility 
 
 . 
 
 . ' .400 
 
 486. Acyectives used as subs 
 
 tantivcs 
 
 400
 
 CONTENTS. XXXV 
 
 PAGE 
 
 487. Uninflccted parts of speech used as such . . . 400 
 
 488. Convertibility common in English . . • 401 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 489. Convertibility . . • . . .402 
 
 490. Ellipsis ...... 403 
 
 491. Proper names ..... 403 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 492. Pleonasm . . . . .404 
 
 493. Collocation . . . . • .404 
 
 494. Government . . . ... 404 
 
 495. More fruitful, &c. . . . . .405 
 
 496. T/ie better of the two ... . 405 
 
 497. Syntax of adjectives simple .... 406 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SYNTAX OP PRONOUNS. 
 
 498. 499. Syntax of pronouns important . . . 407 
 500, 501. Pleonasm ..... 407 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE TRUE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 502. Pronomtn reverentice .... 409 
 
 503. You and ^e . . . . . . 409 
 
 504. Dativus ethicus ..... 409 
 
 505. Reflected personal pronouns .... 410 
 
 506. Reflective neuter verbs .... 410 
 
 507. Equivocal reflectives . . . , .411 
 
 CHAPTER VI, 
 
 ON THE SYNTAX OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, AND ON THE 
 PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON. 
 
 508. True demonstrative pronoun . . . .412 
 
 509. His mother, her f (it her . . . , .412 
 
 c2
 
 XXXVl CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION 
 
 510,511. Use of its . . . . • 412 
 
 512. Take them things uwuy , . . . • 413 
 
 b\i, b\A. Hie m^ ille, this awA that .413 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE WORD SELF- 
 
 616. Government, apposition, composition . . • 416 
 
 516. Her-sclf, itself . . . • .416 
 
 517. Self and one . . . . • • 417 
 
 518. 519. Inflection of self . • • .418 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ON THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 520,521. Ml/ and >mne, &c. . . . .419 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 522—524. That, which, what . . . .422 
 
 525. The man as rides to market .... 423 
 
 526, 527. Plural use of whose . . . .423 
 528,529. Concord of relative and antecedent . . . 423 
 
 530. Ellipsis of the relative .... 424 
 
 531. Relative equivalent to demonstrative pronoun . . 425 
 
 Demonstrative equivalent to substantive . . 425 
 
 532. Omission of antecedent .... 426 
 5.33. Xpw/iat ^i^Xiois ols e)(a> .... 426 
 
 534. Relatives with complex antecedents . . . 427 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ON THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 535. Direct and oblique interrogations . . . 428 
 5.30 — 5.39. Whom, do they say that it is? . . 428—430 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE RECIPROCAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 540, 541. Structure of reciprocal expressions . . 431
 
 CONTENTS. XXXVll 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 SECTION PAGE 
 
 642. On dit^one sai/s ..... 433 
 
 543—546. It and there . . . . .433 
 
 Essind ...... 434 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE ARTICLES. 
 
 547. Repetition of article .... 435 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE NUMERALS. 
 
 548. The thousand-and-jii-st ..... 436 
 
 549. The first two and two first .... 436 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 ON VERBS IN GENERAL. 
 
 550. Transitive verbs ..... 437 
 
 551. Auxiliary verbs ..... 438 
 
 552. Verb substantive . . . . .438 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE CONCORD OP VERBS. 
 
 553—556. Concord of person . . . .439 
 
 557. Plural siibjccts with singular predicates . . . 443 
 
 Singular subjects with plural predicates . . 443 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 ON THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 558, 559. Objective and modal government . . . 444 
 
 560. Appositional construction .... 445 
 
 561. Verb and genitive case ..... 448 
 
 562. Verb and accusative case . . . 448 
 
 563. The partitive construction .... 448 
 
 564. I believe it to be him .... 448 
 
 565. (^rifiL eivuL deanorrjs ..... 449 
 
 566. It is believed to be . . . . . 449
 
 XXXVlll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION 
 
 5G7. Dj/iiifi-ilaj/ 
 568. I am Itcitlin 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 ON THE PAUTICirLES. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 ON THE MOODS. 
 
 5G9. The intinitivo mood 
 570. Objective construction 
 
 570. Gerundial construction . 
 
 571. Peculiarities of imperatives . 
 
 572. Syntax of subjunctives . 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 ON THE TENSES. 
 
 573. Present form habitual . 
 
 574. Prseteritc form aorist 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE PERSONS OF VERBS. 
 
 575. 576. 1, or he am (is) wrong 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 ON THE VOICES OP VERBS. 
 577. The word liig/it 
 
 PACK 
 
 451 
 451 
 
 452 
 452 
 453 
 454 
 454 
 
 455 
 455 
 
 456 
 
 458 
 
 578. Classification 
 
 579. Time and tense 
 
 Present 
 
 Aorist 
 
 Future 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 Perfect 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 ON THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 459 
 461 
 461 
 461 
 461 
 462 
 462
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 XXXIX 
 
 Pluperfect 
 Future present 
 Future prajterite 
 Emphatic tenses 
 Predictive future 
 Promissive future 
 
 580. Historic present 
 
 581. Use of perfect for present 
 
 582. 583. Varieties of tense . 
 
 Continuance . 
 Habit 
 
 584. Inference of continuance 
 
 Inference of contrast 
 
 585 . Have with a participle 
 
 586. I am to speak 
 
 587. / a7n to blame 
 
 588. Shall and will 
 
 589. Archdeacon Hare's theory 
 
 590. Mr. De Morgan's theory 
 
 591. I am beaten 
 
 592,593. Present use oi ovght, &c. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 . 462 
 
 462 
 
 . 462 
 
 463 
 
 . 463 
 
 463 
 
 . 463 
 
 464 
 
 . 465 
 
 465 
 
 . 466 
 
 466 
 
 . 467 
 
 467 
 
 . 469 
 
 469 
 
 . 469 
 
 470 
 
 . 472 
 
 474 
 
 . 475 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 THE SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 
 
 594. The syntax of adverbs simple 
 
 595. Full iorj'ulli/, &c. . 
 590. The termination -Ij/ 
 
 597. 2o sleep the sleep of the righteous 
 
 598. From whence, &c. 
 
 477 
 477 
 477 
 478 
 478 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 ON PREPOSITIONS, 
 
 599. All prepositions govern cases 
 
 000, GOl. None, in English, govern genitives 
 
 002. Dative case after prepositions 
 
 003. From to die 
 604. For to go . 
 
 005. No preposition.s in composition 
 
 479 
 479 
 
 481 
 481 
 481 
 
 481
 
 xl 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 ON CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 SECTION 
 
 GOG. Syntax of conjunctions . 
 607. Convertibility of conjunctions 
 G08. Connexion of j)repositions 
 GOO, GIO. Relatives and conjunctions 
 Gil. Government of mood 
 
 612. Conditional propositions 
 
 613. Variations of meaning . 
 
 614. If and since 
 616. Use of that . 
 
 616. Succession of tenses 
 
 Succession of moods 
 
 617. Greek constructions 
 
 618. Be for may be 
 
 619. Disjunctives 
 620—623. Either, neither . 
 
 PAOB 
 
 . 482 
 482 
 483 
 484 
 485 
 486 
 486 
 487 
 487 
 488 
 489 
 489 
 491 
 491 
 492 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 TITE SYNTAX OP THE NEGATIVE. 
 
 624. Position of the negative 
 
 625. Distribution of the negative . 
 
 626. Double negative 
 
 627. Questions of appeal 
 
 628. Extract from Sir Thomas More 
 
 495 
 
 495 
 496 
 496 
 496 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 OP THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 629. He excepted, him excepted 
 
 498 
 
 PART VL 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 630—632. Metre . 
 
 633. Classical metres measured by quantities 
 
 634. English metre measured by accents 
 
 499 
 500 
 500
 
 CONTENTS. xli 
 
 635. Alliteration ..... 500 
 
 636. Rhyme . . . . . .501 
 
 637. Definition of Rhyme .... 503 
 
 638. Measures ...... 503 
 
 639. Dissyllabic and trisyllabic .... 503 
 
 640. Dissyllabic measures ..... 504 
 
 641. Trisyllabic measures .... 504 
 
 642. Measures different from feet .... 505 
 
 643. Couplets, stanzas, &c. .... 506 
 
 644. 645. Names of elementary metres . . 507, 508 
 
 646. Scansion . . . . . . 509 
 
 647. Symmetrical metres ..... 509 
 
 648. Unsymmetrical metres .... 610 
 
 649. Measures of o«e and of ybwr syllables rare - . . 510 
 
 650. Contrast between English words and English metre . 510 
 651 — 653. The classical metres as read by Englishmen . 511, 512 
 654 — 657. Reasons against the classical nomenclature as applied to 
 
 English metres .... 513—515 
 
 658 — 661. The classical metres metrical to English readers — why 515 — 517 
 
 662. Symmetrical metres .... 517 
 
 663. Unsymmetrical metres ..... 517 
 
 664. Classical metres unsymmetrical . . . 518 
 665 — 667. Conversion of English into classical metres . 519^ 520 
 668, 669. Caesura .... 520, 521 
 670—672. English hexameters, &c. . . . 522 — 526 
 
 673. Convertible metres .... 526 
 
 674. Metrical and grammatical combinations . . . 527 
 
 675. Rhythm ...... 528 
 
 677, 677. Rhyme — its parts ..... 539 
 
 PART VII. 
 
 THE DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 678. Bearing of the investigation . . . .531 
 
 679. Structural and etlmologiccd views . . . 531 
 680 — 082. Causes that effect change .... 532 
 683, 684. Preliminary notices .... 533 
 
 685. Philological preliminaries. . . • . 533 
 
 686, 68V . Present provincial dialects . . 534 — 540 
 688—691. Caution ..... 540—544 
 
 d
 
 xlii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 SKCTION 
 
 (502 — (!n(>. Districts north I. r till Iliiinl)!! 
 
 G!)7. Soutli LnncasliirL' 
 
 C98. Shropshire, &c. 
 
 6J)n East IVrhyshiro, (S:c . 
 
 7(X). Norfolk and Surtolk 
 
 701. LeiccstorL^hirc', &c. 
 
 702. Origin of the present written language . 
 
 703. Dialects of the Lower Thames 
 
 704. Kent— Frisian theory 
 
 705. Sussex, «fec. 
 
 706. Supposed East Anglian and Saxon frontier 
 
 707. Dialects of remaining counties 
 
 708. Objections 
 
 709. Dialect of Gowcr 
 
 710. the Barony of Forth 
 
 711. Americanisms 
 
 712. Extract from a paper of Mr. Watts 
 
 713. Gypsy language, &c. 
 
 714. Talkee-talkee 
 
 715. 716. Varieties of the Anglo-Norman 
 717 — 719. Extracts from Mr. Kemble 
 
 PAGE 
 
 645—662 
 
 . 652 
 
 553 
 
 . 653 
 
 654 
 
 . 655 
 
 656 
 
 . 556 
 
 557 
 
 . 559 
 
 660 
 
 . 560 
 
 661 
 
 . 561 
 
 563 
 
 . 565 
 
 566 
 
 . 572 
 
 673 
 
 . 574 
 
 576—580 
 
 Praxis 
 
 581
 
 AN INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO THE STUDY OF 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 GENERAL ETHNOLOGICAL RELATIONS OP THE ENGLISH 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. DATE. 
 
 § 1. The first point to be remembered iii the history of 
 the English Language, is that it was not the original lan- 
 guage of any of the British Islands altogether or of any por- 
 tion of thera. Indeed, of the tchole of Great Britain it is not 
 the language at the present moment. Welsh is spoken in 
 Wales, Manks in the Isle of Man, Scotch Gaelic in the High- 
 lands of Scotland, and Irish Gaelic in Ireland. Hence, the 
 EngHsh that is now spoken was once as foreign to our coun- 
 try as it is at present to the East Indies ; and it is no more our 
 primitive vernacular tongue, than it is the primitive vernacular 
 tongue for North America, Jamaica, or Australia. Like the 
 English of Sydney, or the English of Pennsylvania, the En- 
 glish of Great Britain spread itself at the expense of some 
 earlier and more aboriginal language, Avhich it displaced and 
 superseded. 
 
 B
 
 a UERMANIC ORIGIN OF 
 
 § 2. The next point involves the real origin and the real affi- 
 nities of the English Language. Its real origin is on the con- 
 tinent of Europe, and its real affinities are with certain lan- 
 guages there spoken. To speak more specifically, the native 
 country of the English Language is Germany ; and the Ger- 
 manic languages are those that are the most closely connected 
 with our own. In Germany, languages and dialects allied to 
 each other and allied to the mother-tongue of the English have 
 been spoken from times anterior to history ; and these, for most 
 purposes of philology, may be considered as the aboriginal 
 languages and dialects of that country. 
 
 § 3. Accredited details of the different immigrations from 
 Germans/ into Britain. — Until lately the details of the dif- 
 ferent Germanic invasions of England, both in respect to the 
 particular tribes by which they were made, and the order in 
 which they succeeded each other, were received with but little 
 doubt, and as little criticism. 
 
 Respecting the tribes by which they were made, the cur- 
 rent opinion was, that they were chiefly, if not exclusively, 
 those of the Jutes, the Saxons, and the Angles. 
 
 The particular chieftains that headed each descent were 
 also known, as well as the different localities upon which they 
 descended. These were as follows : — 
 
 § 4. First settlement of invaders from Germany. — The ac- 
 count of this gives us the year 449 for the first perma- 
 nent Germanic tribes settled in Britain. Ebbsfleet, in the 
 Isle of Thanet, was the spot where they landed ; and the par- 
 ticular name that these tribes gave themselves was that of 
 Jutes. Their leaders were Henglst and Horsa. Six years 
 after their landing they had estabhshed the kingdom of Kent ; 
 so that the county of Kent was the first district where the ori- 
 ginal British was superseded by the mother-tongue of the 
 present English, introduced from Germany. 
 
 § 5. Second settlement of invaders from Germany. — In the 
 year 477 invaders from Northern Germany made the se- 
 cond permanent settlement in Britain. The coast of Sussex 
 was the spot whereon they landed. The particular name that 
 these tribes gave themselves was that of Saxons. Their leader
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 3 
 
 was Ella. They established the kingdom of the South Saxons 
 (Sussex) ; so that the county of Sussex was the second dis- 
 trict where the original British was superseded by the mother- 
 tongue of the present English, introduced from Northern 
 Germany. 
 
 § 6. Third settlement of invaders from Germany. — In the 
 year 495 invaders from Northern Germany made the third 
 permanent settlement in Britain. The coast of Hampshire 
 was the spot whereon they landed. Like the invaders last 
 mentioned, these tribes were Saxons. Their leader was Oer- 
 dic. They established the kingdom of the West Saxons 
 (Wessex) ; so that the county of Hants was the third dis- 
 trict where the original British was superseded by the mother- 
 tongue of the present English, introduced from Northern 
 Germany. 
 
 § 7. Fourth settlement of invaders from Germany. — A.D. 
 530, certain Saxons landed in Essex, so that the county of 
 Essex was the fourth district where the original British was 
 superseded by the mother-tongue of the present English, in- 
 troduced from Northern Germany, 
 
 § 8. Fifth settlement of invaders from Germany. — These 
 were Angles in Noi-folk and Suffolk. This settlement, of 
 which the precise date is not known, took place during the 
 reign of Cerdic in Wessex. The fifth district where the 
 original British was superseded by the mother-tongue of the 
 present English was the counties of Norfolk and Suifolk ; the 
 particular dialect introduced being that of the Angles. 
 
 § 9. ^ixth settlement of invaders from Germany. — In the 
 year 547 invaders from Northern Germany made the sixth 
 permanent settlement in Britain. The south-eastern coun- 
 ties of Scotland, between the rivers Tweed and Forth, 
 were the districts where they landed. They were of the 
 tribe of the Angles, and their leader was Ida. The south- 
 ij'estern parts of Scotland constituted the sixth district where 
 the original British was superseded by the mother-tongue of 
 the present English, inti'oduced from Northern Germany. 
 
 § 10. It would be satisfactory if these details rested upon 
 cotemporary evidence; in which case the next question would 
 
 B 2
 
 4 GERMANIC ORIOTN Ol'' 
 
 be that of tlio relations of the iniinit^iaiit tribes to each other 
 as G('niians, i.e. the extent to vhieh tlie Jute differed from 
 (or agreed with) the Anqle, or the Saxon, and the rehitions 
 of the AnL,de and the Saxon to each other. Did they speak 
 ditierent hmguages? — diiferent dialects of a common tongue! 
 — or dialects absolutely identical -. Did they belong to the 
 same or to different confederations? Was one polity common 
 to all i Were the civilizations similar ? 
 
 Questions like these being answered, and a certain amount 
 of mutual difference being ascertained, it would then stand 
 over to inquire whether any traces of this original difference 
 were still to be found in the modern English. Have any 
 provincial dialects characteristics which are Jute rather than 
 Anofle ? or Angle rather than Saxon ? 
 
 It is clear that the second of these questions is involved 
 in the answer given to the first. 
 
 § 11. The accredited relations of the Jutes., Angles^ and 
 Saxons to each other as Germans. — These are as follows : — 
 
 1. That the geographical locality of the Jutes was the 
 Peninsula of Jutland, 
 
 2. That that of Angles, was the pi*esent Dutchy of Sles- 
 wick ; so that they were the southern neighbours of the Jutes. 
 
 3. That that of the Saxons w^as a small tract north of the 
 Elbe, and some distinct point — more or less extensive — be- 
 tween the Elbe and Rhine. 
 
 4. That, although there w^ere, probably, dialectal differences 
 between the languages, the speech of all the three tribes was 
 mutually intelligible. 
 
 § 12. Assuming, then, the accuracy of our historical facts, 
 the inference is, that, without expecting to find any very 
 prominent and characteristic differences between the different 
 inhabitants of England arising out of the original differences 
 between the Germanic immigrants, w'e are to look for what 
 few there are in the following quarters — 
 
 1. For the characteristic differeniiw of the Jutes, in Kent, 
 part of Sussex, and the Isle of Wight. 
 
 2. For those of the Saxons in Sussex, Essex, Hants ( Wes- 
 sex), and Middlesex.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 5 
 
 0. For those of the Angles in Norfolk, Suffolk, Yorkshire, 
 Durham, and Northumberland. 
 
 Or, changing the expression : — 
 
 1. The differentm of the people of Kent, part of Sussex, 
 and the Isle of Wight (if any), are to be explained by the 
 d'lfferentice of the original Jute immigrants — 
 
 2. Those of the rest of Sussex, Wessex, Essex, and Mid- 
 dlesex, by those of the Saxons — 
 
 S. Those of the people of Norfolk, &e., by those of the Angles. 
 
 Such is our reasoning, and such a sketch of our philological 
 researches — assuming that the opinions just exhibited, con- 
 cerning the dates, conductors, localities, and order, are abso- 
 lute and unimpeachable historical facts. 
 
 § 13. Criticism of the aforesaid details. — As a preliminary 
 to this part of the subject, the present writer takes occasion 
 to state once for all, that nearly the whole of the following 
 criticism is not his own (except, of course, so far -as he 
 adopts it — which he does), but Mi\ Kemble's, and that it 
 forms the introduction to his valuable work on the Saxons in 
 England. 
 
 1 . The evidence to the details just given^ is not historical, hut 
 traditional. — a. Bede, from whom it is chiefly taken, wrote 
 more than 300 years after the supposed event, i.e., the lauding 
 of Hengist and Horsa, in a.d. 449. 
 
 h. The nearest cotemporary author is Gildas, and he lived 
 at least 100 years after it. 
 
 2. The account of Hengisfs and Horsa^s landing, has elements 
 lohich are fictional rather than historical — a. Thus " when we 
 find Hengist and Horsa approaching the coasts of Kent in 
 three keels, and tEIU effecting a landing in Sussex with the 
 same number, we are reminded of the Gothic tradition which 
 carries a migration of Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Gepidse, 
 also in three vessels, to the mouths of the Vistula." 
 
 h. The murder of the British chieftains by Hengist is 
 told totidem verbis, by Widukind, and others of the Old 
 Saxons in Thuringia. 
 
 c. GeofFry of Monmouth relates also, how " Hengist ob- 
 tained from tlie Britons as much land as could be enclosed
 
 6 GERMANIC ORIGIN OF 
 
 by an ox-hide ; then, cutting the hide into thongs, enclosed 
 a much hirger space than the granters intended, on which he 
 erected Thong Castle — a tale too familiar to need illustration, 
 and which runs throughout the mythus of many nations. 
 Among the Old Saxons, the tradition is in reality the same, 
 though recorded with a slight variety of detail. In their 
 story, a lap-full of earth is purchased at a dear rate from a 
 Thuringian ; the companions of the Saxon jeer him for his 
 imprudent bargain ; but he sows the purchased earth upon a 
 large space of ground, which he claims, and, by the aid of his 
 comrades, ultimately wrests it from the Thuringians." 
 
 3. There is direct evidence in favour of there having been 
 German tribes in Em/land ariterlor to a.t). 447. — a. At the 
 close of the JNIarcomannic war, Marcus Antoninus transplanted 
 a number of Germans into Britain. — Dio Cassius, Ixxi. Ixiii. 
 
 b. Alemannic auxiliaries served along with Roman legions 
 under Yalentinian. 
 
 c. The Notitia utriusque imperii, of which the latest date 
 is half a century earlier that the epoch of Heugist, men- 
 tions, as an officer of State, the Conies littoris Saxonici per 
 Britannias ; his government extending along the coast from 
 Portsmouth to the Wash. 
 
 I conclude with the following extract : — " We are ignorant 
 what yas^*' or even mode of reckoning the revolutions of seasons 
 prevailed in England, previous to the introduction of Christi- 
 anity. We know not how any event before the year 600 was 
 recorded, or to what period the memory of man extended. 
 There may have been rare annals: there may have been poems : 
 if such there were they have perished, and have left no trace 
 behind, unless we are to attribute to them such scanty notices 
 as the Saxon Chronicle adds to Beda's account. From such 
 sources, however, little could have been gained of accurate 
 information either as to the real internal state, the domestic 
 progress, or development of a people. The dry bare entries of 
 the Chronicles in historical periods may supply the means of 
 judging what sort of annals were likely to exist before the gene- 
 ral introduction of the Roman alphabet and parchment, while, 
 in all probabihty, runes supplied the place of letters, and
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 7 
 
 stones, or the heech-vf ood., from which their name is derived, 
 of hooJcs. Again, the traditions embodied in the epic, are pre- 
 eminently those of kings and princes ; they are heroical, de- 
 voted to celebrate the divine or half-divine founders of a race, 
 the fortunes of their warlike descendants, the manners and 
 mode of life of military adventurers, not the obscure progress, 
 household peace, and orderly habits of the humble husband 
 man. They are full of feasts and fighting, shining arms and 
 golden goblets : the gods mingle among men almost their 
 equals, share in the same pursuits, are animated by the same 
 passions of love, and jealousy, and hatred ; or, blending 
 the divine with the mortal nature, become the founders of 
 races, kingly, because derived from divinity itself But one 
 race knows little of another, or its traditions, and cares as 
 little for them. Alliances or wars alone bring them in con- 
 tact with one another, and the terms of intercourse between 
 the races will, for the most part, determine the character 
 under which foreign heroes shall be admitted into the na- 
 tional epos, or whether they shall be admitted at all. All 
 history, then, which is founded in any degree upon epical 
 tradition (and national history is usually more or less so 
 founded) must be to that extent imperfect, if not inaccu- 
 rate ; only when corrected by the written references of 
 contemporaneous authors, can we assign any certainty to 
 its records. 
 
 " Let us apply these observations to the early events of Saxon 
 history : of Kent, indeed, we have the vague and uncertain 
 notices which I have mentioned ; even more vague and uncer- 
 tain are those of Sussex and Wessex. Of the former, we 
 learn that in the year 477, -^lli, with three sons, Cymen, 
 Wlencing, and Oissa, landed in Sussex ; that in the year 485 
 they defeated the Welsh, and that in 491 they destroyed the 
 population of Anderida. Not another word is there about 
 Sussex before the arrival of Augustine, except a late asser- 
 tion of the military pre-eminence of JEAXi among the Saxon 
 chieftains. The events of Wessex are somewhat better de- 
 tailed ; we learn that in 495 two nobles, Cerdic and Cyneric, 
 came to England, and landed at CenUces-ora, where, on the
 
 8 GERMANIC ORIGIN OF 
 
 Kinu' day, they fought a battle : that in 501 they were fol- 
 1o\v(h1 by a noble nanieil Port, who, with his two sons, Bleda 
 ami Ma^gla, made a forcible lauding at Portsmouth : and that 
 in 508, they gained a great battle over a British king, whom 
 they slew, together with five thousand of his people. In 514 
 Stuff and Wihtgar, their nephews, brought them a reinforce- 
 ment of three ships ; in 519, they again defeated the Britons, 
 and established the kingdom of Wessex. In 527, a new 
 victory is recorded ; in 530, the Isle of Wight was subdued 
 and given to Wihtgar ; and in 534, Oerdic died, and was 
 succeeded by Cyneric, who reigned twenty-six years. In 
 544, \V'ihtgar died. A victory of Oyneric, in 552 and 556, 
 and Ceawlin's accession to the throne of Wessex are next 
 recorded. Wars of the West-Saxon kings are noted in 568, 
 571, 577, 584. From 590 to 595, a king of that race, named 
 Ceol, is mentioned : in 591, we learn the expulsion of Ceaw- 
 lin from power ; in 593, the deaths of Ceawlin, Cwichelm, 
 and Crida, are mentioned, and in 597, the year of Augus- 
 tine's arrival, we learn that Ceolwulf ascended the throne 
 of Wessex. 
 
 " Meagre as these details are, they far exceed what is related 
 of Northumberland, Essex, or East-Anglia. In 547, we are 
 told that Ida began to reign in the first of these kingdoms, 
 and that he was succeeded in 560, by ^lli : that after a 
 reign of thirty years, he died in 588, and was succeeded by 
 ^j^elric, who again, in 593, was succeeded by iEbelfrij?. 
 This is all we learn of Northumbria ; of Mercia, Essex, East- 
 Anglia, and the innumerable kingdoms that must have been 
 comprised under these general appellations, we hear not a 
 single word. 
 
 " If this be all that we can now recover of events, a great 
 number of which must have fallen within the lives of those to 
 whom Augustine preached, what credit shall we give to the 
 inconsistent accounts of earlier actions? How shall we supply 
 the almost total want of information respecting the first set- 
 tlements ? What explanation have we to give of the alliance 
 between Jutes, Angles, and Saxon, which preceded the inva- 
 sions of England I ^Vllat knowledge will these records sup-
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 9 
 
 ply of the real number and quality of the chieftains, the 
 language and blood of the populations who gradually spread 
 themselves from the Atlantic to the Frith of Forth ; of the 
 remains of Eoman cultivation, or the amount of British power 
 with which they had to contend ? of the vicissitudes of good 
 and evil fortune which visited the independent principalities 
 before they were swallowed up in the kingdoms of the hep- 
 tarchy, or the extent of the influence which they retained after 
 the event ! On all these several points we are left entirely in 
 the dark ; and yet these are facts which it most imports us to 
 know, if we would comprehend the growth of a society which 
 endured for at least 700 years in England, and formed the 
 foundation of that in which we live." — The Saxons inEngland. 
 Vol. 1, pp. 28—32. 
 
 § 14. Inference. — As it is nearly certain, that the year 
 449 is not the date of the first introduction of German tribes 
 into Britain, we must consider that the displacement of the 
 original British began at an earlier period than the one usually 
 admitted, and, consequently, that it was more gradual than 
 is usually supposed. 
 
 Perhaps, if we substitute the middle of the fourth, instead of 
 the middle of the fifth century, as the epoch of the Germanic 
 immigrations into Britain, we shall not be far from the 
 truth.
 
 10 GERMANIC ORIGIN OF 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 GERMANIC ORIGIN Of THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. THE IMMIGRANT 
 
 TRIBES, AND THEIR RELATIONS TO EACH OTHER. 
 
 § 15. By referring to §§ 3 — 12, it may be seen that out of 
 the numerous tribes and nations of Germany, three in par- 
 ticular have been considered as the chief, if not the exclusive, 
 sources of the present English, viz. : the Angles, the Saxons 
 and the Jutes. 
 
 To criticise the evidence which derives the English in gene- 
 ral from the Angles, the particular inhabitants of Sussex, Essex, 
 Middlesex and Wessex, from the Saxons, and the Anglo-Saxon 
 language from the Angle and Saxon would be superfluous ; 
 whilst to doubt the truth of the main facts which it attests 
 would exliibit an unnecessary and unhealthy scepticism. That 
 the Angles and Saxons formed at least seven-tenths of the 
 Germanic invaders may be safely admitted. The Jute element, 
 however, requires further notice. 
 
 § 16. The Jutes. — Were any of the German immigrants 
 Jutes ? If so, what were their relations to the other German 
 tribes ? 
 
 a. Were there Jutes in England ? That there was a Jute 
 element in England is to be maintained, not upon the tra- 
 dition that one of the three ships of Hengist and Horsa was 
 manned by Jutes, but from the following extract from the 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle : — 
 
 " Of Jotum comon Cantware and From the Jutes came the inhabi- 
 
 " Wihtware, Jjcet is seo majiaiS, \>e nu tants of Kent and of Wight, that is, 
 
 " earda)? on Wiht, and Jiset cynn on the race that now dwells in Wight, 
 
 " West-Sexum Se man gyt hset lut- and that tribe amongst the West- 
 
 " nacynn. Of Eald-Seaxum comon Saxons which is yet called the Jute 
 
 " East-Seaxan, and SuS-Scaxan, and tribe. From the Old-Saxons came 
 
 " Wcst-Scaxan. Of Angle comon the East-Saxons, and South-Saxons,
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 11 
 
 " (se a siiStSan stdd wcstig betwix and West-Saxons. From the Angles 
 " Iiitum and Seaxum) East-Engle, Land (which has since always stood 
 " Middel-Angle, Meavce, and ealle waste betwixt the Jutes and Sax- 
 " NoriSymbra." ons) came the East-Angles, Middle- 
 
 Angles, Mercians, and all the Nor- 
 thumbrians. 
 
 Here the words gyt li(£t lutnacynn constitute cotemporary 
 evidence. 
 
 Still there is a flaw in it ; since it is quite possible that 
 the term lutnacynn may have been no true denomination of a 
 section of the Germans of England, but only the synonym of a 
 different word, Wiht-scetan. Alfred writes — comon hi of jjrym 
 folcum f»ara strangestan Germanise ; ]:'set of Seaxum, and of 
 Angle, and of Geatum. Of Geatum fruman sindon OantM^are 
 and Wiht-saian, J>8et is seo j^eod se Wiht ]?£et ealond on eardaS 
 — they came of three folk, the strongest of Germany ; that of 
 Saxons and of Angles, and of Geats. Of Geais originally are 
 the Kent people and Wiht-set ; that is the peojole which Wiht 
 the Island live on. 
 
 This changes the reasoning, and leads us to the following 
 facts. 
 
 a. The word in question is a compound = Wight = the 
 name of the isle, + snetan = 'people ; as Somer-s^^, and Dor-set. 
 
 h. The peninsula JutAawA was also called FiV-land, or 
 TF?7A-land. 
 
 c. The wiht- in Tf^A^-ssetan is, undoubtedly, no such element 
 as the vit- inF«7-laud = Jut-land; since it represents the 
 older Celtic term, known to us in the Romanized form Vectis. 
 
 Putting all this together, it becomes possible (nay pro- 
 bable) that the whole doctrine of a Jute element in the 
 Anglo-Saxon migration may have arisen out of the fact of 
 there being a portion of the people of Southern England neigh- 
 bours of the Saxons, and bearing the name Wiht-sssian ; a 
 fact which, taken along with the juxtaposition of the Vit- 
 landers (Jw^-landers) and Saxons on the Continent, suggested 
 to the writers of a long later age the doctrine of a Jute 
 migration. 
 
 § 17. As this last objection impugns the evidence rather 
 than the fact, the following question finds place : —
 
 \'2 nKRMANU- (MUOIN OF 
 
 What wore the Jutes of Clerni:uiy I At present they are 
 the natives of Jutland, and their hinguage is Danish rather 
 than German. 
 
 Neither is there reason to suppose that during the third 
 and fourth centuries it was otherwise. 
 
 § J 8. This hist circumstance detracts from the likelihood of 
 iho fact ; since in no part of Kent, Sussex, Hants, nor even in 
 the Isle of Wight — a likely place for a language to remain 
 unchanged — have any traces of the old Jute been found. 
 
 § 19. On the other hand the fact of Jutes, even though 
 Danes, being members of a Germanic confederation is not only 
 probable, but such was actually the case ; at least for conti- 
 nental wars — subactis, cum Saxonibus, JSuciis (Eutiis), qui se 
 nobis (^. e., the Franks), 'propr'id voluntate tradiderunt .... 
 usque in Oceani littoribus dominio nostro porrigitur. — Theode- 
 bert to the Emperor Justinian. — 
 
 " Qucm Gelu, Vasco trcmunt, Danus,t Eut/ieo,* Saxo, Biitannut:, 
 Cum patrc quos acie tc domitassc patet." 
 
 Venantius Fortuuatus ad Chilpcricum regem.'l' 
 
 § 20. Inference. — Of the three following views — (1.) that 
 the Jutes of Jutland in the fourth and fifth centuries spoke 
 Saxon ; (2.) that they spoke Danish at home, but lost their 
 language after three or four centuries"' residence in England ; 
 and (3.) that a later historian was induced by the similarity 
 between the term Wiht-scetan, as applied to the 2^^oj)/e of the 
 Isle of Wight, and Wit-land, as applied to Jutland, combined 
 with the real probability of the fact supposed, to assume a 
 Jute origin for the Saxons of the parts in question, the third 
 is, in the mind of the present writer, the most probable. 
 
 § 21. It has already been* stated that concerning the Angles 
 and Saxons, no reasonable man will put the question which 
 was put in respect to the Jutes, viz., had they any real place 
 among the Germanic invaders of England l Respecting, how- 
 ever, their relations to each other, and their respective geogra- 
 phical localities whilst occupants of Germany, anterior to 
 
 * Qu. tlic people of Euten, in Holstciii. 
 t Zeus, p. 591.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 13 
 
 their immigration into Britain, there is mnch that reqnires 
 investigation. What were the Saxons of Germany — what 
 the Angles? 
 
 § 22. Difficulties resj^eciitic/ the identijication of the Saxons. 
 — There are two senses of the word Saxon, one of Athich 
 causes difficulty by being too limited ; the other by being too 
 wide. 
 
 a. The limited sense of the toord Saxon. — This is what we 
 get from Ptolemy, the first author who names the Saxons, 
 and who gives them a limited locality at the mouth of the 
 Elbe, bounded by the Signlones, the Sabalingi, the Kobandi, 
 the Chali, the Phundusii, the Harudes, and other tribes of 
 the Cimbric Peninsula, of which the Saxons just occupied 
 the neck, and three small islands opposite — probably Fohr, 
 Sylt, and Nordstand. 
 
 Now a sense of the word Saxon thus limited, would restrict 
 the joint conquerors of Britain to the small area comprized 
 between the Elbe and Eyder, of which they do not seem even 
 to have held the whole. 
 
 h. The wide sense of the ivord Saxon. — The reader need 
 scarcely be reminded that the present kingdom of Saxony is 
 as far inland as the northern frontier of Bohemia. Laying 
 this, however, out of the question, as the effect of an exten- 
 sion subsequent to the invasion of Britain, we still find Saxons 
 in ancient Hanover, ancient Oldenburg, ancient Westphalia, 
 and (speaking roughly) over the greater part of the country 
 drained by the Weser, and of the area inclosed by the eastern 
 feeders of the Lower Rhine, the Elbe, and the range of the 
 Hartz. 
 
 Now as it is not likely that the limited Saxon area of Pto- 
 lemy should have supplied the whole of our Saxon population, 
 so on the other hand, it is certain, that of a considerable portion 
 of the Saxon area in its under extent tribes other than the 
 Saxons of England, were occupants. 
 
 § 28. Difficulties resjjecting the word Angle. — The reader is 
 referred to an extract from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in 
 § 16, where it is stated, that "from the Angles' land (which 
 has since always stood waste betwixt the Jutes and the
 
 14 GERMANIC ORIGIN OP 
 
 Saxons) came the East- Anglos, Middle- Angles, Mercians, 
 and all the Northnmhrians.'" 
 
 Thus to bring the great Aiigle population from an area no 
 larger than the county of Rutland, is an objection — but it is 
 not the chief one. 
 
 'J'he chief objection to the Angles of England being de- 
 rived from the little district of Anglen, in Sleswick, lies in 
 the fact of there being mention of Jnffli in another part of 
 Germany. 
 
 § 24. This exposition of the elements of uncertainty will 
 be followed by an enumeration of — 
 
 1. Those portions of the Germanic populations, which from 
 their geographical position, are the likeliest, ^ priori, to have 
 helped to people England. 
 
 2. Those portions of the Germanic population, which 
 although not supposed to have contributed in any notable 
 degree to the population of Britain, had such continental 
 relations to the Angles and Saxons, as to help in fixing their 
 localities. 
 
 These two scenes of facts, give us what may be called our 
 preliminary a23paratiis criticus. 
 
 § 2.5. Between the northern limits of the Celtic populations 
 of Gaul and the southern boundary of the Scandinavians of 
 Jutland, we find the area which is most likely to have given 
 oriffin to the Germans of Enofland. This is best considered 
 under two heads. 
 
 a. That of the proper seaboard, or the coast from the 
 Rhine to the Eydcr. 
 
 b. That of the rivers, i.e., the communications between the 
 ocean and the inland country. 
 
 This double division is sufficient, since it is not likely that 
 Britain was peopled by any tribes which were not either 
 maritime, or the occupants of a river. 
 
 On the other hand, it is necessary, since although the a 
 2rriori view is in favour of the coast having supplied the 
 British immigration, the chances of its having proceeded from 
 the interior by the way of the large rivers Rhine, Weser, 
 and Elbe, must also be taken into consideration.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 15 
 
 The importance of this latter alternative, will soon be seen. 
 
 § 26. The Menainans. — Locality, from the country of the 
 Morini on the French side of the Straits of Dover, to the 
 Scheldt. It is generally considered that these were not 
 Germans but Celts. The fact, however, is by no means 
 ascertained. If Germans, the Menapians were the tribes 
 nearest to Britain. Again, supposing that the present 
 Flemings of Belgium are the oldest inhabitants of the coun- 
 try, their origin is either wholly, or in part, Menapian. 
 Mentioned by Ciesar. 
 
 § 27. The Batavians. — Mentioned by Caesar ; locality, 
 from the Maas to the Zuyder Zee. Conterminous with 
 the Menapians on the south, and with the Frisians on the 
 north. If the present Dutch of Holland be the inhabitants 
 of the country from the time of Cresar downwards, their origin 
 is Bat avian. 
 
 § 28. The Frisians. — First known to the Romans during 
 the campaign of Drusus — " tributum Frisiis transrhenano 
 populo — Drusus jusserat modicum C"' Tacitus, Ann. iv. 72. 
 Extended, according to Ptolemy, as far north as the Ems — 
 TYjV Vi 'TTu^coKzavlriv Kariyj)VGtv . . ol (pPttTffioi, {Jjixoi rov 'Af/jtaiov 
 Torccf/jov. 
 
 Now, as the dialect of the modern province of Friesland 
 differs in many important points from the Dutch of Holland 
 and Flanders ; and as there is every reason to believe that 
 the same, or greater difference, existed between the old Fri- 
 sians and the old Batavians, assuming each to have been the 
 mother-tongues of the present Frisian and Dutch respectively, 
 we may consider that in reaching the parts to the north of 
 the Zuyder- Zee, we have come to a second sub-division of 
 the Germanic dialects ; nevertheless, it is not the division to 
 which either the Angles or the Saxons belong, as may be as- 
 certained by the difference of dialect, or rather language. 
 
 § 29. The Chauci. — Connected with the Frisii. — Falling into 
 
 two divisions — the lesser (?) Chauci, from the Ems to the 
 
 Weser ; the greater (?) Chauci from the Weser to the Elbe — 
 
 iMTot, ^g rovrovg (the Frisians), Kavy^oi ol (mz^oi, [j^j^X^i rov 
 
 * From ZeiisK, v. v. Frisii, Cluiuci.
 
 I<> r.ERMANTO ORIflTN OF 
 
 OuKJO'jcyior '7roru(/jOv, SITU Kat)%o/ oi (/jSi^ovc, (JjixS' "^^^ 'A\- 
 ^log 'ToraiLOv. 
 
 Tacitus describes the Cliauci thus: — " Tarn immensum ter- 
 raruni sjiatium non tcncnt tantuni Chauci, sed et implent ; 
 popuhis iuter (jJermanos nobilissimus." 
 
 The Frisians, as has been stated, represent a separate sub- 
 division of the German dialects, as opposed to the ancient 
 Batavian, and the modern Dutch and Flemish. Did the 
 Chauci represent a third, or were they part of the Frisian 
 division ? 
 
 The latter is the more likely, and that for the following 
 reasons — Vestiges of Frisian dialects are to be found on 
 the Continent, in Oldenburgh, and also in the island of 
 Heligoland. 
 
 More important still is the North-Frisian dialect. North 
 of the Elbe, in the Dutchy of Sleswick, and from the Eyderto 
 Tondern, we find a tract of land called, by Saxo Gramma- 
 ticus, Frisia Minor, and by other writers, Frisia Eydorensis. 
 
 Now, as there are no grounds for considering these North 
 Frisians as other than indigenous to the tract in question, we 
 get an additional reason for looking upon the intermediate hne 
 of coast as Frisian rather than either Angle or Saxon — or, 
 at least, such parts of it as are not expressly stated to be 
 otherwise. 
 
 § 30. Inference. — As the whole coast south of the Elbe 
 seems to have been occupied by tribes speaking either Frisian 
 or Batavian dialects, and as neither of these sub-divisions re- 
 presents the language of the Angles and Saxons, the original 
 localities of those invaders must be sought for either north 
 of the Elbe, or inland, along the course of the rivers, i.e. — 
 inland. 
 
 § 31 . The Saxons and Nordalhingians. — North of the 
 Elbe, and south of the Eyder (as stated in § 22), we meet the 
 Saxons of Ptolemy; but that in a very circumscribed locality. 
 
 In the ninth century, the tribes of these parts are divided 
 into three divisions: — 
 
 a. The ffoltsati = the people of Holstein. Here holt:= 
 wood, whilst sat is the -set in Somcr-sc^ and Dor-set.
 
 THE NORDALBINOrANS. 17 
 
 b. Tlie Thiedmarsi — the people of Ditmarsh. 
 
 c. The Stormarii ~ the people of Stormar. 
 
 Besides tlie names of these three particular divisions the 
 tribes between the Elbe and Ejder were called by the general 
 name of Nordalhingii — i.e. people to the north of the Elbe. 
 
 § 32, The people of Anglen — North of the Nordalhingii ; 
 Auglen being the name of a district between the Sehlie and 
 Flensburg. 
 
 § 83. The Jutes. — In ./2iMand, north of the Angles and 
 the Northfrisians. 
 
 § 34. The Saxons of Holsfein, hoio large their area ? — 
 There is no reason for considering the Nordalbingian Holt- 
 sati, Thiedmarsi and Stormarii as other than Saxons ; al- 
 though the fact of the Northfrisians to the north, and of the 
 Frisians of Hanover to the south of them, is a slight com- 
 plication of the prima facie Y\ew . 
 
 Neither is it necessary to identify the two divisions, and to 
 consider the Saxons as Frisians, or the Frisians as Saxons, 
 as is done by some authors. 
 
 It is only necessary to perceive the complication which the 
 existence of the Northfrisians introduces, and to recognise the 
 improbability o^ parts of the present dutchies of Holstein and 
 Sleswick having constituted the ■i^J^o^e of the Anglo-Saxon area. 
 
 In other words, we have to ascertain in what direction the 
 Germanic population represented by the Saxons at the mouth 
 of the Elbe extended itself — for some further extension there 
 undoubtedly must have been. 
 
 § 35. This brings us to the other series of preliminary facts, 
 viz. : the consideration of the more important tribes of the 
 middle and lower courses of the three great rivers, the Rhine, 
 the ^Veser, and the Elbe. 
 
 § 36. The Germans of the Middle Rhine. — Of the Germans of 
 the Lower and Middle Rhine, it is only necessary to mention 
 one — 
 
 The Franks. — We shall see that, taking the two terms 
 in their widest sense, the Franks and the Saxons were in 
 contact, a fact which makes it necessary to notice at least 
 some portion of the Frank area. 
 
 c
 
 IS THE SAXONS. 
 
 a. Salian Franks. — It' the element Sal- represent the 
 -scf, in the name of the Dntch river Y-ssel, the locality of the 
 Salian Franks was Overyssel and Onekierland, whilst their 
 ethnological relations were most probably with the Batavians. 
 
 I). Chainavi. — In the Tabula Peutingeriana we find — Clia- 
 niavi qui Elpranci (leg. et Franc i). They were conterminous 
 with the Salii — 'Y'TTih^ccf/jriV (/^h (MoT^uv rov ^aXicov Mvovg, 
 XccrjtjCc(DOvg II I'^rfkaau. — Julian, Op. p. 280.— D.N. 
 
 The following extract is more important, as it shows that a 
 Roman communication at least took place between the Rhine 
 and Britain : XaijjU^uv yao fjufj IdovXsuo[jijSvcov., ahvvurov Igtiv 
 rrjv ryjg Vt^iruvvUrig vridov ai70'7ro^7:iuv £9r< to. 'Paufjjd'tKCc 
 (pcovPiu ^iWTT&f/j'Trsadcci. — Eunap. in Except, leg. ed., Bonn, 
 p! 42. — D.N. 
 
 The name Chamavi is still preserved in that of the district 
 oi Hameland, near Deventer. — D.N. and G.D.S. 
 
 The Bructeri, Sigambri, and Ripuarian Franks bring us 
 to the Franks of the Middle Rhine, a portion of the division 
 which it is not necessary to follow. 
 
 § 37. The Thuringians. — First mentioned in the beginning 
 of the fourth century. Locality, between the Hartz, the 
 Werra a feeder of the Weser, and the Sala a feeder of the 
 Elbe. As early as the sixth centurj^ the Thuringians and 
 Saxons are conterminous, and members of the same confe- 
 deration against the Franks. — D.N. 
 
 § 38. The Catti. — Locality, the valley of the Fulda, 
 forming part of the Upper Weser. Conterminous with the 
 Thuringi (from whom they were separated by the river 
 Werra) on the east, and the Franks on the west. The mo- 
 dern form of the word Catti is Hesse, and the principality of 
 Hesse is their old locality. — G.D.S. 
 
 § 39. Geographical conditions of the Saxon area. — South- 
 ern and northern limits. — The Saxons were in league with the 
 Thuringians and Jutes against the Franks. 
 
 By the Jutes they were limited on the north, by the Thu- 
 ringians on the south-east, and by the Franks on the south- 
 west ; the middle portion of the southern frontier being 
 formed by the Catti between the Franks and Thuringians.
 
 THE SAXONS. 19 
 
 This gives us a southern and a northern limit. 
 Western limit. — This is formed by the Batavians and 
 Frisians of the sea-coast, i.e.., by the Batavians of Holland, 
 Guelderland, and Overyssel, and, afterwards, by the Frisians 
 of West and East Friesland, and of Oldenburg. 
 
 Here, however, the breadth of the nou- Saxon area is uncer- 
 tain. Generally speaking, it is broadest in the southern, 
 and narrowest in the northern portion. The Frisian line is 
 narrower than the Batavian, whilst when we reach the Elbe 
 the Saxons appear on the sea-coast. Perhaps they do so on 
 the Weser as well. 
 
 § 40. Eastern limit. — Preliminary remark. — Before the 
 eastern limit of the Saxons is investigated, it will be well to 
 indicate the extent to which it differs from the southern. 
 
 a. The Thuringiaus, Catti (or Hessians), and Franks, on the 
 southern boundary of the Saxon area were Germans. Hence 
 the line of demarcation between their language was no broad 
 and definite line, like that between the English and the Welsh, 
 but rather one representing a difference of dialect, like that 
 between the Yorkshire and the Lowland Scotch. Hence, too, 
 we ought not only not to be surprised, if we find dialects inter- 
 mediate to the Frank and Saxon, the Saxon and Thuringian, 
 &c., but we must expect to find them. 
 
 b. The same is the case with the Batavian and Frisian fron- 
 tier. — We really find specimens of language which some 
 writers call Saxon, and others Dutch (Batavian). 
 
 The eastern frontier, however, will be like the frontier be- 
 tween England and Wales, where the line of demarcation is 
 bi'oad and definite, where there are no intermediate and tran- 
 sitional dialects, and where the two contiguous languages be- 
 long to different philological classes. — The languages to the east 
 of the Saxon area will he allied to the languages of Russia, 
 Poland, and Bohemia ; i.e., they will he not Germanic hut 
 Slavonic. 
 
 Note. — The northern frontier of the Saxon area is interme- 
 diate in character to the western and southern on one hand, 
 and to the eastern on the other ; the Danish of the Cimbric 
 
 Peninsula being — though not German — Gothic. 
 
 c 2
 
 J^O SLAVONIC FRONTIER 
 
 \\\' \)o</u\ at tlu' northern portion of tlie Saxon area, 
 i.e., the soiith-onstorn corner of the Cinibric Peninsula, and 
 the part^^ about the Town of Lubeck ; where the Dutchies 
 of Mecklenburg Schwerin and Holstein join. The attention 
 of the reader is ]:articularly directed to the dates. 
 
 § 41. /Slavonians oj Ilolsteiu, Mecklenburg, and Lauenhurg . — 
 The Polahi — From po = on, and Lahe = the Elbe. Name 
 Slavonic. Germanized by the addition of the termination — 
 ing, and so become Po-lah-ing-i ; just as in Kent we find the 
 Kent-ings. Conterminous with the Nordalbinufian Stormarii, 
 from whom they are divided by the river Bille, a small con- 
 fluent of the Elbe. Capital Ratzeburg. First mentioned by 
 writers subsequent to the time of Charlemagne. — D.N. 
 
 § 42. The Wagrians. — North of the Polabi, and within 
 the Cimbric Peninsula, divided from the Danes by the Eyder, 
 from the Non-Danish Nordalbingians by the Trave. Capital 
 Oldenburg. The Isle of Feraern was Wagrian. Authorities 
 — chiefly writers of and subsequent to the time of Charle- 
 magne. In one of these we learn that the town of Ha^um 
 (Slcswick) lies between the Angles, the Saxons, and the 
 Wends. 
 
 Now, Wend is the German designation of the Slavonians ; 
 so that there must have been Slavonians in the Cimbric 
 Peninsula at least as early as the ninth century. — D.N. 
 
 § 43. Obofriii, written also Obotrita, Abotriti, Abotridi ; 
 ApodritcE, Abatareni, Apdrede, Afdrege, and for the sake of 
 distinction from a people of the same name, Nort-Obtrezi, 
 occupants of the western part of Mecklenburg, and extended 
 as far east as the Warnow, as far south as Schwerin. Called 
 by Adam of Bremen, Beregi. The Obotrites were allies of 
 the Franks against the Saxons, and after the defeat and 
 partial removal of the latter, were transplanted to some of 
 their localities. — "Saxones transtulit" (i.e., Charlemagne), "in 
 Franciam et pagos transalbianos Abodritis dedit. — Eginhart 
 Ann. A.D. 804.— D.N. 
 
 § 44. The Lini — Slavonians on the left bank of the Elbe, 
 and the first met with on that side of the river. Occupants 
 of Danneburg, Luchow and Wustrow, in Luneburg. By the
 
 OF THE SAXON AREA. 21 
 
 writers subsequent to the time of Charlemagne the Smeldengi 
 (a German designation), and the Belhenici are mentioned along 
 with the Lini (or Linones). Of this Slavonic a Paternoster 
 may be seen in the Mithridates representing the dialect of 
 the neighbourhood in Luchow in a.d. 1691. It is much 
 mixed with the German. About the middle of the last cen- 
 tury this (Ois-Albian Slavonic) dialect became extinct. — D.N. 
 
 § 45. The [Varnahi or Warnavi. — Locality. Parts about 
 Grabow, Valley of the Elbe. This is the locality of the 
 Varini of Tacitus, the Oui'goupoi of Ptolemy, and the Wer- 
 ini of later writers, a tribe connected with the Angli, and 
 generally considered as Germanic. — D.N. 
 
 § 46. Morizani. — The district round the Moritz Lake. 
 —D.N. 
 
 § 47. Doxani. — Locality ; the valley of the Dosse. — D.N. 
 
 § 48. Hevelli. — Locality ; the valley of the Hevel. These 
 are the Slavonians of Brandenburg and Mittelmark. — D.N. 
 
 § 49. Slavonians of Altmark. — In Altmark, as in Lunen- 
 burg, though on the German side of the Elbe we find the 
 names of the places Slavonic, e.g., Klotze, Wrepke, Solpke, 
 Blatz, Regatz, Colbitz, &c. ; so that Altmark, like Lunen- 
 burg, was originally a Cis-Albian Slavonic locality. 
 
 § 50. South of the Hevel we meet with the Sorabian, or 
 Sorb Slavonians, the descendants of whom form at the present 
 time part of the population of Lusatia and Silesia. It is not, 
 however, necessary to follow these further, since the German 
 frontier now begins to be Thuringian rather than Saxon. 
 
 § 51. Saxon area. — From the preceding investigations we 
 determine the area occupied by the Saxons of Germany to 
 be nearly as follows : 
 
 a. — Ethnologically considered. — Tract bounded on the north 
 by the North Frisian Germans and Jute Danes of Sleswick ; 
 on the north and north-east by the Slavonians of the Elbe, 
 sometimes TVaws-Albian like the Wagrians and Obotrites ; 
 sometimes Cis-Albian, like the Linones and the Slaves of 
 Altmark; on the south by the Thuringians, Catti, and Franks ; 
 on the west by the Franks, Batavians, and Frisians. 
 
 b. Considered in relation to the ancient population that it com-
 
 "2 SAXON AREA. 
 
 jirlsfif. — The country of the Saxons of Ptolemy; the Angli 
 of Tncitus; the Lanoohardi of Tacitus; the Angrivarii ; the 
 Duluuhiui; the Anii).sivaiii (?) ; the Bructeri Minores (0; 
 the Fosi, and Cherusci ; and probably part of the Cauci. 
 Of poj)ulations mentioned by the later writers (i.e. of those 
 between the seventh and eleventh centuries), the following 
 belong to this area — the Stormarii, Thietmarsi, Hotsati ( = 
 the Nordalbingii, or Nordloudi), the Ostfali, (Osterluidi), 
 VVestfali, Angarii, and Eald-Seaxan (Old Saxons). 
 
 c. Considered in relation to its modern population. — Here 
 it coincides most closely with the kingdom of Hanover, plus 
 parts of the Dutchies of Holstein and Oldenburg, and parts of 
 Altmark ? Brunswick ? and Westphalia, and minus the Fri- 
 sian portion of East Friesland, and the Slavonic part of 
 Luneburg. 
 
 d. nicer si/stem. — By extending the Saxons of Westphalia 
 as far as Cleves (which has been done by competent judges) 
 we carry the western limit to the neighbourhood of the Rhine. 
 This, however, is as far as it can safely be carried. In the 
 respect to the Upper Ems, it was probably Saxon, the lower 
 part being Frisian. The Weser is pre-eminently the river 
 of the Saxons, with the water - system of which their 
 area coincides more closely than with any other physical 
 division. The Elbe was much in the same relation to the 
 Germans and Slavonians, as the Rhine was to the Germans 
 and the Gauls. Roughly speaking, it is the frontier — the 
 C/s-Albian Slaves (the Linones and the Slavonians of Alt- 
 mark) being quite as numerous as the Trans- hWAixw Germans, 
 (the people of Stormar, Ditmarsh, and Holstein). The 
 Eyder was perhaps equally Danish, Frisian, and Saxon. 
 
 e. Mountains. — The watershed of the Weser on the one side, 
 and of the Ruhr and Lippe on the other, is the chief high land 
 contained within the Saxon area, and is noticed as being the 
 line most likely to form a subdivision of the Saxon popula- 
 tion, either in the way of dialect or political relations — in case 
 such a subdivision exists, a point which will be considered in 
 the next chapter.
 
 OLD SAXON. 23 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OF THE DIALECTS OF THE SAXON AREA, AND OF THE SO-CALLED, 
 
 OLD SAXON. 
 
 § 52. The area occupied by the Saxous of Germany has 
 been investigated ; and it now remains to ask, how far the 
 language of the occupants was absolutely identical through- 
 out, or how far it fell into dialects or sub-dialects. In doing, 
 this, it may as well be asked. First, what we expect, a priori ; 
 Second, what we really find. 
 
 § 53. To the Saxon area in Germany, there are five phi- 
 lological frontiers, the Slavonic, the Frisian, the Batavian, the 
 Frank, and the Thuringian, to which may probably be added 
 the Hessian ; in each of which, except the Slavonic, we may 
 expect that the philological phenomenon of intermixture and 
 transition will occur. Thus — 
 
 a. The Saxon of Holstein may be expected to approach the 
 Jute and Frisian. 
 
 h. That of South Oldenburg and East Friesland, the Frisian 
 and Batavian. 
 
 c. That of Westphalia, the Batavian and Frank. 
 
 d, e. That of the Hessian and Thuringian frontiers, the 
 Hessian and Thuringian. 
 
 Finally, the Saxon of the centi-e of the area is expected to 
 be the Saxon of the most typical character. 
 
 § 54. Such is what we expect. How far it was the fact is 
 not known for want of data. What is known, however, is as 
 follows. — There were at least ttoo divisions of the Saxon ; 
 (1st) the Saxon of which the extant specimens are of English 
 origin, and (2nd), the Saxon of which the extant specimens 
 are of continental origin. We will call these at present the 
 Saxon of England, and the Saxon of the Continent.
 
 ~-t OLD SAXON. 
 
 § 55. Kospoctiiig the Saxon oi' KiiLjIaiul and the Saxon of 
 the Continent, there is good reason for beHcving that the first 
 was spoken in the northern, the second in the southern por- 
 tion of the Saxon area, i.e., the one in Hanover and tlie other 
 in WestphaHu, tlje probable boundaries between them being 
 the line of highlands between Osnaburg and Paderborn, 
 
 § 5G. Resj)c'cting the Saxon of England and the Saxon of 
 the Continent, there is good reason for believing that, whilst 
 the former was the mother-tongue of the Angles and the con- 
 querors of England, the latter was that of the Cherusci of 
 Arminius, the conquerors and the annihilators of the legions 
 of Varus. 
 
 § 57. Respecting the Saxon of England and the Saxon of 
 the Continent, it is a fact that whilst we have a full literature 
 in the former, we have but fragmentary specimens of the 
 latter — these being chiefly the following: (1) the Heliand, 
 (2) Hildubrand and Hathubrant, (3) the Carolinian Psalms. 
 
 § 58. The preceding points have been predicated respecting 
 the diifercnce between the two ascertained Saxon dialects, for 
 the sake of preparing the reader for the names by which they 
 are known. Supposing the nomenclature to be based upon 
 any of the preceding facts, we might have the following 
 nomenclature : — 
 
 KOn THE SAXON OF THE CONTINENT. FOR THE SAXON OF ENGLAND, 
 
 1. Continental Saxon. Insular Saxon. 
 
 2. German Saxon. English Saxon. 
 
 3. Westphalian Saxon. Hanoverian Saxon. 
 
 4. South-Saxon. North Saxon. 
 
 5. Cheruscan Saxon, Angle Saxon. 
 
 6. Saxon of the Heliand.* Saxon of Beowulf.* 
 
 Of these names the last would be the best for strictly scien- 
 tific purposes, or for the purposes of investigation ; since the 
 fact upon which it is based is the most undeniable. 
 
 Such is what the nomenclature might be, or, perhaps, 
 ought to be. What it is is another question. 
 
 * The chief works in the two dialects or languages.
 
 OLD SAXON. 25 
 
 § 59. The Saxon of England is called Anglo-Saxon ; a 
 term against which no exception can be raised. 
 
 § 60. The Saxon of the Continental used to be called Dano- 
 Saxon, and is called Old Saxon. 
 
 §61. Why called J)qxio- Saxon. — When the poem called 
 Heliand was first discovered (and that in an English library), 
 the difference in language between it and the common Anglo- 
 Saxon composition was accounted for by the assumption of a 
 Danish intermixture. 
 
 § 62. Why called Old Saxon. — When the Continental ori- 
 gin of the Heliand was recognised, the language was called 
 Old Saxon, because it represented the Saxon of the mother- 
 country, the natives of which were called Old Saxons by the 
 Anc/loSiiKons themselves. Still the term is exceptionable ; 
 the Saxon of the Heliand is most probably a sister-dialect of 
 the Anglo-Saxon, rather the JtigloSaxon itself is a continental 
 locality. Exceptionable, however, as it is, it will be em- 
 ployed. 
 
 § 63. The data for the study of the Old Saxon are as 
 follows : — 
 
 1 . Ahrenuntiatio Diaholi, e Codice Vaticano. — Graff, Diu- 
 tisca, ii. 191. 
 
 2. Confessionis Formulce, e Codice Essensi. — Lacomblet, 
 Archiv. filr Greschichte des Niederrhins, 1, 4 — 9. 
 
 3. Fragmentum dc Festo omnium Sanctorum, e Codice Es- 
 sensi. — Ibid. 
 
 4. Bofulus redituum Essensis. — Ibid. 
 
 5. The FreMenhorst Boll Denkmiiler von Dorow, 1, 2, 1 . 
 
 6. Glossee Saxonica, e Codice Argentorat. — Diutisca, 192. 
 
 7. T. Lipsii ; E2Mst. cent, iii, ad Belgas pertinentium, 
 Ep. 44. 
 
 8. Hildebrand. — Heroic fragment, in alliterative metre. 
 
 9. The Carolinian Psalms. — A translation of the Psalms, 
 referred to the time of Charlemagne ; sometimes considered to 
 be old Batavian. 
 
 10 Heliand, a Gospel Harmony in alliterative metre, and 
 the chief Old Saxon composition extant.
 
 26 
 
 OLD SAXON. 
 
 SPECIMEN. 
 
 § G4. Jleliaiul, \y[). 1'2, \o. {Schmeller's Edition.) 
 
 Luc. II. 
 
 Tlio uuiud maiiaguti cud, 
 Obiir tliosa uuidoii uucrold. 
 Uuardos antfandun, 
 Thea thar eluiscalco.s 
 Uta uuaruii, 
 Uueros an uualitu, 
 ruiggco gonican, 
 Fclias aftar folda : 
 Gisahuii finistii an tunc 
 Telatan an lufte ; 
 Endi quam liolit Godcs, 
 Uuanum tliiirh thui uuolcan ; 
 Endi tlica uuardos thar 
 Bifcng an tlicin fclda. 
 Sie uurdun an forlitun tho, 
 Thea man an ira moda ; 
 Gisahun thar mahtigna 
 Godes Engil cuman ; 
 
 The im tegegnes sprac. 
 
 Het that iin thea uuardos — 
 
 " Uuiht ne antdredin 
 
 Ledes fon thcni liuhta. 
 
 Ic seal cu quad he liobora thing, 
 
 Suido uuarlico 
 
 Uuilleon seggean, 
 
 Cudean craft mikiL 
 
 Nu is Krist geboran, 
 
 An thesero selbun naht, 
 
 Salig barn Godes, 
 
 An thcra Davidos burg, 
 
 Drohtin the godo. 
 
 That is mendislo 
 
 jSIanno cunnea-s, 
 
 Allaro firiho fruma. 
 
 Thar gi ina fidan mugun, 
 
 An Betlilema burg, 
 
 Barno rikiost. 
 
 Hebbiatli that te tccna, 
 
 8—13. 
 
 Then it was to many known. 
 Over tiiis wide world. 
 The words they discovered, 
 Those that tlierc, as horse-grooms, 
 Were witliout, 
 Men at watcli, 
 Horses to tend, 
 Cattle on the field— 
 They saw the darkness in two 
 Dissipated in the atmosphere, 
 And came a light of God 
 ■ — through the welkin ; 
 And the words there 
 Caught on the field. 
 They were in fright then 
 The men in their mood — 
 They saw there mighty 
 Angel of God come ; 
 That to tliem face to face spake. 
 It bade them these words — 
 " Dread not a whit 
 Of mischief from the light. 
 I shall to you speak glad things, 
 Very true ; 
 Say commands ; 
 Show gi-eat strength. 
 Now is Christ born. 
 In this self-same night ; 
 The blessed child of God, 
 In David's cit}', 
 The Lord the good. 
 That is exultation 
 To the races of men, 
 Of all men the advancement. 
 There ye may find him 
 In the city of Bethlehem, 
 The noblest of children — 
 Ye have as a token
 
 OLD SAXON. 
 
 27 
 
 Tliat ic eu gitelleau mag, 
 
 Uiiarun uuonluii, 
 
 That he thar biuundun ligid, 
 
 That kind an eneia ciibbiun, 
 
 Tho he si cuning obar al 
 
 Erdun endi himiles, 
 
 Endi obar eldeo barn, 
 
 Uueroldes uualdand." 
 
 Relit so he tho that imord gespracenun 
 
 So uuard thar engilo te them 
 
 Unrim cuman, 
 
 Helag heriskepi, 
 
 Fon hebanuuanga, 
 
 Fagar folc Godes, 
 
 Endi filu sprakun, 
 
 Lofuuord manag, 
 
 Liudeo herron ; 
 
 Aihobnn tho helagna sang, 
 
 Tho sie eft te hebanuuanga 
 
 Uundun thurh thiu uuolcan. 
 
 Thea uuardos hordun, 
 
 Huo thiu engilo craft 
 
 Alomahtigna God, 
 
 Suido uuerdlico, 
 
 Uuordun louodun. 
 
 " Diurida si nu," quadun sie, 
 
 " Drohtine selbun, 
 
 An them hohoston 
 
 Himilo rikea ; 
 
 Endi fndu an erdu, 
 
 Firiho barnum, 
 
 Goduuilligun gumun, 
 
 Them the God antkennead, 
 
 Thurh hluttran hugi." 
 
 That 1 tell ye 
 
 True words, 
 
 That he there swathed lieth, 
 
 The child in a crib. 
 
 Though he be King over all 
 
 Earth and Heaven, 
 
 And over the sons of men, 
 
 Of the world the Ruler." 
 
 Right as he that word spake, 
 
 So was there of Angels to them, 
 
 In a multitude, come 
 
 A holy host, 
 
 From the Heaven-plains, 
 
 The fair folk of God, 
 
 And much they spake 
 
 Praise-words many, 
 
 To the Lord of Hosts (people). 
 
 They raised the holy song, 
 
 As they back to the Heaven-plains 
 
 Wound through the welkin. 
 
 The words they heard, 
 
 How the strength of the Angels 
 
 The Almighty God, 
 
 Very worthily. 
 
 With words praised. 
 
 " Love be there now," quoth they, 
 
 " To the Lord himself 
 
 On the highest 
 
 Kingdom of Heaven, 
 
 And peace on earth 
 
 To the children of men, 
 
 Goodwilled men 
 
 Who know God, 
 
 Through a pure mind."
 
 28 GOTHIC STOCK. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 AFFINITIES OF Till!: EXCJLISII WITH THE LANGUAGES OF GERMAN 
 AND SCANDINAVIA. 
 
 § G5. U'liE last chapter has limited the Anglo-Saxon area to 
 the northern part of the Saxon area in general. Further de- 
 tails, however, upon this point, may stand over nntil the gene- 
 ral affinities of the English language have been considered. 
 
 ^ dQ. Over and above those languages of Germany and 
 Holland which were akin to the dialects of the Angles 
 and the Saxons, cognate languages were spoken in Denmark, 
 Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and the Feroe isles, i.e., in 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 § 67. The general collective designation for the Grermanic 
 tongues of Germany and Holland, and for the Scandinavian 
 languages of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and the 
 Feroe Isles, is taken from the name of those German tribes 
 who, during the decline of the Roman Empire, were best 
 known to the Romans as the Goths ; the term Gothic for the 
 Scandinavian and Germanic languages, collectively, being both 
 current and convenient. 
 
 § 68. Of this great stocJc of languages the Scandinavian is 
 one branch ; the Germanic, called also Teutonic, another. 
 
 § 69. The Scandinavian branch of the Gothic stock compre- 
 hends, 1 . The dialects of Scandinavia Proper, i.e., of Norway 
 and Sweden ; 2. of the Danish isles and Jutland ; 8. of Ice- 
 land ; 4. of the Feroe Isles. On the side of Lapland the 
 languages of this branch come in contact with the Laplandic 
 and Finlandic ; whilst in Sleswick they are bounded by the 
 Low German.
 
 SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGE. 29 
 
 SPECIMENS. 
 
 Icelandic (Fareyi'nga-Saga — Ed. Mohnike). 
 
 Ok nil er J^at eittlivcit sinn um sumarit, at Sigmundr mselti til Joris : 
 " Hvat mun veic^a, \>o at viS farim i skog {jcnna, er her er nor^r fra garSi ?" 
 \6m svarar : " a {jvi er mer eingi forvitni," scgir hann. " Ekki er mer sva 
 gefit," segir Sigmundr, "ok fjangat skal ek fara." "Jju niunt ra^a hljdta," 
 segir jjilrir, " en brjdtum viS fja bo^or?^ fdstra mins." Nu foru Jjeir, ok 
 haftji Sigmundr vi^aroxi cina i hendi ser ; koma i skoginn, ok i rjotJr eitt 
 fagurt ; ok er {^eir hafa )jar cigi leingi verit, {ja heyra jjeir bjorn mikinn 
 hartfla ok grimligan. Jjat var vi<5bjorn mikill, lilfgrar at lit. Jseir lilaupa 
 nu aptra a stiginn {;an, er {jcir liolSu J^angat farit ; stigrinn var mjor ok 
 fjraurigr, ok lileypr \>6\\v fyrir, en Sigmundr sfi^ar. Dyrit hleypr nu eptir 
 l^eim a stiginn, ok ver^r Jjvi J^raungr stigrinn, ok brotna cikrnar fyrir j^vi. 
 Sigmundr snyr \>a. skjdtt lit af stignum milium trjanna, ok biSr ]?ar til er 
 dyrit kemr jafn-fram honum, jja lidggr hann jafnt meJSal hlusta a dyrinu 
 meS tveim hondum, sva at exin sbkkr. En dyrit fellr afram, ok er dautt. 
 
 Feroic. 
 
 Nu var so til ajna Ferina um Summari, at Sigmundur snakkaji so vi 
 Towra : "Kvat man bagga, towat vid farin uj henda Skowin, uj er her 
 noran-firi Garin?'' Towrur svarar, " Ikkji havi e Hu at forvitnast ettir 
 tiij,'' siir han. " Ikkji eri e so sintur," siir Sigmundur, " og haar skal e 
 fara." "Tu fert ta at raa," siir Towrur, " men ta browtum vid Forbo Fos- 
 tirfajir mujns," Nu fowru tajr, og Sigmundur heji ajna oksi til Brennuvi 
 uj Hondini ; tajr koma in uj Skowin, og a ajt vakurt rudda Plos men ikkji 
 hava tajr veri har lajngji, firin tajr hojra kvddtt Brak uj Skownun, og brat 
 ettir sujgja tajr ajna ogvulia stowra Bjddn og gruiska. Ta va ajn stowr 
 Skowbjodn gragulmut a Litinun. Tair lejpa nil attir a Rasina, sum tajr 
 hoddu gingji ettir ; Rasin var mjav og trong ; Towrur lejpur undan, og 
 Sigmundur attana. Djowri leipur nu ettir tajmum a Rasini ; og nu verur 
 Rasin trong kja tuj, so at Ajkjinar brotnavu fra tuj. Sigmundur snujur ta 
 kvikliani utiif Rasini inimidlum Trjini, og bujar har til Djowri kjemur 
 abajnt han. Ta hoggur han bajnt uj Ojrnalystri a Djowrinum vi bfiviui 
 Hondun, so at oxin sokkur in, og Djowri dcttir bajnt framettir, og er 
 standejt. 
 
 Swedish. 
 Och nu var det engang om sommaren, som Sigmund sade till Thorcr : 
 " Hvad mknde val deraf warda, om vi kter ga.ut 1 skogen, som ligger dcr 
 norr om garden?" " Det ar jag alldelcs icke nyfiken att vcta," svaradc 
 Thor. "Icke gar det .sa med mig," sade Sigmund, "och ditret maste jag." 
 " Du kommer da att rada," sade Thor, " men dermcd iifvcrtrada vi var
 
 so SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 Kostcriuilors hud." Ho gin£r'> nu fistiul, ocli Signiuiul hade en vedyxa i han- 
 (Icn ; di- koiDiiio in i skoiren, ocl\ stmt doipfi finjro de sc en ganska stor och 
 vildsiiint hjorn, en dnipolig i^kog-shjiini, vaip--gia till fiirgen. Dc spiungo 
 dii tillhaka jifi sainnia stig sum dc hade kominit dit. Stigcn var smal och 
 trang ; dch Thorer sprang framst, men Sigmund eftcrst. Djuret lopp nu 
 cftor deni pfi stigcn, och stigen blef ti^ng for detsamma, s?i att tradcn son- 
 dcrbrotos i dcss lojip. Sigmund viinde da kurtigt retaf fikri stigen, och 
 staljdc sig niellan tiiiden, samt stod der, tills djuret kom fram niidt for 
 hononi. Da fattade han yxan med bcgge handcrna, och hiigg midt enicllan 
 iironen p;i djuret, s?i att yxan gick in, och djuret stortade framat, och dog 
 pk stiillet. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Og nu var det cngang om Sommcren, at Sigmund sagde til Thorer: "Hvad 
 mon der vel kan flyde af, om vi end gaae hen i den Skov, som ligger her 
 nordenfor Gaarden?" "Det er jeg ikken nysgjerrig efter at vide," svarede 
 Thorer. " Ei gaar det mig saa," sagde Sigmund, " og derud maa jeg." 
 " Du kommer da til at raade," sagde Thorer, " men da overtrsede, vi vor 
 Fosterfadcrs Bud." De gik nu, og Sigmund havde en Vedoxe i Haanden ; 
 de kom ind 1 Skoven, og strax dei-paa saae de en meget stor og grum Bjorn^ 
 en drabelig Skovejorn, ulvegraa af Farvc. Dc lob da tilbage ad den samme 
 Sti, ad hvilken de vare komne derhen. Stien var smal og trang ; og Thorer 
 lob forrest, men Sigmund bagerst. Dyret lob nu efter dem paa Stien, og 
 Stien blev trang for det, og Trseerne brodes i dets. Lob Sigmund dreiede da 
 nu hurtig ud af Stien, og stillcde sig imellem Trpeerne, og stod der indtil 
 Dyret kom frem lige for ham. Da fattede han oxen med begge Hsender, 
 og hug lige imellem orerne paa Dyret, saa at oxen sank i, og Dyret 
 styrtede fremad, og var dodt paa Stedet. 
 
 English. 
 
 And now is it a time about the summer, that Sigmund spake to Thorir : 
 " What would become, even if we two go into the wood (shaw), which here 
 is north from the house?" Thorir answers, " Thereto there is to me no 
 curiosity," says he. " So is it not with me," says Sigmund, "and thither 
 !<hall I go." " Tliou mayst cotmsel," says Thorir, " but we two break the 
 bidding-word of foster-father mine." Now go they, and Sigmund had a 
 wood-axe in his hands; they come into the wood, and into a fair place ; and 
 as they had not been there long, they hear a bear, big, fierce, and grim. It 
 was a wood-bear, big, wolf-grey in hue. They run (leap) now back (after) 
 to the path, by vvhich they had gone thither. The path was narroAv and 
 strait ; and Thorir runs first, and Sigmund after. The beast runs now after 
 them on the path, and the path becomes strait, and broken oaks before 
 it. Sigmund turns then short out of the jiath among the trees, and bides 
 there till the beast comes even with him. Then cuts he even in between
 
 THE MCESO-GOTHIC. 31 
 
 the ears of the beast witli his two hands, so that the axe sinks, and the beast 
 falls forward, and is dead. 
 
 § 70. The Teutonic branch falls into three divisions : — 
 
 1. The Moeso-Gothic. 
 
 2. The High Germanic. 
 8. The Low Germanic. 
 
 § 71. It is in the Moeso-Gothic that the most ancient spe- 
 cimen of any Gothic tongue has been preserved. It is also 
 the Moeso-Gothic that was spoken by the conquerors of an- 
 cient Rome ; by the subjects of Hermanic, Alaric, Theodoric, 
 Genseric (?), Euric, Athanaric, and Totila. 
 
 This history of this language, and the meaning of the term 
 by which it is designated, is best explained by the following- 
 passages : — 
 
 a. A. D. 482. " Trocondo et Severino consulibus — Theo- 
 doricus cognomento Valamer utramque Macedonian!, Thessa- 
 liamque depopulatus est, Larissam quoque metropolim depre- 
 datus, Fausto solo consule (a. d. 485) — Idem Theodoricus 
 rex Gothorum Zenonis Augusti munificentia pene pacatus, 
 magisterque prsesentis militiae factus, consul quoque desig- 
 iiatus, creditam sihi Ripensis Dacia partem Moesiseque in- 
 ferioris, cum suis satellitihus pro tempore tenuit. — Marcel- 
 llni Oomitis Ohronicon, D.N. 
 
 h. " Frederichus ad Theodoricum regem, qui tunc apud 
 Novam Civitatem provinci^ Moesiffi morabatur, profectus est." 
 — Vita S. Severini," D.N. 
 
 c. " Zeno misit ad Civitatem Novam, in qua erat Theodori- 
 cus dux Gothorum, filiusValameris, et eimi invitavit in sola- 
 tium sibi ad versus Basiliscum." — Anon. Valesii, p. 663, D.N. 
 d. Civitas Nova is Nicopolis on the Danube ; and the 
 nation thus spoken of is the Gothic nation in the time of 
 Zeno. At this time they are settled in the Lower Mcesia, or 
 Bulgaria. 
 
 How they got here from the northern side of the Danube 
 we find in the history of the reign of Valens. When pressed 
 by intestine wars, and by the movements of the Huns, 
 they were assisted by that emperor, and settled in the parts 
 in question.
 
 33 TlIK M(ESO-OOTTIIO. 
 
 Fiirtliornioro, (lioy woro eonvertod to Chrlsliruiity ; and 
 the Jiible was tnuisUitcd into their language by their Bishop 
 Ulphihis. 
 
 Fragments of this translation, ehiefly from the Gospels, 
 have come down to the present time ; and the Bible transla- 
 tion of the Arian Bishop Ulphilas, in the language of the 
 Goths of Mccsia, during the reign of Valens, exhibits the 
 earliest sample of any Gothic tongue. 
 
 § 72. How Gothic tribes reached the Lower Danube is a 
 point upon which there is a variety of opinion. The following- 
 facts, however, may serve as the basis of our reasoning. 
 
 A.D. 249 — 251 — The Goths are found about equidistant 
 from the Euxine Sea, and the eastern portion of the range 
 of Mount Ha}mus, in the Lower Mocsia, and at Marcianopolis. 
 Here they gain a great battle against the Romans, in which 
 the Emperor Decius is killed. 
 
 His successor, Galliis, purchases a peace. 
 
 Valerian defends himself against them. 
 
 During the reign of Gallicnus they appear as maritime 
 warriors, and ravage Asia Minor, Greece, and Illyria. 
 
 A.D. 269 — Are conquered at Naissus, on the western 
 boundary of Mocsia Superior by Claudius. 
 
 A.D. 282— Are defeated by Cams. 
 
 A.D. 821 — Ravage Moesia (Inferior?) and Thrace. 
 
 A.D. 336 — Attacked by Constantine in Dacia — oiorth of 
 the Danube. 
 
 A.D. 373 — In the reign of Valens (as already stated), they 
 were admitted to settle within the limits of the empire. 
 
 § 73. Now, although all this explains, how a Gothic lan- 
 guage was spoken in Bulgaria, and how remnants of it have 
 been preserved until the nineteenth century, the manner in 
 which the tribe who spoke it reached Marcianopolis, so as to 
 conquer the Emperor Decius, in a.d. 249, is unexplained. 
 
 Concerning this there are three opinions — 
 
 A. The Baltic doctrine. According to this the Goths 
 migrated from the Baltic to the Ma^otis, from the Maotis to 
 the Euxine, and from the Euxine to the Danube, along 
 which river they moved from east to west.
 
 THE MCESO-GOTIIIC. 33 
 
 B. The Getic doctrine. — Here the Goths are made out to 
 be the aborigines of the Lower Danube, of Dacia, Mocsia, and 
 even Thrace ; in which case their movement was, also, from 
 east to west. 
 
 C. The German doctrine. — Here the migration is from 
 west to east, along the course of the Danube, from some part 
 of south-eastern Germany, as its starting-point, to Asia Minor 
 as its extreme point, and to Bulgaria {Mcesia Inferior) as its 
 point of settlement. 
 
 § 74. Respecting the first of these views the most that can 
 be said in its favour is, that it is laid down by Jornandes, who 
 wrote in the fifth century, and founded his history upon the 
 earlier writings of Ablavius and Dexippus, Gothic historians, 
 who, in their turn took their account from the old legends 
 of the Goths themselves — in priscis eorum carminihus, pane 
 historico ritu. On the other hand, the evidence is, at best, 
 traditional, the fact improbable, and the likelihood of some 
 such genealogy being concocted after the relationship between 
 the Goths of the Euxine, and Germans of the Baltic had 
 been ascertained exceedingly great. 
 
 § 75. The second is supported by no less an authority than 
 Grimm, in his latest work, the History of the German Lan- 
 guage ; — and the fact of so learned and comprehensive an 
 investigator having admitted it, is, in the mind of the present 
 writer, the only circumstance in its favour. Over and above the 
 arguments that may be founded on a fact which will soon be 
 noticed, the chief reasons are deduced from a list of Dacian or 
 Getic plants in Dioscorides, which are considered to bear names 
 significant in the German. Whether or not, the details of 
 this line of criticism will satisfy the reader who refers to them, 
 it is certain that they are not likely to take a more cogent 
 form than they take in the hands of the Deutsche Grammatik. 
 
 § 76. The third opinion is the likeliest ; and if it were not for 
 a single difficulty would, probably, never have been demurred 
 to. The fact in question is the similarity between the words 
 Geta? and Gothi. 
 
 The feet that a tribe called G-0-T-H-I should, when they 
 first peopled the Mojsogothic country, have hit upon the coun- 
 
 D
 
 34 TITK \r(l]S()-(10TTI10. 
 
 try of a jjoople with a name so like their own as G-E-T-iE, 
 hy inoro accidont, is strange. Enolisli or American colonies 
 niiifht be sent to some thousanil places before one would be 
 found with a name so like that of the mother-country as Get 
 is to Got. The chances, therefore, are that the similarity of 
 name is not accidental, but that there is some historical, ethno- 
 logical, or geographical grounds to account for it. Grimm's view 
 has been noticed. He recognises the difficulty, and accounts 
 for it by making the Goths indigenous to the land of Geta;. 
 
 To a writer who (at one and the same time) finds difficulty 
 in believing that this similarity is accidental and is dissatis- 
 fied with Grimm's reasoning, there seems to be no other alter- 
 native but to consider that the Goths of the Lower Danube 
 had no existence at all in Germany under that name, that 
 they left their country under a different* one, and that they 
 took the one by which they were known to the Romans (and 
 through them to us), on reaching the land of the Get<£ — as, 
 in England, the Saxons of Essex and Wessex did not (since 
 they brought their name with them), but as the East and 
 West Kent-ings\ did. 
 
 This doctrine, of course, falls to the ground directly it can 
 be shown that the Goths of Mossia were either called Goths in 
 Germany, or any where else, anterior to their settlement in the 
 Geta-\m\^. 
 
 Be this, however, as it may, the first division of the Teu- 
 tonic branch of languages is the Moeso-Gothic of the Goths of 
 the Lower Danube, in the fourth century, as preserved in the 
 translation of Ulphilas, and in other less important fragments. 
 
 SPECIMEN. 
 
 Luke i. 46—56. 
 Jail qiiajj Mariam. Mikileid saivala meiiia Fan,jah svegneid ahnia mcins 
 du Gojja iiasjand meinamuia. Unte iiisaliu du linaiveiiai j^iujos scinaizos : 
 
 * Probably, for reasons, too long to enter upon, those of Grutungs and 
 Tervings ; this latter pointing to Thuringia, the present provincial dialect of 
 which tract was stated, even by Michaelis, to be more like the Mceso-Gothic 
 than any other dialect of Germany. 
 
 t Neaily analogous to Osfro-goth, and Visi-goih.
 
 OLD HIGH GERMAN. 35 
 
 sai allis fiam liimraa nu audagjand mik alia kunja. Unte gatavida mis 
 niikilein sa mahteiga, jah veih namo is. Jah armahairtei is in aldins aide 
 l^aim ogandam iiia. Gatavida svinthein in arma seinamma ; distahida mik- 
 iljjuhtans gahugdai hairtins seinis ; gadrausida mahteigans af stolani, jah 
 ushauhida gahnaividans ; gjedigans gasoj^ida ym]pc, jah gabignandans insan- 
 dida Jausans ; lilcibida Israela Jjiumagu seinamma, gamundans armahair- 
 teins, sva sve rodida du attam unsaraim Abrahaima jah fraiv is imd aiv. 
 
 § 77. The Old High German, called also Francic and Ale- 
 mannic, was spoken in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries, 
 in Suabia, Bavaria, and Franconia. It is in the Old High 
 German that the Krist of Otfrid, the Psalms of Notker, the 
 Canticle of Willeram, the Glosses of Kero, the Vita Annonis, 
 &c., are composed. 
 
 SPECIMEN. 
 
 Krist, i. 12. (Edit. Graff.) 
 
 Tho uuarun thar in lante hirta haltente ; 
 
 Thes fehes datun uuarta uuidar fianta. 
 Zi in quam boto sconi, engil scincnti ; 
 
 Job uuurtim sie inlinhte fon himilisgen liohte. 
 Forahtun sie in tho gahnn so sinan anasahun ; 
 
 Job hintarquamun harto thes Gotes botcn uuorto. 
 Sprah ther Gotes boto sar. " lb seal iu sagen uuuntar. 
 
 Ju seal sin fon Gote heil ; nales forahta nibein. 
 Ih seal iu sagen imbot, gibot ther himilisgo. Got ; 
 
 Ouh nist ther er giborti so fronisg arunti. 
 Thes uuirdit uuorolt sinu zi euuidon blidu, 
 
 Job al giscaft thin in uuorolti thesa erdun ist ouh drctenti 
 Niuuui boran habet thiz lant then bimilisgon Heilant ; 
 
 The ist Druhtin Krist guater fon iungeru muater. 
 In Bethleem thiue kuninga thie uuarun alle thanana, 
 
 Fon in uuard ouh giboran iu sin muater magad sconu. 
 Sagen ill iu, guate man, uuio ir nan sculut findan, 
 
 Zeichen ouh gizami thumb thaz seltsani. 
 Zi thcru burgi farct hinana, ir findet, so ih lu sageta, 
 
 Kind niuuui boranaz in kripphun gilegitaz. 
 Tho quam unz er zin tho sprah engilo lieriseaf, 
 
 Himilisgu menigi, sus alle siiigenti — 
 In himilricbes hobi si Gote guallichi ; 
 
 Si in crdu tiidu ouh alien thie fol sin guatcs uuillen 
 
 1) '2
 
 HG [jiW OERAIAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 The Same, in English. 
 
 Then tlioro was in tin- Iniid lu'idsnu'ii feeding : 
 Of tluir enttle tliey ninde watdi nfjainst foes. 
 To tlieni came si messenger fuir, an angel sliining, 
 
 And tliey hoeame lit witli heavenly light. 
 They feared, suddenly as on him they looked ; 
 
 And followed much the words of God's messenger : 
 Spake there God's messenger strait, " I shall to you .say wonders. 
 
 To you shall there be from God health ; fear nothing at all. 
 I shall to you say a message, the bidding of the heavenly God : 
 
 Also there is none who has heard so glad an errand. 
 Therefore becomes his world for ever blythe, 
 
 And all creatures that in the world are treading this earth. 
 Newly borne has this land the heavenly Savior, 
 
 Who is the Lord Christ, good, from a young mother. 
 In Rethlcem, of the kings they were all thence — 
 
 From them was also born his mother, a maid fair. 
 I say to yon, good men, how ye him shall find, 
 
 A sign and token, through this wonder. 
 To your burgh fare hence, ye find, so as I to you said, 
 
 A child, new bom, in a crib lying." 
 Then came, while he to them spake, of angels an host, 
 
 A heavenly retinue, thus all singing : 
 " In the heavenly kingdom's highth be to God glory ; 
 
 Be on earth peace also to all who are full of God's will." 
 
 The Middle High German ranges from the thirteenth 
 Century to the Reformation. 
 
 § 78. The Low Germanic Division, to which the Anglo- 
 Saxon belongs, is currently said to comprise six languages, 
 or rather four languages in different stages. 
 
 I. II. — The Anglo-Saxon and Modern English. 
 
 III.— The Old Saxon. 
 
 IV". v.— The Old Frisian and Modern Dutch. 
 
 VI. — The Platt-Deutsch, or Low German. 
 
 § 79. The Frisian and Dutch. — It is a current statement 
 that the Old Frisian bears the same relation to the Modern 
 Dutch of Holland that the Anglo-Saxon does to the English. 
 
 The truer view of the question is as follows : —
 
 THE TUSCAN. .S7 
 
 1. That a single language, spoken in two dialects, was 
 originally common to both Holland and Friesland. 
 
 2. That from the northern of these dialects we have the 
 Modern Frisian of Friesland. 
 
 3. From the southern, the Modern Dutch of Holland. 
 The reason for this refinement is as follows : — 
 
 The Modern Dutch has certain grammatical forms older 
 than those of the Old Frisian ; <?.</., the Dutch infinitives and 
 the Dutch weak substantives, in their oblique cases, end in 
 -en ; those of the Old Frisian in -a : the form in -en being 
 the older. 
 
 § 80. The true Frisian is spoken in few and isolated locali- 
 ties. There is — 
 
 1. The Frisian of the Dutch state called Friesland. 
 
 2. The Frisian of the parish of Saterland, in Westphalia. 
 
 3. The Frisian of Heligoland. 
 
 4. The North Frisian, spoken in a few villages of Sles- 
 wick. One of the characters of the North Frisian is the 
 possession of a Dual Number. 
 
 § 81. In respect to its stages, we have the Old Frisian of 
 the Asega-bog, the Middle Frisian of Gysbert Japicx, and the 
 Modern Frisian of the present Frieslanders, Westphalians, 
 and Heligolanders. 
 
 Asega-hog, i. 3. p. 13, 14. {Ed. Wiarda.) 
 
 Thet is thiu tliredde liodkest and tlies Kynig Kerles ieft, tlieter allcra 
 monna ek ana sina eyna gode besitte umberavat. Hit ne sc tliet ma hinc 
 nrwinne mith tele and mith rethe and mith riuchta tbingate, sa liebbere 
 alsam sin Asega dema and dele to lioda londiiuehte. Tber ne bacb nen 
 Asega ncnne dom to delande hit ne se tbet bi to fara tba Keysere fon Runie 
 eswercn licbbc and tbet bi fon da liodon ekeicn se. Sa boeb bi tlicnne to 
 demande and to delande tha fiande alsare friounde, tbrucb des ctlies willa, 
 tber hi to fara tha Keysere fon Itunie esv/eren hetb, tlio demande and to 
 delande widuon and weson, waluberon and alle werlosa liodon, like to belp- 
 ande and sine tbrea knilinge, Alsa tbi Asega nimth tba unriucbta mida and 
 tba urlouada panninga, and ma hini urtinga mi mith twam sine juenetbon 
 an tbcs Kyninges bonne, sa ne hoch bi ncnne dora mar to delande, trnch 
 thet tbi Asega tbi biteknatb thenc prcstere, hwande iiia send siaiidc and iiia 
 skilun wesa agon there heliga Kerstenede, bia skilun belpa alle tham tber 
 biam seluon naiiwct helpa ne muge.
 
 38 TIIK l'L.\TT-l>KUTS(_'H. 
 
 The Same, in English. 
 
 That is tlie tliiid (lotoniiiiiation and concession of King Charles, tliat of all 
 men eiieh one possess his own goods (house ?) nnrobhed. It may not be 
 that anv man overcome him with charge (tales), and with summons (rede), 
 and with legal action. So let him hold as his Asega (judge) dooms and 
 deals according to the land-right of the people. There shall no Asega deal 
 a doom unless it be that before the Cresar of Rome he shall have sworn, and 
 that he shall have been by the people chosen. He has then to doom and 
 deal to foes as to friends, through the force (will) of the oath which he be- 
 fore the Cfcsar of Rome has sworn, to doom and to deal to widows and 
 orphans, to wayfarers and all defenceless ]>cople, to help them as his own 
 kind in the third degree. If the Asega take an illegal reward, or pledged 
 money, and a man convict him before two of his colleagues in the King's 
 Court, he has no more to doom, since it is the Asega that betokens the 
 priest, and they are seeing, and they should be the eyes of the Holy Christ- 
 endom, they should help all those who may nought help themselves. 
 
 § 82. The Loir German and Plati-Deutsch. — The words 
 Low-German are not only lax in their application, but they 
 are equivocal ; since the term has two meanings, a general 
 meaning when it signifies a division of the Germanic lan- 
 guages, comprising English, Dutch, Anglo-Saxon, Old Saxon, 
 and Frisian, and a limited one when it means the particular 
 dialects of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe. To avoid 
 this the dialects in question will be henceforth called by their 
 continental name of Platt-Deutsch ; which although foreign, 
 is convenient. 
 
 § 83. The points of likeness and difference between two 
 languages belonging to different branches of the same Gothic 
 stock may be partially collected from the following compari- 
 son between certain Icelandic, Norse or Scandinavian, and 
 certain Anglo-Saxon or Germanic inflections. 
 
 Declension of substantives ending with a vowel. 
 
 Saxon, Icelandic. 
 
 Neuter. Neuter. 
 
 Sing. Now. Edge {an eye). Auga (an eye). 
 
 Ace. Eagc Auga. 
 
 Dal. Eagan Auga. 
 
 Gen. Eagan Auga.
 
 ANGLO-SAXON AND ICELANDIC. 
 
 
 Saxon. 
 
 Icelandic. 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 
 Eagan 
 
 Augu. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Eagan 
 
 Augu. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Eagan 
 
 Augum. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Eagan 
 
 Augna. 
 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Si7ig. Num. 
 
 Nama (a name). 
 
 Bogi (a botv). 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Naman 
 
 Boga. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Naman 
 
 Boga. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Naman 
 
 Boga. 
 
 Plur. No7n. 
 
 Naman 
 
 Bogar. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Naman 
 
 Boga. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Namnm 
 
 Bogum. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Namcna 
 
 Boga. 
 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 Tunge (« tongue). 
 
 Tunga (« tongue). 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Tungan 
 
 Tungu. 
 
 Dut. 
 
 Tungan 
 
 Tungu. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Tungan 
 
 Tungu. 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 
 Tungan 
 
 Tiingur. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Tungan 
 
 Tungur. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Tungum 
 
 Tungum. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Tungena 
 
 Tungna. 
 
 Declension of Substantives ending with a Consonant. 
 Saxon. Icelandic. 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 Sing. Nom. Leaf (« 
 
 lecif-). 
 
 Skip (a ship). 
 
 « Ace. Leaf 
 
 
 Skip. 
 
 Dat. Leafe 
 
 
 Skipi. 
 
 Gen. Leafes 
 
 
 Skips. 
 
 Plur. Nom. Leaf 
 
 
 Skip. 
 
 Ace. Leaf 
 
 
 Skip. 
 
 Dat. Leafum 
 
 
 Skipum. 
 
 Gen. Leafa 
 
 
 Skipa. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Sing. Nom. SniiS (a 
 
 smith). 
 
 Konungr (a king). 
 
 Ace. Smi5 
 
 
 Konung. 
 
 Dat. SmitJe 
 
 
 Konungi. 
 
 Gen. SmiSes 
 
 
 Konungs.
 
 
 
 Till; 
 S'l.iou. 
 
 K'Kl 
 
 iANDK'. 
 
 
 
 Icelandic. 
 
 I'lar. 
 
 Noiii. 
 
 . Smi^aii 
 
 
 K(iiiun<;!ir. 
 
 
 Aic. 
 
 SiiiiiSus 
 
 
 Koiiimga, 
 
 
 Dal. 
 
 SiiiiSuin 
 
 
 Koimnguin. 
 
 
 Ctn. 
 
 Siiiib'ii 
 Feminine. 
 
 
 Konnnga. 
 Feminine. 
 
 Stiii;. 
 
 Noin. 
 
 Spi'ajc (a spcn 
 
 i/,). 
 
 liii'iSr (a bride) 
 
 
 Arc. 
 
 Spr'iwcc 
 
 
 Brui. 
 
 
 Vat. 
 
 Spr'ascc 
 
 
 Bru»i. 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Spr'ajcc 
 
 
 BriiSar. 
 
 riiir. 
 
 Notn. 
 
 Spr'aeca 
 
 
 BruSir. 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Spv'jeca 
 
 
 BriitSir. 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Spr'aecuni 
 
 
 BiutJum. 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Spr'aeca 
 
 
 BruSa. 
 
 § S-t. The most characteristic difference between the Saxon 
 and Icelandic lies in the peculiar position of the definite 
 article in the latter langua<fe. In Saxon, the article corre- 
 sponding with the modern word t/ie, is j?^^, so, seo, for the 
 neuter, masculine, and feminine genders respectively ; and 
 these words, regularly declined, are prefixed to the words 
 with which they agree, just as is the case with the English 
 and with the majority of languages. In Icelandic, however, 
 the article, instead of \)VQcei\\ng, folloios its noun, tclth which 
 it coalesces., having previously suffered a change in form. The 
 Icelandic article corresponding to ];<£/, se, seo, is hitt (n-)) 
 hinn (m.), hill (f.) : from this the h is ejected, so that, instead 
 of the regular inflection (a), we have the forms (i). 
 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Sing 
 
 Num. 
 
 Hitt 
 
 Hinn 
 
 Hin. 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Hitt 
 
 Hinn 
 
 Hina. 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Hinu 
 
 Hinuni 
 
 Hinni. 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Hins 
 
 Hins 
 
 Hinnar. 
 
 I'lur. 
 
 . Norn 
 
 . Hin 
 
 Hinir 
 
 Hinar. 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Hin 
 
 Hina 
 
 Hinar, 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Hinum 
 
 Hinum 
 
 Hinum. 
 
 . 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Hinna 
 
 Hinna 
 
 b. 
 — inn 
 
 Hinna. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Num. 
 
 —it 
 
 — in 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 —it 
 
 — inn 
 
 — ina (-na)
 
 THE ICELANDIC. 
 
 41 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc, 
 
 Fer, 
 
 Dat. 
 
 — nu 
 
 — num 
 
 — inni (-nni). 
 
 Gen. 
 
 — ins 
 
 — ins 
 
 — innar (-nnar) 
 
 r, Nom, 
 
 — in 
 
 — nir 
 
 — nar. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 — in 
 
 — na 
 
 — nar. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 — nam 
 
 — num 
 
 — num. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 — nna 
 
 — nna 
 
 —nna. 
 
 whence, as an affix, in composition, 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Muse. 
 
 Fein. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Augat 
 
 Boginn 
 
 Tungan. 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Augat 
 
 Boginn 
 
 Tunguna. 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Anganu 
 
 Boganum 
 
 Tungunni. 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Augans 
 
 Bogans 
 
 Tiingunnar. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 . Nom. 
 
 Augun 
 
 Bogarnir 
 
 Tiingurnar. 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Augun 
 
 Bugana 
 
 Tungurnar. 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Augunum 
 
 Bogununi 
 
 Tungunum. 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Augnanna 
 
 Boganna 
 
 Tungnanna. 
 
 § 85. In the Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish this pecu- 
 liarity in the position of the definite article is preserved. Its 
 origin, however, is concealed ; and an accidental identity with 
 the indefinite article has led to false notions respecting its 
 nature. In the languages in point the i is changed into e, so 
 that what in Icelandic is if and in, is in Danish et and en. 
 En, however, as a separate word, is the numeral one, and 
 also the indefinite article a ; whilst in the neuter gender it 
 is et — en Sol, a sun ; et Eord, a tahle : Solen, the sun ; Bor- 
 det, the tahle. From modern forms like those just quoted, it 
 has been imagined that the definite is merely the indefinite 
 article transposed. This it is not. 
 
 Reference will be made to this passage on more occasions 
 than one, to show how words originally distinct may, in the 
 process of time, take the appearance of being identical. To 
 apply an expression of Mr. Cobbctt's, en — a, and -en=^the., 
 are the same combination of letters, hut not the same icord.
 
 1;J 
 
 TlIK ICELANDIC. 
 
 DKCLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 
 
 Hd.ron. 
 
 
 
 
 Icelandic. 
 
 
 
 Definite.* 
 
 
 
 
 D< finite.* 
 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 Nciif. 
 
 Muse. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 
 Neut 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fein. 
 
 Nimi 
 
 Oodc 
 
 Goda 
 
 Gdde. 
 
 Num 
 
 Haga 
 
 Hagi 
 
 Haga. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Oodo 
 
 Gudan 
 
 Gddan. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Haga 
 
 Haga 
 
 Hdgu. 
 
 ALL 
 
 GodiUi 
 
 Gudan 
 
 Godan. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 Haga 
 
 Haga 
 
 Hdgu. 
 
 Dut. 
 
 (icJdan 
 
 G(')dan 
 
 Gddan. 
 
 Dut. 
 
 Ilaga 
 
 Haga 
 
 Hdgu. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 G('>daii 
 
 Gddaii 
 
 Godan. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Haga 
 
 Haga 
 
 Hdgu. 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 H'ugu is the Plural form for a 
 
 Norn. 
 
 (Jiiidan 
 
 Gddan 
 
 Godan. 
 
 the C 
 
 ases an 
 
 1 all the Genders. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Gudan 
 
 Godan 
 
 Gddan. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Abl. 
 
 Gddum 
 
 Godum 
 
 Gddum. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dal. 
 
 Godum 
 
 Godum 
 
 Gddum. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Godena 
 
 Godena 
 
 Godena. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Indefinite. 
 
 
 
 
 Indefinite. 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fcm. 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Muse. 
 
 Fein. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 God 
 
 God 
 
 God. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 Hagt 
 
 Hagr 
 
 Hog. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 God 
 
 Gddnc 
 
 Gdde. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Hagt 
 
 Hagan 
 
 Hog. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 Godc 
 
 Godc 
 
 Gddre. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 Hdgu 
 
 Hogum 
 
 Hagri. 
 
 Dal. 
 
 Go Jam 
 
 Godum 
 
 Gddre. 
 
 Dnt. 
 
 Hdgu 
 
 Hdgum 
 
 Hagri. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Godcs 
 
 Godes 
 Plural. 
 
 Godre. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Hags 
 
 Hags 
 Plural. 
 
 Hagrar. 
 
 'Norn. 
 
 Gode 
 
 Gdde 
 
 Gdde. 
 
 Nam. 
 
 Hog 
 
 Hagir 
 
 Hagar. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Gdde 
 
 G6de 
 
 Gdde. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Hog 
 
 Haga 
 
 Hagar. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 Godum 
 
 Gddum 
 
 Gddum. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 Hdgum Hogum 
 
 Hdgum. 
 
 Dut. 
 
 Godum 
 
 Gddum 
 
 Gddum. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Hdgum Hdgum 
 
 Hoguui. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Godra 
 
 Gddra 
 
 Gddra. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Hagra 
 
 Hagra 
 
 Hagra. 
 
 § 86. Observe in the Icelandic forms the absence of the 
 termination -an. Observe also the neuter termination -t, as 
 kagi\ hagt. Tliroughout the modern forms of the Icelandic 
 {viz. the Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian languages) this 
 termination is still preserved : e.g., en god If est., a good horse ; 
 et godt Hja:rt, a good heart ; en skon Pige, a beautiful damsel ; 
 et skarpt Svoerd., a sharp sword. 
 
 * The meaning of these terms is exjilained in § 90-92. The order of 
 the cases and genders is from Rask. It is certainly more natural than 
 the usual one.
 
 THE ICELANDIC. 
 
 43 
 
 § 87. AmoDgst the pronouns the following diiFerences pre- 
 sent themselves. The Saxon forms are, for the pronoun of the 
 second person, pu (thou), ^it (ye tico), ge (ye) ; whilst in 
 Icelandic they are bw, b'vS^ per, respectively. Again, in 
 Saxon there is no reflective pronoun corresponding with the 
 Latin se. In Icelandic we have sik, ser, sin, corresponding to 
 the Latin se, sihi, suus. Besides this, the word sin is declined, 
 so that like the Latin suus it becomes adjectival. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Sitt 
 
 Sinn 
 
 Sin. 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Sitt 
 
 Sinn 
 
 Sina. 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Sinu 
 
 Sinum 
 
 Sinni. 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Sins 
 
 Sins 
 
 Sinnar 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Sin 
 
 Si'nir 
 
 Sinar. 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Sin 
 
 Sina 
 
 Sinar. 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Sinum 
 
 Sinum 
 
 Sinum 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Sinna 
 
 Sinna 
 
 Sinna, 
 
 In Saxon there is of course no such an adjectival form. 
 There the Possessives of the Third Person correspond not 
 with the Latin suus, sua, suuni ; but with the Latin ejus and 
 eorum. The English words ^^s and her are genitive cases, not 
 adjectives. 
 
 Further remarks upon the presence of the Reflective Pro- 
 noun sik in Icelandic, and its absence in Saxon, will appear in 
 the sequel. 
 
 THE NUMERALS. 
 Saxon. Icelandic. 
 
 1. 'An .... Eitt, einn, ein. 
 
 2. Twa . . . Tvo, tvcir. 
 
 3. |5rc6 .... {rju, l^iir. 
 
 4. Feower .... Fjogur, fjorij-. 
 
 5. Fif .... Finim. 
 
 6. Six .... Sex. 
 
 7. Seofon .... Sjo. 
 
 8. Eahta .... 'Atta. 
 
 9. Nigon .... Niu. 
 10. Tyn .... Tiu. 
 
 Of the Icehiudic verbs the infinitives end in -a ; as kalla, 
 to call ; elska, to love ; whereas the Saxon termination is -an ; 
 as lufian, to love; loyrcan, to work.
 
 44' TIIK ICELANDIC. 
 
 § SS. Tho persons are as 
 
 toll 
 
 i>\vs : 
 
 :— 
 
 
 Sii.ruii. 
 
 
 
 IctlaiuHc, 
 
 /Vex. Sitt^. 
 
 1. Bivrnc 
 
 2. Bturnst 
 
 3. Ba>rn6 
 
 
 
 Brciiiii. 
 
 Bromiir. 
 
 Bicnnir 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. Ba-niiiS 
 
 2. BiDinaS 
 
 3. Brvnm« 
 
 
 
 lin-iuuiiii 
 BrciiuiS. 
 Bronna, 
 
 § 89. The cliaractori.stic, however, of the leehuulic (In- 
 deed, of all the Scandinavian languages) is the possession of a 
 passive form, or a passive voice, ending in -st : — Ek^ \u, hann 
 hrennist^ I, thou, he is burnt; Ver breimumst =^ We are burnt; 
 \er hrennizt = ye are burnt; \>eir brennast=-they are burnt. 
 Past tense, Ek, ]>u, hann brendist ; ver brendumst, ]>er hren- 
 duzt, ])cir brendust. Imperat. : brenstu = be thou burnt. In- 
 finit. : brennast=^lo be burnt. 
 
 In the modern Danish and Swedish, the passive is still 
 preserved, but without the final t. In tlie older stages of 
 Icelandic, on the other hand, the termination was not -st 
 but -sc ; which -sc grew out of the reflective pronoun sik. 
 With these phenomena the Scandinavian languages give us 
 the evolution and development of a passive voice ; whei'ein 
 we have the following series of changes : — 1st. the reflective 
 pronoun coalesces with the verb, whilst the sense changes 
 from that of a reflective to that of a middle verb ; 2nd. the 
 c changes to t, whilst the middle sense passes into a passive 
 one ; 3rd. t is dropped from the end of the word, and the ex- 
 pression that was once reflective then becomes strictly passive. 
 
 Now the Saxons have no passive voice at all. That 
 they should have one originating like that of the Scandina- 
 vians was impossible. Having no reflective pronoun, they 
 had nothing to evolve it from. 
 
 The Auxiliary Verb. 
 
 Suxon. Icelandic. 
 
 Indicative. Present. 
 Sing. 1. Eoiii(ir/w) P^m. 
 
 2. Eart. Eit. 
 
 3. Is. Er.
 
 THE ICELANDIC. 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 Saxon. 
 
 Icelandic . 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. 
 
 Syiul (Syiulon) 
 
 Erum. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Synd (Syndon) 
 
 Eru«, 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Synd (Syndon) 
 Indicative. Past. 
 
 Ern. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1. 
 
 Wfc's 
 
 Var. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Wse're 
 
 Vart. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Wse's 
 
 Var. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. 
 
 Wse'ron 
 
 Vornm. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Wse'ron 
 
 Voru. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Wte'ron 
 Subjunctive. Present. 
 
 Voru. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1. 
 
 Sy' 
 
 Se. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Sy' 
 
 Ser, 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Sy' 
 
 Se. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. 
 
 Sy'n 
 
 Seuni 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Sy'n 
 
 Seu5. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Sy'n 
 
 Subjunctive. Past. 
 
 Seu. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1. 
 
 Wse're 
 
 Vseri. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Wse're 
 
 Vserir. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Wse're 
 
 Vseri. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. 
 
 Wte'ron 
 
 Va3rum. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Wse'ron 
 
 Vseru. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Wpc'ron 
 
 Injinitive. 
 
 VieruS. 
 
 
 
 Wesan 
 
 Vera. 
 
 
 
 Participle. 
 
 
 
 
 Wcscnde 
 
 Verandi. 
 
 § 90. Recapitulating, we find that the characteristic dif- 
 ferences of the greatest importance between the Icelandic and 
 Saxon are three in number : — 
 
 1st. The peculiar nature of the definite article. 
 
 2nd. The neuter form of the adjectives in -t. 
 
 8rd. The existence of a passive voice in -sc, -st, or -s. 
 
 § 91. In the previous comparison the substantives were 
 divided as follows: — 1st. into those ending with a vowel; 
 2ndly, into those ending with a consonant. In respect to the 
 substantives ending with a vowel {edge., nama., tunge), it may 
 have been observed that their cases were in A, S. almost
 
 46 WKAK AND STKONO NOUNS. 
 
 oxclusivoly fornuHl in ~n, as tu'tpan, Umgan^ &c. ; vvliilst words 
 like slip and smv^ had, tliroiighout their wliole declension, no 
 case formed in -n; no case indeed wherein the sound of -n 
 entered. This enables us (at least with the A. S.) to make 
 a general assertion concerning- the substantives ending in a 
 voicel in contrast to those ending in a consonant^ viz. that 
 they take an inflection in -n. 
 
 In Icelandic this inflection in -n is concealed by the fact 
 of -an having been changed into -a. However, as this -a 
 roj)resents -an, and as fragments or rudiments of -w are found 
 in the genitive plurals of the neuter and feminine genders 
 {augna, tunc/na), we may make the same general assertion 
 in Icelandic that we make in A. S., viz. that substantives 
 ending in a vowel take an inflection in -n. 
 
 § 92. The points of likeness and difference between two 
 languages, belonging to different divisions of the same Ger- 
 manic branch, may be partially collected from the following 
 comparison between certain Maso-Gothic and certain Anglo- 
 Saxon inflections. 
 
 § 93. It must, however, be premised, that, although the 
 distinction between nouns taking an inflection in -n, and nouns 
 not so inflected, exists equally in the Mccso-Gothic and the 
 Icelandic, the form in which the difference shows itself is 
 different ; and along with the indication of this difference 
 may be introduced the important terms weak and strong, as 
 applied to the declension of nouns. 
 
 Weak nouns end in a vowel ; or, if in a consonant, in a 
 consonant that has become final from the loss of the vowel 
 that originally followed it. They also form a certain propor- 
 tion of their oblique cases in -w, or an equivalent to -n — 
 Nom. augo, gen. aug-in-s. 
 
 Strong nouns end in a consonant ; or, if in a vowel, in one 
 of the vowels allied to the semivowels y or w, and through 
 them to the consonants. They also form their oblique cases 
 by the addition of a simple inflection, without the insertion 
 of w. 
 
 Furthermore, be it observed that nouns in general are 
 weak and strong, in other words, that adjectives are weak or
 
 WEAK AND STRONG NOUNS. 47 
 
 strong^ as well as substautives. Between substantives and 
 adjectives, however, there is this diflference : — 
 
 1 . A substantive is either weak or strong, ^.g., it has one of 
 the two inflections, but not both. Aug6 = aneye, is weak 
 under all circumstances; waurd^=a word, is strong under all 
 circumstances. 
 
 2. An adjective is both weak and strong. The Anglo- 
 Saxon for good is sometimes god (strong), sometimes gode 
 (weak). Which of the two forms is used depends not on the 
 word itself, but on the state of its construction. 
 
 In this respect the following two rules are important : — 
 
 1. The definite sense is generally expressed by the weak 
 form, as se hlinde man^the blind man. 
 
 2. The indefinite sense is generally expressed by the strong 
 form, as sum blind man = a blind man. 
 
 Hence, as far as adjectives are concerned, the words definite 
 and indefinite coincide with the words weaJc and strong re- 
 spectively, except that the former are terms based on the 
 syntax, the latter terms based on the etymology of the 
 word to which they apply. 
 
 Declension of WeaJc Substantives in Mceso-Gothic. 
 
 
 Neu 
 
 ter. 
 
 
 
 Singulur. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 'Aiigo {un eye) 
 
 
 'Angona. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 'Augo 
 
 
 'Augona. 
 
 Dot. 
 
 'Augin 
 
 
 'Augani. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 'Augins 
 
 
 'Augone. 
 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 
 No7n. 
 
 Manna (a man) 
 
 
 Mannans. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Man nan 
 
 
 Mannans. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Mannin 
 
 
 Mannam. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Manning. 
 
 
 Mannane. 
 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 
 Num. 
 
 Tuggo {a tongue) 
 
 
 Tuggons, 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Tuggon 
 
 
 Tuggons. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Tuggon 
 
 
 Tuggoni. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Tuggons 
 
 
 Tuggono.
 
 IS 
 
 MCESO-OOTIllO l>ECLENSrON. 
 
 Di'chnsion of Strong Substantives in Moeso-Gotkic. 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Notii. 
 
 Vnurd {a word) 
 
 Vaurda. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Vaurd 
 
 Vaurda. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Vaurda 
 
 Vaurdam 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Vai'irdis 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Vai'irde. 
 
 Noin. 
 
 Fisks {a fish) 
 
 Fiskos. 
 
 Aec. 
 
 Fisk 
 
 Fi.skans. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Fiska 
 
 Fiskani. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Fiskis 
 
 Feminine, 
 
 Fiske. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Brujjs (rt bride) 
 
 Biujjcis. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Brujj 
 
 Brujjiiis. 
 
 Bat. 
 
 Brubai 
 
 Briijjim. 
 
 Cm. 
 
 BruJ?ais 
 
 Biujje. 
 
 These may be compared with the Saxon declensions ; viz. 
 augo with cage., manna \A'ith nama, tuggo with tunge., vaurd 
 with ledf.^ fisJcs with sm^S, and hru]>s with sprtcc. 
 
 Declension of Weak {or Definite) Adjectives in Moeso-Gothic. 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 • 
 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Blindo 
 
 Blinda 
 
 Blindo. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Blindo 
 
 Blindan 
 
 Blindon. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Blindin 
 
 Blindin 
 
 Blindon. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Blindins 
 
 Blindins 
 Plural. 
 
 Blindons. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Bliiidona 
 
 Blindans 
 
 Blindons. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Blindona 
 
 Blindans 
 
 Blindons. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Blindam 
 
 Blindam 
 
 Blindom. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Blindone 
 
 Blindane 
 
 Blindono. 
 
 * Compare with tlie Anglo-Saxon adjectives in § 20.
 
 MGESO-GOTHIC DECLENSION. 
 
 49 
 
 Declension of strong {or indefinite) adjectives in Moeso- Gothic.^ 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 No III. 
 
 Blindata 
 
 Blinds 
 
 Blinda. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Blindata 
 
 Blindana 
 
 Blinda. 
 
 Bat. 
 
 Blindamma 
 
 Blindamma 
 
 Blindai. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Blindis 
 
 Blindis 
 Plural. 
 
 Blindaizos 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Blinda 
 
 Blindai 
 
 Blindos. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Blinda 
 
 Blindans 
 
 Blindos. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Blindaiin 
 
 Blindaim 
 
 Blindaim. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Blindaize 
 
 Blindaize 
 
 Blindaizo. 
 
 Observe — In the neuter form blindata M. G. we have the 
 sound of t, as in Icelandic. This becomes ;:; (ts) in Old High 
 German, and s in modern German. 
 
 Tlie conjugation of the M. G. is as follows. From the 
 Anglo-Saxon it differs most in its plural persons. 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 M.G. 
 
 A.S. 
 
 
 M.G. A.S. 
 
 
 Present, 
 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1. S6k-ja 
 
 Lufie. 
 
 Smg 
 
 1. Sokjau -] 
 
 
 2. Sok-eis 
 
 Lufast. 
 
 
 2. Sokjais ^Lufige. 
 
 
 3. S6k-ei}j 
 
 LufaS. 
 
 
 3. Sokjai J 
 
 Plur 
 
 1. Sok-jam 
 
 LufiaS. 
 
 Plur 
 
 . 1. Sokjaima •, 
 
 
 2. S6k-ei> 
 
 LufiaS. 
 
 
 2. Sokjaijj iLution. 
 
 3. Sokjaina J 
 
 
 3. Sok-jand 
 
 Lufia^. 
 
 
 
 Prcet. 
 
 
 
 Prat. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1. Sokida 
 
 Lufode. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1. Sokidedjau ^ 
 
 
 2. Sokides 
 
 Lufodest. 
 
 
 2. Sokidedeis > Lufode. 
 
 
 3. Sokida 
 
 Lufode. 
 
 
 3. Sokidedi J 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. Sokidedum 
 
 Lufodon. 
 
 Plur 
 
 1. Sokidedeima- 
 
 
 2. Sokidedujj 
 
 Lufodon. 
 
 
 2. Sokidedei)? -Lufodon 
 
 
 3. Sbkidedun 
 
 Lufodon. 
 
 
 3. Sokidedeina ■ 
 
 The conjugation of the auxiliary verb in Maso-Gothic is as 
 follows. It may be compared with the A. S. § 89. 
 
 Compare with the Anglo-Saxon adjcctivof; in § 85.
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Prcs. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. Sijau 
 
 
 
 Sijaiina. 
 
 2. Sijais 
 
 
 
 Sijai}.. 
 
 8, Sijai 
 
 Prat. 
 
 
 Sijaina. 
 
 1. Vesjavi 
 
 
 
 Vcscinia 
 
 2. Vfeseis 
 
 
 
 Vosci).. 
 
 3. Vcsci 
 
 
 
 Vescina. 
 
 .W ()1,1) FRISIAN AND ANGLO-SAXON INFLECTIONS. 
 
 Indicative. Prcs. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 1. Im (i uiii) Sijuiii. 
 
 2. Is Sijuj,. 
 
 3. 1st Hind. 
 
 Prat. 
 
 1. Vas Vesuin. 
 
 2. Vast Vfisu)7. 
 
 3. Vas Vt'sun. 
 
 Inf. Visan and Sijan — (to be). 
 Part. A''!sands — (being). 
 
 ^ 94. The points of likeness or difference between two 
 languages, each of the Low Germanic division, may be par- 
 tially collected from the following comparison between certain 
 Old Frisian and certain Anglo-Saxons inflections. 
 
 In the comparison the first point to be noticed is the Tran- 
 sition of Letters. 
 
 d in Frisian corresponds to ed in A. S. ; as dad., rdd., Ids, 
 strain, hum, cap, are, hap, Frisian ; dead, redd., leas, 
 stream, beam, cedp, edre, heap, Saxon ; dead, red, loose, 
 stream, tree (boom), bargain (cheap, chapman), ear, heap, 
 English. 
 t Frisian corresponds to ^), the A. S. d ; as Eth, teken. Ml, 
 bred, Fris. ; d]^, tdcen, hdl, brad, Saxon ; oath, token, 
 hale, broad, English ; — ^), to A. S. ce ; her, dede, breda, 
 Frisian ; Fris. hatr, dad, brctdan, A. S. ; hair, deed, 
 roast, English. 
 e to ea and ce A. S. — Frisian thet, A. S. ])(Et, Engl. that. 
 Fris. gers, A. S. geers, Engl, grass. — Also to eo ; prestere, 
 Fr. ; preost A. S., priest Engl.; berch Fr., beorh A. S.; 
 hill {berg, as in iceberg^ Engl. ; tnelok Fr., meoloc A. S., 
 milk Engl. 
 i to eo A. S. — Fr. irihe, A. S. eoy^e ; Fris. hirte ; A. S. 
 heorte ; Vi'is.fir A. ^. feorzzm English earth, heart, far. 
 jd^^eo A. S. ; as bjada, beodan, bid — thet f jar de, feor^e, the 
 
 fourth — sjdk, sedc, sick, 
 ju—?/ or A. S. ; rjncht, ryth, right — frjund, freond, friend.
 
 OLD FRISIAN AND ANGLO-SAXON INFLECTIONS. 51 
 
 Dsz = A. S. eg ; Fr. sedza, Udzja ; A. S. secgan, licgan ; 
 Engl, to say, to lie. 
 
 Tz, ts, sz, sth = A.S. c or ce ; as szereke, or sthereJce, Frisian ; 
 cyrice A. S., charch Engl. ; czetel Fr., cytel A. S., 
 Jcettle English. 
 
 chFr. = k A. S., as thjach Fr., Ipeoh A. S., thigh Engl 
 — JercA, beorh, hill (berg) — dochter, dohtor, daugh- 
 ter, &c. 
 
 As a general statement we may say, that in the transition 
 of letters the Frisian corresponds with the A. S. more closely 
 than it does with any other language. It must, moreover, be 
 remarked, that, in such pairs of words as frjimd and freond, 
 the difference (as far at least as the e and j are concerned) is 
 a mere difference of orthography. Such also is probably the 
 case with the words ded and daed, and many others. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon inflection of ^) Substantives ending in a 
 vowel, ^) Substantives ending in a consonant, "") Adjectives 
 with an indefinite ^) Adjectives with a definite sense, ^) Verbs 
 Active ^ and verbs auxiliar, may be seen in the comparison 
 between the A. S. and the Icelandic. The corresponding in- 
 flections in Frisian are as follows : — • 
 
 Substantives ending in a vowel. 
 
 Neuter. Masculine. Feminine. 
 
 Sing. Noni. 'Arc {an ear) Ca.mi)a (a champion.) Tungc {a tongue). 
 
 Ace. 'Are Campa Tunga. 
 
 Dat. 'Ara Campa Tunga. 
 
 Gen. Ara Campa Tunga. 
 
 Plur. Nom. 'Ara Campa Tunga. 
 
 Ace. 'Ara Campa Ttmga. 
 
 Dat. 'Aron Campon Tungon. 
 
 Gen. 'Arona Campona Tungona 
 
 ib). 
 Substantives ending in a consonant. 
 
 Neuter. Feminine. 
 
 Sing. Nom. Skip (a ship) Homl (a hand). 
 
 Ace. Skip Ilond. 
 
 e2:
 
 52 
 
 OLD FIUSIAN AND ANGLO-SAXON INFLECTIONS. 
 
 Siii^. 
 
 Dut. 
 
 Skipe 
 
 
 r.a,. 
 
 Skipis 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom, 
 
 , Skijm 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Skipii 
 
 
 Dut. 
 
 Skipuii 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Skipa 
 
 Hond. 
 
 Hoiidc. 
 
 Honda. 
 
 Honda. 
 
 Honduni (-on). 
 
 Honda. 
 
 With respect to the mascuHnc substantives terminating in 
 a consonant, it must be observed that in A. S. there are two 
 moih's of doclonsion ; in one, the phiral ends in -s ; in the 
 other, in -a. The specimen in § 83 represents the first of 
 these modes only. From this the Frisian is essentially dif- 
 ferent. With the second it has a close alliance ; e.g. : — 
 
 Siixon. 
 
 Sing. Nam. Sunu (a son) 
 Aec. Snnu 
 Dat. Suna 
 Gen. Suna 
 
 Plnr. Norn. Suna 
 Ace. Suna 
 Dat. Sununi 
 Gen. Sunena 
 
 Fr-isian. 
 
 Sunu. 
 
 Sunn. 
 
 Suna. 
 
 Suna. 
 
 Suna. 
 
 Suna. 
 
 Sununi . 
 
 (Sunena). 
 
 (c). 
 
 Indefinite Declension of Adjectives. 
 
 
 
 Ncntei-. 
 
 Mil sen line. 
 
 Feminine, 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Noni. 
 
 God 
 
 God 
 
 Gdd. 
 
 
 Aec. 
 
 God 
 
 Gddene 
 
 Gode. 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Goda (-uni) 
 
 Goda (-urn). 
 
 Gddore. 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Gddes 
 
 Gddes 
 
 Godere. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Num. 
 
 Gdde 
 
 Gdde 
 
 Gdde. 
 
 
 Aec. 
 
 Gode 
 
 Gdde 
 
 Gdde. 
 
 
 Dut. 
 
 Godnni (-a) 
 
 Gdduni (-a) 
 
 Gdduin (-a), 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Godcra 
 
 Gddcia 
 
 (d). 
 
 Definite. 
 
 Godera. 
 
 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Fimininc. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 . Gdde 
 
 Goda 
 
 Gode. 
 
 
 Aec, 
 
 Gdde 
 
 Gdda 
 
 Gdda.
 
 OLD FRISIAN AND ANGLO-SAXON INFLECTIONS. 53 
 
 Shig. 
 
 Plur 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Goda 
 
 
 Gdda 
 
 
 Goda. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Gdda 
 
 
 Gdda 
 
 
 Gdda. 
 
 No7n. 
 
 Goda 
 
 
 Gdda 
 
 
 Gdda. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Goda 
 
 
 Gdda 
 
 
 Gdda. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Gdda (- 
 
 ■on) 
 
 G6da (- 
 
 on) 
 
 Gdda (-on). 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Gdda (- 
 
 ona) 
 
 Goda (- 
 
 ■ona) 
 
 Goda (-ona), 
 
 (e). 
 The Persons of the Present Tense. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Berne 
 Bern St 
 Bernth 
 Bernath 
 
 2. Bernath 
 
 3. Bernath 
 
 I burn. 
 Thou burnest. 
 He burns. 
 We burn. 
 Ye burn. 
 They burn. 
 
 In the inflection of the verbs there is between the Frisian 
 and A. S. this important difference. In A. S. the infinite 
 ends in -an macian, to make, laran, to learn, barnan, 
 to burn ; whilst in Frisian it ends in -a, as maka, lera, 
 herna. 
 
 if)- 
 The Auxiliar Verb Wesa, To Be. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1. Ik ben 
 
 2. ? 
 
 
 
 1. Ik . 
 
 2. Thii Was. 
 
 3. Hi i 
 
 
 
 3. Hi is 
 
 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 I. Wi 1 
 
 -2. I I Send 
 
 3. Hja J 
 
 
 
 1. VVi . 
 
 2. I [Weron. 
 
 3. Hja i 
 
 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 
 Past. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1. 2. 3. Se 
 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 3. We're, 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. 2. 3. So 
 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 3. We're. 
 
 Jnjin. 
 
 Wesa. 
 
 Pr. Part, 
 
 Wesandc. 
 
 
 Past Part. E-wcsen 
 
 The Frisian numerals (to be compared with those of the 
 Anglo-Saxons, p. 43), arc as follows : — JE'n., twd, thrju,
 
 rvt OLD I'MirSIAN AND ANGLO-SAXON INFLECTIONS. 
 
 fjuwe)\ fif^ sex, sjnpun, ackta, njugun, tian, &c. Of 
 these the first three take an inflection, e.g., En., like Gode and 
 the adjectives, has both a definite and an indefinite form, en, 
 and thct ene ; whilst twa and th)y'it run as follows : — Norn, 
 ixnd Ace. i\^^^. twa ; 3Iasc. twcne; Fern, twa; Dat. iwam; 
 Gen. twira. — Koni. and Ace. Neut. thrju ; Mase. thre ; Fem. 
 thrja ; Dat. thrini ; Gen. thrira. 
 
 In respect to the Pronouns, there is in the Old Frisian 
 of Friesland no dual number, as there is in Anglo-Saxon. 
 On the other hand, however, the Frisians (whilst they have 
 no such form as his) possess, like the Icelandic, the inflected 
 adjectival pronoun sin, corresponding to the Latin suus : 
 whilst, like the Anglo-Saxons, and unlike the Icelanders, 
 they have nothing to correspond with the Latin se. 
 
 § 9o. In Frisian there is between the demonstrative pro- 
 noun used as an article, and the same word used as a de- 
 monstrative in the limited sense of the term, the following 
 difference of declension : — 
 
 THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Neuter. Masculine. Feminine. 
 
 Sing. Norn. Thet Thi Tliju. 
 
 Jcc. Thct Tlicne Tha. 
 
 Dat. Tha There. 
 
 Gen. Thes Tlicrc. 
 
 Plur.Nom. Tha. 
 
 Ace. Tha. 
 
 Dat. Tha. 
 
 Gen. Thera. 
 
 PRONOUN. 
 The Demonstrative in the limited sense of the tcord. 
 
 Neuter. Masculine. Feminine. 
 
 Sing. Norn. Thct Thi Se. 
 
 Ace. Thct Thcnc Se. 
 
 Dat. Tham There. 
 
 Gen. Thes There.
 
 OLD FRISIAN AND ANGLO-SAXON INFLECTIONS. 55 
 
 Flur. Norn. Se. 
 
 Ace. Se. 
 
 Dat. Tham. 
 
 Gen. Thera. 
 
 The Saxons draw no such a distinction. With them the 
 article and demonstrative is declined as follows : — 
 
 Suig. 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 Jjset 
 
 
 Sc 
 
 Seo. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Jjset 
 
 
 jjone 
 
 }pk 
 
 But. 
 
 
 jjam 
 
 
 {jffi'ie. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 J^Ees 
 
 
 Jjaj'ic. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 
 |.a 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 
 \,k. 
 
 
 But. 
 
 
 
 I^am. 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 
 Jjara. 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 § dQ. Specimen of Glossarial affinity. — Taken from Rask's 
 Preface to his Parisian Grammar : — 
 
 Frisian. 
 
 Anglo Sa.wn. 
 
 English. 
 
 'Age 
 
 Eagc 
 
 Et/e. 
 
 Ha veil 
 
 Hcafod 
 
 Head. 
 
 Kind 
 
 Cild 
 
 Child. 
 
 Erva 
 
 Enibva 
 
 Heir. 
 
 Diocliten 
 
 Diihtcn 
 
 Lord. 
 
 Naclit 
 
 Niht 
 
 Night. 
 
 Red 
 
 Rte'd 
 
 Council (Rede). 
 
 Dede 
 
 Drc'd 
 
 Deed. 
 
 Nose 
 
 Nasii 
 
 Nose. 
 
 'Ein 
 
 'Agen 
 
 Own. 
 
 Kai)ie 
 
 Ceapige 
 
 I buy {Chapman), 
 
 Dua 
 
 Don 
 
 To do. 
 
 Sla 
 
 Sloan 
 
 Slay. 
 
 Gunga 
 
 Gangan 
 
 Go {Gang). 
 
 § 97. In this Chapter there has hecn, thus far, an attcmi)t 
 to do two things at once. Firstly, to exhibit the general 
 likeness between stocks, branches, &c. ; and secondly, to show 
 the special affinities between certain languages allied to our
 
 56 MEANING OF WORDS, 
 
 own, niul of ilio Cotliic Stock. What follows, consists of 
 certain observations npon two or three points of nomencla- 
 ture. 
 
 § 98. German. — The points to remember concerning this 
 term are — 
 
 1. That it is no national name, but a name given by the 
 Latins to the natives of the country called Gcrmania. The 
 word German is foreign to all the Gothic languages. 
 
 2. That it was first applied to proper Germanic tribes in 
 the time of Julius Crosar, and that it served to distinguish 
 the Gothic Germans from the Celtic Gauls. 
 
 3. That, anterior to the time of Csesar, there is no proof 
 of it being applied as a distinctive designation to any of the 
 tribes to whom it was afterwards limited. The first tribe to 
 whom it was applied, was (in the opinion of the present 
 writer) a Gallic tribe. 
 
 4. That since the time of Julius Csesar, its application has 
 been constant, i.e.., it has always meant Gothic tribes, or 
 Gothic languages. 
 
 5. That sometimes it has been general to the whole nation 
 — Unde Jit ut tanta populorum mulfitudines arctoo sub axe 
 orianttir, ut non immerito universa ilia regio Tanai tenus usque 
 ad occiduum, licet et propriis loca ea singula nuncupentur no- 
 minibus., generali tamen vocabulo Germania vocitetur. . . Gothi, 
 siquidem, Vandalique, Bugi, Heridi, atque Turcilingi, necnon 
 etiam alite feroces ac barhara naiiones e Germania prodierunt. 
 — Paulus Diaconus. 
 
 6. That sometimes it has been peculiar and distinctive to 
 certain ])rominent portions of the nation — equi frcenis Germa- 
 nicis, sellis ^^xomch falerati. 
 
 7. That the general power of the word has been, with 
 few exceptions, limited to the Germans of Germany. We 
 do not find either English or Scandinavian writers calling their 
 countrymen Germani. 
 
 8. That the two German tribes most generally meant, 
 when the word German is used in a limited sense, are the 
 Franks and the Alemanni. 
 
 9. That by a similar latitude the words Francic and
 
 GERMAN AND DUTCH. 57 
 
 Alemannic have been occasionally used as synonymous with 
 Germanic. 
 
 10. That the origin of the word Germani, in the Latin 
 language, is a point upon which there are two hypotheses. 
 
 a. That it is connected with the Latin word Germani =: 
 brothers, meaning either tribes akin to one another, or tribes 
 in a degree of brotherly/ alliance with Rome. 
 
 b. That it grew out of some such German word as Her- 
 man, Irmin, Wehrmann, or the Herm- in Hermunduri, 
 Hermiones, &e. 
 
 Neither of these views satisfies the present writer. 
 
 For all the facts concerning the word Germani, see the 
 Introduction to the third edition of the Deutsche Grammar. 
 
 § 99. Dutch. — For the purposes of Philology the meaning 
 given to this word is inconvenient. In England, it means the 
 language of the people of Holland. 
 
 In Germany, Holland, and Scandinavia, it means the lan- 
 guage of the people of Germany in general ; and this general 
 power of the word is retained even with us in the expression 
 High-Dutch, and Low-Dutch. In the present work the term 
 is avoided as much as possible. Nevertheless, wherever it 
 occurs it means the Dutch of Holland. 
 
 The origin of the word has been a subject of much inves- 
 tigation ; the question, however, may be considered to be 
 settled by the remarks of Grimm, D. G. — Introduction to the 
 third edition. 
 
 1. It was originally no national name at all. 
 
 2. In the earliest passage where it occurs, the derivative 
 form \>iudisM corresponds with the Greek word lOvizSJg — 
 The M(£So-Gothic Translation of the New Testament — Gala- 
 iians, ii. 14. 
 
 8. The derivation of the word from the substantive piudu 
 = a people, a nation, is undoubted. 
 
 4. So also is the derivation of the modern word Dutch, in 
 all its varied forms : — Old High-Gernuui, Diutisc ; Anglo- 
 Saxon, peodisc ; Latin, Theodlsca, Thendisca, Teutisca ; 
 Italian, Tedesco ; Danish, T^ske ; English, Dutch ; the latter 
 part of the word being the adjectival ending -isc=ish.
 
 ''^S MEANING OF WORDS, 
 
 5. The oriirinal iiii>:iiiiiiiif being q/", or helmping to, the people, or 
 of, or heJonninn to, the nation, socoiulary nioaiiiiigs grew out of it. 
 
 (). Of those the most remarkable ar^ a) the power given to 
 the word in Ulphilas [heathen), ilkistrated by the similarly 
 secondary ])owcr of the Greek 'iOviKog; b) the meaning verna- 
 cular, provincial or vulfjar given to it as applied to language. 
 
 7. This latter power was probably given to it about the 
 ninth century. 
 
 8. That it was not given much before, is inferred from ne- 
 gative evidence. The word theotisca is not found in the Latin 
 writers of the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, although 
 there are plenty of passages where it might well have been 
 used had it existed. The terms really used are either joa^nMS 
 sermo, sermo harharicus, sermo vulgaricus, lingua rustica ; or 
 else the names of particular tribes, as lingua Anglorum, Ala- 
 mannorum. 
 
 9. That it was current in the ninth century is evident from 
 a variety of quotations : — Ut quilihet ejyiscojyus homilias aperte 
 transferre studeat in rusticatn Romanam linguam, aut beotis- 
 cam, (fio tandem cuncti possint intelligere qua dicantur. — Syno- 
 dus Turonensis. Quod in lingua Thiudisca scaftlegi, id est 
 armorum depositio, vocatur. — Capit. Wormatiense. De col- 
 lectis quas Theudisca lingua heriszuph appellat. — Conventus 
 Silvacensis. Si barbara, quam Teutiscam dicunt, lingua loque- 
 retur. — Vita Adalhardi, &c. — D.G., i. p. 14, Introduction. 
 
 10. That its present national sense is wholly secondary and 
 derivative, and that originally it was no more the name of a 
 people or a language than the word vulgate in the expression 
 the vulgate translation of the Scriptures is the name of a people 
 or a language, 
 
 § 100. Teutonic. — About the tenth century the Latin writers 
 upon German affairs began to use not only the words Theotis- 
 cus and Theotisce, but also the words Teutonicus and Teutonice. 
 Upon this, Grimm remarks that the latter term sounded more 
 learned ; since Teutonicus was a classical word, an adjective 
 derived from the Gentile name of the Teutones conquered by 
 Marius. Be it so. It then follows that the connexion be- 
 tween Teutonicus and Theotiscus is a mere accident, the origin
 
 TEUTONIC, ANGLO-SAXON, AND OLD NORSE. 59 
 
 of the two words being different. The worthlessness of all 
 evidence concerning the Germanic origin of the Teutonic tribes 
 conquered by Marius, based upon the connexion between the 
 word Teuton and Dutch, has been pointed out by the present 
 writer in the 17th number of the Philological Transactions, 
 All that is proved is this, viz.^ that out of the confusion be- 
 tween the two words arose a confusion between the two na- 
 tions. These last may or may not have been of the same race. 
 
 § 101. Anglo-Saxon. — In the ninth century the language of 
 England was Angle, or English. The lingua Anglorum of 
 Bede is translated by Alfred on englisce. The term Saxon was 
 in use also at an early (perhaps an equally early) date — -fiires 
 quos Saxonice dicimus mrgeld j^eovas. The compound term 
 Anglo-Saxon is later. — Grimm, Introduction to the third edition 
 o/D.G., p. 2. 
 
 § ]02. Icelandic, Old Norse. — Although Icelandic is the 
 usual name for the mother-tongue of the Danish, Swedish, and 
 Norwegian, the Norwegian philologists generally prefer the 
 term Old Norse. 
 
 In favour of this view is the fact that Norway was the 
 mother-country, Iceland the colony, and that much of what is 
 called Old Icelandic was composed in Norway. 
 
 Still the reason is insufficient ; since the present term Ice- 
 landic is given to the language not because Iceland teas the 
 country thai produced, but because it «s the country that has 
 preserved it. 
 
 This leads to the argument in its most general form — 
 should a language be named from the colony, or from the 
 mother-country? The Norwegians say from the mother- 
 country. Let us consider this- 
 
 Suppose that whilst the Latin of Virgil and Cicero in 
 Italy had been changing into the modern Italian, in some old 
 Roman colony (say Sardinia) it had remained either wholly 
 
 * The syllables vulg-, and Belg-, are quite as much alike as Teuton-, and 
 Deut-sch ; yet how unreasonable it would be for an Englishman to argue tliat 
 he was a descendant of the Belgee because he spoke the Vulgar Tongue. 
 Mutatis mulundh, however, this is the exaet argument of nine out of ten of 
 the Germau writers.
 
 (^0 OLD NORSE. 
 
 iinaltcrcil, or else, altered so little as for the modern Sardi- 
 vi<t)i — provided lie could rend at all — to be able to read the 
 authors of the Augustan age, just like those of the era of 
 Charles Albert ; no other portion of the old Roman territory 
 — not even Rome itself — having any tongue more like to that of 
 the Classical writers, than the most antiquated dialect of the 
 present Italian. Suppose, too, that the term Latin had become 
 obsolete, would it be imperative upon us to call the language 
 of the Classics Ohl Italian, Old Roman, or at least Old Latin, 
 when no modern native of Rome, Latium, or Italy could read 
 them ? Would it be wrong to call it Sardinian when every 
 Sarde could read them ? I think not. Mutatis mutandis, 
 this is the case with Iceland and Norway.
 
 GERMANIC ELEMENTS. 61 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE GERMANIC ELEMENTS. 
 
 § 103. The population and, to a certain extent, the lan- 
 guage of England, have been formed of three elements, which 
 in the most general way may be expressed as follows : — 
 
 a. Elements referable to the original British population, 
 and derived from times anterior to the Anglo-Saxon invasion. 
 
 h. Anglo-Saxon, Germanic, or imported elements. 
 
 c. Elements introduced since the Auglo-Saxon conquest. 
 
 § 104. Each of these requires a special analysis, but that 
 of the second will be taken first, and will form the contents 
 of the present chapter. 
 
 All that we have at present learned concerning the Ger- 
 manic invaders of England, is the geographical area which 
 they wholly or partially occupied, and the tribes and nations 
 with which they were conterminous whilst in Germany. 
 How far, however, it was simple Saxons who conquered 
 England single-handed, or how far the particular Saxon 
 Germans were portions of a complex population, requires 
 further investigation. Were the Saxons one division of the 
 German population, whilst the Angles were another ? or were 
 the Angles a section of the Saxons, so that the latter was 
 a generic term, including the former ? Again, although the 
 Saxon invasion may be the one which has had the greatest 
 influence, and drawn the most attention, why may there not 
 have been separate and independent migrations, the eftects 
 and record of which, have in the lapse of time, become fused 
 with those of the more important divisions ? 
 
 Questions like tliese require notice, and in a more ad- 
 vanced state of what may be called minute ethnographical
 
 62 QERMANIO ELEMENTS 
 
 j>hilolony will obtain more of it than has hitherto been their 
 share. xVt present our facts are few, and our methods of 
 investigation imperfect. 
 
 § 10.^). In respect to this last, it is necessary to distinguish 
 between the opinions based on external, and the opinions based 
 on Infernal evidence. To the former class belong the testi- 
 monies of cotemporary records, or (wanting these) of records 
 based upon transmitted, but cotemporary, evidence. To the 
 latter belong the inferences drawn from similarity of language, 
 name, and other ethnological data. Of such, a portion only 
 will be considered in the present chapter ; not that they have 
 no proper place in it, but because the minuter investigation of 
 an important section of these {i.e., the subject of the English 
 dialects) will be treated as a separate subject elsewhere. 
 
 § 106. The Angles; who loere they, and what was their relation 
 to the Saxons ? — The first answer to this question embodies 
 a great fact in the way of internal evidence, viz., that they 
 were the people from \\hom England derives the name it 
 bears = ^/ie Angle-land, i.e., land of the Angles. Our language 
 too is English, i.e., Angle. Whatever, then, they may have 
 been on the Continent, they were a leading section of the 
 invaders here. Why then has their position in our inquiries 
 been hitherto so subordinate to that of the Saxons ? It is 
 because their definitude and preponderance are not so manifest 
 in Germany as we infer (from the terms England and English) 
 it to have been in Britain. Nay more, their historical place 
 amongst the nations of Germany, and within the German area, 
 is both insignificant and doubtful ; indeed, it will be seen from 
 the sequel, that in and of themselves we know next to nothing 
 about them, knowing them only in their relations, i.e., to 
 ourselves and to the Saxons. The following, however, are 
 the chief facts that form the foundation for our inferences. 
 
 § 107. Although they are the section of the immigration 
 which gave the name to England, and as such, the preponde- 
 rating element in the eyes of the present English, they were not 
 so in the eyes of the original British; who neither knew at 
 the time of the Conquest, nor know now, of any other name 
 for their German enemies but Saxon. And Saxon is the
 
 OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 63 
 
 name by which the present English are known to the Welsh, 
 Armorican, and Gaelic Celts. 
 
 Welsh Saxon. 
 
 Armorican Soson. 
 
 Gaelic Sassenach. 
 
 § 108. Although they are the section of the immigration 
 which gave the name to England, &c., they were quite as 
 little Angles as Saxons, in the eyes of foreign cotemporary 
 writers ; since the expression Saxonia trans-marince, occurs 
 as applied to England. 
 
 § 109. Although they are the section of the immigration 
 which gave the name to England, kc, the material notice 
 of them as Germans of Germany, are limited to the following- 
 facts. 
 
 Extract from Tacitus. — This merely connects them with 
 certain other tribes, and affirms the existence of certain re- 
 ligious ordinances common to them — 
 
 " Contra Langobardos paucitas nobilitat: plurimis ac valen- 
 tissimis nationibus cincti, non per obsequium, sed proeliis et 
 periclitando tuti sunt. Reudigni deinde, et Aviones, et 
 Angli, et Varini, et Eudoses, et Suardones, et Nuithones, 
 fluminibus aut silvis muniuntur : nee quidquam notabile in 
 singulis, nisi quod in commune Herthum, id est, Terram 
 matrem colunt, eamque intervenire rebus honiinum, invehi 
 populis, arbitrantur. Est in insula Oceani castum nemus, 
 dicatumque in eo vehiculum, veste contectum, attingere uni sa- 
 cerdoti concessum. Is adesse penetrali deam intelligit, vectam- 
 que bobus feminis multa cum veneratione prosequitur. La!ti 
 tunc dies, festa loca, quacumque adventu hospitioque digna- 
 tur. Non bella ineunt, non arma sumunt, clausum omne 
 ferrum ; pax et quies tunc tantiim nota, tunc tantiim amata, 
 donee idem sacerdos satiatam conversatione mortalium deam 
 templo reddat : mox vehiculum et vestes, et, si credere velis, 
 numen ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant, quos 
 statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc terror, sanctaque 
 ignorantia, quid sit id, quod tantiim perituri vident."'^^" 
 
 Extract from Ptolemy. — This connects the Angles with 
 
 * Tacitus, Dc Mor. Germ. 40.
 
 <)1 GERMANIC ELEMENTS 
 
 the Survi, aiul Lanoobardi, and places them on the Middle 
 Elbe. 
 
 Evror Kut iJAdoyiicov \Ovciuv ijAyiGTOt [Mv Ian ro,ri raiv ^ovtj- 
 
 avuTiivovTig t^oc rag u^KTOug [JjiXji' "^^^ (jAaciji' rou ''A'KJiiog 
 •zoraf/jou. 
 
 Extract from Procuplus. — For this see § 129. 
 
 Headinn of a law referred to the age of Charlemagne. — 
 This connects them with the Werini (Varni), and the Thn- 
 ringians — " Incipit lex Angliorum et Verinorum ( Varni) ; hoc 
 est Thuringonim''' — Zeuss, 495, and Grimm. G.D.S. 
 
 § 110. These notices agree in giving the Angles a German 
 locality, and in connecting them ethnologically, and philologi- 
 cally with the Germans of Germany. The notices that follow, 
 traverse this view of the question, by indicating a slightly 
 different area, and Danish rather than German affinities. 
 
 Extracts connecting them with the inhabitants of the Cimbric 
 Peninsula. — a. The quotation from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 
 of § 16. 
 
 b. From Bede ; " Porro de Anglis, hoc est ilia patria, quaj 
 Anguliis dicitur, et ab eo tempore usque hodie, manere deser- 
 tus inter provincias Jutarum et Saxonum perhibetur." — Angl. 
 i. 15. 
 
 c. From Alfred, " And be wsestan eald Seaxum is Albe 
 mu^a jjffire ea and Frisland. And |panon west norS is Jjset 
 land, the man Angle, haet and Sillende, and summe dsel 
 Dena."*— Oros. p. 20. 
 
 Also, speaking of Other's* voyage, f " He seglode to ]?eem 
 porte jje man hat Hae))um ; se stent betwuhs Winedum 
 and Seaxum, and Angle, and hyr^ in on Dene . . and J^a 
 
 * And on the west of tlie Old Saxons is tlie mouth of the river Elbe and 
 Friosland ; and then north-west is the land which is called Angle and Sea- 
 land, and some part of the Danes. 
 
 t He sailed to the harbour which is called HseSum, which stands betwixt 
 the Wends (t. e. the Wagrian Slaves, for which see § 42) and Saxons, and 
 Angle, and belongs to Denmark... and two days before he came to Hse^Jum, 
 there was on his starboard Gothland, and Scaland, and many islands. On 
 that land lived Angles, before they hither to the land came.
 
 THE ANGLES. (>5 
 
 twegen dagas rer he to Hasdhum como, him waes on ])?et steor- 
 bord Gothland and Sillende and iglanda fela. On J^seni lan- 
 duni eardodon Engle, aer hi hi^er on land comon.""* — Oros- 
 p. 23. 
 
 d. From Etherwerd, writing in the eleventh century — 
 " Anglia vetus sita est inter Saxones et Giotos, habens oppi- 
 dum capitale, quod sermone Saxonico Slesioic nuncupatur, 
 secundum vero Danos Ifaihabi/.'"* 
 
 § 111. The district called Angle. — The district of Anglen, 
 so called (where it is mentioned at all) at the present moment, 
 is a part of the Dutchy of Sleswick, which is Hterally an 
 Angle; i.e., a triangle of irregular shape, formed by the Schlie, 
 the Flensborger Fiord, and a line drawn from Flensborg to 
 Sleswick ; every geographical name in it being, at present, 
 Danish, whatever it may have been previously. Thus some 
 villages end in b^e (Danish = town) as Hus-bT/e, Herreds-b^e, 
 Ulse-Jyg, &c. ; some in gaard 1^= house), as Oegaard ; whilst 
 the other Danish forms are slcov = ^vood (shmo), ho/ved = 
 head, land = grove, &c. In short it has nothing to distinguish 
 it from the other parts of the peninsula. 
 
 ^112. Add to these the Danish expression, that Dan and 
 Angul were brothers, as the exponent of a recognised rela- 
 tionship between the two populations, and we have a view of 
 the evidence in favour of the Danish affinity. 
 
 $ 113. Inferences and remarks. — a. That whilst the root 
 Angl- in Tacitus, Ptolemy, Procopius, and the Leges Anglo- 
 rum, &c., is the name of a people, the root Angl- in the Anglen 
 of Sleswick, is the name of a district ; a fact which is further 
 confirmed by the circumstance of there being in at least one 
 other part of Scandinavia, a district with a similar name — 
 " Hann atti bu a Halogolandi i Aungli.''''* — Heimskringla, iii. 
 454. 
 
 b. That the derivation of the Angles of England from the 
 Anglen of Sleswick is an inference of the same kind with the 
 one respecting the Jutes (see § 20), made by the same writers, 
 probably on the same principle, and most likely incorrectly. 
 
 c. That the Angles of England were the Angli of Tacitus, 
 
 * Zeus, in voc. 
 
 F
 
 <i<i TlIK AN(JLKS. 
 
 riDli'iiiy, l'roc()|)ins, nnd (lio liCtjcs Angloriini ot Worinonim, 
 wliatrvtT (Ih'so were. 
 
 § 111. Wluit were the Langobardi, with whom the Angles 
 were connected by Tacitus ? The most important facts to 
 he known concerning tliem are, (1) that the general opinion 
 is in favour of their having belonged to the ////7/i- German, or 
 Moeso-Crothic division, rather than to the Loio ; (2) that 
 their original locality either reached or lay beyond the Elbe ; 
 a locality, mIucIi, in the tenth century, was Slavonic, and 
 which, in the opinion of the present writer, we have no 
 reason to consider to have been other than Slavonic during" 
 the nine preceding ones. — That they were partially, at least, 
 on this side of the Elbe, we learn from the following : — 
 " Receptre Cauchorum nationes, fracti Langobardi, gens 
 etiam Germanis feritate ferocior ; denique usque ad flumen 
 Albim...llomanus cum signis perductus exercitus.""* — Vel- 
 leius Paterc. ii. 106. 
 
 § 115. ^Vhat were the Suevl, with whom the Angles were 
 connected by Tacitus ? The most important facts to be known 
 concerning them are, (1) that the general opinion is in favour 
 of their having belonged to the ///^/i-German or Mosso-Gothic, 
 division, rather than to the Loio ; (2) that their original 
 locality either reached or lay beyond the Elbe ; a locality, 
 which, in the tenth century, was Slavonic, and which, in the 
 opinion of the present writer, we have no reason to consider 
 to have been other than Slavonic during the nine preceding 
 ones. In other words, what applies to the Langobardi applies 
 to the Suevi also. 
 
 What the Suevi were, the Semnones were also, " Vetustis- 
 simos se nobilissimosque Suevorum Semnones memorant." 
 Tac. Germ., 39. Speaking, too, of their great extension, 
 he says, centu77i pagi ah Us Jiabitantur* 
 
 Velleius states that there were Suevi on the west of the 
 Middle Elbe, Ptolemy, that there were Suevi to the east of it, 
 i.e., as far as the River Suebus (Oder?). — Ka/ roraJv ^ov'/jfooov 
 rm 1,i[Moi>6ov, oiriveg or/jzovai [mto. toi/ 'AAj8/i' octto rov 
 
 \ 
 
 * Zeus, in voc. 
 
 I
 
 TRIBES ALLIED TO THE ANGLES. 07 
 
 ilorif/jivov (M^ovg (the middle Elbe) -r^o^ Kvaro'kccg (^^X§^ ''"^ 
 
 1oVf;(3oU TTOTCif/jOV* 
 
 In the letter of Theodeberht to the Emperor Justinian, 
 we find the iVor^A-Suevians mentioned along with the Thu- 
 ringians, as having been conquered by the Franks ; " Subactis 
 Thuringis . . . Norsavorum gentis nobis placata majestas colla 
 subdidit.""^" 
 
 § 116. What were the Werini, with whom the Angles 
 were connected in the Leges Anglorum et Werinorum ? 
 Without having any particular data for connecting the 
 Werini (Varni, Ovd§voi) with either the High-German, or 
 the Moeso-Gothic divisions, there are in favour of their being 
 Slavonic in locality, the same facts as applied to the Suevi 
 and Langobardi, with the additional one, that the name 
 probably exists at present in the River Warnow, of Mecklen- 
 burg Schwerin, at the mouth of which (Warnemunde) the 
 town of Rostock stands. 
 
 § 117. What were the T/mringians, with whom the Angles 
 are connected in the Leges Anglorum, &c. ; Germanic in 
 locality, and most probably allied to the Goths of Moesia in 
 language. 
 
 § 118. Of the Reudigni, Eudoses, Nuithones, Suardones, 
 and Aviones, too little is known in detail to make the details 
 an inquiry of importance. Respecting them all, it may be 
 said at once, that whatever may be the Germanic affinities 
 involved in their connection with the Suevi, Langobardi, 
 Angli, &c., they are traversed by the fact of their locality 
 being in the tenth century Slavonic. 
 
 § 119. The last tribe which will be mentioned, is that of 
 the Angrarii, most probably another form of the Angrivarii 
 of Tacitus, the name of the occu])ants of the valley of the 
 Aller, the northern confluent of the Weser. 
 
 As this word is compound {-varii = ware =^ inhabitants), 
 the root remains Angr-, a word which only requires the r to 
 become I in order to make Angl-. As both the locality and 
 the relation to the Saxons, make the Angrivarian locality 
 one of the best we could assume for the Angles, the only diffi- 
 
 *■ Zeus, ill voc. 
 
 V -1
 
 ns THE ANGLER. 
 
 cnlty lies in (lie cliango from r (<> L Unfortunately, this, in 
 the Snxon-tJernian, is an unlikely one. 
 
 § \'20. The lust fact connected with the Angles, will be 
 found in a more expanded form in the Chapter on the Dia- 
 lects of the English Lan<jfua<j:e. It relates to the distribution 
 over the conquered parts of IJritain. Their chief area was the 
 Midland and Eastern counties, Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge- 
 shire, Huntingdonshire, Leicestershire, &c., rather than the 
 parts south of the Thames, which were Saxon, and those north 
 of the Wash, where Danish influences have been considerable. 
 
 § 121. The reader has now got a general view of the ex- 
 tent to which the position of the Angles, as a German tribe, 
 is complicated by conflicting statements ; statements which 
 connect them Avith (probably) Hicjh-Gennau Tlniringians, 
 Suevi, and Langobardi, and with (probably) Slavonic Varni, 
 Eudoses, Suardones, &c. ; whereas in England, they are 
 scarcely distinguishable from the Xo2^;-Grerman Saxons. In 
 the present state of our knowledge, the only safe fact seems 
 to be, that of the common relation of both Angle and Saxon, 
 to the present English of England, 
 
 This brings the two sections within a very close degree of 
 affinity, and makes it probable, that just, as at present, de- 
 scendants of the Saxons are English {Angle) in Britain, so^ 
 in the third and fourth centuries, ancestors of the Angles 
 were Saxons in Germany. Why, however, the one name 
 preponderated on the Continent, and the other in England 
 is difficult to ascertain. 
 
 § 122. By considering the Angles as Saxons under another 
 name (or vice versa), and by treating the statement as to 
 the existence of Jutes in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight 
 as wholly unhistorical, we get, as a general expression for 
 the Anglo-Germanic immigration, that it consisted of the 
 closely allied tribes of the North-Saxon area, an expression 
 that implies a general uniformity of population. Is there 
 reason to think that the uniformity was absolute ? 
 
 § 123. The following series of facts, when put together, 
 will prepare us for a fresh train of reasoning concerning the 
 different geographical and ethnological relations of the immi-
 
 PATRONYMIC FORMS. 69 
 
 grants into England, during their previous habitation in 
 Germany. 
 
 1. The termination -as is, like the -s in the modern English, 
 the sign of the plural number in Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 2. The termination -ing denotes, in the first instance, a 
 certain number of individuals collected together, and united 
 with each other as a clan, tribe, family, household. 
 
 3. In doing this, it generally indicates a relationship of 
 a, personal ox political character. Thus two Baninpas might be 
 connected with each other, and (as such) indicated by the same 
 term from any of the following causes — relationship, subordi- 
 
 \ nation to the same chief, origin from the same locality, &c. 
 
 4. Of these j^^^sonal connections, the one which is con- 
 sidered to be the commonest is that of descent from a com- 
 mon ancestor, so that the termination -ing in this case, is a 
 
 ! real patronymic. 
 
 5. Such an ancestor need not be real ; indeed, he rarely 
 if ever is so. Like the eponymus of the classical writers, he 
 is the hypothetical, or mythological, progenitor of the clan, 
 sept, or tribe, as the case may be ; i.e., as iEolus, Dorus, and 
 Ion to the ^olians, Dorians, and lonians. 
 
 Now, by admitting these facts without limitation, and by 
 applying them freely and boldly to the Germanic population 
 of England, we arrive at the following inferences. 
 
 1. That where we meet two (or more) households, families, 
 tribes, clans, or septs of the same name (that name ending 
 in -ing), in different parts of England, we may connect them 
 with each other, either directly or indirectly ; directly when 
 we look on the second as an offset from the first ; indirectly, 
 
 jwhen we derive both from some third source. 
 
 2. That when we find families, tribes, &c., of the same 
 name, both in Britain and in Germany, we may derive the 
 English ones from the continental. 
 
 Now neither of these views is hypothetical. On the 
 contrary each is a real fact. Thus in respect to divisions of 
 the population, designated by names ending in -hif), wo have 
 
 1. In Essex, Somerset, and Sussex, — yEstincfas. 
 
 2. In Kent, Dorset, Devonshire, and Lincoln, — Alingas.
 
 70 GENTILE FORMS. 
 
 3. In Sussox, IJorks, and Northamptonshire, — Ardingas. 
 \. In Dt'vonshiro, CJlonoosjlershire, and Snssex, — ArUnpas. 
 5. In llorts, Kent, Lincohishirc, and Salop, — Baningas. 
 G. In Norfolk, Snffolk, Surrey, Sussex, and the Isle of 
 Wi<,^ht, — lieadingas. 
 
 7. In Kent, Devonshire, Lincolnshire, Herefordshire, Salop, 
 and Somerset, — Beringas. 
 
 8. In Bedford, Durham. Kent, Lancashire, Lincolnshire, 
 Norfolk, Northami)tonshire, Northumherland, Salop, Sussex, 
 and the Isle of AVight, — Billingas, &c. — the list being taken 
 from Mr. Kcmble, vol. i. p. 64. 
 
 § 124. On the other hand, the following Anglo-Saxon names 
 in -ing, reappear in different parts of Germany, sometimes 
 in definite geographical localities, as the occupants of parti- 
 cular districts, sometimes as mentioned in poems without 
 further notice. 
 
 1 . Wa-lsingas, — as the Volsungar of the Iceland, and the 
 Wselsingen of the German heroic legends. 
 
 2. fferelingas, — mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon poem 
 known by the name of the Traveller's Song, containing a long 
 list of the Gothic tribes, families, nations, &c. 
 
 3. Brentingas. — Ibid. 
 
 4. Scyldiyigas. — Ibid. 
 
 5. Scyljingas. — Ibid. 
 
 6. Ardingas. 
 
 7. Baningas., Traveller's Song, mentioned as the subjects 
 of Becca. 
 
 8. Helsingas. — Ibid. 
 
 9. Myrgingas. — Ibid. 
 
 10. Hundingas. — Ibid. 
 
 11. Hocingas. — Ibid. 
 
 1 2. Seringas. — I bid. 
 
 1 3. Dhyringas = Thuringians. {i) 
 
 14. Bleccingas. 
 
 15. Gytingas. 
 IG. Scydingas. 
 17. Dylingas. 
 
 § 125. We will .still, for argument's sake, and for the sake
 
 PATRONYMIC FORMS. 71 
 
 of the illustration of an ethnological method, take these 
 names along with the observations by which they were pre- 
 ceded, as if they were wholly unexceptionable ; and, having 
 done this, ask how far each is known as German. So doing, 
 we must make two divisions : 
 
 a. Those which we have no reason to think other than 
 Angle or Saxon. 
 
 h. Those which indicate elements of the migration other 
 than Angle or Saxon. 
 
 § 126. Patronymics lohich do not necessarily denote a non- 
 Saxon element. — Of these, the following are so little known, 
 that they miay pass as Saxons, simply because we have no 
 grounds for thinking them aught else; the Brentings, Banings, 
 Helsings, Serings, Ardings, Hundings, Blekings, Herelings, 
 Gytings, Scydings, Dylings. The Scyldings and Scefings, 
 belong, in a more positive way, to the Anglo-Saxon division ; 
 since their eponymi, Scyld and Sceaf, form a portion of the 
 Anglo-Saxon mythology. 
 
 § 127. Patronymics indicating a non- Saxon, rather than a 
 Saxon element. — a. The Wa?lsings — In the way of tradi- 
 tion and mythology, this is a Frank gentile name. 
 
 h. The INIyrgings. — Ditto. This is the German form of 
 the Merovingians. 
 
 c. The Hocings. — This is the German form of the Ohauci, 
 and, as such, a Frisian gentile name. 
 
 (/. The Dhyrings. — Perhaps Thuringians of Thuringia. 
 
 Thus, then, if we still assume that the method in question 
 is unexceptionable, we have, from the evidence of what 
 may be called either the gentile forms, or the patronymics in 
 -ing, reasons for believing that Frank Myrgings, Frisian 
 Hocings, and Thuringian Dhyrings, formed part of the in- 
 vasion — these, at least ; possibly others besides. 
 
 And why should the reason be other than unexceptionable i 
 Do we not in North America, believe, that, as a general rule, 
 the families with particular names, coincide with the families 
 so-called in England ; that the names of certain [jlaces, some- 
 times, at least, indicate a population orginating in places 
 similarly designated here? that the Smiths and Johnstons
 
 7S GENTILE FORMS. 
 
 are English in origin, and that O'Connors and O'Noils are 
 Irish? \\'o certainly believe all this, and, in many cases, we 
 believe it, on the ground of the identity of name only. 
 
 § 1 28. Exceptions. — Still there are exceptioHf?. Of these 
 the must important arc as follows : — 
 
 1. The termination -in(^ is sometimes added to an un- 
 doubtedly British root, so as to have originated within the 
 island, rather than to have been brought from the continent, 
 e.g., the Kcni-ings = the lyeople of Kent. In such a case, the 
 similarity to a German name, if it exist at all, exists as an 
 accident. 
 
 2. The same, or nearly the same, name may not only 
 occur in different parts of one and the same division of the 
 Germanic areas, but in different ones, e.g.^ the Dhyrings may 
 denote the Thuringians of Thuringia ; but they may also 
 denote the people of a district, or town, in Belgium, desig- 
 nated as Dorringen.* 
 
 Still as a method, the one in question should be under- 
 stood ; although it has been too short a time before the 
 learned world to have borne fruit. 
 
 N.B. — What applies to the coincidence of gentile or 
 patronpnic names on the two sides of the water, applies 
 also to dialects ; e.g., if (say) the Kentish differed from the 
 other dialects of England, just in the same way, and with the 
 same peculiar words and forms, as (say) the Verden dialect 
 differed from the ones of Germany, we might fairly argue, 
 that it was from the district of Verden that the county of 
 Kent is peopled. At present we are writing simply for the 
 sake of illustrating certain philological methods. The question 
 of dialect will be treated in Part VII. 
 
 § 129. German tribes lohere there is no direct evidence as to 
 their having made part of the ^^opulation of England^ hut 
 where the Ti priori jjrobabilities are strongly in their favour. 
 This applies to — a. The Batavians. No direct evidence, but 
 great a priori probability. 
 
 h. The Frisians. — Great a priori probability, and some- 
 
 * See G. D. S. Vol. ii. II.
 
 FRISIANS. 73 
 
 thing more ; Bc/rr/av ^g r}^v vyjaov 'i^vrj r^icc ToXvav^gcoTro- 
 rarcc 'iy^ovai, (oaaiXivg rs iig ccvraJv iKccarco l^i(xr>]Ziv, ovo^JjUtcx, 
 'hi Kiirai roig 'i^nai rourotg 'AyylXoi rs zai ^^laaong xcci ol 
 TTj VTjaoj ouiojvviiioi 'Q^irrcong. Toaavrri Vz yj raJ'Jhz rcov i^vojv 
 'TtoXvav^^wzia (putviTUi oixra ugn avu, 'ttolv 'irog Kara 'Trokhovg 
 iv^kv^i f/jiravi(jrdiiiivoi ^vv yvvai^) Ka) 'jraiah ig ^^dyyovg 
 'X/j^ovGiv* — Procop. B. G. iv. 20. 
 
 § 1 oO. I believe, for my own part, there were portions in the 
 early Germanic population of Britain, which were not strictly 
 either Angle or Saxon (Anglo-Saxon) ; but I do this without 
 thinking that it bore any great ratio to the remainder, and 
 without even guessing at what that ratio was, or whereabouts 
 its different component elements were located — the Frisians 
 and Batavians being the most probable. With this view, 
 there may have been Jutes as well ; notwithstanding what 
 has been said in §§ 16 — 20 ; since the reasoning there is not 
 so against a Jute element in toto, as against that particular 
 Jute element, in which Beda, Alfred, and the later writers 
 believed and believe. 
 
 §13]. No exception against the existence of Batavian, 
 Frisian, Frank, and other elements not strictly Anglo-Saxon, 
 is to be taken from the absence of traces of such in the 
 present language, and that for the following reason. Lan- 
 guages which differ in an older form may so far change accord- 
 ing to a common 'princiiile, as to become identical in a newer 
 one. E.g.-, the Frisian infinitive in verbs ends in -a, (as harna 
 = to hum)., the Saxon in -an (as h(jErnan = to hum). Here is 
 a difference. Let, however, the same change affect both lan- 
 guages ; that change being the abandonment, on both sides, of 
 the infinitive termination altogether. What follows ? even 
 that the two originally different forms ham-a., and hcern-an., 
 both come out hxm (burn) ; so that the result is the same, 
 though the original forms were different. 
 
 * Zeus, p. 492.
 
 7 1 THE CELTIC CLASS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Tin-: iKLTiC STOCK Of LANGUAGES, AND TIIEIII RELATIONS TO THE 
 
 ENGLLSH. 
 
 § 132. The languages of Great Britain at the invasion of 
 Julius Oaisar were of the Celtic stock. 
 
 Of the Celtic stock there are two branches. 
 
 1. The British or Cambrian branch, represented by the 
 present AVelsh, and containing, besides, the Cornish of Corn- 
 wall (lately extinct) and the Armorican of the French pro- 
 vince of Brittany. It is almost certain that the old British, 
 the ancient language of Gaul, and the Pictish Avere of this 
 branch. 
 
 2. The Gaelic or Erse Branch, represented by the present 
 Irish Gaelic, and containing, besides, the Gaelic of the 
 Highlands of Scotland and the Manks of the Isle of Man. 
 
 SPECIMENS. 
 
 BRITISH. 
 
 The LovcVs Prayer in Cornish. 
 
 Old Cornish. Modern Cornish. 
 
 An Taz, ny cs yii nef, betliens thy Agaii Taz, leb ez en nev, bcnigas 
 
 hannow uglielles, gwrenz doz thy beth do hanno, giina de gulaskctli 
 
 gulas ker : bcthens tliy voth gwraz deaz, dc voth beth gwiez en' oar 
 
 yn oar kepare hag yn nef : ro thyn pokar en nev; ro dony hithow agan 
 
 ny hithow agan peb dyth bara ; gava i>yb dytli bara ; Iia gava do ny agan 
 
 thyn ny ny agan cam, kepare ha cabniow, pokara ny gava an gy leb 
 
 gava ny neb es cam ma erbyn ny ; es cam mo war bidn ny; ha na dege 
 
 nyn homfrek ny en antel, mez gwyth ny en antail, brez gwitha ny dort 
 
 ny the worth drok : rag gans te yn (hoge ; rag an mychteyrneth ew cliee 
 
 an mighterneth, and crcvedcr, hag do honncii, lia an crevder, ha an 
 
 an' worryans, byz a venitha. 'worryans, rag bisqucth lia bisqucth.
 
 BRITISH LANGUAGES. <5 
 
 Welsh (Cambrian). 
 Luke XV. 11. 19. 
 
 The Prodigal Son. 
 
 11. Yr oedil gan ryw wr ddau fab : 
 
 12. A 'r jeuangaf o lionynt a ddwedoddwrtli ei dadd, Fy nhad, dyro i mi 
 y rhan a ddigwydd o 'r da. Ac efe a ranodd iddyiit ei fywyd. 
 
 13. Ac yn 61 ychydig ddyddiau y mab jeuangaf a gasglodd y cwbl ynghyd, 
 ac a gymmerth ei daitli i wlad bell ; ac yno cfe a wasgaiodd ei dda, gan fyvv 
 yn affrallon. 
 
 14. Ac wedi iddo dreulio 'r cwbl, y cododd newyn mawr trwy 'r wlad 
 honno ; ac yntef a ddeclueuodd fod mewn eisiau. 
 
 15. Ac efe a aeth, ac a lynodd wrth un o ddinaswyr y wlad honno ; ac 
 efe a 'i hanfonodd ef i 'w faefydd i borthi moch. 
 
 16. Ac efe a chwennychai lenwi ei fol a 'r cibaua fwytai 'r niocli; ac ni 
 loddodd neb iddo. 
 
 17. A phan ddaeth arto ei bur, efe addywedodd, Pa sawl gwas cyflog o 
 'r eiddo fy nhad sydd yn cael eu gwala a 'i gweddill o fara, a minnau yn 
 marw o newyn ! 
 
 18. Mi a godaf, ac a af at fy nhad, ac a ddwyedaf wrtho, Fy nhad, pechais 
 yn erbyn y nef ac o'th flaen dithau. 
 
 19. Ac mwyach nid ydwyf deilwng i 'm gahv yn fab i ti : gwna si fel 
 un o'th weision cyflog. 
 
 Armorican of Bas-Bretagne (Cambrian). 
 
 THE SAME. 
 
 11. Eunn den en doa daou vab. 
 
 12. Hag ar iaouanka anezho a lavaiaz d'he dad. — Va zad, ro d'in al 
 loden zanvez a zigoue'z d'in. Hag hen a rannaz he zanvez gant ho. 
 
 13. Hag eunn n^bcud dervesiou goude, ar mab iaounka, 6 veza dastumet 
 kemend en doa en em lek^az enn hent evit mond etreze'g eur vro bell meur- 
 bca, hag eno e tispinaz he zanvez 6 ve'va gant gadelez. 
 
 14. Ha pa en doe dispinet kemend en doa, e c'hoarve'zaz eunn naounegez 
 vraz ei" vro-ze, hag e teuaz, da ezommckaat. 
 
 15. Kiiid ez eaz eta, hag en em lakaad a re'az e gopr gand cunu den cuz 
 ar vro. Hag he man hen kasaz enn eunn ti d'ezlian war ar meaz, dvit mesa 
 ar moc'h. 
 
 16. C'hoanteed en divije leuiia he gof gand arc'hlosou a zcbre ar moc'h : 
 ha den na roe d'ezhan. 
 
 17. Hogcn 6 vcza distrocd d'ezhan \\6 unai-, e lavaraz : a bed gojuaer zo 
 6 ti va Zc'id Iiag en dcuz bara e leiz, ha me a varv anian gand anri nuuim !
 
 76 GAELIC LANGUAGES. 
 
 18. Sovot a riiin, ling ez iiii) tU6/.6 va znd, liun c liviiinn irczliaii : Va 
 zad, |n'oli V'll cm vn/. a. oiK-b nun oiiv liag tMiii da i'iici>. 
 
 IS). N"ouiin k^t talvoudck pcllu 'ch da \&/.& galvi'd da vab: Va /,igL"iin.r 
 evol uiiar cuz da c'liopraoiicii. 
 
 GAELIC. 
 
 Irish Gaelic (Gaelic). 
 
 THE SAME. 
 
 11. Do bluidar dias mac ng duine airiglic : 
 
 12. Agiis a diibbairt an ti dob oigc aca re 7ia athair, Atbair, tabliair 
 dhanili an cluiid roitlieas misi dod mliaoin. Agus do roim seision a niliaoin 
 catorra. 
 
 13. Agns tar eis blicagain ainisire ag cruinningliadh a choda uile don 
 nihac dob dige, do cliiiaidb se air coigcrigh a dtalanih inicliian, agus do 
 dhionibail se ann sin a nihaoin le na bhcatliaidh baoth-cliaithfigh. 
 
 14. Agus tar eis a choda uile do chaitlieanih dho, deirigh gorta romhor 
 ann sa tir sin ; agus do thosaigh seision ar bheith a riachdanus. 
 
 15. Agus do iratliigh s6 roinihe agus do cheangal se e fein do chatliruigli- 
 thcoir don tir sin ; noch do chuir fa na dlu'iichtc a macli e do blu'iacbuil- 
 Icachd muc. 
 
 16. Agus ba mliian leis a bliolg do liiioadli do na feitld^oguibli do itiiidi's 
 na muca : agus ni thugadh eunduine dho fad. 
 
 17. Agus an tan do chuimhnigh si air fein, a dubhairt s6, Ga nilied do 
 luclid tuarasdail matharsa aga bhfi'til ioniarcdid arain, agus niisi ag dul a 
 inughd le gorta ! 
 
 18. Eireoeliaidli me agus rachaidh me dionnsuighe mathair, agus dearuidb 
 me ris; A athair! do pheacaid me a naghaidh neimlie agusad fliiadhnuisisi. 
 
 19. Agus ni fiu me feasda do uihacsa do ghairni dhoiin : deana me mar 
 aon dod luchd thuarasduil. 
 
 Scotch Gaelic (Gaelic). 
 
 THE SAME. 
 
 11. Bha aig duinc tiraidh dithis mhae : 
 
 12. Agus t]mbhairt/?(«cab'6ige dhiubh r' a alkair, Athair, tlioir dliomlisa 
 eliuid-roim a thig or»i, do d mhaoin. Agus roinn e catorra a bhcathacahadh. 
 
 13. Agus an dcigh beagain do laithibh, cliruiniiicli am mac a b'oigc a 
 cluiid uile, agus ghabh e a thurus do dhuthaich fad air astar, agus an sin 
 chaith e a mliaoin le beatha struidheasaich. 
 
 14. Agus an uair achaith e a chuid uilc, dh' eirich gorta ro mhor san ti'r 
 sin ; agus thoisich e ri bhi ann an uircasbhuidh. 
 
 15. Agus chaidh e agus chcaiigail se c fein ri aon do shaor-dliaoinibh na 
 ducha sin : agus chuir cd' f hcaran c, a bhiadhadh mhuc.
 
 GAELIC LANGUAGES. 77 
 
 16. Agus bu nihiann Icis a lilivu a lionadh do na plaofgaibh a blia na 
 mucaii ag itheadh ; oir clia d' thug ncach air bith dha. 
 
 17. Agus un uair a thainig e chuige fein, thubbairt c, Cia lion do luclul 
 tuaiasdail m'atharsa aig am bheil aran gu leoir agus r' a sheach-nadh, 'nuair 
 a ta misc a' basachadb le gorta ! 
 
 18. Eiridli me, agus theid omi dh' ionnsuidli m' atbar, agus their mi ris 
 atliair, pheacaich mi 'n aghaidh fblaitheanais, agus a' d' la thairsa. 
 
 19. Agus cha 'n fbiu mi tuilleadh gu 'n goirtc do mhacsa dbiom : deon 
 mi mar aon do d' luchd tuarasdail. 
 
 ManJcs (Gaelic). 
 
 THK SAME. 
 
 11. Va daa vac ec dooinney dy row : 
 
 12. As doort y fer saa rish e ayr ; Ayr ! cur dooys yn ayrn dy cliooid ta 
 my chour. As rheymi eh e chooid orroo. 
 
 13. As laghyn ny hirg shen, hymsee yn mac saa ooillcy cooidjagli as ghow 
 ch jurnah gys cheer foddey, as ayns shen hug he jummal er c chooid liorish 
 baghey rouanagh. 
 
 14. As tra va ooilley baarit eihey, dirree genncy vooar ayns y cheer shen ; 
 as ren eh toshiaght dy ve ayns feme. 
 
 15. As hie eh as daill eh eh-hene rish cummaltagh Jeh'n clieer shen ; as 
 hug eshyn eh magh gys ny magheryn echey dy ve son bochillcy muickey. 
 
 16. As by-vian lesh e volg y Ihieeney lesh ny bleaystyn va ny muckyn dy 
 ee : as cha row dooinney erbee hug cooney da. 
 
 17. As tra v'eh er jeet huggey hene, dooyrt eh, Nagh nhimmey sharvaant 
 failt t'ec my ayr ta nyn saie arran oc, as fooilliagh, as ta mish goll mow 
 laccal beaghey ! 
 
 18. Trog-ym orryni, as liem roym gys my ayr, as jir-ym rish, Ayr ! ta 
 mee er n'yarmoo peccah noi niau, as kiongoyrt rhyt's. 
 
 19. As cha vel mee ny-sodjcy fceu dy ve cnmyssit dty vac : dell rhyni 
 myr rish fer jeh dty harvaantyr failt. 
 
 § 1.33. Taken altogether the Celtic tongues form a very 
 remarkable class. As compared with those of the Gothic 
 stock they are marked by the following characteristics — 
 
 The scantiness of the declension of Celtic nouns, — In Irish 
 there is a peculiar form for the dative plural, as cos=foot^ 
 cos-aibh = to feet {^Q(\.-ibus) ; and beyond this there is nothing 
 else whatever in the way of case^ as found in the Gernuui, 
 Latin, Greek, and other tongues. Even the isolated form 
 in question is not found in the Welsh and Breton. Hence
 
 TS STRUCTURE OF 
 
 the Celtic tongues are pn-eiiiiiieiitly iminflected in the way of 
 (fech'ttsioii 
 
 § i;U. — 2. T/ic aaaJutinate character of their verbal inffec- 
 tiuNf. — III W'l'Ish the pronouns for toe, ye, and they, are ni, 
 chiryi^ and hwi/nt respectively. In Welsh also the vooiz=.loiie 
 is car. As conjugated in the plural number this is — 
 cax-ion = ti\n-arims. 
 cav-yrh = am-atis. 
 car- ant = am-aiit. 
 
 Now the -wu, -yell, and -ant, of the persons of the verbs 
 are the personal pronouns, so that the inflection is really a 
 verb and a pronoun in a state oi agglutination ; i. e., in a state 
 where the original separate existence of the two sorts of words 
 is still manifest. This is probably the case with languages in 
 general. The Celtic, however, has the peculiarity of exhibit- 
 ing it in an unmistakable manner ; showing, as it were, an 
 inflexion in the process of formation, and (as such) exhibiting 
 an early stage of language. 
 
 § 135: The system of initial mutations. — The Celtic, as has 
 been seen, is deficient in the ordinary means of expressing 
 case. How does it make up for this i Even thus. The noun 
 changes its initial letter according to its relation to the other 
 words of the sentence. Of course this is subject to rule. As, 
 however, I am only writing for the sake of illustrating in a 
 general way the peculiarities of the Celtic tongues, the fol- 
 lowing table, from Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic 
 Nations, is sufficient. 
 
 Car, a kins>?ian. 4. Vy uhad, my father. 
 
 1. form. Car agos, a near kins- Pen, a head. 
 
 man. l.J'urm, Pen gwr, t/ie head of a 
 
 2. Ei giir, his kinsman. man. 
 
 3. Ei char, her kinsman. 2. Ei ben, his head. 
 
 4. Vy nghar, mt/ kinsman. 3. Ei phen, her head. 
 Tad, a father. 4. Vy mhen, my head. 
 
 1. form, TkdyTplcntyn, the child's Gw as, a sei-vant. 
 
 father. }.form, Gwks fydhhm, a faith f/i I 
 
 2. Ei dad, his father. servant. 
 
 3. Ei thad, her father. . Ei was, Ins servant.
 
 THE CELTIC TONGUES. 79 
 
 3. Vy ngWcas, mi/ servant. Mam, a mother. 
 
 Duw a sod. l.J'oivii, ]\Iam diiion, a tender 
 
 1. form, Duw trugarog, a merci- mother. 
 
 ful sod. ^- Eivam, his mother. 
 
 2. Ei dliuvv, //«gW. HhwyA, u net. 
 
 3. Vy nuw, mi/ god. \. Jhrm, Rhwyd lawn, aj'ull net. 
 Bara, bread. 2. Ei iwyd, his net. 
 
 1. form, Bara cann, ichite bread. F™ni ^^i^ Erse. 
 
 2. Ei vara, his bread. Suil, «;< eye. 
 
 3. Vy mara, ;/?j/ /*rf«(/. \. form, Sail. 
 
 Lliaw, « AtfWf/. 2. A lii'iil, his ei/e. 
 
 1. form, hhaw wcnn, a whitehu)id. Slalnte, health. 
 
 2. F.i law, his hand. 2. Jo7-7ii, Do hliuntc, i/our health. 
 
 § 136. When we have seen that one of the great character- 
 istics of the Celtic tongues is to express inflection by initial 
 changes, we may ask how far the principle of such change is 
 common to the two branches — British or Gaelic ; this and a 
 few other details being quite sufficient to show the affinity 
 between them. 
 
 Inflections formed hy Changes of Initial Consonants. 
 
 The changes in Welsh, classified according to the relation- 
 ship of the sounds are — 
 
 1 . From the sharp lenes to the corresponding flats ; as 
 ^ to 5, ^ to cl, c to g. The changes in Irish are the same. 
 
 2. From the flat lenes to their corresponding so-called 
 aspirates ; as 5 to ■«, </ to 'S. This is the change in Welsh. 
 In Irish we have the same, but only as far as h is concerned ; 
 the aspirate of d (S) being wanting in that language. In 
 neither Welsh nor Irish occurs the true aspirate of g. In 
 neither Welsh nor Irish occurs the true aspirate of c ; which, 
 being wanting, is replaced by the sound of the cJi in the Ger- 
 man awc/i, here spelt f. 
 
 Now the Welsh grammarians deal with the changes from 
 sharp to flat, and from lene to aspirate, alike ; since, in re- 
 spect to the grammar of their language, they are enabled to 
 state that thoy take j>laco under the same circumstances.
 
 80 STRUCTURE OF 
 
 I'alvfii cDlIcclivcly tlit>y arc callod lin-lit : and words wIum'cmh 
 p is clKUiu'cd to h, ami those wliorciu h is chaiiocd to f, are 
 o(|ually said to assume the light suuiul. Tiiis the Welsh ex- 
 press ill spelling, and write ben for pen, and vraint for braint, 
 &c. In Irish the arrangement is dillerent. When a so-called 
 aspirate is substituted tor a lene, the word is said to take an 
 aspiration, and bheul is written beul. If, however, the sharp 
 be made flat, the original sound is said to be eclipsed. In 
 spelling, however, it is preserved ; so that teiiie, with the t 
 changed, is written dteine, and pronounced deine. With this 
 view we can now ask how far the change from p to b, t to d, 
 c to p, b to V, c to f, takes place in Irish and Welsh under 
 similar circumstances. 
 
 In Welsh — after all verbs, except those of the infinitive 
 mood ; ns caravi gaer (for caer) = / love a fort. 
 
 In Irish — after all verbs, provided that the substantive be 
 masculine ; as ta me ag gearrad ^rainn = / am cutting {at to 
 cut) a tree. Here p^ainn comes from crainn. This change in 
 Irish extends only to the change from lene to aspirate. 
 
 In Welsh — after the possessive pronouns thi/, thine, his, its, 
 mine (but not mi/) ; as d^ vdr (for bar) = thy wrath ; ei 
 vraint (from braint) = his privilege. N. B. Although the 
 same word {ei) means her, his, and its, it induces the light 
 change only when it is either masculine or neuter. 
 
 In Irish — after the possessive pronouns my, thy, and his. 
 Here the change is of the first sort only, or an aspiration ; as 
 7no vas (bas) = my death ; do ^os {cos) = thy foot ; ^eann 
 {ceann) = his head. N. B. Although the same word {a) 
 means her, his, and its, it induces the aspirate only when it is 
 either masculine or neuter. 
 
 In Welsh — the initials of adjectives become light when their 
 substantive is feminine. 
 
 In Irish — the initials of adjectives singular, aspirated in 
 the oblique cases only of the masculine, are aspirated through- 
 out in the feminine. 
 
 In Welsh — after certain adverbs called formative, used 
 like the English words to, as, &c., in the formation of the 
 degrees of nouns, and the moods of verbs (in other words.
 
 THE CELTIC TONGUES. 81 
 
 after certain particles), initial sounds become light ; as rhi 
 vy<^an (by^an) = vet'y {over) little ; ni ^.arav (carav) = I do 
 not love. 
 
 In Irish — the same, in respect to the change from lene to 
 aspirate ; ro veacf = very little ; ni vualim (bualim) =^ I do 
 not beat ; do vuaileas = 1 struck, &c. 
 
 In Welsh — initials are light after all prepositions except 
 in and towards. 
 
 In Irish — the prepositions either eclipse the noun that 
 they govern or else aspirate it. A Welsh grammarian would 
 say that it made them light. 
 
 In Welsh — initials of feminines become light after the 
 Articles. 
 
 In Irish — masculines are aspirated in the genitive and 
 dative singular ; feminines in the nominative and dative. 
 N. B. The difference here is less than it aj^pears to be. The 
 masculine dative is changed, not as a masculine, but by the 
 effect of the particle do, the sign of the dative ; the genitive, 
 perhaps, is changed ob differ entiam. This being the fact, the 
 nominative is the only case that is changed as such. Now 
 this is done with the feminines only. The inflection explains 
 this. 
 
 Mttsc. 
 Nam. an ciann=</(e tree. 
 Gen. an ^rainn. 
 Dat. don 9rann. 
 Ace. an crainn. 
 
 Fern . 
 Norn, an (^oii=.lhefoot. 
 Gen. an cos. 
 Dat. don 90s. 
 Ace. an cos. 
 
 Such the changes from sharp to flat, and from lene to as- 
 pirate. The second order of changes is remarkable, viz. from 
 the mutes to their corresponding liquids, and, in the case of 
 series Jc, to ng. This, in Welsh, is as follows: — 
 
 Sharp. 
 
 Flat, 
 h to m. 
 d to n. 
 g to ng. 
 
 e. ff., nheyrnas for teyrnas, ngher^ for cer^, nuio for duiv, &c 
 
 * As ill Amherst and inherent. 
 
 p to *m=.h. 
 t to *n =h. 
 k to ng =//.
 
 82 
 
 STRUCTURE OF 
 
 lu Irish the conihinations m + A, n + /^ ng + // are wanting : 
 ^ however, under eerlain condition?*, becomes A, as nio h'nih 
 {tiph) = tity huHse. A\'ith the unas2)irated Hqnids the change, 
 however, coincides with that of the Welsh — ar maile (spelt 
 inha'de) = oid' town ; ar nia (spelt ndia) = our God ; ar 
 •ngearran = our complaint. These words come respectively 
 from haile^ dia, gearran. To show that this change takes 
 place in Irish and Welsh under similar circumstances is more 
 than can be expected ; since S being wanting in Irish, leaves 
 d to be changed into n. 
 
 Inflections formed hy changes in the middle of words. 
 Plurals from Singulars. 
 
 Welsh. 
 
 
 Irish. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Aber ^ a conjinx ; 
 
 ebyr. 
 
 Ball ^ a spot ; 
 
 baill. 
 
 liarS = a bard ; 
 
 beirS. 
 
 Cnoc =a hill; 
 
 cnoic. 
 
 Bran ^ a crow ; 
 
 brain. 
 
 Poll = a pit ; 
 
 poil. 
 
 Fon ^ a staff"; 
 
 fyn. 
 
 Fonn = a tunc ; 
 
 foinn. 
 
 Maen=a stone; 
 
 mein. 
 
 Crann = a tree ; 
 
 crainn. 
 
 Gur = a man ; 
 
 guyr. 
 
 Fear =: a man ; 
 
 fir. 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 Inflections formed hy addition 
 
 Plural forms. — When not expressed by a change of vowel, 
 -d (or an allied sound) both in Welsh and Irish has a plural 
 power ; as mer^., merged ; hfS, hf6o% ; teyrn, teyrne^ = 
 girls., stags, kings ; Welsh : — geala^., geala<;.ad ; sgolog, sgola- 
 gad ; uiseog, uiseogad = moons., farmers., larks ; Irish. In 
 each language there are plural forms in -d. 
 
 Also in -», as dyn = a person., dynion = persons. In Irish 
 there is the form cu =^ a greyhound ; Plural cuin. It may be 
 doubted, however, whether -n is not ejected in the singular 
 rather than added in the plural. 
 
 Also in -aw, Welsh {as pen-au = heads), and in -a, Irish (as 
 cos-a =feet). 
 
 In each language there is, in respect to both case and
 
 THE CELTIC TONGUES. S3 
 
 gender, an equal paucity of inflections. TLe Irish, however, 
 preserves the Indo-European dative plural in i ; as fos-aiv 
 = ^ed-ibus. 
 
 The ordinals in Welsh are expressed by -ved ; as saip = 
 seven, sei\>ved = seventh. The ordinals in Irish are expressed 
 by -vad, as sea^t = seven, sea^f-vad = seventh (spelt seacli- 
 mhadh). 
 
 The terminations -n and -g are diminutive in Welsh ; as 
 dyn-yn = mannikin, oen-ig = lanihHn. They have the same 
 power in Irish ; as cnoc-an = a hillock ; duil-eog = a leaflet. 
 In Irish, currently spoken, there is no inflection for the compa- 
 rative degrees ; — there is, however, an obsolete form in -c?, 
 as glass, glaiside=^ green, greener. In Welsh the true compa- 
 rative ends in f , as main=slender, mainag = more slender. A 
 form, however, exists in -ed, meaning equality, and so imply- 
 ing comparison, viz., mein-ed=so slender. 
 
 As expressive of an agent, the termination -r is common 
 to both languages. Welsh, 77ior-ur:^ a seamaii ; telynaur = a 
 harpist ,■ Irish, sealg-aire = a hunter; figead-oir = a weaver. 
 
 As expressive of " abounding in," the termination -c 
 (or -^) is common in both languages. Welsh, holiuag=^ 
 abounding in belly ; toirteaf = abounding in fruit. In each 
 language a sound of series t, is equivalent to the English -ly. 
 Welsh, mab-ai^ = boy-like. Irish, duin-eata = manly. 
 
 Of the personal terminations it may be said, that those of 
 both the Irish and Welsh are those of the other European 
 tongues, and that they coincide and differ in the same way 
 with those of the Gothic stock : the form in m being the one 
 more constant. For the theory of the personal terminations, 
 the reader is referred to the Eastern Origin of the Celtic 
 Nations, by Dr. Prichard. 
 
 The present notices being indicative of grammatical affini- 
 ties only, the glossarial points of likeness between the Welsh 
 and Irish are omitted. 
 
 § 187. The Celtic tongues have lately received esj^eeial illus- 
 tration from the researches of Mr. Garnett. Amongst other, 
 the two following points are particularly investigated by 
 
 him : — 
 
 o 2
 
 SI. THE riCT LAN(U'A(1K. 
 
 1, Tlio anhiitii's of the anciont language of (Jaiil. 
 
 2. The aflinities of the I'lclisli language or dialect. 
 
 § loS. 77ie ancient lanffua/je of (!aul Cambrian. — The evi- 
 dence in favour of the ancient language of Gaul being Cam- 
 brian rather than Gaelic, lies in the following facts : — 
 
 The old Gallic glosses arc more Welsh than Gaelic. 
 
 a. Petorrifiim = a four-xoheeled carriarje, from the 
 Welsh, jo<?fl'^/' =foni\ and rhod=-a wheel. The Gaelic fovfour 
 is ceafhair, and the Gaelic compound would have been 
 different. 
 
 b. Petnpedula, the cinque-foil, from the W^elsh j^'^^np = 
 fve, and dalen = a leaf. The Gaelic for^r^ is cuig, and the 
 
 Gaelic compound would have been different. 
 
 c. Candeium = a measure of 100 feet, from the Welsh 
 cant — 100. The Gaelic for a hundred is cead, and the Gaelic 
 compound would have been different. 
 
 d. Epona = the goddess of horses. In the Old Armorican 
 the root ep = horse. The Gaelic for a horse is each. 
 
 e. The evidence from the names of geographical localities in 
 Gaul, both ancient and modern, goes the same way: Nantuates, 
 Nantouin, Nanteuil, are derived from the Welsh nant=^a 
 talley, a word unknown in Gaelic. 
 
 /. The evidence of certain French provincial words, whicli 
 are Welsh and Armorican rather than Erse or Gaelic. 
 
 f). An inscription on an ancient Celtic tablet found at Paris, 
 A.D. 1711, and representing a bull and three birds (cranes), is 
 TARWOS TRI GARANOS. Now, for the first two names, 
 the Gaelic affords as good an explanation as the Welsh ; the 
 third, however, is best explained by the Welsh. 
 
 Bull = taric, Welsh ; tarbh, Gaelic. 
 Three = tri, Welsh ; tre, Gaelic. 
 Crane = garan, Welsh ; corr, Gaelic. 
 
 § 13.9. The Pictish most proballi/ Cambrian. — The evidence 
 in favour of the Pictish being Cambrian rather than Gaelic 
 lies in the following facts : — 
 
 a. When St. Columba preached, whose mother-tongue was 
 Irish Gaelic, he used an interpreter — Adamnanus apud Col-
 
 THE PICT LANGUAGE. So 
 
 garum, 1, 11, c. 32. This is a point of external evidence, and 
 shows the difference between the Pict and Gaelic. What fol- 
 loAvs are points of internal evidence, and show the affinity 
 between the Pict and Welsh. 
 
 h. A manuscript in the Colbertine library contains a list of 
 Pictish kings from the fifth century downwards. These names 
 are not only more Celtic than Gothic, but more Welsh than 
 Gaelic. Taran = thunder in Welsh. Uven is the Welsh 
 Owen. The first syllable in Talorg ( = forehead) is the tal in 
 Talhaiarn — iron forehead^ Taliessin = splendid forehead^ 
 Welsh names. Wrgust is nearer to the Welsh Giorgust than 
 to the Irish Fergus. Finally, Drust., Drostan, Wrad, Necton, 
 closely resemble the Welsh Trwst, Triostan, Giorkid, Nicython. 
 Cineod and Domhncdl {Kenneth and Donnell)., are the only 
 true Erse forms in the list. 
 
 c. The only Pictish common name extant is the well-known 
 compound pen val, which is in the oldest MS. of Bede 
 peann fahel. This means caput valli, and is the name for the 
 eastern termination of the Vallum of Antoninus. Herein pen 
 is unequivocally Welsh, meaning head. It is an impossible 
 form in Gaelic. Fal, on the other hand, is apparently Gaelic, 
 the Welsh for a rampart being gicall. Fal, however, occurs 
 in Welsh also, and means inclosure. 
 
 The evidence just indicated is rendered nearly conclusive by 
 an interpolation, apparently of the twelfth century, of the 
 Durham MS. of Nennius, whereby it is stated that the spot 
 in question was called in Gaelic Cenail. Now Cenail is the 
 modern name Kinneil, and it is also a Gaelic translation of the 
 Pict |;g?^ val, since cean is the Gaelic for head, and /kail for 
 rampart or tvall. If the older form were Gaelic, the substi- 
 tution, or translation, would have been superfluous. 
 
 d. The name of the Ochil Hills in Perthshire is better 
 explained from the Pict 2ichel=high, than from the Gaelic 
 nasal. 
 
 e. Bryneich, the British form of the province Bernicia, is 
 better explained by the Welsh bryn= ridge {hilly country), 
 than by any word in Gaelic, — Garnctt, in Transactions of 
 Philological Society.
 
 8(5 LANGUAGES DKllIVED 
 
 CHAPTER Vll. 
 
 TIIK ANGLO-NORMAN, AM) Till': LANGUAGES OF Tllli CLASSICAL 
 
 STOCK. 
 
 § 1 40. The languages of Greece and Rome belong to one 
 and the same stock. 
 
 The Greek and its dialects, both ancient and modern, con- 
 stitute the Greek or Hellenic branch of the Classical stock. 
 
 The Latin in all its dialects, the old Italian languages allied 
 to it, and the modern tongues derived from the Roman, con- 
 stitute the Latin or Ausonian branch of the Classical stock. 
 
 Now, although the Greek or Hellenic dialects are of second- 
 ary importance in the illustration of the history of the English 
 language, the Latin or Ausonian elements require a special 
 consideration. 
 
 The French element appeared in our language as a result 
 of the battle of Hastings (a. d. 1066), perhaps^ in a slight 
 degree^ at a somewhat earlier period. 
 
 § ]41. Previous to the notice of the immediate relations of 
 the Norman- French, or, as it was called after its introduction 
 into England, Anglo-Norman, its position in respect to the 
 other languages derived from the Latin may be exhibited. 
 
 The Latin language overspread the greater part of the 
 Roman empire. It supplanted a multiplicity of aboriginal 
 languages ; just as the English of North America has sup- 
 planted the aboriginal tongues of the native Lulians, and just as 
 the Russian is supplanting those of Siberia and Kamskatcha. 
 
 Sometimes the war that the Romans carried on against the 
 old inhabitants was a war of extermination. \\\ this case the 
 original language was superseded at once. In other cases their 
 influence was introduced gradually. In this case the influence 
 of the original language was greater and more permanent.
 
 FROM THE LATIN. 87 
 
 Just as in the United States the English came in contact 
 with an American, whilst in New Holland it comes in contact 
 with an Australian language, so was the Latin language of 
 Rome engrafted, sometimes on a Celtic, sometimes on a Gothic, 
 and sometimes on some other stock. The nature of the original 
 language must always be borne in mind. 
 
 From Italy, its original seat, the Latin was extended in the 
 following chronological order : — 
 
 1. To the Spanish Peninsula ; where it overlaid or was 
 engrafted on languages allied to the present Biscayan {i. e., 
 languages of the Iberic stock), mixed in a degree (scarcely 
 determinable) with Celtic elements = Celtiberic. 
 
 2. To Gaul, or France, where it overlaid or was en- 
 grafted on languages of the Celtic stock. This took place, at 
 least for the more extreme parts of Gaul, in the time of Julius 
 Caesar ; for the more contiguous parts, in the earlier ages of 
 the Republic, 
 
 3. To Dacia and Pannonia ; where it overlaid or was en- 
 grafted on a language the stock whereof is undetermined. The 
 introduction of the Latin into Dacia and Pannonia took place 
 in the time of Trajan. 
 
 From (Istly,) the original Latin of Italy, and from the im- 
 ported Latin, of (2ndly,) the Spanish Peninsula, (Srdly,) Gaul, 
 (4thly,) Dacia and Pannonia, we have (amongst others) the 
 following modern languages — 1st Italian, 2nd Spanish and 
 Portuguese, 3rd French, 4th Wallachian. How far these 
 languages differ from each other is currently known. One 
 essential cause of this difference is the difference of the original 
 language upon which the Latin was engrafted. 
 
 § 142. I am not doing too much for the sake of system if I 
 classify the languages, of which the Italian, French, &c., are 
 the representatives, as the languages of Germany were classi- 
 fied, viz., into divisions. 
 
 I. The Spanish and Portuguese are sufficiently like the 
 Italian to be arranged in a single division. This may con- 
 veniently be called the Hesperian division. 
 
 II. The second division is the Transalpine. This comprises 
 the languages of Gaul, viz., the Modern French, the Anglo-
 
 88 LANGUAGES DERIVED 
 
 N«>rm:iii. and iho Proveii(,-;il. It also inchules a language not 
 yet inoutioiiiHl, (lie Roinanoso {Iiumoiisch)., or the language of 
 the Grisons, or CTraubiinton, of Switzerland. 
 
 Specimen of the Itomanese. 
 Luke XV. 11. 
 
 11. Un Hum vevu dus Filgs : 
 
 12. All ilg jiivcn da quels sclict ulg Bab, " Bab aii diii la Part dc la 
 Rauba c' aud' a mi : " ad cl parche or ad els la Rauba. 
 
 13. A bucca bears Gis suentcr, cur ilg Filg juvcn vet tut uiess anscmcl, 
 sella tilk '1 navcnt en unna Terra dalunsch : a lou sfigct el tut sia Rauba 
 cun viver senza spargn. 
 
 14. A cur cl vet tut sfaig, sclia vangit ci en quclla Terra iiu grond Funiaz : 
 ad el antscliavet a vcr basengs. 
 
 15. Ad el m^, a: sa plide cnn (in Burgcis da quella Terra ; a quel ilg 
 tarmatet or sin s4s Bcins a parcbirar ils Pores. 
 
 16. Ad cl grigiava dad amplanir sieu Venter cun las Criscas cb' ils Pores 
 inalgiavan ; mo nagin Igi dcva. 
 
 17. Mo el ma en sasez a schct : "Quonts Fumclgs da mien Bab ban 
 budonza da Pann, a jou miei d' fom !" 
 
 18. "Jou vi lavar si, ad ir tier micu Bab, e vi gir a Igi: 'Bab, jou luii faig 
 puccau ancunter ilg Tsebiel ad avont tci ; 
 
 19. " ' A sunt bueca pli vangonts da vangir numnaus tieu Filg: fai mei 
 esser sco iin da tes Fumclgs.' " 
 
 III. The third division is the Dacian, Pannonian, or Wal- 
 lachian, containing the present languages of Wallachia and 
 Moldavia. 
 
 In the Jahrhucher der Literatur^ June, 1829, specimens are 
 given of two of its dialects : 1 , the Daco-Wallachian, north 
 of the Danube ; 2, the Macedono-Wallachian, south of the 
 Danube. The present specimen varies from both. It is taken 
 from the New Testament, printed at Smyrna, 1838. The 
 Dacian division is marked by placing the article after the 
 noun, as homul = the man= homo ille. 
 
 Luke XV. 11. 
 
 11. Un om avea doi fec'ori. 
 
 12. Shi a zis c'cl ma'i tinr din ei tatlul su : tat, duii partea c'e mi sc kadc 
 de avucie : shi dc a imprcit lor avuciea. 
 
 13. Sbi nu dup multc zile, adunint toate fee orul c'el mat tinr, s'a dus intr 
 'o car departe, sbi akolo a rsipit toat avuciea ca, viecuind intr dczmicrdri.
 
 FROM THE LATIN. 89 
 
 14. Shi kelturiul cl toatc, c'ti fkut foaniete mare iiiti' acVa car : slii el a 
 iuc'eput a se lipsi. 
 
 15. Shi inergina c'a lipit dc unul din Ikuitorii crii ac'cia : si '1 a triiiiis 
 pre el la carinide sale c pask porc'ii. 
 
 16. Shi doria c 'shi satuve piiictec'ele sii de roshkobele c'c niinka porc'ii ; 
 shi iiimini nu i da lui. 
 
 17. lar viind intra sine, a zis : kici argaci ai tatliii niieu sint indestulacl 
 de piine, iar eu pieiii de foame. 
 
 18. Skula-m-vioii, shi m' voiu duc'e la tata niieu, shi vioii zic'e lui : 
 
 19. Tat, greshit-am la e'er shi inaintea ta, slii nu mai sint vrcdnik a ni 
 kenia fiul tu ; fni ka pre unul din argacii ti. 
 
 § 143. Such is the general view of the languages derived 
 from the Latin, i. e., of the languages of the Latin branch of 
 the Classical stock. 
 
 The French languages of the Transalpine division require 
 to be more minutely exhibited. 
 
 Between the provincial French of the north and the pro- 
 vincial French of the south, there is a difference, at the present 
 day, at least of dialect, and perhaps of language. This is 
 shown by the following specimens : the first from the canton 
 of Arras, on the confines of Flanders ; the second, from the 
 department of Var, in Provence. The date of each is a. d. 
 1807. 
 
 L 
 
 Luke XV. 11. 
 
 11. Ain homme avoiiait deeux garcheons. 
 
 12. L'pus jone dit a sain pere, "Main pere, bailie m'chou qui doiio mc 
 'r'v'nir ed vous bien," ct leu pere leu partit sain bien. 
 
 13. Ain n'sais yur, tro, quate, cheon jours apres l'pus tio d'cn($s deeux 
 cfeans oyant r'cuelle tout s'n' heritt'niain, s'ot' ainvoye dains nain paliis 
 gramain loiion, dii qu'il ccliilla tout s'n' argint ain fageant I'braingand dains 
 die's cabarets. 
 
 14. Abord qu'il o eu tout bu, tout mie et tout drele, il o v'nu adouc dains 
 cli' pahis lo ainn' faniaine cruiicUc, et i c'mainchouait d'avoir fon-ye d' 
 pon-ye (i.e. faim de pain). 
 
 IL 
 
 THE SAME. 
 
 11. Un lionie avie dou.s enl'uns. 
 
 12. Lou phis pichoun diguet a son paire, " Mouii piiire, (kniiias mi ee <|iie
 
 •)0 LANGUAGES DERIVED 
 
 nil roven de voimstro ben;" lou piiire I'aguct lou partage dc tout cc que 
 poussedavo. 
 
 13. Pnou dc jours apros, lou jiicliouu vendct tout sc que soun pair6 li 
 avie desamparat, et s'cn auet dins uu piiis foui(;;o lucnch, ounte dissip^t tout 
 soun ben en debaucho. 
 
 14. Quand aguet tou accaba, uno grosso famine anibet dins aqueou piiis 
 ct, leou, si veguet rcduech h la deinicro misero. 
 
 Practically speaking, although in the central parts of France 
 the northern and southern dialects melt each into the other, 
 the Loire may he considered as a line of demarcation hetween 
 two languages ; the term language being employed because, 
 in the Middle Ages, whatever may be their real difference, the 
 northern tongue and the southern tongue were dealt with not 
 as separate dialects, but as distinct languages — the southern 
 being called Proven9al, the northern Norman- French. 
 
 Of these two languages (for so they will in the following 
 pages be called, for the sake of convenience) the southern or 
 Proven9al approaches the dialects of Spain ; the Valencian of 
 Spain and the Catalonian of Spain being Provencal rather 
 than standard Spanish or Castilian. 
 
 The southern French is sometimes called the Langue d'Oc, 
 and sometimes the Limousin. 
 
 It is in the Southern French (Proven9al, Langue d'Oc, or 
 Limousin) that we have the following specimen, viz., the Oath 
 of Ludwig, sworn a. d. 842. 
 
 The Oath of the King. 
 
 Pro Deo amur et pro Xristian poblo et nostro commun salvament, d'ist di 
 en avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvarai eo cist mcon 
 fradre Karlo, et in ajudha et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra 
 salvar dist, in o quid il mi altresi fazet : et ab Ludher nul plaid nunquam 
 prindrai qui, incoii vol, cist ineon fradre Karle in damno sit. 
 
 The Oath of the People. 
 
 Si Loduuigs sagrament, que son fradre Karlo jurat, conservat ; ct Karlus, 
 meos sendra, de suo part non lo stanit ; si io returnar non Tint pois, nc io, ne 
 neuls cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla ajudlia contra Lodhuwig num li iver. 
 
 The same in Modern French. 
 
 Pour dc Dieu I'amour ct pour du Chretien pcuple et le notre commun 
 salut, de ce jour on avaut, en quant que Dieu savoir et pouvcjir mc donne
 
 FROM THE LATIN. 91 
 
 assuremcnt sauverai moi ce nioii frore Charles, et en aide, et en chacune 
 chose, ainsi coniuie homnie par droit son frere sauver doit, en cela que lui a 
 nioi pareillement fera : et avcc Lothaire nul traite nc onqucs prendrai qui, 
 a mon vouloir, k ce mien frere Charles en dommage soit, 
 
 ********* 
 Si Louis le serment, qu'a son frere Charles il jure, conserve ; Charles, 
 mon seigneur, de sa jiart ne le maintient ; si je detourner ne Ten puis, ni 
 moi, ne nul que je detourner en puis, en nulle aide contre Louis ne lui irai. 
 
 § 144. The Norman-French, spoken from the Loire to the 
 confines of Flanders, and called also the Langue d''03d, dif- 
 fered from the Provencal in (amongst others) the following- 
 circumstances. 
 
 1. It was of later origin ; the southern parts of Gaul 
 having been colonized at an early period by the Romans. 
 
 2. It was in geographical contact, not with the allied 
 languages of Spain, but with the Gothic tongues of Germany 
 and Holland. 
 
 It is the Norman-French that most especially bears upon 
 the history of the English language. 
 
 The proportion of the original Celtic in the present lan- 
 guages of France has still to be determined. It may, however, 
 be safely asserted, that at a certain epoch between the first 
 and fifth centuries, the language of Gaul was more Roman 
 and less Celtic than that of Britain. 
 
 SPECIMEN. 
 
 From the Anglo-Norman Poem of Charlemagne. 
 
 Un jur fu Karle'un al Seint-Denis muster, 
 Reout prise sa corune, en croiz seignat sun chef, 
 E ad ceinte sa espee : li pons fud d'or mer. 
 Dux i out e dcmeines e baruns e chevalers. 
 Li empereres reguardet la reine sa muillers. 
 Ele fut ben corunee al plus bel e as meuz. 
 11 la prist par le poin desuz un oliver, 
 De sa plcine j^arolc la prist a reisuner : 
 " Dame, veistes unkes humc nul de desuz ceil 
 Tant ben seist esp6e ne la corone el clief ? 
 Uncore cunquerrei-jo citez ot nuin espcez." 
 Cele ne fud pas sage, folcment icspondeit :
 
 92 NORMAN FRENCH. 
 
 " lMii]uTi'ro,"' dist-clo, tioj* vus pcicz ])roi.scr. 
 " I'ncoro on sa-jo uii ki plus sc I'liit li-gor, 
 
 Quant il porte corunc ontre scs clicvalcrs ; 
 
 Kaunt il met sur sa teste, plus belement lui set." 
 
 In the iioithorii French we must recognise not only u 
 Celtic anil a Classical, but also a Gothic element : since Clovis 
 and Charlemagne were no Frenchmen, but Germans; their 
 language being ///^/i-Germanic. The High-Germanic ele- 
 ment in French has still to be determined. 
 
 In the northern French o^ Normandi/ ihevQ is a second 
 Gothic element, viz.^ a Scandinavian element. By this the 
 proper northern French underwent a further modification. 
 
 Until the time of the Scandinavians or Northmen, the 
 present province of Normandy was called Neustria. A gene- 
 ration before the Norman Conquest, a Norwegian captain, 
 named in his own country Bolf^ and in France Rollo, or lloii^ 
 settled upon the coast of Normandy. What Hengist and 
 the Germans are supposed to have been in Britain, RoUo and 
 his Scandinavians were in France. The province took from 
 them its name of Normandy. The Norivegian element in the 
 Norman-French has yet to bo determined. Respecting it, 
 however, the following statements may, even in the present 
 state of the question, be made : — 
 
 1 . That a Norse dialect was spoken in Normandy at 
 Baycux, some time after the battle of Hastings. 
 
 2. That William the Conqueror understood the Norse 
 language. 
 
 o. That the names Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney are 
 as truly Norse names as Orkney and Shetland.
 
 INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 93 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THK POSITION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS INDO-EUROPEAN. 
 
 § 145. In each of the three preceding chapters a separate 
 stock of languages has been considered ; and it has been 
 shown, in some degree, how far languages of the same stock 
 differ from, or agree with, each other. 
 
 Furthermore, in each stock there has been some particular 
 language that especially illustrates the English. 
 
 In the Gothic stock there has been the Anglo-Saxon ; 
 in the Celtic the Welsh ; and in the Classical the Anglo- 
 Norman. 
 
 Nevertheless, the importance of the languages of these 
 three divisions is by no means equal. The Gothic tongues 
 supply the basis of our investigations. The Celtic afford a 
 few remnants of that language which the Anglo-Saxon super- 
 seded. The Anglo-Norman language exhibits certain super- 
 added elements. 
 
 § 146. Over and above the Gothic, Celtic, and Classical 
 languages, there are others that illustrate the English; and 
 some of our commonest grammatical inflections can be but 
 half understood unless we go beyond the groups already 
 enumerated. 
 
 The Gothic, Celtic (?),* and Classical stocks are but sub 
 ordinate divisions of a wider class. Each has a sufficient 
 amount of mutual affinities to be illustrative of each other, 
 and each is contained, along with two other groups of equal 
 value, under a higher denomination in philology. 
 
 What is the nature of that affinity which connects lan- 
 guages so different as the Gothic, Celtic (?), and Classical 
 stocks ? or what is the amount of likeness between, e.g.^ the 
 
 * The incaniiig of tlio note of intcnogation is explained in § 148.
 
 !M INDO-KUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 Herman and Portugneso, the Greek and fslandic, tlie Latin 
 and Swtdi.sh, tlie Anglo-Saxon and Italian ? And \vliat 
 other languages are so connected I 
 
 What other philological groups are connected with each 
 other, and with the languages already noticed, by the same 
 affinities which connect the Gothic, Celtic (')> and Classical 
 stocks ? Whatever these languages may be, it is nearly 
 certain that they will be necessary, on some point or other, 
 for the lull illustration of the English, 
 
 As both these questions are points of general, rather than 
 of English, philology, and as a partial answer may be got to 
 the first from attention to the degree in which the body of 
 the present work exhibits illustrations drawn from widely 
 different languages, the following statements are considered 
 sufficient. 
 
 § l^T. The philological denomination of the class which 
 contains the Gothic, Celtic ('), and Classical divisions, and, 
 along with the languages contained therein, all others simi- 
 larly allied, is Indo-European ; so that the Gothic, Celtic ('), 
 Classical and certain other languages are Indo-European, 
 
 All Indo-European languages illustrate each other. 
 
 The other divisions of the great Indo-European group of 
 languages are as follows : — 
 
 1 , The Iranian stock of languages. — This contains the 
 proper Persian languages of Persia (Iran) in all their stages, 
 the Kurd language, and all the languages of Asia (what- 
 ever they may be) derived from the Zend or Sanskrit. 
 
 2, The Sarmatian stock of languages. — This contains the 
 languages of Russia, Poland, Bohemia, and of the Slavonian 
 tribes in general. It contains also the Lithuanic languages, 
 i.e., the Lithuanic of Lithuania, the old Prussian of Prussia 
 (now extinct), and the Lettish or Livonic of Courland and 
 Livonia. 
 
 3, 4, 5, The Classical, Gothic, and Celtic (') stocks com- 
 plete the catalogue of languages undoubtedly Indo-European, 
 and at the same time they explain the import of the term. 
 Indo-European is the name of a class which embraces the 
 majority of the languages of Europe, and is extended over
 
 INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 95 
 
 Asia as far as India. Until the Celtic was shown by 
 Dr. Prichard to have certain affinities with the Latin, Greek, 
 Slavonic, Lithnanic, Gothic, Sanskrit, and Zend, as those 
 tongues had with each other, the class in question was called 
 \r\do-Germanic ; since, up to that time, the Germanic languages 
 had formed its western limit. 
 
 '/^ ^d'' 't\ •5S' ^S" ^S" 
 
 § 1 48. Meaning of the note of interrogation (? ) after the 
 word Celtic. — In a paper read before the Ethnological Society, 
 February 28th, 1849, and published in the Edinburgh Philo- 
 sophical Magazine, the present writer has given reasons for 
 considering the claims of the Celtic to be Indo-European as 
 somewhat doubtful ; at the same time he admits, and highly 
 values, all the facts in favour of its being so, which are to be 
 found in Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations. 
 
 He believes, however, that the Celtic can only be brought 
 in the same group with the Gothic, Slavonic, &c., by extend- 
 ing the value of the class. 
 
 " To draw an illustration from the common ties of relation- 
 ship, as between man and man, it is clear that a family may 
 be enlarged in two ways. 
 
 "a. A brother, or a cousin, may be discovered, of which 
 the existence was previously unknown. Herein the family 
 is enlarged, or increased, by the real addition of a new mem- 
 ber, in a recognised degree of relationship. 
 
 " b. A degree of relationship previously unrecognised may be 
 recognised, i. e., a family wherein it was previously considered 
 that a second-cousinship was as much as could be admitted 
 within its pale, may incorporate third, fourth, or fifth cousins. 
 Here the family is enlarged, or increased, by a verbal exten- 
 sion of the term. 
 
 "Now it is believed that the distinction between increase by 
 the way of real addition, and increase by the way of verbal 
 extension, has not been sufficiently attended to. Yet, that it 
 should be more closely attended to, is evident ; since, in 
 mistaking a verbal increase for a real one, the whole end antl 
 aim of classification is overlooked. The publication of Dr. 
 Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, in 1831,
 
 96 INDO-FATROPKAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 siipplii'tl pliilologisls with tlio most (lofiiiite adtlitioii tliat 
 has, perhaps, yot beoii made to ctliiiographical ])hIloloQ;'y. 
 
 "■ Ever since then the Celtic has been considered to be Indo- 
 European. Indeed its position in the same group with the 
 Iranian, Classical, Slavono-Lithuanic, and Gothic tongues, 
 supplied the reason for substituting the term Iudo-Euro2)ean 
 for the previous one Indo-Germanic. 
 
 " On the other liand, it seems necessary to admit that Ictn- 
 puages are allied just in jorojyortion as they were separated from 
 the mother-tongue in the same stage of its development. 
 
 " If so, the Celtic became detached anterior to the evolution 
 of the declension of nouns, whereas the Gothic, Slavonic, Clas- 
 sical and Iranian languages all separated subsequent to that 
 stage.'''' '•'' 
 
 This, along with other reasons indicated elsewhere,-)- in- 
 duces the present writer to admit an affinity between the 
 Celtic and the other so-called Indo-European tongues, bnt to 
 deny that it is the same affinity which connects the Iranian, 
 Classical, Gothic and Slavonic groups. 
 
 * Edinburgh Pliilosopliical Magazine, 
 t Natural History of Man.
 
 CELTIC ELEMENTS. 97 
 
 PART IL 
 
 HISTORY AND ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 HISTORICAL AND LOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 § 149. The Celtic elements of the present English fall into 
 five classes. 
 
 1. Those that are of late introduction, and cannot be called 
 original and constituent parts of the language. Such are 
 (amongst others) the words flannel^ crowd (a fiddle), from 
 the Cambrian ; and lierne (an Irish foot-soldier), galore 
 (enough), tartan^ plaid, &c., from the Gaelic branch. 
 
 2. Those that are common to both the Celtic and Gothic 
 stocks, and are Indo-European rather than either Welsh, 
 or Gaelic, or Saxon. Such (amongst others) are hrother, 
 mother^ in Celtic hrathair^ mathair ; the numerals, &c. 
 
 o. Those that have come to us from the Celtic, but have 
 come to us through the medium of another language. Such 
 are druid and bard, whose immediate source is, not the Celtic 
 but, the Latin. 
 
 4. Celtic elements of the Anglo-Norman, introduced into 
 England after the Conquest, and occurring in that language 
 as remains of the original Celtic of Gaul. 
 
 5. Those that have been retained from the original Celtic 
 of the island, and which form genuine constituents of our 
 language. These fall into three subdivisions. 
 
 a. Proper names — generally of geographical localities ; as 
 the Thames, Kent, &c.
 
 !)8 
 
 CKT.TIO ETJ-IMRNTP. 
 
 It. (Vtiiunoii iiamos ic'l:iineil in the provincial dialects ol' 
 Enolaml, Itut not retained in the current language ; as (jtoct- 
 haU='hoi(gclujld stuff, and fiwlanen=^ flannel in llereford.sliire. 
 
 c. Connnon names retained in the current hmguage. — The 
 following list is Mr. Garnetfs : — 
 
 Welsh. 
 
 
 Erifilisli , 
 
 Welsh. 
 
 English. 
 
 Hasirawtl 
 
 
 Basket. 
 
 Gefyn (fetter) 
 
 Gyve. 
 
 Berhi 
 
 
 Harrow. 
 
 Grcidell 
 
 Grid, in Gridinm 
 
 Bo twill 
 
 
 Button. 
 
 Grual 
 
 Gruel. 
 
 Bran 
 
 
 Brail. 
 
 Gwald (hem, » 
 border) \ 
 
 Welt. 
 
 Clwt 
 
 
 Clout, Hat;. 
 
 
 Croclian 
 
 
 Crock, Crockeri/. 
 
 Gwiccd (lit- 1 
 tic door) ) 
 
 Wicket. 
 
 Grog 
 
 
 Crook, Hook. 
 
 
 Cwch 
 
 
 Cock, in Cock-boat. 
 
 Gwn 
 
 Gown. 
 
 Cwysed 
 
 
 G usset. 
 
 Gwyfr 
 
 Wire. 
 
 Cyl, Cylii 
 
 { 
 
 Kiln {Kill, pro- 
 vinc). 
 
 Masg (stitch in 
 netting) 
 
 I Mesh. 
 
 Dantaetli 
 
 
 Dainli/. 
 
 Mattog 
 
 Mattock. 
 
 Darn 
 
 
 Dam. 
 
 Mop 
 
 Mop. 
 
 Deentnr 
 
 S 
 I 
 
 Tenter, in Tenter- 
 hook. 
 
 Rhail (fence) 
 Rhasg (slice) 
 
 Rail. 
 Rasher. 
 
 Fflaim 
 
 X 
 
 Fleam, Cattle- 
 luncet. 
 
 Rhuwch 
 Sawduriaw 
 
 Rng. 
 Solder. 
 
 Fflaw 
 
 
 Flaw. 
 
 Syth (glue) 
 
 Size, 
 
 Ffynncll (air- 
 hole) 
 
 s 
 
 Furmcl. 
 
 Tacl 
 
 Tackle. 
 
 § 150. Latin of the first 'period. — Of the Latin introduced 
 by Caesar and his successors, the few words remaining are 
 those that relate to military affairs ; viz. street (strata); coin 
 (as in Lincoln =^ Lindi colonia) ; cest (as in Gloucester = pleva 
 castra) from castra. The Latin words introduced between 
 the time of Caesar and Hengist may be called the Latin of 
 the first period, or the Latin of the Celtic period. 
 
 §151. The Anglo-Saxon. — This is not noticed here, because 
 from being the staple of the present language it is more or 
 less the subject of the book throughout. 
 
 § 152. The Danish, or Norse. — The pirates that pillaged 
 Britain, under the name of Danes, were not exclusively the 
 inhabitants of Denmark. Of the three Scandinavian nations, 
 the Swedes took the least share, the Norwegians the greatest
 
 DANISH ELEMENTS. 99 
 
 in these invasions. Not that the Swedes were less piratical, 
 but that they robbed elsewhere, — in Russia, for instance, and 
 in Finland. 
 
 The language of the three nations was the same ; the 
 differences being differences of dialect. It was that which 
 is now spoken in Iceland, having been once common to Scan- 
 dinavia and Denmark. Whether this was aboriginal in 
 DenmarJc, is uncertain. In Scandinavia it was imported ; 
 the tongue that it supplanted having been, in all probabi- 
 lity, the mother-tongue of the present Laplandic. 
 
 The Danish that became incorporated with our language, 
 under the reign of Canute and his sons, may be called the 
 direct Danish (Norse or Scandinavian) element, in contra- 
 distinction to the indirect Danish of §§ 144, 155. 
 
 The determination of the amount of Danish in English is 
 difficult. It is not difficult to prove a word Scandinavian. 
 We must also show that it is not German. A few years 
 back the current opinion was against the doctrine that there 
 was much Danish in England. At present, the tendency is 
 rather the other way. The following facts are from Mr. 
 Garnett.— Phil. Trans. Vol. i. 
 
 1. The Saxon name of the present town of Whitby in 
 Yorkshire was Streoneshalch. The present name Whitby, 
 Hviiby^ or White-town^ is Danish. 
 
 2. The Saxon name of the capital of Derbyshire was 
 Northiceortheg. The present name is Danish. 
 
 8. The termination -by^^town is Norse. 
 
 4. On a monument in Aldburgh church, Holdernesse, in 
 the East Riding of Yorkshire, referred to the age of Edward 
 the Confessor, is found the following inscription : — 
 
 Ulf het araeran cyncc for kanurn and for Gunthara saula. 
 
 " Ulf bid rear the church for him and for the soul of Gunthar." 
 
 Now, in this inscription, Ulf, in opposition to the Anglo- 
 Saxon wulf, is a Norse form ; whilst hanum is a Norse dative, 
 and by no means an Anglo-Saxon one, — Old Norse hanum, 
 Swedish honom. 
 
 5. The use of at for to as the sign of the infinitive mood 
 
 II 2
 
 100 DANISH ELEMENTS. 
 
 is Norsje, not Saxon. It i.s the regular prefix in Icelandic, 
 Danish, Swetlish, ami Feroic. It is al.M) i'ound in the northern 
 dialects of the Old English, and in the particular dialect of 
 Westmoreland at the present day. 
 
 6. The use of sum for as ; e.g. — stca sum we forgive oure 
 dettnrs. 
 
 7. Isolated words in the northern dialects are Norse rather 
 than Saxon. 
 
 'roviiniul. 
 
 Common DittUct. 
 
 Nurse. 
 
 Braid 
 
 lii'semhle 
 
 Bra a;;, Stved. 
 
 Eldin 
 
 Firing 
 
 EUl, Dun. 
 
 Force 
 
 W a lei fall 
 
 B'ors, D. Swed. 
 
 Gar 
 
 Make 
 
 Gora, Swcd. 
 
 Gill 
 
 Ravine 
 
 Gil, Iceland. 
 
 Greet 
 
 Weep 
 
 Grata, Iceland. 
 
 Ket 
 
 Carrion 
 
 Kiod = Flesh, Dan. 
 
 Lait 
 
 Seek 
 
 Lede, Dan. 
 
 Lathe 
 
 Barn 
 
 Lade, Dun. 
 
 Lile 
 
 Lillle 
 
 Lille, Dan. 
 
 § 153. Roman of the Second Period. — Of the Latin intro- 
 duced under the Christianised Saxon sovereigns, many words 
 are extant. They relate chiefly to ecclesiastical matters, just 
 as the Latin of the Celtic period bore upon military aftairs. — 
 Mi/nste7\ a minster, monasterium ; portic, a porch, porticus ; 
 cluster., a cloister, claustrum ; micnuc, a monk, monachus ; 
 hisceop, a bishop, episcopus ; arcebisceop, archbishop, archiepi- 
 scopus ; sand, a saint, sanctus ; pro/ost, a provost, propositus ; 
 pall, a pall, pallium ; calic, a chalice, calix ; candel, a candle, 
 candela ; psalter, a T^sixliev, psalterium ; masse, a mass, missa ; 
 pistel, an epistle, epistola ; pradic-ian, to preach, pra.dicare ; 
 prof-ian, to prove, prohare. 
 
 The following are the names of foreign plants and ani- 
 mals : — camell, a camel, camelus ; yip, elephant, elephas ; fic- 
 heam,, fig-tree, ^ci«s i fiferfuge, fevex-few, fehrifuga ; peterselige, 
 parsley, jjetrosellnum. 
 
 Otliers are the names of articles of foreign origin, as pipor, 
 pepper, piper ; purpur, purple, purpura ; pumicstan, pumice- 
 stone, pumex.
 
 ANGLO-NORMAN ELEMENTS. 101 
 
 The above-oiven list is from Guests Eiio-Hsh Rlivthiiis 
 
 O Ok 
 
 (B. iii. c. 3). It constitutes that portion of the elements of 
 our language which may be called the Latin of the second, 
 or Saxon period. 
 
 § 154. The Anglo-Norman element. — For practical purposes 
 we may say that the French or Anglo-Norman element ap- 
 peared in our language after the battle of Hastings, a.d. 1066. 
 
 Previous, however, to that period we find notices of inter- 
 course between the two countries. 
 
 1. The residence in England of Louis Outremer. 
 
 2. Ethelred IL married Emma, daughter of Richard Duke 
 of Normandy, and the two children were sent to Normandy 
 for education. 
 
 3. Edward the Confessor is particularly stated to have 
 encouraged French manners and the French language in 
 England. 
 
 4. Ingulphus of Ci'oydon speaks of his own knowledge of 
 French. 
 
 5. Harold passed some time in Normandy. 
 
 6. The French article la, in the term la Drove, occurs in 
 a deed of a.d. 975. — See Ranouard, Journal cles Savans, 
 1830. 
 
 The chief Anglo-Norman elements of our language are the 
 terms connected with the feudal system, the terms relating to 
 war and chivalry, and a great portion of the law terms — 
 duJce^ count, baron, villain, service, chivalry, warrant, esquire, 
 challenge, domain, &c. 
 
 § 155, The Norwegian, Danish, Norse, or Scandinavian 
 element of the Anglo-Norman (as in the proper names 
 Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and perhaps others) constitutes 
 the indirect Scandinavian element of the English. 
 
 § 156. Latin of the Third Period. — This means the Latin 
 which was introduced between the battle of Hastings and the 
 revival of literatui-e. It chiefly originated with the monks, 
 in the universities, and, to a certain extent, in the courts of 
 law. It must be distinguished from the indirect Latin in- 
 troduced as part and parcel of the Anglo-Norman. It has 
 yet to be accurately analyzed.
 
 102 LATIN ELEMENTS. 
 
 Latin of the Fourth Period. — This means the Latin wlnVli 
 has bceii introduced between the revival of Hterature and the 
 present time. It has originated in the writings of k*arned 
 men in general, and is distinguished from that of the previous 
 periods by — 
 
 1 . Being less altered in form — 
 
 2. Preserving, in the case of substantives, in many cases 
 its original inflections ; axis, axes ; basis, bases — 
 
 3. Relating to objects and ideas for which the increase of 
 the range of science in general has required a nomenclature. 
 
 § 157. Greek. — Words derived directly from the Greek are 
 in the same predicament as the Latin of the third period 
 — phenomenon, pheenomena ; criterion, criteria^ &c. ; word^ 
 which are only indirectly of Greek origin, being con- 
 sidered to belong to the language from which they were 
 immediately introduced into the English. Such are deacon, 
 priest, &c., introduced through the Latin ; thus a word 
 like church proves no more in regard to a Greek element 
 in English, than the word abbot proves in respect to a Syrian 
 one. 
 
 § 158. The Latin of the fourth period and the Greek agree 
 in retaining, in many cases, the Latin or Greek inflexions 
 rather than adopting the English ones ; in other words, they 
 agree in being but imperfectly incorporated. The phfcno- 
 menon of imperfect incorporation (an important one) is re- 
 ducible to the following rules : — 
 
 1. That it has a direct ratio to the date of the introduc- 
 tion, i.e., the more recent the word the more likely it is to 
 retain its original inflexion. 
 
 2. That it has a relation to the number of meanings be- 
 longing to the words : thus, when a single word has two 
 meanings, the original inflexion expresses one, the English 
 inflexion another — (genius, genii, often (spirits), geniuses {men 
 of genitis) . 
 
 8. That it occurs with substantives only, and that only in 
 the expression of number. Thus, although the plural of sub- 
 stantives like axis and genius are Latin, the possessive cases 
 are English. So also are the degrees of comparison, for
 
 LATIN ELEMENTS. 
 
 103 
 
 adjectives like circular, and the tenses, &e. for verbs, like 
 perambulate. 
 
 § 159. The following is a list of the chief Latin substantives, 
 introduced during the latter part of the fourth period ; and, 
 preserving the Laihi plural forms — 
 
 FIRST CLASS. 
 Words wherein the Latin Plural is the same as the Latin Singular. 
 
 (a) Si»g. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Apparatus 
 
 apparatMs 
 
 Hiatus 
 
 hiatus 
 
 Impetus 
 
 impetMs. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Caries 
 
 caries 
 
 Congeries 
 
 congeries 
 
 Series 
 
 series 
 
 Species 
 
 species 
 
 Superficies 
 
 superficies. 
 
 SECOND CLASS. 
 
 Words wherein the Latin Plural is formed fr07)i the Latm Singular by 
 changing the last Si/llahle. 
 (a). — Where the Singular termination -a is changed in (he Plural into -se : — 
 Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 
 
 {by. 
 
 (c). 
 
 Formula 
 
 formuLe 
 
 Nebula 
 
 nebula 
 
 Lamina 
 
 lamina 
 
 Scorift 
 
 scoria. 
 
 Larva 
 
 larv« 
 
 
 
 — Where the singular termination - 
 
 us is changed in the 
 
 Plural into -i : 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Calculus 
 
 calculi 
 
 Polypws 
 
 polypi 
 
 Colossz/s 
 
 colossi. 
 
 Radiws 
 
 radii 
 
 Convolvulws 
 
 convolvuli 
 
 RanunculMS 
 
 ranunculi 
 
 Focus 
 
 focj 
 
 Sarcophagus 
 
 sarcophagi 
 
 Geniws 
 
 genii 
 
 SchirrliMS 
 
 schirrhi 
 
 Magws 
 
 magi 
 
 Stimulas 
 
 stimuli 
 
 Nautilws 
 
 nautili 
 
 Tumuh/s 
 
 tumuli. 
 
 CEsophagMs 
 
 oesophagi 
 
 
 
 - Where the Si 
 
 ngular termination - 
 
 urn is changed in the 
 
 Pluj-ulinto -a : 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Animalculw)/ 
 
 animalcule 
 
 Effluviuffz 
 
 effluvia 
 
 ArcaiiMWi 
 
 arcana 
 
 Einpori?//« 
 
 emporia 
 
 Collyriw/// 
 
 cullyria 
 
 Eucomiww 
 
 encomia 
 
 Dixium 
 
 data 
 
 Errat«?« 
 
 errata 
 
 Dcsi<lcrat«7« 
 
 desideruta 
 
 (tyuHiasiww 
 
 gymnasia
 
 104 
 
 LATIN ELEMENTS. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 riur. 
 
 Lixivi«;« 
 
 lixivif/ 
 
 LustrMWJ 
 
 lustra 
 
 Mausolc«/H 
 
 mausulca 
 
 MciliM/zj 
 
 media 
 
 MeniornmlHWJ 
 
 memoranda 
 
 McnstiUM/H 
 
 menstrua 
 
 MoinentM/// 
 
 momenta 
 
 ).— Wfiere the 
 
 singular termini 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Amanuensis 
 
 amanuenses 
 
 Analysis 
 
 analyses 
 
 Antithesis 
 
 antitheses 
 
 Axis 
 
 axes 
 
 Basis 
 
 bases 
 
 Crisis 
 
 crises 
 
 Diceresis 
 
 disereses 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 PremiuMj 
 
 premia 
 
 SclioliM7?j 
 
 scholia 
 
 Spectram 
 
 spectra 
 
 S])ceulHm 
 
 specula 
 
 Strataw 
 
 strata 
 
 Succoduneu7?i 
 
 succedancrt. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Ellipsis 
 
 ellipses 
 
 Emphasis 
 
 emphases 
 
 Hypothesis 
 
 hypotheses 
 
 Oasis 
 
 oases 
 
 Parenthesis 
 
 parentheses 
 
 Synthesis 
 
 syntheses 
 
 Thesis 
 
 theses. 
 
 THIRD CLASS. 
 Words wherein the Plural is formed by inserting -e between the last two 
 sounds of the singular, so that the former number always contains a syllable 
 more than the latter : — 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Apex sounded 
 
 Appendix — 
 
 Calix — 
 
 Cicatrix — 
 
 Helix — 
 
 Index — 
 
 Radix — 
 
 Vertex — 
 
 Vortex — 
 
 In all these words the c of the singular number is sounded as k, of the 
 plural as s. 
 
 § 160. The following is a list of the chief Greek substantives 
 lately introduced, and preserving the Greek plural forms — 
 
 FIRST CLASS. 
 Words where the singular termination -on is changed in the plural into -a : — 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 apec-s 
 
 apices 
 
 appendic-s 
 
 appendices 
 
 calic-s 
 
 calice* 
 
 cicatric-s 
 
 cicatrices 
 
 helic-s 
 
 helices 
 
 indec-s 
 
 indices 
 
 radic-s 
 
 radices 
 
 vertec-s 
 
 vertices 
 
 vortec-s 
 
 vortices. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Aphelio/i 
 
 aphclia 
 
 Criteric»?i 
 
 criteria 
 
 Perihelio« 
 
 perihelia 
 
 Ephemerow 
 
 ephemera 
 
 Automaton 
 
 automate 
 
 PhaenomenoTi 
 
 phsenomena.
 
 LATIN ELEMENTS. 
 
 105 
 
 SECOND CLASS. 
 
 Words where the plural isformed from the original root hy adding either -es 
 or -a, but where the singular rejects the last letter of the original root. 
 Plurah in -es : — 
 Original root. Plur. Sing. 
 
 Apsid- apsides apsis 
 
 Cantharid- canthavides cantharis 
 
 Chrysalid- chrysalides chrysalis 
 
 Ephemerid- ephemeridfs ephemeris 
 
 Tripod- tripodes tripos. 
 
 Plurals in -a : — 
 Original roof. Plur. Sing. 
 
 Dogmat- dogmata dogma 
 
 Lemmat- lemmata lemma 
 
 Miasmat- miasmata. miasma* 
 
 § 161. Miscellaneous elements. — Of miscellaneous elements 
 we have two sorts ; those that are incorporated in our lan- 
 guage, and are currently understood {e.g., the Spanish word 
 sherry., the Arabic word alJcali, and the Persian word turban), 
 and those that, even amongst the educated, are considered 
 strangers. Of this latter kind (amongst many others) are the 
 Oriental words hummum, kaftan, gid, &c. 
 
 Of the currently understood miscellaneous elements of the 
 English language, the most important are from the French ; 
 some of which agree with those of the Latin of the fourth 
 period, and the Greek in preserving the French plural forms 
 — as heau, beaux, Mllets-doux. 
 
 Italian. — Some words of Italian origin do the same : as 
 virtuoso, virtuosi. 
 
 Hebrew. — The Hebrew words, cherub and seraph do the 
 same ; the form cheruh-im, and seraph-im, being not only 
 plurals but Hebrew plurals. 
 
 Beyond the words derived from these five languages, none 
 form their plurals other than after the English method, i.e., 
 in -s : as waltzes, from the German word waltz. 
 
 § 162, The extent to which a language, which like the En- 
 glish, at one and the same time requires names for many 
 objects, comes in contact with the tongues of half the world, 
 
 * This list is taken from Smart's valuable and logical English Gramniar.
 
 !"•' MISOKLLANEOUS ELEMENTS. 
 
 and lins, moreover, a great power of incorporating foreign 
 elements, derives fresh words from varied sources, may be 
 seen from the following incomplete notice of the languages 
 which have, in ditlerent degrees, supplied it with )iew terms. 
 
 Arabic. — Admiral, alchemist, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, 
 alembic, algebra, alkali, assassin, from a paper of Mr. Craw- 
 ford, read at the British Association, 1849. 
 
 Persian. — Turban, caravan, dervise, &c. — Ditto. 
 
 Turkish. — Coffee, bashaw, divan, scimitar, janisary, &c. — 
 Ditto. 
 
 Hindu languages. — Calico, chintz, cowrie, curry, lac, muslin, 
 toddy, &c. — Ditto. 
 
 Chinese. — Tea, bohea, congou, hyson, soy, nankin, Sic. — 
 Ditto. 
 
 Malay. — Bantam (fowl), gamboge, rattan, sago, shaddock, 
 &:c. — Ditto. 
 
 Polynesian. — Taboo, tattoo. — Ditto. 
 
 Tungusian^ or some similar Siberian language. — Mammoth, 
 the bones of which are chiefly from the banks of the Lena. 
 
 North American Indian. — Squaw, wigwam, pemmican. 
 
 Peruvian. — Charki = prepared meat ; whence jerked beef. 
 
 Caribbean. — Hammock. 
 
 Ancient Garian. — Mausoleum. 
 
 § 163. In § 157 a distinction is drawn between the direct 
 and indirect., the latter leading to the ultimate origin of words. 
 
 Thus a word borrowed into the English from the French, 
 might have been borrowed into the French from the Latin, 
 into the Latin from the Greek, into the Greek from the Per- 
 sian, &c., and so ad infinitum. 
 
 The investigation of this is a matter of literary curiosity 
 rather than any important branch of philology. 
 
 The ultimate known origin of many common words some- 
 times goes back to a great date, and points to extinct lan- 
 guages — 
 
 Ancient Nubian (?) — Barbarous. 
 
 Ancient Egyptian. — Ammonia. 
 
 -.1 ncient Syrian. — Cyder. 
 
 Ancient Syrian. — Pandar.
 
 iHISCELLANEOUS ELEMENTS. 107 
 
 Ancient Lydian. — Maander. 
 
 Ancient Persian. — Paradise. 
 
 § 164. Again, a word from a given language may be intro- 
 duced by more lines than one ; or it may be introduced twice 
 over ; once at an earlier, and again at a later period. In such a 
 case its form will, most probably, vary ; and, what is more, its 
 meaning as well. Words ofthis sort may be called di-morpMc, 
 their di-tnorphism, having originated in one of two reasons — a 
 difference of channel, or a difference of date. Instances of the 
 first are, syrup, sherbet, and shrub, all originally from the Arabic, 
 srb ; but introduced differently, viz., the first through the Latin, 
 the second through the Persian, and the third through the 
 Hindoo. Instances of the second are words like minster, in- 
 troduced in the Anglo-Saxon, as contrasted with monastery, 
 introduced during the Anglo-Norman period. By the proper 
 application of these processes, we account for words so dif- 
 ferent in present form, yet so identical in origin, as priest and 
 presbyter, episcopal and bishop, Sfc. 
 
 § 165. Distinction. — The history of the languages that have 
 been spoken in a particular country, is a different subject 
 from the history of a particular language. The history of the 
 languages that have been spoken in the United States of 
 America, is the history of Indian languages. The history of 
 the languages of the United States is the history of the 
 Germanic language. 
 
 § 166. Words of foreign simulating a vernacular origin. 
 — These may occur in any mixed language whatever ; they 
 occur, however, oftener in the English than in any other. 
 
 Let a word be introduced from a foreign language — let it 
 have some resemblance in sound to a real English one : 
 lastly, let the meanings of the two words be not absolutely 
 incompatible. We may then have a word of foreign origin 
 taking the appearance of an English one. Such, amongst 
 others, are beef-eater, from bceuffetier ; spar roio-gr ass, aspa- 
 ragus; Shotover, Chateau vert;* Jerusalem, Girasole;-\ Spanish 
 
 * As in S/tulover Hill, uciir Oxford. 
 t As ill Jerusalem artichoke.
 
 I OS TRANSFER AND CONFUSION. 
 
 becfeahr, Spina befida ; periirig^ peruke ; runagate, renegade ; 
 lutestring, lit ^fi'inu;* yes, Oijezl ancient, ensign ^ 
 
 Dog-chap. — This has nothing to do with dogs. The first 
 syllable is god ~ good transposed, and the second the ch-p 
 in chapman {=mcrcltant) cheap, and East-cheap. In Sir 
 J. Mandi'ville, we find god-}cepe=good bargain. 
 
 Ski/ larking. — Nothing to do with larks of any sort ; still 
 less the particular species, alauda arvensis. The word im- 
 properly spelt l-a-r-k, and banished to the slang regions of 
 the English language, is the Anglo-Saxon lac =^ game, or sport ; 
 wherein the a is sounded as in father (not as in farther). 
 Lek^game, in the present Scandinavian languages. 
 
 Zachary Macaulay =zZumalacarregui ; Billy Ruffian=^ 
 Bellerophon ; Sir Roger Doiolass = Surajah Dowlah, al- 
 though so limited to the common soldiers, and sailors who 
 first used them, as to be exploded vulgarisms rather than 
 integral parts of the language, are examples of the same 
 tendency towards the irregular accommodation of misun- 
 derstood foreign terms. 
 
 Birdbolt. — An incorrect name for the gadus lota, or eel- 
 pout, and a transformation of barboie. 
 
 Whistle-fish. — The same for gadus mustela, or weazel-cod. 
 
 Liquorice=glycyrrhiza. 
 
 JVonmcood=tceremuth, is an instance of a word from the 
 same language, in an antiquated shape, being equally trans- 
 formed with a w'ord of really foreign origin. 
 
 § 1 67. Sometimes the transformation of the name has en- 
 gendered a change in the object to which it applies, or, at 
 least, has evolved new ideas in connection with it. How easy 
 for a person who used the words beefeater, sparrow-grass, or 
 Jerusalem, to believe that the officers designated by the former 
 either eat or used to eat more beef than other people (or 
 at least had an allowance of that viand) ; that the second word 
 was the name for a grass, or herb of which sparrows were 
 fond ; and that Jerusalem artichokes came from Palestine. 
 
 What has just been supposed is sometimes a real occur- 
 
 * A sort of silk. 
 
 t Ancient Cassio — " Othello."
 
 HYBRIDISM. 109 
 
 rence. To account for the name Shotover-hill^ I have heard 
 that Little John sJiot over it. Here the confusion in order 
 to set itself right, breeds a fiction. Again, in chess, the 
 piece now called the queen, was originally the elephant. This 
 was in Persian, ferz. In French it became vierge, which, 
 in time, came to be mistaken for a derivative, and virgo= 
 the virgin, the lady, the queen. 
 
 § 168. Sometimes, where the form of a word in respect to 
 its sound is not affected, a false spirit of accommodation 
 introduces an unetymological spelling ; as frontispiece^ from 
 frontispecium, sovereign, from sovrano, colleague from col- 
 lega, lanthorn (old orthography) from lanterna. 
 
 The value of forms like these consists in their showing 
 that language is affected by false etymologies as well as by 
 true ones. 
 
 •vJ 'ti -!;■ vc- -5!: -vt 
 
 § 169. In lambkin and lancet, the final syllables (-kin and 
 -et) have the same power. They both express the idea of 
 smallness or diminutiveness. These words are but two out of 
 a multitude, the one {lamb) being of Saxon, the other (lance) 
 of Norman origin. The same is the case with the super- 
 added syllables : -Mn is Saxon ; -et Norman. Now to add a 
 Saxon termination to a Norman word, or vice versa, is to 
 corrupt the English language. 
 
 This leads to some observations respecting — 
 
 § 170. Introduction o/newioords — Hyhridism. — Hybridism 
 is a term derived from hylrid-a, a mongrel ; a Latin word of 
 Greek extraction. 
 
 The terminations -ize (as in criticize), -ism (as in criti- 
 cism), -ic (as in comic), these, amongst many others, ai-e 
 Greek terminations. To add them to words of other than of 
 Greek origin is to be guilty of hybridism. 
 
 The terminations -hie (as in penetrable), -bility (as in 
 penetrability, -al (as in parental) — these, amongst many 
 others, are Latin terminations. To add them to words of 
 other than of Latin origin is to be guilty of hybridism. 
 
 * This class of words was pointed out to me by the very intelligent Reader 
 of my first edition.
 
 110 IIYIJIMDISM. 
 
 llyl)ritlisin is tlir coinnioncst limit that accompanios the 
 introduction of dow words. The hybrid additions to the 
 Euirlish lanirua<>e are most numerous in works on science. 
 
 It must not, however, be concealed that several well 
 established words are hybrid ; and that, even in the writings 
 of the classical Roman authors, there is hybridism between 
 the Latin and the Greek. 
 
 The etymological view of evei-y word of foreign origin is, 
 not that it is put together in England, but that it is brought 
 whole from the language to which it is vernacular. Now no 
 derived word can be brought whole from a language unless, 
 in that language, all its parts exist. The word penetral'dUi/ 
 is not derived from the English word 2^^netrahle, by the addi- 
 tion of -^y. It is the Latin word penetrahilitas imported. 
 
 In derived ivords all the ixirts must hclong to one and the 
 same language, or, changing the exjn-ession, every derived 
 word must have a possible form in the language from which it 
 is taken. Such is the rule against Hybridism. 
 
 § 171. A true word sometimes takes the appearance of a 
 hybrid without really being so. The -icle, in icicle, is appa- 
 rently the same as the -icle in radicle. Now, as ice is Gothic, 
 and -icle classical, hybridism is simulated. Icicle, hovt^ever, 
 is not a derivative but a compound ; its parts being is and 
 gicel, both Anglo-Saxon words. 
 
 § 1 72. On Incompletion of the Radical. — Let there be in 
 a given language a series of roots ending in -t, as saniat. 
 Let a euphonic influence eject the -i, as often as the word 
 occurs in the nominative case. Let the nominative case be 
 erroneously considered to represent the root, or radical, of 
 the word. Let a derivative word be formed accordingly, i.e., 
 on the notion that the nominative form and the radical form 
 coincide. Such a derivative will exhibit only a part of the 
 root; in other words, the radical will be incomplete. 
 
 Now all this is what actually takes place in words like 
 hamo-pti/sis (spitting of blood), sema-phore (a sort of tele- 
 graph). The Greek imparisyllabics eject a part of the root 
 in the nominative case ; the radical forms being hcemat- and 
 scemat-, not hrem- and seem-.
 
 LOGICAL AND HISTORICAL ANALYSIS. HI 
 
 Incompletion of the radical is one of the commonest causes 
 of words being coined faultily. It must not, however, be 
 concealed, that even in the classical writers, we have (in 
 words like hiarof/jog) examples of incompletion of the radical. 
 
 * * * -«- -;:;- * 
 
 § 173. The preceding chapters have paved the way for a 
 distinction between the historical analysis of a language, and 
 the logical analysis of one. 
 
 Let the present language of England (for illustration's sake 
 only) consist of 40,000 words. Of these let 30,000 be Anglo- 
 Saxon, 5,000 Anglo-Norman, 100 Celtic, 10 Latin of the 
 first, 20 Latin of the second, and SO Latin of the third 
 period, 50 Scandinavian, and the rest miscellaneous. In this 
 case the language is considered according to the historical 
 origin of the words that compose it, and the analysis (or, if 
 the process be reversed, the synthesis) is an historical ana- 
 lysis. 
 
 But it is very evident that the English, or any other lan- 
 guage, is capable of being contemplated in another view, and 
 that the same number of words may be very diflerently classi- 
 fied. Instead of arranging them according to the languages 
 whence they are derived, let them be disposed according to 
 the meanings that they convey. Let it be said, for instance, 
 that out of 40,000 words, 10,000 are the names of natural 
 objects, that 1000 denote abstract ideas, that 1000 relate to 
 warfare, 1000 to church matters, 500 to points of chivalry, 
 1000 to agriculture, and so on through the whole. In this 
 case the analysis (or, if the process be reversed, the synthesis) 
 is not historical but logical ; the words being classed not 
 according to their origin, but according to their meaning. 
 
 Now the logical and historical analysis of a language gene- 
 rally in some degree coincides, as may be seen by no- 
 ticing the kind of words introduced from the Anglo-Norman, 
 the Latin of the fourth period, and the Arabic.
 
 U^i ENOT.ISH AS A 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE RELATION OF THE ENGLISH TO THE ANGLO-SAXON, 
 AND THE STAGES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 § 174. The relation of the present English to the Anglo- 
 Saxon is that of a modern language to an ancient one : the 
 words modern and ancient being used in a defined and 
 technical sense. 
 
 Let the \Aord smi^uni illustrate this. Smi^mn, the 
 dative plural of smvS, is equivalent in meaning to the 
 English to smiths^ or to the Latin fabris. Sm^ium, 
 however, is a single Anglo-Saxon word (a substantive, and 
 nothing more) ; whilst its English equivalent is two words 
 (i.e., a substantive with the addition of a preposition). The 
 letter s, in smiths shows that the word is plural. The -Mm, in 
 sml^um, does this and something more. It is the sign of 
 the dative case plural. The -um in smi6um, is the part of 
 a word. The preposition to is a separate word with an 
 independent existence. Smi^uni is the radical syllable smi^, 
 plus the subordinate inflectional syllable -um, the sign of the 
 dative case. To smiths is the substantive smiths, plus the 
 preposition to, equivalent in power to the sign of a dative 
 case, but different from it in form. As far, then, as the 
 word just quoted is concerned, the Anglo-Saxon differs from 
 the English thus. It expresses a given idea by a modification 
 of the form of the root, whereas the modern English denotes 
 the same idea by the addition of a i)reposition. The Saxon 
 inflection is superseded by a combination of words. 
 
 The part that is played by the preposition with nouns, is 
 played by the auxiliaries (have, he, &c.) with verbs. 
 
 The sentences in italics are mere variations of the same 
 general statement. (1.) The earlier the stage of a given
 
 MODERN LANGUAGE. 113 
 
 language tJte greater the amount of its inflectional forms ^ and the 
 later the stage of a given language, the smaller the amount of 
 them. (2.) As languages become modern they substitute prepo- 
 sitions and auxiliary verbs for cases and tenses. (3.) The 
 amount of inflection is in the inverse proportion to the amount 
 of prepositions and auxiliary verbs. (4.) In the course of time 
 languages drop their inflection and substitute in its stead circum- 
 locutions by means of prepositions, S^c. The reverse never 
 -takes place. (5.) Given two modes of expression, the one in- 
 flectional (smiSuiii), the other circumlocutional (to smiths), ve 
 can state that the first belongs to an early, the second to a late, 
 stage of language. 
 
 The present chapter, then, showing the relation of the 
 EngHsh to the Anglo-Saxon, shows something more. It 
 exhibits the general relation of a modern to an ancient lan- 
 guage. As the English is to the Anglo-Saxon, so are the 
 Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian, to the old Norse ; so also 
 the Modern High German to the Moeso-Gothic ; so the Modern 
 Dutch of Holland to the Old Frisian ; so, moreover, amongst 
 the languages of a different stock, are the French, Italian, 
 Spanish, Portuguese, Romanese and ^Vallachiau to the Latin, 
 and the Romaic to the Ancient Greek. 
 
 § l7o. Contrasted with the English, but contrasted with it 
 only in those points where the ancient tongue is compared 
 with the modern one, the Anglo-Saxon has the following 
 differences. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 Of Gender. — In Anglo-Saxon there are three genders, the 
 masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. With adjectives each 
 gender has its peculiar declension ; with substantives there are 
 also appropriate terminations, but only to a certain degree ; 
 e.g., of words ending in -a (nama, a name ; cuma, a guest), it 
 may be stated that they are always masculine ; of words in 
 -u (sunu, a son ; gifu, a gift), that they are never neuter ; in 
 other words, that they are either mas. or fern. 
 
 The definite article varies with the gender of its substan- 
 tive ; pc&t cage, the eye ; se steorra, the star ; seo tunge, the 
 tongue.
 
 1 II' KNOLISII AS A 
 
 Of iXauilur. — Tlio plural form in -en (as in oxim), rare in 
 Ensjlisli, was common in Anglo-Saxon. It was the regular 
 termination of a whole declension ; e.c/., eapan, eyes; steoi'ran, 
 stars; fininan, tongues. ]3esi(lcs this, the Anglo-Saxons had 
 forms in -a and -^i', as r/c«, kingdoms; ffi/a, gi{\s. The termi- 
 nation -s, current in the j)resont English was confined to a 
 single gender and to a single declension, as endas, ends ; 
 dams, days; sw?28tf.<!, smiths. 
 
 Of Case. — Of these the Saxons had, for their substantives, 
 at least three ; viz. the nominative, dative, genitive. With 
 the pronouns and adjectives there was a true accusative form ; 
 and with a few especial words an ablative or instrumental one. 
 /S';/</5, a smith ; smi^e, to a smith ; stni^es, of a smith. Plural, 
 smi'Sas, smiths ; smi'Sum, to smiths ; smvSa, of smiths : he, 
 he ; hme, him ; Mm, to him ; Ms, his : se, the ; ])a, the ; ))y, 
 with the ; ]^am, to the ; ])ces, of the. 
 
 Of the dative in -urn, the word wMlom {at times, at wMles) 
 is a still extant and an almost isolated specimen. 
 
 0/ Declension. — \n Anglo-Saxon it is necessary to determine 
 the termination of a substantive. There is the weak, or simple 
 declension for words ending in a vowel (as eage, steorra, 
 tunga), and the strong, or complex declension for words end- 
 ing in a consonant {sm?6, sprtEC, leaf). The letters i and u 
 are dealt with as semivowels, semivowels being dealt with as 
 consonants ; so that words like sunu and gifu belong to the 
 same declension as smi^ and sjjrafc. 
 
 That the form of adjectives varies with their definitude or 
 indefinitude, has been seen from § 93 : definite adjectives fol- 
 lowing the inflection of the simple ; indefinite ones that of the 
 complex declension. 
 
 The detail of the Anglo-Saxon declension may be collected 
 from §§ 83—89. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon inflection of the participles present is 
 remarkable. With the exception of the form for the genitive 
 plural definite (which, instead of -ewa, is -ra,) they follow the 
 declension of the adjectives. From the masculine substan- 
 tives formed from them, and denoting the agent, they maybe 
 distinguished by a difference of inflection.
 
 MODERN LANGUAGE. 115 
 
 Participle. 
 
 Substantive. 
 
 AVegfeiendc zz Waj/jiaing. 
 
 Wegferende Waiifurer 
 
 Sing. Num. Wegferende 
 
 Wegferend. 
 
 Ace. WegferendiK' 
 
 Wegferend. 
 
 Abl. Wegferende 
 
 Wegferende. 
 
 Dat. Wegfereiidum 
 
 Wegferende. 
 
 Geji. Wegferendes 
 
 Wegferendes. 
 
 Plur. Noin. Wegferende 
 
 Wcgferendas. 
 
 Dat. Wegferendum 
 
 Wegferendum 
 
 Gen. Wegferendra 
 
 Wegferenda. 
 
 Pronouns Personal. — Of the pronominal inflection in Saxon, 
 the character may be gathered from the chapter upon pro- 
 nouns. At present, it may be stated that, like the Moeso- 
 Gothic and the Icelandic, the Anglo-Saxon language possessed 
 for the first two persons a dual number ; inflected as follows : 
 1st Person. 2nd Person. 
 
 Norn. Wit We two. Nom. Git Ye two. 
 
 Ace. Unc Us two. Ace. Inc You two. 
 
 Gen. Uncer Of' us two. Gen. Incer Of' you txoo. 
 
 Besides this, the demonstrative, possessive, and relative pro- 
 nouns, as well as the numerals twa and breo, had a fuller 
 declension than they have at present. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 Mood. — The subjunctive mood that in the present English 
 (with the exception of the conjugation of the verb substan- 
 tive) differs from the indicative only in the third person 
 singular, was in Anglo-Saxon inflected as follows : 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 Pres. S'lng. 1. Lufige. Plur. 1 
 
 Lufiafe'. 
 
 Litfion. 
 
 The Saxon infinitive ended in -an (lujian), and besides 
 this there was a so-called gerundial form, to lafigenne. 
 
 2. 
 
 Lufast. 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 LufaS. 3. 
 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Pres. Sing. 1.^ 
 
 Plur. 1. 
 
 ^] 
 
 • Lufige. 2. 
 
 3.1 
 
 3.
 
 1H» STAGES OF THE 
 
 Ti')isi . — Tn ro<>ar»l to tense, the Anoflo-Saxon coincided witli 
 tlic Eni^Ii-sli. The j)reseiit hmoujioe lias two tenses, the present 
 and the past ; the Saxon had no more. This past tense the 
 ni0(hM-n h^ntrhsh forms either hy ad(htion (love., loved), or by 
 change (fall, fdl ). So did the Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 Number and Person. — In the present English the termina- 
 tion -cth (moveth) is antiquated. In Anglo-Saxon it Avas the 
 only form recognized. In English the plural number (indica- 
 tive as well as subjunctive) has no distinguishing inflection. It 
 was not so in Anglo-Saxon. There, although the perso7is were 
 identical in form, the numbers were distinguished by the termi- 
 nation -aS for the indicative, and ~n for the subjunctive. (See 
 above.) For certain forms in the second conjugation, see the 
 remarks on the forms drunh and drank, in Part IV. 
 
 Such are the chief points in the declension of nouns and 
 the conjugation of verbs that give a difference of character 
 between the ancient Anglo-Saxon and the modern English : 
 and it has already been stated that the difference between the 
 New and the Old German, the Dutch and the Frisian, the 
 Italian, &c., and the Latin, the Romaic and the Greek, &c., 
 are precisely similar. 
 
 How far two languages pass with equal rapidity from 
 their ancient to their modern, from their inflected to their 
 uninflected state (in other words, how far all languages 
 alter at the same rate), is a question that will be noticed 
 elsewhere. At present, it is sufficient to say, that (just as we 
 should expect rt ^n'on') languages do wo;( alter at the same rate. 
 
 Akin to the last question is a second one : viz. : how far 
 the rate of change in a given language can be accelerated 
 by external circumstances. This second question bears im- 
 mediately upon the history of the English language. The 
 grammar of the current idiom compared with the grammar of 
 the Anglo-Saxon is simplified. How far was this simplification 
 of the grammar promoted by the Norman Conquest. The cur- 
 rent views exaggerate the influence of the Norman Conquest 
 and of French connexions. The remark of Mr. Price in his 
 Preface to Warton, acceded to by Mr. Hallam in his Intro- 
 duction to the Literature of Europe, is, that every one of the
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. JIT 
 
 other Low CTerinanic languages (affected by nothing cor- 
 responding to the Norman Conquest) displays the same sim- 
 plification of grammar as the Anglo-Saxon (affected by the 
 Norman Conquest) displays. Confirmatory of this remark, 
 it may be added, that compared with the Icelandic, the 
 Danish and Swedish do the same. Derogatory to it is the 
 comparatively complex grammar of the new German, com- 
 pared, not only with the Old High German, but with the 
 Moeso-Gothic. An extract from Mr. Hallam shall close the 
 present section and introduce the next. 
 
 " Nothing can be more difficult, except by an arbitrary line, than to deter- 
 mine the commencement of the English language : not so much, as in those 
 on the Continent, because we are in want of materials, but rather from an 
 opposite reason, the possibility of showing a very gradual succession of ver- 
 bal changes that ended in a change of denomination. We should probably 
 experience a similar difficulty, if we knew equally well the current idiom of 
 France or Italy in the seventh and eighth centuries. For when we compare 
 the earliest English of the thirteenth century with the Anglo-Saxon of the 
 twelfth, it seems hard to pronounce why it should pass for a separate lan- 
 guage, rather than a moditication or simplification of the former. We must 
 conform, however, to usage, and say that the Anglo-Saxon was converted into 
 English : — 1. By contracting and otherwise modifying the pronunciation 
 and orthography of words. 2, By omitting many inflections, especially of 
 the noun, and consequently making more use of articles and auxiliaries. 
 3. By the introduction of French derivatives. 4. By using less inversion 
 and ellipsis, especially in poetry. Of these, the second alone, I think, can 
 be considered as sufficient to describe a new form of language ; and this was 
 brought about so gradually, that wo are not relieved from much of our diffi- 
 culty, as to whether some compositions shall pass for the latest offspring of 
 the mother, or the earlier fruits of the daughter's fertility. It is a proof of 
 this difficulty that the best masters of our ancient language have lately intro- 
 duced the word Semi-Saxon, which is to cover everything from A.D. 1150 to 
 A.D. 1250."— Chapter i. 47. 
 
 § 176. At a given period, then, the Anglo-Saxon of the 
 standard, and (if the expression may be used) classical au- 
 thors, such as Cffidmon, Alfred, iElfric, &c., had under- 
 gone such a change as to induce the scholars of the present 
 age to denominate it, not Saxon, but Semi-^SiXon. It had 
 ceased to be genuine Saxon, but had not yet become English. 
 In certain parts of the kingdom, where the mode of speech
 
 lis SEMl-SAXUN. 
 
 i-iianged more vapiiUy than elsewhere, the Semi-Saxon stage 
 of our hmguage came earlier. It was, as it were, preci- 
 pitated. 
 
 The History of King Leir and his Daughters is found in 
 two forms. Between these there is a difference either of 
 dialect or of date, and possihly of both. Each, however, 
 is Semi- Saxon. The extracts are made from Thorpe''s Ana- 
 lecta Anglo-Saxonica, p. 143. 
 
 Bladud liafde cue sune, Bladud liaddc one sonc, 
 
 Leir was iliatcn ; Lcir was ihote, 
 
 Efter his fader daic, After his fader he held jjis loud, 
 
 He heold \>\s drihlice loud, In his owene hond, 
 
 Somed an his live, Haste his lif-dages, 
 
 Sixti winter. Sixti winter. 
 
 He niakado ane riche burh, He makcde on riche borh, 
 
 Jjurh radfulle his crafte, Jjorh wiseinennc reade, 
 
 And he heo lette nenincn, And hine lette nemni, 
 
 Efter him seolvan ; After him seolve ; 
 
 Kaer-Leir hehte J?e bnrh. Kair-Leir hehte Jje borh. 
 
 Leof heo wes {;an kinge, Leof he was Jjan kingc ; 
 
 Jja we, an ure Icod-quide, \jc we, on ure speche, 
 
 Leir-chestre elepiad, Lcjj-chestre cleopicjj, 
 
 Geare a )jan holdc daAvon. In j^an eolde daiyc. 
 
 The Grave, a poetical fragment, the latter part of the 
 Saxon Chronicle, a Homily for St. Edmund''s Day (given 
 in the Analecta), and above all the printed extracts of the 
 poem of Layamon, are the more accessible specimens of the 
 Semi-Saxon. The Orraulum, although in many points 
 English rather than Saxon, retains the dual number of 
 the Anglo-Saxon pronouns. However, lest too much stress 
 be laid upon this circumstance, the epistolary character of 
 the Ormulum must be borne in mind. 
 
 It is very evident that if, even in the present day, there 
 were spoken in some remote district the language of Alfred 
 and ^Ifric, such a mode of speech would be called, not 
 Modern English, but Anglo - Saxon. This teaches us that 
 the stage of language is to be measured, not by its date, 
 but by its structure. Hence, Saxon ends and Semi-Saxon 
 begins, not at a given year, A.D., but at that time (when-
 
 OLD ENGLISH. 119 
 
 ever it be) when certain grammatical inflections disappear, and 
 certain ciuiracters of a more advanced stage are introduced. 
 
 Some amongst others, of the earlier changes of the 
 standard Anglo-Saxon are, 
 
 1 . The substitution of -an for -as, in the plural of sub- 
 stantives, munucan for munucas (monks) ; and, conversely, 
 the substitution of -s for -w, as steorres for steorran (stars). 
 The use of -s, as the sign of the plural, without respect to 
 gender, or declension, may be one of those changes that 
 the Norman Conquest forwarded ; -s being the sign of the 
 plural in Anglo-Norman. 
 
 2. The ejection or shortening of final vowels, batt ylc 
 for ^<zt ylce ; sone for sunu ; name for nama ; dages for 
 dagas. 
 
 3. The substitution of -n for -m in the dative case, 
 hvnlon for hwilum. 
 
 4. The ejection of the -n of the infinitive mood, cumme 
 for cuman (to come), nemne for nemnen (to name). 
 
 5. The ejection of -en in the participle passive, I-hoie for 
 gehaten (called, Jiight). 
 
 6. The gerundial termination -enne, superseded by the 
 infinitive termination -en ; as to liijian for to lufienne, or 
 lufigenne. 
 
 7. The substitution of -en for -aS in the persons plural of 
 verbs ; hi clepen (they call) for hi clypia'S, Sec. 
 
 The preponderance (not the occasional occurrence) of forms 
 like those above constitute Semi-Saxon in contradistinction to 
 standard Saxon, classical Saxon, or Anglo-Saxon proper. 
 
 § 177. Old English Stage. — Further changes convert Semi- 
 Saxon into Old English. Some, amongst others, are the 
 following : — 
 
 1. The ejection of the dative plural termination -um, and 
 the substitution of the preposition to and the plural sign -s ; 
 as to smiths for smi'Siim. Of the dative singular the -e is 
 retained (ende, tcorde) ; but it is by no means certain that, 
 although recognized in writing, it was recognized in pronun- 
 ciation also. 
 
 2. The ejection of -cs in the genitive singular whenever the
 
 Iv'O ol,l) ENGLISH. 
 
 pivpositlon y/ caiiu' lu'lorc it; Ciodos loce (Gods hoe)-, l>ut 
 the love of God, and not the love of Godes. 
 
 3. TIu* svlhihh' -('s as a .si!4;n of the genitive case extended 
 to all geuik^s and to all (h-ciensions ; hearfs for heortan ; 
 suns for sunnan. 
 
 4. The same in respect to the plural number ; stern's for 
 sleorran ; sons for suiici. 
 
 5. The ejection of -na in the genitive plural ; as of tunges'' 
 for tunnena. 
 
 G. The use of the word the, as an article, instead of se, &c. 
 
 The preponderance of the forms above (and not their 
 occasional occurrence) constitutes old English in contradis- 
 tinction to Semi-Saxon. 
 
 The following extract from Henry's history (vol. viii. append, 
 iv.) is the proclamation of Henry III. to the peo])le of Hunt- 
 ingdonshire, A.D. 1258. It currently passes for the earliest 
 specimen of English. 
 
 " Henry, tliurg Godcs fultome. King on Englcneloande, llioaurd on Yr- 
 loand, Duke on Normand, on Acquitain, Eorl on Anjou, send I greting, to 
 alle hisc holde, ilaerde & ilevverde on Huntingdonschiere. 
 
 " That witen ge well alle, th?et we willen & unnen (grant) thset uro 
 rsedesmen alle other, the moare del of heom, thset beoth ichosen thurg lis 
 and tluirg thajt loandcs-folk on ure Kuncriche, habbith idon, and schullen 
 don, in the worthncs of God, and ure thrcowthe, for the frenie of the loande, 
 thurg tlie besigte of than toforen iscide rredesmen, beo stedfaest and ilcstinde 
 in alle thinge abutan sende, and we heaten alle ure treowe, in the treowthe 
 thset heo us ogen, thet heo stede-feslliche healden & wcrcn to healden & to 
 swerien the isetnesses thet beon makede and beo to makien, thurg than tofo- 
 ren iseide rsedesmen, other thurg the nioarc del of heom alswo, alse hit is 
 before iseide. And thet ajhcothcr helpe thet for to done bitbam ilche other, 
 aganes alle men in alle thet heo ogt for to done, and to foangen. And noan 
 ne of mine loande, ne of cgctcwhere, thnrg tliis bcsigte, niuge beon ilet other 
 iwersed on oniewise. And gif oni ether onie cumen her ongenes, we willen 
 & beaten, thset alle ure treowe heom healden deadlichistan. And for thset 
 we willen thset this beo staedfast and lestinde, we senden gew this writ open, 
 iseined with ure seel, to balden amanges gew ine hord. Witnes us-selven 
 set Lundaen, tbsene cgetetentlie day on the monthc of Octobr, in the two and 
 fowertigthe gcare of ure crunning. 
 
 §178. The songs amongst the political verses printed by 
 the Camden Society, the romance of Havelok the Dane,
 
 OLD ENGLISH. iJ^l 
 
 William and the Werwolf, the Gestes of Alisaundre, King 
 Horn, Ipomedon, and the King of Tars ; and, amongst the 
 longer works, Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle, and the 
 poems of Robert of Bourn (Brunn), are (amongst others) 
 Old English. Broadly speaking, the Old English may be 
 said to begin with the reign of Henry III., and to end with 
 that of Edward III. 
 
 In the Old English the following forms predominate. 
 
 1. A fuller inflection of the demonstrative pronoun, or 
 definite article ; ban, penne, pare, pam ; — in contradistinction 
 to the Middle English. 
 
 2. The presence of the dative singular in -e ; ende, smithe ; 
 — ditto. 
 
 3. The existence of a genitive plural in -r or -ra ; heora, 
 theirs ; aller, of all ; — ditto. This with substantives and 
 adjectives is less common. 
 
 4. The substitution of Jieo for they, of heora for their, of 
 hem for them ; — in contradistinction to the later stages of 
 English, and in contradistinction to old Lowland Scotch. 
 (See Chapter III.) 
 
 5. A more frequent use of mm and thin, for my and thy ; 
 — in contradistinction to middle and modern English. 
 
 6. The use of heo for she ; — in contradistinction to middle 
 and modern English and old Lowland Scotch. 
 
 7. The use of broader vowels ; as in iclepud or iclepod (for 
 iclejyed or yclept ) ,• geongost, youngest ; ascode, asked ; eldore, 
 elder. 
 
 8. The use of the strong preterits {see the chapter on the 
 tenses of verbs), where in the present English the weak form 
 is found ; wex, wop, dalf, for waxed, wept, delved. 
 
 9. The omission not only of the gerundial termination 
 -enne, but also of the infinitive sign -en after to ; to honte, to 
 speke ; — in contradistinction to Semi-Saxon. 
 
 10. The substitution of -en for -ep or -c^, in the first and 
 second persons plural of verbs ; we ivollen, we will : heo 
 schuUen, they should ; — ditto. 
 
 1 1 . The comparative absence of the articles se and seo ; — 
 ditto.
 
 1.'.^^ ol,l) ENOLISII. 
 
 12. The subsititutiun of biu and beetk^ i'or sptid and syndon 
 = we, t/e, the// are ; — in contradistinction to Senii-Saxon. 
 
 § 17}>. 'I'lio dcofoc to which the Anglo-Saxon was actually 
 inHuenccd by the Anglo-Norman has been noticed. The 
 degree wherein tin* two languages came in contact is, plainly, 
 another consideration. The first is the question, How tar 
 one of two languages influenced the other ? The second 
 asks, How far one of two languages had the opportunity of 
 inlhiencing the other ^ Concerning the extent to which the 
 Anglo-Norman was used, I retail the following statements 
 and quotations. 
 
 1. "Letters even (if a private nature were written in Latin till the begin- 
 ning of the reign of Edward I., soon after 1270, when a sudden change 
 brought in the use of French." — Mr. lluUam, communicnted by Mr. Steven- 
 son {Literature q/' Europe, I. 52, and note). 
 
 2. Conversation between tlic Members of tlie Universities was ordered to 
 be carried on either in Latin or French : — " Si qua inter se proferant, collo- 
 qnio Latino vel salient Galtico perfruantur." — Statutes of Oriel College, 
 Oxford. — Hallam, ibid, from Warton. 
 
 3. " The Minutes of the Corporation of London, recorded in the Town 
 Clerk's Office, were in French, as well as the Proceedings in Parliament, 
 and in the Courts of Justice." — Ibid. 
 
 4. " Li Grammar Schools, boys were made to construe their Latin into 
 French." — Ibid. " Fueri in sc/iolis, contra morem caterarnm nationum, et 
 Norniannorum adventu, derelicto propria vulgari, construere Gal/ice compel- 
 luntur. Item quodjilii nobilium ab ipsis cunabulorum crepundiis ad Gallicum 
 idioma iiifbrmantur. Quibus prqfecto rurules homines assimulari volentes, ut 
 per hoc spectabiliores videantur, Francigenari satugunt omni nisu." — Higden 
 {Ed. Gale, p. 210). 
 
 That there was French in England before the battle of 
 Hastings appears on the authority of Camden : — 
 
 " Herein is a notable argument of our ancestors' steadfastness in esteem- 
 ing and retaining their own tongue. For, as before the Conquest, they rnis- 
 likcd nothing more in King Edward the Confessor, than that he was 
 Frenchified, and accounted the desire of a foreign language then to be a 
 foretoken of the bringing in of foreign powers, Avhicli indeed happened." — 
 Remains, p. 30. 
 
 § 180. Tn Chaucer and Mandeville, and perhaps in all the 
 writers of the reign of Edward III., we have a transition
 
 MIDDLE ENGLISH. 1^3 
 
 from the Old to the Middle English. The last characteristic 
 of a grammar different from that of the present English, is 
 the plural form in -en ; we telleii, ye tellen^ tliey tellen. As 
 this disappears, which it does in the reign of Queen Eliza- 
 heth (Spenser has it continually), the ^Mddle English may 
 he said to pass into the New or Modern English. 
 
 § 181. The present tendencies of the English may be de- 
 termined by observation ; and as most of them will be 
 noticed in the etymological part of this volume, the few 
 here indicated must be looked upon as illustrations only. 
 
 1. The distinction between the subjunctive and indica- 
 tive mood is likely to pass away. We verify this by the 
 very general tendency to say if it is, and if he speaks, for 
 if it be, and if he speak. 
 
 2. The distinction (as far as it goes) between the parti- 
 ciple passive and the past tense is likely to pass away. 
 We verify this by the tejidency to say it is broke, and he 
 is smote, for it is broken, and he is smitten. 
 
 3. Of the double forms, sung and sang, drank and drunk, 
 &c. one only will be the permanent. 
 
 As stated above, these tendencies are a few out of a 
 number, and have been adduced in order to indicate the 
 subject rather than to exhaust it. 
 
 § 182. What the present language of England would have 
 been had the Norman Conquest never taken place, the analogy 
 of Holland, Denmark, and of many other countries enables lis 
 to determine. It would have been much as it is at present. 
 What it would have been had the Saxon conquest never taken 
 place, is a question wherein there is far more speculation. Of 
 France, of Italy, of Wallachia, and of the Spanish Peninsula, 
 the analogies all point the same way. They indicate that the 
 original Celtic would have been superseded by the Latin of the 
 conquerors, and consequently that our language in its later stages 
 would have been neither British nor Gaelic, but Roman. Upon 
 these analogies, however, we may refine. Italy, was from the be- 
 ginning, Roman ; the Spanish Peninsula was invaded full early; 
 no ocean divided Gaul from Rome ; and the war against the 
 ancestors of the Wallachians was a war of extermination.
 
 1-1' THK I.oWLANl) SCOTCH. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ON THE LOWLAND SCOTCH, 
 
 § 183. The term Lowland is used to distinguish the Scotch 
 of the South-east from the Scotch of the Highlands. The 
 former is English in its immediate affinities, and Germanic 
 in origin ; the latter is nearly the same language with the 
 Gaelic of Ireland, and is, consequently, Celtic, 
 
 The question as to whether the Lowland Scotch is a dia- 
 lect of the English, or a separate and independent language, 
 is a verbal rather than a real one. 
 
 Reasons for considering the Scotch and English as dialects 
 of one and the same language lie in the fact of their being 
 (except in the case of the more extreme forms of each) 
 mutually intelligible. 
 
 Reasons for calling one a dialect of the other depend upon 
 causes other than philological, e. g.^ political preponderance, 
 literary development, and the like. 
 
 Reasons for treating the Scotch as a separate substantive 
 language lie in the extent to which it has the qualities of a 
 regular cultivated tongue, and a separate substantive litera- 
 ture — partially separate and substantive at the present time, 
 wholly separate and substantive in the times anterior to the 
 union of the crowns, and in the hands of Wyntoun, Blind 
 Harry, Dunbar, and Lindsay. 
 
 § 184. Reasons for making the philological distinction be- 
 tween the English and Scotch dialects exactly coincide with 
 the geographical and political boundaries between the two 
 kingdoms are not so easily given. It is not likely that the 
 Tweed and Sol way should divide modes of speech so accu- 
 rately as they divide laws and customs ; that broad and 
 trenchant lines of demarcation should separate the Scotch
 
 THE LOWLAND SCOTCH. 125 
 
 from the English exactly along the line of the Border ; and 
 that there should be no Scotch elements in Northumberland, 
 and no Northumbrian ones in Scotland. Neither is such the 
 case. Hence, in speaking of the Lowland Scotch, it means 
 the language in its typical rather than. in its transitional 
 forms ; indeed, it means the literary Lowland Scotch which, 
 under the first five Stuarts, was as truly an independent lan- 
 guage as compared with the English, as Swedish is to Danish, 
 Portuguese to Spanish, or vice versa. 
 
 § 185. This limitation leaves us fully sufficient room for the 
 notice of the question as to its origin ; a notice all the more 
 necessary from the fact of its having created controversy. 
 
 What is the prima facie view of the relations between the 
 English of England, and the mutually intelligible language 
 (Scotch or English, as we choose to call it) of Scotland ? One 
 of three : — 
 
 1. That it originated in England, and spread in the way of 
 extension and diffusion northwards, and so reached Scot- 
 land. 
 
 2. That it originated in Scotland, and spread in the way of 
 extension and diffusion southwards, and so reached England. 
 
 3. That it was introduced in each country from a common 
 source. 
 
 In any of these cases it is Angle, or Saxon, or Anglo- 
 Saxon, even as English is Angle, or Saxon, or Anglo- 
 Saxon. 
 
 § 186. A view, however, different from these, and one dis- 
 connecting the Lowland Scotch from the English and Anglo- 
 Saxon equally, is what may be called the Pict doctrine. 
 Herein it is maintained that the Lowland Scotch is derived 
 from the Pict, and that the Picts were of Gothic origin. The 
 reasoning upon these matters is to be found in the Dissertation 
 upon the Origin of the Scottish Language prefixed to Jamie- 
 son's Etymological Dictionary : two extracts from which 
 explain the view which the author undei'takes to combat : — 
 
 a. " It is an opinion which, after many others, has been 
 pretty generally received, and, perhaps, almost taken for 
 granted, that the language spoken in the Lowlands of Scot-
 
 l'.^() TIIK l.oWLAN'D SCOTCH. 
 
 land is nu'rcly a coniipt dialect of the Englisli, or at least 
 of the Aii«,^lo-Saxc)ii."''' 
 
 b. "■ It has generally been supjjosed that the Saxon langnage 
 was introduced into Scotland in the reign of Malcolm Can- 
 more by his good gueen and her retinue ; or partly by means 
 of the intercourse which prevailed between the inhabitants of 
 Scotland and those of Cumberland, Northumberland, West- 
 moreland, and Durham, which were held by the Kings of 
 Scotland as fiefs of the crown of England. An English 
 writer, not less distinguished for his amiable disposition and 
 candour than for the cultivation of his mind, has objected to 
 this hypothesis with great force of argument." 
 
 § 187. Now, as against any such notion as that involved in 
 the preceding extracts, the reasoning of the learned author of 
 the Scottish Dictionary may, perhaps, be valid. No such 
 view, however, is held, at the present moment, by any com- 
 petent judge ; and it is doubtful whether, in the extreme 
 way in which it is put forward by the opponent of it, it was 
 ever maintained at all. 
 
 Be this, however, as it may, the theory which is opposed 
 to it rests upon the following positions — 
 
 1. That the Lowland Scotch were Picts. 
 
 2. That the Picts were Goths. 
 
 In favour of this latter view the chief reasons are — 
 
 1. That what the Belgse were the Picts were also. 
 
 2. That the Belgse were Germanic. 
 Again — 
 
 1. That the natives of the Orkneys were Picts. 
 
 2. That they were also Scandinavian. 
 
 So that the Picts were Scandinavian Goths. 
 
 From whence it follows that — assuming what is true con- 
 cerning the Orkneys is true concerning the Lowland Scotch — 
 the Lowland Scotch was Pict, Scandinavian, Gothic, and 
 (as such) more or less Belgic. 
 
 For the non-Gothic character of the Picts see the re- 
 searches of Mr. Garnett, as given in § 139, as well as a 
 paper — believed to be from the same author — in the Quarterly 
 Review for 1 834.
 
 THE LOWLAND SCOTCH. 127 
 
 For tlie position of the Belgse, see Chapter IV. 
 
 § 188. That what is true concerning the Orkneys (viz. that 
 they were Scandinavian) is not true for the south and eastern 
 parts of Scotland, is to be collected from the peculiar dis- 
 tribution of the Scottish Gaelic ; which indicates a distinction 
 between the Scandinavian of the north of Scotland and the 
 Scandinavian of the east of England. The Lowland Scotch 
 recedes as Ave go northward. Nothwithstanding this, it is 
 not the extreme north that is most Gaelic. In Caithness 
 the geographical names are Norse. Sutherland, the most 
 northern county of Scotland, takes its name from being 
 south ; that is, of Norway. The Orkneys and Shetland 
 are in name, manners, and language, Norse or Scandina- 
 vian. The Hebrides are Gaelic mixed with Scandinavian. 
 The Isle of Man is the same. The word Sodor (in Sodor 
 and j\Ian) is Norse, with the same meaning as it has in 
 Sutherland. All this indicates a more preponderating, and 
 an earlier infusion of Norse along the coast of Scotland, than 
 that which took place under the Danes upon the coasts of 
 England, in the days of Alfred and under the reign of Canute. 
 The first may, moreover, have this additional peculiarity, 
 viz. of being Norwegian rather than Danish. Hence I infer 
 that the Scandinavians settled in the northern parts of Scot- 
 land at an early period, but that it was a late period when they 
 ravaged the southern ones ; so that, though the language of 
 Orkney may be Norse, that of the Lothians may be Saxon. 
 
 To verify these views we want not a general dictionar}' of 
 the Scottish language taken altogether, but a series of local 
 glossaries, or at any rate a vocabulary, 1st, of the northern ; 
 2ndly, of the southern Scottish. 
 
 Between the English and Lowland Scotch we must ac- 
 count for the likeness as well as the difference. The Scan- 
 dinavian theory accounts for the difference only. 
 
 § 189. Of the following specimens of the Lowland Scotch, 
 the first is from The Bruce, a poem written by Barbour, 
 Archdeacon of Aberdeen, between the years 1360 and lo75 ; 
 the second from Wyntoun ; the third from Blind Harry's 
 poem, Wallace, 1 4f)0 ; and the fourth from Gawin Douglas's 
 translation of the y^^neid, A.D. 151.3.
 
 1~S TIIK LOWT.AND S(;OTCH. 
 
 The Bruce, iv. 871—892. 
 
 And as lie mid in to the nyclit, 
 So saw lie, witli tlie inonys lycht, 
 Schynnyng off schcldys gret plcnte ; 
 And had wondre quliat it myclit be. 
 With that all hale thai gaiff a cry, 
 And he, that hard sa suddainly 
 Sic noyis, sunidcle affrayit was. 
 Bot in sehoit time he till him tais 
 His sjiyrites full hardely ; 
 For his gcntill hart, and M'orthy, 
 Assurit hym in to that ncde. 
 Then with the spuris he strak the sted, 
 And nischyt in aniaing them all. 
 The feyrst he met he gert him fall ; 
 And syne his suord he swapyt out, 
 And roucht about him mony rout, 
 And slew sexsum weill sone and ma : 
 Then wndre him his horss thai sla : 
 And he fell ; but he smertty rass, 
 And strykand rowm about him mass : 
 And slow off thaim a quantite. 
 But woundyt wondre sar v.as he. 
 
 Wyntoun's Chronicle, i. xiii. 1 — 22. 
 
 Blessyde Bretayn Beclde sulde be 
 Of all Jpe Ilys in J^e Se, 
 Quhare Flowrys are fele on Feldys fayrc 
 Hale of hewe, haylsum of ayre. 
 Of all come Jjare is copy gret, 
 Pose and A'tys, Bere and Qwhet : 
 Biith froyt on Tre, and fysche in flwde ; 
 And tyl all Catale pasture gwde. 
 Solynus Sayis, in Brcttany 
 Sum steddys growys sa habowndanly 
 Of Gyrs, Jjat sum tym (but) Jjair Fe 
 Fra fwlth of Mete refrenyht be, 
 Dair fwde sail turne J^am to pcryle, 
 To rot, or bryst, or dcy sum quhyle. 
 Dare wylde in Wode lias welth at wille ; 
 Dare hyrdys hydys Holme and Hille : 
 Dare Bwyis bowys all for Byrtht,
 
 THE LOWLAND SCOTCH. 129 
 
 Bathe Merle and Mawesys mellys for niyrtht : 
 
 Dare huntyng is at all kyne Dere, 
 
 And rycht gud liawlkyn on Bywer ; 
 
 Of Fysclie jjaire is habowndance ; 
 
 And nedfulle thyng to Mannys substance. 
 
 Wallace, xi. 280—262. 
 
 A lord off court, quhen he approchyt thar, 
 
 Wnwisytly sperd, withoutyn prouision ; 
 
 " Wallace, dar ye go fecht on our lioun ?" 
 
 And he said ; " Ya, so the Kyng suffyi- me ; 
 
 Or on your selff, gyff ye ocht bettyr be." 
 
 Quhat will ye mar 1 this thing amittyt was, 
 
 That Wallace suld on to the lioun pas. 
 
 The King thaim chargyt to bring him gud harnas : 
 
 Then he said ; " Nay, God scheild me fra sic cass. 
 
 I wald tak weid, suld I fecht with a man ; 
 
 But (for) a dog, that nocht off armes can, 
 
 I will haiff nayn, hot synglar as I ga." 
 
 A gret manteill about his hand can ta, 
 
 And his gud suerd ; with him he tuk na mar ; 
 
 Abandounly in barrace entryt thar. 
 
 Gret chenys was wrocht in the yet with a gyn, 
 
 And pulld it to quhen Wallace was tharin. 
 
 The wod lyoun, on Wallace quhar he stud, 
 
 Rampand he braid, for he desyryt blud ; 
 
 With his rude poUis in the mantill rocht sa. 
 
 Aukwart the bak than Wallace can him ta, 
 
 With his gud suerd, that was off burnest steill, 
 
 His body in twa it thruschyt euirilkdeill. 
 
 Syn to the King he raykyt in gret ire, 
 
 And said on lowd ; " Was this all your desyr. 
 
 To wayr a Scot thus lychtly in to wayn ? 
 
 Is thar mar doggis at ye wald yeit haiff slayne ? 
 
 Go, bryng thaim furth, sen I mon doggis qwell. 
 
 To do byddyng, quhill that with thee duell. 
 
 It gaynd full weill I graithit me to Scotland ; 
 
 For grettar deidis thair men has apon hand, 
 
 Than with a dog in battaill to cscheiff — 
 
 At you in Franco for cuir I tak my Iciff."
 
 130 TIIF. LOWLAND SPOTOH. 
 
 Oaicin Douglas, JE.n. ii. 
 As Lnocon tlint was Noptunus priest. 
 Ami cliosin by cavil vnto that ilk office, 
 Anc fare grete bull offerit in sacrifice, 
 Solenipnitlie before the baly altere. 
 Throw the still sey from Tenedos in fere, 
 Lo twa gret lowpit ccUleris with mony thraw 
 First throw the fliide towart the land can draw. 
 (My sprete abiiorris this matter to declare) 
 Abovie the wattir thare hals stude euirmare, 
 With bludy creistis outwith the wallis hie, 
 The remanent swam always vnder the se, 
 ^^'ith grisly bodyis lynkit mony fald, 
 The salt fixnie stouris from the fard they hald, 
 Unto the gromid thay glade with glowand ene, 
 Stviffit full of venom, fire and fclloun tene, 
 With tounges quhissling in thar mouthis red, 
 Thay lik the twynkilland stangis in thar hed. 
 Vk'o fled away al bludles for efl^ere. 
 Bot with ane braide to Laocon in fere 
 Thay stert attanis, and his twa sonnys zyng 
 First athir seqient lappit like ane ring, 
 And with thare cruel bit, and stangis fell. 
 Of tender mcmbris tnke mony sory morsel ; 
 Syne thay the preist invadit baith twane, 
 Quhilk wyth his wappins did his besy pane 
 His ehilder for to holpcn and reskew. 
 Bot thay about him lowpit in wympillis threw, 
 And twis circulit his myddel round about. 
 And twys faldit thare sprutillit skynnis but dout, 
 About his hals, baith neck and hed they schent. 
 As he ettis thare hankis to haue rent, 
 And with his handis thaym awav haue draw, 
 His hede bendis and garlandis all war blaw 
 Full of vcnnum and rank poysoun attanis, 
 Quhilk infekkis the flesche, blude, and banys. 
 
 § 190. In the way of orthography, the most characteristic 
 difference between the English and Scotch is the use, on the 
 part of the latter, of qu for toh ; as qiihen, quhare, quhat, for 
 trhen., ichere, what. The substitution of sch for sh (as scho 
 for she), and of r for the Old English 3 (as zour for ^eowr, 
 your), is as much northern English as Scotch.
 
 THE LOWLAND SCOTCH. 131 
 
 In pronunciation, the substitution of d for S (if not a 
 point of spelling), as in fader for father; of a for o, as 
 huith for loth ; of s for sh, as sail for s/^a?/ ,• and the use of the 
 guttural sound of ch, as in loch, nocht, are the same. 
 
 The ejection of the n before t, or an allied sound, and the 
 lengthening of the preceding vowel, by way of compensation, 
 as in hegouth for leginneth, seems truly Scotch. It is the same 
 change that in Greek turns the radical syllable otovr into 
 ohovg. 
 
 The formation of the plural of verbs in -s, rather than in 
 •th (the Anglo-Saxon form), is Northern English as well as 
 Scotch : — Scotch, slepys, lovys ; Northern English, slejns, 
 lovis ; Old English, slepen, loven ; Anglo-Saxon slejpia'S, lufa'S. 
 
 The formation of the plural number of the genitive case by 
 the addition of the syllable -is {hlastis, hirdis, hloomis), instead 
 of the letter -s (blasts, birds, blooms), carries with it a metrical 
 advantage, inasmuch as it gives a greater number of double 
 rhymes. 
 
 The same may be said of the participial forms, affrayit, 
 assurlt, for affrayd, assured. 
 
 Concerning the comparative rate of change in the two lan- 
 guages no general assertion can be made. In the Scotch 
 words sterand, slepand, &c., for steering, sleeping, the form is 
 antiquated, and Anglo-Saxon rather than English. It is not 
 so, however, with the words thai {they), thaini (them), thair 
 {their), compared with the contemporary words in English, 
 heo, hem, heora. In these it is the Scottish that is least, and 
 the English that is most Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 K 2
 
 IS'i TiiK iu:i,(;.i^ 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 or CEllTAIN UNDETERMINED AND FICTITIOUS LANGUAGES OF 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 § 191. The languages mentioned in the present chapter 
 claim their place on one ground only, — the?/ have heen the subject 
 of controversy. The notice of them will be brief. The current 
 texts upon which the controversies have turned will be quoted ; 
 whilst the opinion of the present writer is left to be collected 
 from the title of the chapter. 
 
 The Belga. — By some these are considered a Germanic 
 rather than a Celtic tribe ; the view being supported by the 
 following extracts from Caisar : — " Gallia est oninis divisa in 
 ires partes ; quarum unam incolunt Belgw, aliam Aqidtani, 
 tertiam, qui ipsorum lingua Geltce, nostra GaMi, appellantur. 
 Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legihus inter se differunt. Gallos — 
 a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit.'''' — B. G. i. " Belgce ah 
 extremis Gallia Jinihus oriuntury — B. G. ii. " Quum ah his 
 quareret, qua civitates, quantaque in armis essent, et quid in 
 hello possent, sic reperiehat : plerosque Belgas esse ortos a Ger- 
 manis, Rhenumque antiquitiis transductos, propter loci fertilita- 
 tem ibi consedisse ; Gallosque, qui ea loca incolerent, expulisse ; 
 solosque esse qui patrum nostrorum menioria, omni Gallia vexata 
 Teutones Cimbrosque intra fines suos ingredi prohibuerunt.^'' — 
 B. G. ii. 4. " Britannia pars interior ah iis incolitur quos 
 natos in insula ipsa meniorid proditum dicunt : maritima pars 
 ah iis, qui prada ac belli inferendi causa ex Belgio transierant^ 
 — B. G. V. 12. 
 
 § 192. The possibly Germanic origin of the Belgse, and the 
 Belgic element of the British population, are matters which 
 bear upon the question indicated in § 10, or that of the 
 Germanic influences anterior to a.d. 449.
 
 THE BELG^. 133 
 
 They have a still more important bearing, the historian over 
 and above identifying the Belgse with the Germans, affirms 
 that what applies to the Belga applies to the Picts also. 
 
 Now this is one of the arguments in favour of the doctrine 
 exhibited (and objected to) in pp. 124 — 127, and the extent of 
 questions upon which it bears, may be collected from the fol- 
 lowing quotation : — " A variety of other considerations might 
 be mentioned, which, although they do not singly amount 
 to proof, yet merit attention, as viewed in connexion with 
 what has been already stated. 
 
 " As so great a part of the eastern coast of what is now 
 called England was so early peopled by the Belgye, it is 
 hardly conceivable that neither so enterprising a people, nor 
 any of their kindred tribes, should ever think of extending 
 their descents a little farther eastward. For that the ]3elgie 
 and the inhabitants of the countries bordering on the Baltic, 
 had a common origin, there seems to be little reason to 
 doubt. The Dutch assert that their progenitors were Scan- 
 dinavians, who, about a century before the common era, left 
 Jutland and the neighbouring territories, in quest of new habi- 
 tations.* The Saxons must be viewed as a branch from the 
 same stock ; for they also proceeded from modern Jutland and 
 its vicinity. Now, there is nothing repugnant to reason in 
 supposing that some of these tribes should pass over directly 
 to the coast of Scotland opposite to them, even before the 
 Christian era. For Mr. Whitaker admits that the Saxons, 
 whom he strangely makes a Gaulic people, in the second 
 century applied themselves to navigation, and soon became 
 formidable to the Romans, f Before they could become for- 
 midable to so powerful a people, they must have been at least 
 so well acquainted with navigation as to account it no great 
 enterprise to cross from the shores of the Baltic over to Scot- 
 land, especially if they took the islands of Shetland and Ork- 
 ney in their way. 
 
 "As we have seen that, according to Ptolemy, there were, in 
 his time, different tribes of Belgjr, settled on the northern ex- 
 
 * V. Bcknoptc Hi.sturic van't Vadeiluiid, i. 3, 4. 
 t Hist. Maiicli. l>. i. c. 12.
 
 13+ TlIK BELG.E. 
 
 troiiiity of our comilry : the most natural idea undoubtedly is, 
 that they came directly from the Continent. For had these 
 lieli^iv crossed the English Channel, according to the common 
 progress of barbarous nations, it is scarcely supposable that 
 this island would have been settled to its utmost extremity so 
 early as the age of Agricola. 
 
 " There is every reason to believe, tliat the Eelgic tribes 
 in Caledonia, described by Ptolemy, were Picts. For as the 
 Belgre, Picts, and Saxons seem to have had a common origin, 
 it is not worth while to differ about names. These frequently 
 arise from causes so trivial, that their origin becomes totally in- 
 scrutable to succeeding ages. The Angles, although only one 
 tribe, have accidentally given their name to the country which 
 they invaded, and to all the descendants of the Saxons and 
 Belga, who were by far more numerous. 
 
 " It is universally admitted, that there is a certain national 
 character, of an external kind, which distinguishes one people 
 from another. This is often so strong that those who have 
 travelled through various countries, or have accurately marked 
 the diversities of this character, will scarcely be deceived even 
 as to a straggling individual. Tacitus long ago remarked the 
 striking resemblance between the Germans and Caledonians. 
 Every stranger, at this day, observes the great difference and 
 complexion between the Highlanders and Lowlanders. No 
 intelligent person in England is in danger of confounding the 
 Welsh with the posterity of the Saxons. Now, if the Low- 
 land Scots be not a Gothic race, but in fact the descendants 
 of the ancient British, they must be supposed to retain some 
 national resemblance of the Welsh. But will any impartial 
 observer venture to assert, that in feature, complexion, or form, 
 there is any such similarity as to induce the slightest appre- 
 hension that they have been originally the same people? " '"" 
 
 It is doubtful, however, whether Caesar meant to say more 
 than that over above certain diiferences which distinguished 
 the Belgaj from the other inhabitants of the common country 
 Gallia^ there was an intermixture of Germans. 
 
 * Dissertation of the Origin of tlie Scottish Language.— Jamieson's Ety- 
 mological Dictionary, vol. i. p. 45, 46.
 
 SUPPOSED PHOENICIANS. 135 
 
 The import of a possibly Germanic origin for the Be]ga3 
 gives us the import of a possibly Germanic origin for — 
 
 § 19 o. The Caledonians. — A speculative sentence of Tacitus 
 indicates the chance of the Caledonians being Germanic : — 
 "■ Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerint, indigen<E an advecti, 
 ut inter harharos, parum compertum. Habitus corporum varii : 
 atque ex eo argumenta : namque rutil(£ Caledoniam habitantium 
 conite, magni artus, Gernianicam originem adseverant.'''' — Agri- 
 cola, xi. 
 
 The continuation of the passage quoted in § 193 has in- 
 duced the notion that there have been in Britain Spanish, 
 Iberic, or Basque tribes : — " Silurmn colorati vultus, et torti 
 plerumque crines, et posita contra Hispania, Iberos veteres 
 trajecisse, easque sedes occupdsse fidem faciunt!''' — Agricola, xi. 
 
 As this, although an opinion connected with the history of 
 the languages of Great Britain, is not an opinion connected 
 with the history of the English language, it is a question for 
 the Celtic, rather than the Gothic, philologist. The same 
 applies to the points noticed in §§ 136 — 138. Nevertheless 
 they are necessary for the purposes of minute philological 
 analysis. 
 
 § 194. As early as the year a. d. 1676, an opinion was 
 advanced by* Aylett Sammes, in a work entitled Britannia 
 Antiqua lUustrata, that the first colonisers of Ireland were the 
 merchants of Tyre and Sidon. In confirmation of this opinion 
 the existence of several Eastern customs in Ireland was ad- 
 duced by subsequent antiquarians. Further marks of an 
 Eastern origin of the Irish were soon found in the Gaelic dia- 
 lect of that country. Finally, the matter (in the eyes at least 
 of the national writers) was satisfactorily settled by the famous 
 discovery, attributed to General Yallancey, of the true mean- 
 ing of the Carthaginian lines in Plautus. 
 
 In the Little Carthaginian (Poenulus) of the Latin comic 
 writer Plautus, a portion of the dialogue is carried on in the 
 language of Carthage. 
 
 That' the Punic language of Carthage should closely resem- 
 
 * Sir W. Betlium'w Gael and Cvmry, c. iii.
 
 1.>(J SUPPOSED PHCENICIANS 
 
 l)lo tljat of tlu> nu)tliei-city Tyre, which was Phanician ; and 
 that the PhaMiiciau of T}!^ should be allied to the language 
 of Palestini' and Syria, was soon reniarked by the classical 
 commentators of the time. Joseph Scaliger asserted that the 
 Punic of the Pocuulus differed hut little from pure Hehreio — 
 "^•li fli'braismi puritate parum abesse.'''' 
 
 Emendated and interpreted by Bochart, the first ten lines 
 of a speech in Act v. s. 1 . stand thus : — 
 
 1. N' ytli alionim valionuth sicoratli ji!^llluc■ol) sitli 
 
 2. Cliy-iiilacliai jythmu mitslia niittcbariim ischi 
 
 3. LiiAorcancth yth beni ith jad adi ubinuthai 
 
 4. Birua rob sylJohom alonim ubyniisyrtohom 
 
 5. Bythrym moth ymoth othi helecli Antidamarchoii 
 
 6. Ys sideli : brim tyfel yth cliili schontcm liphiil 
 
 7. Uth bin imys dibur thini nocuth nu' Agorastoclcs 
 
 8. Ythem aneti by chyr saely choc, sith iiaso. 
 
 9. Biimi id cl)i lu hilli gubylim lasibil thym 
 10. Body aly theia ynn' yss' immoncon lu sim — 
 
 The Same, in Hehreio Characters. 
 
 :n^?T |oj:d'' mn^ msr^vi wy\'h)i n^? n*3 -i 
 
 pm^ni ny i** r\ii ^3i n.^ n^piis^ .3 
 
 :Dnn-nt:'an wiyhv rirh^ in nni a 
 
 noiQTn^N* fSi ^m^* m^n ry\^ 0^:01 .5 
 
 ^i^^^^ nsn pin 'hi^^ -n>i ik^^n >ni3n nmn .8 
 :Dn nitt^'? uh^:iy rhi^n ib o iv ""^^^ -9 
 
 Six lines following these were determined to be ZzJy-PhcB- 
 nician, or the language of the native Africans in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Carthage, mixed with Punic. These, it was 
 stated, had the same meaning with the ten lines in Cartha- 
 ginian. 
 
 The following lines of Plautus have, by all commentators,
 
 IN IRELAND. 187 
 
 been viewed in the same light, viz. as the Latin version of the 
 speech of the Carthaginian. 
 
 1. Deos deasque veneror, qui banc urbcm colunt, 
 
 2. Ut, quod de mea re hue veni, rite venerini. 
 
 3. Measque hie ut gnatas, et mei fratris fiHum 
 
 4. Reperire me siritis : Di, vostram iidem ! 
 
 5. Quse mihi surruptse sunt, et fratris filium : 
 
 6. Sed hie mihi antehac hospes Antidamas fuit. 
 
 7. Eum fecisse aiunt, sibi quod faciendum fuit. 
 
 8. Ejus filium hie esse prfedicant Agorastoclem : 
 
 9. Deum hospitalem et tesseram niecum fero : 
 
 10. In hisce habitare monstratum est regionibus. 
 
 11. Hos percunctabor, qui hue egrediuntur foras. 
 
 Guided by the metrical paraphrase of the original author, 
 Bochart laid before the scholars of his time a Latin version, of 
 which the following is an English translation : — 
 
 Close Translation of Bocharfs Latin Version. 
 
 1 . 1 ask the gods and goddesses tliat preside over this city, 
 
 2. That my plans may be fulfilled. — May my business prosper under 
 
 their guidance ! 
 
 3. The release of my son and my daughters from the hands of a robber. 
 
 4. May the gods grant this, through the mighty spirit that is in them 
 
 and by their providence ! 
 
 5. Before his death, Antidamarchus used to sojourn with me. 
 
 6. A man intimate with me : but he has joined the ranks of those whose 
 
 dwelling is in darkness (the dead). 
 
 7. There is a general report that liis son has here taken his abode ; viz. 
 
 Agorastocles. 
 
 8. The token (tally) of my claim to hospitality is a carven tablet, the 
 
 sculpture whereof is my god. This I carry. 
 
 9. A witness has informed me that he lives in this neighbourhood. 
 
 10. Somebody comes this way through the gate : behold hiin : I '11 ask him 
 whether he knows the name. 
 
 To professed classics and to professed orientalists, the ver- 
 sion of Bochart has, on the whole, appeared satisfactory. 
 Divisions of opinion there have been, it is true, even amongst 
 those who received it ; but merely upon matters of detail. 
 Some have held that the Punic is Syriac rather than Hebraic, 
 whilst others have called in to its interpretation the Arabic,
 
 loS sri'lH)SKI> riKENlClANS 
 
 the Maltese, or the ChahU'e ; all (be it observed) languages 
 akin to the Hebrew, 'J'liose who look further than this for 
 their attinities, Gesenius* dismisses in the following cavalier 
 and cursory manner: — '■'■ Nc coram somnia memorem, qui e 
 Vasconioti it Hi be mi a- Unguis huic causa; succurri j>osse opinati 
 sunt ; de (jidbus cojjiosius referre picietr 
 
 The remark of Gesenius concerning the i^rctended affinities 
 between the Punic and Hibernian arose from the discovery 
 attributed to General Vallancey; viz. that the speech in 
 Plautus was Irish Gaelic, and consequently that the Irish was 
 Carthaginian, and vice versa. The word attributed is used 
 because the true originator of the hypothesis was not Vallan- 
 cey, but O^Neachtan. 
 
 The Gaelic Version. 
 
 1. N 'iatli all o iiimh uath lonnaithe socruidshe mc coinsith 
 
 2. Chimi lacli clminigli ! muini is toil, miocht beiridh iar mo scitli 
 
 3. Liomlitha can ati bi mitchc ad eadan boannaitlic 
 
 4. Bior liar ob siladh urnlial : o nimh ! il)lnm a frotba ! 
 
 5. Beith liom ! mo thimc noctaitlie ; neil acb tan ti daisic mac coinmc 
 
 6. Is i de Icabbraim tafach Icitb, chi lis con tcampluibb ulla 
 
 7. Uch bin nim i is dc bcart inn a ccomliimitbe Agorastocles ! 
 
 8. Itche mana ith a chitbirsi ; leicceatli sith nosa I 
 
 9. Buaine na iad cbeile ile : gabh liom an la so bitliim' ! 
 10. Bo dilcaclitach nionatb n' isle, mon cotboil us im. 
 
 In English. 
 
 1. Omnipotent much-dreaded Deity of this country! assuage my troubled 
 
 mind ! 
 
 2. Thou ! the .support of feeble captives ! being now exhausted with fatigue, 
 
 of thy free will guide to my children ! 
 
 3. O let my prayers be perfectly acceptable in thy sight ! 
 
 4. An inexhaustible fountain to the humble : O Deity ! let me drink of 
 
 its streams ! 
 "). Forsake me not ! my earnest desire is now disclosed, which is only that 
 
 of recovering my daughters, 
 (). Tins was my fervent prayer, lamenting their misfortunes in thy sacred 
 
 temjdes. 
 7. O bounteous Deity ! it is reported here dwelletli Agorastocles. 
 
 * Scripturtc LingUeCf|ue Phcenicia" Monumcnta, iv. 3.
 
 IN IRELAND FINNIC HYPOTHESIS. ISO 
 
 8. Should my request appear just, let here my disquietudes cease. 
 
 9. Let them be no longer concealed ; O that I may this day find my 
 
 daughters ! 
 10. They will be fatherless, and preys to the worst of men, unless it be 
 thy pleasure that I should find them. 
 
 From the quotations already given, the general reader may 
 see that both the text and the translation of Plautus are least 
 violated in the reading and rendering of Bochart, a reading 
 and rendering which no Gothic or Semitic scholar has ever set 
 aside. 
 
 § 195. The hypothesis of an aboriginal Finnic population in 
 Britain and elsewhere. — A Celtic population of Britain pre- 
 ceded the Germanic. Are there any reasons for believing 
 that any older population preceded the Celtic ? 
 
 The reasoning upon this point is preeminently that of the 
 Scandinavian {i.e. Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian) school 
 of philology and ethnology. 
 
 Arndt, I believe, was the first who argued that if the so- 
 called Indo-European nations were as closely connected with 
 each other as they are generally considered, their separation 
 from the common stock must have been subsequent to the 
 occupation of Europe by some portion or other of the human 
 species — in other words, that this earlier population must have 
 been spread over those areas of which the Indo-Europeans 
 took possession only at a later period. 
 
 That the divisions of such an earlier population were, at least., 
 as closely connected with eacli other as the different members 
 of the so-called Indo-Euro])ean class, was a reasonable opinion. 
 It was even reasonable to suppose that they were more closely 
 connected ; since the date of their diffusion must have been 
 nearer the time of the original dispersion of mankind. 
 
 If so, all Europe (the British Isles included) might have 
 had as its aborigines a family older than the oldest mem- 
 bers of the Indo-European stock ; a family of which every 
 member may now be extinct, or a family of which remains 
 may still survive. 
 
 Where are such remains to be sought ? In two sorts of 
 localities —
 
 1 {() FINNIC IIYI'OTllblSIS. 
 
 1. l*ait.s ln'i/uad tlu' limits of the area oi'C'U[)iL'cl \)\ the so- 
 called Indo- Europeans. 
 
 2. Parts with'ut the limits of the so-called liido-Europeaiis ; 
 but so fortified by nature as to have been the stronghold of a 
 retiring population. 
 
 What are the chief parts coming under the first of these 
 conditions i 
 
 a. The countries beyonil the Indo-Europeans of the Scandi- 
 navian and Slavonic areas, i.e. the countries of the Laplanders 
 and Finnlanders. 
 
 b. The countries beyond the Indo-Europeans of the Iranian 
 stock, i.e. the Dekkan, or the country of those natives of 
 India (whatever they may be) whose languages are not de- 
 rived from the Sanscrit. 
 
 What are parts coming under the second of these con- 
 ditions I 
 
 a. The Basque districts of the Pyrenees, where the lan- 
 guage represents that of the aborigines of Spain anterior to 
 the conquest of the Roman. 
 
 b. The Albanians. — Such the doctrine of the continuity 
 of an a«^6-Indo-European population, from Cape Comorin to 
 Lapland, and from Lapland to the Pyrenees. There is S07ne 
 philological evidence of this : whether there is enough is an- 
 other matter. 
 
 This view, which on its ^;A^7o?(?<7^ca? side has been taken up 
 by Rask, Kayser, and the chief Scandinavian scholars, and 
 which, whether right or wrong, is the idea of a bold and com- 
 prehensive mind, as well as a powerful instrument of criticism 
 in the way of a provisional theory, has also been adopted on 
 its physiological side by the chief Scandinavian anatomists 
 and pakeontologists — Retzius, Eschricht, Niilson, and others. 
 Skulls differing in shape from the Celtic skulls of Gaul, and 
 from the Gothic skulls of Germany and Scandinavia, have been 
 found in considerable numbers ; and generally in burial-places 
 of an apparently greater antiquity than those which contain 
 typical Celtic, or typical Gothic crania. Hence there is some 
 anatomical as well as philological evidence : whether there is 
 enough is another question.
 
 ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 141 
 
 PART III. 
 
 SOUNDS, LETTERS, PRONUNCIATION, SPELLING. 
 
 OPIAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL NATUKE OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 
 
 § 196. To two points connected with the subject of the 
 following Chapter, the attention of the reader is requested. 
 
 I. In the comparison of sounds the ear is hable to be misled 
 by the eye. 
 
 The syllables ha and ga are similar syllables. The vowel is 
 in each the same, and the consonant is but slightly different. 
 Now the words ka and ga are more allied to each other than 
 the words Tea and 5a, ha and ta^ &c., because the consonantal 
 sounds oih and g are more allied than the consonantal sounds 
 of h and 5, h and t. 
 
 Comparing the syllables ga and Zra, we see the affinity 
 between the sounds, and we see it at the first glance. It lies 
 on the surface, and strikes the ear at once. 
 
 It is, however, very evident that ways might be devised, or 
 might arise from accident, of concealing the likeness between 
 the two sounds, or, at any rate, of making it less palpable. 
 One of such ways would be a faulty mode of spelling. If 
 instead of ga we wrote glia the following would be the effect : 
 the syllable would appear less simple than it really was ; it 
 would look as if it consisted of three parts instead of two, and 
 consequently its affinity to ha would seem less than it really 
 was. It is perfectly true that a little consideration would tell 
 us that, as lone as the sound remained the same, the relation
 
 112 GENERAL NATURE OF 
 
 of the two syllables roniained tlie same ; aiul that, if tlio con- 
 trary ap|)oaro(.l to be the case, the car was misled by the eye. 
 Still a little consideration would be required. Now in the 
 Eniilish lancfua^-e we have, amongst others, the following 
 modes of spelling that have a tendency to mislead : — 
 
 The sounds of^>// and ofy, in Philip and Jillip, differ to the 
 eye, but to the car are identical. Here a difference is simu- 
 lated. 
 
 The sounds of th in thin, and of th in thine, differ to the ear, 
 but to the eye seem the same. Here a difference is concealed. 
 
 These last sounds appear to the eye to be double or com- 
 pound. This is not the case ; they are simple single sounds, 
 and not the sounds of t followed by h, as the spelling leads us 
 to imagine. 
 
 II. Besides improper modes of spelling, there is another 
 way of concealing the true nature of sounds. If I say that I'a 
 and (^a are allied, the alliance is manifest ; since I compare 
 the actual sounds. If I say l-a and gee are allied, the alliance 
 is concealed ; since I compare, not the actual sounds, but only 
 the names of the letters that express those sounds. Now in 
 the English language we have, amongst others, the following 
 names of letters that have a tendency to mislead : — 
 
 The sounds fa and va are allied. The names e^ and vee 
 conceal this alliance. 
 
 The sounds sa and sa are allied. The names ess and zed 
 conceal the alliance. 
 
 In comparing sounds it is advisable to have nothing to do 
 cither with letters or names of letters. Compare the sounds 
 themselves. 
 
 In many cases it is sufficient, in comparing consonants, to 
 compare syllables that contain those consonants ; e. g., to 
 determine the relations of p, h, f, v, we say pa, ha, fa, va ; 
 or for those of s and z, we say sa, za. Here we compare syl- 
 lables, each consonant being followed by a vowel. At times 
 this is insufficient. We are often obliged to isolate the con- 
 sonant from its vowel, and bring our organs to utter (or half 
 utter) the imperfect sounds of p\ b', f, d\ In doing this we 
 isolate the consonant.
 
 ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 143 
 
 § 197. Let any of the voivels (for instance, the a m father) 
 be sounded. The Hps, the tongue, and the parts within the 
 throat remain in the same position : and as long as these re- 
 main in the same position the sound is that of the vowel 
 under consideration. Let, however, a change take place in 
 the position of the oi-gans of sound ; let, for instance, the lips 
 be closed, or the tongue be applied to the front part of the 
 mouth : in that case the vowel sound is cut short. It under- 
 goes a change. It terminates in a sound that is different, 
 according to the state of those organs whereof the position 
 has been changed. If, on the vowel in question, the lips be 
 closed, there then arises an imperfect sound of h or p. If, 
 on the other hand, the tongue be applied to the front teeth, 
 or to the fore part of the palate, the sound is one (more or 
 less imperfect) of t or d. This fact illustrates the difference 
 between the vowels and the consonants. It may be verified 
 by pronouncing the a mfate, ee in/eet, oo in book, o in note, &c. 
 
 It is a further condition in the formation of a vowel sound, 
 that the passage of the breath be uninterrupted. In the 
 sound of the P in lo (isolated from its vowel) the sound is 
 as continuous as it is with the a in fate. BetAveen, however, 
 the consonant I and the vowel a there is this difference : 
 with a, the passage of the breath is uninterrupted ; with I, 
 the tongue is applied to the palate, breaking or arresting the 
 passage of the breath. 
 
 § 198. The primary division of our articulate sounds is into 
 vowels and consonants. The latter are again divided into 
 liquids (/, 7n, n, r) and mutes (p, h, f v, t, d, k, g, s, x, &c.) 
 Defnitions for the different sorts of articulate sounds have still 
 to be laid down. In place of these, we have general asser- 
 tions concerning the properties and qualities of the respective 
 classes. Concerning the vowels as a class, we may j)redicate 
 one thing concerning the liquids, and concerning the iiuites, 
 another. What the nature of these assertions is, will be seen 
 after the explanation of certain terms. 
 
 § 199. Sharp and flat. — Take the sounds of p, f t, I; s; 
 isolate them from their vowels, and pronounce them. The 
 sound is the sound of a whisper.
 
 Ill- CONTINUors AND K Xl'I.oSl VK SOUNDS. 
 
 Let />, i\ (/, (/, z, he similarly treated. The sound is no 
 whisper, hut one at the natural tone of our voice. 
 
 N(>\vy>, /* /, k, s (with some others that will he brought 
 forward anon) are s/tarj), whilst b, v, &c. avc flat. Instead of 
 sharp, some say hard, and instead of flat, some say soft. The 
 Sanskrit terms sonant and surd are, in a scientific point of 
 view, the. least exceptionable. They have, however, the dis- 
 advantage of being pedantic. The tenues of the classics (as 
 far as they go) arc sharp, the mediw flat. 
 
 Continuous and explosive. — Isolate the sounds of h, p, t, d, 
 /•, p. Pronounce them. You have no power of prolonging 
 the sounds, or of resting upon them. They escape with the 
 breath, and they escape at once. 
 
 It is not so with f, v, sh, zh. Here the breath is trans- 
 mitted by degrees, and the sound can be drawn out and pro- 
 longed for an indefinite space of time. Now h, p, t, &c. are 
 explosive y, u, &c. continuous. 
 
 § 200. Concerning the vowels, we may predicate a) that 
 they are all continuous, H) that they are all flat. 
 
 Concerning the liquids, we may predicate a) that they are 
 all continuous, U) that they are all flat. 
 
 Concerning the mutes, we may predicate a) that one half 
 of them is flat, and the other half sharp, and 5) that some 
 are continuous, and that others are explosive. 
 
 § 201. — The letter h is no articulate sound, but only a 
 breathing. 
 
 For the semivowels and the diphthongs, see the sequel.
 
 iSYSTEM OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 145 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SYSTEM OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 
 
 § 202. — The attention of the reader is now directed to the 
 foWow'ing foreign vowel sounds. 
 
 1. e/erme, of the French. — This is a sound alhed to, but 
 different from, the a in fate, and the ee in feet. It is inter- 
 mediate to the two. 
 
 2. 11 of the French, il of the Germans, y of the Danes. — 
 This sound is intermediate to the ee in feet, and the oo in 
 hook. 
 
 3. chiuso, of the Italians. — Intermediate to the o in note, 
 and the oo in hooJ:. 
 
 For these sounds we have the following sequences : a in 
 fate, e ferme, ee in feet, u in iibel (German), oo in book, o 
 chiuso, in note. And this is the true order of alliance among 
 the vowels ; a in fate, and o in note, being the extremes ; 
 the other sounds being transitional or intermediate. As the 
 English orthograjDhy is at once singular and faulty, it ex- 
 hibits the relationship but imperfectly. 
 
 § 203. The system of the mutes. — Preliminary to the con- 
 sideration of the system of the mutes, let it be observed : — 
 
 1. that the th in thin is a simple single sound, different from 
 
 the th in thine, and that it may be expressed by the 
 sign p. 
 
 2. That the th in thine is a simple single sound, different from 
 
 the th in thin, and that it may be expressed by the sign S. 
 
 3. That the sh in shine is a simple single sound, and that it 
 
 may be expressed by the sign c (Greek a7y(jj(x,). 
 
 4. That the z in azure, glazier (French j), is a simple single 
 
 sound, and that it may be expressed by the sign ^ (Greek
 
 14() SYSTEM OF 
 
 5. That ill tlic Laplaiidic, and possibly in many other lan- 
 guages, there are two jieculiar sounds, ditt'erent from any 
 iu English, German, and French, &c., and that they may 
 respectively be expressed by the sign k and the sign y 
 (Greek r,6t,'7:'7:a. and ya/x/>oa). 
 With these preliminary notices we may exhibit the system 
 of the sixteen mutes ; having previously determined the 
 meaning of two fresh terms, and bearing in mind what was 
 said concerning the words sharp and flat, continuous and 
 explosive. 
 
 Lene and aspirate. — From the sound of ^ in pa^, the sound 
 of/ in fat differs in a certain degree. This difference is not 
 owing to a difference in their sharpness or flatness. Each is 
 sharp. Neither is it owing to a difference in their continuity 
 or explosiveness ; although, at the first glance, such might 
 appear to be the case. jPis continuous, whilst ^j is explosive. 
 aS', however, is continuous, and s, in respect to the difference 
 under consideration, is classed not with /" the continuous sound 
 but with p the explosive one. I am unable to account for the 
 difterence bet ween /> and/". It exists : it is visible. It has been 
 expressed by a term. P is called lene.,/ is called aspirate. 
 
 As /is top so is V to h. 
 As -0 is to J so is |? to t. 
 As ]? is to < so is S to d. 
 As S is to c^ so is x, to k. 
 As ;c is to A- so is y to g. 
 As y is to ^ so is a to s. 
 As (T is to s so is Z^ io z. 
 
 Hence p, b, t, d, k, g, s, z, are lene ; /, v, p, ^6, «, y, c, ^, 
 are asjnrate. A]so p,/, t, p, k, z, s, tr, are sharp, whilst 5, v, 
 d, S, g, y, z, ^, are Jlat ; so that there is a double series of 
 relationship capable of being expressed as follows : — 
 
 Lene. Aspirate. | Sharp. Flat. 
 
 Sharp. Flat. Sharp. Flat. I Lene. Aspirate. Lene. Aspirate, 
 
 p b f V \ p J" b V 
 
 t d \> i t \> d ^ 
 
 kg K y ' k K gV 
 
 s z a ^ s a z i
 
 ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 147 
 
 I am not familiar enough with the early grammarians to 
 know when the terms lene and aspirate were first used. They 
 were the Latin equivalents to the Greek words -^l/iKov {psilon) 
 and ^ocav (dasy) respectively. The Greek terms are pre- 
 ferable. They convey no determinate idea, whereas the Latin 
 terms convey a false one. The origin of the word aspirate 
 I imagine to be as follows. The Latin language, wanting 
 both the sound of the Greek theta, and the sign to express it 
 (^), rendered it by th. This orthography engenders the false 
 notion that & differed from r by the addition of the aspirate 
 A. To guard against similar false notions, I rarely hereafter 
 use the word aspirate without qualifying it by the addition 
 of the adjective so-called. 
 
 All the so-called aspirates are continuous ; and, with the 
 exception of s and ;:;, all the lenes are explosive. 
 
 I believe that in the fact of each mute appearing in a four- 
 fold form {i.e. sharp, or flat, lene, or (so-called) aspirate), 
 lies the essential character of the mutes as opposed to the 
 liquids. 
 
 Y and w. — These sounds, respectively intermediate to y 
 and % (the ee iu feet), and to v and u (oo in book), form a transi- 
 tion from the vowels to the consonants. 
 
 § 204. It has been seen that the sixteen mutes are reducible 
 to four series. Of these series, ^;, t, k, s, may respectively be 
 taken as the types. Of the liquids it may be predicated as 
 follows : — 
 
 1. That ni is allied to the series />. — The combination inp 
 has a tendency to become imp. 
 
 2. That 71 is allied to the series t. — The combination imf 
 has a tendency to become either impt, or int. 
 
 8. That I is allied to the series I.- — The evidence of this 
 lies deep in comparative philology. 
 
 4. That r is allied to the series s. — The evidence of this 
 is of the same nature with that of the preceding assertion. 
 
 The scries ]) and k have this peculiarity. — They are con- 
 nected with the vowels through w and u (oo), and through 
 y and i (ee) respectively. 
 
 § 205. The French word roi, and the English words oil, 
 
 r. '1
 
 148 SYSTKIM OF 
 
 /iovst', tiro sprcinuMis ot" a iVcsli class of artirulations ; Wc, of 
 coiupound vowel soumls or (lij)litlioiios. Tlio diplitliong oi is 
 the vowel modified, phs tlie semi\o\\v\ y (not the voxcel i) 
 modified. The diplitlionoal sound in roi is the vowel o modi- 
 fied, ^V?/.s- the semivowel ic (not the vowel u or oo) modified. 
 In rui the semivowel I'lcnient precedes, in oil it follows. In 
 roi it is the semivowel allied to series^ ; in oil it is the semi- 
 vowel allied to series /•. T/ic nature of the modification that 
 the component parts of a diphthong undergo has yet to he deter- 
 mined ; although it is certain there is one. If it were not so, 
 the articulations would be double^ not compound. 
 
 The words quoted indicate the nature of the diphthongal 
 system. 
 
 1. Diphthongs with the semivowel iv, a) 2>receding^ as in 
 the French word roi^ h) following^ as in the English word 
 neto. 
 
 2. Diphthongs with the semivowel y, a) preceding^ as is 
 common in the languages of the Lithuanic and Slavonic stocks, 
 b) following^ as in the word oil. 
 
 3. Triphthongs with a semivowel both preceding and/o/- 
 loicing. 
 
 The diphthongs in English are four ; ow as in house, ew as 
 in neii\ oi as in oil, i as in hite, fight. 
 
 § 206. Chest, jest. — Here we have compound consonantal 
 sounds. The c7i in chest is t •\- sh {a) , ihQ j m jest h d + zh 
 (^). I believe that in these combinations one or both the 
 elements, mz., t and sh, d and zh, are modified ; but I am un- 
 able to state the exact nature of this modification. 
 
 § 207. Ng. — The sound of the ng in sing, king, throng, 
 when at the end of a word, or of singer, ringing, &c. in the 
 middle of a word, is not the natural sound of the combination 
 n and g, each letter retaining its natural power and sound ; 
 but a simple single sound, of which the combination ng is a 
 conventional mode of expressing. 
 
 § 208. Other terms, chiefly relating to the vowels, have still 
 to be explained. The e of the French has been called /'g>'me, 
 or close (Italian, chiuso). Its opposite, the a in fate, is 02)en. 
 
 Compared with a in fate, and the o in note, a in father,
 
 ARTICULATE SOUNDS. J 49 
 
 and the ato in hatvl, are hroad, tlie vowels of note ixn(\ fate 
 being slender. 
 
 § 209. \n fat, the vowel is, according to common parlance, 
 short; in fate, it is long. Here we have the introduction of 
 two fresh terms. For the words long and short, I would fain 
 substitute independent and dependent. If from the word fate 
 I separate the final consonantal sound, the syllable/a remains 
 In this syllable the a has precisely the sound that it had be- 
 fore. It remains unaltered. The removal of the consonant 
 has in nowise modified its sound or power. It is not so with 
 the vowel in the word fat. If from this I remove the con- 
 sonant following, and so leave the a at the end of the syllable, 
 instead of in the middle, I must do one of two things : I must 
 sound it either as the a m fate, or else as the a m father. Its 
 (so-called) short sound it cannot retain, unless it be sup- 
 ported by a consonant following. For this reason it is depend- 
 ent. The same is the case with all the so-called short sounds, 
 viz., the e in led, i in ft, w in bull, o in not, u in hut. 
 
 To the preceding remarks the following statements may be 
 added. 
 
 1 . That the words independent and dependent correspond 
 with the terms perfect and imperfect of the Hebrew gram- 
 marians. 
 
 2, That the Hebrew grammars give us the truest notions 
 respecting these particular properties of vowels. 
 
 The following sentences are copied from Lee's Hebrew 
 Grammar, Art. 33, 34 : — ''•l^y perfect vowels is meant, vowels 
 which, being preceded by a consonant" {or without being so 
 preceded), " will constitute a complete syllable, as ^ bd. By 
 imperfect vowels is meant those vowels which are not gene- 
 rally" {never) "found to constitute syllables without either 
 the addition of a consonant or of an accent. Such syllables, 
 therefore, must be either like ^^ bad, or 3l bd, i. e., followed 
 by a consonant, or accompanied by an accent." For further 
 remarks on this subject, see the chapter on accent. 
 
 § 210. Before i, e, and y of the English alphabet, and before 
 u and o German, the letters c and g have the tendency to as- 
 sume the sound and power of 5 or z, of sh or zh, of eh or _/ ,•
 
 150 
 
 SYSTEM OF 
 
 in other words, of becoming citlier s or some sound allied to s. 
 Compared with a, o, and u (as in gat^ got, rfiin), which arc full, 
 i, 0, f/, are small vowels. 
 
 It is not every vowel that is susceptible of every modifica- 
 tion. / {eo) and u (oo) are incapable of becoming broad. JiJ 
 in bed (as I have convinced m3-seif), although both broad and 
 slender, is incapable of becoming independent. For the u in 
 but, and for the o of certain foreign languages, I have no satis- 
 factory systematic position. 
 
 Broad. 
 Independent . 
 a, m father 
 
 e, in meine, Germ. 
 
 aw, in bmil 
 
 §211. Votcel System. 
 
 Slender. 
 Independent. 
 
 Dependent. 
 
 a, injfite 
 eferini,, long 
 
 ee, \n feet 
 
 it, of the German, long 
 
 00, in book 
 
 chiuso 
 
 0, in note 
 
 a, in Jut. 
 ej'erme, short, 
 e, in bed, 
 i, in pit. 
 tlic same, short, 
 uu, in could. 
 tlie same, short. 
 0, in note. 
 
 From these, the semivowels w and ?/ make a transition to 
 the consonants v and the so-called aspirate of </ {y, not being 
 in English), respectively. 
 
 
 § 212. 
 
 Si/stem of Consonants. 
 
 
 Jquids. 
 
 
 Mutes. 
 
 Setnivoivtls 
 
 
 Lene. 
 
 Aspirate. 
 
 
 
 Sharp. 
 
 Flat. 
 
 Sharp. Flat. 
 
 
 m 
 
 P 
 
 V 
 
 f 
 
 w 
 
 n 
 
 t 
 
 d 
 
 \> « 
 
 
 I 
 
 k 
 
 g 
 
 K y 
 
 y 
 
 r 
 
 s 
 
 z 
 
 c 
 
 
 § 213. Concerning the vowel system I venture no assertion. 
 The consonantal system I conceive to have been exhibited 
 above in its whole fulness. The number of mutes, specifically 
 distinct, I consider to be sixteen and no more : the number of 
 liquids, four. What then are the powers of the numerous 
 letters in alphabets like those of Arabia and Armenia \ What
 
 ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 151 
 
 is the German cA, and Irish gh f Varieties of one or other of 
 the sounds exhibited above, and not articulations specifically 
 distinct. 
 
 § 214. There is a difference between a connexion in phonetics 
 and a connexion in graynmar. — Phonetics is a word expres- 
 sive of the subject-matter of the present chapter. The pre- 
 sent chapter determines (amongst other things) the systematic 
 relation of articulate sounds. The word pMneeticos {(pcov^rix,og) 
 signifies ajyj^ertaining to articulate sounds. It is evident that 
 between sounds like b and v, s and z, there is a connexion in 
 phonetics. Now in the grammar of languages there is often a 
 change, or a permutation of letters : e.g., in the words tooth, 
 teeth, the vowel, in price, prize, the consonant, is changed. 
 Here there is a connexion in grammar. 
 
 That the letters most closely allied in phonetics should be 
 most frequently interchanged in grammar, is what, on « priori 
 grounds, we most naturally are led to expect. And that such 
 is often the case, the study of languages tells us. That, how- 
 ever, it is always so, would be a hasty and an erroneous as- 
 sertion. The Greek language changes^ into f. Here the 
 connexion in phonetics and the connexion in language closely 
 coincide. The Welsh language changes/; into m. Here the 
 connexion in phonetics and the connexion in language do not 
 closely coincide.
 
 I'^S COMBINATION OK ARTICULATIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER 111. 
 
 01^ CERTAIN CO.MmXATIONS Or ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 
 
 § 215. Cektain combinations of articulate sounds are inca- 
 pable of being pronounced. The following rule is one that, in 
 the forthcoming pages, will frequently be referred to. Two 
 {or more) mutes, of different degrees of sharpness and flatness^ 
 are incapable of cominq ioaether in the same syllable. For in- 
 stance, 5, ■», c?, </, 5;, &c. being flat, and^,/, ^, /?;, s, &c. being 
 sharp, such combinations as «5#, avt^ apd., afd, agt., aJcd, atz^ 
 ads, Sec, are unpronoimceable. Sjjelt, indeed, they may be ; 
 but attempts at pronunciation end in a change of the combi- 
 nation. In this case either the flat letter is changed to its 
 sharp equivalent {h top, d to t, he.) or vice versa {p to b, t to 
 d). The combinations abf, and agt, to be pronounced, must 
 become either apt or abd, or else akf or agd. 
 
 For determining which of the two letters shall be changed, 
 in other words, whether it shall be the first that accommo- 
 dates itself to the second, or the second that accommodates 
 itself to the first, there are no general rules. This is settled 
 by the particular habit of the language in consideration. 
 
 The word mutes in the second sentence of this section must 
 be dwelt on. It is only with the mutes that there is an im- 
 possibility of pronouncing the heterogeneous combinations 
 above mentioned. The liquids and the vowels are flat ; but 
 the liquids and vowels, although flat, may be followed by a 
 sharp consonant. If this were not the case, the combinations 
 ap, at, alp, alt, &c. would be unpronounceable. 
 
 The semivowels, although flat, admit of being followed by a 
 sharp consonant. 
 
 The law exhibited above may be called the law of accom- 
 modation.
 
 EVOLUTION OF ARTICULATIONS. 153 
 
 Combinations like gt, kcl, &ec., may be called incompatible 
 combinations. 
 
 §216. Unstable combinations. — That certain sounds in 
 combination with others have a tendency to undergo changes, 
 may be collected from the observation of our own language, 
 as we find it spoken by those around us, or by ourselves. 
 The eiv in new is a sample of what may be called an unsteady 
 or unstable combination. There is a natural tendency to 
 change it either into oo (noo) or 9/00 {nyoo) ; perhaps also into 
 9/ew {nyew). 
 
 § 217. Effect of the semivowel y on certain letters when they 
 'precede it. — Taken by itself the semivowel y, followed by a 
 vowel (ya, yee., yo, you, &c.), forms a stable combination. 
 Not so, however, if it be preceded by a consonant, of the series 
 z!, k, or s, as tya, tyo ; dya, dyo ; kya., Jcyo ; sya, syo. There 
 then arises an unstable combination. Sya and syo we pro- 
 nounce as sha and sho ; tya and tyo we pronounce as cha and 
 ja (i.e. tshi dzh.). This we may verify from our pronuncia- 
 tion of words like sure, picture, verdure (shoor, plctshoor., 
 verdzhoor), having previously remarked that the u in those 
 words is not sounded as 00 but as yoo. The effect of the 
 semivowel y, taken with instability of the combination etv, ac- 
 counts for the tendency to pronounce dew as if written jeiv. 
 
 § 218. The evolution of neto sounds. — To an English ear 
 the sound of the German ch falls strange. To an English 
 organ it is at first difficult to pronounce. The same is the 
 case with the German vowels y and ii, and with the French 
 sounds u, eic, &c. 
 
 To a German, however, and a Frenchman, the sound of 
 the English th (either in thin or thine) is equally a matter of 
 difficulty. 
 
 The reason of this lies in the fact of the respective sounds 
 being absent in the German, French, and English languages ; 
 since sounds are easy or hard to pronounce just in proportion 
 as we have been familiarised with them. 
 
 There is no instance of a new sound being introduced at 
 once into a language. Where they originate at all, they are 
 eoolved, not imported.
 
 154 EVOLUTION OK ARTICULATION. 
 
 § 219. Evolution of sounds. — Lot there be a language where 
 tliere is no such a soiuul as tliat of z, but where there is the 
 sound of**. Tlie sound ot'^ may be evolved under (amongst 
 others) the following conditions. 1. Let there be a number of 
 words ending in the flat mutes ; as shih^stag, stud, &:c. 2. Let 
 a certain form (the plural number or the genitive case) be 
 formed by the addition of is or es ; as slahis^ stages, studes, &c. 
 3. Let the tendency that words have to contract eject the 
 intermediate vowel, e or /, so that the s of the inflexion (a 
 sharp mute) and the b, d, g, &c. of the original word (Jlat 
 mutes) be brought into juxta-position, slabs, studs, stags. 
 There is then an incompatible termination, and one of two 
 changes must take place ; either b, d, or g must become p, 
 t, or k (slaj)s, staks, stuts) ; or s must become z (stagz, studz, 
 slabz). In this latter case z is evolved. Again, 
 
 Let there be a language wherein there are no such sounds 
 as sJi, cli {tsh), or J (dzh) ; but where there are the sounds of 
 s, t, d, and y. 
 
 Let a change affect the unstable combinations sy, i?y, 
 dy. From this will arise the evolved sounds of sh, cli, and J. 
 
 The phenomena of evolution help to determine the pronun- 
 ciation of dead languages. 
 
 § 220. On the value of a sufficient system of sounds. — In 
 certain imaginable cases, a language may be materially 
 affected by the paucity of its elementary articulate sounds. 
 
 In a given language let there be the absence of the sound z, 
 the other conditions being those noted in the case of the words 
 stag, slab, stud, kc. Let the intermediate vowel be ejected. 
 Then, instead of the s being changed into an evolved z, let 
 the other alternative take place ; so that the words become 
 stal'S, slajis, stilts. In this latter case we have an alteration 
 of the original word, brought about by the insufficiency of the 
 system of articulate sounds. 
 
 § 221. Double consonants rare. — It cannot be too clearly 
 understood that in words like fitted, stabbing, massy, &c. 
 there is no real reduplication of the sounds of t, b, and s, respec- 
 tively. Between the words pitted (as with the small-pox) 
 and pitied (as being an object of pity) there is a difference in
 
 DOUBLE SOUNDS RARE, 155 
 
 spelling only. In speech the words are identical. The redii- 
 j)lication of the consonant is in English, mid the generality of 
 languages, a conventional mode of expressing upon paper the 
 shortness (^dependence) of the vowel that precedes. 
 
 § 222. Real reduplications of consonants, i.e., reduplications 
 of their sound, are, in all languages, extremely rare. I am 
 fully aware of certain statements made I'especting the Lap- 
 landic and Finlandic languages, viz., that doubled consonants 
 are, in them, of common occurrence. Notwithstanding this, 
 I have an impression that it is generally under one condition 
 that true reduplication takes place. In compound and derived 
 words, where the original root ends, and the superadded affix 
 begins with the same letter, there is a reduplication of the 
 sound, and not otherwise. In the word soulless, the I is 
 doubled to the ear as well as to the eye ; and it is a false 
 pronunciation to call it souless (soless). In the " Deformed 
 Transformed " it is made to rhyme with no less, improperly. 
 
 " Clay, not dead but soulless, 
 
 Though no mortal man would choose thee, 
 An immortal no less 
 
 Deigns not to refuse thee." 
 
 In the following words, all of which are compounds, we 
 have true specimens of the doubled consonant. 
 
 ji is doubled in unnatural, innate, oneness. 
 I — soulless, civil-list, palely, 
 
 k — book-case. 
 
 t — seaport-town. 
 
 It must not, however, be concealed, that, in the mouths even 
 of correct speakers, one of the doubled sounds is often dropped. 
 
 § 223. True aspirates rare. — The criticism applied to 
 words like pitted, &c., applies also to words like Philip, 
 thin, thine, &c. There is therein no sound of h. How the 
 so-called aspirates differ from their corresponding lenes has not 
 yet been determined. That it is not by the addition of h is 
 evident. Ph and th are conventional modes of spelling simple 
 single sounds, which might better be expressed by simple single 
 signs.
 
 l'><i TI{rK ASI'IKATKS liAixK. 
 
 Ill our own language the true aspirates, liUe the true 
 reiluplii-itioiis, are t'ouiid only in eoni])ouii(l words; and there 
 they are often slurred in the pruiiuneiation. 
 
 \\\' rind /> and li in tlu' winds /uip/iiizdiil, iipli tlilcr. 
 
 l> and /( 
 
 iibhorrenl, culi-/iuuti7>g. 
 
 /and // - 
 
 liiufc-lHindlc, offhand. 
 
 V and /i — 
 
 stave- /had. 
 
 d and h — 
 
 adhesive, cliddliood. 
 
 / and h — 
 
 iiul/idok. 
 
 t/i and h — 
 
 wilhliold. 
 
 k and /* — 
 
 inkhorn, bakehouse. 
 
 g and h — 
 s and h — 
 z and h — 
 
 gig-horse. 
 
 ruce-horse, falsehood, 
 exhibit, exhort. 
 
 r and /i — 
 
 / an<l /( 
 
 w and h — 
 
 perhaps. 
 
 well-head, foolhardy. 
 
 Amherst. 
 
 71 and li — 
 
 unhinge, inhcixut, unhappy. 
 
 Now in certain languages the true aspirates are of common 
 occurrence, i.e.., sounds like the t in nuthook., the ph in hap- 
 hazard., Sec, are as frequent as the sounds of p, h, s, &c. In 
 the sj)elling of these sounds by means of the English we are 
 hampered by the circumstance of th and ph being already used 
 in a different sense.
 
 EUPHONY. 157 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 EUPHONY ; THE PERMUTATION AND THE TRANSITION OF LETTERS. 
 
 § 224. 1. Let there be two syllables, of which the one 
 ends in m, and the other begins with r, as we have in the syl- 
 lables num- and -rus of the Latin word numerus. 
 
 2. Let an ejection of the intervening letters bring these two 
 syllables into immediate contact, nunirus. The m and r form 
 an unstable combination. To remedy this there is a tendency 
 (mark, not an absolute necessity) to insert an intervening- 
 sound. 
 
 In English, the form which the Latin word numerus takes 
 is numher ; in Spanish, nomhre. The b makes no part of the 
 original word, but has been inserted for the sake of euphony ; 
 or, to speak more properly, by a euphonic process. The word 
 euphony is derived from su {well), and (p&/v)^ (/ona, a voice). 
 The province of euphony has not been very accurately deter- 
 mined. 
 
 § 225. In the word number, nombre, the letter inserted was 
 b ; and for b being the particular letter employed, there is a 
 reason derived from the system of articulate sounds. 
 
 1. That the letter inserted should be a consonant is evident. 
 The voivel e (in numerus) had been previously ejected, 
 
 2. That it should be a mute is evident. A liquid would 
 have given the unstable or unpronounceable combinations mnr, 
 mlr, mrr, nimr. 
 
 3. That it should be a consonant, either of series b or of 
 series s, was natural ; it being series b and series s with which 
 m and r are respectively connected. 
 
 4. That it should be a consonant of series b, rather than one 
 of series s, we collect from the fact that msr {/lumsrus) or mzr 
 {numzrus) give inharmonious, and, consequently, unstable 
 combinations.
 
 1 "i-S EXT PHONY. 
 
 ."). That of the l> scries, it slioiiKl ho h or » (Hat) ratlior tliaii 
 j> or /■ (sliar[i)' ^v^• inter from the fact of m and r both being 
 tlat." 
 
 t). Of (' and h, the latter alone gives a stable combination, 
 so that \vt> have the Spanish form womb/*^, and not nornvre. 
 
 In this we liave an illustration of the use of attending to 
 the nature and connections of articulate sounds in general. 
 
 § 226. The affinity of w for the series i, of n for the series 
 ^, gives occasion to further euphonic changes. The combina- 
 tions mt^ md., m]\ jm5, are unstable. The syllables emt^ emd^ 
 are liable to one of two modifications. Either j':> or h will be 
 inserted, and so make them empt (as in tenipf)^ emhd (as in 
 Embden), or else the m will become w, forming the syllable 
 ent, end, en\>, eti^. 
 
 Similar tendencies, in a certain degree, affect the combina- 
 tions enp, enb. They are liable to become emp, or emh. Any 
 one may see that the word enperor embarrasses the utterance. 
 
 § 227. The combination tupt is stable, so also is the com- 
 bination tuft. But the combination tu2)th is unstable : since 
 the/»is lene, the /is a (so-called) aspirate. Hence arises a 
 process of accommodation by which the word becomes either 
 tupt or tuffli (tu/p). 
 
 In respect to the unstable combination tupth, we may ob- 
 serve this, viz. that the ways of altering it are two. Either 
 the first letter may be accommodated to the second, tufh, or 
 the second may be accommodated to the first, tuft. Which 
 of these two changes shall take place is determined by the 
 particular habit of the language. In Greek we add to the 
 radical syllable ru-r-, the inflectional syllable -Orif. The Jirsf 
 letter, -r, is accommodated to the second, 0, and the word be- 
 comes rv(pd/iv (tyfpan), as in lrv^O'/;v {etyf^ttii). In English 
 we add to the radical syllable stay, the inflectional syllable s. 
 Here the second letter is accommodated to the first, and the 
 resulting word is not stales, but stariz. 
 
 § 228. The Irish Gaelic, above most other languages, illus- 
 trates a euphonic principle that modifies the vowels of a word. 
 The vowels a, o, u, are full, whilst i, e, y, are small. Now if 
 to a syllable containing a small vowel, as hull, there be added
 
 PERMUTATION OF LETTERS. 159 
 
 a syllable containing a broad one, as -am, a change takes 
 place. Either the first syllable is accommodated to the 
 second, or the second to the first ; so that the vowels re- 
 spectively contained in them are either both full or both small. 
 Hence arises, in resjDect to the word quoted, either the form 
 buala.m, or else the form biiU'wi. 
 
 § 229. In the words give and (/ave we have a change of 
 tense expressed by a change of vowel. In the words price 
 and prize a change of meaning is expressed by a change of 
 consonant. In clothe and clad there is a change both of a 
 vowel and of a consonant. In the words to use and a use 
 there is a similar change, although it is not expressed by the 
 spelling. To the ear the verb to use ends in s, although not 
 to the eye. The following are instances of the permutation 
 of letters. 
 
 Permutation of Vowels. 
 
 a 
 
 to 
 
 ^^ 
 
 as 
 
 man, men. 
 
 a 
 
 to 
 
 00, 
 
 as 
 
 stand, stood. 
 
 a 
 
 to 
 
 u, 
 
 as 
 
 dare, durst. 
 
 a 
 
 to 
 
 s, 
 
 as 
 
 was, were. 
 
 ea 
 
 to 
 
 0, 
 
 as 
 
 speak, spoken. 
 
 ea=e 
 
 to 
 
 ea=e, 
 
 as 
 
 breath, brentlte. 
 
 ee 
 
 to 
 
 e. 
 
 as 
 
 deep, depth. 
 
 ea 
 
 to 
 
 0, 
 
 as 
 
 bear, bore. 
 
 
 to 
 
 a, 
 
 as 
 
 spin, span. 
 
 
 to 
 
 », 
 
 as 
 
 spin, spun. 
 
 i=e'i 
 
 to 
 
 0, 
 
 as 
 
 smite, smote. 
 
 i=ei 
 
 to 
 
 h 
 
 as 
 
 smite, smitten. 
 
 
 to 
 
 a, 
 
 as 
 
 give, gave. 
 
 i-=.ei 
 
 to 
 
 a, 
 
 as 
 
 rise, raise. 
 
 t 
 
 to 
 
 e, 
 
 as 
 
 sit, set. 
 
 ow 
 
 to 
 
 ew, 
 
 as 
 
 blow, blew. 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 e, 
 
 as 
 
 strong, strength. 
 
 00 
 
 to 
 
 ee, 
 
 as 
 
 tooth, teeth. 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 ', 
 
 as 
 
 lop, tip. 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 c, 
 
 as 
 
 old, elder ; tell, told, 
 
 V 
 
 to 
 
 e, 
 
 as 
 
 brother, brethren. 
 
 (1=00 
 
 to 
 
 h 
 
 as 
 
 do, did. 
 
 Oz^OO 
 
 to 
 
 0:=.U 
 
 as 
 
 do, done. 
 
 10 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 as 
 
 choose, chose.
 
 t'O I-KIIMI'TATION (»K LKTTKHS. 
 
 Permuiaiioii of Consonants. 
 
 lifi\ live ; calf, ctilirs. 
 
 hrcat/i, to breathe. 
 
 seethe, sod ; clothe, clad. 
 
 build, built. 
 
 use, to vse. 
 
 was, were ; lose, forlorn. 
 
 f 
 
 to 
 
 '\ 
 
 Y 
 
 t(l 
 
 JS, 
 
 \> 
 
 tl) 
 
 d, 
 
 d 
 
 to 
 
 t, 
 
 .< 
 
 to 
 
 Z, 
 
 X 
 
 to 
 
 r, 
 
 111 /iai'6 and had we have the ejection of a sound ; in vor^: 
 and toi'oupht, the transposition of one. Important changes 
 are undergone by the sounds I:, g, and the allied ones nk, ng, 
 ?/, as will be seen in the chapter on verbs. 
 
 Permutation of Combinations. 
 
 ie=i 
 
 
 to 
 
 oxv, 
 
 as 
 
 grind, ground. 
 
 ow 
 
 
 to 
 
 i=ei, 
 
 as 
 
 mouse, mice ; cow, kiiie. 
 
 ink 
 
 
 to 
 
 uugh, 
 
 as 
 
 drink, draught. 
 
 ing 
 
 
 to 
 
 ough, 
 
 as 
 
 bring, brought. 
 
 y (formerly g), 
 
 ough. 
 
 as 
 
 bill/, bought. 
 
 igh= 
 
 zei 
 
 to 
 
 ough, 
 
 as 
 
 fight, fought. 
 
 eek 
 
 
 to 
 
 ough, 
 
 as 
 
 seek, sought. 
 
 It must be noticed that the list above is far from being an 
 exhaustive one. The expression too of the changes under- 
 gone has been rendered difficult on account of the imperfection 
 of our orthography, Hie whole section has been written in 
 illustration of the meaning of the word permutation, rather 
 than for any specific object in grammar. 
 
 § 230. In all the words above the change of sound has 
 been brought about by the grammatical inflection of the word 
 wherein it occurs. This is the case with the words life and 
 live, and with all the rest. With the German word lehen, 
 compared with the corresponding word live, in English, the 
 change is similar. It is brought about, however, not by a 
 grammatical inflection, but by a difference of time, and by a 
 difference of place. This indicates the distinction between 
 the permutation of letters and the transition of letters. In 
 dealing with permutations, we compare different parts of 
 speech ; in dealing with transitions, we comjiare different 
 languages, or different stages of a single language.
 
 THE FORMATTON OF SYLLABLES. 161 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ON THE FORMATION Ol^ SYLLABLES. 
 
 § 231. In respect to the formation of sylUibles, I am 
 aware of uo more than one point that requires any especial 
 consideration. 
 
 In certain words, of more than one syllable, it is difficult 
 to say to which syllable an intervening consonant belongs. 
 For instance, does the v in rmr, and the e in fever, belong 
 to the first or the second syllable ? Are the words to be 
 divided thus, ri-ver, fe-ver ? or thus, riv-er,/ev-erF 
 
 The solution of the question lies by no means on the sur- 
 face. 
 
 In the first place, the case is capable of being viewed in 
 two points of view — an etymological and a phonetic one. 
 
 That the c and r in become, berhpned, &c. belong to the 
 second syllable, we determine at once by taking the words 
 to pieces ; whereby we get the words come and rhymed in an 
 isolated independent form. But this fact, although it settles 
 the point in etymology, leaves it as it was in phonetics ; since 
 it in nowise follows, that, because the c in the simple word 
 come is exclusively attaclied to the letter that follows it, it is, 
 in the compound word become, exclusively attached to it also. 
 
 To the following point of structure in the consonantal 
 sounds the reader's attention is particularly directed. 
 
 1 . Let the vowel a (as in fate) be sounded, — 2. Let it be 
 followed by the consonant p, so as to form the syllable (7^>. 
 To form the sound of p, it will be found that the lips close on 
 the sound of a, and arrest it. Now, if the lips be left to 
 themselves they will not remain closed on the sound, but will 
 open again, in a slight degree indeed, but in a degree suffi- 
 cient to cause a kind of vibration, or, at any rate, to allow an 
 
 M
 
 \{V.l THE FORMATION OF SYLLABLES. 
 
 I'Si'apo t)t' tlio ri'iiKiiiidcr oi" (lie current of hrcjith by which 
 the sound was oriiyinally formed. To re-open in a shylit degree 
 is the natural tendency of the lips in the case exhibited above. 
 
 Now, bv an etlbrt, let this tendency to re-open be coun- 
 teracted. Let the reniainin<,^ current of breath be cut short. 
 We have, then, only this, viz., so much of the syllable cq) as 
 can be formed by the cloi^uj'e of the lips. All that portion of 
 it that is caused by their re-opening is deficient. The re- 
 sulting sound seems truncated, cut short, or incomplete. It 
 is the sound of /;, minus the remnant of breath. AH of the 
 sound p that is now left is formed, not by the escape of the 
 breath, but by the arrest of it. 
 
 The p in cip is a final sound. With initial sounds the 
 case is different. Let the lips be closed, and lei an attempt 
 be made to form the syllable pa by suddenly opening them. 
 The sound appears incomplete ; but its incompleteness is at 
 the beginning of the sound, and not at the end of it. In the 
 natural course of things there would have been a current of 
 breath p>r&c^ding, and this current would have given a vibra- 
 tion, now wanting. All the sound that is formed here is 
 formed, not by the arrest of breath, but by the escape of it. 
 
 I feel that this account of the mechanism of the apparently 
 simple sound ^;, labours under all the difficulties that attend 
 the description of a sound ; and for this reason I again re- 
 quest the reader to satisfy himself either of its truth or its 
 inaccuracy, before he proceeds to the conclusions that will be 
 drawn from it. 
 
 The account, however, being recognised, we have in the 
 current natural sound of j) two elements : — 
 
 1. That formed by the current of air and the closure of 
 the lips, as in dp. This may be called the sound of breath 
 arrested. 
 
 2. That formed by the current of air and the open- 
 ing of the lips, as in pd. This may be called the sound of 
 breatli escapnng. 
 
 Now what may be said of p> may be said of all the other 
 consonants, the words tongue, teeth, &c. being used instead of 
 lips, according to the case.
 
 THE FORMATION OF SYLLABLES. 163 
 
 Let the sound of breath arrested he expressed hy ■r, and 
 that of breath escaj^ing be expressed by ry, the two together 
 form the current natural sound ^^ (•r + riT=/>). 
 
 Thus aj) (as quoted above) is J'J> — 17, or x ; whilst pa 
 (sounded similarly) is p — •x, or ts. 
 
 In the formation of syllables, I consider that the sound of 
 breath arrested belongs to the first, and the sound of breath 
 escaping to the second syllable ; that each sound being ex- 
 pressed by a separate sign, the word happy is divided thus, 
 JiaTT-tsy ; and that such is the case with all consonants be- 
 tween two syllables. The wJiole consonant belongs neither to 
 one syllable nor the other. Half of it belongs to each. The 
 reduplication of the jt> in happy, the t in^:>i7^ef/, &c., is a mere 
 point of spelling, of which more will be said in the chapter 
 on orthography.
 
 I'!l ON (irVNTlTY 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ON QUANTITY. 
 
 § 282. The ilepeiident vowels, as the a in fat^ i in ^fit, u in 
 but., in not, have this diaracter ; viz. they are all uttered with 
 rapidity, and pass quickly in the enunciation, the voice not 
 resting on them. This rapidity of utterance becomes more 
 evident when we contrast with them the prolonged sounds of 
 the a in fate, ee in feet, oo in book, o in note; wherein the utter- 
 ance is retarded, and wherein the voice rests, delays, or is 
 pi-olonged. The/* and t oi fate are separated by a longer in- 
 terval than the /and t oi fat ; and the same is the case with 
 fit, feet, kc. 
 
 Let the n and the t of not be each as 1, the o also being as 
 1 : then each letter, consonant or vowel, shall constitute 3 of 
 the whole word. 
 
 Let, however, the u and t of note be each as 1 , the being 
 as 2. Then, instead of each consonant constituting 1 of the 
 whole word, it shall constitute but i. 
 
 Upon the comparative extent to which the voice is pro- 
 longed, the division of vowels and syllables into long and short 
 has been established : the in note being long, the in not 
 being short. And the longness or shortness of a vowel or 
 syllable is said to be its quantity. 
 
 § 2.33. The division of vowels into long and short coincides 
 nearly with the division of them into independent and de- 
 pendent. Mark the word voicels, and mark the word nearly. 
 \n the length and shortness of vowels there are degrees. This 
 is especially the case with the broad vowels. The a in father is 
 capable of being pronounced either very quickly, or very slowly. 
 It may be uttered most rapidly and yet preserve its broad 
 character, i.e., become neither the a in fat, nor the a in fate.
 
 ON QUANTITY. 165 
 
 In the iudependence and dependence of vowels there are no 
 degrees. 
 
 Subject to the views laid down in the next section, the 
 voioel ee in seeing is long, and it is certainly independent. 
 Whether the syllable see- be long is another question. 
 
 1. All long vowels are independent, but all independent 
 vowels are not long. 
 
 2. All dependent vowels are short, but all short vowels are 
 not dependent. 
 
 Clear notions upon these matters are necessary for deter- 
 mining the structure of the English and classical metres. 
 
 § 234. The qualified manner in which it was stated that 
 the vowel in the word seeing was long, and the attention 
 directed to the word vowels in the preceding section, arose 
 from a distinction, that is now about to be drawn, between the 
 length of vo2oels and the length of syllables. 
 
 The independent vowel in the syllable see- is long ; and 
 long it remains, whether it stand as it is, or be followed by a 
 consonant, as in seen, or by a vowel, as in see-ing. 
 
 The dependent vowel in the word sit is short. If followed 
 by a vowel it becomes unpronounceable, except as the ea in 
 seat or the i in sight. By a consonant, however, it may be 
 followed, and still retain its dependent character and also its 
 shortness. Such is the power it has in the word quoted, sit. 
 Followed by a second consonant, it still retains its shortness, 
 e.g., sits. Whatever the comparative length of the syllables, 
 see and seen, sit and sits, may be, the length of their respective 
 voicels is the same. 
 
 Now, if we determine the character of the syllable by the 
 character of the vowel, all syllables are short wherein there is 
 a short vowel, and all are long wherein there is a long one. 
 Measured by the quantity of the vowel the word sits is short, 
 and the syllable see- in seeing is long. 
 
 But it is well known that this view is not the view com- 
 monly taken of the syllables see (in seeing) and sits. It is 
 well known, that, in the eyes of a classical scholar, the see (in 
 seeing) is short, and that in the word sits the * is long. The 
 classic differs from the Englishman thus, — He measures his
 
 166 OX QUANTITY. 
 
 tjuantif//, not hif the lenath of the voiccl bat, hij the lenrfth of the 
 stfllitble taken altoqether. The perception of this cli.stiiiction 
 enables ns to coniprehend the following statements. 
 
 I. That vowels long by nature may appear to become 
 short by position, and vice versa. 
 
 II. That, by a laxity of language, the vowel may be said 
 to have changed its (piantity, whilst it is the syllable alone 
 that has been altered. 
 
 III. That, if one person measures his quantities by the 
 vowels, and another by the syllables, what is short to the one, 
 shall be long to the other, and vice versa. The same is the 
 case with nations. 
 
 IV. That one of the most essential differences between the 
 English and the classical languages is that the quantities (as 
 far as they go) of the first are measured by the vowel, those 
 of the latter by the syllable. To a Roman the word monu- 
 ment consists of two short syllables and one long one ; to an 
 Englishman it contains three short syllables. 
 
 These remarks are appreciated when we consider the com- 
 parative characters of the classical and the English prosody.
 
 ON ACCENT. 1()7 
 
 CHAPTER VI 1. 
 
 ON ACCENT. 
 
 § 235 In the word tyrant there is nn emphasis, or stress, 
 upon the iirst syllable. In the word •presume there is an 
 emphasis, or stress, on the second syllable. This emphasis, 
 or stress, is called Accent. The circumstance of a syllable 
 bearing an accent is sometimes expressed by a mark ( ' ) ; in 
 which case the word is said to be accentuated, ^.e., to have the 
 accent signified in writing. 
 
 Words accented on the last syllable — Brigade^ pretence, 
 harpoon, relieve, deter, assume, besought, bereft, before, abroad, 
 abode, abstruse, intermix, superadd, cavalier. 
 
 Words accented on the last syllable but one — An'chor, 
 ar'gue, hasten, father, foxes, smiting, husband, market, vapour, 
 barefoot, archangel, bespatter, disable, terrific. 
 
 Words accented on the last syllable but two — Regular, 
 antidote, fortify, susceptible, incontrovertible. 
 
 Words accented on the last syllable but three (rare) — Me- 
 ceptacle, regulating, talkativeness, absolutely, luminary, inevit- 
 able, &c. 
 
 A great number of words are distinguished by the accent 
 alone. The following list is from Nares' Orthoepy, a work to 
 which the reader is referred. 
 
 An attribute. To attribute. 
 
 The month August. An august person. 
 
 A compact. Compact (close). 
 
 To conjure (magically). Conjure (enjoin). 
 
 IJes'ert, wildeiness. Desert, merit. 
 
 Invalid, not valid. Invalid, a sickly person. 
 
 Minute, GO seconds. Minute, small. 
 
 Supine, part of speech. Supine, careless^ &e.
 
 KkS on accent. 
 
 Tlitit c'hvt(s 1)1' words that by ;i cliaiiij-c of acccMit ;ire con- 
 verted tVom nouns into verbs {survey, survey, contrast, contrast^ 
 Sec.) will be notieeil more at lurtie in the Chapter on De- 
 rivation. 
 
 § 236. In words like thinking , foxes, longer, len'gthen, &c. 
 we have two j^arts ; first the original word, tlie root, or the 
 radical part, as think, fox, long, length, &c, ; and next, the 
 inflectional, or tlie subordinate part, -ing, -es, -er, -en, 
 &c. 
 
 To assert as a universal rule that the accent is always on the 
 root, and never on the subordinate 2)art of a word, is too much. 
 Although in the English language such an assertion (with one 
 exception) is found true; by the French and other languages it 
 is invalidated. 
 
 In words like len'g-then-ing, we have a second inflectional or 
 subordinate syllable ; and the accent remains in its original 
 place, absolutely, hut not relatively. It is all the farther from 
 the end of the word. Besides indicating the propriety of deter- 
 mining the place of the accent by counting from the end, 
 rather than the beginning of a word, this circumstance indi- 
 cates something else. 
 
 Imagine the English participles to be declined, and to pos- 
 sess cases, formed by the addition of fresh syllables. In this 
 case the word lengthening would become a quadri-syllable. 
 But to throw the accent to the fourth syllable from the end is 
 inconvenient. Hence a necessity of removing it from the 
 radical, and placing it on an inflectional syllable. 
 
 The German word Ithen (to live) illustrates the foregoing 
 sentence. Ze5- is the root, Uh-end= living, from whence 
 lehendig = lively (with the accent on an inflectional syllable), 
 althouofh this last word miafht without inconvenience have 
 been accented on the first syllable ; that being only the third 
 from the end. 
 
 Confusion between the radical and inflectional syllables of a 
 word, arising from the situation of the accent, may work the 
 deterioration of a language. 
 
 § 237. In tyrant and presume, we deal with single ^vords ; 
 and in each loord we determine which syllalle is accented.
 
 ON ACCENT. 169 
 
 Contrasted with the sort of accent that follows, this may be 
 called a verhal accent. 
 In the line, 
 
 Better for m, perhaps, it might appear, 
 
 (Pope's Easay on Muii, i, 169.) 
 
 the pronoun us is strongly brought forward. An especial 
 stress or emphasis is laid upon it, denoting that there are other 
 beings to lohom it might not appear, &c. This is collected 
 from the context. Here there is a logical accent. " When 
 one word in a sentence is distinguished by a stress, as more 
 important than the rest, we may say that it is emphatical, or 
 that an emphasis is laid upon it. When one syllable in a 
 word is distinguished by a stress, and more audible than the 
 rest, we say that it is accented, or that an accent is put upon 
 it. Accent, therefore, is to syllables what emphasis is to sen- 
 tences ; it distinguishes one from the crowd, and brings it 
 forward to observation.'' — (Nares' Orthoepy, Part II. Chap. I.) 
 
 § 238. Accent plays an important part in determining the 
 nature of certain compound words — For this, see the Chapter 
 on Composition. 
 
 It also plays an important part in determining the nature of 
 the English metres — See Prosody. 
 
 Thirdly (the subject of the present section), it plays an 
 important part in all systems of orthography. 
 
 The quotation from Professor Lee's Hebrew Gramnuir, in 
 p. 1 49, is referred to ; and a particular attention to a some- 
 what difficult subject is requisite. 
 
 The M in the word monument is what a classic would call 
 short. 
 
 The second syllable in the word monument is what a classi- 
 cal scholar would call short. The vowel is short, and the 
 sylhible taken altogether is short. Herein it agrees with the 
 first syllable mon-. It diifers, however, from the syllable 
 mon- in being destitute of an accent, monument. With the 
 third syllable -ment, it agrees in the eyes of an Englishman, 
 but differs in the eyes of a scholar. The vowels u and o arc 
 eijualiy short, and, as the Englishman measures by the vowel
 
 170 ON AOCKNT. 
 
 llu' svllahlos -i( and -niciif arc l)utli .^/lort. Not so, liowever, 
 witli till* schitlar. Ho ineasuros by tlu; syllable and tloter- 
 ininos that the c, althou<,d» naturally a short vowel, is uuule 
 loiip by position. However, in being each destitute of an 
 accent the syllables -// and -tnent agree. Be it remarked a 
 second time that the accent in monument lies on the first 
 syllable. 
 
 Now the -u in monument although shorty is not dependent. 
 
 If, however, the syllable -nu take an accent ; that is, if the 
 place of the accent be removed from the first to the second 
 syllable, the vowel u still being kept short, we have a word 
 which we spell thus, monumment. Now the u in monumment 
 is not only short, but dependent. It is upon this effect of 
 an accent that the quotation from Lee's Hebrew Grammar, 
 p. 149, especially bears. 
 
 And now two questions arise: — 1. How is it that the 
 accent has the effect of rendering such a syllable as the u 
 in monumment dependent ? 2. Why do we in spelling such a 
 syllable double the consonant ? 
 
 An accent falling upon a syllable must, of necessity, do one 
 of two things : it must affect the vowel, or it must affect the 
 consonant. If it affect the vowel, the vowel becomes the 
 predominant part of the syllable, as in monooment ; but, if it 
 affect the consonant, the consonant becomes the predominant 
 part of the syllable, as monum'ment. 
 
 In words like monumment the consonant is, strictly speaking, 
 as single as it is in monument, or inonooment. Its absolute 
 wound is the same. Not so its relative sound. This is 
 exaggerated by two circumstances: — 1, The comparative 
 shortness of the vowel u ; 2, the fact of the accent falling 
 on it. The increased relative importance of the letter m in 
 the word monumment is mistaken for a reduplication of the 
 sound. This is the reason why in most languages the short- 
 ness of a vowel is expressed by the doubling of the consonant 
 following ; this doubling being no true reduplication of the 
 sound, but a mere ortliogra[)liical conventionality. 
 
 § 239. Accent and quantity, as may have been collected from 
 pp. Kit — 167, do not coincide. Nothing shows this more
 
 ON ACCENT. 171 
 
 clearly than words like the adjective august, and the sub- 
 stantive August (the mouth), where the quantity remains 
 the same, although the accent is different. The following 
 quotation from Mr. Guesfs English Rhythms is made for 
 the sake of four things : — 
 
 1. Of showing that the generality of writers have the 
 credit of confusing accent with quantity — • 
 
 2. Of showing that there is a reason for such a confusion 
 having existed — 
 
 3. Of indicating the propriety of the expressions in italics — 
 It is not stated that the consonant c is doubled, but that it 
 is added to the first syllable. The difference lies, not in its 
 redupHcation, but in its distribution. 
 
 4. Of taking a slight exception — A syllable (accented or 
 unaccented) must be either independent or dependent ; if the 
 latter, then in most immediate contact with the consonant 
 that follows. 
 
 "Besides the increase of loudness, and the shaq^er tone which distiii- 
 guislies the accented syllable, there is also a tendency to dwell upon it, or, 
 in other words, to lengthen its quantity. We cannot increase the loudness 
 or the sharpness of a tone without a certain degree of muscular action : and 
 to put the muscles in motion requires time. It would seem that the time 
 required for producing a perceptible increase in the loudness or sharpness of 
 a tone is greater than that of pronouncing some of our shorter syllables. If 
 we attempt, for instance, to throw the accent on the first syllable of the 
 word become, we must citiier lengthen the vowel, and pronounce the ivord 
 bee-come, or add the adjoinbig consomtnt to Ihefiist syllable, and so pronounce 
 the word btc-ome. We often find it convenient to lengtlien the quantity 
 even of the longer syllables, when we wish to give them a very strong and 
 marked accent. Hence, no doubt, arose the vulgar notion, that accent 
 always lengthens the quantity of a syllable. 
 
 "It is astonishing how Avidely this notion has misled men, whose judg- 
 ment, in most other matters of ciitieism, it would be very unsafe to question. 
 Our earlier writers, almost to a man, confound accent with quantity." — 
 n. i. C. iv.
 
 IT.',; TilK rULNTlPLKS (»F ORTHOEPY. 
 
 CIIAPTEU VI II. 
 
 TIIK I'UI.NCII'I.KS OF OUTIIOEPY. 
 
 § 240. TiiK prosoiit chapter is one, not upon the details of 
 the pronunciation of the English hinyuage, but uj)on the prin- 
 ciples of orthoepy. For the details of pronunciation the 
 reader is referred to Nares' Orthoepy, and to the common 
 pronouncing dictionaries, with the preliminary recommen- 
 dation to use them with caution. Orihoepi/, a word derived 
 from the Greek orihon {upright)^ and epos {a word), signifies 
 the right utterance of words. Orthoepy differs from ortho- 
 graphy by determining how words are spoken, whereas ortho- 
 graphy decides how they are spelt. The one is a question of 
 speech, the other a question of spelling. Orthography pre- 
 supposes orthoepy. 
 
 § 241. Of pronunciation there are two kinds, the colloquial 
 and the rhetorical. In common conversation we pronounce the 
 i in wind, like the i in bit ; in rehearsing, or in declamation, 
 however, we pronounce it like the i in bite ; that is, we give 
 it a diphthongal sound. In reading the Scriptures we say 
 blessed ; in current speech we say blest. It is the same with 
 many words occurring in poetry. 
 
 § 242. Errors in pronunciation are capable of being classified. 
 In the first jjlace, they may be arranged according to their 
 situation. The man who pronounces the verb to survey, as if 
 it was survey (that is, with the accent on the wrong syllable), 
 errs in respect to the accentuation of the word ; the situation, 
 or seat of his error, being the accent. To say orator instead of 
 orator is to err in respect to the quantity of the word, the seat 
 of the error being in the quantity; and to pronounce the a 
 \n father, as it is pronounced in Yorkshire, or the s in sound, 
 as it is pronounced in Devonshire (that is, as z), is to err in
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOEPY. IT.'^ 
 
 the matter of the articulate sounds. To mispronounce a 
 word because it is misspelt* is only indirectly an error of 
 orthoepy. It is an error, not so much of orthoepy, as of 
 orthography ; and to give a wrong inflection to a word is 
 not bad pronunciation bv;t bad grammar. For practical pur- 
 poses, however, many words that are really points of gram- 
 mar and of orthography, may be dealt with as points of 
 orthoepy. 
 
 That the preceding classification is natural I am induced to 
 believe by the following circumstances. Errors in the way of 
 articulation generally arise from a source dilFerent from those 
 of accent and of quantity. Errors in accent and quantity are 
 generally referable to insufficient grammatical or etymological 
 knowledge, whilst the errors of articulation betray a provincial 
 dialect. 
 
 The misdivision of syllables, an orthoepical error of a fourth 
 kind, has in the English, and perhaps in other languages, 
 given rise to a peculiar class of words. There have been those 
 who have written a namlassador for an ambassador, misdivid- 
 ing the syllables, and misdistributing the sound of the letter 
 n. The double form {a and an) of the English indefinite 
 article, encourages this misdivision. Now, in certain words 
 an error of this kind has had a permanent influence. The 
 English word nag is, in Danish, og ; the w, in English, having 
 originally belonged to the indefinite an, which preceded it. 
 The words, instead of being divided thus, an ag, were divided 
 thus, a nag, and the fault became perpetuated. That the 
 Danish is the true form we collect, firstly, from the ease with 
 which the English form is accounted for, and, secondly, from 
 the old Saxon form elm, Latin equus. In adder we have the 
 process reversed. The true form is nadder, old English ; 
 natter, German. Here the n is taken from the substantive 
 and added to the article. In neivt and eft we have each form. 
 The list of words of this sort can be increased. 
 
 § 243. In the second place, faults of pronunciation may be 
 arranged according to their cause. 
 
 * To say, for instance, Chemist for Chyinist, or vice versa ; for I give no 
 opinion as to the proper mode of spelling.
 
 171 THK PRINOTPLES OF ORTHOEPY. 
 
 1. The fault of incompetent enunciation. — A person who says 
 sick for tliicl\ or elehbea for eleven^ docs so, not because lie 
 knows no better, but because he cannot enounce the right 
 sounds of th and v. He is incomjJeteut to it. His error is 
 not one ol" iniiornnee. It is an acoustic or a ])lionetic defect. 
 As such it dill'ors from — 
 
 2. 7V/t' fault oferroneotis enunciation. — This is the error of 
 a ])ers()n who talks of jorholate instead o{' chocolate. It is not 
 that he cannot pronounce rightly, but that he mistakes the 
 nature of the sound required. Still more the person who calls 
 a hedac a nedge^ and an edge a hedge. 
 
 § 244 Incompetent enunciation, and erroneous enunciation 
 are, however, only the proximate and immediate causes of 
 bad orthoepy. Amongst the remote causes (the immediate 
 causes of erroneous enunciation) are the following. 
 
 I. Undefined notions as to the language to which a word 
 belongs. — The flower called anemone is variously pronounced. 
 Those who know Greek say anemone., speaking as if the word 
 was written anemohny. The mass say, anemone., speaking as if 
 the word was written anemmony. Now, the doubt here is as 
 to the language of the word. If it be Greek, it is anemone. 
 
 Aifxa po86v TiKTei, ra 8e 8uKpva rav avffiavav. 
 
 BlON. 
 
 And if it be English, it is (on the score of analogy) as 
 undoubtedly anemmony. The pronunciation of the word in 
 point is determined when we have determined the language 
 of it. 
 
 II. BlistaJces as to fact, the language of a word being deter- 
 mined. — To know the word anemone to be Greek, and to use 
 it as a Greek word, but to call it anemony^ is not to be 
 undecided as to a matter of language, but to be ignorant as 
 to a matter of quantity. 
 
 III. Neglect of analogy. — Each and all of the following 
 words, orator, theatre., senator, &c. are in the Latin lan- 
 guage, from whence they are derived, accented on the second 
 syllal)le ; as orator, theatre, senator. In English, on the 
 contrary, they are accented on the first ; as orator, theatre,
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOEPY. 175 
 
 senator. The same is the case with many other words simi- 
 larly derived. They similarly suffer a change of accent. So 
 many words do this, that it is the rule in English for words 
 to throw their accent from the second syllahle (counting fi-om 
 the end of the word) to the third. It was on the strength 
 of this rule, — in other words, on the analogies of orator, 
 &c., that the English pronunciation of the Greek word 
 aviu>o!)V7] was stated to be antmmone. Now, to take a word 
 derived from the Latin, and to look to its original quantity 
 only, without consulting the analogies of other words similarly 
 derived, is to be neglectful of the analogies of our own lan- 
 guage, and attentive to the quantities of a foreign one. 
 
 These, amongst others, the immediate causes of erroneous 
 enunciation, have been adduced not for the sake of exhausting, 
 but for the sake of illustrating the subject. 
 
 § 245, In matters of orthoepy it is the usual custom to 
 appeal to one of the following standards. 
 
 I. The authority of scholars. — This is of value up to a 
 certain point only. The fittest person for determining tlie 
 classical pronunciation of a word like anemone is the classical 
 scholar ; but the mere classical scholar is far from being the 
 fittest person to determine the analogies that such a word 
 follows in English. 
 
 II. The usage of educated bodies., such as the bar., the pulpit., 
 the senate^ &c. — •These are recommended by two circum- 
 stances: 1. The chance that each member of them is suffi- 
 ciently a scholar in foreign tongues to determine the original 
 pronunciation of derived words, and sufficiently a critic in his 
 own language to be aware of the analogies that are in opera- 
 tion. 2. The quantity of imitators that, irrespective of the 
 worth of his pronunciation, each individual can carry with 
 him. On this latter ground the stage is a sort of standard. 
 
 The objection to the authority of educated bodies is its im- 
 practicability. It is only the usage of the component indivi- 
 duals that can be determined. Of these many may carry with 
 them the dialects of their provinces, so that, although good 
 standards on points of accent and quantity, they are bad ones 
 upon points of articulation.
 
 lT<i Till'] l'151\(MIM,i;s OK oirriTOKl^Y. 
 
 III. The autliorifi/ of societies constituted with the express 
 purpose of taliiiff cocinizance of the language of the country. — 
 These, although recognized in Italy and other parts of the 
 Continent, have only been proposed in Great Ihitain. Their 
 inetHeaev arises from the inutility of attempting to fix that 
 which, like language, is essentially fluctuating. 
 
 IV. Tlie authority of the written language. — The value of 
 this may be collected from the chapter on orthography. 
 
 V. These, amongst others, the standards that have been 
 appealed to, are adduced not for the sake of exhausting the 
 subject, but to show the unsatisfactory nature of authority in 
 matters of speech. 
 
 § 246. For a person, on a point of pronunciation, to trust 
 to his own judgment, he must be capable, with every word 
 that he doubts about, of discussing three questions : — 
 
 I. The abstract or theoretical propriety of a certain pro- 
 nunciation. — To determine this he must have a sufficient 
 knowledge of foreign tongues and a sufficient knowledge of 
 English analogies. He must also have some test by which he 
 can determine to what language an equivocal word belongs. 
 Of tests for this purpose, one, amongst others, is the follow- 
 ing: — Let it be asked whether the word lens (in Optics) is 
 English or Latin ; whether it is to be considered as a natural- 
 ised word or a strange one. The following fact will give an 
 answer. There is of the word lens a plural number, and this 
 plural number is the English form lenses^ and not the Latin 
 form lentes. The existence of an English inflection proves 
 that the word to which it belongs is English, although its 
 absence does not prove the contrary. That the word ane- 
 mone is English (and consequently pronounced anemone) 
 we know from the plural form, which is not anemona^ but 
 anemones. 
 
 II. The preference of one pronunciation over another on the 
 score of utility. — The word ascetic, for certain orthograj)hical 
 reasons, notwithstanding its origin from the Greek word askeo, 
 is called assetic. From similar reasons there is a tendency to 
 call the word sceptic, septic. Theoretical propriety (and, be it 
 observed, the analogy of ascetic has not been overlooked) is in
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOEPY. 177 
 
 favour of the woy([ being sounded skeptic. The tendency of 
 language, however, is the other way. Now, the tendency of 
 hinguage and the theoretical propriety being equal, there is an 
 advaiitage (a point of utility) in saying skeptic, which turns 
 the scale. By sounding the k we distinguish the word skeptic 
 from septic. By this the language gains a point in perspi- 
 cuity, so that we can talk of the anti-skeptic writings of Bishop 
 Warburton and of the anti-septic properties of charcoal. 
 
 III. The tendencies of language. — From p. ]53, we see 
 that the combination ew is an unstable combination, that it 
 has a tendency to become yoo, and that the y in yoo has a 
 tendency to change a d preceding into j ; in other words, we 
 see the reason why, by many persons, dew is pronounced j/'(??(j. 
 It is generally an easier matter to say how a word will be 
 sounded a hundred years hence, than to determine its present 
 pronunciation. Theoretical propriety is in favour of dew, so 
 also is the view in the way of utility. Notwithstanding this, 
 posterity will say jew, for the tendencies of language are para- 
 mount to all other influences. 
 
 We may now judge of the relative value of the three lines 
 of criticism exhibited above. Other things being equal, the 
 language should have the advantage of the doubt, and the 
 utility of a given pronunciation should prevail over its theo- 
 retical propriety. Where, however, the tendencies are over- 
 whelming, we can only choose whether, in doubtful words, we 
 shall speak like our ancestors, or like our posterity.* 
 
 * Mr. Pitman, of Bath, is likely to add to his claims as an orthographist 
 by being engaged in the attempt to determine, inductively, the orthoepy of a 
 certain number of doubtful words. He collects the pronunciations of a large 
 number of educated men, and takes that of the majority as the true one.
 
 ITS GKNKItAI. I'KlNCirLKS 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 § 247. Orthoepy determines the correct pronunciation of 
 words, and deals ^^■ith a language as it is spoken ; orthography 
 determines the correct spelling of words, and deals with a lan- 
 guage as it is written. The term is derived from the Greek 
 words orthos {upright)^ and graplie^ or grafa: (writing). Or- 
 thography is less essential to language than orthoepy ; since 
 all languages are spoken, whilst but a few languages are writ- 
 ten. Orthography presupposes orthoepy. Orthography ad- 
 dresses itself to the eye, orthoepy to the ear. Orthoejjy 
 deals with the articulate sounds that constitute syllables and 
 words ; orthograj^hy treats of the signs by which such articu- 
 late sounds are expressed in writing. A letter is the sign of 
 an articulate (and, in the case of h, of an inarticulate) sound. 
 
 A full and perfect system of orthography consists in two 
 things: — 1. The possession of a sufficient and consistent 
 alphabet. 2. The I'ight application of such an alphabet. 
 This position may be illustrated more fully. 
 
 § 248. First, in respect to a full and perfect alphabet. Let 
 there be in a certain langxiage, simple single articulate sounds, 
 to the number of forty, whilst the simple single signs, or 
 letters, expressive of them, amount to no more than thirty. 
 In this case the alphabet is insufficient. It is not full enough: 
 since ten of the simple single articulate sounds have no cor- 
 responding signs whereby they may be expressed. In our 
 own language, the sounds (amongst others) of t/i in thin, and 
 of th in thine, are simple and single, whilst there is no sign 
 equally simple and single to spell them with. 
 
 An alphabet, however, may be sufficient, and yet imperfect. 
 It may err on the score of inconsistency. Let there be in a
 
 OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 179 
 
 given language two simple single sounds, for instance, the j) 
 in pate, and the/'m /ate. Let these sounds stand in a given 
 relation to each other. Let a given sign, for instance, 2 (as 
 is actually the case in Hebrew), stand for thej!? in ^«^^ ,• and 
 let a second sign be required for the f in fate. Concerning 
 the nature of this latter sign, two views niay be taken. One 
 framer of the alphabet, perceiving that the two sounds are 
 mere modifications of each other, may argue that no new sign 
 (or letter) is at all necessary, but that the sound of / in fate 
 may be expressed by a mere modification of the sign (or 
 letter) 2, and may be written thus S, or thus 2' or S)', &c. ; 
 upon the principle that, like sounds should be expressed by 
 like signs. The other framer of the alphabet, contemplating 
 the difference between the two sounds, rather than the like- 
 ness, may propose, not a mere modification of the sign 2, but 
 a letter altogether new, such as /, or (p, &c., upon the prin- 
 ciple that sounds of a given degree of dissimilitude should be 
 expressed by signs of a different degree of dissimilitude. 
 
 Hitherto the expression of the sounds in point is a matter 
 of convenience only. No question has been raised as to its 
 consistency or inconsistency. This begins under conditions 
 like the following: — Let there be in the language in point the 
 sounds of the f in tin, and of the th in thin ; which (it may be 
 remembered) are precisely in the same relation to each other as 
 the jy in |jafe and the/" in fate. Let .each of these sounds have 
 a sign (or letter) expressive of it. Upon tbe nature of these 
 signs, or letters, will depend the nature of the sign or letter 
 required for they in fate. If the letter expressing the th in 
 thin be a mere modification of the letter expressing the t in 
 tin, then must the letter expressive of the /"in fate be a mere 
 modification of the letter expressing the j) in pate, and vice 
 versa. If this be not the case, the alphabet is inconsistent. 
 
 In the English alphabet we have (amongst others) the fol- 
 lowing inconsistency: — The sound of the /"in fate, in a certain 
 relation to the sound of the p in pate, is expressed by a totally 
 distinct sign ; whereas, the sound of the th in thin (similarly 
 related to the t in tin) is expressed by no new sign, but by a 
 mere modification of t ,• viz., th. 
 
 N 2
 
 l'S(» r.KNKUAL PIUNCirLKR 
 
 A tliird cliMUont in llic fanllinoss of an nlpliaI)ot is tlio fault 
 of orroneons rcpri'sciitation. 'J'lio host illustration of this we 
 gi't from tlif lloldvw al|)lialK>t, whiTo the sounds of n and ID, 
 nuM-o r<(i'uiii!i of each t)thor, arc reprosented by distinct and 
 dissimilar signs, whilst ri and pi, sounds specif ciiUy distinct, 
 are cxj)rcsscd by a more modification of the same sign, or 
 hotter. 
 
 § 249. The right ai^plication of an alj)hahet. — An alphabet 
 may be both sufficient and consistent, accurate in its repre- 
 sentation of the alliances between articulate sounds, and in 
 nowise redundant ; and yet, withal, it may be so wrongly 
 applied as to be defective. Of defect in the use or apj)lica- 
 tion of the letters of an alphabet, the three main causes are 
 the following : — 
 
 1 . Unsteadiness in the power of letters. — Of this there are 
 two kinds. In the first, there is one sound with two (or 
 more) ways of expressing it. Such is the sound of the letter 
 f\i\ English. In words of Anglo-Saxon origin it is spelt 
 
 with a single simple sign, as in fll ; whilst in Greek words it 
 is denoted by a combination, as in Philip. The reverse of 
 this takes place with the letter g ; here a single sign has a 
 double j)Ower ; in gibbet it is sounded as^, and in gibberish as 
 9 in got. 
 
 2. The aim at secondary objects. — The natural aim of 
 orthography, of spelling, or of writing (for the three terms 
 mean the same thing), is to express the sounds of a language. 
 Syllables and words it takes as they meet the ear, it translates 
 them by appropriate signs, and so paints them, as it were, to 
 the eye. That this is the natural and primary object is self- 
 evident ; but beyond this natural and primary object there is, 
 with the orthographical systems of most languages, a secon- 
 dary one, viz. the attempt to combine with the representation 
 of the sound of a given word the representation of its history 
 and origin. 
 
 The sound of the c, in city, is the sound that we naturally 
 spell with the letter s, and if the expression of this sound was 
 the only object of our orthographists, the word would be spelt 
 accordingly (sity). The following facts, however, traverse
 
 OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 181 
 
 this simple view of the matter. The word is a derived word ; 
 it is transplanted into our own language from the Latin, where 
 it is spelt with a c (civitas) ; and to change this c into s con- 
 ceals the origin and history of the word. For this reason the 
 c is retained, although, as far as the mere expression of sounds 
 (the primary object in orthography) is concerned, the letter 
 is a superfluity. In cases like the one adduced the ortho- 
 graphy is Lent to a secondary end, and is traversed by the 
 etymology. 
 
 3. Obsoleteness. — It is very evident that modes of spelling 
 which at one time may have been correct, may, by a change 
 of pronunciation, become incorrect ; so that orthography be- 
 comes obsolete whenever there takes place a change of speech 
 without a correspondent change of spelling. 
 
 § 250. Difference hetioeen the change of a sound and the ori- 
 ginal false expression of a sound. — The letter m is a simple 
 single sign. The sound of ow, in town^ is a diphthongal, or a 
 double, sound. Now, in Anglo-Saxon, the modern word town 
 is spelt tun. In this case one of two things must have 
 taken place : either the word must have changed its sound, 
 or the Anglo-Saxons must have expressed it falsely and 
 improperly. 
 
 § 251. From the foregoing sections we arrive at the theory 
 of a full and perfect alphabet and orthography, of which a 
 i'iiw (amongst many others) of the chief conditions are as 
 follow : — 
 
 1. That for every simple single sound, incapable of being 
 represented by a combination of letters, there be a simple 
 single sign. 
 
 2. That sounds within a determined degree of likeness be 
 represented by signs within a determined degree of like- 
 ness ; whilst sounds beyond a certain degree of likeness be 
 represented by distinct and difterent signs, and that uni- 
 formly/. 
 
 S. That no sound have more than one sign to express it. 
 4-. That no sign express more than one sound. 
 5. That the primary aim of orthography be to express the 
 sounds of words, and not their histories.
 
 IS2 
 
 (JENKKAL I'KlNCiriiKS 
 
 (i. That cliaiii^'-i's; of speech be loUowed by coiTespoiuhiig 
 chaiij»'es of speUliii^-. 
 
 With these ])iincii)les in our miiul we may measure the 
 impert'ections of our own and of other alphabets. 
 
 § 2.52. Previous to considering the sufficiency or insuffi- 
 ciency of the English alpliabot, it is necessary to enumerate 
 the elementary articulate sounds of the language. The enu- 
 meration of these is, strictly speaking, a point, not of or- 
 thograi»hy, but of orthoepy. It is, however, so intimately 
 connected with the former that the present chapter seems its 
 proper place. The vowels belonging to the English language 
 are the ttoehe followinof : — 
 
 1. 
 
 That of 
 
 a in 
 
 father. 
 
 7. 
 
 2. 
 
 — 
 
 a — 
 
 fat. 
 
 8. 
 
 3. 
 
 — 
 
 a — 
 
 fate. 
 
 9. 
 
 4. 
 
 — 
 
 aw — 
 
 bawl. 
 
 10. 
 
 5. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 not. 
 
 11. 
 
 6. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 note. 
 
 12. 
 
 That of e in 
 
 bed. 
 pit. 
 
 fCL t. 
 
 bull, 
 fool 
 (tuck 
 
 For the relations of these see Chapter II. 
 
 The diphthongal sounds are four. 
 
 1. 
 
 That of 
 
 ou 
 
 in 
 
 liouse 
 
 2, 
 
 — 
 
 ew 
 
 — 
 
 new. 
 
 3. 
 
 — 
 
 oi 
 
 — 
 
 oil. 
 
 4. 
 
 — 
 
 i 
 
 — 
 
 bite. 
 
 This last sound being most incorrectly expressed by the 
 single letter i. 
 
 The consonantal sounds are, 1. the two semivowels ; 2, 
 the four liquids ; 3. fourteen out of the sixteen mutes ; 4. ch 
 in chest., and / in jest., compound sibilants ; 5. m^, as in /dnp ; 
 (!. the aspirate h. In all, twenty-four. 
 
 1. w 
 
 a« in 
 
 wet. 
 
 8. b 
 
 as in 
 
 ban. 
 
 •^■y 
 
 — 
 
 yet. 
 
 9../ 
 
 — 
 
 fan. 
 
 3. m 
 
 — 
 
 man. 
 
 10. V 
 
 — 
 
 van. 
 
 4. n 
 
 — 
 
 not. 
 
 11. t 
 
 — 
 
 tin. 
 
 5. I 
 
 — 
 
 let. 
 
 12. d 
 
 — 
 
 din. 
 
 6. r 
 
 — 
 
 run. 
 
 13. t/i 
 
 — 
 
 Iliiii. 
 
 l.p 
 
 — 
 
 jiiite. 
 
 14. Ih 
 
 — 
 
 thine
 
 OP ORTHOGRAPHY. 183 
 
 15. g 
 
 as ill 
 
 gun. 
 
 20. z 
 
 as in 
 
 azure, iilaziei 
 
 16. k 
 
 — 
 
 kind. 
 
 21. c/t 
 
 — 
 
 citest. 
 
 17. s 
 
 — 
 
 sin. 
 
 22. j 
 
 — 
 
 jest. 
 
 18. 2 
 
 — 
 
 zeal. 
 
 23. ng 
 
 — 
 
 king. 
 
 19. sk 
 
 — 
 
 shine. 
 
 24, A 
 
 — 
 
 hot. 
 
 Some writers would add to these the additional sound of 
 the e ferme of the French ; believing that the vowel in words 
 like their and vein has a different soiind from the vowel in 
 words like there and 'cain. For my own part I cannot detect 
 such a difference either in my own speech or that of my 
 neighbours ; although I am far from denying that in certain 
 dialects of our language such may have been the case. The 
 following is an extract from the Danish grammar for English- 
 men, by Professor Rask, whose eye, in the matter in question, 
 seems to have misled his ear : " The e ferme., or close /, is 
 very frequent in Danish, but scarcely perceptible in English ; 
 unless in such words as, their ., vein., veil, which appear to sound 
 a little different from there, vain, vale.'''' 
 
 The vowels being twelve, the diphthongs four, and the con- 
 sonantal sounds twenty-four, we have altogether as many as 
 forty sounds, some being so closely allied to each other as to 
 be mere modifications, and others being combinations rather 
 than simple sounds ; all, however, agreeing in requiring to be 
 expressed by letters or by combinations of letters, and to be 
 distinguished from each other. 
 
 Now, although every sound specifically distinct should be 
 expressed by a distinct sign, it does not follow that mere mo- 
 difications or varieties (especially if they be within certain 
 limits) should be so expressed. In the Greek language 
 sounds as like as the o in not and the o in iiote are expressed 
 by signs as unlike as o and co ; that is, by the letters omicron 
 and omega respectively ; and so it is with g and ;j. All that 
 can be said in this case is, that it is the character of the 
 Greek alphabet to represent a difference which the English 
 neglects. 
 
 With respect to the diphthongs it is incorrect, uncommon, 
 and inconvenient to represent them by simple single signs, rather 
 than by combinations. In the English language the sounds
 
 iNl- GKNKUA!. I'UINCIPLES 
 
 of uu, <rr, aiul o/, are' properly spelt with two letters. Not 
 so, however, of / in fiifo. 
 
 The eoiiipoiiiid sibilants may also be expressed not by 
 single signs, but by the combinations tsh anil dzh ; although, 
 tor certain reasons, such a modu of s])elling is inconvenient. 
 With these views we may appreciate, 
 
 I. T/ic insufficienci/ of the English alphabet. 
 
 A. In respect to the vowels. — Notwithstanding the fact that 
 tlie sounds of the a in father, fate, and fat, and of the o and, 
 the aw in note, not, and bawl, are modifications of « and o re- 
 spectively, we have still six vowel sounds specifically distinct, 
 for which (y being a consonant rather than a vowel) we have 
 but fve signs. The u in duck, specifically distinct from the 
 M in bull, has no specifically distinct sign to represent it. 
 
 B. In respect to the consonants. — The ih in thin, the th in 
 thine, the sh in shine^ the z in azure, and the ng in king, five 
 sounds specifically distinct, and five sounds perfectly simple 
 require corresponding signs, which they have not. 
 
 II. Its inconsistency. — The / in fan, and the v in van 
 sounds in a certain degree of relationship to p and b, are ex- 
 pressed by signs as unlike as /*is unlike p, and as v is unlike 
 b. The sound of the th in thin, the th in thine, the sh in 
 shine, similarly related to t, d, and s, are expressed by signs 
 as like t, d, and s, respectively, as th and sh. 
 
 The compound sibilant sound of y in jest is spelt with the 
 single sign j, whilst the compound sibilant sound in chest is 
 spelt with the combination ch. 
 
 III. Erroneousness. — The sound of the ee in feet is con- 
 sidered the long (independent) sound of the e in bed ; whereas 
 it is the long (independent) sound of the i in pit. 
 
 The i in bite is considered as the long (independent) sound 
 of the i in pit ; whereas it is a diphthongal sound. 
 
 The u in duck is looked upon as a modification of the u in 
 bull ; whereas it is a specifically distinct sound. 
 
 The ou in house and the oi in oil are looked upon as the 
 comj)ounds of o and i and of o and u respectively ; whereas 
 the latter element of them is not i and u, but y and w. 
 
 The th in thin and the th in thine are dealt with as one
 
 OF ORTHOGRAPHY, 185 
 
 and the same sound ; whereas they are sounds specifically 
 disthict. 
 
 The cli in cliest is dealt with as a modification of c (either 
 with the power of h or of s ) ; whereas its elements are t 
 and sh. 
 
 IV. Redundancy. — As far as the representation of sounds 
 is concerned the letter c is superfluous. In words like citizen 
 it may be replaced by s ,• in words like cat by h. In cA, as 
 in chesty it has no proper place. In c/t, as in mechanical, it 
 may be replaced by k. 
 
 Q is superfluous, czo or kw being its equivalent. 
 
 JT also is superfluous, ks, gz, or ;:;, being equivalent to it. 
 
 The diphthongal forms (e and w, as in u^neas and Cra^sus, 
 except in the way of etymology, are superfluous and re- 
 dundant. 
 
 V. Unsteadiness. — Here we have (amongst many other 
 examples), 1. The consonant c with the double power of s and 
 I- ; 2. g with its sound in gmi and also with its sound in c/in ; 
 o. X with its sounds in Alexander., apoplexy, Xenoplion. 
 
 In the foregoing examples a single sign has a double power ; 
 in the words PJdlip and ^lip, &c., a single sound has a double 
 sign. 
 
 In respect to the degree wherein the English orthography 
 is made subservient to etymology, it is sufficient to repeat the 
 statement that the c, a, and oe are retained in the alphabet 
 for etymological purposes only. 
 
 The defects noticed in the preceding sections are absolute 
 defects, and would exist, as they do at present, were there 
 no language in the world except the English. This is not 
 the case with those that are now about to be noticed ; for 
 them, indeed, the word defect is somewhat too strong a term. 
 They may more properly be termed inconveniences. 
 
 Compared with the languages of the rest of the world the 
 use of many letters in the English alphabet is singular. The 
 letter i (when long or independent) is, with the exception of 
 England, generally sounded as ee. With Englishmen it has 
 a diphthongal power. The inconvenience of this is the neces- 
 sity that it imposes upon us, in studying foreign languages, of
 
 186 GENERAL IMUNCIPLES 
 
 imloarniiiif the soiiikI wliicli wo give it in our own, and of 
 learniny the sound which it bears in the language studied. 
 So it is (amongst many others) with the letter y. In English 
 this has the sound of dzh^ in French of zh^ and in German of 
 1/. From singularity in the use of letters arises inconvenience 
 in the study of foreign tongues. 
 
 In using / as dzh there is a second objection. It is not only 
 inconvenient, but it is theoretically incorrect. The letter / 
 was originally a modification of the vowel i. The Germans, 
 who used it as the semivowel y, have perverted it from its ori- 
 ginal power less than the English have done, who sound it (/^A. 
 
 With these views we may appreciate, of the English alplia- 
 bet and orthography, 
 
 I). Its convenience or inconvenience in respect to learning 
 foreign tongues. — The sound given to the a in fate is singular. 
 Other nations sound it as a in father. 
 
 The sound given to the e, long (or independent), is singular. 
 Other nations sound it either as a in fate, or as eferme. 
 
 The sound given to the i in bite is singular. Other nations 
 sound it as ee in feet. 
 
 The sound given to the oo in fool is singular. Other 
 nations sound it as the o in note, or as the 6 chiuso. 
 
 The sound given to the M in duel: is singular. Other 
 nations sound it as the ^t in bull. 
 
 The sound given to the ou in house is singular. Other 
 nations, more correctly, represent it by au or aio. 
 
 The sound given to the w in wet is somewhat singular, but 
 is also correct and convenient. With many nations it is not 
 found at all, whilst with those where it occurs it has the 
 sound (there or thereabouts) of v. 
 
 The sound given to y is somewhat singular. In Danish it 
 has a vowel power. In German the semivowel sound is spelt 
 with j. 
 
 The sound given to z is not the sound which it has in 
 German and Italian ; but its power in English is convenient 
 and correct. 
 
 The sound given to ch in chest is singular. In other lan- 
 guages it has generally a guttural sound ; in French that of
 
 OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 187 
 
 sh. The English usage is more correct than the French, but 
 less correct than the German. 
 
 The sound given to / (as said before) is singular. 
 
 II.) The Imtor'ical jyToiwiety of certain lettei^s. — The use 
 of i with a diphthongal power is not only singular and incon- 
 venient, but also historically incorrect. The Greek iota^ 
 from whence it originates, has the sound of * and ee, as in pit 
 and feet. 
 
 The y, sounded as in yet, is historically incorrect. It 
 grew out of the Greek v, a vowel, and no semivowel. The 
 Danes still use it as such, that is, with the power of the 
 German il. 
 
 The use of _/ for dzh is historically incorrect. 
 
 The use of c for k in words derived from the Greek, as 
 mechanical, ascetic, &c., is historically incorrect. The form 
 c is the representative of y and a and not of the Greek kappa. 
 
 In remodelling alphabets the question of historical pro- 
 priety should be recognized. Other reasons for the use of 
 a particular letter in a particular sense being equal, the 
 historical propriety should decide the question. The above 
 examples are illustrative, not exhaustive. 
 
 § 253. On certain conventional modes of spelling. — In the 
 Greek language the sounds of o in not and of o in note 
 (although allied) are expressed by the unlike signs or letters 
 and M, respectively. In most other languages the difference 
 between the sounds is considered too slight to require for 
 its expression signs so distinct and dissimilar. In some 
 languages the difference is neglected altogether. In many, 
 however, it is expressed, and that by some modification of the 
 original letter. 
 
 Let the'sign (" ) denote that the vowel over which it stands 
 is long, or independent, whilst the sign ( " ) indicates shortness, 
 or dependence. In such a case, instead of writing not and 
 ncot, like the Greeks, we may write not and not, the sign 
 serving for a fresh letter. Herein the expression of the 
 nature of the sound is natural, because the natural use of 
 (" ) and () is to express length or shortness, dependence 
 or independence. Now, supposing the broad sound of o
 
 188 nENEHAL I'lJINOirLES 
 
 t(» Ito alroady iTpri'scnlcd, it is very evident that, of the 
 other two sounds of o, the one nuist be long (independent), 
 and the other sht)rt (th'pemkMit) ; and as it is only neeessary 
 to express one of these eoinhtions, we may, if we ehoose, use 
 the sign (' ) alone; its presence denoting length, and its 
 absence shortness (independence or dependence). 
 
 As signs of this kind, one mark is as good as another ; 
 and instead of ( " ) we may, if we ehoose, substitute such a 
 mark as (') (and wriio nut =7iut=7ioijt =zndfe) ; provided only 
 that the sign (' ) expresses no other condition or affection of a 
 sound. This use of the mark ('), viz. as a sign that the vowel 
 over which it is placed is long (independent), is common in 
 many languages. But is this use of (') natural ? For a reason 
 that the reader has anticipated, it is not natural, but conven- 
 tional. It is used elsewhere not as the sign o^ quantiii/., but 
 as the sign of accent; consequently, being placed over a 
 letter, and being interpreted according to its natural mean- 
 ing, it gives the idea, not that the syllable is long, but that 
 it is emjjhatic or accented. Its use as a sign of quantity 
 is an orthographical expedient, or a conventional mode of 
 spelling. 
 
 The English language abounds in orthographical expe- 
 dients ; the mode of expressing the quantity of the vowels 
 being particularly numerous. To begin with these : 
 
 The reduplication of a vowel where there is but one 
 syllable (as in feet, cool), is an orthographical expedient. It 
 merely means that the syllable is long (or independent). 
 
 The juxta-positlon of two different vowels, where there is 
 but one syllable (as in plain, moan), is an orthographical 
 expedient. It generally means the same as the redu])licatiun 
 of a vowel, i.e., that the syllable is lung (independent). 
 
 The addition of the e mute, as in plane, whale (whatever 
 may have been its origin), is, at present, but an orthogra- 
 phical expedient. It denotes the lengthening of the syllable. 
 
 The reduplication of the consonant after a vowel, as in 
 spotted, torrent, is in most cases but an orthographical expe- 
 dient. It merely denotes that the preceding vowel is short 
 (dependent).
 
 OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 189 
 
 The use of ph for / in rjiiUp^ is an orthographical expe- 
 dient, founded upon etymological reasons. 
 
 The use of th for the simple sound of the first consonant in 
 fJdn and tJdne^ is an orthographical expedient. The comhi- 
 nation must be dealt with as a single letter. 
 
 A", however, and q are not orthographical expedients. 
 They are orthographical compendiums. 
 
 The above instances have been adduced as Illustrations 
 only. Further details will be found hereafter. For many of 
 them we can give a reason (for instance, for the reduplica- 
 tion of a consonant to express the shortness of the preced- 
 ing vowel), and of many of them we can give an historical 
 account (see Chapter X.). 
 
 ^ 254. The mischief of orthographical expedients is this : 
 — When a sign, or letter, is used in a conventional^ it pre- 
 cludes us from using it (at least without further explanation) 
 in its natural sense : e. g., the double o in mood constitutes but 
 one syllable. If in a foreign language we had, immediately 
 succeeding each other, first the syllable mo, and next the 
 syllable ocl, we should have to spell it mo-ocl, or mood, or 
 mo-6d, &c. Again, it is only by our knowledge of the 
 language that the th in nuthook, is not pronounced like the 
 th in burthen. In the languages of India the true sound of 
 t -\- h is common. This, however, we cannot spell naturally 
 because the combination th conveys to us another notion. 
 Hence such combinations as thh, or t', &c., in writing Hindoo 
 words. 
 
 A second mischief of orthographical conventionalities, is 
 the wrong notions that they engender, the eye misleading the 
 ear. That th is really t + h, no one would have believed had 
 it not been for the spelling. 
 
 § 25.5. The present section is the partial application of the 
 l)recedlng observations. It is a running commentary upon 
 the orthographical part of Dr. Johnson's Grammar. Presum- 
 ing a knowledge of the detail of the English orthography, it 
 attempts an explanation of some of its leading characters. 
 Many of these it possesses In common with other tongues. 
 Several are peculiar to Itself.
 
 190 GENERAL PKINCIPLES 
 
 " A, souiuUhI as aw, or as a iiiodiUcalioii of o."" — yl, as in 
 father^ and o, as in note (as may he seen in p, 1 oO), form tlio 
 extromitios of the vowel system. Notwithstandini^ this, the 
 two sounds often interchange. The orthographical systems 
 of most languages bear witness to this. In French the mt in 
 aiitel has the sound of o ; in Danish aa = o (haade being pro- 
 nounced bolii/e) ; in Swedish a has the same power. In Old 
 English the forms hond, strond^ &c., occur, instead of hand, 
 strand, Sec. In Anglo-Saxon, brad, stun, &c., correspond to 
 the English forms broad, stone. I am not able to say whether 
 a changes oftenest to o, or o to a. The form hond is older 
 than the form hand. In the word salt, however, the a was 
 pronounced as the a in /at before it was pronounced (as at pre- 
 sent) like the a in not. If this were not the case it would never 
 have been spelt with an a. In the words launch and haunch, 
 by some called lanch, hanch, and by others laicnch, haicnch, 
 we find a present tendency to interchange these sounds. 
 
 The change from a to o takes place most especially before 
 the liquid I, icall, call, fall. When the liquid I is followed by 
 another consonant, it {viz. I) is generally sunk in pronuncia- 
 tion, falcon, salmon, &c., pronounced faucon, sammon, or 
 saumon. The reason of this lies in the following fact, viz., 
 tJiat syllables wherein there are, at tlie same time, two fnal con- 
 sonants and a long vowel, have a tendency to become shortened 
 by one of two ])rocesses, viz., either by ejecting one of the conso- 
 nants, or by shortening the vowel. That the I in falcon is 
 affected not by the change of a to o, but by the change of a 
 short vowel to a long, or of a slender one to a broad one, is 
 shown in the tendency which the common people have to say 
 hode for hold, as well as by the Scotch form gowd for gold. 
 This fact bears upon the difficult problem in the Greek (and 
 in other languages), viz., whether the lengthening of the vowel 
 in words like ohovq (compared with ooovroq), is the cause or 
 the effect of the rejection of the consonant. 
 
 " E is long, as in scene ; or short, as in cellar."' — Johnson. 
 It has been stated before that the (so-called) long sound of e 
 is non-existent, and the e in scene, is the (so-called) long sound 
 of the i in pit.
 
 OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 191 
 
 For the power of e in since and once, see the remarks on ,^. 
 
 For the power of e in hedge and oblige^ see the remarks on g. 
 
 The power of e mute in words like cane^ hane, tune^ robe, 
 pope, fire, cure, tube, has already been noticed. It serves 
 to denote the length of the preceding vowel. For this pur- 
 pose it is retained ; but it was not for this purpose that it was 
 invented. Originally it expressed a sound, and it is only by 
 a change of language that it has come, as it were by accident, 
 to be an orthographical expedient. 
 
 Let a word consist of two syllables. Let the latter end in 
 a vowel. Let there be between the vowel of the first and the 
 vowel of the second syllable, one consonant and no more, e. g., 
 nam^e. Let the consonant belong to the root of the word ; 
 and let the first syllable of the word be the essential and the 
 radical part of it. Let this same syllable (as the essential 
 and radical part of it) have an accent. The chances are that, 
 under such circumstances, the vowel of the first syllable will 
 be long (independent), just as the chances are that a vowel 
 followed by two consonants will be short. Let a change in 
 language affect the final vowel, so that a word which was 
 originally pronounced nama, should become, first, name, and 
 afterwards nam, naim, or neem ; the vowel being sounded as the 
 am fate. Let the final e, although lost in pronunciation, be 
 retained in the spelling. The chances are that, the above 
 conditions being given, such an e (final and mute) shall, when- 
 ever it occurs, occur at the end of a long syllable. The next 
 process is for a succeeding generation to mistake a coinci- 
 dence for a sign, and to imagine that an e mute expresses the 
 length of syllable. 
 
 I consider this to be the key to the use of the e mute in all 
 words where it is preceded by one consonant only. 
 
 From the circumstance that the French and the Enolish 
 are the only nations wherein the e mute is part and parcel of 
 the orthography, it has been hastily imagined that the em- 
 ployment of it is to be attributed to the Norman Conquest. 
 The truth, however, is, that we find it equally in words of 
 Saxon and of Norman origin. 
 
 The fact that, in certain words, an e mute is precedetl by
 
 V'U OENERAL IMaNPIPLES 
 
 two ooiiSDMnnts and l)v a sliort vowel, does not militate against 
 the view ^iven above. 
 
 '' / has a sound, h)iif, as in /f/i^^, and short, as in A'w. That 
 is eminently ohservable in /, wliieh may be likewise remarked 
 in other letters, that the short sound is not the long sound 
 contracted, but a sound wholly dilFerent.*" — Johnson. This 
 extract has been made in order to add the authority of John- 
 son to the statement so often repeated already ; viz., that the 
 i in bite is not the long sound of the i in bit. 
 
 For the sound of u in guest, prorogue, guard, see the 
 remarks on g. 
 
 As avowel, y is wholly superfluous. It is a current remark 
 that more words end in y {fortify, pretii/) than in any other 
 letter. This is true only in respect to their spelling. As a 
 matter of speech, the y final has always the sound either of the 
 ce in feet, or of the ^ in bite. Such is the case with the words 
 fortify and pretty, quoted above. For some reason or other, 
 the vowel e is never, in English, written at the end of words, 
 unless when it is mute ; whilst i is never written at all. In- 
 stead of cri, we write cry, &c. This is a peculiarity of 
 our orthography, for which I have no satisfactory reason. It 
 may be, that with words ending in e, y is written for the sake 
 of showing that the vowel is not mute, but sounded. Again, 
 the adjectives ending in y as any, and the adverbs in ly, as 
 manly, in the older stages of our language ended, not in y, but 
 in ig {manlig, cenig) ; so that the present y, in such words, 
 may be less the equivalent of i than the compendium of ig. I 
 venture this indication with no particular confidence. 
 
 The b in debtor, subtile, doubt, agrees with the b in lamh, 
 limb, dumb, thumb, womb, in being mute. It differs, however, 
 in another respect. The words debtor, subtle, doubt, are of 
 classical, the words lamb, limb, dumb, he, are of Saxon, 
 origin. In debtor, &c., the b was, undoubtedly, at one 
 time, pronounced, since it belonged to a different syllable ; 
 debitor, subtilis, dubito, being the original forms. I am far 
 from being certain that with the other words, lamb, &c., 
 this was the case. With them the b belonged (if it belonged 
 to the word at all) to the same syllable as the m. I think.
 
 OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 193 
 
 liowever, that instead of this being the case, the J, in speech, 
 never made a part of the word at all ; that it belongs now, 
 and that it always belonged, to the written language only ; 
 and that it was inserted in the spelling upon what may be 
 called the principle of imitation. For a further illustration of 
 this, see the remarks on the word could. 
 
 " Ch has a sound which is analysed into tsh, as church., 
 chin, crutch. C might be omitted in the language without 
 loss, since one of its sounds might be supplied by s, and the 
 other by k, but that it preserves to the eye the etymology of 
 words, disface from fades, captive from captivus.^^ — Johnson. 
 
 Before a, o, u (that is, before a full vowel), c is sounded as 
 k; before e, i, and y (that is, before a small vowel), it has 
 the power of s. This change of sound according to the na- 
 ture of the vowel following, is so far from being the peculi- 
 arity of the English, that it is common in all languages ; 
 except that sometimes c, instead of becoming s, becomes fs, 
 tsh, ksh, in other words, some other sibilant ; hut ahoai/s a 
 sibilant. A reference to p. 153 will explain this change. At 
 a certain time, Jc (written c, as is the case in Latin) becomes 
 changed by the vowel following into ksh, and from thence 
 into s, ts, or tsh. That the syllables cit, cyt, cet, were at one 
 time pronounced kit, kyt, ket, we believe : 1. from the circum- 
 stance that if it were not so, they would have been spelt 
 with an s; 2. from the comparison of the Greek and Latin 
 languages, where the words cete, circus, cystis, Latin, are zrir^, 
 yJ^Kog, KUfTTig, Greek. 
 
 In the words mechanical, choler, &c., derived from the 
 Greek, it must not be imagined that the c represents the 
 Greek kappa or k. The combination c + h is to be dealt 
 with as a single letter. Thus it was that the Romans, who 
 had in their language neither the sound of )/, nor the sign k, 
 rendered the Greek chi (y), just as by th they rendered 0, 
 and hy ph, (p. 
 
 The faulty representation of the Greek y^ has given rise to 
 a fiiulty representation of the Greek k, as in ascetic, from 
 
 U/7K>]riZ0C. 
 
 " C, according to the English orthography, never ends a 
 
 o
 
 11>1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 
 
 word ; llRMi'toie wo write ^7/V/•, bluck., which were origiiKiUy 
 stic/n\ hlocke. In such words c is now mute." — Johnson. 
 Just as there was a prejudice ai,'ainst i or e ending a word 
 there seems to have been one in the ease of c. In the word 
 Frederick there are three modes of spelling: 1. Frederic; 
 2. Frederik ; o. Frederick. Of these three it is the last 
 only that seems, to an Englishman, natural. The form Fre- 
 deric seems exceptionable, because the last letter is c, whilst 
 Frederik is objected to because k comes in immediate con- 
 tact with the short vowel. 
 
 Now the reason against c ending a word seems this. From 
 what has been remarked above, c seems, in and of itself, to 
 have no power at all. Whether it shall be sounded as k or 
 as s seems undetermined, except by the nature of the vowel 
 following. If the vowel following be small, c == s, if full, 
 c^=k. But c followed by nothing is equivocal and ambiguous. 
 Now c final is c followed by nothing ; and therefore c equi- 
 vocal, ambiguous, indefinite, undetermined. This is the 
 reason why c is never final. Let there be such words as 
 sticke and blocke. Let the k be taken away. The words 
 remain stice^ hloce. The k being taken away, there is a 
 danger of calling them stise., Hose. 
 
 A verbal exception being taken, the statement of Dr. 
 Johnson, that in words like stick and block the k is mute, is 
 objectionable. The mute letter is not so much the c as the k. 
 
 " G at the end of a word is always hard, as ring, sing.'''' — 
 Johnson. A verbal exception may be taken here. Ng, is 
 not a combination of the sounds ofn+g, but the representa- 
 tion of a simple single sound ; so that, as in the case of ih 
 and sh, the two letters must be dealt with as a single 
 one. 
 
 " G before n is mute, as gnash, sign, foreign.'''' — Johnson. 
 The three words quoted above are not in the same predica- 
 ment. In words like gnash the g has been silently dropped 
 on the score of euphony (see remarks on k) ; in sign and 
 foreign the g has not been dropped, but changed. It has 
 taken the allied sound of the semivowel y, and so, with the 
 preceding vowel, constitutes a diphthong.
 
 OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 195 
 
 Before «, o, u (full vowels), g has the sound, as in gm/, go, 
 gun : before c, i, y, that of gem, giant. 
 
 At the end of a word (that is, followed by nothing at all), 
 or followed by a consonant, it has the same sound that it 
 has before «, o, u — agog, grand. This shows that such is 
 its natural sound. In hedge and ohlige the e mute serves to 
 show that the g is to be pronounced as/. 
 
 Let there be the word rog. Let the vowel be lengthened. 
 Let this lengthening be expressed by the addition of e mute, 
 roge. There is now a risk of the word being called roje. 
 This is avoided by inserting w, as in prorogue. Why, how- 
 ever, is it that the u runs no chance of being pronounced, 
 and the word of being sounded ^roro^weF The reason for this 
 lies in three facts. 1. The affinities between the sounds of 
 ga and ka. 2. The fact that qu is merely kw. 3. The fact 
 that in qu, followed by another vowel, as in quoit (pronounced 
 ko9/t), antique, &c., the u is altogether omitted in pronun- 
 ciation. Li other words, the analogy of qu is extended 
 to gu. 
 
 For the varied sounds of gh in plough, tough, enough {enow), 
 through, we must remember that the original sound of gh was 
 a hard guttural, as is at present the case in Scotland, and 
 between g, h,f, v, lo, there are frequent interchanges. 
 
 " jyis a note of aspiration."" — It is under the notion that 
 th,ph, sh, as in thin, thine, Philip, shine, are aspirated sounds, 
 that h is admitted in the spelling. As has been repeatedly 
 stated, th, ph, sh are to be treated as single signs or letters. 
 
 " J, consonant, sounds uniformly like the soft g {i.e., as in 
 gem), and is, therefore, a letter useless, except in etymology, 
 as ejaculation, jester, jocund, juice.'''' — Johnson. It may be 
 added that it never occurs in words of Saxon origin, and that 
 in the single word AUelujah it has the sound of y, as in the 
 German. 
 
 iT never comes before a, o, u, or before a consonant. It is 
 used before e, i, y, where c would, according to the English 
 analogy, be liable to be sounded as s; as in kept, king, skirt. 
 These words, if written cept, ring, scirt, would run the risk of 
 being sounded sept, sing, sirt. Broadly speaking, k is never 
 
 o 2
 
 l.'Xi OENKUAL I'HINCIPLES 
 
 Uiioil except win re c' woulil be iueunveiiieiit. The renf^on ot" 
 this lies in llie ihet of there being no such letter as /• in the 
 Latin language. lleneo arose in tlie eyes of the etymologist 
 the propriety of retaining, in ail words derived from the 
 Latin (croicn, concave, concupiscence, &c.), the letter c, to 
 the exelusion of /•. IJesides this, the Anglo-Saxon alphabet, 
 being taken from tlu> Roman, exeluded /•, so that c was 
 written even before the small vowels, a, e,i,y; as cyning, or 
 clninp, a king. C then .supplants /■ iipon elyniologieid grounds 
 only. In the languages derived from the Latin this dislike to 
 the use of k leads to several orlhographioal inconveniences. 
 As the tendency of c, before e, i, y, to be sounded as s (or as 
 a sound allied to s), is the same in those languages as in 
 others; and as in those languages, as in others, there fre- 
 quently occur such sounds as Tcit, Jcet, kin, &c., a difficulty 
 arises as to the spelling. If spelt ciV, cet, &c., there is the 
 risk of their being sounded sii, set. To remedy this, an h 
 is interposed — chit, chet, &c. This, however, only substi- 
 tutes one difficulty for another, since ch is, in all probability, 
 already used with a different sound, e.g., that of sh, as in 
 French, or that of k guttural, as in German. The Spanish 
 orthography is thus hampered. Unwilling to spell the word 
 chimera (pronounced kimera) with a k; unable to spell it with 
 either c or ch, it wi-ites the word quimeera. This distaste 
 for k is an orthographical prejudice. Even in the way of 
 etymology it is but partially advantageous, since in the other 
 Gothic languages, where the alphabet is less rigidly Latin, the 
 words that in English are spelt with a c, are there written 
 with k, — kam, German ; komme, Danish ; skrapa, Swedish ; = 
 came^ come, scrape. 
 
 The use of k final, as in stick, &c., has been noticed in 
 p. 194. 
 
 " Skeptic, for so it should be written, not sceptic.'''' — Johnson. 
 Quoted for the sake of adding authority to the statement 
 made in p. 193, viz., that the Greek kappa is to be repre- 
 sented not by c, but by k. 
 
 " K is never doubled, but c is used before it to shorten the 
 vowel by a double consonant, as cockle, pickle.'''' — Johnson.
 
 OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 197 
 
 This is referable to the statement that k is never usetl where 
 c is admissible. 
 
 " A^is used before w, knell, hnot^ but totally loses its sound." 
 — Johnson. This, however, is not the case in the allied lan- 
 guages ; in German and Danish, in words like knecht, knive, 
 the k is sounded. This teaches us that such was once the 
 case in English. Hence we learn that in the words knife, 
 knight (and also in gnaw, gnash), we have an antiquated or 
 obsolete orthography. 
 
 For the ejection of the sound of I in calf, salmon, falcon, 
 he. see under a. For the I in could, see that word. 
 
 " N is sometimes mute after m, as damn, condemn, hymn.'''' 
 — Johnson. In all these words the n originally belonged to a 
 succeeding syllable, dam-no, condem-no, hym-nus. 
 
 Q, accurately speaking, is neither a letter, nor an abbrevia- 
 tion. It is always followed by m, as queen, quilt, and the two 
 letters qu must be looked upon as a single sign, equivalent to 
 (but scarcely an abbreviation) of kiv. Q is not = k alone. 
 The combination qu, is never sounded koo. Neither is kw. If 
 it were so, there would be in the word queen (currently speak- 
 ing) three sounds of m, viz., two belonging to q ( = kw), and 
 one belonging to tt itself. W being considered as = 2 u: 
 q=Lk + ^ w. This view of q bears upon the theory of words 
 \'\\<.Q prorogue, &c. 
 
 The reader is referred to p. 1 52. There he is told that, 
 when a word ends in a flat consonant, h, v, d, g, the plural 
 termination is not the sound of s, but that of z {stagz, 
 dogz) ; although s be the letter loritten. Such also is the 
 case with words ending in the vowels or the liquids {peaz, 
 heanz, killz, not peace, beance, hillce). This fact influences 
 our orthography. The majority of words ending in s are found 
 to be phiral numbers, or else (what is the same thing in 
 respect to form) either genitive cases, or verbs of the third 
 person singular ; whilst in the majority of these the s is 
 sounded as z. Hence, the inference from analogy that s 
 single, at the end of words, is sounded as z. Now this fact 
 hampers the orthography of those words wherein s final retains 
 its natural sound, as since, once, mass, mace ; for let these be
 
 19S GENERAL TKINCIPLES 
 
 writ ton sins, ons, 7nas, the chances are tliat they will he pro- 
 nounced sinz, oiiz, waz. To remedy this, the s may he dou- 
 hled, as in mass. This, however, can he done in a few cases 
 only. It cannot he done conveniently where the vowel is 
 long, the effect of a douhle consonant heing to denote that the 
 preceding vowel is short. Neither can it he done conveniently 
 after a consonant, such conihinations as sinss, &c., heing 
 unsightly. This throws the grammarian upon the use of c, 
 which, as stated ahove, has, in certain situations, the power 
 of s. To write, however, simply sine, or one, would induce 
 the risk of the words heing sounded sink, onk. To ohviate 
 this, e is added, which has the double effect of not requiring to 
 he sounded (being mute), and of showing that the c has the 
 sound of s (being small). 
 
 "It is the peculiar quality of s that it may be sounded be- 
 fore all consonants, except oa and z, in which s is comprised, x 
 being only hs, and z only a hard [flat] or gross s. This s 
 is therefore termed by grammarians sucz potestatis litera, the 
 reason of which the learned Dr. Clarke erroneously supposed 
 to be, that in some words it might be doubled at pleasure." — 
 Johnson. A reference to the current Greek Grammars will 
 indicate another reason for a being called sikb potestatis litera. 
 It will there be seen that, whilst -tt, (B, <p — x, y, y^ — r, ^, & — 
 are grouped together, as tenues, medice, and aspirata, and as 
 inter se cognatee, a sX^wdiS hy itself; ^ its media (flat sound) 
 being treated as a double letter, and sh, its so-called aspirate, 
 being non-existent in the Greek language. 
 
 The sound of ti before a vowel, as in salvation, is exi^lained 
 in p. 153. 
 
 " Th has two sounds ; the one soft [flat], as thus, whether ; 
 the other hard [sharp], as thing, think. The sound is soft 
 [flat] in all words between two vowels, as father, whether ; 
 and between /• and a vowel, as burthen.'''' — Johnson. The rea- 
 son of the hitter statement lies in the fact of both the vowels 
 and r hemg flat (see p. 152), and so exerting a flattening 
 influence upon the sounds in contact with them. 
 
 In the substantives breath and cloth, the th is sharp {i.e., as 
 th in thin) ; in tl»e verbs breathe and clothe, the th is flat {i.e.^
 
 OP ORTHOGRAPHY. 199 
 
 as th in thine) A great number of substantives may be 
 
 made verbs by changing the sound of their final consonant. 
 However, with the words breathe and clothe, a second 
 change has taken place, viz., the vowel has been lengthened. 
 Now of these two changes, viz., the lengthening of the vowel, 
 and the flattening of the consonant, which is the one repre- 
 sented by the e mute, in clothe and hreathe, as compared with 
 cloth and breath ? I imagine the former. Hence an exception 
 is taken to the following statement of Dr. Johnson : — " When 
 it (th) is softened [flattened] at the end of a word, an e 
 silent must be added, as breath, breathe., cloth, clothe.''^ 
 
 The sounds of the s in sure, of the t in jncfure (when pro- 
 nounced picfshure), and of the z in azure and glazier, are 
 explained in p. 153. 
 
 The present chapter is intended not to exhaust the list, but 
 to illustrate the character of those orthographical expedients 
 which insufiicient alphabets, changes in language, and the 
 influences of etymology engender both in the English and in 
 other tongues.
 
 L'OO [118T0IUCAL SKETCH OF 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 IIISTOIUCAL SKETCH 01' THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. 
 
 § 256. The preceding chapter has exhibited the theory of 
 a full aud perfect alphabet ; it has shown how far the English 
 alphabet falls short of such a standard ; and, above all, it has 
 exhibited the various conventional modes of spelling which 
 the insufficiency of alphabets, combined with other causes, has 
 engendered. The present chapter gives a lihtory of our 
 alphabet, whereby many of its defects are accounted for. 
 These defects. It may be said, once for all, the Enghsh alpha- 
 bet shares with those of the rest of the world; although, with 
 the doubtful exception of the French, it possesses them in a 
 higher degree than any. 
 
 With few, if any, exceptions, all the modes of writing in 
 the world originate, directly or indirectly, from the Phoenician, 
 Hebrew, or Semitic alphabet. This is easily accounted for 
 when we call to mind, — 1. The fact that the Greek, the 
 Latin, and the Arabian alphabets, are all founded upon this; 
 and, 2. The .great influence of the nations speaking those 
 three languages. The present sketch, however, is given only 
 for the sake of accounting for defects. 
 
 § 257. Phoenician, Hebrew^ or Semitic Period. — At a cer- 
 tain period the alphabet of Palestine, Phoenicia, and the 
 neighbouring languages of the Semitic tribes, consisted of 
 twenty-two separate and distinct letters. For these see the 
 Hebrew Grammars and the Phoenicia of Gesenius. 
 
 The chances are, that, let a language possess as few elemen- 
 tary articulate sounds as possible, an alphabet of only twenty- 
 two letters will be insufficient. INow, in the particular case 
 of the languages in point, the number of elementary sounds, 
 as we infer from the present Arabic, w as above the average.
 
 THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. 
 
 201 
 
 It may safely be asserted, that the original Semitic alphabet 
 was insufficient for even the Semitic languages. 
 
 It was, moreover, inconsistent : since sounds as like as 
 those of tetk and tau (mere variations of each other) were 
 expressed by signs as unlike as LD and D ; whilst sounds as 
 unlike as those of beth with a point, and beth without a 
 point (b and «), were expressed (if expressed at all) by signs 
 as like as 2 and ^. 
 
 In this state it was imported into Greece. Now, as it 
 rarely happens that any two languages have precisely the 
 same elementary articulate sounds, so it rarely happens that 
 an alphabet can be transplanted from one tongue to another, 
 and be found, at once, to coincide. 
 
 The Greeks had, in all probability, sounds which were 
 wanting in Palestine and Phoenicia. In Palestine and Phce- 
 nicia it is certain that there were sounds wanting in Greece. 
 
 Of the twenty-two Phoenician letters the Greeks took but 
 twenty-one. The eighteenth letter, tsadi, >i, was never 
 imported into Europe. 
 
 § 258. Greek Period. — Compared with the Semitic, the 
 Old Greek alphabet ran thus : — 
 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 G reek. 
 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 1. 
 
 K 
 
 A. 
 
 13. 
 
 D 
 
 
 M. 
 
 2. 
 
 2 
 
 B. 
 
 14. 
 
 2 
 
 
 N. 
 
 3. 
 
 J 
 
 r. 
 
 15, 
 
 D 
 
 
 2? 
 
 4. 
 
 1 
 
 A. 
 
 16. 
 
 ;^ 
 
 
 0. 
 
 6. 
 
 n 
 
 E. 
 
 17. 
 
 2 
 
 
 n. 
 
 6. 
 
 1 
 
 F. 
 
 18. 
 
 !i 
 
 
 — 
 
 7. 
 
 T 
 
 Z. 
 
 
 
 
 A letter called 
 
 8. 
 
 n 
 
 H. 
 
 19. 
 
 P 
 
 koppa, afterwards 
 
 9. 
 
 ro 
 
 e. 
 
 
 
 t^.j 
 
 ected. 
 
 10. 
 
 "1 
 
 I. 
 
 20. 
 
 -) 
 
 
 P. 
 
 11. 
 
 D 
 
 K. 
 
 21. 
 
 ti^ 
 
 M 
 
 afterwards 2 ? 
 
 12. 
 
 b 
 
 A. 
 
 22. 
 
 n 
 
 
 T. 
 
 Such the order and form of the (ireek and Hebrew letters. 
 Here it may be remarked, that, of each alphabet, it is only 
 the modern forms that are compared ; the likeness in the 
 s/icq^fc of the letters may be seen by comparing them in their
 
 202 
 
 IIISTORICAJ. .SKETCH OF 
 
 older stages. Of these the exhibition, in a work Hke the 
 present, is inconvenient. They may, however, be studied in 
 the work aheaily referred to in the F/itenicia of Gesenius. The 
 names of the letters are as follows : — 
 
 Ilebrao. (iirik. 
 
 1. Alcpli Al])Iia. 
 
 2. Beth Bffita. 
 
 3. Giniel Gamma. 
 
 4. Dalctli Delta. 
 
 5. He K, psi/on, 
 
 6. Yaw Diguiiinia. 
 
 7. Zayn Za-ta. 
 
 8. Heth Hfeta. 
 
 9. Teth Thceta. 
 
 10. Yod Iota. 
 
 11. Kaph Kappa. 
 
 Ihhiew. Greek. 
 
 12. LiUiicd Lainbilu. 
 
 13. Rleiii Mu. 
 
 14. Nun Nu. 
 
 1 ;■). Sameeh Sigma ? 
 
 16 Ayn O. 
 
 17. Pi Plii. 
 
 18. Tsadi 
 
 19. Kof Koppa, Arcfidic. 
 
 20. Rcsh Rho. 
 
 21. Sill San, Doric. 
 
 22. Tail Tau. 
 
 § 259. The Asiatic alphabet of Phcenieia and Palestine is 
 now adapted to the European language of Greece. The first 
 change took place in the manner of writing. The Orientals 
 wrote from right to left ; the Greeks from left to right. 
 Besides this, the following principles, applicable whenever 
 the alphabet of one language is transferred to another, were 
 recognised : — 
 
 1. Letters for which there was no use were left behind. 
 This was the case, as seen above, with the eighteenth letter, 
 tsadi. 
 
 2. Letters expressive of sounds for which there was no 
 precise equivalent in Greek, were used with other powers. 
 This was the case with letters 5, 8, 16, and probably with 
 some others. 
 
 3. Letters of which the original sound, in the course of 
 time, became changed, were allowed, as it were, to drop out 
 of the alphabet. This was the case with 6 and 19. 
 
 4. For such simple single elementary articulate sounds as 
 there was no sign or letter representant, new signs, or letters, 
 were invented. This principle gave to the Greek alphabet 
 the new signs (p, '/j, v, cj. 
 
 .5. The new signs were not mere modifications of the older
 
 THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. 203 
 
 ones (as was the case with S, S, 2.-, 2-, &c. in Hebrew), but 
 new, distinct, and independent letters. 
 
 In all this there was an improvement. The faults of the 
 newer Greek alphabet consisted in the admission of the com- 
 pendium •v|/=ps, and the retention of the fifteenth letter 
 {samech^ xi), with the power of h, it being also a com- 
 pendium. 
 
 § 260. The Italian or old Latin period. — That it was 
 either from the original Phoenician, or from the old Greek, 
 that the Italian alphabets were imported, we learn from the 
 existence in them of the letters /"and q, corresponding respec- 
 tively to the sixth and nineteenth letters; these having, in 
 the second stage of the Greek alphabet, been ejected. 
 
 § 261. The first alphabet imported into Italy was the 
 Etruscan. In this the fi, §, and o were ejected, their sounds 
 (as it is stated) not being found in the Etruscan language. 
 Be it observed, that the sounds both of j3 and h are Jlat. 
 Just as in the Devonshire dialect the flat sounds (s, v, &c.) 
 have the preponderance, so, in the Etruscan, does there seem 
 to have been a preponderating quantity of the sharp sounds. 
 This prepares us for a change, the eifects whereof exist in 
 almost all the alphabets of Europe. In Greek and Hebrew 
 the third letter (gimel, gamma) had the power of the flat 
 mute ^, as in gun. In the Etruscan it had the power of k. 
 In this use of the third letter the Romans followed the 
 Etruscans : but, as they had also in their language the sound 
 of <7 (as in gun)., they used, up to the Second Punic War, the 
 third letter {viz. c), to denote both sounds. In the Duillian 
 column we have Macestratos, Carthacinienses.* After- 
 wards, however, the separate sign (or letter) g was invented, 
 being originally a mere modification of c. The j^^rtr*^? of g m 
 the alphabet is involved in the history of 0. 
 
 § 262. The Roman alphabet had a double origin. For 
 the first two centuries after the foundation of the city the 
 alphabet used was the Etruscan, derived directly from the 
 Greek, and from the old Greek. This accounts for the 
 presence of/" and y. 
 
 * Gcscniiiis, p. 73.
 
 204 IIISTDKICAL yKETCII OF 
 
 Artor\v;u<ls, liowi'vor, tlio Ivomnns motlifioil thoir alphabet 
 by the alpliabot of the Itahaii CJreeks; tlieyo ItaHaii (Jreeks 
 using the hate Greek ali>habet. This accounts tor the pre- 
 sence of r, oriiiinating- in the Greek ypsilon. 
 
 In acconiniodating the Greek alpliabet to their own hm- 
 guage, the Latins recognisctl the following princii)les : — 
 
 I. The ejection of such letters as were not wanted. Thus 
 it was that the seventh letter (zapi, Zftta) was thrown out 
 of the alphabet, and the new letter, ^, put in its place. Sub- 
 se(juently, z was restored for the sake of spelling Greek 
 words, but was placed at the end of the alphabet. Thus also 
 it was, that thceta^ kappa (c being equivalent to k), and the 
 fifteenth letter, were ejected, while -^ and "/^ were never 
 admitted. In after-times the fifteenth letter (now on) was 
 restored, for the same reason that z was restored, and, like z, 
 was placed at the end of the alphabet. 
 
 II. The use of the im})orted letters with a new power. 
 Hence the sixth letter took the sound, not of v or ?<?, hut of 
 
 f ; and the eighth of h. 
 
 Beyond this the Romans made but slight alterations. In 
 ejecting happa^ ihata an<l chi, they did mischief. The same 
 in changing the power of c. The representation of <p by ph, 
 and of 6 by th was highly erroneous. The retention of a? and 
 q was unnecessary. Fandy, two letters whereby the alpha- 
 bet was really enriched, were mere modifications of u and i 
 respectively. Y also seems a modification of v. 
 
 Neither the Latin, Greek, nor Hebrew orthographies were 
 much warped to etymological pur[)oses. 
 
 It should be observed, that in the Latin the letters have no 
 longer any names (like heth, b^eta), except such as are derived 
 from their powers (he, ce). 
 
 It may now be seen that with a language containing such 
 sounds as the th in thin and thine., and the ch in the German 
 auch, it is to their advantage to derive their alphabet from 
 the Greek ; whilst, with a language containing such sounds 
 as h and v, it is to their advantage to derive it from the 
 Latin. 
 
 It may also be seen, that, without due alterations and ad-
 
 THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. 205 
 
 (litions, the alphabet of one country will not serve as the 
 alphabet of another. 
 
 § 263. The Moeso-Gothic alphabet. — In the third century 
 the classical alphabets were applied to a Gothic language. I 
 use the word alphabets because the Moeso-Gothic letters bor- 
 rowed from both the Latin and the Greek. Their form and 
 order may be seen in Hickes'' Thesaurus and in Lye's Gram- 
 mar. With the Greek they agree in the following particulars. 
 
 1. In the sound of the third letter being not that of z (c), 
 but of the g in gun. 
 
 2. In retaining kappa and chi. 
 
 3. In expressing the simple single sound of th by a simple 
 single sign. This sign, however, has neither the shape nor 
 alphabetical position of the Greek thczta. 
 
 With the Latin they agree, 1. in possessing letters equiva- 
 lent to/, g, h, q, y. 
 
 2. In placing z at the end of the alphabet. 
 
 The Mocso-Gothic alphabet seems to have been formed on 
 eclectic principles, and on principles sufficiently bold. Neither 
 was its application traversed by etymological views. I can- 
 not trace its influence, except, perhaps, in the case of the 
 Anglo-Saxon letters b and p, upon any other alphabet ; nor 
 does it seem to have been acted upon by any earlier Gothic 
 alphabet. 
 
 § 261. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet. — What sort of an alpha- 
 bet the Gothic languages possess we know : what sort of 
 alphabet they i-equire, we can determine. For the following- 
 sounds (amongst others) current in the Gotliic, either one or 
 both of the classical languages are deficient in corresponding 
 signs. 
 
 1. The th in thin. — A sign in Greek (^), but none in 
 Latin. 
 
 2. The th in thine. — A sign neither in Greek nor Latin. 
 
 3. The ch in the German auch. — A sign in Greek (;^), but 
 none in Latin. 
 
 4. The flat sound of the same, or the probable sound of 
 the h in }purh, leoht., &c., Anglo-Saxon. — A sign neither in 
 Greek nor Latin.
 
 ?.'0G IIISTOKICAI. SKETCH OK 
 
 T). Tilt' .<// ill .</iiur. — A .si<fii iu'itlu>r in (Jroek nor liUtiii. 
 C. Tlit^ : in azure. — A sign iifitlicr in (Jrock nor Latin. 
 
 7. Tlio ch in chc^t. — A .sign ncitluM- in (Jreck nor Ijutiii, 
 unli'ss wo suj)[)ose that at the time when the Anglo-Saxon 
 alphabet was fornieil, the Latin c in words like civitas had the 
 power, which it has in the present Italian, of ck. 
 
 8. The J m jest. — A sign neither in Cireek nor Latin, unless 
 we admit the same sujiposition in respect to g, that has been 
 indicated in respect to c. 
 
 9. The sound of the // in the Norwegian l-jenner ; viz., 
 that (thereabouts) of hit. — A sign neither in Latin nor 
 Greek. 
 
 10. The English sound of w. — A sign neither in Latin nor 
 Greek. 
 
 IL The sound of the German u, Danish y. — No sign in 
 Latin ; probably one in Greek, viz., v. 
 
 12. Signs for distinguishing the long and short vowels, as 
 s and ;;, o and u. — Wanting in Latin, but existing in Greek. 
 
 In all these points the classical alphabets (one or both) 
 were deficient. To make up for their insuflSciency one of two 
 things was necessary, either to coin new letters, or to use con- 
 ventional combinations of the old. 
 
 Li the Anglo-Saxon alphabet (derived from the Latin) we 
 have the following features : — 
 
 1 . C used to the exclusion of k. 
 
 2. The absence of the letter/, either with the power of y, 
 as in German, of zli, as in French, or of dzh, as in English. 
 
 8. The absence of ^r ,• a useful omission, cw serving instead. 
 
 4. The absence of v ; u, either single or double, being used 
 instead. 
 
 5. The use of y as a vowel, and of e as y. 
 
 6. The absence of z. 
 
 7. Use of uu, as w, or v : Old Saxon. 
 
 8. The use, in certain conditions, of f for v. 
 
 9. The presence of the simple single signs ]? and ^, for the 
 th in thin, and the th in thine. 
 
 Of the Anglo-Saxon alphabet we may safely say that it 
 was insufficient. The points wherein the Latin alphabet was
 
 THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. i>07 
 
 improved in its adaptation to the Gothic tongues, are, 1. the 
 admission of b and '8 ; 2. the evolution of to out of u. Upon 
 this latter circumstance, and on k and z, I make the follow- 
 ing extract from the Latin Dedication of Otfrid's Krist : — 
 " Hujus enim linguae barharies, ut est inculta et indisciplina- 
 bilis, atque insueta capi regulari freno grammatics artis, sic 
 etiam in multis dictis scriptu est difficilis propter literarum 
 aut cougeriem, aut incognitam sonoritatem. Nam interdum 
 tria u u u ut puto queerit in sono ; priores duo consonantes, 
 ut mihi videtur, tertium vocali sono manente." And, further, 
 in respect to other orthographical difficulties ; — " Interdum 
 vero nee a, nee e, nee »', nee w, vocalium sonos prsecanere potui, 
 ibi y Grecum mihi videbatur ascribi. Et etiam hoc elemen- 
 tum lingua ha3C horrescit interdum ; nulli se characteri aliquo- 
 tiens in quodam sono nisi difficile jungens. K ei z sa^pius 
 haic lingua extra usum Latinitatis utitur ; quae grammatici 
 inter litteras dicunt esse superfluas. Ob stridorem autem den- 
 tium interdum ut puto in hac lingua z utuntur, k autem propter 
 faucium sonoritatem." 
 
 § 265. The Anglo-Norman Period. — Between the Latin 
 alphabet, as applied to the Anglo-Saxon, and the Latin alpha- 
 bet, as applied to the Norman-French, there are certain points 
 of difference. Li the first place, the sound-system of the 
 languages (like the French) derived from the Latin, bore a 
 greater resemblance to that of the Romans, than was to be 
 found amongst the Gothic tongues. Secondly, the alphabets 
 of the languages in point were more exclusively Latin. In 
 the present French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, there 
 is an exclusion of the k. This is not the case with the 
 Anglo-Norman. Like the Latins, the Anglo-Normans con- 
 sidered that the sound of the Greek was represented by 
 th : not, however, having this sound in their language, there 
 was no corresponding sign in their alphabet. The greatest 
 mischief done by the Norman influence was the ejection from 
 the English alphabet of j? and «. In other respects the 
 alphabet was improved. The letters z, k, /, were either im- 
 ported or more currently recognised. The letter y took a 
 semi-vowel power, having been previously represented by e ;
 
 208 lIlSTUHK'AIi SKKTOII OF 
 
 itself liaviiii; Iho pcnvov of /. The mode of spelling tlic com- 
 pound sibilant with ch was evolved. My notions concerning 
 this mode of spelling are as follows : — At a given period the 
 sound of ce in coaster, originally that of l:e, had become, first, 
 that of hh, and, secondly, that of tsh ; still it was spelt ce, 
 the e, in the eyes of the Anglo-Saxons, having the power of 
 y. In the eyes also of the Anglo-Saxons the compound sound 
 of hh, or tsh, would difter from that of k by the addition of 
 y ; this, it may be said, was the Anglo-Saxon view of the 
 matter. The Anglo-Norman view was different. Modified 
 by the part that, in the combination th, was played by the 
 aspirate h, it was conceived by the Anglo-Normans, that ksk, 
 or ts/i, differed from k, not by the addition of y (expressed by 
 e), but by that of h. Hence the combination ch as sounded 
 in chest. The same was the case with sh. This latter state- 
 ment is a point in the history, not so much of an alphabet, as 
 of an orthography. 
 
 The preceding sketch, as has been said more than once 
 before, has been given with one view only, viz., that of ac- 
 counting for defective modes of spelling. The history of 
 almost all alphabets is the same. Originally either insuffi- 
 cient, erroneous, or inconsistent, they are transplanted from 
 one language to a different, due alterations and additions 
 rarely being made. 
 
 § 266. The reduplication of the consonant following, to ex- 
 press the shortness (dependence) of the preceding vowel, is as 
 old as the classical languages : terra, ^oO^aaaa. The follow- 
 ing extract from the Ormulum (written in the thirteenth 
 century) is the fullest recognition of the practice that I have 
 met with. The extract is from Thorpe*'s Analecta Anglo- 
 Saxonica. 
 
 And whase wilenn shall \>\% boc, 
 Eflft of^crr si)'e writcnn, 
 
 Himm bidde ice )?att hctt write lililit, 
 Swa sum Jjiss boc liimm tfcchej?}? ; 
 
 All fjwerrt utt affteir j^att itt iss 
 0])]io JjIss firrste bisne, 
 
 Wijjfj all swilc rime als her iss sett, 
 Wij']' alse fele wordess :
 
 THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. 209 
 
 And tatt lie lokc wcl J^att lie 
 
 A71 boc-stuff write liviggess* 
 Eggwhser j^ser itt uppo Jjiss boc 
 
 Iss writenn o Jiatt wise ; 
 Loke he well j^att hett write swa, 
 
 Forr he ne magg noht elless, 
 On Englissh writenn rihht te word, 
 
 fjatt wite he wel to soj^e. 
 
 Concerning the various other orthographical expedients, 
 such as the reduplication of the vowel to express its length 
 (tnood), &c., I can give no satisfactory detailed history. The 
 influence of the Anglo-Norman, a language derived from the 
 Latin, established, in its fullest force, the recognition of the 
 etymological principle. 
 
 § 267. " I cannot trace the influence of the Moeso-Gothic 
 alphabet, except, perhaps, in the case of the Anglo-Saxon let- 
 ters b and P, upon any other alphabet ; nor does it seem to have 
 been itself acted upon hy any earlier Gothic alphabet.'"'' (See 
 p. 205.) The reason for the remark in Italics was as follows : 
 In the Icelandic language the word run signifies a letter., and 
 the word runa a furrow., or line. It has also some secondary 
 meanings, which it is unnecessary to give in detail. Upon a 
 vast number of inscriptions, some upon rocks, some upon stones 
 of a defined shape, we find an alphabet different (at least, ap- 
 parently so) from that of the Greeks, Latins, and Hebrews, and 
 also unlike that of any modern nation. In this alphabet there 
 is a marked deficiency of curved or rounded lines, and an ex- 
 clusive preponderance of straight ones. As it was engraved 
 rather than written, this is what we natui-ally expect. These 
 letters are called Runes, and the alphabet which they consti- 
 tute is called the Runic alphabet. Sometimes, by an exten- 
 sion of meaning, the Old Norse language, wherein they most 
 frequently occur, is called the Runic language. This is as 
 incorrect as to call a language an alphabetic language. To 
 say, however, the Runic stage of a language is neither inac- 
 curate nor inconvenient. The Runic alphabet, whether bor- 
 rowed or invented by the early Goths, is of greater antiquity 
 
 * Write one letter twice.
 
 J3I0 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 
 
 tlian eitlior (ho oUlost Tcntoiiic or tlio Mtrso-Golbic aljiliahcls. 
 The forms, namos, ami order of the letters may he seen in 
 Ilickes' Thesaurus, in Olai VVormii Literatura Ruiiica, in 
 Ixask's Icelamlic Grammar, and in W. Grimm's Deutsche 
 lluner. 
 
 The original number of the llunic letters is sixteen ; ex- 
 pressing the sounds of/, «, ]', o, r, l\ h, w, a, *, s, t, h, I, m, y. 
 To these are added four spurious Kunes, denoting c, a?, <«, o, 
 and eight pointed Runes after the fashion of the pointed 
 letters in Hebrew. In all this we see the influence of the 
 imported alphabet upon the original Runes, rather than that 
 of the original Runes upon the imported alphabet. It should, 
 however, be remarked, that in the Runic alphabet the sound 
 of ill in tliin is expressed by a simple sign, and that by a sign 
 not unlike the Anglo-Saxon )). 
 
 § 268. The Order of the Alphabet. — In the history of our 
 alphabet, we have had the history of the changes in the 
 arrangement, as well as of the changes in the number and 
 power of its letters. The following question now presents 
 itself: viz.^ Is there in the order of the letters any naUiral 
 arrangement, or is the original as well as the present succes- 
 sion of letters arbitrary and accidental? In the year 1835 I 
 conceived, that in the order of the Hebrew alphabet I had 
 discovered a very artificial arrangement. I also imagined 
 that this artificial arrangement had been detected by no one be- 
 sides myself. Two years afterwards a friend* stated to me 
 that he had made a similar observation, and in 1839 appeared, 
 in ]Mr. Donaldson's New Cratylus, the quotation with which 
 the present section will be concluded. The three views in 
 the main coincide ; and, as each has been formed independ- 
 ently (Mr. Donaldson's being the first recorded), they give 
 the satisfactory result of three separate investigations coin- 
 ciding in a theory essentially the same. The order of the 
 Hebrew alphabet is as follows : — 
 
 Name. Sound. i Name. Suuiid. 
 
 T ,1 , f Either a vowel ! 2. Beth ... B. 
 
 1. Alcp/i ... \ 
 
 ( or a brcatliing. | 3. Gimcl ... G. as in gun. 
 
 * Rev. W . Harvey, author of Ecclesiae Anglicaiice Vindox Catliolicns.
 
 THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. 
 
 211 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 Sound. 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 Sound. 
 
 4. 
 
 Dalel/i. 
 
 . D. 
 
 14. 
 
 Nun.... 
 
 . N. 
 
 5 
 
 He .... 
 
 ( Either a vowel 
 t or an aspirate. 
 . V. 
 
 15. 
 
 Sumeclt. 
 
 . a variety of S. 
 
 6. 
 
 Vaw.... 
 
 16. 
 
 ^il'i 
 
 ( Either a vowel 
 ( or— ? 
 
 7. 
 
 Zaijn . . 
 
 . z. 
 
 17. 
 
 Pe .... 
 
 . P. 
 
 8. 
 
 Kheth .. 
 
 . a variety of K. 
 
 18. 
 
 Tsadi . . 
 
 . TS. 
 
 9. 
 
 Teth .. 
 
 . a variety of T. 
 
 19. 
 
 Koph .. 
 
 . a variety of K. 
 
 10. 
 
 Yod.... 
 
 . I. 
 
 20. 
 
 Resh .. 
 
 . R. 
 
 11. 
 
 Caph . . 
 
 . K. 
 
 21. 
 
 Sill 
 
 . S. 
 
 12. 
 
 Lamed.. 
 
 . L. 
 
 22. 
 
 Tau 
 
 . T. 
 
 13. 
 
 Mem .. 
 
 . M. 
 
 
 
 
 Let befh, vaw, and pe (5, v, p) constitute a series called 
 series P. Let gimel, kheth, and koph {g, kh, F) constitute a 
 series called series K. Let daleth, teth, and tau (d, f, t) con- 
 stitute a series called series T. Let aleph, he, and ayn con- 
 stitute a series called the vowel series. Let the first four 
 letters be taken in their order. 
 
 1 . Aleph of the vowel series. 
 
 2. Beth of series P. 
 
 3. Gimel of series K. 
 
 4. Daleth of series T. 
 
 Herein the consonant of series B comes next to the letter of 
 the vowel series ; that of series K follows ; and, in the 
 last place, comes the letter of series D. After this the order 
 changes : daleth being followed by he of the vowel series. 
 
 5. He of the vowel series. 
 
 6. Vaw of series P. 
 
 7. Zayn 
 
 8. Kheth of series K. 
 
 9. Teth of series T. 
 
 In this second sequence the relative positions of v, kh, and f 
 are the same in respect to each other, and the same in respect 
 to the vowel series. The sequence itself is brokeu by the 
 letter zapi, but it is remarkable that the principle of the 
 sequence is the same. Series P follows the vowel, and series 
 T is farthest from it. After this the system becomes but frag- 
 mentary. Still, even now, pe, of series P, follows apn ; tau, of 
 
 p2
 
 ?2li3 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 
 
 scries D, is tartliost troni it; and koph^ of scries K, is intcr- 
 mctliate. 1 am satisfied that we liave in the Hebrew alpha- 
 bet, and in all alphabets derived iVom it (consequently in the 
 English), if not a system, the rudiments of a system, and that 
 the system is of the sort indicated above ; in other words, 
 that the order of the alphabet is a circulathif} order. 
 
 In Mr. Donaldson's hands this view is not only a fact, but 
 an instrument of criticism : — " The fact is, in our opinion, 
 the original Semitic alphabet contained only sixteen letters. 
 This appears from the organic arrangement of their characters. 
 The remaining sixteen letters appear in the following oi-der: — 
 aleph, beth, pimel, daletk, he, vaio, Hefh, tetli, lamed, mem, nun, 
 mmeclit ayn, pe, kopli, tan. If we examine this order more 
 minutely, we shall see that it is not arbitrary or accidental, 
 but strictly organic, according to the Semitic articulation. We 
 have four classes, each consisting of four letters : the first and 
 second classes consist each of three mutes, preceded by a 
 breathing ; the third of the three liquids and the sibilant, 
 which, perliaps, closed the oldest alphabet of all ; and the 
 fourth contains the three supernumerary mutes, preceded by 
 a breathing. We place the characters first vertically : — 
 
 Alcpli ^? First breathing 
 
 Beth 1 B-^ 
 
 Gimcl J g\ Media. 
 
 Daleth 1 dJ 
 
 He n Second breathing. 
 
 Vaw •) Bh> 
 
 Kheth n G\y\ Aspirate. 
 
 Tcth JO DhJ 
 
 Lamed 7 L-i 
 
 Mem O M > Liquids. 
 
 Nun 3 nJ 
 
 Samech D S The Sibilant. 
 
 Ayn ^ Third breathing. 
 
 Pe 2 P. 
 
 Koph p K I Tenues. 
 
 Tau n tJ 
 
 In the horizontal arrangement we shall, for the sake of greater 
 simplicity, omit the liquids and the sibilant, and then we have
 
 THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. 
 
 213 
 
 Brcal/iings. 
 
 Labials. 
 
 2 
 
 Palatals. 
 
 Ling an Is. 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 P 
 
 JO 
 
 y 
 
 2 
 
 Jl 
 
 In this we see, that, while the horizontal lines give us the 
 arrangement of the mutes according to the breathings, the 
 vertical columns exhibit them ai-ranged according to the organ 
 by which they are produced. Such a classification is obviously 
 artificial." 
 
 § 269. Parallel and equivalent orthographies. — Let there be 
 in two given languages the sound of ^, as in kin. Let each of 
 these languages represent it by the same letter, k. In this 
 case, the two orthographies are identical. Let, however, one 
 nation represent it by k, and another by c. In this case the 
 orthographies are not identical, but pai'allel. The same is the 
 case with combinations. Let one nation (say the Anglo- 
 Saxon) represent the sound of y (in i/e) by e, whilst another 
 nation (the Norse) represents it hy j. What the Anglo-Saxon 
 spells ceaster, the Northman spells kjaster ; and what the 
 Northman spells kjare, the Anglo-Saxon spells cetzre. Let 
 the sound of this ce and kj undergo a change, and become Jcsh; 
 Jijcere^ and cecere., being pronounced kshare. The view of the 
 Northman and Anglo-Saxon will be the same ; each will con- 
 sider that the compound sound differs from the simple one by 
 the addition of the sound of y ; that sound being expressed 
 in one nation by e, and in the other hy j. In this case the 
 two expressions of the compound sound are parallel, its 
 elements being considered the same, although the signs by 
 which those elements are expressed are dift'erent. 
 
 Let, however, a different view of the compound sound be 
 taken. Let it be thought that the sound of Jcsh differs from 
 that of Z', not by the addition of the sound of y, but by that 
 of h ; and so let it be spelt kh or ch. In this case the ortho- 
 graphies kh and kj (or ce) are not parallel, but equivalent. 
 They express the same sound, but they do not denote the same 
 elements. The same sound is, very possibly, expressed by the 
 Anglo-Saxon ce^ the Norwegian kj, and the English ch. In this 
 case ceand/yare parallel, ce and ch equivalent, orthographies.
 
 111. ON TUK rilOVINCE 
 
 TAUT IV. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ON TIIK PHOVINCE 01' KTYMOLOGY. 
 
 § 270. The word etymology, derived from the Greek, in 
 the current language • of scholars and grammarians, has a 
 double meaning. At times it is used in a wide, and at times 
 in a restricted, sense. What follows is an exhibition of the 
 province or department of etymology. 
 
 If in the English language we take such a Avord as fathers, 
 we are enabled to divide it into two parts ; in other words, 
 to reduce it into two elements. By comparing it with the 
 word father, we see that the s is neither part nor parcel of 
 the original word. The word fathers is a word capable of 
 being analysed ; father being the original primitive word, 
 and s the secondary superadded termination. From the word 
 father, the word fathers is derived, or (changing the expres- 
 sion) deduced, or descended. What has been said of the 
 word fathers may also be said of fatherly/, fatherlike, fatherless, 
 &c. Now, from the word father, all these words {fathers, 
 fatherly, fatherlike and fatherless) differ in form, and (not, 
 however, necessarily) in meaning. To become such a word 
 as fathers, &c., the word father is changed. Of changes of 
 this sort, it is the province of etymology to take cognizance. 
 
 Compared with the form fathers, the word father is the 
 older form of the two. The vf ovd father is a word current in 
 this the nineteenth century. The same word was current in
 
 OF ETYMOLOGY. 215 
 
 the first century, although under a difterent form, and in a 
 different language. Thus, in the Latin language, the form 
 was i)ater ; and earlier still, there is the Sanskrit form pitr. 
 Now, just as the word father^ compared with fathers, is 
 original and primitive, so is patei\ compared with father, 
 original and primitive. The difference is, that in respect to 
 father and fathers, the change that takes place, takes place 
 within the same language, whilst the change that takes place 
 between pater Sin^ father takes place within different languages. 
 Of changes of this latter kind it is the province of etymology 
 to take cognizance. 
 
 In its widest signification, etymology takes cognizance of 
 the changes of the form of words. However, as the etymology 
 that compares the forms fathers and father is different from 
 the etymology that compares father and pater, we have, of 
 etymology, two sorts : one dealing with the changes of form 
 that words undergo in one and the same language {father, 
 fathers), the other dealing with the changes that words undergo 
 in passing from one language to another {pater, father). 
 
 The first of these sorts may be called etymology in the 
 limited sense of the word, or the etymology of the grammarian. 
 In this case it is opposed to orthoepy, orthography, syntax, 
 and the other parts of grammar. This is the etymology of 
 the ensuing pages. 
 
 The second may be called etymology in the wide sense of 
 the word, historical etymology, or comparative etymology. 
 
 It must be again repeated that the two sorts of etymology 
 agree in one point, viz., in taking cognizance of the changes 
 of form that words undergo. Whether the change arise from 
 grammatical reasons, as father, fathers, or from a change of 
 language taking place in the lapse of time, as pater, father, is 
 a matter of indifference. 
 
 In the Latin ^;afer, and in the English /aif/i^r, we have one 
 of two things, either two words descended or derived from 
 each other, or two words descended or derived from a common 
 original source. 
 
 \n fathers we have a formation deduced from the radical 
 v:oY(\ father.
 
 2U5 ON ■niK I'KOVINCE OF ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 \\\ fatlnrlikr \vt> liavo ;i compound woid cajKible of being 
 analyseil into llu' two primitlv*' words, I. father ; 2. like. 
 
 With tliest' |»ivliiniiuuie!> wo may appreciate (or criticise) 
 Dr. Johiisoirs explanation of tlic word etymology. 
 
 " Etymology, n. s. (ctymologia, Lat.) 'erv(//og {eti/mos) true, 
 and Xoyog (lopos) a word. 
 
 " I. T/ie descent or derivation of a word from its original ; 
 the deduction of formations from the radical word; the ana- 
 h/sis of compounds into irrimitives. 
 
 "2. The part of (jrammar which delivers the inflections of 
 nouns and verbs.''''
 
 ON GENDER. 
 
 217 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ON GENDER. 
 
 § 271. The nature of gender is best exhibited by reference 
 to those languages wherein the distinction of gender is most 
 conspicuous. Such a language, amongst others, is the Latin. 
 
 How far is there such a thing as sender in the Enelish 
 language? This depends upon the meaning that we attach 
 to the word gender. 
 
 In the Latin language, where there are confessedly genders, 
 we have the words taurus, meaning a hill, and vacca, meaning 
 a coio. Here the natural distinction of sex is expressed by 
 wliolly different words. With this we have corresponding 
 modes of expression in English : e.g.. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Bachelor 
 
 Spinster. 
 
 Horse 
 
 Mare. 
 
 Boar 
 
 Sow. 
 
 Ram 
 
 Ewe. 
 
 Boy 
 
 Girl. 
 
 Son 
 
 Daughter. 
 
 Brother 
 
 Sister. 
 
 Uncle 
 
 Aunt. 
 
 Buck 
 
 Doe. 
 
 Father 
 
 Mother, &c 
 
 The mode, however, of expressing different sexes by ivholli/ 
 different words is not a matter of gender. The words hoy and 
 fjirl bear no etymological relation to each other ; neither being 
 derived from the other, nor in any way connected with it. 
 
 § 272. Neither are words like cock- spar row, man-servant, 
 he-goat, &c., as compared with hen-sparrow, maid-servant, she- 
 goat, &c., specimens of gender. Here a difference of sex is 
 indicated by the addition of a fresh term, from which is 
 formed a compound word. 
 
 § 273. In the Latin words geniirix = a mother, and genitor 
 = a father, we have a nearer approach to gender. Here the 
 difference of sex is expressed by a difference of termination ;
 
 •IS 
 
 ON (;i-;nm>1':i{. 
 
 tlic WDitls thititui' ami (jtiiltr'w Ijoiiig in a true otyuiuloyical 
 ii'Iation, /. «'., oithor derived from each other, or from some 
 common source. With this we liave, in English corresponil- 
 ing modes of expression : f. </., 
 
 Male. 
 
 FctiKite. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Actor 
 
 Actress. 
 
 Lion 
 
 Lioness. 
 
 Arbiter 
 
 Arbitress. 
 
 Peer 
 
 Peeress. 
 
 Baron 
 
 Biironcss. 
 
 Poet, 
 
 Poetess. 
 
 Benefactor 
 
 licncfactress. 
 
 Sorcerer 
 
 Sorceress. 
 
 Count 
 
 Countess. 
 
 Songster 
 
 Songstress 
 
 Duke 
 
 Duchess. 
 
 Tiger 
 
 Tigress. 
 
 Tills, however, in strict grammatical language, is an ap- 
 proach to gender rather than gender itself. Its difference 
 from true grammatical gender is as follows : — 
 
 Let the Latin words (jenitor and genitrix be declined : — 
 
 Sing. Norn. Genitor Genitrix. 
 
 Gen. Genitor-/s Gcnitric-w. 
 
 Dot. Gcnitor-i Gcnitric-j. 
 
 Ace. Genitor-c/« Genitric-ew. 
 
 Voc. Genitor Genitrix. 
 
 Plur. Norn. Gcnitor-es Genitric-e.y. 
 
 Gen, Gcnitor-?i/H Genitric-?/?//. 
 
 Dat. Gcnitor-i6M.s Gcnitric-i6/«. 
 
 Ace. Genitor-es Genitric-es. 
 
 Voc, Gcnitor-es Genitric-es. 
 
 The syllables in italics are the signs of the cases and 
 numbers. Now these signs are the same in each word, the 
 difference of meaning (or sex) not affecting them. 
 
 § 274. Contrast, however, with the words ge^iitor and geni- 
 trioB the words domina = a mistress, and domimis = a master. 
 
 Sing. Norn. Doniin-a Doniin-?/s. 
 
 Gen. Doniin-(j Doniin-t. 
 
 Dat. Domin-<s Doniin-o. 
 
 Aec. Doniin-«/« Domin-um, 
 
 Voc. Domin-a Domin-e. 
 
 Plur. Nam. Donun-a-. Domin-i. 
 
 Gen. Domin-arum. Dom'in-orum. 
 
 Dat. Dom'm-abus. Domin-js. 
 
 Ace. Domin-a.v Domin-os. 
 
 Voc. Doinin-/E Domin-j.
 
 ON GENDER. 219 
 
 Here the letters in italics, or the signs of the cases and 
 numbers, are different, the difference being brought about by 
 the difference of gender. Now it is very evident that, if 
 genitrix be a specimen of gender, domina is something more. 
 
 As terms, to be useful, must be limited, it may be laid 
 down, as a sort of definition, that there is no gender where 
 there is no affection of the declension : consequently, that, 
 although we have, in English, words corresponding to geni- 
 trix and genitor, we have no true genders until we find words 
 corresponding to dominus and domina. 
 
 § 275. The second element in the notion of gender, although 
 I will not venture to call it an essential one, is the following : 
 — In the words domina and dominus, mistress and master, 
 there is a natural distinction of sex ; the one being masculine, 
 or male, the other feminine, or female. In the words sword 
 and lance there is no natural distinction of sex. Notwith- 
 standing this, the word hasta^ in Latin, is as much a feminine 
 gender as domina, whilst gladius = a sword is, like dominus, 
 a masculine noun. From this we see that, in languages 
 wherein there are true genders, a fictitious or conventional 
 sex is attributed even to inanimate objects. Sex is a natural 
 distinction, gender a grammatical one. 
 
 § 276. " Although we have, in English, words correspond- 
 ing to genitrix and genitor, we have no true genders until we 
 find tmrds corresponding to dominus and domina^ — The sen- 
 tence was intentionally worded with caution. Words like 
 dominus and domina, that is, words where the declension is 
 affected by the sex, are to be found. 
 
 The pronoun him, from the Anglo-Saxon and English he, 
 as compared with the pronoun her, from the Anglo-Saxon 
 hcb, is affected in its declension by the difference of sex, and 
 is a true, though fragmentary, specimen of gender : for be it 
 observed, that as both words arc in the same case and num- 
 ber, the difference in form must be referred to a difference of 
 sex expressed by gender. The same is the case with the form 
 his as compared with her. 
 
 The pronoun it (originally hit), as compared with he, is a 
 specimen of gender.
 
 '^■■iO UN (iKNDKK. 
 
 The relative ir/ictf, as coiiipartHl w itli the inaseuh'iie w//o, is 
 a sjHM'inuMi of gemU'r. 
 
 The I'orins it (tor /lit) and ho are as niueh •"•ender.s as hie 
 and httc, and the forms hie and hac are as much genders as 
 dominus and domina. 
 
 § 277. The formation of the neuter gender hy tlie addition 
 of -^ in words hicc ivha-i, l-t, and tha-t, occurs in other Indo- 
 European languages. The -t in tha-t is the -d in istu-d^ Latin, 
 and the -t in ta-t^ Sanskrit. Except, however, in the Gothic 
 tongues, the inflection -t is coniined to the ^^rowoMWS, In the 
 Gothic this is not the case. Throughout all those languages 
 where there is a neuter form for adjectives at all, that form is 
 either-^, or a sound derived from it : — Ma;so- Gothic, blind- 
 ata ; Old High G^enwdin, plint-ez ; Icelandic, hlind-t ; German, 
 blind-es^ blind, Cfcc-um. — See Bopp's Comparative Grammar, 
 Eastwick and Wilson's translation, p. 171. 
 
 Which^ as seen below, is not the neuter of loho. 
 
 § 278. Just as there are in English fragments of a gender 
 modifying the declension, so are there, also, fragments of the 
 second element of gender ; viz.^ the attribution of sex to ob- 
 jects naturally destitute of it. The sun in his glory, the moon 
 in her tcane, are examples of this. A sailor calls his ship 
 she. A husbandman, according to Mr. Cobbett, does the same 
 with his />^M^/i and working implements: — " In speaking of 
 a ship we say she and her. And you know that our country- 
 folks in Hampshire call almost everything he or she. It is 
 curious to observe that country labourers give the feminine ap- 
 pellation to those things only which are more closely identified 
 with themselves, and by the qualities or conditions of which 
 their own efforts, and their character as workmen, are affected. 
 The mower calls his scythe a she., the ploughman calls his 
 plough a she ; but a prong, or a shovel, or a harrow, which 
 passes promiscuously from hand to hand, and which is aj)- 
 propriated to no particular labourer, is called a he.''"' — English 
 Grammar., Letter V. 
 
 Now, although Mr. Cobbett's statements may account for 
 a sailor calling his ship she., they will not account for the cus- 
 tom of giving to the sun a masculine, and to the moon a
 
 ON GENDER. 221 
 
 feminine, pronoun, as is done in the expressions quoted at the 
 head of this section ; still less will it account for the circum- 
 stance of the Germans reversing the gender, and making the 
 sun feminine, and the moo7i masculine. 
 
 Let there be a period in the history of a nation wherein 
 the sun and moon are dealt with, not as inanimate masses of 
 matter, but as animated divinities. Let there, in other words, 
 be a period in the history of a nation wherein dead things are 
 personified, and wherein there is a mythology. Let an object 
 like the sun be deemed a male, and an object like the moon a 
 female, deity. 
 
 The Germans say the sun in her f/lor^ ; the moon in his 
 wane. This difference between the usage of the two lan- 
 guages, like so many others, is explained by the influence of 
 the classical languages upon the English. — " Mundilfori had 
 tii'o children; a son, Mcini {Moon), and a daughter, Sol {Sun).'''' 
 — Such is an extract (taken second-hand from Grimm, vol. 
 iii. p. 349) out of an Icelandic mythological work, viz., the 
 prose Edda. In the classical languages, however, Phoebus and 
 Sol are masculine, and Luna and Diana feminine. Hence it 
 is that, although in Anglo-Saxon and Old-Saxon the sun is 
 feminine, it is in English masculine. 
 
 Philosophy, charity, &c., or the names of abstract qualities 
 personified, take a conventional sex, and are feminine from 
 their being feminine in Latin. 
 
 As in these words there is no change of form, the con- 
 sideration of them is a point of rhetoric, rather than of 
 etymology. 
 
 Upon phrases like CocJc Bohin, Robin Redbreast, Jenny Wren, 
 expressive of sex, much information may be collected from 
 Grimm''s Deutsche Grammatik, vol. iii. p. 359. 
 
 § 279. The remainder of this chapter is devoted to miscel- 
 laneous remarks upon the true and apparent genders of the 
 English language. 
 
 1 . With the false genders like baron, baroness, it is a gene- 
 ral rule that the feminine form is derived from the masculine, 
 and not the masculine from the feminine ; as peer, ^^^(^i'css. 
 The words widower, gander, and drake are exceptions. For
 
 i222 UN GKNDKR. 
 
 (lie \v(inl irizdnf, t'nmi /rifr/i, svv the section on angmentative 
 tornis. 
 
 '2. The lerniiiiation -<••<>■, in whieh so hir^-e a portion of onr 
 leniinine substantives terminate, is not ot" Saxon but ofekissical 
 origin, being derived from the termination -ix, genitrix. 
 
 3. The words shepherdess, hu)itrcss, and hostess arc faulty ; 
 the radical part of the word being Germanic, and the second- 
 ary part classical : indeed, in strict English grammar, the 
 termination -ess has no place at all. It is a classic, not a 
 Gothic, element. 
 
 4. The termination -inn, so current in German, as the equi- 
 valent to -ess, and as a feminine affix ( freund = a friend ; 
 
 freundinn = a female friend), is found only in one or two 
 words in English. 
 
 Tlierc were five carlins in the soutli 
 
 That fell upon a scheme, 
 To send a lad to London town 
 
 To bring them tidings hame. 
 
 Burns. 
 
 Carlin means an old icoman : Icelandic, kerling ; Svv., kdring ; 
 Dan. falling. Root, carl. 
 
 Vixen is a true feminine derivative from fox. German, 
 fuchsinn. 
 
 Bruin = the bear, may be either a female form, as in Old 
 High German j^^'ro = a he-hear, pirinn = a she-hear, or it 
 may be the Norse form hjorn = a hear, male or female. 
 
 AV^ords like margravine and landgravine prove nothing, 
 being scarcely naturalised. 
 
 5. The termination -str, as in wehster, songster, and haxter, 
 was originally a feminine affix. Thus, in Anglo-Saxon, 
 
 Sangcre, a male singer \ , Sangestic, a female singer. 
 
 Bacere, a male baker 
 
 FiSelere, a male fiddler 
 
 Vebberc, a mule weaver ( sed to 
 
 Rffidcre, a male reader 
 
 Scamcre, a mule seumer 
 
 Bacestre, a female baker. 
 were oppo- J B^iiSelstre, a female fiddler. 
 Vebbestre, a female weaver. 
 Rsedestre, a female reader. 
 ISeamestre, a female searner. 
 
 The same is the case in the present Dutch of Holland : 
 e.g., spooJcster = a female fortune-teller ; ha Jester = a haking-
 
 ON OxENDER. 223 
 
 woman ; waschster = a washerimman. (Grimm, Deutsclie 
 Grammatik, iii. p. 339.) The word S'pinster still retains its 
 original feminine force. 
 
 6. The words songstress and seamstress, besides being, as 
 far as concerns the intermixture of languages, in the predi- 
 cament of shepherdess, have, moreover, a double feminine 
 termination ; 1st. -sir, of Germanic, 2nd. -ess, of classical, 
 origin. 
 
 7. In the word heroine we have a Greek termination, just 
 as -ix is a Latin, and -inn a German one. It must not, how- 
 ever, be considered as derived from hero, by any process of 
 the English language, but be dealt with as a separate impor- 
 tation from the Greek language. 
 
 8. The form deaconess is not wholly unexceptionable ; 
 since the termination -ess is of Latin, the root deacon of Greek 
 origin : this Greek origin being rendered all the more con- 
 spicuous by the spelling, deacon (from diaconos), as compared 
 with the Latin decanus. 
 
 9, The circumstance o^ prince ending in the sound of 5, 
 works a change in the accent of the word. As s is the final 
 letter, it is necessary, in forming the plural number, and the 
 genitive case, to add, not the simple letter s, as in peers, 
 priests, &c., but the syllable -es. This makes the plural 
 number and genitive case the same as the feminine form. 
 Hence the feminine form is accented princess, while peeress, 
 p)riestess, &c,, carry the accent on the first syllable. Princess 
 is remarkable as being the only word in English where the 
 accent lies on the suboi-dinate syllable. 
 
 10. It is uncertain whether kit, as compared with cat, be 
 a feminine form or a diminutive form ; in other words, 
 whether it mean ^female cat or a young cat. — See the Chapter 
 on the Diminutives. 
 
 11. Goose, gander. — One peculiarity in this pair of words 
 has already been indicated. In the older forms of the word 
 goose, such as )^^v, Greek; anser, Latin ; gans, German, as well 
 as in the derived form gander, we liave the proofs that, origi- 
 nally, there belonged to the word the !^ound of the letter n. 
 In the forms ohovq^ ohovrog, Greek ; dens, dentis, Latin ; zahn.
 
 224 ON OENDKR. 
 
 (lonuMM ; tiiitlli. I']ii!4lisli, ^v(> I'md llu' analogy that accounts 
 for tin- ejection of the ;/, ami the h'ngthenin<,' of the vowel 
 preceding. With ri's[)ect, however, to the d in gander^ it is 
 not easy to say whether it is inserted in one word or omitted 
 in the other. Neither can we give the precise power of the 
 -ei'. The i\)llo\vin(>' forms (taken from Grimm, iii. p. 341) 
 occur in the diil'erent Gothic dialects, Gans, fern. ; ganazzo, 
 niasc, Old High German — gOs, f. ; gandra, m., Anglo Saxon 
 — gas, Icelandic, f. ; gaas, Danish, f. ; gassi, Icelandic, m. ; 
 gasse, Danish, m. — ganser, ganserer, gansart, ganserlch, gander, 
 masculine forms in different New German dialects. 
 
 1 2. Observe, the form gclnserich has a masculine termina- 
 tion. The word tauherich, in provincial New German, has 
 the same form and the same power. It denotes a male dove; 
 taube, in German, signifying a dove. In ganserich and tliwhe- 
 rich, we find preserved the termination -rich (oi- -rik), with a 
 masculine power. Of this termination we have a remnant, in 
 English, preserved in the curious word drake. To duck the 
 word drake has no etymological relation whatsoever. It is 
 derived from a word with which it has but one letter in 
 common ; viz. the Latin anas = a duck. Of this the root is 
 anat-, as seen in the genitive case anatis. In Old High 
 German we find the form anetrekho = a drake ; in provincial 
 New High German there is enterich and dnirecht, from whence 
 come the English and Low German form drake. (Grimm, 
 Deutsche Granimatik, iii, p. 341.) 
 
 13, Peacoclc, ]pealien, hridegroom. — In these compounds, 
 it is not the words pea and hride that are rendered masculine 
 or feminine by the addition of cock, hen, and groom, but it is 
 the words cock, hen, and groom that are modified by pi-efixing 
 <pea and hride. For an appreciation of this distinction, see 
 the Chapter on Composition.
 
 THE NUMBERS. 225 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE NUMBERS. 
 
 § 280. In the Greek language the word patcer signifies a 
 father, speaking of one, whilst patere signifies two fathers, 
 speaking of a pair, and thirdly, pateres signifies fathers, speak- 
 ing of any number beyond two. The three words, patar, 
 patere, and pateres, are said to be in different numbers, the 
 difference of meaning being expressed by a difference of form. 
 These numbers have names. The number that speaks of one 
 is the singular, the number that speaks of two is the dual 
 (from the Latin word duo = two), and the number that speaks 
 of more than two is the plural. 
 
 All languages have numbers, but all languages have not 
 them to the same extent. The Hebrew has a dual, but it is 
 restricted to nouns only (in Greek being extended to verbs). 
 It has, moreover, this peculiarity; it applies, for the most 
 part, only to things which are naturally double, as the ttvo 
 eyes, the two hands, &c. The Latin has no dual number at 
 all, except the natural dual in the words amho and duo. 
 
 § 281. The question presents itself, — to what extent have 
 we numbers in English ? Like the Greek, Hebrew, and 
 Latin, we have a singular and a plural. Like the Latin, and 
 unlike the Greek and Hebrew, we have no dual. 
 
 § Different from the question, to what degree have we 
 numbers ? is the question, — over what extent of our language 
 have we numbers? This distinction has already been fore- 
 shadowed or indicated. The Greeks, who said typto =^ I heat, 
 typteton=-ye two heat, typtomen = v)e heat, had a dual number 
 for their verbs as well as their nouns ; while the Hebrew dual 
 was limited to the nouns only. In the Greek, then, the dual 
 
 Q
 
 326 Till'. NUMBERS. 
 
 luimln'r is s])ro;ul ovcv :i Lfrtvitor extent of tlie language than 
 ill till' llelirew. 
 
 Tliere is no dual in the present I'^ngHsh. It has been seen, 
 however, that in the Anglo-Saxon there was a duah ]3ut the 
 Anglo-Saxon dual, being restricted to the personal pronouns 
 (?r/V=?rt' two; fjit = i/c tico), was not co-cxtcnsivc with the 
 Cireek dual. 
 
 There is no dual in the present German. In the ancient 
 German there was one. 
 
 In the present Danish and Swedish there is no dual. In 
 the Old Norse and in the present Icelandic a dual number is 
 to be found. 
 
 From this we learn that the dual number is one of those 
 inflections that languages drop as they become modern. 
 
 The numbers, then, in the present English are two, the 
 singular and the plural. Over what extent of language have 
 we a plural ? The Latins say, bonus pater =^= a (food father ; 
 honipatres = good fathers. In the Latin, the adjective bonus 
 changes its form with the change of number of the substantive 
 that it accompanies. In English it is only the substantive 
 that is changed. Hence we see that in the Latin language 
 the numbers were extended to adjectives, whereas in English 
 they are confined to the substantives and pronouns. Com- 
 pared with the Anglo-Saxon, the present English is in the 
 same relation as it is with the Latin. In the Anglo-Saxon 
 there were plural forms for the adjectives. 
 
 For the forms selves and others, see the Syntax. For the 
 present, it is sufficient to foreshadow a remark which will be 
 made on the word self viz. that whether it be a pronoun, a 
 substantive, or an adjective, is a disputed point. 
 
 Words like wheat, pitch, gold, &c., where the idea is natu- 
 rally singular ; words like bellows, scissors, lungs, &c., where 
 the idea is naturally plural ; and words like deer, sheep, where 
 the same form serves for the singular and plural, inasmuch as 
 there takes place no change of form, are not under the pro- 
 vince of etymology. 
 
 § 282. The current rule is, that the plural number is 
 formed from the singular by adding s, as father, fathers.
 
 THE NUMBERS. 227 
 
 However, if the reader will revert to the Section upon the 
 sharp and flat Mutes, where it is stated that mutes of dif- 
 ferent degrees of sharpness and flatness cannot come to- 
 gether in the same syllable, he will find occasion to take 
 to the current rule a verbal exception. The letter added 
 to the V!ovA father, making it fathers, is s to the eye only. 
 To the ear it is z. The word sounds fatherz. If the s 
 retained its sound, the spelling would be fatherce. In stags, 
 lads, &c., the sound is stagz, ladz. The rule, then, for the 
 formation of the English plurals, rigorously expressed, is as 
 follows. — The plural is formed from the singular, hy adding to 
 words ending in a vowel, a liquid or flat mute, tlie flat lene 
 sibilant (z) ; and to words ending in a sharp mute, the sharp 
 lene sibilant (s) ; e.g. (the sound oi the word being expressed), 
 pea, peaz ; tree, treez ; day, dayz ; hill, hillz ; hen, henz ; 
 gig, gigz ; trap, traps ; pit, pits ; stack, stacks. Upon the 
 formation of the English plural some further remarks are 
 necessary. 
 
 I. In the case of words ending in b, v, d, the th in thine=^, 
 or g, a change either of the final flat consonant, or of the sharp 
 s affixed, was not a matter of choice, but of necessity ; the 
 combinations abs, avs, ads, a'Ss, ags, being unpronounceable. 
 See the Section on the Law of Accommodation. 
 
 II. Whether the first of the two mutes should be accom- 
 modated to the second (aj^s, afs, ats, a])s, asks), or the second 
 to the first (abz, avz, a'Sz, agz), is determined by the habit of 
 the particular language in question ; and, with a few apj)arent 
 exceptions (mark the word apparent), it is the rule of the 
 English language to accommodate the second sound to the 
 first, and not mce versa. 
 
 III. Such combinations as peas, trees, hills, hens, &c, (the 
 s preserving its original power, and being sounded as if written 
 peace, treece, hillce, hence), being pronounceable, the change 
 from s to z, in words so ending, is not a matter determined by 
 the necessity of the case, but by the habit of the English 
 language. 
 
 IV. Although the vast majority of our plurals ends, not in 
 s, but in z, the original addition was not z, but s. This we 
 
 <i 2
 
 Q2H TlIK NUMBERS. 
 
 inter t'roin tliivo facts: l.Froin tlio spelling; 2. from tlio 
 fact of the sound of z being either rare or non-existent in 
 Anglo-Saxon ; *>. from the sufficiency of the causes to bring 
 about the change. 
 
 Tt may "ow be seen that some slight variations in the form 
 of our plurals are either mere points of orthography, or else 
 capable of being explained on very simple euphonic principles. 
 
 § 28.S. Boxes, churches, judc/es, lashes, kisses, blazes, princes. — 
 Here there is the addition, not of the mere letter s, but of the 
 syllable -es. As s cannot be immediately added to s, the 
 intervention of a vowel becomes necessary; and that all 
 the words whose plural is formed in -es really end either in 
 the sounds of s, or in the allied sounds of 2;, sh, or zh, may be 
 seen by analysis; since x^Jcs, ch=tsh, and j or ge=dzh, 
 whilst ce, in prince, is a mere point of orthography for s. 
 
 Monarchs, heresiarchs. — Here the ch equals not tsk, but /•, 
 so that there is no need of being told that they do not follow 
 the analogy o^ church, &c. 
 
 Cargoes, echoes. — From cargo and echo, with the addition 
 of e ; an orthographical expedient for the sake of denoting 
 the length of the vowel 0. 
 
 Beauty, beauties ; key, keys. — Like the word cargoes, &c., 
 these forms are points, not of etymology, but of ortho- 
 graphy. 
 
 § 284. "A few apparent exceptions." — These words are 
 taken from Observation II. in the present section. The appa- 
 rent exceptions to the rule there laid down are the words loaf, 
 wife, and a few others, whose plural is not sounded loafs, wifs 
 {loafce, wifce), but loavz, wivz (written loaves, wives). Here 
 it seems as if ;:; had been added to the singular; and, con- 
 trary to rule, the final letter of the original word been accommo- 
 dated to the z, instead of the z being accommodated to the 
 final syllable of the word, and so becoming s. It is, however, 
 very probable that instead of the plural form being changed, 
 it is the singular that has been modified. In the Anglo-Saxon 
 the/at the end of words (as in the present Swedish) had the 
 power of V. In the allied language the words in point are 
 spelt with the fat mute, as iceib, laub, Jcalh, halb, stab.
 
 THE NUMBERS. 229 
 
 German. The same is the case with leaf^ leaves ; calf, calves ; 
 half, halves ; staff, staves ; beef, beeves : this last word being 
 Anglo-Norman. 
 
 Pence. — The peculiarity of this word consists in having a 
 JIat liquid followed by the sharp sibilant s (spelt ce), contrary 
 to the rule given above. In the first place, it is a contracted 
 form from pennies ; in the second place, its sense is collective 
 rather than plural ; in the third place, the use of the sharp 
 sibilant lene distinguishes it from lens, sounded lenz. That 
 its sense is collective rather than plural (a distinction to which 
 the reader's attention is directed), we learn from the word 
 sixpence, which, compared with six^Jences, is no plural, but a 
 singular form. 
 
 Dice. — In respect to its form, peculiar for the reason that 
 pence is peculiar. We find the sound of s after a vowel, 
 where that of z is expected. This distinguishes dice for play, 
 from dies (diez) for coining. Dice, perhaps, Yike pence, is 
 collective rather than plural. 
 
 In geese, lice, and mice, we have, apparently, the same phe- 
 nomenon as in dice, viz., a sharp sibilant (5) where ajlat one 
 (z) is expected. The s, however, in these woi-ds is not the 
 sign of the plural, but the last letter of the original word. 
 
 Alms. — This is no true plural form. The s belongs to the 
 original word, Anglo-Saxon, telmesse ; Greek, lXi)^[/joavvrj; just 
 as the s in goose does. How far the word, although a true 
 singular in its form, may have a collective signification, and 
 require its verb to be plural, is a point not of etymology, but 
 of syntax. The same is the case with the word riches, from 
 the French richesse. In riches the last syllable being sounded 
 as ez, increases its liability to pass for a plural. 
 
 Neics, means, pains. — These, the reverse of a^msand riches, 
 are true plural forms. How far, in sense, they are singu- 
 lar is a point not of etymology, but of syntax. 
 
 Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, ethics, optics, p)hysics. — 
 The following is an exhibition of my hypothesis respecting 
 these words, to which I invite the reader's criticism. All the 
 words in point are of Greek origin, and all are derived from a 
 Greek adjective. Each is the name of some department of
 
 280 THK NUMBERS. 
 
 study, ot" some art, or of some science. As the words are 
 Greek, so also are the sciences which they denote, either of 
 Greek orij^in, or else such as flourished in Greece, Let the 
 arts and sciences of Greece be expressed, in Greek, rather by 
 a substantive and an adjective combined, than by a simple 
 substantive ; for instance, let it be the habit of the language 
 to say the musical art, rather than music. Let the Greek for 
 art be a word in the feminine gender ; e.g., Tiy^vr] (iekhnee), so 
 that the musical art be ^ [jjouai/cr; r'lyyri {lift mousiJcfe teJchnai). 
 Let, in the progress of language (as was actually the case in 
 Greece), the article and substantive be omitted, so that, for 
 the musical art, or for music, there stand only the feminine 
 adjective, pbovatpcj]. Let there be, upon a given art or science, 
 a series of books, or treatises ; the Greek for hook, or treatise, 
 being a neuter substantive, ^i^Xiov (biblion). Let the sub- 
 stantive menmng treatise be, in the course of language, omitted, 
 so that whilst the science of physics is called (pvaizvj {fi/sikee)^ 
 2>h?/sic, from ^ (pvaix,ri Tiy^vri, a series of treatises (or even 
 chapters) upon the science shall be called (pvciiKcc {fysihi) or 
 physics. Now all this was what happened in Greece. The 
 science was denoted by a feminine adjective singular, as <pvai/cyi 
 {fysicae), and the treatises upon it, by the neuter adjective 
 plural, as (pvaiKa (^fysica). The treatises of Aristotle are 
 generally so named. To apply this, I conceive, that in the 
 middle ages a science of Greek origin might have its name 
 drawn from two sources, viz., from the name of the art or 
 science, or from the name of the books wherein it was treated. 
 In the first ease it had a singular form, as physic, logic ; in the 
 second place a plural form, as mathematics, metaphysics, optics. 
 
 In what number these words, having a collective sense, 
 require their verbs to be, is a point of syntax. 
 
 § 285. The plural form children {child-er-en) requires parti- 
 cular notice. 
 
 In the first place it is a double plural : the -en being the -en 
 in oxen, whilst the simpler form child-er occurs in the old 
 English, and in certain provincial dialects. 
 
 Now, what is the -er in child-er? 
 
 In Icelandic, no plural termination is commoner than
 
 THE NUMBERS. 231 
 
 that in -r ; as geisl-ar = flashes^ tung-ur = tongues, &c. 
 Nevertheless, it is not the Icelandic that explains the plural 
 form in question. 
 
 Besides the word childer, we collect from the other Gothic 
 tongue the following forms in -r . — 
 
 Hus-er, Houses. Old High German. 
 
 Chalp-ir, Calves. ditto. 
 
 Lemp-ir, Lambs. ditto. 
 
 Plet-ir, Blades (^f grass. ditto. 
 
 Eig-ir, Eggs. ditto. 
 
 and others, the peculiarity of which is the fact of their all 
 being of the neuter gender. The particular Gothic dialect 
 wherein they occur most frequently is the Dutch of Holland. 
 Now, the theory respecting the form so propounded by 
 Grimm (D. G. iii. p. 270) is as follows : — 
 
 1 . The -r represents an earlier -s. 
 
 2. Which was, originally, no sign of a plural number, but 
 merely a neuter derivative affix, common to the singular as 
 well as to the plural number. 
 
 3. In this form it appears in the Moeso-Gothic : ag-is = 
 fear (whence ague = shivering), hat-is = hate, rigv-is = smoke 
 
 (reek). In none of these words is the -s radical, and in none 
 is it limited to the singular number. 
 
 To these views Bopp adds, that the termination in question 
 is the Sanskrit -as, a neuter affix ; as in tej-as = splendour, 
 strength, from tij = to sharpen. — V. G. pp. 141 — 259, East- 
 wick''s and Wilson's translation. 
 
 To these doctrines of Grimm and Bopp, it should be added, 
 that the reason why a singular derivational affix should 
 become the sign of the plural number, lies, most probably, in 
 the collective nature of the words in which it occurs : Husir = 
 a collection of houses, eigir = a collection of eggs, eggery or 
 eyry. For further observations on the power of -r, and for 
 reasons for believing it to be the same as in the words Jeic-r-y, 
 yeoman-r-y, see a })aper of Mr. Guesfs, Philol. Trans., May 
 26, 1843. There we find the remarkable form lamh-r-en, 
 from Wicliffe, Joh. xxi. Latiih-r-en : lamb : : child-r-en : 
 child.
 
 'JS'2 TUK NUiMHERS. 
 
 ^ 2S(». 7V/<' form in -en. — In the Anglo-Saxon no termina- 
 tion of tlu' plural nimibcr is more common than -n : tangan., 
 ton<riies ; sfeornni, stars. Of this termination we have evi- 
 dent remains in the word o.ven, hosen, s/ioon, epie, words more 
 or less antiquated. This, perhaps, is 9io true plural. In 
 ici'lk-in = the clouds, the original singular form is lost. 
 
 § 1^87. 3f en, feet, teeth, mice, lice, peese. — In these we have 
 some of the oldest words in the language. If these were, to 
 a certainty, true plurals, wc should have an appearance 
 somewhat corresponding to the weak and strong tenses of 
 verbs ; viz., one series of plurals formed by a change of the 
 vowel, and another by the addition of the sibilant. The 
 word lye, used in Scotland for cows, is of the same class. 
 The list iu Anglo-Saxon of words of this kind is different 
 from that of the present English. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 Frcond Fr^^nd Friends. 
 
 Fcond Fynd Foes. 
 
 Niht Niht Nights. 
 
 Boc Bee Books. 
 
 Burh Cyrig Burghs. 
 
 Broc Biec Breeches. 
 
 Turf T^^rf Turves. 
 
 § 288. Brethren. — Here there are two changes. 1. The 
 alteration of the vowel. 2. The addition of -en. Mr. Guest 
 quotes the forms brethre and hrothre from the Old English. 
 The sense is collective rather than plural. 
 
 Peasen =^ pulse. — As children is a double form of one sort 
 (r + en), so is peasen a double form of another {s + en) ; pea, 
 pea-s, 2)ea-s-en. Wallis sjjeaks to the singular power of the 
 form in -s : — " Dicunt nonnulli a pease, ithnaViter peasen ; at 
 melius, singulariter ct pea, pluraliter pease."" — P. 77. He 
 might have added, that, theoretically, pease was the proper 
 singular form; as shown by the Latin J9^s-Mm. 
 
 Fallen = poultry. 
 
 Lussurioso. — What ? three-and-twcnty years in law ? 
 Ve7idice. — I have known those who have been fivc-and-fifty, and all about 
 putten and pigs. — Revenger's Tragedy, iv. 1.
 
 THE NUMBERS. S33 
 
 If this were a plural form, it would be a very anomalous 
 one. The -en^ however, is no more a sign of the plural 
 than is the -es in rich-es (richesse). The proper form is in 
 -ain or -ei/n. 
 
 A false theefe, 
 That came like a false fox, my pulluin to kill and mischcefe. 
 
 Gammer Gurton's Needle, v, 2. 
 
 Chickens. — A third variety of the double inflection {en + s), 
 with the additional peculiarity of the form chicken being 
 used, at present, almost exclusively in the singular number, 
 although, originally, it was, probably, the plural of chick. So 
 Wallis considered it : — " At olim etiam per -en vel -yn for- 
 mabant pluralia ; quorum pauca admodum adhuc retinemus. 
 Ut, an ox, a chick, pluraliter oxen, chicken (sunt qui dicunt 
 in singulari chicken, et in plurali chickens).''^ — (P. 77). Chick, 
 chick-en, chick-ens. 
 
 Fern. — According to Wallis the -n in fer-n is the -en in 
 oxen, in other words, a plural termination : — " A fere (Jilix) 
 pluraliter /em (verum nunc plerumque feryi utroque numero 
 dicitur, sed et in plurali ferns) ; nam fere et feres prope 
 obsoleta sunt." — (P. 77.) Subject to this view, the word 
 fer-n-s would exhibit the same phenomenon as the word 
 chicke-n-s. It is doubtful, however, whether Wallis's view 
 be correct. A reason for believing the -7i to be radical is 
 presented by the Anglo-Saxon form f earn, and the Old High 
 German, varam. 
 
 Women. — Pronounced wimmen, as opposed to the singular 
 form tcoomman. Probably an instance of accommodation. 
 
 Houses. — Pronounced houz-ez. The same peculiarity in 
 the case of s and z, as occurs between /and v in words like 
 life, lives, &c. 
 
 Paths, youths. — Pronounced padhz, yoodhz. The same 
 peculiarity in the case of |> and ^, as occurs between s and z 
 in the words house, houses. " Finita in f plerumque alle- 
 viantur in plurali numero, substituendo y; ut vnfe, wives, &c. 
 EadenK|ue allcviatio est etiam in s et th, quanivis retento 
 charactere, in house, cloth, path.''"' — P. 79.
 
 .e^t ON TIIK CASKS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ON THE CASES. 
 
 § 289 The extent to which there are, in the Enghsh 
 huiguage, eases, depends on the meaning which we attach to 
 tlie word case. In the sentence a house of a father, the idea 
 expressed by the words of a father, is an idea of relation 
 between them and the word house. Tliis idea is an idea of 
 property or possession. The relation between the words 
 father and house may be called the possessive I'clation. This 
 relation, or connexion, between the two words is expressed by 
 the preposition of 
 
 In a father s house the idea is, there or thereabouts, the 
 same ; the relation or connexion between the two words 
 being the same. The expression, however, differs. In a 
 fathers house the relation, or connexion, is expressed, not 
 by a preposition, but by a change of form, father becoming 
 father s. 
 
 He gave the house to a father. — Here the words/a^A^r and 
 house stand in another sort of relationship ; the relationship 
 being expressed by the preposition to. The idea to a father 
 differs from the idea of a father, in being expressed in one 
 way only; viz., by the preposition. There is no second mode 
 of expressing it by a change of form, as was done with 
 father''s. 
 
 The father taught the child. — Here there is neither prepo- 
 sition nor change of form. The connexion between the words 
 father and child is expressed by the arrangement only. 
 
 Now if the relation alone between two words constitutes a 
 case, the words or sentences, child ; to a father; of a father; 
 and fathers, are all ecjually cases ; of which one may be
 
 ON THE CASES. 235 
 
 called the accusative, another the dative, a third the genitive, 
 and so on. 
 
 Perhaps, however, the relationship alone does not consti- 
 tute a case. Perhaps there is a necessity of either the addi- 
 tion of a preposition (as in of a /ather), or of a change in 
 form (as in fathers). In this case (although child be not 
 so) father s, of a father, and to a father, are all equally cases. 
 
 Now it is a remark, at least as old as Dr. Beattie,'" that if 
 the use of a preposition constitute a case, there must be as 
 many cases in a language as there are prepositions, and that 
 " above a man, beneath a man, beyond a man, round about a 
 man, within a man, loithout a man, shall be cases, as well as 
 of a man, to a man, and with a many 
 
 For etymological purposes it is necessary to limit the 
 meaning of the word case; and, as a sort of definition, it may 
 be laid down that tohere there is no change of form there is no 
 case. With this remark, the English language may be com- 
 pared with the Latin. 
 
 Lathi. English. 
 
 Sing. Num. Pater ajhther. 
 
 Gen. Patris a fathers. 
 
 Dat, Patri to aj'ather. 
 
 Ace. Putrem a father. 
 
 Abl. Palre from a father. 
 
 Here, since in the Latin language there are five changes of 
 form, whilst in English there are but two, there are (as far, 
 at least, as the word pater and father are concerned) three 
 more cases in Latin than in English. It does not, however, 
 follow that because in father we have but two cases, there 
 may not be other words wherein there are more than two. 
 
 In order to constitute a case there must he a change of form. 
 — This statement is a matter of definition. A second ques- 
 tion, however, arises out of it ; viz., whether every change of 
 form constitute a case ? In the Greek language there are the 
 words 'i^iv (erin), and g^/oa (erida). Unlike the words 
 father and father s these two words have precisely the same 
 nieauiiig. Each is called an accusative ; and each, conse- 
 * Murray's Grammar, vol. i. j). 7!J.
 
 93C) ON THE CASES. 
 
 qiicntlv, is said (o l)t' in llu* sanio case with the other. This 
 iiKhcati's tho staleiiu'iit, that in order to constitute a case 
 tliere must he not ou/i/ a cItaiKie of fonii, but also a change of 
 victininn. Wliothor such a hniitation of the word he conve- 
 nient, is a question for the general grammarian. At present 
 wo merely state that there is no change of case unless there he 
 a chaunc of form. Hence, in respect to the word 2)airibus 
 (and others like it), which is sometimes translated from 
 fathers, and at other times to fathers, we must say, not that in 
 the one case the word is ahlative and in the other dative, hut 
 that a certain case is used with a certain latitude of meaning. 
 This remark hears on the word her in English. In her book 
 the sense is that of the case currently called genitive. In it 
 moved her, the sense is that of the case currently called the 
 accusative. If we adhere, however, to what we have laid 
 down, we must take exceptions to this mode of speaking. It 
 is not that out of the single form Iter we can get two cases, 
 hut that a certain form has two powers ; one that of the 
 Latin genitive, and another that of the Latin accusative. 
 
 § 290. This leads to an interesting question, viz., what 
 notions are sufficiently allied to be expressed Jy the same 
 form, and in the same case ? The word her, in its two senses, 
 may, perhaps, he dealt with as a single case, because the 
 notions conveyed by the genitive and accusative are, perhaps, 
 sufficiently allied to be expressed by the same word. Are 
 the notions, however, of a mistress, and mistresses, so allied ? 
 I think not ; and yet in the Latin language the same form, 
 domincE, expresses both. Of domiticE ^ of a mistress, and of 
 domina = mistresses, we cannot say that there is one and the 
 same case with a latitude of meaning. The words were, per- 
 haps, once different. And this leads to the distinction between 
 a real and an accidental identity of form. 
 
 In the language of the Anglo-Saxons the genitive cases of 
 the words smith {smi^), end (ende), and day (dag), Avere, 
 respectively, smithes {smi'Ses), endes, and dayes (dages) ; 
 whilst the nominative plurals were, respectively, smithas 
 (smi'Sas), endas, and dayas {dongas). A process of change 
 took place, by which the vowel of the last syllable in each
 
 ON THE CASES. 237 
 
 word was ejected. The result was, that the forms of the 
 genitive singuhir and the nominative plural, originally diffe- 
 rent, hecame one and the same ; so that the identity of the 
 two cases is an accident. 
 
 This fact relieves the English grammarian from a difficulty. 
 The nominative plural and the genitive singular are, iu the 
 present language of England, identical ; the apostrophe 
 in father s heing a mere matter of orthography. However, 
 there was once a difference. Tliis modifies the previous state- 
 ment, which may now stand thus : — for a change of case 
 there must he a change of form existing or presumed. 
 
 § 291 . The number of our cases and the extent of language 
 over tohich they spread. — In the English language there is un- 
 doubtedly a nominative case. This occurs in substantives, 
 adjectives, and prononns ( father, good, he) equally. It is found 
 in both numbers. 
 
 Accusative. — Some call this the objective case. The words 
 him (singular) and them (plural) (whatever they may have 
 been originally) are now true accusatives. The accusative 
 case is found in pronouns only. Thee, me, us, and you are, 
 to a certain extent, true accusatives. 
 
 They are accusative thus far: 1. They are not derived 
 from any other case. 2. They are distinguished from the 
 forms /, my, &c, 8. Their meaning is accusative. Never- 
 theless, they are only imperfect accusatives. They have no 
 sign of case, and are distinguished by negative characters 
 only. 
 
 One word of English is probably a true accusative in the 
 strict sense of the term, viz., the word twain = two. The -n 
 in twai-n is the -n in Mne = him and hwone ^=whom. This 
 we see from the following inflection : — 
 
 Neut. Masc. Fem. 
 
 N. and Ac. Twa, Twdgen, Twa. 
 
 Abl. and Dat, Twain, Twaj'm. 
 
 Gen. Twegra, Twega. 
 
 Although nominative as well as accusative, I have little doubt 
 as to the original character of twegen being accusative. The
 
 2.'{S ON TlIK CASKS'. 
 
 -n is bv no moans radical ; bcsiilos which, it is the sign of an 
 accusative case, and is not the sign of a nominative. 
 
 JVotiK — The words /urn and them are true accusatives in 
 even a less degree than t/ice, me, ns, and you. The Anglo- 
 Saxon equivalents to the Latin words eos and illos were hi 
 {or /lip) and )'(? (or jvrw) ; in oilier words, the sign of the accu- 
 sative was other than the sound of -m. The case which 
 realh/ ended in -m was the so-called dative ; so that the 
 yVnglo- Saxon forms /«"w (or heom) and ])dm = the Latin lis 
 and illis. 
 
 This fact explains the meaning of the words, whatever they 
 may have been originally, in a preceding sentence. It also 
 indicates a fresh element in the criticism and nomenclature 
 of the grammarian ; viz., the extent to which the history of a 
 form regulates its position as an inflection. 
 
 Dative. — In the antiquated word tchilom (at times), we 
 have a remnant of the old dative in -m. The sense of the 
 word is adverbial ; its form, however, is that of a dative case. 
 
 Genitive. — Some call this the possessive case. It is found 
 in substantives and pronouns {/ather''s, his), but not in adjec- 
 tives. It is formed like the nominative plural, by the addi- 
 tion of the lene sibilant (father, fathers ; buck, bucks) ; or if 
 the word end in s, by that of es (boxes, judges, &c.) It is 
 found in both numbers : the meti's hearts ; the children's bread. 
 In the plural number, however, it is rare ; so rare, indeed, 
 that wherever the plural ends in s (as it almost always does), 
 there is no genitive. If it were not so, we should have such 
 words as fatherses, foxeses, prmcesseses, &c. 
 
 Instrumental. — The following extracts from Rask's Anglo- 
 Saxon Grammar, teach us that there exist in the present 
 English two powers of the word spelt t-h-e, or of the so-called 
 definite article. 
 
 " The demonstrative pronouns are \i(£t, se, seo (id, is, ea), 
 which are also used for the article ; and ^is, ^es, ]>eus (hoc, hie, 
 hac). They are thus dechned : —
 
 ON THE CASES. 2SD 
 
 
 Neuf. 
 
 
 Mdsc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Nrut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fcm. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 N. >fct 
 
 
 sc 
 
 sod 
 
 jpis 
 
 {JCS 
 
 JJCOS. 
 
 
 A. \,vet 
 
 
 {jone 
 
 {jse're 
 
 Hs 
 
 Jjisne 
 
 Kis. 
 
 
 Abl. 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 {lisse. 
 
 
 D. 
 
 {jam 
 
 {jfe're 
 
 
 l^isum 
 
 {jisse. 
 
 
 G. 
 
 ]>xs 
 
 j^Ee're 
 
 
 J'ises 
 
 {jisse. 
 
 Plur 
 
 . N. and A. 
 
 
 J,a 
 
 
 
 )7as. 
 
 
 
 Abl. and D. 
 
 jjam 
 
 
 
 Jjisum. 
 
 
 
 G. 
 
 jpara. 
 
 
 
 jjissa. 
 
 
 " The indeclinable ])6 is often used instead of jiat, se, seo, 
 in all cases, but especially with a relative signification, and, 
 in later times, as an article. Hence the English article the. 
 
 " J>y seems justly to be received as a proper ahlativus in- 
 strv/menti, as it occurs often in this character, even in the mas- 
 culine gender ; as, mid ]?y cTpe = ivith that oath (Inse Reges, 
 53). And in the same place in the dative, on ^ee'm d\>6 = in 
 that oath.'''' — Pp. 56, 57. 
 
 Hence ih^the that has originated out of the Anglo-Saxon 
 ]>§ is one word ; the the that has originated out of the Anglo- 
 Saxon ])e, another. The latter is the common article : the 
 former the the in expressions like all the more, all the letter = 
 more hy all that, letter ly all that, and the Latin phrases eo 
 majus, eo melius. 
 
 That why is in the same case with the instrumental the ( = 
 \>y) may be seen from the following Anglo-Saxon inflection 
 of the interrogative pronoun : — 
 
 Ncut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 N. Hwffit 
 
 Hwa. 
 
 A. Hwaot 
 
 Hwone (hvva;ne). 
 
 Abl. 
 
 Hwl 
 
 D. 
 
 Hwam (hwrc'm) 
 
 G. 
 
 Hwais. 
 
 Hence, then, in the and why we have instrumental ablatives, 
 or, simply, instrumentals. 
 
 § 292. The determination of cases. — How do we detcrnn'ne 
 cases ? In other words, why do we call him and them accu-
 
 5v>40 ON THE CASES. 
 
 sativcs rather than datives or cfcnitlvcs ? IJy one of two 
 moans ; viz , either hy the sense or the form. 
 
 Snppose that in the Enghsh langnage there were ten thou- 
 sand dative cases and as many accusatives. Suppose, also, 
 that all the dative cases ended in -m, and all the accusatives 
 in some other letter. It is very evident that, whatever might 
 he the meaning of the words him and them their form would 
 he dative. In this case the meaning being accusative, and 
 the form dative, we should doubt which test to take. 
 
 My own opinion is, that it would be convenient to deter- 
 mine cases by the form of the word alone ; so that, even if a 
 word had a dative sense only once, where it had an accusative 
 sense ten thousand times, such a word should be said to be in 
 the dative case. Now, as stated above, the words him and 
 the7n (to which we may add whom) were once dative cases ; 
 -m in Anglo-Saxon being the sign of the dative case. In the 
 time of the Anglo-Saxons their sense coincided with their 
 form. At present they are dative forms with an accusative 
 meaning. Still, as the word give takes after it a dative case, 
 we have, even now, in the sentence, give it him, give it them, 
 remnants of the old dative sense. To say give it to him, to 
 them, is unnecessary and pedantic : neither do I object to the 
 expression, whom shall I give it ? If ever the formal test 
 become generally recognised and consistently adhered to, him, 
 them, and ichom will be called datives with a latitude of mean- 
 ing; and then the only true and unequivocal accusatives in 
 the English language will be the forms you, thee, us, me, and 
 twain. 
 
 My, an accusative form {meh, me, mec), has now a genitive 
 sense. The same may be said of thy. 
 
 Me, originally an accusative form (both me and my can 
 grow out of mec and meh), had, even with the Anglo-Saxons, 
 a dative sense. Give it me is correct English. The same 
 may be said of thee. 
 
 Him, a dative form, has now an accusative sense. 
 Her. — For this word, as well as for further details on me 
 and my, see the Chapters on the Personal and Demonstrative 
 Pronouns.
 
 ON THE CASES. 241 
 
 § 293. When all traces of the original dative signification 
 are efFaced, and when all the dative cases in a language 
 are similarly affected, an accusative case may be said to 
 have originated out of a dative. 
 
 § 294. Thus far the question has been concerning the imme- 
 diate origin of cases : their remote origin is a different matter. 
 
 The word um occurs in Icelandic. In Danish and Swedish 
 it is OM ; in the Germanic languages omme, twibi, umpi, ymhe^ 
 and also um. Its meaning is at^ on^ about. The word whilom 
 is the substantive while = a time or pause (Dan. hvile = to 
 rest)., with the addition of the preposition om. That the par- 
 ticular dative form in om has arisen out of the noun j^lus the 
 preposition is a safe assertion. I am not prepared, however, 
 to account for the formation of all the cases in this manner. 
 
 § 295. Analysis of cases. — In the word children's we are 
 enabled to separate the word into thi-ee parts. 1. The root 
 child. 2. The plural signs r and en. 3. The sign of the 
 genitive case, s. In this case the word is said to be analysed, 
 since we not only take it to pieces, but also give the respective 
 powers of each of its elements ; stating which denotes the 
 case, and which the number. Although it is too much to 
 say that the analysis of every case of every number can be 
 thus effected, it ought always to be attempted. 
 
 § 296. The true nature of the genitive form in s. — It is a 
 common notion that the genitive form father s is contracted 
 from father his. The expression in our liturgy, for Jesus 
 Christ his sake, which is merely a pleonastic one, is the only 
 foundation for this assertion. As the idea, however, is not 
 only one of the commonest, but also one of the greatest errors 
 in etymology, the following three statements are given for the 
 sake of contradiction to it. 
 
 1. The expression the Queens Majesty is not capable of 
 being reduced to the Queen his Majesty. 
 
 2. In the form his itself, the s has precisely the power that 
 it has \n father s, &c. Now his cannot be said to arise out of 
 he -I- his. 
 
 3. In all the languages of the vast Indo-European tribe, 
 except the Celtic, the genitive ends in s, just as it does in
 
 >>- ON TlIK CASES. 
 
 b'iiiylisli ; so tliat cwn if the wovds fat/iir his would accoiuit 
 for tlio English word father s, it would not account for the 
 Sanskrit ^onitivi' ji<(d-as, ol' a loot ; the Zond duffhdhar-s, of 
 a daughter; the Litliuanie duciter-s ; the Greek h^ovr-og \ the 
 Latin dent-is, tkc. 
 
 For further remarks upon the Enu^lish genitive, see the 
 CanihridL'i' I'hiJoloLiicMl Museum, vol. ii p. 2-K).
 
 THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 243 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE PEKSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 § 297. /, we, us, me, thou, ye. — These constitute the true 
 personal pronouns. From lie, she, and it, they clifFer in being 
 destitute of gender. 
 
 These latter words are demonstrative rather than personal, 
 so that there are in English true personal pronouns for the 
 first two persons only. 
 
 In other languages the current pronouns of the third per- 
 son are, as in English, demonstrative rather than personal. 
 
 The usual declension of the personal pronouns is excep- 
 tionable. / and me, thou and ye, stand in no etymological 
 relations to each other. The true view of the words is, that 
 they are not irregular but defective. / has no oblique, and 
 me no nominative case. And so with respect to the rest. 
 
 I, in German ich, Icelandic ek, corresponds with gy<s), and 
 ego of the classical languages ; ego and lyco being, like /, de- 
 fective in the oblique cases. 
 
 My, as stated above, is a form originally accusative, but 
 now used in a genitive sense. 
 
 Me. — In Anglo-Saxon this was called a dative form. The 
 fact seems to be that both my and me grow out of an accusa- 
 tive iorm,Meh, mec. 
 
 That the sound of k originally belonged to the pronouns 
 
 me and thee, we learn not only from the Anglo-Saxons mec, 
 
 \ec, meh, peh, but from the Icelandic mik, ])ik, and the German 
 
 mlch, dich. This accounts for the form m.y ; since? y = ey, 
 
 and the sounds of y and g are allied. That both me and my 
 
 can be evolved from mik, we see in the present Scandinavian 
 
 languages, where, very often even in the same district, mig is 
 
 pronounced both mey and mee. 
 
 R 2
 
 IIV niitl our. — Tlu^so ^^•()l•(ls arc not in tin* condition of / 
 and Dir. Altlioiiqli I he Ihct lie ohscnrcd, tlicy nro ro:illy in 
 an otynuilooical relation to each other. This we inter from 
 tlie alHance liclwi-en the 8t)unds of ?r and 07i, and from the 
 Hanisli \\)nusvi{icc),voi'{onr). It may be donbted, however, 
 whether <>/0' be a trne genitive ratlier than an adjectival form. 
 In the form ourt^ we find it playiny the part, not of a case, 
 but of an independent word. Upon this, however, too much 
 stress cannot be laid. In Danish it takes a neuter form : 
 vo7' = nostcr ; vort= nostmm. From this T conceive that it 
 agrees, not with tlie Latin genitive nostrdm, but with tlie 
 adjective nosfer. 
 
 Us, toe., our. — Even us is in an etymological relation to we. 
 That we and our are so, has just been shown. Now in Anglo- 
 Saxon there were two forms of our, viz., ure ( = nosfrilm), 
 and user ( = nosfer). This connects we and us through otir. 
 
 From these preliminary notices we have the changes in 
 form of the true personal pronouns, as follows : — 
 
 1st Person. 
 1st Term, {for nominative singvlar). 
 
 I. Undeclined. 
 2nd Term, {for the singuliir number). 
 
 Ace. Me. Gen. My. Foi'm in n — Mine. 
 
 Srd Term, {for the plural number). 
 
 Nom. We. Ace. Us. Form in r — Our, ours. 
 
 2Nr) Person. 
 1«^ Term, {for the singvlar number). 
 
 Nom. 77(07/. Ace. T/iee. Gen. Thy. Form in /; — Thine. 
 2nd Term, {for the plural number). 
 
 Nom. Ye. Ace. You. Form in r — Your, yours. 
 
 § 298. We and iTie have been dealt with as distinct words. 
 But it is only for practical purposes that they can be con- 
 sidered to be thus separate ; since the sounds of m and w are 
 allied, and in Sanskrit the singular form ma = / is looked 
 upon as part of the same word with vayam = we. The same 
 is the case with the Greek fjji (me), and the plural form ^fJbs7g 
 (hameis) = we. 
 
 You. — As far as the practice of the present mode of speech
 
 THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. ^1*5 
 
 is concerned, the word you is a nominative form ; since we say 
 yoiL move, you are moving, you were speaking. 
 
 Why should it not be treated as such ? There is no abso- 
 lute reason why it should not. All that can be said is, that 
 the historical reason and the logical reason are at variance. 
 The Anglo-Saxon form for you was eoio, for ye, ge. Neither 
 bear any sign of case at all, so that, form for form, they are 
 equally and indifferently nominative and accusative, as the 
 habit of language may make them. Hence, it, perhaps, is 
 more logical to say that a certain form {you) is used either as 
 a nominative or accusative, than to say that the accusative 
 case is used instead of a nominative. It is clear that you can 
 be used instead of ye only so far as it is nominative in power. 
 Ye. — As far as the evidence of such expressions as get on 
 with ye is concerned, the word ye is an accusative form. The 
 reasons why it should or should not be treated as such are 
 involved in the previous paragraph. 
 
 3Ie. — Carrying out the views just laid down, and admitting 
 you to be a nominative, or quasi-nom'innt'we case, we may ex- 
 tend the reasoning to the word me, and call it also a secondary 
 nominative ; inasmuch as such phrases as if is me = it is I 
 are common. 
 
 Now to call such expressions incorrect English is to assume 
 the point. No one says that cest moi is bad French, and 
 that cest je is good. The fact is, that the whole question is a 
 question of degree. Has or has not the custom been suffi- 
 ciently prevalent to have transferred the forms me, ye, and 
 you from one case to another, as it is admitted to have done 
 with the forms him and whom, once dative, but now accnsa- 
 tive I 
 
 Observe. — That the expression it is me = it is I will not 
 justify the use of it is him, it is her = it is he and it is she. 
 Me, ye, you, are what may be called indifferent forms, i. e. 
 nominative as much as accusative, and accusative as much as 
 nominative. Him and her, on the other hand, are not indif- 
 fen^nt. The -m and -r are resjiectively the signs of cases 
 other than the nominative. 
 
 Again: the reasons which allow the I'orm yon, to he con-
 
 24(5 THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 sidored as a iiDininative phiral, on the strength of Its being 
 used for //(', will not allow it (o be considered a nominative 
 singuUir on the strength of its being used for thou. It is sub- 
 mitted to the reader, that in phrases like yoti are speaking, 
 &:e., even \\\\i'\\ applied to a single individual, the idea is really 
 l>lural ; in other words, that the courtesy consists in treating 
 one person as more than one, and addressing him as such, rather 
 than in using a plural form in a singular sense. It is certain 
 that, granmiatically considered, ^ou = thou is a phiral, since 
 the verb with which it agrees is plural : — i/ou are sjjeaking, not 
 ^ou art speaking.
 
 • THE REFLECTIVE PRONOUN, 247 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 0.\ llIK TRUE KEFLECTIVE PRONOUN IN THE GOTHIC LANGUAGES, 
 AND ON ITS ABSENCE IN ENGLISH. 
 
 § 299. A TRUE reflective pronoun is wanting in Englisli. 
 In other words, there are no equivalents to the Latin prono- 
 minal forms sui, sibi, se. 
 
 Nor yet are there an}^ equivalents in English to the so- 
 called adjectival forms suus.. sua, suum : since his and her are 
 the equivalents to ejus and illms, and are not adjectives but 
 genitive cases. 
 
 At the first view, this last sentence seems unnecessary. It 
 might seem superfluous to state, that, if there were no such 
 primitive form as se (or its equivalent), there could be no such 
 secondary form assuus (or its equivalent). 
 
 Such, however, is not the case. Suus might exist in the 
 language, and yet se be absent ; in other words, the derivative 
 form might have continued whilst the original one had become 
 extinct. 
 
 Such is really the case with the Old Frisian. The reflec- 
 tive personal form, the equivalent to se, is lost, whilst the 
 reflective possessive form, the equivalent to suus, is found. In 
 the Modern Frisian, hovvevei-, both forms are lost ; as they 
 also are in the present English. 
 
 The history of the reflective pronoun in the Gothic tongues 
 is as follows : — 
 
 In Mceso- Gothic. — Found in three cases, se'ina, sis, sik=^sui, 
 sibi, se. 
 
 In Old Norse. — Ditto. Sin, ser, sik = sui, sibi, se. 
 
 In Old High German. — The dative form lost ; there being- 
 no such word as sir = sis = sibi. Besides this, the genitive
 
 J^4i) THE IIKFLECTIVE TllONOUN. 
 
 or possessivo form sin is used only in the masculine and neuter 
 genders. 
 
 In Old F/'isia7i. — As stated above, there is here no equiva- 
 lent to so ; whilst there is the form sin = siius. 
 
 In Old Saxun. — The equivalent to se, sibi, and sui very 
 rare. The equivalent to suus not connnon, but commoner 
 than in Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 In Anfjlo-Saxon. — ^o instance of the equivalent to s^at all. 
 The forms simie = suum, and sinum = suo, occur in Beowulf, 
 In Canlmon cases of sin=siius are more frequent. Still the 
 usual form is his = ejus. 
 
 In the Dutch, Danish, and Swedish, the true reflectives, 
 both personal and possessive, occur ; so that the modern Fri- 
 sian and Eng-lish stand alone in respect to the entire absence 
 of them. — Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 321 — 84-8. 
 
 The statement concerning the absence of the true reflective 
 in English, although negative, has an important philological 
 bearing on more points than one. 
 
 1. It renders the use of the word self much more necessary 
 than it would be otherwise. 
 
 2. It renders us unable to draw a distinction between the 
 meanings of the Latin words suus and ejus. 
 
 3. It precludes the possibility of the evolution of a middle 
 voice like that of the Old Norse, where kalla-sc^^kalla-sik.
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 249 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, &C. 
 
 § 300. The demonstrative pronouns are, 1. He, it. 2. She. 
 3. Tim, that. 4. The. 
 
 He, she, and it, generally looked on as personal, are here 
 treated as demonstrative pronouns, for the following reasons. 
 
 1 . The personal pronouns form an extremely natural class, 
 if the pronouns of the two first persons (and se when found in 
 the language) be taken by themselves. This is not the case if 
 they be taken along with he, it, and she. The absence of 
 gender, the peculiarity in their declension, and their defective- 
 ness are marked characters wherein they agree with each 
 other, but not with any other words. 
 
 2. The idea expressed by he, it, and she is naturally that of 
 demonstrativeness. In the Latin language is, ea, id ; ille, ilia, 
 illud ; hie, hac, hoc, are demonstrative pronouns in sense, as 
 well as in declension. 
 
 8. The plural forms they, them, in the present English, are 
 the plural forms of the root of that, a true demonstrative pro- 
 noun ; so that even if he, she, and it could be treated as per- 
 sonal jH'onouns, it could only be in their so-called singular 
 number. 
 
 4. The word she has grown out of the Anglo-Saxon seo. 
 Now seo was in Anglo-Saxon the feminine form of the definite 
 article ; the definite article being a demonstrative pronoun. 
 
 Compared with the Anglo-Saxon the present English stands 
 as follows : — 
 
 She. — The Anglo-Saxon form heo, being lost to the lan- 
 guage, is replaced by the feminine article seo. 
 
 Her. — This is a case, not of the present she, but of the 
 Anglo-Saxon heo : so that she may be said to be defective in
 
 -.>() DIIMONSTKATIVK 1>IU)N0UNS. 
 
 the obIi<iue cases ami her to bo defective in the nomi- 
 native. 
 
 Jfiin. — A true dative tbrni, which has rej)laced the Anglo- 
 Saxon h'uie. Wlien used as a dative, it was neuter as well 
 as mascunne. 
 
 Jfis. — Originally neuter as well as masculine. Now as a 
 neuter, replaced by its — '• et quidem ipsa vox his, ut et inter- 
 rogativum ichose, nihil aliud sunt quam Jiees, toho's, ubi s 
 omnino idem prrestat quod in aliis possessivis. Similiter au- 
 tem his pro hees eodem errore quo nonnunquam bin pro 
 been ; item whose pro who's eodem errore quo done, gone, 
 knoione, groione, &c., pro doen, poen, hioimn, vel c^o'w, qo''n, 
 Inoio'n, groivn ; utrobique contra analogiam lingua) ; sed 
 usu defenditur." — Wallis, c. v. 
 
 It. — Changed from the Anglo-Saxon hit, by the ejection 
 of ^. The t is no part of the original word, but a sign of the 
 neuter gender, forming it regularly from he. The same 
 neuter sign is preserved in the Latin id and illud. 
 
 Its. — In the course of time the nature of the neuter sign 
 t, in it, the form being found in but a few words, became 
 misunderstood. Instead of being looked on as an affix, it 
 passed for part of the original word. Hence was formed 
 from it the anomalous genitive its, superseding the Saxon 
 his. The same was the case with — 
 
 Hers. — The r is no part of the original word, but the sign 
 of the dative case. These formations are of value in the 
 history of cases. 
 
 The9/, their, them. — When hit had been changed into it, 
 when heo had been replaced by she, and when the single 
 form the, as an article, had come to serve for all the cases 
 of all the genders, two circumstances took place: 1. The 
 forms ])am and pcira as definite articles became superfluous ; 
 and, 2. The connexion between the plural forms ht, heom, 
 heora, and the singular forms he and it, grew indistinct. 
 These were conditions favourable to the use of the forms they^ 
 them, and their, instead of hi, heom, heora. 
 
 Theirs. — In the same predicament with hers and its ; 
 either the case of an adjective, or a case formed from a case.
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 251 
 
 Than or tlien^ and there. — Although now adverbs, they were 
 once demonstrative pronouns, in a certain case and in a cer- 
 tain gender. — Than and then masculine accusative and singu- 
 lar, there feminine dative and singular. 
 
 An exhibition of the Anglo-Saxon declension is the best 
 explanation of the English. Be it observed, that the cases 
 marked in italics are found in the present language. 
 
 I. 
 
 Se, seo. 
 
 Of this word we meet two forms only, both of the singular 
 number, and both in the nominative case ; mz. masc. se ; 
 fem. $60 (the). The neuter gender and the other cases of the 
 article were taken from the pronoun \(Et (that). 
 
 II. 
 
 ^pat (that, the), and Yis (this). 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. \)(Et 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 \}is 
 
 |jes 
 
 j^eds. 
 
 
 Ace. \>(Et 
 
 ]pone 
 
 ]>ii 
 
 {Pis 
 
 {jisne 
 
 I^as. 
 
 
 Abl. \,y 
 
 Ipy 
 
 ixe're. 
 
 }JWC 
 
 i^ise 
 
 Hsse. 
 
 
 Dat. j)am 
 
 ]pkm 
 
 \}ce're. 
 
 H'Sum 
 
 fiisum 
 
 fjisse, 
 
 
 Gen. ]73es 
 
 Jjaes 
 
 ]p£'re. 
 
 jjiscs 
 
 Hses 
 
 Hsse. 
 
 Pkir. 
 
 Nom. Ace. 
 Abl. Dat. 
 Gen. 
 
 \>d. 
 
 \>dm. 
 
 \>dru. 
 
 
 
 jpds. 
 
 Hsum. 
 
 f^issa. 
 
 
 III. 
 
 Hit (it), lie (he), hei) (she). 
 Sing. Nom, hit he heo. 
 Ace. hit hine hi. 
 
 Dat. hi?n him hire. 
 
 Gen. his his hire. 
 
 Plur. Nom. Ace. 
 Dat. 
 Gen. 
 
 hi 
 
 him (heoni). 
 
 hira (heura). 
 
 IV. 
 
 \>c (the) — Undeclined, and used for all cases and genders. 
 
 §301. These. — Here observe —
 
 "•>2 DEAIONSTUATIVE JUIONOUNS. 
 
 1st. That the x is no iunoction, but a radical part of the 
 word, like tlio s in peese. 
 
 l!iul. That the Anglo-Saxon form is \)ds. 
 
 Those facts create difficulties in respect to the word these. 
 Mr. Guest's view is, perha]).s, the best ; viz. that the plural 
 element of the word is the letter e, and that this -e is the old 
 En^^lish and Anglo-Sa.xon adjective plural ; so that ihes-e is 
 formed from t/ies, as r/ode ( = boni) is formed from f/od ( = 
 
 The nominative plural in the Old English ended in e ; as, 
 
 Singular. Flural. 
 
 M. t\ N. M. F. N. 
 
 God, god, god, gode. 
 
 In Old English MSS. this plural in -e is general. It 
 occurs not only in adjectives and pronouns as a regular inflec- 
 tion, but even as a plural of the genitive his, that word 
 being treated as a nominative singular ; so that hise is formed 
 from /lis, as sui from suus, or as (?/7 might have been formed 
 from eju^ ,• provided that in the Latin language this last word 
 had been mistaken i'or a nominative singular. The following 
 examples are Mr. Guest's. 
 
 ]. In these lay a gret multitude of sj/A:e incn, blindc, ciokid, auddn/e. 
 
 Widiffe, Jon. v. 
 2. In all the orders foure is non that can 
 So much of dalliance and faire language, 
 He hadde yniade ful many a marriage — 
 His tippet was ay farsed ful of knives, 
 And pinnes for to given_yai/e wives. 
 
 C/itiu., Prol. 
 
 3. And ul the cuntre of Judee wente out to him, and ulle men of .Jeru- 
 salem. — Wiclif, Mark i 
 
 4. He ghyueth lif to oLle men, and hrcthing, and ulle thingis ; and made of 
 von (il kynde of men to inhabit on ul the lace of the crthc. — Widiffe, Dedis 
 of Apostlis, xvii. 
 
 .5. That fadres sone which atle thinges wrought ; 
 And all, that wrought is with a skilful thought, 
 The Gost that from the fader gan jjrocede, 
 Halii sealed hem. 
 
 Chilli., The Second Noniies Talc.
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 253 
 
 0. And allc we tliat ben in this aray 
 And maken all this lamentation, 
 We lostcn alle our husbondes at that toun. 
 
 Cfiau., The Knightes Tale. 
 
 7. A good man hryngeth forth gode thingis of goo^i tresore. — Wicliffe, 
 Matt, xii. 
 
 8. So every good tree maketh gode fruytis, but an yvel tree maketh y vel 
 fruytes. A good tree may not mak yvel fruytis, neither an yvel tree may 
 make gode fruytis. Every tree that maketh not good fruyt schal be cut 
 down.— Mc/(^e, Matt. vii. 
 
 9. Men loveden more darknessis than light for her werkcs wercn yvcle, 
 for cch man tliat doeth yvel, hatcth the light. — Wicliffe, Jon. iii. 
 
 10. And othere seedis feldcn among thornes wexen up and strangliden 
 hem, and olhere seedis felden into good lond and gaven fruyt, sum an hun- 
 dred fold, ano/Aer sixty fold, an other thritty fold, &c. — Wicliffe, Matt, xiii. 
 
 11. Yet the while he spake to the puple lo his mother and hise brethren 
 stonden withoute forth. — Wichffe, Matt. xii. 
 
 12. And hise disciplis camen and token his body. — Wicliffe, Matt. xiv. 
 
 13. Whan thise Bretons tuo were fled out of t/iis lond 
 Inc toke his feaute of alle, &c, 
 
 Rob. Brunne, p. 3. 
 
 14. This is thilk disciple that bcreth witnessyng of these thingis, and 
 wroot them. — Wicliffe, John xxi. 
 
 15. Seye to us in what powers thou doist these thingis, and who is he 
 that gaf to thee this power. — Wicliffe, Luke xx, 
 
 § 802, Those, — Perhaps the Anglo-Saxon ]xi with s added. 
 Perhaps the \>ds from ]ns with its power altered, Rask, in 
 his Anglo-Saxon Grammar, writes " from ]?is we find, in the 
 plural, )?a?s for |)as. From which afterwards, with a distinc- 
 tion in signification, these and those.'''' The English form the^ 
 is illustrated by the Anglo-Saxon form ^a(je = ])d. The 
 whole doctrine of the forms in question has yet to assume a 
 satisfactory shape. 
 
 The present declension of the demonstrative pronouns is 
 as follows : — 
 
 I. 
 
 The — Undeclined.
 
 f?')4 
 
 DKMONSTKATIVK I'lloNOUNS. 
 
 
 S/(c— Defect iv 
 
 ■ in tl 
 
 III. 
 
 Ik. 
 
 i)iili(]ue cii.ses. 
 
 
 MuSiC. 
 
 
 A'(7//. 
 
 Noiii. 
 
 He 
 
 
 It (fVdiii lilt) 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Him 
 
 
 h 
 
 Dal. 
 
 Him 
 
 
 — 
 
 Gen. 
 
 His 
 
 
 — 
 
 Sii'imdai'i) G 
 
 en. — 
 
 
 Its 
 
 
 No 
 
 plural ronii . 
 
 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 
 
 That 
 
 . 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 
 Muse. 
 
 Sivg. Nom. 
 
 Tl.iit 
 
 .. 
 
 — 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Tliut 
 
 
 Than,* then ... 
 
 Dat. 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 Plnr. Nom. 
 
 
 
 Tliey.t 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 
 Tliem.+ 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 
 Their.+ 
 
 Secoixliiry Gen 
 
 
 Tlieiis.t 
 
 
 
 V. 
 
 
 Sii 
 
 i^iihir, Tiiiw. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Those 
 
 P/iiru/, 'riie.=!0 
 
 Fcni . 
 
 Her. 
 Hoi. 
 Her. 
 Hers. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 There.* 
 
 * ITsrd as advorhs. 
 
 t U.'icd as the jdnrals of In; s/ic, am! //.
 
 RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. ^55 
 
 CHAPTER VIIL 
 
 THE RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND CERTAIN OTHER PRONOUNS. 
 
 § 303. In the relative and interrogative pronouns, ^rhn, 
 what, whom, whose, we have, expressed by a change of form, 
 a neuter gender, what; a dative case, whom; and a genitive 
 case, whose: the true power of the s {viz. as the sign of a 
 case) being obscured by the orthographical addition of the e 
 mute. 
 
 To these may be added, 1. the adverb why, originally the 
 ablative form hvi {quo modo ? qua via ?). 2. The adverb 
 where, a feminine dative, like there. 3. When, a masculine 
 accusative (in Anglo-Saxon hwcene), and analogous to then. 
 
 § 304?. The following points in the history of the demon- 
 strative and relative pronouns are taken from Grimm^s 
 Deutsche Grammatik, vol. iii. pp. 1, 2, 3. 
 
 Throughout the Indo-European tribe the interrogative or 
 relative idea is expressed by k, or by a modification of ^,- e.g., 
 qu, hv, or h; as Sanskrit, his, who; Jcataras, which of two; 
 Jcatama, which of many. — Lithuanic, las, who; JcoJcs, of what 
 sort ; fcoJcelys, how great ; kaip, how. — Slavonic : Mo, who, 
 Russian and Polish ; kdo, who, Bohemian ; Tcotory, which, 
 Russian; hol'ik, how great. — Qiiot, quails, quanius, Liai'in. — 
 Koaog, yMog, '/iOTZ, Ionic Greek ; in the other dialects, how- 
 ever, TToripog, "TTOfjoc, &c. — Gothic: hcas, who, Mffiso-Gothic; 
 huer.^ Old High Gerinari; hva]iar, which of two, Moeso-Gothic; 
 huedar. Old High German ; hvem, hvad, huanne, huar, Norse ; 
 lohat, lohy, which, where, &c., English. 
 
 Throughout the Indo-European tribe the demonstrative 
 idea is expressed by t, or by a modification of it ; as, Sanskrit, 
 tat, that; tata-ras, such a one out of two. — Lithuanic, tas, 
 he ; toks, such ; tokehjs, so great ; taip, so. — Slavonic, { or
 
 2n(; RELATIVE, INTKRROOATIVE, AND 
 
 ta, Iu> ; fitlii, such ; fa/ro, so. — Tof, talis, tantum, Latin. — 
 To(Toc, ro/or, TOTi, (Jrcflv ; tlih, that, thus, English, &c. 
 
 TIio two sounds in the Danish words hvi, hvad, &c., and 
 the two sounds in tho Eni^dish, what, ichoi (Anglo-Saxon, 
 hirfft, hirn-m'), account for the forms whi/ and how. In the 
 lirst the in alone, in the second the h alone, is sounded. 
 The Daiiish for ?r//y is hvi, pronounced vi; in Swedish the 
 word is hu. 
 
 § oOo. The following remarks (some of them not strictly 
 etymological) apply to a few of the remaining pronouns. For 
 further details, see Grimm, D. G. iii. 4. 
 
 Same. — Wanting in Anglo-Saxon, where it was replaced 
 hy the word i/lca, ylce. Probably derived from the Norse. 
 
 Self. — In myself, thyself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, a 
 substantive (or with a substantival power), and preceded by 
 a genitive case. In himself iindi themselves an adjective (or 
 with an adjectival power), and preceded by an accusative case. 
 Itself \!i equivocal, since we cannot say whether its elements 
 are it and self, or its and self; the s having been dropped 
 in utterance. It is very evident that either the form like 
 himself or the form like thyself is exceptionable ; in other 
 words, that the use of the word is inconsistent. As this 
 inconsistency is as old as the Anglo-Saxons, the history of the 
 word gives us no elucidation. In favour of the forms like 
 myself (self being a substantive), are the following facts : — 
 
 1. The plural word selves, a substantival, and not an 
 adjectival form. 
 
 2. The Middle High German phrases, min lip, din lip, my 
 body, thy body, equivalent in sense to myself, thyself. 
 
 3. The circumstance that if s^^be dealt with as a substan- 
 tive, such phrases as my own self his own great self &c., can 
 be used ; whereby the language is a gainer. 
 
 " Vox self pluraliter selves, quamvis etiam pronomen a 
 quibusdani censeatur (quoniam ut plurimum per Latinum ipse 
 redditur), est tamen plane nomen substantivum, cui quidem 
 vix aliquod apud Latinos substantivum respondet ; proxime 
 tamen accedet vox persona vel propria persona, ut my self, 
 thy self, our selves, your selves, &c. (ego ipse, tu ipse, nos ipsi.
 
 CERTAIN OTHER PRONOUNS. 257 
 
 vos ipsi, &c.), ad verbum mea persona, Urn persona, &c. Fa- 
 teor tamen himself, itself, themselves vnlgo dici pro his-self its- 
 self theirselves ; at (interposito own) his own self &c., ipsius 
 propria persona, &c." — Wallis, c. vii. 
 
 4. The fact that many persons actually say Msself and 
 tJieirselves. 
 
 Whit. — As in the phrase not a whit. This enters in the 
 compound pronouns aught and naught. 
 
 One. — As in the phrase one does so and so. From the 
 French on. Observe that this is from the Latin homo, in Old 
 French horn, om. In the Germanic tongues man is used in 
 the same sense : man sagt = one says =■ on dit. One, like self 
 and other, is so far a substantive, that it is inflected. Gen. 
 sing, one's oimi self: plural, my wife and little ones are ivell. 
 
 Derived pronouns. — • Any, in Anglo-Saxon, aenig. In Old 
 High German we have einic = any, and einac = single. In 
 Anglo-Saxon dnega means single. In Middle High German 
 einec is always single. In New High German einig means, 
 1. a certain person (quidani), 2. agreeing; einzig, meaning 
 single. In Dutch enech has both meanings. This indicates 
 the word an, one, as the root of the word in question. — Grimm, 
 D. G. iii. 9. 
 
 Compound pronouns. — Which, as has been already stated 
 more than once, is most incorrectly called the neuter of who. 
 Instead of being a neuter, it is a compound word. The 
 adjective leihs, like, is preserved in the Mceso-Gothic words 
 galeiks, and missaleiks. In Old High German the form is lih, 
 in Anglo-Saxon lie. Hence we have Mceso-Gothic, hveleiks ; 
 Old High German, huelih ; Anglo-Saxon, huilic and hvilc ; 
 Old Frisian, hwelik ; Danish, hvilk-en; German, welch; Scotch, 
 ivhilk ; English, w/iic/i. (Grimm, D. G., iii. 47). The same is 
 the case with — 
 
 1 . Such. — Mceso-Gothic, svaleiks ; Old High German, solth ; 
 0]d Saxon, sulic ; Anglo-Saxon, svilc ; German, solch; Eng- 
 lish, such. (Grimm, D. G. iii. 48). Rask's derivation of the 
 Anglo-Saxon swilc from swa-ylc, is exceptionable. 
 
 2. Thilk. — An old English word, found in the provincial 
 dialects, as thick, thuck, theck, and hastily derived by Tyrwhitt,
 
 25S UKLATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND 
 
 Ritson, and Wohor, from se tflca, is found in the following- 
 forms: Ma^so-(Jol.liio, Yie'ds ; Norse, \>mlik)\ ((Jrimm, iii. 
 4i).) 
 
 3. ///■. — Found in the Scotch, and always preceded by the 
 article ; the ilk, or that ilk, meaning the same. In Anglo- 
 Saxon this word is i/fca, preceded also by the article se ylca, 
 seo ylce, \(d ylce. In English, as seen above, the word is 
 replaced by same. In no other Gothic dialect does it occur. 
 According to Grimm, this is no simple word, but a compound 
 one, of which some such word as ei is the first, and lie the 
 second element. (Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 50.) 
 
 Aiiqht. — In Ma:;so-Gothic is found the particle aiv, ever., 
 but only in negative propositions ; ni (not) preceding it. Its 
 Old High German form is eo, io ; in Middle High German, ie 
 in New High German, y<? ; in Old Saxon, io ; in Anglo-Saxon, 
 a ; in Norse, cc. Combined with this particle the word whit 
 (thinp) gives the following forms : Old High German, eowiht ; 
 Anglo-Saxon, dviht ; Old Frisian, meet; English, aught. The 
 word naught is aught preceded by the negative particle. 
 (Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 52.) 
 
 Each. — The particle gi enters, like the particle in the com- 
 position of pronouns. Old High German, eogaliher, every 
 one ; eocalili, all ; Middle High German, iegelich ; New 
 High German, jeglich ; Anglo-Saxon, eelc ; English, each ; 
 the I being dropped, as in which and such. JElc, as the 
 original of the English each and the Scotch ilka* must by no 
 means be confounded with the word ylce., the same. (Grimm, 
 D. G. iii. 54.) 
 
 Every., in Old English, everich., everech^ everilk one, is ale, 
 preceded by the particle ever. (Grimm, D. G. iii. 54.) 
 
 Either. — Old High German, eogahuedar ; Middle High 
 German, iegeweder ; Anglo-Saxon, ceghvd'Ser, ag^er ; Old 
 Frisian, eider. 
 
 Neither. — The same, with the negative article prefixed. 
 Neither : either : : naught : aught. 
 
 Other, whether. — These words, although derived forms, 
 being simpler than some that have preceded, might fairly 
 • Different from ilk.
 
 CERTAIN OTHER PRONOUNS, 259 
 
 have been dealt with before. They make, however, a transi- 
 tion from the present to the succeeding chapter, and so find a 
 place here. 
 
 A. First, it may be stated of them that the idea which 
 they express is not that of one out of many^ but that of one 
 out of two. 
 
 1. In Sanskrit there are two forms, *) kataras, the same 
 word as whether , meaning which out of two ; ^) Jcatamas, which 
 out of many. So also ekateras, oneoutoftioo ; ekatamas, one 
 out of many. In Greek, the Ionic form xorsgog {Tor&^og) ; in 
 Latin, uter, neuter, alter; and in Mosso- Gothic, hvathar, 
 have the same form and the same meaning. 
 
 2. In the Scandinavian language the word anden, Dano- 
 Saxon annar, Iceland corresponds to the English word second, 
 and not the German ^^c^^Ve.• e.g., Karl den Anden, Charles the 
 Second. Now anthar is the older form of other. 
 
 B. Secondly, it may be stated of them, that the termination 
 -er is the same termination that we find in the comparative 
 degree. 
 
 1. The idea expressed by the comparative degree is the 
 comparison, not of many, but of two things ; this is better than 
 that. 
 
 2. In all the Indo-European languages where there are 
 pronouns in -fer, there is also a comparative degree in -ter. 
 See next chapter. 
 
 3. As the Sanskrit form kataras corresponds with the 
 comparative degree, where there is the comparison of two 
 things with each other ; so the word katamas is a superlative 
 form ; and in the superlative degree lies the comparison of 
 many things with each other. 
 
 Hence other and whether (to which may be added either 
 and neither) are pronouns with the comparative form. 
 
 Other has the additional peculiarity of possessing the plural 
 form others. Hence, like self it is, in the strictest sense, a 
 substantival pronoun. 
 
 s 2
 
 9C){) CERTAIN FORMS IN -KU. 
 
 CHAPTER TX. 
 
 ON CKHTAIN KOKMS IN -EK, 
 
 § 306. Prepauatoky to the consideration of the degrees 
 of comparison, it is necessary to make some remarks upon a 
 certain class of words, which, with considerable differences of 
 signification, all agree in one fact, viz., all terminate in -er, 
 or t-er. 
 
 1. Certain pronouns, as ei-ih-er, n-ei-th-er, loTie-th-er, 
 o-th-er. 
 
 2. Certain prepositions and adverbs, as ov-er, und-er, 
 af-t-er. 
 
 3. Certain adjectives, with the form of the comparative, 
 but the power of the positive degree ; as upp-er, und-er, 
 inn-er, out-er, hind-er. 
 
 4. All adjectives of the comparative degree ; as wiser, 
 strong-er, bett-er, &c. 
 
 Now what is the idea common to all these words, expressed 
 by the sign -er, and connecting the four divisions into one 
 class ? It is not the mere idea of comparison ; although it is 
 the comparative degree, to the expression of which the affix 
 in question is more particularly applied. Bopp, who has best 
 generalised the view of these forms, considers the fundamental 
 idea to be that of duality. In the comparative degree we 
 have a relation between one object and some other object like 
 it, or a relation between two single elements of comparison : 
 A is tciser than B. In the superlative degree we have a 
 relation between one object and cdl others like it, or a relation 
 between one single and one complex element of comparison : 
 A is wiser than B, C, D, &c 
 
 " As in comparatives a relation between two, and in super- 
 latives a relation between many, lies at the bottom, it is
 
 CERTAIN FORMS IN -ER. 261 
 
 natural that their suffixes shoukl be transferred to other 
 words, whose chief notion is individuahsed through that of 
 duality or plurality." — Vergleiehende Grammatik, § 292, 
 Eastwick's and Wilson''s Translation. 
 
 The most important proofs of the view adduced by Bopp 
 are, — 
 
 1 . The Sanskrit forms kataras = which of two persons f 
 a comparative form ; Jcataynas = which of more than two 
 persons? a superlative form. Similarly, eJcataras ^ 07ie of 
 two persons ; ekatamas = one of more than two persons. 
 
 2. The Greek forms, SKari^og = each or either out of two 
 persons ; sxccffrog = each or any out of more than two persons. 
 
 § 307. The more important of the specific modifications of 
 the general idea involved in the comparison of two objects 
 are, — 
 
 1 . Contrariety ; as in inner, outer, under, upper, over. In 
 Latin the words for right and left end in -er, — dexter, sinister. 
 
 2. Choice in the way of an alternative ; as either, neither, 
 whether, other. 
 
 An extension of the reasoning probably explains forms like 
 the Greek ci[j!j(p6-r£§-og, and the plural possessive forms 
 ucut-rs^-og, yi^jji-n^-og, &c., which, like our own forms in -r, 
 (ou-r, 7/ou-r^ correspond in termination with the compara- 
 tive degree (^ao^co-rsp-og, iviser). Words, also, like hither 
 and thither are instances of what is probably the effect of a 
 similar association of ideas. 
 
 § 308. A confirmation of Bopp's view is afforded by the 
 Laplandic languages. Herein the distinction between one of 
 two and one of more than two is expressed by affixes ; and 
 these affixes are the signs of the comparative and superlative : 
 gi = who ; gua-hha = loho of two ; gutte-mush = who of 
 many. 
 
 1. Gi = who, so that guabha may be called its comparative 
 form. 
 
 2. Gutte also = who, so that guttemush may be called its 
 superlative. 
 
 3. Precisely as the words guabha and guttemush are formed, 
 so also are the regular degrees of adjectives.
 
 ^02 CKKTAIN FORMS IiN -ER. 
 
 a. iVuorra ^= ifounn ; nunr-af) —younger ; nuora-mush = 
 youiujt'sf. 
 
 It. liahha = bad ; baha-h = worse ; baha-mush = toorst. 
 
 The i'ullowim; extracts fniin Stockfleth's Lappish Gram- 
 mar wore probably written without any reference to the San- 
 skrit or Greek. " Guabba, of Avhich the form and meaning 
 are c(»mparative, appears to have originated in a combination 
 of the pronoun (ji, and the comparative affix -ahho." — " Gutte- 
 mtts/i, of wliich the form and meaning are superlative, is 
 siinilarlv derived from the pronoun gutte, and the superlative 
 affix -mush." — Gramniatik i det Lappiske Sprog, §§192, 193. 
 
 § 309. Either, neither, other, lohether. — It has just been 
 stated that the general fundamental idea common to all these 
 forms is that of choice between one of two objects in the %oay of 
 an alternatite. Thus far the termination -er in either^ &c., is 
 the termination -er in the true comparatives, brav-er, wis-er, 
 he. Either and neither are common pronouns. Other, like 
 one, is a pronoun capable of taking the plural form of a sub- 
 stantive (others), and also that of the genitive case (the others 
 money, the otJters bread). Whether is a pronoun in the almost 
 obsolete form whether (== which") of the two do you prefer, 
 and a conjunction in sentences like whether loill you do this 
 or not ? The use of the form others is recent. " They are 
 taken out of the icay as all other.'''' — Job. " And leave their 
 riches for other.'''' — Psalms.
 
 THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 263 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 
 
 § 310. The proper preliminary to the study of the com- 
 parative and quasi-comparative forms in EngUsh is the history 
 of the inflection or inflections by which they are expressed. 
 There is no part of our grammar where it is more necessary 
 to extend our view beyond the common limit of the Gothic 
 stock of languages, than here. 
 
 In the Sanskrit language the signs of the comparative 
 degree are two: — 1. -tara, as punya ^= pure ; puni/a-tara 
 = purer : 2. -i^as, as Tcsipra = swift ; hsepiyas = swifter. 
 Of these the first is the most in use. 
 
 The same forms occur in the Zend ; as husko = dry ; 
 husko-tara = drier : -it/as, however, is changed into -is. 
 
 In the classical languages we have the same forms. 1 . in 
 titer, neuter, alter, 'Tron^og, X&TTori^og. 2. In the adverb 
 magis, Lat. In Bohemian and Polish, -ssj and -szy corre- 
 spond with the Sanskrit forms -iyas. 
 
 Thus we collect, that, expressive of the comparative de- 
 gree, there are two parallel forms ; viz., the form in tr, and 
 the form in s ; of which one is the most in use in one lan- 
 guage, and the other in another. 
 
 § 311. Before we consider the Gothic forms of the com- 
 parative, it may be advisable to note two changes to which 
 it is liable. 1. The change of s into r ; the Latin word 
 meliorem being supposed to have been originally meliosem, 
 and the s in nigrius, firmius, &c., being considered not so 
 much the sign of the neuter gender as the old comparative 
 s in its oldest form. 2. The ejection of t, as in the Latin 
 words inferus, superus, compared with the Greek Ki-TrroTSPog 
 {leptoieros).
 
 2G+ TiiK anii'Ai;\TivK degree. 
 
 § 312. Now, of tilt' (wo i»ar;ill('l forms, the Gotliic one 
 was till" funii s ; tlu' words of Iter ami whether only preserving 
 tlu' form //'. Aiitl luMi' comes the application of the remarks 
 that have just ofone hefore. The vast majority of our com- 
 paratives eiiil in /•, and so seem to come from ^/'rather than 
 from .S-. This, however, is not the case. The r in w^ords like 
 surefi'r is derived, not froin tar — t, hut from s, changed into 
 /•. In Mo?so-Gothic the comparative ended in s (z) ; in Old 
 High German the s has become r: Mocso-Gothic aldtza, 
 bafiza, sutiza ; Old High German, altlro, betsiro, suatsiro ; 
 English, older, better, sweeter. 
 
 The importance of a knowledge of the form in s is appre- 
 ciated when we learn that, even in the present English, there 
 are vestiges of it. 
 
 § 313. Comparison of adverbs. — The sun shines brirjht. — 
 Herein the word bright means brightly ; and although the use 
 of the latter word would have been the more elegant, the 
 expression is not ungrammatical ; the word bright being 
 looked upon as an adjectival adverb. 
 
 The sun shines to-day brighter than it did yesterday, and 
 to-morrow it will shine brightest. — Here also the sense is ad- 
 verbial ; from whence we get the fact, that adverbs take 
 degrees of comparison. 
 
 Now let the root mag-, as in magnus, (juiyag, and mitil 
 (Xorse), give the idea of greatness. In the Latin language 
 we have from it two comparative forms: 1. the adjec- 
 tival comparative 7najor = greater ; 2. the adverbial com- 
 jjarative magis = more (plus). The same takes place in 
 Mocso-Gothic : rnaiza means greater, and is adjectival ; mais 
 means more, and is adverbial. The Anglo-Saxon forms are 
 more instructive still ; e. g., ]>ds \>e ma, = all the more, ]>ds pe 
 bet = all the better, have a comparative sense, but not a com- 
 parative form, the sign r being absent. Now, compared with 
 mrajor, and subject to the remarks that have gone before, the 
 Latin rnrigis is the older form. Witli met and bet, compared 
 with more and better, this may or may not be the case. 31d 
 and bet may each be one of two forms ; 1. a positive used in 
 a comparative sense; 2. a true comparative, which has lost
 
 THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 265 
 
 its termination. The present section has been written not for 
 the sake of exhausting the subject, but to show that in the 
 comparative degree there were often two forms ; of which 
 one, the adverbial, was either more antiquated, or more im- 
 perfect than the other : a fact bearing upon some of the 
 forthcoming trains of etymological reasoning. 
 
 § 314. Change of vowel. — By reference to Rask''s Gram- 
 mar, § 128, it may be seen that in the Anglo-Saxon there 
 were, for the comparative and superlative degrees, two 
 forms ,• viz. -or and -re, and -ost and -este, respectively. 
 
 By reference to p. 159 of the present volume, it may be 
 seen that the fulness or smallness of a vowel iu a given syl- 
 lable may work a change in the nature of the vowel in a 
 syllable adjoining. In the Anglo-Saxon the following words 
 exhibit a change of vowel. 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 Lang, 
 
 Lengre, 
 
 Longest. 
 
 Long. 
 
 Strang, 
 
 Strcngre, 
 
 Strongest. 
 
 Stro?/g, 
 
 Geong, 
 
 Gyngre, 
 
 Gyngest. 
 
 Young, 
 
 Sceort, 
 
 Scyrtre, 
 
 Scyrtest. 
 
 Short. 
 
 Heah, 
 
 Hyrre, 
 
 Hyhst. 
 
 High. 
 
 Eald, 
 
 Yldre, 
 
 Yldest. 
 
 Old. 
 
 Of this change, the word last quoted is a still-existing 
 specimen, as old, elder and older, eldest and oldest. Between 
 the two forms there is a difference in meaning, elder beinof 
 used as a substantive, and having a plural form, elders. 
 
 § 315. The previous section has stated that in Anglo- 
 Saxon there were two forms for the comparative and superla- 
 tive degrees, one in -re and -este, the other in -or and -ost, 
 respectively. Now the first of these was the form taken by 
 adjectives ,• as se scearpre siceord = the sharper sword, and se 
 sceaipeste sword ^ the sharpest sword. The second, on the 
 other hand, was the form taken by adverbs ,- as, se sweord 
 scyr^ scearpor =■ the sword cuts sharper, and se sweord sc9/r6 
 scearpost = the sivord cuts sharpest. 
 
 The adjectival form has, as seen above, a tendency to 
 make the vowel of the preceding syllable small : old, elder.
 
 a(?() TlIK CUMPARATIVB DEGREE. 
 
 'I'll!' advcrliial I'nrm lias ii tendency to make tlic vowel of 
 the preeeilinif sylhihlo full. 
 
 Of this elfeet on the part of the adverbial form the adverb- 
 ial eomparative rather is a specimen. \V\> pronounce the a 
 a« in ftitlwr, or full. Nevertheless, tlie positive form is small, 
 the IX beinir i)ronounced as the a in fate. 
 
 The wortl railwr means quick, easi/ — the classical root puh- 
 in pdhiog. NVhat we do quickly and willincili/ we do preferabli/. 
 Now if the word rather were an adjective, the vowel of the 
 comparative would be sounded as the a in fate. As it is, 
 however, it is adverbial, and as such is properly sounded as 
 the a m father. 
 
 The ditterence between the action of the small vowel in 
 -re, and of the full in -or, effects this difference. 
 
 § ol6. Excess of expression. — Of this two samples have 
 already been given : 1. in words like songstress ; 2. in words 
 like children. This may be called excess of expression ; the 
 feminine gender, in words like songstress, and the plural num- 
 ber, in words like children, being expressed twice over. In 
 the vulgarism letterer for better, and in the antiquated forms 
 tcorser for xcorse, and lesser for less, we have, in the case of 
 the comparatives, as elsewhere, an excess of expression. In 
 the Old High German we have the forms hetscroro, meroro, 
 ererera rr better, more, ere. 
 
 §317. Better. — Although in the superlative form best there 
 is a slight variation from the strict form of that degree, the 
 word better is perfectly regular. So far, then, from truth are 
 the current statements that the comparison of the words good, 
 better, and best is irregular. The inflection is not irregular, 
 but defective. As the statement that applies to good, better, 
 and best applies to many words besides, it will be well in this 
 place, once for all, to exhibit it in full. 
 
 § 3 1 8. Difference beticeen a sequence in logic and a sequence in 
 etymology. — The ideas or notions of thou, thy, thee, are ideas 
 between which there is a metaphysical or logical connexion. 
 The train of such ideas may be said to form a sequence and 
 such a sequence may be called a logical one. 
 
 The forms (or words) thou, thy, thee, are forms or words
 
 THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 267 
 
 between which there is a formal or an etymological con- 
 nexion, A train of such words may be called a sequence, 
 and such a sequence may be called an etymological one. 
 
 In the case of thou^ ihy^ thee, the etymological sequence 
 tallies with the logical one. 
 
 The ideas of /, my, and me are also in a logical sequence : 
 but the forms /, my, and me are not altogether in an ety- 
 mological one. 
 
 In the case of /, my, me, the etymological sequence does 
 not tally (or tallies imperfectly) with the logical one. 
 
 This is only another way of saying that between the words 
 / and me there is no connexion in etymology. 
 
 It is also only another way of saying, that, in the oblique 
 cases, /, and, in the nominative case, me, are defective. 
 
 Now the same is the case with good, better, had, worse, &c. 
 Good and had are defective in the comparative and superla- 
 tive degrees ; hetter and worse are defective in the positive ; 
 whilst between good and hetter, had and worse, there is a se- 
 quence in logic, but no sequence in etymology. 
 
 To return, however, to the word hetter ; no absolute posi- 
 tive degree is found in any of the allied languages, and in 
 none of the allied languages is there found any comparative 
 form of good. Its root occurs in the following adverbial 
 forms: Moeso-Gothic, hats; Old High German, joafe; Old 
 Saxon and Anglo-Saxon, het ; Middle High German, haz ; 
 Middle Dutch, hat, het.— Qxxmm, D. G. iii. 604. 
 
 §319. Worse. — Mceso-Gothic, vairsiza ; Old High German, 
 wirsiro ; Middle High German, wirser ; Old Saxon, lolrso ; 
 Anglo-Saxon, vyrsa ; Old Norse, ■w^rn; Danish, -w^Errg ; and 
 Swedish, v'drre. Such are the adjectival forms. The adver- 
 bial forms are Mceso-Gothic, va'irs ; Old High German, mrs ; 
 Middle High German, loirs; Anglo-Saxon, vyrs: Old Norse, 
 verr ; Danish, vcerre; Swedish, mrre. — Grimm, D. G. iii. 606. 
 Whether the present form in English be originally adjectival 
 or adverbial is indifferent ; since, as soon as the final a of 
 vyrsa was omitted, the two words would be the same. The 
 forms, however, vairsiza, wirser, worse, and vi/rri, make the 
 word one of the; most perplexing in the language.
 
 21)8 TIIK rOMl'Ali.VTIVE DEGREE. 
 
 It' tlu> t'onn irursr be t;iUiii without respect to the rest, 
 the view ot" the matter is simply that in the termination s 
 we have a reimiaiit ot" tlie M(eso-(«othic forms, hke sutiza, 
 &c., ill other words, the old comparative in s, 
 
 n7/\<«v and valrsiza traverse this view. They indicate the 
 Hkehhooil ot" the i>* being no sign of tlie degree, bnt a part of 
 the original word. Otherwise the /• in wirser, and tlie z in 
 vairsiza, denote an excess of expression. 
 
 The analogies of so/?(7s^r^ss, children, and betseruro show that 
 excess of expression fre(piently occurs. 
 
 The analogy of md and bet show that toorse may possibly 
 be a positive form. 
 
 The word verri indicates the belief that the s is no part 
 of the root. 
 
 Finally the euphonic processes of the Scandinavian lan- 
 guages tell us that, even had there been an s, it would, in all 
 probability, have been ejected. These difficulties verify the 
 statement that the word tcorse is one of the most perplexing 
 in the language. 
 
 § 320. Much, more. — Here, although the words be unlike 
 each other, there is a true etymological relation. Mocso- 
 Gothic, mikils ; Old High German, mihhil ; Old Saxon, mikil ; 
 Anglo-Saxon, mycel ; Old Norse, mickill ; Scotch, mucMe and 
 mickle (all ending in I) : Danish, megen^ m. ; meget, n. ; Swe- 
 dish, mycken, m. ; myckett, n. (where no I is found). Such 
 is the adjectival form of the positive, rarely found in the 
 Modern Gothic languages, being replaced in German by gross, 
 in English by great, in Danish by stor. The adverbial forms 
 are miljk and midg, Norse : much, English. It is remarkable 
 that this last form is not found in Anglo-Saxon, being re- 
 placed by sdre. Germ. sehr. — Grimm, D. G. iii. 608. 
 
 The adverbial and the Norse forms indicate that the I is no 
 part of the original word. Comparison with other Indo- 
 European languages gives us the same circumstance : San- 
 skrit, maha; Latin, mag -mis : Greek, (jAyug (megas). 
 
 'IMiere is in Ma\so-GothIc the com])arative form mdiza 
 and there is no objection to presuming a longer form, magiza ,• 
 since in the Greek form fjjiiPpjv, compared with /Asya?, there
 
 THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 269 
 
 is a similar disappearance of the g. In the Old High Ger- 
 man we find mero, corresponding with mdiza, Moeso-Gothic, 
 and with more, English. 
 
 MicJcle (replaced by great) expresses size ; much, quantity ; 
 many, number. The words more and most apply equally to 
 number and quantity. I am not prepared either to assert or 
 to deny that many, in Anglo-Saxon mcenig, is from the same 
 root with much. Of the word mci notice has already been 
 taken. Its later form, moe, occurs as late as Queen Eliza- 
 beth, with an adjectival as well as an adverbial sense. 
 
 § 321. Little, less. — Like much and more, these words are in 
 an etymological relation to each other. ^loeso-Gothic, leitils ; 
 Old High German, luzil; Old Saxon, luttil ; Anglo-Saxon, 
 lytel ; Middle High German, lidzel ; Old Norse, litill. 
 In these forms we have the letter I. Old High German Pro- 
 vincial, luzic ; Old Frisian, litich ; Middle Dutch, luMik ; 
 Swedish, Uten ; Domsh, liden. — Deutsche Grammatik, iii, 
 611. From these we find that the I is either no part of 
 the original word, or one that is easily got rid of In Swe- 
 dish and Danisli there are the forms lille and lideri ; whilst 
 in the neuter form, Udt, the d is unpronounced. Even the 
 word liden the Danes have a tendency to pronounce leen. 
 My own notion is that these changes leave it possible for 
 less to be derived from the root of little. According to 
 Grimm, the Anglo-Saxon Idssa is the Gothic lasivoza, the 
 comparative of lasivs = tveal: — Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 611. 
 In Anglo-Saxon there was the adjectival form loessa, and the 
 adverbial form 1(ES. In either case we have the form s. 
 
 § 822. Near, nearer. — Anglo-Saxon, neah ; comparative, 
 nearre, near, nyr ; superlative, nyhst, nehst. Observe, in the 
 Anglo-Saxon positive and superlative, the absence of the r. 
 This shows that the English positive near is the Anglo-Saxon 
 comparative nearre, and that in the secondary comparative 
 nearer, we have an excess of expression. It may be, however, 
 that the r in near is a mere point of orthography, and that 
 it is not pronounced. The fact that in the English language 
 the words father and farther are, for the most part, pro- 
 nounced alike, is the key to the forms near and nearer.
 
 TiO TIIK Co.MrAHATIVE DEGREE. 
 
 § :V2o. Fartlm-. — A ii^^lo- Saxon feoi\ fyrre, fyrrest. Tlie th 
 seems euphonic, inserted by the same process that gives the ^ 
 in av^fr;;. 
 
 Furthr. — ConlDuntkil ^vith farther, although in reality 
 from a ilitleront word, /ore. Old High German, furdir ; New 
 lliu'li CJornian, Jer vonlere ; Anglo-Saxon, _/^r6/v. 
 
 § o"24. Former. — A comparative formed from the superla- 
 tive ; forma being such. Consequently, an instance of excess of 
 exj)ri's.sion, combined with irregularity. 
 
 Languages have a comjjarative without a superlative de- 
 gree ; no language has a superlative degree without liaving also 
 a comparative one. 
 
 § 825. In Mceso-Gothic spedists means last, and spediza = 
 later. Of the word spedists two views may be taken. Ac- 
 cording to one it is the positive degree with the addition of 
 st ; according to the other, it is the comparative degree with 
 the addition only of t. Now, Grimm and others lay down 
 as a rule, that the superlative is formed, not directly from the 
 positive, but indirectly through the comparative. 
 
 With the exception of worse and less^ all the English com- 
 paratives end in r : yet no superlative ends in rt^ the form 
 being, not ^cise, wiser, wisert, but wise, wiser, wisest. This 
 fact, without invalidating the notion just laid down, gives 
 additional importance to the comparative forms in s ; since it 
 is from these, before they have changed to r, that we must 
 suppose the superlatives to have been derived. The theory 
 being admitted, we can, by approximation, determine the 
 comparative antiquity of the superlative degree. It was in- 
 troduced into the Indo-European tongues after the establish- 
 ment of the comparative, and before the change of -s into -r. 
 I give no opinion as to the truth of this theory.
 
 THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 271 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 
 
 § 326. The history of the supei'lative form, accurately 
 parallel with what has been stated of the comparative, is as 
 follows : — 
 
 In Sanskrit there is, 1. the form tama^ 2. the form ishta ; 
 the first being the commonest. The same is the case in the 
 Zend. 
 
 Each of these appears again in the Greek. The first, as 
 ra,T (tat), in XsTrrorarog {leptotatos) ; the second, as lar (ist), 
 in oiKTiffTog (oiktisios). For certain reasons, Grimm thinks 
 that the tat stands for tamt, or tant. 
 
 In Latin, words like intimus, ewfimus, ultimus, preserve 
 im ; whilst venustus, mtustus, and rohustus, are considered as 
 positives, preserving the superlative form -st. 
 
 Just as in in/erus and nuperus, there was the ejection of 
 the t in the comparative ter, so in infimus, nigerrimus, &c., 
 is there the ejection of the same letter in the superlative tim. 
 
 This gives us, as signs of the superlative,!, tm ; 2. st ; 
 8. m, t being lost ; 4<. t, m being lost. 
 
 Of the first and last of these, there are amongst the true 
 superlatives, in English, no specimens. 
 
 Of the third, there is a specimen in the Anglo-Saxon se 
 forma, the first, from the root fore, as compared with the 
 \j2ii'm primus, and the Lithuanic pirmas. 
 
 The second, st {wise, wisest), is the current termination. 
 
 Of the English superlatives, the only ones that demand a 
 detailed examination are those that are generally despatched 
 without difficulty ; viz., the words in itiost ; such as midmost, 
 foremost, &c. The current view is the one adopted by Rask 
 in his Anglo-Saxon Grammar (§ 133), viz., that they are
 
 '372 TllK SriM'KLATlVK DECREE. 
 
 roin|K)un<l wtuils, foniu-il iVuni siiM[)l(^ ones hy the adtlition 
 of tin* siij)orl:itive torin iiiosf. (uiium's view is opposed to 
 this. In appreeinting CJriiunrs view, we must bear in niiud 
 tlie pheiionieiia of excess of expression ; at the same time we 
 must not depart from the current theory without duly con- 
 sidfiin^- the faet .stated by Rask ; which is, that we have in 
 leehimUe the forms iitcrmeir^fjcermeir^ &c., nearer, awl farther, 
 most unequivocally compounded of near and 7nore, and oi'far 
 and more. 
 
 Let especial notice be taken of the Moeso-Gothic forms 
 fruma, first ; aftuma, last ; and of the Anglo-Saxon forms 
 forma, aftema, aftermost ; ufema, upmost ; hindema, hind- 
 most ; midema, midmost ; innema, inmost ; utema, outmost ; 
 s?Seina, last ; latema, last ; ni^ema, nethermost. These ac- 
 count for the m. 
 
 Add to this, with an excess of expression, the letters st. 
 This accounts for the whole form, as tnid-m-osi^ in-m-ost, &c. 
 Such is Grimm's view. 
 
 Furthermost, innermost, hindermost. — Here there is a true 
 addition of most, and an excess of inflection, a superlative 
 form being added to a word in the comparative degree. 
 
 Former. — Here, as stated before, a comparative sign is 
 added to a word in the superlative degree. 
 
 § 327. The combination st occurs in other words besides 
 those of the superlative degree ; amongst others, in cer- 
 tain adverbs and prepositions, as among, amongst ; while, 
 ichilst ; between, betwixt. — Its power here has not been well 
 explained.
 
 THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 273 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 OF THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 § 328. In one sense the cardinal numbers form no part of 
 a work on etymology They are single words, apparently 
 simple, and, as such, appertaining to a dictionary rather than 
 to a grammar. 
 
 In another sense they are strictly etymological. They are 
 the basis of the ordinals, which are formed from them by 
 derivation. Furthermore, some of them either have, or are 
 supposed to have, certain peculiarities of form which can be 
 accounted for only by considering them derivatives, and that 
 of a very peculiar kind. 
 
 § 329. It is an ethnological fact, that the numerals are 
 essentially the same throughout the whole Indo-European 
 class of languages. The English three is the Latin tres, the 
 Sanskrit tri, &c. In the Indo-European languages the nume- 
 rals agree, even when many common terms differ. 
 
 And it is also an ethnological fact, that in a great many 
 other groups of languages the numerals differ, even when 
 many of the common terms agree. This is the case with 
 many of the African and American dialects. Languages 
 alike in the common terms for common objects differ in re- 
 spect to the numerals. 
 
 What is the reason for this inconsistency in the similarity 
 or dissimilarity of the numerals as compared with the simi- 
 larity or dissimilarity of other words ? I believe that the 
 following distinction leads the way to it : — 
 
 The word two = 2, absolutely and unequivocally, and in 
 a primary manner. 
 
 The word pair also = 2 ; but not absolutely, not unequi- 
 vocally, and only in a secondary manner. 
 
 T
 
 274 THK CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 IltMiro tlif (li^till(•ti(»Il liL'tween absolute terms expressive 
 of number, and socoiulary terms expressive of number. 
 
 When lani,'uai,'es separate from a conmion stock before the 
 use of certain worils is fixed as absolute, there is room for 
 considerable latitude in the choice of numerals; e.rf., whilst with 
 one tribe the word pair = two, another tribe may use the 
 word couple, a third brace, and so on. In this case dialects 
 that atrree in other respects may differ in respect to their 
 numerals. 
 
 \Vhen, on the other hand, languages separate from a 
 common stock after the meaning of such a word as tioo has 
 been fixed absolutely, there is no room for latitude ; and the 
 numerals agree where the remainder of the language differs. 
 
 1. One = unus, Latin; eig (gV), Greek. 
 
 2. Two = duo, hvo. 
 
 3. Three = tres, r^iig. 
 
 4. Four = quatuor, rirrugu. This is apparently pro- 
 blematical. Nevertheless, the assumed changes can be veri- 
 fied by the following forms : — 
 
 a. F'uhor, Moeso-Gothic. To be compared with quatuor. 
 (i. Tliavoig, ^olic. Illustrates the change between r- and 
 ;r- (allied to/-), within the pale of the classical languages. 
 
 5. Five = quinqite, tsvts. Verified by the following 
 forms : — 
 
 a. n.ifjj'Tri, iEolic Greek. 
 
 |3. Pum]), Welsh. These account for the change from 
 the n + t in 'ttivtz to m +p. 
 
 y. Firaf, Mojso-Gothic ; fiinf^ Modern High German. 
 
 }>. Fern, Norse. 
 
 The change from the t- of TCivn to the qu- of quinque is 
 the change so often quoted by Latin and Celtic scholars be- 
 tween p and k : 'I'TT'TTog, iKxog, equus. 
 
 6. Six = g'l, sex. 
 
 7. Seven = gVra, septem. 
 
 This form is difficult. The Moeso-Gothic form is sibun, 
 without a -t- ; the Norse, .sy??, without either -t- or -n (= -m). 
 A doubtful explanation of the form seven, Sec, will be found 
 in the following chapter.
 
 THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 275 
 
 8. Eight = ozrcD, ocio. 
 
 9. Nine = hvea, noveni. The Moeso-Gothic form is 
 nipun, the Icelandic niu. In the Latin novem the v = the 
 p of nigun. In the English and Greek it is wanting. The 
 explanation of the -n and -m will be found in the following 
 chapter. 
 
 10. Ten= hszK, decern. The Moeso-Gothic form is ti- 
 hmi ; wherein the h = the c of decern and the x, of §g«a. 
 The Icelandic form is fm, and, like ViKOC, is without the -n 
 (or -m). The hypothesis as to the -m or -n will be given 
 in the next chapter. 
 
 11. Eleven. By no means the equivalent to undecim = 1 
 + 10. 
 
 a. The e is em = one. Einlif, ein-\ef, eilef, eilf, elf, Old 
 High German ; andlova, Old Frisian ; end-leofan, endhifan, 
 Anglo-Saxon. This is universally admitted. 
 
 jo. The -lev- is a modification of the root laih-an = manere 
 == to stay = to be over. Hence eleven = one over (ten). 
 This is not universally admitted. 
 
 y. The -n has not been well accounted for. It is peculiar 
 to the Low Germanic dialects. — Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 
 946. 
 
 12. Twelve = the root two-\-i\\Q root laih = two over 
 (ten) .Tvalif, Moeso-Gothic; zuelif. Old High German; toll., 
 Swedish. The same doubts that apply to the doctrine of the 
 -Iv' in eleven representing the root -laib., apply to the -Iv- in 
 twelve. — Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 946, 
 
 13. Thirteen = ^ + 10. So on till twenty. 
 
 30. Thirty = 3 x 10, or three decads. This difference 
 in the decimal power of the syllables -teen and -ty is illus- 
 trated by — 
 
 cc. The Moeso-Gothic. — Here we find the root tig- used as 
 a true substantive, equivalent in form as well as power to the 
 Greek Vi>c-ug. Tvdim tigum ]msandjom^=duohus decadihus 
 myriadum. (Luke xiv. 31.) Jere \rije tigive=annorum 
 duarmn decaduni. (Luke iii. 23.) prins tiguns siluhrinaize= 
 tres decadas argenteorum. (Matthew xxvii. 3, 9.) — Deutsche 
 Grammatik, ii. 948. 
 
 T 2
 
 ^*7<) THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 (o. Tlio li'claiuru'. — " Tlu' iiumher.s from 20 to 100 .ire 
 foriiutl by means of the numeral substantive, tl(jr, declined 
 liki' ri^r, and naturally taking the word which it numerically 
 determines in the genitive case. 
 
 Nom. Fjdrir Upr niumia =: ./•'"'' ^^"^ i]t'i"cn. 
 
 Gen. Fjogurru tiga niannn =r of four tens of men. 
 
 Dat. Fjoruin tiguin inaniift = to four tens of men. 
 
 Ace. Fjiira tiga manna = four tens of men . 
 
 " This is the form of the inflection in the best and oldest 
 MSS. A little later was adopted the indeclinable form tt(ji, 
 which was used adjectivally."" — Det Oldnorske Sprogs Gram- 
 matik, af P. A. Munch, og C. B. Unger, Christiania, 1847. 
 
 § 330. CJenerally speaking, the greater part of the nume- 
 rals are undedined, even in inflected languages. As far as 
 number goes, this is necessary. 
 
 One is naturally and exclusively singular. 
 
 Tico is naturally dual. 
 
 The rest are naturally and exclusively plural. 
 
 As to the inflection of gender and cases, there is no reason 
 why all the numerals should not be as fully inflected as the 
 Latin unus, una^ imwn^ unius.
 
 THE ORDINAL NUMBERS. 277 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 ON THE ORDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 § 331. The remarks at the close of the last chapter but 
 one indicated the fact that superlative forms were found be- 
 yond the superlative degree. The present chapter shows 
 that they are certainly found in some, and possibly in all of 
 the ordinal numbers. 
 
 First. — In Moeso-Gothic, fruma, frumist ; in Anglo- 
 Saxon, forma, fyrmest ; in Old High German, vurist ; in 
 Old Norse, fyrst ; in New High German, erst. In all these 
 words, whether in /«, in mst, or in st, there is a superlative 
 form. The same is the case with pratamas, Sanskrit ; /rate- 
 mas, Zend ; '^r^urog, Greek ; pWwms, Latin ; primas, Lithua- 
 nic. Considering that, compared with the other ordinals, the 
 ordinal of one is a sort of superlative, this is not at all sur- 
 prising. 
 
 Between the words one and frst there is no etymological 
 relation. This is the case in most languages. Unus, primus, 
 i'lg, 'Tr^HJTog, &c. 
 
 § 332. Second. — Between this word and its cardinal, ttvo, 
 there is no etymological connexion. This is the case in 
 many, if not in most, languages. In Latin the cardinal is 
 duo, and the ordinal secundus, a gerund of sequor, and 
 meaning the following. In Anglo-Saxon the form was se 
 o'Ser = the other. In the present German, the ordinal is 
 zweiie, a word etymologically connected with the cardinal 
 zwei = two. 
 
 Old High German, andar ; Old Saxon, othar ,• Old Frisian, 
 other ; Middle Dutch, ander. In all these words we have 
 the comparative form -ter ; and considcriug that, compared 
 loith the word first, the word second is a sort of compara-
 
 -7S TIIK ORDINAL NUMHKRS. 
 
 live, tliorc is iiotliiui,' in the cirrumstiinee to surprise us. 
 The (Jrt'ok forms })tVTi^og :ind 'inoog, the Latin alter, aucl 
 the Lithuanic antras, arc the same. 
 
 § 3oo. With the third ordinal number begin difficulties: 
 1. in respect to their i'orm ; 2. in respect to the idea conveyed 
 by (hem. 
 
 1. Comparing third, fourth, fifth, &c., with three, four, and 
 fivet the Ibrmation of the ordinal from the cardinal form may 
 
 seem simply to consist in the addition of d or th. Such, 
 liowever, is far from being the case. 
 
 2. Ara'uinof from the nature of the first two ordinals, 
 namely, the words first and second, of which one has been 
 called a superlative and the other a comparative, it may 
 seem a simple matter to associate, in regard to the rest, the 
 idea of ordinalism with the idea of comparison. A plain 
 distinction, however, will show that the case of the first two 
 ordinals is peculiar. Fii^st is a superlative, not as compared 
 with its cardinal, one, but as compared with the other numerals. 
 Second, or other, is a comparative, not as compared with its 
 cardinal, two, but as compared with the numeral one. Now 
 it is very evident, that, if the other ordinals be either com- 
 paratives or superlatives, they must be so, not as compared 
 with one another, but as compared with their respective 
 cardinals. Sixth, to be anything like a superlative, must be 
 so when compared with six, 
 
 § 834. Now there are, in etymology, two ways of determin- 
 ing the affinity of ideas. The first is the metaphysical, the 
 second the empirical, method. 
 
 This is letter than that, is a sentence which the pure 
 metaphysician may deal with. He may first determine that 
 there is in it the idea of comparison ; and next that the 
 comparison is the comparison between two objects, and no 
 more than two. This idea he may compare with others. 
 He may determine, that, with a sentence like this is one and 
 that is tits other, it has something in common ; since both 
 assert something concerning one out of two objects. Upon this 
 connexion in sense he is at liberty to reason. He is at 
 liberty to conceive that in certain languages words expressive
 
 THE ORDINAL NUMBERS. 2T9 
 
 of allied ideas may also be allied in form. Whether such be 
 really the case, he leaves to etymologists to decide. 
 
 The pure etymologist proceeds differently. He assumes 
 the conuexiou in meaning from the connexion in form. All 
 that he at first observes is, that words like otlier and hetter 
 have one and the same termination. For this identity he 
 attempts to give a reason, and finds that he can best account 
 for it by presuming some aifinity in sense. Whether there be 
 such an affinity, he leaves to the metaphysician to decide. 
 This is the empirical method. 
 
 At times the two methods coincide, and ideas evidently 
 allied are expressed by forms evidently allied. 
 
 At times the connexion between the ideas is evident ; but 
 the connexion between the forms obscure : and vice versa. 
 Oftener, however, the case is as it is with the subjects of the 
 present chapter. Are the ideas of ordinalism in number, and 
 of superlativeness in degree, allied? The metaphysical view, 
 taken by itself, gives us but unsatisfactory evidence ; whilst 
 the empirical view, taken by itself, does the same. The two 
 views, however, taken together, give us evidence of the kind 
 called cumulative, which is weak or strong according to its 
 degree. 
 
 Compared with three, four, &c., all the ordinals are formed 
 by the addition of th, or t ; and tk, S, t, or d, is the ordinal 
 sign, not only in English, but in the other Gothic languages. 
 But, as stated before, this is not the whole of the question. 
 
 The letter t is found, with a similar power, 1. In Latin, as 
 in tertius, quartus, quintus, sextus ; 2. Greek, as in r^irog 
 (trltos), TSTCi^rog (tetartos), TTifjjTTog (pemptos), 'i'/crog {hecfos), 
 'ivvuTog (ennaios), hiKurog {deTcatos) ; 3. Sanskrit, as in triti- 
 yas, ''caturtas, shasht' as = third, fourth, sixth ; 4. In Zend, as 
 in thriti/as=the third, hajytathas^^the seventh ; 5. In Lithuanic, 
 u.^ketvyirtas^^fourth,penJctas^=fifth,szesztas= sixth; 6. In Old 
 Slavonic, as in cetvertyi=fourth, pjatyi^fifth, shestyi=^ sixth, 
 devjatyi^=ninth, desjatyi=tenth. Speaking more generally, 
 it is found, with a similar force, throughout the Indo-Euroi)oau 
 stock. 
 
 The f(jllowing forms indicate a fresh train of reasoning.
 
 ^80 THK oiUnNAL NUMBERS, 
 
 rill- (irook gVra {hcpta)^ ami Icelandic sjau, have been com- 
 pared with the Latin fieptem and the Anglo-Saxon seofon. In 
 the ( I rook and Icelandic there is the absence, in the Latin 
 and Anglo-Saxon the presence, of a final liquid {m or w). 
 
 Again, the Greek forms hv'ia {cnnea), and the Icelandic 
 niu = nine, have been compared with the Latin novem and 
 the Gothic nigiin. 
 
 Tliirdly, the Greek ViKO, (deka), and the Icelandic tiu, have 
 been compared with the Latin decern and the Gothic tihun = 
 ten. 
 
 These three examples indicate the same circumstance ; viz. 
 that the 7ti or n, in seve^i, nine, and ten, is no part of the 
 original word. 
 
 § 335. The following hypotheses account for these phe- 
 nomena ; viz. that the termination of the ordinals is the 
 superlative termination -tarn : that in some words, like the 
 Latin septimus, the whole form is preserved ; that in some, 
 as in rgrcc^og = fourth, the t only remains ; and that in 
 others, as in decimus, the m alone remains. Finall}', that in 
 seven, nine, and ten, the final liquid, although now belonging 
 to the cardinal, was once the characteristic of the ordinal 
 number. For a fuller exhibition of these views, see Grimm, 
 Deutsche Grammatik, iii. G40.
 
 THE ARTICLES. 281 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE ARTICLES. 
 
 § 336. In the generality of grammars the definite article 
 the, and the indefinite article an, are the very first parts of 
 speech that are considered. This is exceptionable. So far 
 are they from being essential to language, that, in many 
 dialects, they are wholly wanting. In Greek there is no indefi- 
 nite, in Latin there is neither an indefinite nor a definite article. 
 In the former language they say ocvr^^ rig = a certain man : in 
 the Latin the words films patris mean equally the son of the 
 father, a son of a father, a son of the father, or the son of a 
 father. In Moeso-Gothic and in Old Norse, there is an equal 
 absence of the indefinite article ; or, at any rate, if there be 
 one at all, it is a different word from what occurs in English. 
 In these the Greek Tig is expressed by the Gothic root sum. 
 
 Now, as it is very evident that, as far as the sense is con- 
 cerned, the words some man, a certain man, and a man, are, 
 there or thereabouts, the same, an exception may be taken to 
 the statement that in Greek and Moeso-Gothic there is no 
 indefinite article. It may, in the present state of the argument, 
 be fairly said that the words sum and rig are pronouns with a 
 certain sense, and that a and an are no more ; consequently, 
 that in Greek the indefinite article is rig, in Moeso-Gothic s%m, 
 and in English a or an. 
 
 A distinction, however, may be made. In the expression 
 kvri^ rig ( anccr tis) = a certain man, or a man, and in the 
 expression sum mann, the words sum and rig preserve their 
 natural and original meaning; whilst in a man and an ox 
 the words a and an are used in a secondary sense. These 
 words, as is currently known, are one and the same, the n, 
 in the form a, being ejected through a euphonic process. 
 They are, moreover, the same woixls with the innneral one ;
 
 •*S:> TllK AU'IMCLKS. 
 
 Aiiglo-Siixon, (i')i ; Scotch, (ine. Now, between the worils a 
 nuin ami one man, there is a ditierence in meaning; tlie first 
 e\'|)ri'ssion beini,'" the nio.st iiiilefinite. Hence comes the 
 ilillerence between the Enyhsh and the Moeso-(iothic 
 expressions. In the one the word sum has a natural, in the 
 other the word an has a secondary power. 
 
 The same reasoning apphes to the word the. Compared 
 with a man, the woi'ds the man are very definite. Comjiared, 
 however, with the words that man, they are the contrary. Now, 
 just as an and a have arisen out of the numeral one, so has 
 the arisen out of the demonstrative pronoun ])e£t, or at least 
 from some common root. It will be remembered that in 
 Anglo-Saxon there was a form j?^, undeclined, and common 
 to all the cases of all the numbers. 
 
 In no language in its oldest stage is there ever a word 
 giving, in its primary sense, the ideas of a and the. As 
 tongues become modern, some noun with a similar sense is 
 used to express them. In the course of time a change of 
 form takes place, corresponding to the change of meaning ; 
 e. g., one becomes an, and afterwards a. Then it is that 
 articles become looked upon as separate parts of speech, and 
 are dealt with accordingly. No invalidation of this statement 
 is drawn from the Greek language. Although the first page 
 of the etymology gives us o, ri, rb {ho, hcE, to), as the definite 
 articles, the corresponding page in the syntax informs us, 
 that, in the oldest stage of the language, o {ho) = the, had 
 the power of ovrog {howtos) = this. 
 
 The origin of the articles seems uniform. In German ein, 
 in Danish e7i, stand to 07ie in the same relation that a?i does. 
 The French un, Italian and Spanish una, are similarly re- 
 lated to unus = one. 
 
 And as, in English the, in German der, in Danish de7i, come 
 fnnn tlie demonstrative pronouns, so in the classical languages 
 are the French le, the Italian il and lo, and the Spanish el, 
 derived from the Latin demonstrative, ille. 
 
 In his Outlines of Logic, the present writer has given rea- 
 sons for considering the word no (as in no man) an article. 
 
 That the, in expressions like all the more, all the better, &c., 
 is no article, has already been shown.
 
 DIMINUTIVES AND AUQMENTATIVES. 283 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 DIMINUTIVES, AUGMENT ATIVES, AND PATRONYMICS, 
 
 § 337. Compared with the words lamb^ man, and hill, the 
 words lambkin, mannikin, and Mllock convey the idea of com- 
 parative smallness or diminution. Now, as the word hillock 
 = a little hill diiFers in form from hill, we have in English 
 a series of diminutive forms, or diminutives. 
 
 The English diminutives may be arranged according to a 
 variety of principles. Amongst others : 
 
 1. According to their form. — The word hillock is derived 
 from hill, by the addition of a syllable. The word tip is 
 derived from top, by the change of a vowel. 
 
 2. According to their meaning. — In the word hillock there 
 is the simple expression of comparative smallness in size. 
 In the word doggie for dog, lassie for lass, the addition of the 
 -ie makes the word not so much a diminutive as a term of 
 tenderness or endearment. The idea of smallness, accom- 
 panied, perhaps, with that of neatness, generally carries with 
 it the idea of approbation. The word clean in English, 
 means, in German, little = kleine. The feeling of protection 
 which is extended to small objects engenders the notion of 
 endearment. In Middle High German we have vaterlin = 
 little father, miitterlin = little mother. In Middle High 
 German there is the diminutive sunnelln ; and the French 
 soleil is from the Latin form solillus. In Slavonic the word 
 slunze =■ sun is a diminutive form. 
 
 The Greek word ^jzicoaig {meiosis) means diminution ; the 
 Greek word u'TroKO^itryjCc means an endearing expression. 
 Hence we get names for the two kinds of diminutives ; viz., 
 the term meioiic for the true diminutives, and the term h^/po- 
 coristic for the diminutives of endearment. — Grimm, Deutsche 
 Grammatik, iii. 664;.
 
 JiSi PIMINITIVKS, AUOMKNTATIVES, 
 
 ;{. Arcon/lno to their historical orifjin. — Tlie syllable -ocl\, 
 as ill hillock, is tit' Anglo-Saxon and Gothic origin. The 
 -dy as in lancet, is of French and classical origin. 
 
 4. AccdrdiiKj as they affect proper names or common 
 names. — Ilawkin, Perkin, Wilkin, &c. In these words we 
 have the diminutives of Hal, Peter, Will, &c. 
 
 § iioS. The diminutive forms of Gothic origin are the first 
 to be considered. 
 
 1. Those formed hy a change of votcel. — Tip, from top. 
 The relation of the feminine to the masculine is allied to the 
 ideas conveyed by many diminutives. Hence in the word 
 kit, from cat, it is doubtful whether there be meant a female 
 cat or a little cat. Kid is a diminutive form of goat. 
 
 2. Those formed by the addition of a letter or letters. — 
 Of the diminutive characteristics thus formed the commonest, 
 beginning from the simpler forms, are 
 
 le. — Almost peculiar to the Lowland Scotch ; as daddie, 
 lassie, minnie, wife, mousie, doggie, hoatie, &c. — Deutsche 
 Grannnatik, iii. G86. 
 
 Ock. — Bullock, hillock. 
 
 Kin. — Lambkin, mannikin, ladikin, &c. As is seen above, 
 common in proper names. 
 
 En. — Chicken, kitten, from cock, cat. The notion of dimi- 
 nution, if indeed that be the notion originally conveyed, lies 
 not in the -en, but in the vowel. In the word chicken, from 
 cock, observe the effect of the small vowel on the c. 
 
 The consideration of words like duckling and gosling is 
 purposely deferred. 
 
 The chief diminutive of classical origin is — 
 
 Et, as in trumj)et, lancet, pocket ; the wovik pock, as in meal- 
 pock = a meal-bag, being found in the Scottish. From the 
 French -ette, as in caissette, poulette. 
 
 The forms -rel, as in cockerel, pickerel, and -let, as in 
 streamlet^ require a separate consideration. The first has no- 
 thing to do with the Italian forms acqwerella and coserella — 
 themselves, perhaps, of Gothic, rather than of classical origin. 
 
 In the Old High-German there are a multitude of diminu- 
 tive forms in -I ; as ouga = an eye, ougili = a little eye, lied 
 = a song, liedel ^^ a little song. "• In Austria and Bavaria
 
 AND PATRONYMICS. 285 
 
 are the forms mannel, weibel, hmidel, &c., or tnaniil, weibl, 
 hundl, &c. In some districts there is an r before the I, as 
 madarl = a little maid, muadarl = a little mother, briadarl 
 = a little brother, &c. This is occasioned by the false ana- 
 logy of the diminutives of the derived form in r." — Deutsche 
 Grammatik, iii. p. 674. This indicates the nature of words 
 like cockerel. 
 
 Even in English the diminutive povi^er of -el can be traced 
 in the following words : — 
 
 Soare = a deer in its third year. Sor-rel = a deer in its 
 second year. — See Lovers Labour Lost, with the note. 
 
 Tiercel = a small sort of hawk, one-third less (tierce) than 
 the common kind. 
 
 Kantle = small corner, from cant =^ a comer. — Henry IV. 
 
 Hurdle ; in Dutch horde ; German, hurde. Hording, 
 without the -I, is used in an allied sense by builders in 
 English. 
 
 In the words in point we must assume an earlier form, 
 cocJcer and piker, to which the diminutive form -el is affixed. 
 If this be true, we have, in English, representatives of the 
 diminutive form -I, so common in the High Germanic dia- 
 lects. Wolfer = a wolf, hunker = a haunch, flltcher = a 
 flitch, teamer = a team, fresher = a frog, — these are north 
 country forms of the present English.* 
 
 The termination -let, as in streamlet, seems to be double, 
 and to consist of the Gothic diminutive -I, and the French 
 diminutive -t. 
 
 § 339. Augmentatives. — Compared with capello = a hat, 
 the Italian word capellone = a great hat is an augmentative. 
 The augmentative forms, pre-eminently common in the Italian 
 language, often carry with them a depreciating sense. 
 
 The termination -rd (in Old High German, -hart), as in 
 drunkard, braggart, laggard, stinkard, carries with it this idea 
 of depreciation. In buzzard, and reynard, the name of the 
 fox, it is simply augmentative. In wizard, from ivitch, it has 
 the power of a masculine form. 
 
 The termination -rd, taken from the Gothic, apj)cars in 
 * Guest, ii. 192.
 
 ?S() 1»IM1\IT[VES, AUGMENTATIVE!:^, 
 
 the iMoiloni lanuu:it,'0!S of classical oriLrin : 1^'rcnch, vieillanJ ; 
 Spanisli, codai'do. From these we get at, second-haiul, tlio 
 word roward. — Dcutsdio Oraniiuatik, iil. 707. 
 
 The word smcf/ixni is a derived word of this sort, rather 
 than a compound word ; since in Old High German and 
 Miildle Hiy-li (u-rman, we have the corresponding form lieb- 
 hart. ^o\\ the form for heart is in German not hart, but 
 herz. 
 
 ^^'^ords like hragaadoc'io, trombone, balloon, being words of 
 foreign origin, prove nothing as to tlie further existence of 
 augmentative forms in English. 
 
 § 340. Patroni/mics. — In the Greek language the notion of 
 lineal descent, in other words, the relation of the son to the 
 father, is expressed by a particular termination ; as, Yl^^Xivg 
 (Pelcus). Il-/;}M^rjc (Peleidas), the son of Peleus. It is very 
 evident that this mode of expression is very diffei-ent from 
 either the English form Johnson, or GaeHc MacDonald. In 
 these last-named words, the words son and Mac mean the 
 same thing ; so that Johnson and MacDonald are not derived, 
 but compound words. This Greek way of expressing descent 
 is peculiar, and the words wherein it occurs are classed to- 
 gether by the peculiar name 'patronymic, from pat<tr = a 
 father, and onoma = a name. Is there anything in EngHsh 
 corresponding to the Greek patronymics ? It was for the 
 sake of this question that the consideration of the termina- 
 tion -ling, as in duckling, &c., was deferred. 
 
 The termination -ling, Hke the terminations -rel and -let, is 
 compound. Its simpler form is -ing. This, from being 
 affixed to the derived forms in -I, has become -ling. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon the terminations -ing is as truly patronymic 
 as -ihri<; is in Greek. In the Bible-translation the son of 
 Elisha is called Elising. In the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle oc- 
 cur such^ genealogies as the following : — Ida wces £Jopping, 
 Eoppa Esing, Esa Inging, Inga Angenviting, Angenvit Aloc- 
 ing, Aloe Beonocing, Beonoc Branding, Brand Beddteging, 
 Baldccg Vodening, Vuden Fri^ovmlfing , Fri^owulf Finning, 
 Finn Godwulfing, Godvmlf Geating = Ida was the son of 
 Eoppa, Eoppa of Esing, Esing of Inga, Inga of Angenvit,
 
 AND PATRONYMICS. 287 
 
 Angenvit of Aloe, Aloe of Beonoc, Beonoe of Brand, Brand 
 of Bseldag, Bwldag of Woden, Woden of Fri^Sowulf, Fri8o- 
 wulf of Finn, Finn of Godwulf, Godwulf of Geat. — In Greek, 
 "I^a rjV 'EoTTTntltjg, "EoTTTra 'H(rdl'/]g, "Hca 'lyys/^jjj, ■* lyyoc 
 ' AyyifpTuhrig, &c. In the plural number these forms denote 
 the race of; as Scyldingas = the Sc^ldincfs, or the race of 
 Scyld, &c. Edgar Atheling means Edgar of the race of the 
 nobles. The primary of -ing and -l-iiig is descent or relation- 
 ship ; from these comes the idea of youth and endearment, 
 and thence the true diminutive idea. In darling, stripling, 
 duckling, gosling (pr. gesUng), JcitUng (pr. for kitten), nest- 
 ling, yearling, chickling, fatling, fledgling, firstling, the idea 
 of descent still remains. In hireling the idea of diminution is 
 accompanied with the idea of contempt. In changeliyig we 
 have a Gothic termination and a classical root. See, for the 
 full exposition of this view, Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 349 — 
 S64, iii. 682. 
 
 In the opening speech of Mario w's Jew of Malta we have 
 the following lines : — 
 
 Here have I pursed their paltry siherlings. 
 Fie ! what a trouble 'tis to count this trash ! 
 Well fare the Arabs, that so richly pay 
 For what they traffick in with wedge of gold. 
 
 The word siherlings has troubled the commentators. Burst 
 their silverhins has been proposed . as the true reading. The 
 word, however, is a true diminutive, as siluparlinc, silarhar- 
 ling = a small silver coin, Old High German. 
 
 A good chapter on the English diminutives may be seen in 
 the Cambridge Philological Museum, vol. i. p. 679.
 
 •.»SS GENTILE FORMS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 GENTILE FORMS. 
 
 § SH. TiiKSK have been illustrated by Mr. Guest in the 
 Transactions of the Philological Society. 
 
 The only word in the present English that requires expla- 
 nation is the name of the principality Wales. 
 
 1. The form is plural, however much the meaning may be 
 singular ; so that the -s in Wales is the -s in fathers, &c. 
 
 2. It has grown out of the Anglo-Saxon from wealhas = 
 foreigners., the name by which the Welsh are spoken of by the 
 Germans of England, just as the Italians are called Welsh by 
 the Germans of Germany : wal-iiuts = foreign nuts. 
 
 3. The transfer of the name of the people inhabiting a 
 certain country to the country so inhabited, was one of the 
 commonest processes in both Anglo-Saxon and Old English. — 
 Guest, Phil. Trans.
 
 CONNEXION BETWEEN NOUN AND VERB. 289 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 ON THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE NOUN AND VERB, AND ON 
 THE INFLECTION OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 § 342. In order to understand clearly the use of the so- 
 called infinitive mood in English, it is necessary to bear in 
 mind two facts, one a matter of logic, the other a matter of 
 history. 
 
 In the way of logic, the difference between a noun and a 
 verb is less marked than it is in the way of grammar. 
 
 Grammatically, the contrast is considerable. The inflec- 
 tion of nouns expresses the ideas of sex as denoted by gender, 
 and of relation in place as denoted by cases. That of verbs 
 rarely expresses sex, and never position. On the other hand, 
 however, it expresses what no noun ever does or can express ; 
 e. ^., the relation of the agent to the individual speaking, by 
 means of person ; the time in which acts take place, by 
 means of tense ; and the conditions of their occurrence, by 
 means of mood. 
 
 The idea of number is the only one that, on a superficial 
 view, is common to these two important parts of speech. 
 
 Logically, the contrast is inconsiderable. A noun de- 
 notes an object of which either the senses or the intellect 
 can take cognizance, and a verb does no more. To move = 
 motion, to rise = rising, to err = error, to forgive =^ forgive- 
 ness. The only difference between the two parts of speech is 
 this, that, whereas a noun may express any object whatever, 
 verbs can only express those objects which consist in an 
 action. And it is this superadded idea of action that super- 
 adds to the verb the phenomena of tense, mood, person, and 
 voice ; in other words, the phenomena of conjugation. 
 
 § 343. A noun is a word capable of declension only. A 
 
 u
 
 :.'}>0 ON TIIK rONNEXION BETWEEN 
 
 verb is a word capable of ilocltMisioii and conjugation also. 
 The fact of verbs being tleclined as well as conjugated must 
 be renioniborcd. Tbo participle lias the declension of a noun 
 adjective, the infinite mood tlie declension of a noun substan- 
 tive. (Jerunds and supines, in languages where they occur, 
 are only names for certain cases of the verb. 
 
 Although in all languages the verb is equally capable of de- 
 clension, it is not equally declined. The Greeks, for instance, 
 used forms like 
 
 TO (fidove'iv = invidia. 
 
 Tov (fidaut'iv = invidia. 
 
 ev Tco (pdovdv ::= in invidia. 
 
 ofteuer than the Romans. The fact of there being an article 
 in Greek may account for this. 
 
 § S-ii. Returning, however, to the illustration of the sub- 
 stantival character of the so-called infinitive mood, we may 
 easily see — 
 
 a. The name of any action may be used without any 
 mention of the agent. Thus, we may speak of the simple 
 fact of walking or moving, independently of any specification 
 of the walker or mover. 
 
 /3. That, when actions are spoken of thus indefinitely, the 
 idea of either person or number has no place in the conception ; 
 from which it follows that the so-called infinitive mood must 
 be at once impersonal, and without the distinction of singular, 
 dual, and plural. 
 
 y. That, nevertheless, the ideas of time and relation in 
 space have place in the conception. We can think of a person 
 being in the act of striking a blow, of his having been in the act 
 of striking a blow, or of his being about to be in the act of striking 
 a blow. We can also think of a person being in the act of doing 
 a good action, or of his being fro7n the act of doing a good action. 
 
 This has been written to show that verbs of languages in 
 general are as naturally declinable as nouns. What follows will 
 show that the verbs of the Gothic languages in particular w'cre 
 actually declined, and that fragments of this declension remain 
 in the present English. 
 
 § 345. The inflection of the verb in its impersonal (or in-
 
 THE NOUN AND VERB. 291 
 
 finitive form) consisted, in full, of three eases, a nominative (oi* 
 accusative), a dative, and a genitive. The genitive is put last, 
 because its occurrence in the Gothic language is the least 
 constant. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon the nominative (or accusative) ended in -an : 
 Lufian = to love = amare. 
 Bsernan = to burn ^ urere. 
 Syllan = to give = dare. 
 
 Be it observed, that the -en in words like strengthen, &c., 
 is a derivational termination, and by no means a representa- 
 tion of the Anglo-Saxon infinitive inflection. The Anglo- 
 Saxon infinitive inflection is lost in the present English, except 
 in certain provincial dialects. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon the dative of the infinitive verb ended in 
 -nne, and was (as a matter of syntax) generally, perhaps 
 always, preceded by the preposition to. 
 
 To lufienne = ad amandum. 
 To bsernenne =: ad urendum. 
 To syllanne = ad dandum. 
 
 The genitive, ending in -es, occurs only in Old High German 
 and Modern High German, pidsannes, weinnenes. 
 
 § 346. With these preliminaries we can take a clear view 
 of the English infinitives. They exist under two forms, and 
 are referable to a double origin. 
 
 1. The independent form. — This is used after the words 
 can, may, shall, will, and some others, as, / can spealc, I may 
 go, I shall come, I will move. Here there is no preposition, 
 and the origin of the infinitive is from the form in -an. 
 
 2. The prepositional form. — This is used after the majority 
 of English verbs, as / wish to speak, I mean to go, I intend to 
 come, I determine to move. Here we have the preposition to 
 and the origin of the infinitive is from the form in -nne. 
 
 Expressions like to err = error, to forgive = forgiveness, in 
 lines like 
 
 To err is human, to forgive divine, 
 
 are very remarkable. They exhibit the phenomena of a 
 nominative case having grown not only out of a dative but out 
 of a dative plus its governing preposition. 
 
 u2
 
 Qiy-i ON 1>KU1VI',1> VEUBS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 ON DERIVED VERBS. 
 
 § 347. Of number, person, mood, tense, and conjugation, 
 special notice is taken in their respective chapters. Of the 
 divisions of verbs into active and passive, transitive and in- 
 transitive, unless there be an accompanying change of form, 
 etymology takes no cognisance. The forces of the auxiliary 
 verbs, and the tenses to which they are equivalent, are also 
 points of syntax rather than of etymology. 
 
 Four classes, however, of derived verbs, as opposed to 
 simple, especially deserve notice. 
 
 I. Those ending in -en ; as soften, toMten, strengthen, &c. 
 Here it has been already remarked that the -en is a deriva- 
 tional affix; and not a representative of the Anglo-Saxon 
 infinitive form -an (as hijian^ harnan = to love, to burn), and 
 the Old English -en (as tellen, loven). 
 
 II. Transitive verbs derived from intransitives by a change 
 of the vowel of the root. 
 
 Primilive Intransitive 
 
 Form. 
 
 Derived Transitive Form 
 
 Rise . 
 
 
 . Raise. 
 
 Lie . 
 
 
 . Lay. 
 
 Sit . 
 
 
 . Set. 
 
 Fall . 
 
 
 . Fell. 
 
 Drink . 
 
 
 . Drench. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon these words were more numerous than 
 they are at present. The following list is taken from the 
 Cambridge Philological Museum, ii. 386. 
 
 Intravi. Infinitive. Trans. Infinitive, 
 
 Yman, to run . . . ^rnan, to make to run, 
 
 Byrnan, to hum . . Barnan, to make to burn.
 
 ON DERIVED VERBS. 
 
 293 
 
 Intrans. Infinitive. 
 Drincan, to drink 
 Sincan, to sink 
 Liegan, to lie . 
 Sittan, to sit . 
 Drifan, to drift 
 Feallan, to Jail 
 Weallan, to boil 
 Fleogau, to fiy 
 Beogan, to bow 
 Faran, to go . 
 Wacan, to wake 
 
 Trans. Infinitive. 
 Drcncaii, to drench. 
 Sencan, to make to sink. 
 Lecgan, to lay. 
 Settan, to set. 
 Drpefan, to drive. 
 Fyllan, to fell. 
 Wyllan, to make to boil. 
 A-fligan, to put to fiig/it. 
 Bigan, to bend. 
 Feran,/o convey, 
 Weccan, to awaken. 
 
 All these intransitives form their prseterite by a change of 
 vowel, as sink, sank ; all the trausitives by the addition of d 
 or t, as fell, /eWd. 
 
 III. Verbs derived from nouns by a change of accent ; as 
 to survey., from a survey. For a fuller list see the Chapter 
 on Derivation. Walker attributes the change of accent to 
 the influence of the participial termination -ing. All words 
 thus affected are of foreign origin. 
 
 IV. Verbs formed from nouns by changing a final sharp 
 consonant into its corresponding flat one ; as, 
 
 The use . 
 The breath 
 The cloth . 
 
 to use, pronounced uze. 
 to breathe — breadhc. 
 to clothe — clodhe.
 
 '^\)i ON THE I'EIISONS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 ON THE PICRSONS. 
 
 § 348. Compared with the Latin, the Greek, the Maso- 
 Gotliie, and ahnost all the ancient languages, there is, in 
 English, in resj)ect to the persons of the verbs, but a very 
 slight amount of inflection. This may be seen by comparing 
 the English word call with the Latin voco. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Si7ig. 
 
 Plur 
 
 1. Voc-o. 
 
 Yoc-amus. 
 
 Call. 
 
 Call. 
 
 2. Voc-as. 
 
 Yoc-utis. 
 
 Call-est. 
 
 Call. 
 
 3. Voc-at. 
 
 Voc-aiit. 
 
 *Call-etli. 
 
 Call. 
 
 Here the Latins have different forms for each different per- 
 son, whilst the English have forms for two only ; and even of 
 these one (callest) is becoming obsolete. With the forms of 
 voco marked in italics there is, in the current English, nothing 
 correspondent. 
 
 In the word am, as compared with are and art, we find a 
 sign of the first person singular. 
 
 In the old forms tellen, iveren, &c., we have a sign of the 
 plural number. 
 
 In the Modern English, the Old English, and the Anglo- 
 Saxon, the peculiarities of our personal inflections are very 
 great. This may be seen from the following tables of com- 
 parison : — 
 
 Present Tense, Indicative Mood. 
 
 Mceso-Gothic. 
 
 \ St person. 2nd person. 2rd person. 
 
 Singular. Sokja. Sokeis. SokeitJ — seek. 
 
 Plural. Sokjam. Sokcijj. Sokjand. 
 
 * Or calls.
 
 ON THE PERSONS. 
 
 295 
 
 Present Tense, Indicative Mood. 
 Old High German. 
 
 Singular. 
 Plural. 
 
 1st person. 2nd person, 
 Prennu. Prennis. 
 Prennames, Prennat. 
 
 Zrd person. 
 Prennit — hum. 
 Prennant. 
 
 
 
 Icelandic. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 Plural. 
 
 Kalla. 
 
 Kollum. 
 
 Kallar. 
 Kallif.. 
 
 Kallar — call. 
 Kalla. 
 
 Singular. 
 Plural. 
 
 Sokju. 
 Sokjad, 
 
 Old Saxon. 
 Sokis. 
 Sokjad. 
 
 Sokid — seek. 
 Sokjad. 
 
 Singular, 
 Plural. 
 
 Lufige. 
 LufiaS. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Lufast. 
 Lufia<5. 
 
 LufaS. 
 LufiatS. 
 
 Singular. 
 Plural. 
 
 Love. 
 Loven. 
 
 Old English. 
 
 Lovest. 
 Loven. 
 
 Lovetli. 
 Loven. 
 
 Singular. 
 Plural. 
 
 Love. 
 Love. 
 
 Modern English. 
 
 Lovest. 
 Love. 
 
 Loveth (or Loves). 
 Love. 
 
 Herein remark ; 1. the Anglo-Saxon addition of t in the 
 second person singular ; 2. the identity in form of the three 
 persons of the plural number ; 3. the change of -aS into -en 
 in the Old English plural ; 4. the total absence of plural 
 forms in the Modern English ; 5. the change of the th into s, 
 in loveth and loves. These are points bearing especially upon 
 the history of the English persons. The following points 
 indicate a more general question. 
 
 1 . The full form prennames in the newer Old High German, 
 as compared with sokjam in the old Moeso- Gothic. 
 
 2. The appearance of the r in Icelandic. 
 
 3. The difference between the Old Saxon and the Anglo- 
 Saxon in the second person singular ; the final t being absent 
 in Old Saxon. 
 
 4. The respective powers of m in the first, of s in the second, 
 and of T (or its allied sounds) in the third persons singular ;
 
 -'!U) ON TllK PERSONS. 
 
 of MKs ill tlu' iirst, t)t" I (or its allied sounds) iu tlie second, 
 and of Ni) iu the third persons plural, In this we have a 
 regular expression of the persons by means of regular signs ; 
 and this the history of the personal terminations verifies. 
 
 § 349. First person singular. — That the original sign of 
 this person was m we learn from the following forms : dadilml, 
 Sanskrit ; dudhdmi, Zend ; ^/^<y^/, Greek ; dumi, Lithuanic ; 
 damy, Slavonic = / give. The Latin language preserves it 
 in sum and inquam, and in the first persons of tenses, like 
 leqam, leqebam, legerem, legissem. The form im = I am oc- 
 curs in McEso-Gothic ; and the words stom =■ I stand, lirnem 
 = I shall learn, in Old High German. The word am is a 
 fragmentary specimen of it in our own language. 
 
 Plural. — The original sign mes. Dadmas, Sanskrit ; ^Z- 
 ho[jjic, afterwards hiho[/jiv, Greek ; damus, Latin = we give. 
 The current form in Old High German. 
 
 These forms in m may or may not be derived from the pro- 
 noun of the first person ; md, Sanskrit ; me, Latin, English, &c. 
 
 Second person singidar. — The original sign s. Dadasi, 
 Sanskrit ; h'^cog, Greek ; das, Latin ; dasi, Slavonic. Pre- 
 served in the Gothic languages. 
 
 Plural. — The original sign t, or an allied sound. Dadyata, 
 Sanskrit ; daidhydta, Zend ; ^i^on, Greek ; datls, Latin ; 
 dul'ite, Lithuanic; dasJidite, ^lawoma = ye give. Current in 
 the Gothic languages. 
 
 These forms in t and s may or may not be derived from 
 the pronoun of the second person ; tva, Sanskrit ; av, Greek ; 
 thou, English. 
 
 Third 2>crson singular. — The original sign t. Dadati, 
 Sanskrit; dadhditi, Zend ; hilauri, Old Greek; dat, Latin; 
 dusti, Lithuanic ; dasty, Slavonic = he gives. Preserved in 
 the Gothic languages. 
 
 Plural. — The original sign nt. Dadenti, Zend ; }>i^ovri, 
 afterwards "bihoiJai, Greek ; dant, Latin = they give. In 
 Mffiso-Gothic and Old High German. 
 
 The preceding examples are from Grimm and Bopp. To 
 them add the Welsh form carant = they love, and the Per- 
 sian budend = they are.
 
 ON THE PERSONS. 297 
 
 The forms In t and nt may or may not be clcrivetl from 
 the demonstrative pronoun to, Saxon ; to, Greek ; that, En- 
 glish, &c. 
 
 § 350. The present state of the personal inflection in Eng- 
 lish, so different from that of the older languages, has been 
 brought about by two processes. 
 
 I. Change of form. — ^) The ejection of -es in -mes, as in 
 sokjam and hollum, compared with preimames ; '') the ejection 
 of -m, as in the first person singular, almost throughout ; ") 
 the change of -s into -r, as in the Norse Tcallar, compared 
 with the Germanic sokeis ; '') the ejection of -d from -nd, 
 as in lomn (if this be the true explanation of that form) 
 compared W\\h. 'premiant ; *) the ejection o^-nd, as in l:aUa ; ^) 
 the addition of -t, as in lufast and lovest. In all these cases 
 we have a change of form. 
 
 II. Confusion or extension. — In vulgarisms \\\i.e I goes, lis, 
 one person is used instead of another. In vulgarisms like 
 / are, we goes, one number is used instead of another. In 
 vulgarisms like / he tired, or if I am tired, one mood is used 
 instead of another. In vulgarisms like / give for / gave, one 
 tense is used for another. In all this there is confusion. 
 There is also extension : since, in the phrase / is, the third 
 person is used instead of the first ; in other words, it is used 
 with an extension of its natural meaning. It has the power 
 of the third person + that of the. first. In the course of 
 time one person may entirely supplant, supersede, or replace 
 another. The application of this is as follows : — 
 
 The only person of the plural number originally ending iu 
 S is the second ; as sokeip, iwennat, Jcalli\>, lufic^ ; the original 
 ending of the first person being -mes, or -m, as prennames, 
 sokjam, kollum. Now, in Anglo-Saxon, the first person ends 
 in S, as lufia^S. Has -m, or -mes, changed to ^, or has the 
 second person superseded the first ? The latter alternative 
 seems the likelier. 
 
 § 351. The detail of the persons seems to be as follows : — 
 
 / call, first person singular. — The word call is not one 
 
 person more than another. It is the simple verb, wholly un- 
 
 inflected. It is very probable that the first person was the
 
 298 UN THE PERSONS. 
 
 ono wlu-rc tlio c-li;iracteristic toniiiiiMtion was first lost. In 
 the Modorn Norse language it is replaced by the second : Jeg 
 t tiler = 7 sj)eai; Danish. 
 
 T/ioii callest, siccond person singular. — The final -t appears 
 throughout the Anglo-Saxon, although wanting in Old Saxon. 
 In Old High Oerman it begins to appear in Otfrid, and is 
 general in Notker. In Middle High German and New High 
 Oernian it is universal. — Deutsche Grammatik, i. 1041. 857. 
 
 He calleth, or he calls, third person singular. — The -s in 
 calls is the -ih in calleth, changed. The Norse form hollar 
 either derives its -r from the -th by way of change, or else 
 the form is that of the second person replacing the first. 
 
 Lufia^, Anglo-Saxon, first person plural. — The second 
 j)erson in the place of the first. The same in Old Saxon. 
 
 Lufia^, Anglo-Saxon, third person plural. — Possibly 
 changed from -nd, as in suhjand. More probably the second 
 person. 
 
 Loven, Old English. — For all the persons of the plural. 
 This form may be accounted for in three ways: 1. The -m 
 of the Ma^so-Gothic and High Old German became -n ; 
 as it is in the Middle and Modern German, where all traces 
 of the original -m are lost. In this case the first person has 
 replaced the other two. 2. The -nd may have become -n ; 
 in which case it is the third person that replaces the others. 
 3. The indicative form loven may have arisen out of a subjunc- 
 tive one ; since there was in Anglo-Saxon the form Ixifion, or 
 lujian, subjunctive. In the Modern Norse languages the third 
 person replaces the other two ; Vi tale, I tale, de tale = we 
 talk, ye talk, they talk. 
 
 § 852. The person in -x. — Art, wast, wert, shalt, wilt. 
 Here the second person singular ends, not in -st, but in -t. 
 A reason for this (though not wholly satisfactory) we find in 
 the Mffiso-Gothic and the Icelandic. 
 
 In those languages the form of the person changes with 
 the tense, and the second singular of the prseterite tense of 
 one conjugation is, not -s, but -t ; as Mceso-Gothic, sv6r = / 
 swore, svort = thou swarest, grdip = I griped, grdipt = thou 
 gripedst ; Icelandic, hrannt = thou hurnest, gaft = thou
 
 ON THE PERSONS. 
 
 299 
 
 gavest. In the same languages ten verbs are conjugated like 
 prseterites. Of these, in each language, skal is one. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mceso-Gothic. 
 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. Skal. 
 
 2. Skalt. 
 
 3. Skall. 
 
 
 
 
 Dual. 
 
 Skulu. 
 Skuluts. 
 
 Skuluts. 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 Skulum 
 Skulu>. 
 Skulun. 
 
 
 
 
 Icelandic. 
 
 
 
 
 Si 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 vgul 
 Ska 
 Ska 
 Ska 
 
 11. 
 It. 
 1. 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Skulum. 
 SkuluS. 
 Skulu. 
 
 
 § 353. Thou spakest., thou hraJcest, thou sungest.* — In these 
 forms there is a slight though natural anomaly. They belong 
 to the class of verbs which form their praeterite by changing 
 the vowel of the present ; as s^w^, sang, &c. Now, all words of 
 this sort in Anglo-Saxon formed their second singular praete- 
 rite, not in -st, but in -e ; as ])u funde = thou foundest, Jjm 
 sunge = thou simgest. The English termination is derived 
 from the present. Observe that this applies only to the prse- 
 terites formed by changing the vowel. Thou loved''st is Anglo- 
 Saxon as well as English, viz., ])u lufodest. 
 
 § 354. In the northern dialects of the Anglo-Saxon the -S 
 of plurals like lufa^ = toe love becomes -s. In the Scottish 
 this change was still more prevalent : 
 
 The Scottes come that to this day 
 Huvys, and Scotland haldyn ay. 
 
 WiNTOUN, 11. 9. 73. 
 
 James I. of England ends nearly all his plurals in -s. 
 
 * Thou ssmgcst, thou dr&nkest, &c. — For a reason given in the sequel, these 
 forms arc less unexceptionable than sungest, drwnkest, &c.
 
 ^<>o ON tul: number of vEims. 
 
 ClIAPTEll XX. 
 
 O.N THE NUMBERS 01' VERUS. 
 
 § 355. The inflection of the present tense, not only in 
 Anglo-Saxon, but in several other languages as well, has been 
 given in the preceding chapter. As compared with the pre- 
 sent plural tbrnis, we love, ye love, they love, both the Anglo- 
 Saxon we lujia%, pe licjia^, hi luJia'S, and the Old English we 
 lovcn, ye loven, they loven, have a peculiar termination for the 
 plural number which the present language wants. In other 
 words, the Anglo-Saxon and the Old English have a plural 
 personal characteristic, whilst the JSIodern English has nothing 
 to correspond with it. 
 
 The word personal is printed in italics. It does not fol- 
 low, that, because there is no plural personal characteristic, 
 there is also no plural characteristic. 
 
 There is no reason against the inflection of the word love 
 running thus — / love, thou lovest, he loves ; we lave, ye lave, 
 they lave ; in other words, there is no reason against the vowel 
 of the root being changed with the number. In such a case 
 there would be no personal inflection, though there would be 
 a plural, or a numeral, inflection. 
 
 Now, in Anglo-Saxon, with a great number of verbs such 
 a plural inflection not only actually takes place, but takes 
 place most regularly. It takes place, however, in the past 
 ten.se only. And this is the case in all the Gothic languages 
 as well as in Anglo-Saxon. Amongst the rest, in — 
 
 Moeso-Gothic. 
 
 Skain, I shone ; skinurn, we shone. 
 Siuait, I smote ; suiitum, we smote. 
 KaiLs, 1 chose ; kusuiii, we chose. 
 Laug, / lied ; luguui, wc lud. 
 
 Gab, I gave ; gebum, we gave. 
 At, I ete ; etum, we ele. 
 ^ia\,l stole; sieinm, we stole. 
 Qvaiii, / cume ; <ivemuui, wc came.
 
 ON THE NUMBER OF VERBS. 
 
 301 
 
 Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Am, I ran ; union, we run. 
 Ongan, I began ; onguniion, we be- 
 gun. 
 Span, I span ; spunnon, toe spun. 
 Sang, / sang ; sungon, we sung. 
 Swang,' Iswang ; swangon, we swung. 
 
 Diane, I drank ; Arwncow, ice drunk . 
 Sane, I sank ; suncon, we sunk. 
 Sprang, I sprang; sprungon, mv 
 
 sprung. 
 Swam, I swam; swummon,?iJe smuni. 
 Rang, 1 rang ; rungon, we rung. 
 
 In all the Anglo-Saxon words, it may be remarked that 
 the change is from a to m, and that both the vowels are short, 
 or dependent. Also, that the vowel of the present tense is 
 i short ; as siclm, sing, &c. The Anglo-Saxon form of run 
 is yrnan. 
 
 In the following words the change is from the Anglo-Saxon 
 
 G c> c^ 
 
 d to the Anglo-Saxon I. In English, the regularity of the 
 change is obscured by a change of pronunciation. 
 
 Bat, 1 bit ; biton, we bit. 
 
 I Smat, 1 smote ; f^xmiaw, we smil . 
 
 From these examples the reader has himself drawn his 
 inference ; viz. that words like 
 
 Began, begun. 
 Ran, run. 
 Span, spun. 
 Sang, su7ig. 
 *Swaug, swung. 
 Sprang, sprung. 
 
 Sank, sunk. 
 Swam, swum. 
 Rang, rung. 
 * But, bit. 
 Smote, sntit, 
 Dr'ank, drunk, S)C., 
 
 generally called double forms of the past tense, were originally 
 different numbers of the same tense, the forms in u, as swum, 
 and the forms in i, bit, being plural. 
 
 * Antiquated.
 
 .102 
 
 ON MOODS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXT. 
 
 ON MOODS. 
 
 § 35 G. The Anglo-Saxon infinitive has already been con 
 sidered. 
 
 § 357. Between the second plural imperative, and the 
 second plural indicative, speak ye and ye speak^ there is no 
 difference of form. Between the second singular imperative 
 speak, and the second singular indicative, speakest, there is a 
 difference in form. Still, as the imperative form speak is 
 distinguished from the indicative form speakest by the negation 
 of a character rather than by the possession of one, it cannot 
 be said that there is in English any imperative mood. 
 
 § 358. If he speak, as opposed to if he speaks, is charac- 
 terised by a negative sign only, and consequently is no true 
 example of a subjunctive. Be, as opposed to am, in the 
 sentence if it be so, is an uninflected word used in a limited 
 sense, and consequently no true example of a subjunctive. 
 
 The only true subjunctive inflection in the English lan- 
 guage is that of were and ^oert, as opposed to the indicative 
 forms was and wast. 
 
 Indicative. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I was. Wc were. 
 
 2. Thou wast. Ye were. 
 
 3. He was. They were. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 If I were. If we were. 
 
 If tliou wcrt. If ye were. 
 If he were. If tliey were.
 
 ON TENSES IN GENERAL. 303 
 
 CHAPTER XXTT. 
 
 ON TENSES IN GENERAL. 
 
 § 359. The nature of tenses in general is best exhibited 
 by reference to the Greek ; since in that language they are 
 more numerous, and more strongly marked than elsewhere. 
 
 I strike, I struck. — Of these words, the first implies an 
 action taking place at the time of speaking, the second marks 
 an action that has already taken place. 
 
 These two notions of present and of past time, being 
 expressed by a change of form, are true tenses. They are 
 however, the only true tenses in our language. In / was 
 heating, I have beaten, I had beaten, and I shall beat, a dilFe- 
 rence of time is expressed ; but as it is expressed by a 
 combination of words, and not by a change of form, no true 
 tenses are constituted. 
 
 In Greek the case is different. Tutto) (ti/ptd) =I beat ; 
 'irvTrrov {etypton)=I was heating; rv-^oj (typs6)=I shall 
 beat; iTV-^a, {etypscC)^! heat; T&ru(pcc (tetr/fa)^=I have 
 beaten ; inrvpziv {etetyfehi)^! had beaten. In these words 
 we have, of the same mood, the same voice, and the same 
 conjugation, six different tenses;* whereas, in English, there 
 are but two. The forms rirv(pci and sru\pa are so strongly 
 marked, that we recognise them wheresoever they occur. 
 The first is formed by a reduplication of the initial r, and, 
 consequently, may be called the reduplicate form. As a 
 tense it is called the perfect. In the form 'irv-^u an g is 
 prefixed, and an a is added. In the allied language of Italy 
 
 * As the present section is written with the single view of illustrating the 
 subject, no mention has been made of the forms tvitw {typo), and ervnov 
 {etypon).
 
 ;;01 ON TKNSKS IN (iENERAL. 
 
 llu> I (lis.'ipponrs, whilst tlio n {s) remains. "Eru-4/a is said 
 ti) !)(• an a«)ris( tonso. So'ipsi : scribo : : eru^ffct : rv-^rco. 
 
 § 3()0. Now in tho Latin lan<>uagc a confnsion takes place 
 between these two tenses. IJoth forms exist. They are 
 nseil, however, indiscriminately. '^I'hc aorist form has, besides 
 its own, the sense of the perfect. 'I'he perfect has, besides 
 its own, the sense of the aorist. In the following pair of 
 quotations, vixi, the aorist form, is translated / Jiave lived, 
 while ttfiaif, the perfect form, is translated he touched. 
 
 Vixi, ct quem dcderat cursum Fortuna pcrcgi ; 
 
 Et nunc magna mei sub terras ibit imago. — yE?8. iv. 
 
 Ut primum alatis tetig'U magalia plantis. — JEn. iv. 
 
 When a dilference of form lias ceased to express a difference 
 of meaning, it has become superfluous. This is the case 
 with the two forms in question. One of them may be dis- 
 pensed with ; and the consequence is, that, although in the 
 Latin language both the perfect and the aorist forms are found, 
 they are, with few exceptions, never found in the same word. 
 Wherever there is the perfect, the aorist is wanting, and 
 vice versa. The two ideas / have struck and / struck are 
 merged into the notion of past time in general, and are 
 expressed by one of two forms, sometimes by that of the 
 Greek perfect, and sometimes by that of the Greek aorist. 
 On account of this the grammarians have cut down the 
 number of Latin tenses to Jive ; forms like cucurri and vixi 
 being dealt with as one and the same tense. The true view 
 is, that in curro the aorist form is replaced by the perfect, 
 and in vixi the perfect form is replaced by the aorist. 
 
 § 86L In the present English there is no undoubted per- 
 fect or reduplicate form. The form moved corresponds in 
 meaning not with rirv^a and momordi, but with irvil/a and 
 vixi. Its sense is that of 'irv-^pa, and not that of rkrv(pu,. The 
 notion given by rirv(pa, we express by the circumlocution / 
 have heaten. We have no such form as heheat or niemove. 
 In the Moeso-Gothic, however, there was a true reduplicate 
 form ; in other words, a perfect tense as well as an aorist. It
 
 1st. 
 
 Fal^a, 
 
 Ijbld 
 
 Fiiifalj., 
 
 
 Hdda, 
 
 Ifecd 
 
 Haihald, 
 
 
 Halia, 
 
 I hung 
 
 Haihah, 
 
 2iid. 
 
 Hiiita, 
 
 I cull 
 
 Haihait, 
 
 
 Laika, 
 
 I play 
 
 Lailaik, 
 
 3d. 
 
 Hlaupa, 
 
 I run 
 
 Hlailaup. 
 
 4tli. 
 
 Slepa, 
 
 I sleep 
 
 Saizlep, 
 
 5tli. 
 
 Lai a, 
 
 I laugh 
 
 Lailo, 
 
 
 Saija, 
 
 I sow 
 
 Saiso, 
 
 6th 
 
 Greta, 
 
 I iceep 
 
 Gaigiot, 
 
 
 Teka, 
 
 I touch 
 
 Taitok, 
 
 ON TENSES IN GENERAL. 305 
 
 is by the possession of this form th^at the verbs of the first six 
 conjugations are cliaractorized. 
 
 I huveJ'old(d, or IJoldtd. 
 
 I have feci, or I Jed. 
 
 I have hanged, or I hanged. 
 
 I have called, or I called. 
 
 I have plai/ed, or I played. 
 
 I have run, or I ra7i. 
 
 I have slept, or I slept. 
 
 I have laughed, or 1 laught. 
 
 I have sown, or I sowed. 
 
 I have wept, or I wept. 
 
 I have touched, or I touched. 
 
 In Moeso-Gothic, as in Latin, the perfect forms have, 
 besides their own, an aorist sense, and vice versa. 
 
 In Moeso-Gothic, as in Latin, few (if any) words are 
 found in both forms. 
 
 In Mffiso-Gothic, as in Latin, the two forms are dealt 
 with as a single tense ; Iciilo being called the prseterite of 
 Idia, and svor the prseterite of svara. The true view, how- 
 ever, is that in Mceso-Gothic, as in Latin, there are two 
 past tenses, each having a certain latitude of meaning, and 
 each, in certain words, replacing the other. 
 
 The reduplicate form, in other words, the perfect tense, is 
 current in none of the Gothic languages except the Mffiso- 
 Gothic. A trace of it is found in the Anglo-Saxon of the 
 seventh century in the word heht, which is considered to be 
 he-ht, tlie Moeso-Gothic hdihdit, vocavi. This statement is 
 taken from the Cambridge Philological Museum, ii. o78. 
 Did from do is also considered to be a reduplicate form. 
 
 § 3fi2. In the English language the tense corresponding 
 with the Greek aorist and the Latin forms like via;i, is formed 
 after two modes ; 1, as in fell, sang, and took, i'xoiw fall, sing, 
 and taJce, by changing the vowel of the present : 2, as in inoved 
 and icejjt, from move and toeep, by the addition of d or t ; the 
 d or t not being found in the original word, but being a fresh 
 element added to it. In forms, on the contrary, like sang and 
 fell, no addition being made, no new element appears. The 
 
 X
 
 oO() ON TKNSES IN (IKNERAL. 
 
 vowel, imlood, is chaiicfcd, Imt noUiinti; is added. Verbs, 
 thou, of tho fiftit sort, may be said to form their practerites 
 out of themselves ; whilst verbs of the second sort require 
 something from without. To speak in a metaphor, words 
 like sd/in and /ell are compavatively independent. Be this 
 as it may, the (jermau ijframmarians call the tenses formed by 
 a change of vowel the strong tenses, the strong verbs, the 
 strong conjugation, or the strong order ; and those formed by 
 the addition of d or t, the weak tenses, the weak verbs, the 
 weak conjugation, or the weak order. Bound, sjwke, gave, 
 lat/, &c., are strong ; moved, favoured, instructed, &c., are 
 weak. For the proof that the division of verbs into weak 
 and strong is a natural division, see the Chapter on Conjugation.
 
 THE STRONG TENSES. S07 
 
 CHAPTER XXITI. 
 
 THE STRONG TENSES. 
 
 § 363. The strong prseterites are formed from the present 
 by changing the vowel, as sing, sang, speaJc, spoke. 
 
 The first point in the history of these tenses that the 
 reader is required to be aware of, is stated in the Chap- 
 ter upon the Numbers, viz., that, in Anglo-Saxon, several 
 praeterites change, in their plural, the vowel of their singu- 
 lar ; as 
 
 Ic sang, I sang. 
 
 J3U sunge, thou sungest. 
 
 He sanff, he sans. 
 
 We sungon, 7ve sung. 
 Ge sungon, i/e sung. 
 Hi sungon, they sung. 
 
 As a general rule, the second singular has the same vowel 
 with the plural persons, as hurne, thou hurntest^ plural burnon, 
 we hurnt. 
 
 The bearing of this fact upon the praeterites has been indi- 
 cated in p. 300, In a great number of words we have a 
 double form, as ran and run, sang and sung, drank and 
 drunk, &c. One of these forms is derived from the singular, 
 and the other from the plural. I cannot say at what period 
 the difference of form ceased to denote a difference of sense. 
 
 In cases where but one form is preserved, that form is not 
 necessarily the singular one. For instance, Ic fand, I found, 
 we fwndon, we found, are the Anglo-Saxon forms. Now the 
 present word found comes, not from the singular fand, but 
 from the plural y*?m<i? ,• although in the Lowland Scotch dia- 
 lect and in the old writers, the singular form occurs. 
 
 Donald Caird finds orra tilings, 
 
 Where Allan Gicgor fand the tings. — Scott. 
 
 Even in the present English it will be found convenient to 
 
 X 2
 
 308 TllK STUONO TKNSER. 
 
 call (ho forms like !<(tiiff and draitlc the siiii^ular, and those 
 like fiuna and hiniinl the i)Iuial forms. 
 
 Wc it ohstMvod, that, though this fact accounts for most of 
 our tUmhle forms, it will not account for all. In the Anglo- 
 Saxon, Ic spnr'c, / sj)akc', we spra^'con, v:e s})ake. There is 
 no c-lianiri' of nuiuhor to account for the two forms spake and 
 spoke. 
 
 First Class. 
 
 § oii-^. Contains the two words fall and fell^ hold and 
 held., whore the sound of o is changed into that of e. Here 
 must be noticed the natural tendency of a to become o; 
 since the forms in Anglo-Saxon are, Ic fealle^ I fall ; Ic 
 feoll, I fell ; Ic healde, I hold ; Ic heold, I held. 
 
 Second Class. 
 
 § 365. Here the preterite ends in -etc. Words of this 
 class are distinguished from those of the third Class by the 
 different form of the present tense. 
 
 Present. Preterite. 
 Draw Drew. 
 
 Slay Slew. 
 
 Fly Flew. 
 
 In these words tlie w has grown out of a ^, as may be 
 seen from the Anglo-Saxon forms. The word see (sato) be- 
 longs to this class: since, in Anglo-Saxon, Ave find the forms 
 ffeseah and oesegen, and in the Swedish the prseterite form is 
 saag. 
 
 Third Class. 
 
 § 366. Here an o before t/;, in the present, becomes e be- 
 fore w in the prajterite ; as 
 
 Present. 
 
 Pratcrite. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Praterite 
 
 Blow, 
 
 Blew. 
 
 Know. 
 
 Knew. 
 
 Crow. 
 
 Crew. 
 
 Grow 
 
 Grew. 
 
 Til row 
 
 Threw. 
 
 
 
 Fourth Class. 
 § 367. Contains the single word let., where a short e in the
 
 THE STRONG TENSES. 
 
 309 
 
 present remains unchanged in the prseterite. In the Anglo- 
 Saxon the present form was Ic Iwte, the preterite Ic let. 
 
 Fifth Class. 
 
 § 368. Contains the single word heat, where a long e remains 
 unchanged. In Anglo-Saxon the forms were Ic heate, Ic beot. 
 
 Sixth Class. 
 
 § 36.9. Present come, praeterite came, participle come. 
 Anglo-Saxon, cume, com, cumen. 
 
 In 
 
 Seventh Class. 
 
 § 370. In this class we have the sounds of the ee, in feet, and 
 of the a in fate (spelt ea or a), changed into o or oo. As 
 several words in this class have a. second form in a, the prsete- 
 rite in or oo will he called the primary, the prseterite in a 
 the secondary form. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Vrimury Prteterile. 
 
 Secondary Pro 
 
 Heave 
 
 *Hove 
 
 — 
 
 Cleave 
 
 Clove 
 
 *Clave. 
 
 Weave 
 
 Wove 
 
 — 
 
 Freeze 
 
 Froze 
 
 — 
 
 Steal 
 
 Stole 
 
 *Stale. 
 
 Speak 
 
 Spoke 
 
 Spake, 
 
 Swear 
 
 Swore 
 
 Swarc. 
 
 Bear 
 
 Bore 
 
 Bare. 
 
 Tear 
 
 Tore 
 
 *Tare. 
 
 Shear 
 
 *Sliorc 
 
 — 
 
 Wear 
 
 Wore 
 
 *Ware. 
 
 Break 
 
 Broke 
 
 Brake. 
 
 Sliake 
 
 Shook 
 
 — 
 
 Take 
 
 Took 
 
 — 
 
 Forsake 
 
 Forsook 
 
 — 
 
 Stand 
 
 Stood 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Quoth 
 
 — 
 
 Get 
 
 Got 
 
 *Gat. 
 
 The prseterite oi stand was originally long. This we collect 
 
 Obsolete,
 
 ino 
 
 THK STKONCl TliNSES. 
 
 from the spi'lliug, aii'l iVoni tlu; Ani>lo-Siixou t'onn stud. The 
 process that ejects the ml is the same process that, in Greek, 
 converts (jhovr-o; into ohovg. 
 
 All the worils with secoiuhiry forms will appear again in 
 the eighth class. 
 
 Elffhih Class. 
 
 § 371. In this class the sound of the ee in /ecf, and the a in 
 /ate (spelt ea), is changed into a. Several words of this class 
 have secondary forms. Further details may be seen in the 
 remarks that come after the following list of verbs. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Primary Pra-tcritc. 
 
 Secondary Preterite. 
 
 Speak 
 
 Spake 
 
 Spoke. 
 
 Break 
 
 Brake 
 
 Broke. 
 
 Cleave 
 
 ♦Clave 
 
 Clove. 
 
 Steal 
 
 ♦Stale 
 
 Stole. 
 
 Eat 
 
 Ate. 
 
 — 
 
 Seethe 
 
 -H 
 
 *Sod. 
 
 Tread 
 
 •Trad 
 
 Trod. 
 
 Bear 
 
 Bare 
 
 Bore. 
 
 Tear 
 
 Tare 
 
 Tore. 
 
 Swear 
 
 Swarc 
 
 Swore. 
 
 AVcar 
 
 •Ware 
 
 Wore. 
 
 Bid 
 
 Bade 
 
 Bid. 
 
 Sit 
 
 Sate 
 
 — 
 
 Give 
 
 Gave 
 
 — 
 
 Lie 
 
 Lay 
 
 — 
 
 Get 
 
 *Gat 
 
 Got. 
 
 Here observe, — 1. That in speak, cleave, steal, the ea has 
 tlie same jjower with the ee in freeze and seethe; so that it may 
 be dealt with as the long (or independent) sound of the * in 
 bid, sit, give. 
 
 2. That the same view may be taken of the ea in break, 
 although the word by some persons is j)ronounced brake. Ga- 
 brika, rjabrak, Mceso-Gothic ; briku, Irak, Old Saxon ; 
 hrcce, hrac, Anglo-Saxon. Also of bear, tear, swear, wear. 
 In the provincial dialects these words are even now pronounced 
 beer, teer, sweer. The forms in the allied languages are, in 
 
 * Ob.solete.
 
 THE STRONG TENSES. 
 
 311 
 
 respect to these last-mentioned words, less confirmatory ; 
 Mffiso-Gothic, svara, hdira ; Old High German, sverju, piru. 
 
 3. That the ea in tread was originally long ; Anglo-Saxon, 
 tredan, trede, tra'd^ treden. 
 
 4. Lie. — Here the sound is diphthongal, having grown out 
 of the Anglo-Saxon forms Ucgan, l<^^-, legen. 
 
 5. Sat. — The original praeterite was long. This we collect 
 from the spelling sate., and from the Anglo-Saxon scEt. 
 
 Ninth Class. 
 
 § 372. A^ as in fate, is changed either into the o in note, or 
 the 00 in book. Here it should be noticed that, unlike break 
 and sivear, &c., there is no tendency to sound the a of the 
 present as ee, neither is there, as was the case with clove and 
 spoke, any tendency to secondary forms in a. A partial reason 
 for this lies in the original nature of the vowel. The original 
 vowel in speak was e. If this was the e ferme of the French, 
 it was a sound from which the a in fate and the ee in feet 
 might equally have been evolved. The vowel sound of the 
 verbs of the present class was that of a for the present and 
 that of 6 for the prseterite forms ; as wace, woe, grafe, grof 
 Now of these two sounds it may be said that the a has no 
 tendency to become the ee in feet, and that the 6 has no ten- 
 dency to become the a mfate. 
 
 The sounds that are evolved from the accentuated 6, are the 
 in note and the oo in book. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Fraterite. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Prateritc 
 
 Awake 
 
 Awoke. 
 
 Take 
 
 Took. 
 
 Wake 
 
 Woke. 
 
 Shake 
 
 Shook. 
 
 Lade 
 
 *Lode. 
 
 Forsake 
 
 Forsook. 
 
 Grave 
 
 *Grove. 
 
 Tenth 
 
 Shape 
 Class. 
 
 *Shope. 
 
 § 373. Containing the single word strike, struck, stricken. 
 It is only in the Middle High German, the Middle Dutch, the 
 New High German, the Modern Dutch, and the English, that 
 
 * Obsolete.
 
 .U'2 
 
 TIIK STRONO TENSES. 
 
 this \vortl is IouimI iti its piM'tciiti' tonus. These are, in Mid- 
 lUo lliiili (uTinan, atrcich ; New Iliyh German, sfrich; Mid- 
 tile Dutcli, .<trt'i' : Moth^rn Dutcli, sfri^-. Originally it mnst 
 have hoon retorahle to the ninth class. 
 
 Eleventh Class. 
 
 § ,S74. In this class we first find the secondary forms ac- 
 connted for by the difference of form between the singular and 
 plural numbers. The change is from the i in bite to the o in 
 note, and the i in ^>y7. Sometimes it is from the i in bit to 
 the a in baf. The Anglo-Saxon conjugation (a) may be com- 
 pared with the present English (it). 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 Presenl. 
 
 PrtEteiite sing. 
 
 P) 
 
 >aterite plur. 
 
 Seine (s/iine) 
 
 Sccaii 
 
 1 (J shone) 
 
 Scin 
 
 on (we shone). 
 
 Arise {arise) 
 
 Aras 
 
 ( I arose) 
 
 Arisen (we arose). 
 
 Smite (smite) 
 
 Smat 
 
 ( / smote) 
 B. 
 
 Smi 
 
 ton (we smite). 
 
 Presenl. 
 
 Pnct 
 
 .—Sing. form. 
 
 Prat.— PI. form 
 
 Rise 
 
 
 Rose 
 
 
 *Ris. 
 
 Abide 
 
 
 Abode 
 
 
 — 
 
 Shine 
 
 
 Shone 
 
 
 — 
 
 Smite 
 
 
 Smote 
 
 
 Smit. 
 
 Ride 
 
 
 Rode 
 
 
 *Rid. 
 
 Stride 
 
 
 Strode 
 
 
 Strid. 
 
 Slide 
 
 
 *Slode 
 
 
 Slid. 
 
 Glide 
 
 
 *Glode 
 
 
 — 
 
 Chide 
 
 
 *Chode 
 
 
 — 
 
 Drive 
 
 
 Drove 
 
 
 »Driv. 
 
 Thrive 
 
 
 Throve 
 
 
 *Thriv. 
 
 Strive 
 
 
 Strove 
 
 
 — 
 
 Write 
 
 
 Wrote 
 
 
 Writ. 
 
 Climb 
 
 
 Clomh 
 
 
 — 
 
 Slit 
 
 
 *Slat 
 
 
 Slit. 
 
 Bite 
 
 
 •Bat 
 
 
 Bit. 
 
 On this list we may make tlic following observations and 
 statements. , 
 
 * The forms markcfl tlius* are cither obsolete or provineial.
 
 THE STRONG TENSES. 
 
 313 
 
 1. That, with the exception of the word slit, the i is sounded 
 as a diphthong. 
 
 2. That, with the exception of hat and slat, it is changed 
 into in the singular and into t in the plural forms. 
 
 S. That, with the exception of shone, the o is always long 
 (or independent). 
 
 4. That, even with the word shone, the o was originally 
 long. This is known from the final -e mute, and from the 
 Anglo-Saxon form scean ; Moeso-Gothic, sJcdin ; Old Norse, 
 skein. 
 
 5. That the o, in English, represents an d in Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 6. That the statement last made shows that even hat and 
 slat were once in the same condition with arose and smote, the 
 Anglo-Saxon forms being ards, smdt, hat, slat. 
 
 Twelfth Class. 
 
 § 875. In this class i is generally short ; originally it was 
 always so. In the singular form it becomes a, in the plural, u. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Swim 
 
 Begin 
 
 Spin 
 
 Win 
 
 Sing 
 
 Swing- 
 Spring 
 
 Sting 
 
 Ring 
 
 Wring 
 
 Fling 
 
 Cling 
 *Hing 
 
 String 
 
 Sling 
 
 Sink 
 
 Drink 
 
 Shrink 
 
 Stink 
 
 Swink 
 
 Slink 
 
 Swell 
 
 . — Sing. form. 
 
 Frat.—Pl. fon 
 
 Swam 
 
 Swum. 
 
 Began 
 
 Begun. 
 
 *Span 
 
 Spun. 
 
 *Wan 
 
 tWon. 
 
 Sang 
 
 Sung. 
 
 *Swang 
 
 Swung. 
 
 Sprang 
 
 Sprung. 
 
 *StaTig 
 
 Stung. 
 
 Rang 
 
 Rung. 
 
 *Wrang 
 
 Wrung. 
 
 Flang 
 
 Flung. 
 
 — 
 
 Clung. 
 
 Hang 
 
 Hung. 
 
 *Strang 
 
 Strung. 
 
 — 
 
 Slung. 
 
 Sank 
 
 Sunk 
 
 Drank 
 
 Drunk. 
 
 Shrank 
 
 Shrunk. 
 
 *Stank 
 
 Stunk. 
 
 Shuik. 
 
 Swoll 
 
 * Obsolete. 
 
 t Sounded tvu)i.
 
 i5|4 rilH STRONC. TENSES. 
 
 I'll SI III. 
 
 I'rut. — Siiifi.Jbnii. 
 
 I'lal. — ri. Jul III. 
 
 Melt 
 
 *M..lt 
 
 — 
 
 Help 
 
 ♦Hid). 
 
 — 
 
 Pilvo 
 
 *Dolv 
 
 — 
 
 Dig 
 
 — 
 
 Dug. 
 
 Stick 
 
 ♦Stack 
 
 Stuck. 
 
 Klin 
 
 \h\u 
 
 Run. 
 
 IJiirst 
 
 — 
 
 Burst, 
 
 Bind 
 
 Rand 
 
 Bound. 
 
 Find 
 
 *Fand 
 
 F\)und. 
 
 Grind 
 
 — 
 
 Ground. 
 
 Wind 
 
 — 
 
 Wound. 
 
 Upon this list we make the following observations and 
 statements: — 
 
 1. That, with the exceptions of hind., find., grind., and wind, 
 the vowels are short (or dependent) throughout, 
 
 2. That, with the exception of rwn and hurst., the vowel of 
 the present tense is either the i or e. 
 
 o. That i short changes into a for the singular, and into 
 « for the plural forms. 
 
 4, That changes into o in the singular forms ; these being 
 the only ones preserved. 
 
 5. That the i in hind., &c., changes into ou in the plural 
 forms ; the only ones current. 
 
 (). That the vowel before m or n is, with the single excep- 
 tion of run, always i. 
 
 7. That the vowel before I and r is, with the single excep- 
 tion of hurst, always e. 
 
 8. That, where the i is sounded as in hind, the combination 
 following is -nd. 
 
 0. That ng being considered as a modification of k (the 
 Norse and Mocso-Gothic forms being drecka and drikjan), it 
 may be stated that i short, in the t\\'elfth class, precedes 
 either a liquid or a mute of series k. 
 
 From these observations, even on the English forms only, 
 we find thus much regularity; and from these observations, even 
 on the English forms only, we may lay down a rule like the 
 following : viz. that i or u, short, before the consonants m, n, 
 
 * Obsolete,
 
 THE STRONG TENSES. 315 
 
 or ck, is changed into a for the singular, and Into u for the 
 phiral forms ; that i long, or diphthongal, becomes ou ; that e 
 before I becomes o ; and that u before r remains unchanged. 
 
 This statement, however, is nothing like so general as the 
 one that, after a comparison of the older forms and the allied 
 languages, we are enabled to make. Here we are taught, 
 
 1 . That, in the words hind^ &c., the i was once pronounced 
 as in till, fill ; in other words, that it was the simple short 
 vowel, and not the diphthong ey ; or at least that it was 
 treated as such. 
 
 Moeso- Gothic. 
 
 Binda 
 
 Band 
 
 Bunduni 
 
 Bundans. 
 
 Bivinda 
 
 Bivand 
 
 Bivundum 
 
 Bivundums, 
 
 Finf^a 
 
 Fanjj 
 
 Funfjiim 
 Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Funjjans. 
 
 Bind 
 
 Band 
 
 Bundon 
 
 Bundcn. 
 
 Fiudo 
 
 Fand 
 
 Fundon 
 
 Funden. 
 
 Grindc 
 
 Grand 
 
 Grundon 
 
 Grunden. 
 
 Winde 
 
 Wand 
 
 Wundon 
 Old Norse. 
 
 Wunden. 
 
 Finn 
 
 Fanu 
 
 Fun<5uni 
 
 Funninn. 
 
 Bind 
 
 Batt 
 
 Bundum 
 
 Bundinn. 
 
 Vind 
 
 Vatt 
 
 Undum 
 
 Undinn. 
 
 When the vowel ^ of the present took the sound of the i 
 in bite, the u in the preterite became the ow in mouse. From 
 this we see that the words bind, &c., are naturally subject to 
 the same changes with spin, &c., and that, mutatis mutandis, 
 they are so still. 
 
 2. That the e in sioell, &c., was once ?. This we collect 
 from the following forms : — Mlpa, Ma5so-Gothic ; hilfu. 
 Old High German ; hilpu. Old Saxon ; Mlpe, Middle High 
 German; /m^(2, Old Frisian. Suillu = swell. Old High Ger- 
 man. Tilfu = delve. Old High German; dilbn, Old Saxon. 
 Smilzu, Old High German =^ smelt or melt. This shows that 
 originally the vowel i ran throughout, but that before I and 
 r it was changed into e. This change took ])lace at different 
 periods in different dialects. The Old Saxon preserved the
 
 me THE STRONO TKNSKS. 
 
 I Ioniser tliMii llu- AiiL'lo-Saxim. It is Ibuiul even in tin! 
 innhlle llijfli (uiinan ; in the new it has become e ; as schioelle, 
 srhiiii'hv. In oiu' woivl ;yt/^/-, the orijjfinal i is still preserved ; 
 alth«)ui,'h in An>j^lo-Saxon it was e ; us melee, inc(ilc=^vulked^ 
 mulcon. In the Norse the change from i to e took place full 
 soon, as sviill = swells. The Norse language is in this respect 
 important. 
 
 ;>. That the o in swoll, holp, was originally a ; sis 
 
 Ililpa 
 
 Halp 
 
 Hulpuin . . 
 
 . . Moeso-Gothic. 
 
 Siiillu 
 
 Siial 
 
 Siuillumes . . 
 
 Old High German. 
 
 Hilfii 
 
 Half 
 
 Hulfumos. . 
 
 . . Ditto. 
 
 Tilfu 
 
 Talf 
 
 Tiiirumes . . 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Hilpc 
 
 Halp 
 
 Hulpnn . . 
 
 . . Middle High Ocrinau 
 
 Dilbc 
 
 Dalp 
 
 Dulbiin . . . 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Hilpe 
 
 Halp 
 
 Hulpon . . 
 
 . . Ditto. 
 
 Svell 
 
 Svall 
 
 Sulluin . . . 
 
 . Old Norse 
 
 Mclte 
 
 Mealt 
 
 Multon . . 
 
 . . Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Hclpe 
 
 Haelp 
 
 Hulpon . . 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Dclfe 
 
 Dealf 
 
 Dulfon . . 
 
 . . Ditto. 
 
 4. That a change between a and o took place by times. 
 The Anglo-Saxon preterite of swelle is sweoll ; whilst onrjon, 
 bond, song, gelonij?, are found in the same language for ongan, 
 band, sang, gelanip. — Rask*'s Anglo-Saxon Grammar, p. 90. 
 
 5. That run is only an apparent exception, the older form 
 
 being rinn. 
 
 The rain rinns down through Merriland town ; 
 So doth it doM-n the Pa. — Old Ballad. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon form is yrnan ; in the preterite am, 
 urnon. A transposition has since taken place. The word 
 run seems to have been originally no present, but a praeterite 
 form. 
 
 6. That burst is only an apparent exception. Before r, e, 
 t, u, are pronounced alike. We draw no distinction between 
 the vowels in ^>er^, Jlirt, hurt. The Anglo-Saxon forms are, 
 berste, byrst, bourse, burston, borsten. 
 
 Thirteenth Class. 
 
 § 376. Contains the single word choose, in the preterite 
 those ; in Anglo-Saxon, cedse, ceds.
 
 THE WEAK TENSES. 317 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 THE WEAK TENSES. 
 
 § 377. The praeterite tense of the weak verbs is formed by 
 the addition of -d or -t. If necessary, the syllable -ed is 
 substituted for -(/. 
 
 The current statement that the syllable -ed, rather than 
 the letter -c?, is the sign of the preeterite tense, is true only in 
 regard to the written language. In stabbed, moved, bragged, 
 ivJdzzed, judged, filled, slurred, slammed, shunned, barred, 
 stretced, the e is a point of spelling only. In language, ex- 
 cept in declamation, there is no second vowel sound. The -d 
 comes in immediate contact with the final letter of the ori- 
 ginal word, and the number of syllables remains the same as 
 it was before. 
 
 When, however, the original word ends in -d or -t, as slight 
 or brand, then, and then only (and that not always), is there 
 the addition of the syllable -ed ; as in slighted, branded. 
 This is necessary, since the combinations slightt and brandd 
 are unpronounceable. 
 
 Whether the addition be -d or -t depends upon the flatness 
 or sharpness of the preceding letter. 
 
 After b, v, th (as in clothe), g, or z, the addition is -(/. 
 This is a matter of necessity. ^Ve say stabd, movd, cldthd, 
 braggd, whizzd, because stall, movt, clotht, braggt, whizzt, are 
 unpronounceable. 
 
 After I, m, n, r, w, y, or a vowel, the addition is also -d. 
 This is the habit of the English language. Filt, slurt, stray t. 
 Sec, are as pronounceable as fiUd, slarrd, strayd, &c. It is 
 the habit, however, of the English language to prefer the 
 latter forms. All this, as the reader has probably observed, 
 is merely the reasoning concerning the s, in words like
 
 318 
 
 TIIK WKAK TENSES. 
 
 fdt/u'ri!, kc. applied to anotlu'r letter and to another part of 
 speeeli. 
 
 For some historical notices respecting the use of -d, -t, and 
 -(il, in the spelling of the English j)rieterite8 nnd participles, 
 the reader is referred to the Canihridge Philological Museum, 
 vol. i. p. fia."). 
 
 § 378. The verbs of the weak conjugation fall into three 
 classes. In the lirst there is the simple addition of -d, -t, 
 or -ed. 
 
 Serve, served. 
 Cry, cried. 
 Betray, betrayed. 
 Expel, expelled. 
 Accuse, accused. 
 Instruct, instructed. 
 Invite, invited. 
 Waste, wasted. 
 
 Dip, dipped {dipt). 
 Slip, slipped {dipt). 
 Step, stepped {stept). 
 Look, looked {lookt). 
 Pluck, plucked {pluckt). 
 Toss, tossed {tost). 
 Push, pushed {puslit). 
 Confess, confessed (conjest). 
 
 To this class belong the greater part of the weak verbs 
 and all verbs of foreign origin. 
 
 § 879. In the second class, besides the addition of -^ or -d, 
 the vowel is shortened. It also contains those words which 
 end in -d or -t, and at the same time have a short vow^el in the 
 preterite. Such, amongst others, are cut, cost, &c., where the 
 two tenses are alike, and bend, rend, &c., where the praeterite 
 is formed from the present by changing -d into -t, as bent, 
 rent, &c. 
 
 In the following list, the words ending in -p are remark- 
 able ; since, in Anglo-Saxon, each of them had, in.stead of a 
 weak, a strong prseterite. 
 
 Leave, left. 
 Cleave, cleft. 
 Bereave, bereft. 
 Deal, deak. 
 Feel, feU. 
 Dream, drc2,m/. 
 Lean, lean^ 
 Learn, Icarnf. 
 
 Creep, crept. 
 Sleep, slept. 
 Leap, lept. 
 Keep, kept. 
 Weep, wept. 
 Sweep, swept. 
 Lose, lost. 
 Flee, fled. 
 
 In this class we sometimes find -t where the -d is ex- 
 pected ; the forms being left and dealt, instead of leaved and 
 dealed.
 
 THE WEAK TENSES. 319 
 
 § 380. Third class. — In the second class the vowel of the 
 present tense was shortened in the prseterite. In the third 
 class it is changed. 
 
 Tell, told. I Sell, sold. 
 
 Will, would. I Shall, should. 
 
 To this class belong the remarkable prseterites of the verbs 
 seek, beseech, catch, teach, hring, thinlc, and buy, viz., sought, 
 besought, caught, taught, brought, thought, and bought. In all 
 these, the final consonant is either g or Z", or else a sound 
 allied to those mutes. When the tendency of these sounds 
 to become h and y, as well as to undergo farther changes, is 
 remembered, the forms in point cease to seem anomalous. In 
 wrought, from wo)'/c, there is a transposition. In laid and 
 said the present forms make a show of regularity which they 
 have not. The true original forms should be legde and sagde, 
 the infinitives being lecgan, secgan. In these words the i 
 represents the semivowel y, into which the original g was 
 changed. The Anglo-Saxon forms of the other words arc as 
 follows : — 
 
 Byegan, bohte. i Bringan, brohte. 
 
 Secan, sohte. I fiencan, Jjohte. 
 
 Wyrcan, vvorhtc. 
 
 § 381. Out of the three classes into which the weak verbs 
 in Anglo-Saxon are divided, only one takes a vowel before 
 the d or t. The other two add the syllables -te, or -de, to the 
 last letter of the original word. The vowel that, in one out 
 of the three Anglo-Saxon classes, precedes d is o. Thus we 
 have lufian, lufode ; clypian, clypode. In the other two 
 classes the forms are respectively btRrnan, barnde ; and tellan, 
 tealde, no vowel being found. The participle, however, as 
 stated above, ended, not in -de or -te, but in -d or -t ; and in 
 two out of the three classes it was preceded by a vowel, gelu- 
 fod, barned, geteald. Now in those conjugations where no 
 vowel preceded the d of the praeterite, and where the original 
 word ended in -d or -t, a difficulty, which has alreail.V ^oeen 
 indicated, arose. To add the sign of the praeterite to a word 
 Vike eard-ian (to dwell) was an.p^ac^'j Tnatter, inasmucli as card-
 
 S80 Till". WMAK TKNSKS. 
 
 I<nk was a word ln>l<>iiniiiL; to tlio first rhiss, and in the first class 
 the pnoterite was f'oriueil in -0(l<'. Hero the vowel o kept the 
 tw») d's from eoniini,'' in eoutaet. AVith words, however, like 
 metun and siiulan, this was not the case. Here no vowel inter- 
 vened; so that the natural pra^terite forms were met-te, send-de, 
 combinations wherein one of the letters ran every chance of 
 lieinyf dropped in the pronunciation. Hence, with the exccj)- 
 tiou of the verbs in the first class, words ending in -dor-t in the 
 root admitted no additional d or t in the praeterite. This 
 dilHculty, existing in the present English as it existed in the 
 Anglo-Saxon, modifies the preterites of most words ending in 
 -t or -d. 
 
 In several words there is the actual addition of the syllable 
 -ed ; in other words d is separated from the last letter of the 
 original word by the addition of a vowel; as ended, instructed, 
 &c. Of this e two views may be taken. 
 
 1. It may be derived from the original o in -ode, the termi- 
 nation of the first class in Anglo-Saxon. This is the opinion 
 which we form when the word in question is known to have 
 belonged to the Anglo-Saxon language, and, in it, to the first 
 class. Ended, planted, warded, hated, heeded, are (amongst 
 others) w^ords of this sort ; their Anglo-Saxon forms being 
 endode, plantode, weardode, hatode, and eahtode, from endian, 
 plantian, weardian, hatian, and eahtian. 
 
 2. The form may be looked upon, not as that of the 
 preterite, but as that of the participle in a transferred sense. 
 This is the view when we have two forms, one with the 
 vowel, and the other without it, as bended and lent, wended 
 and ivent, plighted and plight. 
 
 A. In several words the final -d is changed into -t, as bend, 
 bent ; rend, rent ; send, sent ; gild, ^ilt ; build, built ; spend, 
 spent, &c. 
 
 B. In several words the vowel of the root is changed ; as 
 feed, fed ; bleed, bled ; breed, bred ; meet, met ; speed, sped ; 
 r^ad, read, &c. Words of this last-named class cause 
 occasional di^^'^^^y ^^ ^^^^ grammarian. No addition is 
 made to the rooVy ~ - * "^ ^^^^^ circumstance, they agree with 
 the strong verbs. Moreover, ulZ:t is a change of the vowel.
 
 THE WEAK TENSES. .S2l 
 
 In this circumstance also tliey agree with the strong verbs. 
 Hence with forms like fed and led we are in doubt as to the 
 conjugation. This doubt we have three means of settling, as 
 may be shown by the word beat. 
 
 a. By the form of the participle. — The -en in beaten shows 
 that the word beat is strong. 
 
 b. By the nature of the vowel. — The weak form of to beat 
 would be bet, or beat, after the analogy oifeed and read. By 
 some persons the word is pronounced bet, and with those who 
 do so the word is weak. 
 
 c. By a knowledge of the older forms. — The Anglo-Saxon 
 form is bedte, beot. There is no such a weak form as bedte, 
 bfttte. The prreterite of sendan is sende, weak. There is in 
 Anglo-Saxon no such form as sand, strong. 
 
 In all this we see a series of expedients for separating the 
 pra?terite form from the present, when the root ends with the 
 same sound with which the affix begins. 
 
 The addition of the vowel takes place only in verbs of the 
 first class. 
 
 The change from a long vowel to a short one, as in feed, 
 fed, &c., can only take place where there is a long vowel to 
 be changed. 
 
 Where the vowels are short, and, at the same time, the 
 word ends in -d, the -d of the present may become -t in the 
 prseterite. Such is the case with bend, bent. 
 
 When there is no long vowel to shorten, and no -d to 
 change into -t, the two tenses, of necessity, remain alike ; 
 such is the case with cut, cost, &c. 
 
 Words like planted, heeded, &c,, belong to the first class. 
 Words like feed, lead, to the second class. Bend and cut 
 belong also to the second class ; they belong to it, however, 
 by what may be termed an etymological fiction. The vowel 
 would be changed if it could. 
 
 § 382. Made, had. — In these words there is nothing re- 
 markable but the ejection of a consonant. The Anglo-Saxon 
 forms are macode and heefde, respectively. The words, 
 however, in regard to the amount of change, are not upon a 
 par. The f in hafde was probably sounded as v. Now v 
 
 Y
 
 •^-- TiTK wi:ak tknses. 
 
 is a lottor oxcossively liable to he ejected, which /• is not. A', 
 before it is ejected, is jfencrally chani>'ed into either g or y. 
 
 Wouhi, s/ioufd, could. — It must not be imagined that conld 
 is in the same predicament with tliese words. In will and 
 shall the -I is part of the original word. This is not the case 
 with ran. For the form could, see the Chapter upon Irregu- 
 hirity. 
 
 Auaht. — Tn Anglo-Saxon dhte.) the prajterite of the present 
 form ah, jihiral dnan. — As late as the time of Elizabeth we 
 fmd owe used for 0)01. The present form ovm seems to have 
 arisen from the plural drjcn. Aught is the preterite of the 
 Anqlo-Saxon dh ; owed of the English oice=-del)eo ; oioned of 
 the English oion=possideo. 'J'he word own, in the expression 
 to orrii to a thing, has a totally different origin. It comes 
 from the Anglo-Saxon an (plural, nnnon) = I give, or grant 
 = concedo. 
 
 Durst. — The verb dare is both transitive and intransitive. 
 We can say either / dare do such a thing, or I dare (challenge) 
 such a man to do it. This, in the present tense, is unequivo- 
 cally correct. In the past the double power of the word dare 
 is ambiguous ; still it is, to my mind at least, allowable. We 
 can certainly say / dared him to accept my challenge ; and we 
 can, perhaps, say / dared venture on the expedition. In this 
 last sentence, however, durst is the preferable expression. 
 
 Now, although dare is both transitive and intransitive, durst 
 is only intransitive. It never agrees with the Latin word 
 provoco ; only with the Latin word audeo. Moreover, the 
 word durst has both a present and a past sense. The diffi- 
 culty which it presents consists in the presence of the -st, letters 
 characteristic of the second person singular, but here found in 
 all the persons alike ; as / durst, they durst, &c. 
 
 The Moeso-Gothic forms are dar, dart ? dar, daurum, 
 dauru\, daurun, for the persons of the present tense ; and 
 daursta, daurstes, daursta, &c., for those of the preterite. 
 The same is the case throughout the Germanic languages. 
 No -s, however, appears in the Scandinavian ; the prteterites 
 being \)0f6i and tlirde, Icelandic and Danish. The Anglo- 
 Saxon is dear=I dare, dearst = thou darest, durron = we,
 
 THE WEAK TENSES. 328 
 
 ye^ or they dare ; subjnnetive, durre^ dorste, dorston. OKI 
 Saxon, present, dar ; prteterite dursta. The Moeso-Gothic 
 tense, daursta^ instead oi daurda^ shows the antiquity of this 
 form in -s. 
 
 The readiest mode of accounting for the form in question 
 is to suppose that the second singular has been extended over 
 all the other persons. This view, however, is traversed by 
 the absence of the -s in the Mocso-Gothic present. The form 
 there (real or presumed) is not darst., but dart. Of this latter 
 form, however, it must be remarked that its existence is 
 lijpothetical. 
 
 In Matthew xxvi. 67, of the Moiso- Gothic Gospel of 
 Ulphilas, is found the form kaiijyastedun, instead of Jcauixitide- 
 dun^ the prseterite plural of Jcaupatjan = to heat. Here there 
 is a similar insertion of the -s. — Deutsche Grammatik, i. 848, 
 852, 853. 
 
 The -s in durst has still to be satisfactorily accounted for. 
 
 Must. — A form common to all persons, numbers, and 
 tenses. That neither the -s nor the -t are part of the original 
 root, is indicated by the Scandinavian form maae (Danish), 
 pronounced moli ; preterite maatte. 
 
 The readiest mode of accounting for the -s in most^ is to 
 presume that it belongs to the second singular, extended to 
 the other persons, mo-est = must. Irrespective, however, of 
 other objections, this view is traversed by the forms motan, 
 Moeso-Gothic (an infinitive), and mot, Mceso-Gothic, Old 
 Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon (a first person present). These 
 neutralise the evidence given by the Danish form maae, and 
 indicate that the -t is truly a part of the original root. 
 
 Now, the -t being considered as ))art of the root, the -6* 
 cannot be derived from the second singular ; inasmuch as it 
 precedes, instead of following the -t. 
 
 At one time, for want of a better theory, I conceived, that 
 in the word in point (and also in durst and a few others), we 
 had traces of the Scandinavian passive. This notion I have, 
 for evident reasons, abandoned. 
 
 In p. 298 it was stated that the Ma,'So-(iothic termination 
 of the second singular of the strong prfKterites was -/. It is 
 
 V 2
 
 ii2^ TIIK AVi;\K TENSES. 
 
 hvvc iiU'iilioiu'il tliut iiiidtt is ;i priottM'iU' fnrin. Now tlio 
 llnal letter of tlic root mot, ami the sign of the second sinnfii- 
 lar of the strong- privterito, are the same, -t. Now, as -^ can- 
 not be inniu'diati'ly added to/, the natural form of the second 
 singular m6(-t is impracticable. Hence, before the -t of the 
 second person, the -t of the root is changed, so that, instead 
 of uid'nnd>i-t^ bi(/a(-t,/di/al\>t, idllot-t, Sec, we have maimdis-t, 
 b!pas-i, fdi/afst, Idilos-t, &c., Mocso-Gothic. — See Deutsche 
 (Iramniatik', S44. 
 
 I'he euphonic reason for the -s, in must, is sufficient to show 
 that it is in a difterent predicament from durst. 
 
 The provincial form miin, there or thereabouts equivalent in 
 meaning to must, has no etymological connexion with this last 
 named word. It is a distinct word, in Scandinavian monne. 
 
 Wist. — In its present form a regular praeterite from ioiss = 
 /nioio. The difficulties of this word arise from the parallel 
 forms wit (as in to wit), and laot :r: hieio. The following are 
 the forms of this peculiar word : — 
 
 In Mceso-Gothic, 1 sing. pres. ind. vdit ; 2. do., vdist ; 1 . 
 j)l. vitum ; preterite 1 . s. vissa ; 2 vissess ; 1 . pi. vissedum. 
 From the form vdist we see that the second singular is formed 
 after the manner of must ; that is, vdist stands instead of 
 vdit't. From the form vissedum Ave see that the prieterite 
 is not strong, but weak ; therefore that vissa is euplionic for 
 vista. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon. — Wat, toast, vnton, wiste and u'isse, wis- 
 ton. — Here the double forms, vnste and wisse, verify the state- 
 ment concerning the Mceso-Gothic vissa. 
 
 In Icelan(hc. — Veit, veizt, vitum, vissi. Danish ved, vide, 
 ridste. Observe the form vidste ; since, in it, the -d of the 
 root (in spelling, at least), is preserved. The -t of the 
 Anglo-Saxon wiste is the -t, not of the root, but of the in- 
 flection. 
 
 In respect to the four forms in question, viz., loit, wot, tviss, 
 wsst ; the first seems to be the root ; the second a strong 
 preeterite regularly formed, but used (like olla in Greek) with 
 a present sense ; the third a weak praeterite, of which the -t 
 has been ejected by a euphonic process, used also with a pre-
 
 THE WEAK TENSES. 32.) 
 
 sent sense ; the fourth is a second singnlar from tviss after the 
 manner of irert from were, a second singular from ivit after the 
 manner of must, a secondary prseterite from wiss, or finally, 
 the form wisse, anterior to the operation of the euphonic pro- 
 cess that ejected the -t. 
 
 Do. — In the phrase this loill do = this loill answer the pur- 
 pose^ the word do is wholly different from the word do, mean- 
 ing to act. In the first case it is equivalent to the Latin 
 valc.re ; in the second to the Latin facere. Of the first the 
 Anglo-Saxon inflection is dedh, dugon, dohte, dohtest, &c. Of 
 the second it is do, do^S, dyde, &c. I doubt whether the 
 prseterite did, as equivalent to valelat = was good for, is 
 correct. In the phrase it did for him = it finished him, 
 either meaning may be allowed. 
 
 In the present Danish they write duger, but say duer : as 
 duger et noget ? = Is it worth anything .^ pronounced dooer deli 
 note ? This accounts for the ejection of the g. The Anglo- 
 Saxon form deah does the same. 
 
 In respect to the preeterite of do ■■^^facio, difficulties pre- 
 sent themselves. 
 
 Is the word weak ? — This is the view that arises from the 
 form did. The participle done traverses this view. 
 
 Is the word strong ? — In favour of this notion we have the 
 English participle done, and the prseterite second singular in 
 Old High German tdti. Against it are the Old Saxon dedos, 
 and the Anglo-Saxon dydest, as second singulars. 
 
 Is there a reduplication ? — If this were the case, we might 
 assume such a form as doan, daido, for the Moeso-Gothic. 
 This view, however, is traversed by the substantival forms 
 deds, Mffiso-Gothic ; tat. Old High German; deed, Anglo- 
 Saxon ; which show that the second -d is part of the original 
 word. 
 
 The true nature of the form did has yet to be exhibited. — 
 See Deutsche Grammatik, i. 1041. 
 
 Mind — mind and do so and so. — In this sentence the word 
 mind is wholly different from the noun mind. The Anglo- 
 Saxon forms are geman, geinanst, gemunon, without tlic; -d ; 
 this letter occurring only in the prfeterite tense (gcmmide.
 
 H'i(> ■niK WKAK TENSER. 
 
 Ochiuik/oii), lit' uliic'li it is tlio sin-n. Mind is, then, ii j)i-;i'to- 
 rito form with a present sense ; whilst minded (as in he minded 
 /lis l)Uiiiius!<) is an iiistanci' of excess of iiint'ctictn ; in other 
 words, it is a pra'terite formed from a preterite. 
 
 A [)r;iti>rite formed upon a pr;eterite may also be called a 
 seeomhu-y pra'terite ; just as the word theirs, derived from 
 fheir (a ease formed from a case), is called a secondary geni- 
 tive. 
 
 In like manner the present form mind is not a genuine pre- 
 sent, but a pra-terite with a present sense ; its form being taken 
 as the test. Presents of this sort may be called transformed 
 pra^terites. 
 
 It is very evident that the prseterites most likely to become 
 present are those of the strong class. In the first place, the 
 fact of their being prreterite is less marked. The word tell 
 carries with it fewer marks of its tense than the word moved. 
 In the second place they can more conveniently give rise to 
 secondary preterites. A weak pra?terite already ends in -d 
 or -t. If this be used as a present, a second -d or -t must be 
 ajipcnded. 
 
 Hence it is that all the transposed prtcterites in the Gothic 
 tongues were, before they took the present sense, not weak, 
 but strong. The word in question, mind (from whence 
 minded), is only an apparent exception to this statement. 
 
 No« the words shall, can, owe (whence aught), dare, may, 
 -man (of the Anglo-Saxon geman, the origin of mind), are, 
 (irrespective of their other peculiarities), for certain etymo- 
 logical reasons, looked upon as preterite forms with a present 
 sense. 
 
 And the words should, could, aught, dared (or durst), must, 
 wist, might, mind, arc, for certain etymological reasons, looked 
 upon as secondary preterites. 
 
 This fact alters our view of the form minded. Instead 
 of being a secondary prj^cterite, it is a tertiary one. Geman 
 (the apparent present) being dealt with as a strong prseterite 
 with a present sense, mind (from the Anglo-Saxon gemunde) 
 is the secondary pra;terite, and minded (from the English 
 mind) is a tertiary prfcterite. To analyse the word, the
 
 THE WEAK TENSES. o27 
 
 prteterite is first formed by the vowel a, then by the addition 
 of -d, and, thirdly, by the termination -ed ; man, onltid, 
 minded. 
 
 The proof of this we collect from the second persons sin- 
 gular, Moeso-Gothic. The second singular prseterite of the 
 strong class is -t ; of the weak class, -es ; of the present, both 
 weak and strong, -s. Now the second singular of the words 
 in point is skal-t, kan-t, dih-t, dar-t ? mag-t, man-t, re- 
 spectively. — Deutsche Grammatik, i. 852. 
 
 Besides this, in Anglo-Saxon, the plural forms are those of 
 the strong praeterites. See Rask, p. 79. 
 
 Yode. — -The obsolete prseterite oi go, now replaced hy went, 
 the prseterite of tcend. Regular, except that the initial g has 
 become y.
 
 3^ 
 
 ON C'ONJUOATK^N. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 ON CONJUGATION. 
 
 § 080. The current statement respecting verbs like sm// 
 and fall, &c., is that they are irregular. How far this 
 is the case may be seen from a review of the twelve classes in 
 Mffso-Gothie, whore the change of the vowel is subject to 
 fewer irregularities than elsewhere. In the first six conju- 
 gations the preterite is replaced by a perfect tense. Conse- 
 quently, there is a reduplication. Of these the fifth and sixth 
 superadd to the reduplication a change of the vowel. 
 
 i 
 
 ^resent. 
 
 Pa si 
 
 Sing. 
 
 * 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Past Participle 
 
 
 1, 
 
 Salta 
 
 Saisalt 
 
 Sai sal turn 
 
 Saltans 
 
 Leap. 
 
 2. 
 
 Haita 
 
 Hailiait 
 
 Hiiiliaitum 
 
 Haitans 
 
 Call. 
 
 3, 
 
 Hlaupa 
 
 Hlailaii]) 
 
 Hl:iilau])Uin 
 
 Illaupans 
 
 Run. 
 
 4. 
 
 Slepa 
 
 Siii/lep 
 
 Saislt'puiii 
 
 Slupaiis 
 
 Sleep. 
 
 6. 
 
 Laia 
 
 Lailo 
 
 Lailouin 
 
 Lallans 
 
 Laugh. 
 
 6. 
 
 Greta 
 
 Giiigrot 
 
 Gaigiotuni 
 
 Gretans 
 
 Weep. 
 
 7. 
 
 Svara 
 
 Svor 
 
 Svorum 
 
 S varans 
 
 Swear. 
 
 8. 
 
 Greipa 
 
 Graip 
 
 Gripum 
 
 Gripans 
 
 Gripe. 
 
 9. 
 
 Biuda 
 
 Bau> 
 
 Budum 
 
 Biulans 
 
 Offer. 
 
 10. 
 
 Giba 
 
 Gab 
 
 GeLum 
 
 GlLans 
 
 Give. 
 
 11, 
 
 Stila 
 
 Stal 
 
 Steluin 
 
 Stulans 
 
 Stole. 
 
 12. 
 
 Riniia 
 
 Rann 
 
 Ruiiimin 
 
 Ruinians 
 
 Run. 
 
 Exhibited in a tabular form, the changes of the vowels in 
 Mccso-Gothic are as follows : — 
 
 Prs. 
 
 1. a 
 
 2. a: 
 
 Pst. S. Put. PL Part. 
 
 Pst. S. Pst. PL Part. 
 au au au 
 
 e e e 
 
 '■' Fra'tciitc, or Pfrl'ect.
 
 ON CONJUGATION. 
 
 3ri9 
 
 Prs. Fst. S. Pst. PL Part. 
 
 5. 
 
 ai 
 
 o 
 
 6. 
 
 e 
 
 6 
 
 7. 
 
 a 
 
 6 
 
 8. 
 
 ei 
 
 ai 
 
 Prs. Pst. S. Pst. PI. Pari. 
 9. ill au u u 
 
 10. i a e i 
 
 11. i a e II 
 
 12. i a u u 
 
 § 384. Sucli is the arrangement of the strong verbs in Moe- 
 so- Gothic, with which the arrangement of the strong verbs in 
 the other Gothic languages may or may not coincide. 
 
 For a full and perfect coincidence three things are neces- 
 sary : — 1. the coincidence of form; 2. the coincidence of 
 distribution ; 3. the coincidence of order. 
 
 1. Coincidence of form. — Compared with the Mojso- 
 Gothic rinna, rann, riinmim, runnans, the Old High German 
 inflection coincides most rigidly; e.g.., rinnu, ran, rumiumes, 
 runnane. The vowel is the same in the two languages, and 
 it is similarly changed in each. It is very evident that this 
 might be otherwise. The Mceso-Gothic i might have become 
 e, or the u might have become o. In this case, the formula 
 for the two languages would not have been the same. In- 
 stead of i, a, u, u (see the tabular arrangement), serving for 
 the Old High German as well as the Moeso-Gothic, the for- 
 mula would have been, for the Moeso-Gothic, i, «, u, m, and 
 for the Old High German e, a, m, m, or ^, a, o, o. The forms 
 in this latter case would have been equivalent, but not the 
 same. 
 
 2. Coincidence of distribution. — A given number of words 
 in the Mceso-Gothic form their preterites by changing i into 
 a ; in other words, a given number of verbs in Mffiso-Gothic 
 are inflected like rinna and rami. The same is the case with 
 the Old High German. Now if these words are the same in 
 the two languages, the Moeso-Gothic and the Old High Ger- 
 man (as far as the agreement extends) coincide in the dis- 
 tribution of their verbs ; that is, the same words are arranged 
 in the same class, or (changing the phrase) are distributed 
 alike. 
 
 3. Coincidence of order. — The conjugation to which the 
 Moeso-Gothic words rinna and rann belong is the twelfth. 
 The same is the case in Old High German. It might, how-
 
 .'J30 ON CONJUOATION. 
 
 I'ver, have bmi tlu> case that in (^lil Higli (iernuiu tlic class 
 correspoiuliii-^f witli tlu- twi'll'th in Ma'so-Gothic was the first, 
 secoiul, third, or any othor. 
 
 Now a coincitlonco of I'oiin, a coincidence of distribution, 
 ami a coiutidonce of order, in all the classes of all the Gothic 
 laiiuaiaLjcs, is more than can be expected. If such were the 
 case, the tenses Mould be iilentical throughout. 
 
 Coincidence of form is infringed upon by the simple ten- 
 ilency of sounds to change. H'dpa in Ma>so-Gothic is helpe 
 in Anglo-Saxon : Indimns in Mu;so-Gothic is holfaner in 
 Old High German, and holpen iu Anglo-Saxon, A change, 
 however, of this sort is insufficient to affect the arrangement. 
 Hilpan^ in Anglo-Saxon, is placed in the same class with 
 spinnan ; and all that can be said is, that the Mocso-Gothic * 
 is, in Anglo-Saxon, represented not by i exclusively, but 
 sometimes by l and sometimes by e. 
 
 Coincidence of distribution is of great etymological import- 
 ance. A word may in one stage of a language take the form 
 of one conjugation, and in another that of another. The word 
 climban is, in Anglo-Saxon, placed in the same conjugation 
 with drincan, &c. For this there was a reason ; viz., the 
 fact of the i being short. For the i being short there was a 
 reason also. The h preceded the vowel a, and consequently 
 was sounded. This was the case whether the word was di- 
 vided dim-ban or cUmh-an. An, however, was no part of 
 the original word, but only the sign of the infinitive mood. 
 As such it became ejected. The letter h then came at the 
 end of the word ; but as the combination mi, followed by 
 nothing was unstable, h was soon lost in pronunciation. Now 
 b being lost, the vowel which was once short became length- 
 ened, or rather it became the sound of the diphthong ei ; so 
 that the word was no longer called clhnb, but clime. Now 
 the words that follow the analogy of spin, span, &c. (and 
 consequently constitute the twelfth class), do so, not because 
 the vowel is i, but because it is a sliort i ; and when the i is 
 sounded like a diphthong, the prreterite is formed differently. 
 The Anglo-Saxon preterite of climban was sounded cldmm, 
 and rhymed to from ; the English pra;terite (when strong) of
 
 ON CONJUGATION. 331 
 
 climb Is sounded cldmbe, rhyming- to roatii. The word climb, 
 which was once classed with spi?i and sing, is now to be 
 classed with arise and smite ; in other words, it is distributed 
 differently. 
 
 Coincidence in the order of the classes is violated when a 
 class which was (for instance) the third in one language 
 becomes, in another language the fourth, &c. In Mffiso- 
 Gotliic the class containing the words smeita, stndit, smitiim, 
 smitans, is the eighth. This is a natural place for it. In 
 the class preceding it, the vowel is the same in both numbers. 
 In the classes that follow it, the vowel is changed in the plu- 
 ral. The number of classes that in Mceso- Gothic change the 
 vowel is five ; viz., the eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and 
 twelfth. Of these the eighth is the first. The classes where 
 the change in question takes place form a natural subdivision, 
 of which the eighth class stands at the head. Now in An- 
 glo-Saxon the vowel is not changed so much as in the Mceso- 
 Gothic. In words like choose, give, and steal, the vowel 
 remains unaltered in the plural. In Mojso-Gothic, however, 
 these words are, respectively, of the ninth, tenth, and ele- 
 venth classes. It is not till we get to the eleventh that the 
 Anglo-Saxon plurals take a fresh vowel. As the presence or 
 absence of a change of vowel naturally regulates the order of 
 the classes, the eighth class in Mceso-Gothic becomes the 
 eleventh in Anglo-Saxon. If it were not so, the classes 
 where a change took place in the plural would be separated 
 from each other. 
 
 The later the stage of the language, the less complete the 
 coincidence in the classes. 
 
 Of the present arrangement, the twelfth class coincides 
 most throughout the Gothic languages. 
 
 In the word climb, a reason was given for its having 
 changed from the twelfth class to the eleventh class. This, 
 in the present state of our knowledge, cannot always be done. 
 These statements are made lest the I'cader should expect 
 to find between the English and the Anglo-Saxon classifica- 
 tion anything more than a ])artial coincidence. A detailed 
 exhibition of the English conjugations would form a work of
 
 83« 
 
 ON CONJUGATION. 
 
 itsolt". Moreover, the present classes of the strong verbs must, 
 to a great degree, be considered as provisional. 
 
 Observe, that it is the classts of the strong verbs that are 
 provisional. With the great divisions into weak and strong, 
 the case is far otherwise. Tlie general assertions which 
 will be made in p. .'333, respecting the strong conjugation, 
 show most cogently that the division is a natural one. 
 
 § 385. Preliminary, however, to making them, the reader''s 
 attention is directed to the following list of verbs. In the 
 present English they all form the pnioterite in -d or -f ; in 
 Anglo-Saxon, they all form it by a change of the vowel. In 
 other words they are weak verbs that were once strong. 
 
 
 Prceterites. 
 
 
 Prtstnt. 
 
 English. 
 
 Freelerile- 
 
 Anglo 
 Present. 
 
 ■Saxon. 
 
 Praterile 
 
 Wreak 
 
 Wreaked. 
 
 Wrcee 
 
 Wr£E'c. 
 
 Fret 
 
 Fretted. 
 
 Frete 
 
 Frte't. 
 
 Mete 
 
 Meted. 
 
 Mete 
 
 Mse't. 
 
 Shear 
 
 Sheared. 
 
 Secre 
 
 Scear. 
 
 Braid 
 
 Braided, 
 
 Brcde 
 
 Br^'d. 
 
 Knead 
 
 Kneaded, 
 
 Cnede 
 
 Cn^'d. 
 
 Dread 
 
 Dreaded. 
 
 Drse'de 
 
 Dred. 
 
 Sleep 
 Fold 
 
 Slept. 
 Folded, 
 
 Slape 
 Fealde 
 
 Slep. 
 Feold. 
 
 Wield 
 
 Wielded. 
 
 Wealde 
 
 Weold. 
 
 Wax 
 
 Waxed. 
 
 Weaxe 
 
 Weox. 
 
 Leap 
 Sweep 
 Weep 
 Sow 
 
 Leapt. 
 Swept. 
 Wept. 
 Sowed. 
 
 Hleape 
 Swajie 
 Wepe 
 Sawe 
 
 Hleop. 
 Sweop, 
 Weop. 
 Scow. 
 
 Bake 
 
 Baked. 
 
 Bace 
 
 B6k, 
 
 Gnaw 
 
 Gnawed. 
 
 Gnage 
 
 Gnoh, 
 
 Laugh 
 Wade 
 
 Laughed. 
 Waded. 
 
 Hlihhe 
 ^Vadc 
 
 Hldh. 
 W6d. 
 
 Lade 
 
 Laded. 
 
 Hladc 
 
 Hlod. 
 
 Grave 
 
 Graved. 
 
 Grafe 
 
 Grof. 
 
 Shave 
 
 Shaved. 
 
 Scafe 
 
 Scof, 
 
 Step 
 Wash 
 
 Stepped. 
 Washed. 
 
 Steppe 
 Wacsc 
 
 Stop. 
 Woes. 
 
 Bellow 
 
 Bellowed. 
 
 lielge 
 
 Bealh.
 
 ON CONJUGATION. 
 
 333 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Fvceterlte. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Praterite 
 
 Swallow 
 
 Swallowed. 
 
 Swelge 
 
 Swcalh. 
 
 Mourn 
 
 Mourned. 
 
 Murne 
 
 Mcarn. 
 
 Spurn 
 
 Spurned. 
 
 Spume 
 
 Spearn. 
 
 Carve 
 
 Carved. 
 
 Ceorfe 
 
 Cearf. 
 
 Starve 
 
 Starved. 
 
 Steorfe 
 
 Stserf. 
 
 Thresh 
 
 Threshed. 
 
 Jcrsce 
 
 Jjsersc. 
 
 Hew 
 
 Hewed. 
 
 Hcawe 
 
 Heow. 
 
 Flow 
 
 Flowed. 
 
 Flowe 
 
 Fleow. 
 
 Row 
 
 Rowed. 
 
 Rovve 
 
 Reow. 
 
 Creep 
 
 Crept. 
 
 Creope 
 
 Creap. 
 
 Dive 
 
 Dived. 
 
 Deofe 
 
 Deaf. 
 
 Shove 
 
 Shoved, 
 
 Sceofe 
 
 Sceaf. 
 
 C!iew 
 
 Chewed. 
 
 Cedwe 
 
 Ceaw. 
 
 Brew 
 
 Brewed. 
 
 Breowe 
 
 Brcaw. 
 
 Lock 
 
 Locked. 
 
 Luce 
 
 Leac. 
 
 Suck 
 
 Sucked. 
 
 Slice 
 
 Seac. 
 
 Reek 
 
 Reeked. 
 
 Reoce 
 
 Reac. 
 
 Smoke 
 
 Smoked. 
 
 Smedcc 
 
 Smcac. 
 
 Bow 
 
 Bowed. 
 
 Bedge 
 
 Bcah. 
 
 Lie 
 
 Lied. 
 
 Ledge 
 
 Leah. 
 
 Gripe 
 
 Griped. 
 
 Gripe 
 
 Grap. 
 
 Span 
 
 Spanned . 
 
 Spanne 
 
 Spen. 
 
 Eke 
 
 Eked. 
 
 Eace 
 
 Edc 
 
 Fare 
 
 Fared. 
 
 Fare 
 
 For 
 
 § 386. The first of the general statements made concern- 
 ing strong verbs, with a view of j^roving that the order is 
 natural.^ shall be the one arising out of the preceding list of 
 prseterites. 
 
 I. Many strong verbs become weak ; whilst no weak 
 verb ever becomes strong. 
 
 II. All the strong verbs are of Saxon origin. None are 
 classical. 
 
 III. The greater number of them are strong throughout 
 the Gothic tongues. 
 
 IV. No new woi-d is ever, upon its importation, inflected 
 according to the strong conjugation. It is always weak. 
 As early as a.d. 1085, the French word adouher ^^^ to diihh., 
 was introduced into English. Its prjeterite was duhhade.^ 
 
 * Philological Museum, ii. p. ;i87.
 
 834 ON <"(>n.hm;.\tI()N. 
 
 V. All clcrivttl wDvds arc iiill»>c(('«l weak. TIic intran- 
 sitive tbrnis d)'l»k and lu\ are stron^jf ; the transitivt^ lornis 
 drench and An/, are weak. 
 
 The t'onrth statement will ayain he recnrrcd to. The j)re- 
 sent object is to show that the division into strong and weak 
 is natnral. 
 
 § 887. Obsolete forms. — Instead of Icpt, slept, mowed^ 
 snowed, &c., we find, in the provincial dialects and in the 
 older writers, the strong forms lep, slep, mew, snew, &c. This 
 is no more than what we expect. Here there are two forms, 
 and each form is of a different conjugation. 
 
 § 388. DoilUc Forms. — In lep and mew we have two forms, 
 of which one only is current. In stooll and swelled, in clomh 
 and climbed, and in hunri and Jicmged, we have two forms, of 
 which both are current. These latter are true double forms. 
 Of double forms there are two kinds. 
 
 1. Those like swoll and sicelled ; where there is the same 
 tense, but a difterent conjugation. 
 
 2. Those like sp>oke and spaJce ; where the tense is the 
 same and the conjugation the same, but where the form is 
 difterent. 
 
 The bearings of these double forms (which, however, are 
 points of general rather than of English grammar) are as fol- 
 lows. Their number in a given language may be very great, 
 and the grammarian of a given language may call them, not 
 double forms of the same tense, but different tenses. Let the 
 number of words like swoll and swelled be multiplied by 1 000. 
 The chances are, that, in the present state of etymology, they 
 would be called first preterites and second preterites. The 
 bearing of this remark upon the so-called aorists and futures 
 of the Greek language is evident. I think that a writer in 
 the Cambridge Philological Museum * indicates the true 
 nature of those tenses. They are the same tense in a dif- 
 ferent conjugation, and differ from iwoll and swelled only in 
 the frequency of their occurrence. 
 
 Difference of form, and difference of conjugation, may each 
 simulate a difference of tense. 
 
 * Vol. ii. p. 203.
 
 DEFECTIVENESS AND IRREGULARITY. 335 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 DEFECTIVENESS AND IRREGULARITY. 
 
 § 389. In § 361 the distinction between irregularity and 
 defectiveness was slightly foreshadowed. In pp. 243, 267, it 
 was exhibited in its principles. In the present chapter the 
 difference is more urgently insisted on. 
 
 The words that have hitherto served as illustrations are 
 the personal pronouns / and me, and the adjectives good, 
 better, and best. See the sections referred to above. 
 
 The view of these words was as follows : viz., that none 
 of them were irregular, but that they were all defective. 
 Me wanted the nominative, / the oblique cases. Good was 
 without a comparative, better and best had no positive degree. 
 
 Now me and better may be said to make good the defective- 
 ness of / and good ; and / and good may be said to replace 
 the forms wanting in me and better. This gives us the prin- 
 ciple of compensation. To introduce a new term, / and me, 
 good and better, may be said to be complementary to each 
 other. 
 
 What applies to nouns applies to verbs also. Go and went 
 are not irregularities. Go is (at least in the present stage of 
 our language) defective in the past tense. Went (at least in 
 its current sense) is without a present. The two words, how- 
 ever, compensate their mutual deficiencies, and are to each 
 other complementary. 
 
 The distinction between defectiveness and irregularity, is 
 the first instrument of criticism for coming to true views 
 concerning the proportion of the regular and irregular 
 verbs. 
 
 The second instrument of criticism in determining the irre- 
 gular verbs, is the meaning that we attach to terms.
 
 J).S(j DEKKCTIVENKSS ANI> lURKdULAIUTY. 
 
 It is very cvitli-nl (Ii;i( it is in llu' jjowcr of the gram 
 niariaii to raise tlie iiimil>LM- ot' etymological irregularities to 
 any amount, hy narrowing tiu- delinition of the word irre- 
 gular ; in other words, by framing an cxelusive rule. The 
 current rule of the common grammarians is that the prajterite 
 is formed bf/ the additlun of -f^ or -d, or -ed. Now this posi- 
 tion is surtieiently exclusive ; since it proscribes not only the 
 whole class of strong verbs, but also words like hent and 
 sent^ where -t exists, but where it does not exist as an 
 addition. The regular forms, it may be said, should be 
 bended and sended. 
 
 Exclusive, however, as the rule in question is, it is plain 
 that it might be made more so. The regular forms might, 
 by the Jiai of a rule, be restricted to those in -d. In this 
 case words like icept and burnt would be added to the already 
 numerous list of irregulars. 
 
 Final!}', a further limitation might be made, by laying 
 down as a rule that no word was regular, unless it ended 
 in -ed. 
 
 Thus much concerning the modes of making rules exclusive, 
 and, consequently, of raising the amount of irregularities. 
 This is the last art that the philosophic grammarian is ambi- 
 tious of acquiring. True etymology reduces irregularity by 
 making the rules of grammar, not exclusive, but general. The 
 quantum of irregularity is In the inverse proportion to the 
 generality of our rules. In language itself there is no irre- 
 gularity. The word itself is only another name for our 
 ignorance of the processes that change words ; and, as irre- 
 gularity is in the direct proportion to the exclusiveness of our 
 rules, the exclusiveness of our rules is in the direct proportion 
 to our ignorance of etymological processes. 
 
 The explanation of some fresh terms will lead us towards 
 (but not to) the definition of the word irregular. 
 
 I. Vital and obsolete processes. — The word moved is formed 
 from move, by the addition of -d. The addition of -d is the 
 process by which the present form is rendered prteterite. The 
 word /ell is formed from fall, by changing a into e. The 
 change of vowel is the process by which the present form is
 
 DEFECTIVENESS AND IRREGULARITY. .So7 
 
 rendered prseterite. Of the two processes the result is the 
 same. In what respect do they differ ? 
 
 For the sake of illustration, let a new Mord be introduced 
 into the language. Let a preeterite tense of it be formed. 
 This prteterite would be formed, not by changing the vowel, 
 but by adding -d. No new verb ever takes a strong prseterite. 
 The like takes place with nouns. No new substantive would 
 form its plural, like oxen or geese^ by adding -en^ or by changing 
 the vowel. It would rather, like fathers and horses^ add the 
 lene sibilant. 
 
 Now, the processes that change /a^/, ox^ and goose mio fell^ 
 oxen, and geese, inasmuch as they cease to operate on the 
 language in its present stage, are obsolete processes ; whilst 
 those that change move into moved, and horse into horses, 
 operating on the language in its present stage, are vital pro- 
 cesses. 
 
 A definition of the word irregular might be so framed as to 
 include all words whose forms could not be accounted for by 
 the vital processes. Such a definition would, in the present 
 English, make words like lent, sought, &c. (the euphonic pro- 
 cesses being allowed for), regular, and all the strong verbs 
 irregular. 
 
 The very fact of so natural a class as that of the strong 
 verbs being reduced to the condition of irregulars, invalidates 
 such a definition as this. 
 
 II. Processes of necessity as ojyposed to j^^ocesses of habit. — 
 The combinations -pd-, -fd-, -hi-, -sd-, and some others, are 
 unpronounceable. Hence words like stej), qi^ff-, hack, kiss, 
 &c., take after them the sound of -t : stept, quafft, &c. (the 
 sound being represented), being their praeterites, instead of 
 stepd, quaffd. Hei-e the change from -d (the natural termina- 
 tion) to -t is a matter (or process) of necessity. It is not so 
 with words like weep and wept, &c. Here the change of 
 vowel is not necessary. Weept might have been said if the 
 habit of the language had permitted. 
 
 A definition of the word irregular might be so framed as to 
 include all words whose natural form was modified by any 
 euphonic process whatever. In this case s<«?^if (tnodifit-d by a
 
 .'{."{S DKFKrTIVKNKSJS AND lURKOULAUITY. 
 
 process <»t' iicccssity), ami irij>t (iikmIiIuhI by u process of 
 luvblt), wtiiiKl be equally ineufular. 
 
 A less limited defiiiilioii miylit aeeoiint words regular as 
 long as the process by wliieli tliey are deflected from their 
 natural form was a process of necessity. Those, however, 
 wbieh were niodilied bv a jiroeess of habit it would class with 
 the irregulars. 
 
 Definitions thus limited arise from ignorance of euphonic 
 processes, or rather from an ignorance of the generality of 
 their operation. 
 
 III. Ordinary processes as opposed to extraordinary processes. 
 — The whole scheme of language is analogical. A new word 
 introduced into a language takes the forms of its cases or 
 tenses, &c., from the forms of the cases or tenses, &c., of the 
 old words. The analogy is extended. Now few forms (if 
 any) arc so unique as not to have some others correspond- 
 ing with them ; and few processes of change are so unique 
 as not to affect more words than one. The forms wept 
 and slept correspond with each other. They are brought 
 about by the same process ; viz. by the shortening of the 
 vowel in iceep and sleep. The analogy of loeep is extended to 
 sleep, and vice versa. Changing our expression, a common 
 influence affects both words. The alteration itself is an 
 ultimate fact. The extent of its influence is an instrument of 
 classification. When processes affect a considerable number 
 of words, they may be called ordinary processes ; as 
 opposed to extraordinary processes, which affect one or few 
 words. 
 
 When a word stands by itself, with no other corresponding 
 to it, we confess our ignorance, and say that it is affected by 
 an extraordinary process, by a process peculiar to itself, or by 
 a process to which we know nothing similar. 
 
 A definition of the word irregular might be so framed as to 
 include all words affected by extraordinary processes ; the rest 
 being considered regular. 
 
 IV. Positive processes as opposed to ambiguous processes. — 
 The words we2>t and slept are similarly affected. Each is 
 changed from tceep and sleep respectively ; and we know that
 
 DEFECTIVENESS AND IRREGULARITY. 339 
 
 the process which affects the one is the process that affects the 
 other also. Here there is a positive process. 
 
 Reference is now made to words of a different sort. The 
 nature of the word worse is explained in p. 267, and the 
 reader is referred to the section. There the form is accounted 
 for in two ways, of which only one can be the true one. Of 
 the two processes, each might equally have brought about the 
 present form. Which of the two it was, we are unable to 
 say. Here the process is ambiguous. 
 
 A definition of the word irregular might be so framed as to 
 include all words affected by ambiguous processes. 
 
 V. Normal processes as op2yosed to processes of confusion. — 
 Let a certain word come under class A. Let all words under 
 class A be similarly affected. Let a given word come under 
 class A. This word will be affected even as the rest of class 
 A is affected. The process affecting, and the change resulting, 
 will be normal, regular, or analogical. 
 
 Let, however, a word, instead of really coming under 
 class A, appear to do so. Let it be dealt with accord- 
 ingly. The analogy then is a false one. The principle of 
 imitation is a wrong one. The process affecting is a process 
 of confusion. 
 
 Examples of this (a few amongst many) are words like 
 songstress, theirs, minded, where the words songstr-, their-^ 
 and mind-, are dealt with as roots, which they are not. 
 
 Ambiguous processes, extraordinary processes, processes of 
 confusion — each, or all of these are legitimate reasons for 
 calling words irregular. The practice of etymologists will 
 determine what definition is most convenient. 
 
 With extraordinary processes we know nothing about the 
 word. With ambiguous processes we are unable to make a 
 choice. With processes of confusion we see the analogy, but, 
 at the same time, see that it is a false one. 
 
 § 390. Could. — With all persons who pronounce the I this 
 word is truly inegular. The Anglo-Saxon form is cic^e. The 
 -I is inserted by a process of confusion. 
 
 Can, cunne, canst, cunnon, cunnan, cu'Se, civ^on, cw^ — such 
 are the remaining forms in Anglo-Saxon. None of them 
 
 z2
 
 ;>M) DEFECTIVENESS AND IIIUEGULARITY. 
 
 account for the -I. The presence of the -I makes the word 
 could irregiihir. No reference to the allied languages accounts 
 for it. 
 
 Notwithstanding this, the pn-sence of tiic -/ is accounted 
 for. In irould and should the -I has a |)roj)er place. It is 
 part of tlu' original words, will and shall. A false analogy 
 looked upon could in the same light. Hence a true irregu- 
 larity ; provided that the l be 2>rouounced. 
 
 The L, however, is pronounced by few, and that only 
 in pursuance to the spelling. This reduces the word 
 could to an irregularity, not of language, but only of ortho- 
 gra[)hy. 
 
 That the mere ejection of the -n in can, and that the mere 
 lengthening of the vowel, are not irregularities, we learn from 
 a knowledge of the processes that convert the Greek ohovrog 
 (pdontos) into oboiig {odotcs). 
 
 § 391. The verb quoth is truly defective. It is found in 
 only one tense, one number, and one person. It is the third 
 person singular of the prreterite tense. It has the further 
 peculiarity of preceding its pronoun. Instead of saying he 
 quoth, we say quoth he. In Anglo-Saxon, however, it was 
 not defective. It was found in the other tenses, in the other 
 number, and in other moods. Ic cice^e, \m cwyst, he cwy%. 
 Ic cicft^, ]>u ciccB^e, he cwa^, we cweedon, ge ctooedon, hi 
 ciC(zdon. Imperative, cwt%. Participle, gecweden. In the 
 Scandinavian it is current in all its forms. There, however, 
 it means, not to speak but to sing. As far as its conjugation 
 goes, it is strong. As far as its class goes, it follows the form 
 oi speah, spoke. Like speak, its Anglo-Saxon form is in a, as 
 cv:)afS. Like one of the forms oi speak, its English form is in 
 0, as quoth, spoke. 
 
 The whole of the present chapter is indicative of the nature 
 of irregularity, and of the elements that should enter into the 
 definition of it, rather than exhaustive of the detail. 
 
 The principle that I recognise for myself is to consider no 
 word irregular unless it can be proved so. This view includes 
 the words affected by ambiguous processes, and by processes 
 of confusion, and no others. The words affected by extraor-
 
 DEFECTIVENESS AND IRREGULARITY. 341 
 
 dinary processes form a provisional class, which a future in- 
 crease of our etymological knowledge may show to be regular. 
 Worse and cotdd (its spelling being considered) are the fairest 
 specimens of our irregulars. The class, instead of filling 
 pages, is exceedingly limited.
 
 o4Ji rilK I.MI'KIISONAL VKRBS. 
 
 CHAI»rKK XXVII. 
 
 TIM': IMl'KKSONAL VEllHS. 
 
 § 0^2. Mvsi'e)iis. — l']quivalent to it seems to me ; mihi vide- 
 tui\ (puinrui [JjOi. Tlie verb soems is intransitive ; conse- 
 (|iu'ntly the pronoun me has the |)o\vcr of a dative case. The 
 l)ronoun it is not required to accompany the verb. 
 
 § 3U8. Met/links. — In Anglo-Saxon there are two forms : 
 Yencan — to thiul\ and ])i)ican — to seem. It is from the hitter 
 form that the verb in methinks comes. Such being the case, 
 it is intransitive, and consequently the pronoun me has the 
 |)o\ver of a dative case. The pronoun it is not required to 
 accomjnmy the verb. 
 
 Of this word we have also the past form methought. 
 
 Mctliouglit I saw my late espoused wife 
 Brought to me, like Alcestis, from the grave. 
 
 Milton. 
 
 § o94. Me listeth, or me lists. — Equivalent to it pleases me 
 = me juvat. Anglo-Saxon lystan = to wish, to choose, also to 
 iilease, to delight ; Norse, lysta. Unlike the other two, the 
 verb is transitive, so that the pronoun 7ne has the power of an 
 accusative case. The pronoun it is not required to accom- 
 pany the verb. 
 
 These three arc the only true impersonal verbs in the 
 English language. They form a class by themselves, because 
 no pronoun accompanies them, as is the case with the equi- 
 valent expressions /V appears, it pleases, and with all the other 
 verbs in the language. 
 
 In the old language impersonal verbs, or rather the imper- 
 sonal use of verbs, was commoner than at present. 
 
 Hiui oi'g/ilcn now to have the Icsc jtaiii. 
 
 Ligend of Good Women, 42i).
 
 THE IMPERSONAL VERBS. 343 
 
 Him ought not to be a tyrant. 
 
 Legend of Good Women, Zll. 
 
 Me mete. — Chaucer. 
 
 Well me qucmeth. — Conf. Ainuntis. 
 
 In the following lines the construction is, it shall please 
 your Majesty. 
 
 I '11 muster up my friends to meet your Grace, 
 Where and what time your Majesty shall please. 
 
 Richard III., iv. 4. 
 
 See a paper of Mr. Guest's, Phil. Trans., vol. ii. 241. 
 Strictly speaking, the impersonal verbs are a part of syntax 
 rather than of etymology.
 
 ;5H. 
 
 TlIK VKllll SUUSTANTIVK. 
 
 CI I APT Ell XX VII I. 
 
 TIIF, VKRH SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 § 395. Tilt: verb substantive is generally dealt with as an 
 irroguiar verb. This is inaccurate. The true notion is 
 that the idea of beiiig or existing is expressed by four dif- 
 ferent verbs, each of which is defective in some of its parts. 
 The parts, however, that are wanting in one verb, are made 
 up by the inflections of one of the others. There is, for 
 example, no praeterite of the verb am, and no present of 
 the verb was. The absence, however, of the present form of 
 was is made up by the word am, and the absence of the 
 pneterite form of am is made up by tlie word was. 
 
 § 396. Was. — Defective, except in the prteterite tense, 
 where it is found both in the indicative and conjunctive. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 1. Was. Were. 
 
 2. Wast. Were. 
 .3. Was. Were. 
 
 Conjunctive. 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 1. Were. Were. 
 
 2. Wert. Were. 
 .3. Were. Were. 
 
 In the older stages of the Gothic languages the word has 
 both a full conjugation and a regular one. In Anglo-Saxon 
 it has an infinitive, a participle present, and a participle past. 
 In Mocso-Gothic it is inflected throughout with -s ; as visa, 
 vas, vesum, visans. In that language it has the power of the 
 Latin maneo = io remain. The -r first appears in the Old 
 High German; wisu, was, lodrumesr wesaner. In X^orse the s 
 entirely disappears, and the word is inflected with r through- 
 out ; vera, var, vorum, &c. 
 
 § 397. Be. — Inflected in Anglo-Saxon throughout the pre- 
 sent tense, both indicative and subjunctive ; found also as an
 
 THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE. 345 
 
 infinitive beon^ as a gerund to beonne, and as a participle 
 beondo. Iii the present Englisli its inflection is as follows : — 
 
 Present. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Conji 
 
 motive. 
 
 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 1 — 
 
 Be. 
 
 Be. 
 
 
 
 — — 
 
 2. Beest. — 
 
 Beest ? 
 
 Be. 
 
 
 
 Be. Be. 
 
 3. — — 
 
 Be. 
 
 Be, Bin. 
 
 
 
 — — 
 
 Infin. To be. 
 
 Pres. P. 
 
 Being. 
 
 J 
 
 ast 
 
 Part. Been. 
 
 The line in Milton beginning If thou beest he — (P. L. b. 
 ii.), leads to the notion that the antiquated form beest is not 
 indicative, but conjunctive. Such, however, is not the case : 
 bj/st in Anglo-Saxon is indicative, the conjunctive form being 
 beo. — And every tldng that pretty bin (Cymbeline). — Here the 
 word bin is the conjunctive plural, in Anglo-Saxon beun ; so 
 that the words every thing are to be considered equivalent to 
 the plural form all things. The phrase in Latin would stand 
 thus, quotquot 'pulcra sint ; in Greek thus, a av kcxJm fj. 
 The indicative plural is, in Anglo-Saxon, not bean, but bed's 
 and beo. 
 
 § 398. In the Deutsche Grammatik, i. 1051, it is stated 
 that the Anglo-Saxon forms beo, bist, bi'S, beo^, or beo, have 
 not a present, but a future sense ; that whilst am means / 
 am, beo means / shall be ; and that in the older languages it 
 is only where the form am is not found that be has the power 
 of a present form. The same root occurs in the Slavonic and 
 Lithuanic tongues with the same power ; as, esmi — I am ; 
 busu — I shall be, Lithuanic. — Esmit — I am; bithshu=I 
 shall be, Livonic. — Jesm=I am ; budu=I shall be, Slavonic. 
 — Gsem=I am ; budit= I shall be, Boheminu. This, however, 
 proves, not that there is in Anglo-Saxon a future tense (or 
 form), but that the word beo has a future sense. There is 
 no fresh tense where there is no fresh form. 
 
 The following is a specimen of the future power of beon in 
 Anglo-Saxon : — "//^ ne he6r6 na cilde, so'Slice, on domesd^ge, 
 ac beo^ sioa micele menn sioa siva hi, migton beon gif hi full 
 weoxon orb geiounlicre ylde."' — ^Ifric's Homilies. " They will 
 not be children, forsooth, on Domesday, but loill be as much
 
 MG THE VKUlt SU]?STANTIVE. 
 
 (i-io iiiucklc) inoii as tlicy miyiit he it' they wore full grown 
 (waxen) in customary age/' 
 
 § SIM). If we consider the word bi'dn like the word weor^an 
 (see below) to mean not so much to he as to become, we get 
 an element of the iilea of futurity. Things which are be- 
 cominq ain/th'nui have yet something further to either do or 
 sulVer. Again, from the idea of futurity we get the idea of 
 contingency, and this explains the subjunctive power of be. 
 In English we often say may for shall^ and the same was done 
 in Anglo-Saxon. — Ic ^e secge, heo is be ^am hase 'Se FegorMtte, 
 and nan man nis 8<? Mg icite {shall, may know) cer ^cini my- 
 clan domey — ^Ifric'^s Homilies, 44. 
 
 § 400. Am. — Of this form it should be stated, that the 
 letter -m is no part of the original word. It is the sign of 
 the first person, just as it is in all the Tndo-European lan- 
 guages. 
 
 It should also be stated, that, although the fact be obscured, 
 and although the changes be insufficiently accounted for, the 
 forms am., art, are, and is, are not, like am and teas, parts of 
 different words, but forms of one and the same word ; in 
 other terms, that, although between am and be there is no 
 etymological connexion, there is one between am and is. This 
 we collect from the comparison of the Indo-European lan- 
 guages. 
 
 1. 2. 3. 
 
 Sanskrit Asnii. Asi. Asti. 
 
 Zend Ahmi. Ani. Ashti 
 
 Greek Ei/it. Ets. Ei. 
 
 Latin Sum. Es. Esti 
 
 Lithuanic Esmi. Essi. Esti. 
 
 Old Slavonic Yesmy. Yesi. Yesty. 
 
 AFoeso-Gothic Ivi. Is. 1st. 
 
 Old Saxon — *Is. 1st. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Earn. Eart. Is. 
 
 Icelandic Em. Ert. Er. 
 
 English Am Art. Is. 
 
 In English and Anglo-Saxon the word is found in the pre- 
 
 * Found rarely ; bist being the current form.— Deutsche Grainmatik, i. 
 894.
 
 THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE. 347 
 
 sent indicative only. In English it is inflected through both 
 numbers ; in Anglo-Saxon in the singular number only. The 
 Anglo-Saxon plurals are forms of the German seyn^ a verb 
 whereof we have, in the present English, no vestiges. 
 
 Worth. — In the following lines of Scott, the word worth = 
 is, and is a fragment of the regular Anglo-Saxon verb weor6an 
 = to he, or to become ; German, werden. 
 
 Woe worth the chase, woe jvorth the day, 
 That cost thy life, my gallant grey. 
 
 Ludj/ of' the Lake.
 
 'MS TUK IM{KSKXT PAirncii'Li-:. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 THE PIJKSICNT I'ARTICIPLE. 
 
 §401. The present participle, called also the active par 
 ticiple and the participle in -ing, is formed from the original 
 word by adding -inp ; as, move, moving. In the older lan- 
 guages the termination was more marked, being -nd. Like 
 the Latin participle in -ns^ it was originally declined. The 
 MoDso-Gothic and Old High German forms are habands 
 and ha])enter = hachui, respectively. The -s in the one lan- 
 guage, and the -er in the other, are the signs of the case and 
 gender. In the Old Saxon and Anglo-Saxon the forms are 
 -and and -ande ; as hindand, hindande = binding. In all the 
 Norse languages, ancient and modern, the -d is preserved. So 
 it is in the Old Lowland Scotch, and in many of the modern 
 provincial dialects of England, where striJcand^ goand, is said 
 for striking, going. In Staffordshire, where the -ing is pro- 
 nounced -ingg, there is a fuller sound than that of the current 
 English. In Old English the form in -nd is j)redominant, in 
 Middle En^lisli, the use fluctuates, and in New Enofliyh the 
 termination -ing is universal. In the Scotch of the modern 
 writers we find the form -in. 
 
 Tlic rising sun o'er Galston muirs 
 
 Wi' glorious light was glintin' ; 
 The hares were hirpliu' down the furs, 
 
 The lav'rocks they were chantin'. 
 
 Burns' Holj/ Fair. 
 
 It is with the oblique cases of the present participles of 
 the classical languages, rather than with the nominative, that 
 we must compare the corresponding participle in Gothic ; e.g.,
 
 THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 349 
 
 'iyjivr-oc (eUiontos), Greek ; habent-is, Latin ; hajient-er, Okl 
 High German. 
 
 § 402. It has often been remarked that the participle is 
 used in many languages as a substantive. This is true in 
 Greek, 
 
 'O tvpaa-aaiv = the actor, when a male. 
 
 'H TTpaaaovaa = the actor, when a female. 
 
 To npcLTTOv ^ the active principle oj'a thing. 
 
 § 403. But it is also stated, that, in the English language, 
 the participle is used as a substantive in a greater degree 
 than elsewhere, and that it is used in several cases and in 
 both numbers, e.g.. 
 
 Rising early is healthy, 
 There is health in rising early. 
 Tliis is the advantage i>/' rising early. 
 The risings in the North, &c. 
 
 Archbishop Whately has some remarks on this substantival 
 power in his Logic. 
 
 Some remarks of Mr. R. Taylor, in the Introduction to his 
 edition of Tooke's Diversions of Purley, modify this view. 
 According to these, the -ing in words like rismg is not the 
 -ing of the present participle ; neither has it originated in the 
 Anglo-Saxon -end. It is rather the -ing in words like morn- 
 ing., which is anything but a participle of the non-existent 
 verb morn., and which has originated in the Anglo-Saxon sub- 
 stantival termination -ung. Upon this Rask writes as fol- 
 lows : — " Gitsimg, gewilnung = desire ; swutelung = manifes- 
 tation ; cleensung = a cleansing ; sceaioung = view., contem- 
 plation ; eofS beofung = an earthquake; gesomnung =an 
 assembly. This termination is chiefly used in forming sub- 
 stantives from verbs of the first class in -ian ; as, halgmig = 
 consecration., from hdlgian = to consecrate. These verbs are 
 all feminine." — Anglo Saxon Grammar, p. 107. 
 
 Now, whatever may be the theory of the origin of the 
 termination -iiig in old phrases like rising early is healthy, it 
 cannot apply to expressions of recent introduction. Here the 
 direct origin in -ung is out of the question.
 
 '3i>0 TIIM I'KKSKNT PARTICIPLE. 
 
 Tho viow, then, tli;i( roniains to be taken of the forms in 
 question is this : 
 
 1 . That the oMer forms in -iiip are snbstantival in oritifin, 
 and = the Anylo-Saxon -unp. 
 
 2. That the latter ones are participial, and have been 
 formed on a false analogy.
 
 THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 351 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 § 404. The participle in -en. — In the Anglo-Saxon this 
 participle was declined like the adjectives. Like the adjec- 
 tives, it is, in the present English, nndeclined. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon it always ended in -en, as sungen,fund6n, 
 bunden. In English this -en is often wanting, as found, 
 hound ; the word hounden being antiquated. Words where 
 the -en is wanting may be viewed in two lights ; 1 , they 
 may be looked upon as participles that have lost their termi- 
 nation ; 2, they may be considered as prseterites with a 
 participial sense. 
 
 § 405. Drank, drunk, drunken. — With all words wherein 
 the vowel of the plural differs from that of the singular, the 
 participle takes the plural form. To say / have drunk, is to 
 use an ambiguous expression ; since drunk may be either a 
 participle minus its termination, or a pra^terite with a partici- 
 pial sense. To say / have drank, is to use a praeterite for a 
 participle. To say / have drunken, is to use an unexception- 
 able form. 
 
 In all words with a double form, as spake and spoke, hrake 
 and broke, clave and clove, the participle follows the form in 
 0, as spoken, broken, cloven. Spaken, braken., claven, arc 
 impossible forms. There are degrees in laxity of language, 
 and to say the spear is broke is better than to say the spear is 
 brake. 
 
 These two statements bear upon the future history of the 
 prajterite. That of the two forms sancf and sun(^, one will, in 
 the course of language, become obsolete is nearly certain ; 
 and, as the plural form is also that of the participle, it is the 
 plural form which is most likely to be the surviving one.
 
 .'J52 TlIK PAST I'AUTICirLE. 
 
 § WG. As a o»Mu ral rule, wo Inid the j^articiplo in -en 
 Avhorever (lie pra-tiritt* is strong; indeed, the participle in 
 -en may bo called the stroni,' j)arti{'ij)le, or the j)arti('iple of the 
 strong conjugation. Still the two forms do not always 
 coincide. In moio, mowed, morcn ; sowy sowed^ sown ; and 
 several other words, we find the j)articiple strong, and the 
 pra-terite weak. I remember no instances of the converse. 
 This is only another way of saying that the preterite has a 
 greater tendency to pass from strong to weak than the par- 
 ticiple. 
 
 § 407- In the Latin language the change from s to r, and 
 vice versa., is very common. We have the double forms arbor 
 and arbos, honor and honos, &c. Of this change we have a 
 few specimens in English. The words rear and raise, as 
 compared with each other, are examples. In Anglo-Saxon a 
 few words undergo a similar change in the plural number of 
 the strong prseterites. 
 
 Ceose, I choose ; ceas, I chose; curon, we chose ; gecoren, chosen, 
 Forlcose, I lose; forleas, I lost ; forluron, we lost; forloren, lost. 
 Hreose, I rush ; hreas, I rushed ; hruron, we rushed ; gchroren, rushed. 
 
 This accounts for the participial form forlorn, or lost, in 
 New High German verloren. In ISIilton's lines, 
 
 the piercing air 
 
 'Rmnsfrore, and cold performs the effect of fire. 
 
 Paradise Lost, b. ii. 
 
 we have a form from the Anglo-Saxon participle gefroren = 
 frozen. 
 
 § 408. The participle in -d, -t, or -ed. — In the Anglo- 
 Saxon this participle was declined like the adjective. Like 
 the adjective, it is, in the present English, undeclined. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon it differed in form from the pra^terite, 
 inasmuch as it ended in -ed, or -if, whereas the preterite ended 
 in -ode, -de, or -te : as, liifode, b^rnde, dypte, prseterites ; 
 gelufod, barned, dypt, participles. 
 
 As the ejection of the e reduces words like barned and 
 barnde to the same form, it is easy to account for the present
 
 THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 353 
 
 identity of form between the weak prseterites and the partici- 
 ples in -d : e.g., I moved, I have moved, &e. 
 
 § 409. In the older writers, and in works written, like 
 Thomson''s Castle of Indolence, in imitation of them, we 
 find prefixed to the prseterite participle the letter y-, as yclept 
 = called : y clad = clothed : ydrad = dreaded. 
 
 The following are the chief facts and the current opinion 
 concerning this prefix : — 
 
 1 . It has grown out of the fuller forms ge- : Anglo-Saxon, 
 ge- : Old Saxon, gi- : Moeso-Gothic, ga- : Old High German, 
 ka-, cha-, ga-, H-, gi-. 
 
 2. It occurs in each and all of the Germanic languages of 
 the Gothic stock. 
 
 8. It occurs, with a few fragmentary exceptions, in none of 
 the Scandinavian languages of the Gothic stock. 
 
 4. In Anglo-Saxon it occasionally indicates a difference of 
 sense ; as hctten = called, ge-haten ^promised, loren = borne, 
 <7^-boren = born. 
 
 5. It occurs in nouns as well as verbs. 
 
 6. Its power, in the case of nouns, is generally some idea of 
 association, or collection. — Moeso-Gothic, sin])S = a journey, 
 ga'Sin])a = a companion ; Old High German, iKTC-=^hill ; 
 ki-perki (ge-birge)=a range of hills. 
 
 7. But it has also a frequentative power ; a frequentative 
 power which is, in all 2)robability, secondary to its collective 
 power : since things which recur frequently recur with a 
 tendency to collection or association ; Middle High German, 
 ge-rassel = rustling ; ge-rumpel = c-rumple. 
 
 8. And it has also the power of expressing the possession 
 of a quality. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 English. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Fcax 
 
 Hair 
 
 Ge-feax 
 
 Comatus. 
 
 Hcorte 
 
 Heart 
 
 Ge-hcort 
 
 Cordatus. 
 
 Stence 
 
 Odour 
 
 Ge-stcncc 
 
 Oclorus. 
 
 This power is also a collective, since every quality is asso- 
 ciated with th<! object that possesses it : a sra with toaves = 
 a wavy sea. 
 
 A A
 
 354 TIIK PAST I'Al'.TK'IPLK. 
 
 .*). llriico it is |»rol);il»li' that iUo aa-, //-, ov (ji-, Ciothic, is 
 the cum of Ij.itin hiiiufiiagcs. Siuh is Grimm's view, as given 
 in Dcutsclio Granunatik, i, lOK!, 
 
 Concerning this, it may he said that it is deficient in an 
 essential point. It does not show how the participle past is 
 eolleetive. Uiidonbtedly it may be said that every such 
 participle is in the condition of words like ffe-feax and cfe-heort ; 
 i. e., that they imply an association between the object and 
 the action or state. Hut this does not seem to be Grimm's 
 view ; he rather suggests that the pe- may have been a prefix 
 to verbs in general, originally attached to all their forms, but 
 finally abandoned everywhere except in the ease of the partici- 
 j)le. The theory of this prefix has yet to assume a satisfactory 
 form.
 
 COMPOSITION. 535 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 COMPOSITION. 
 
 § 410. In the following words, amongst many others, we 
 have palpable and indubitable specimens of composition. 
 Day-star.) vine-yard, sun-beam, apple-tree, ship-load, silver- 
 smith, &c. The words palpalle and indubitable have been 
 used, because, in many cases, as will be seen hereafter, it is 
 difficult to determine whether a word be a true compound or 
 not. 
 
 Now, in each of the compounds quoted above, it may be 
 seen that it is the second word which is qualified, or defined, 
 by the first, and that it is not the first which is qualified or 
 defined, by the second. Of yards, beams, trees, loads, smiths, 
 there may be many sorts, and, in order to determine what 
 particular sort of yard, beam, tree, load, or smith, may be 
 meant, the words vine, sun, apple, ship, and silver, are pre- 
 fixed. In compound words it is ihe first term that defines or 
 particularises the second. 
 
 § 411. That the idea given by the word apple-tree is not 
 referable to the words apple and tree, irrespective of the order 
 in which they occur, may be seen by reversing the position of 
 them. The word tree-apple, although not existing in the 
 language, is as correct a word as thorn-apple. In tree-apple, 
 the particular sort of apple meant is denoted by the word tree^ 
 and if there were in our gardens various sorts of plants called 
 apples, of which some grew along the ground and others upon 
 trees, such a word as tree-apple would be required in order to 
 be o])posed to earth-apple, or ground-apple, or some word of 
 the kind. 
 
 In the compound words tree-apple and apple-tree, we have 
 the same elements differently arranged. However, as the 
 
 A A 2
 
 r>5(» 0()MPOSTTI(»N. 
 
 won! fiWt(j>/i/r is not cmii'iit in llic hiiiLrunnc, the class (»!' 
 coiiipDunds iiidicalcil liy il may .seem to be merely imaginary. 
 Notliiii!,' is fartlicr from heintif the ease. A tree-rose is a rose 
 of a particular sort. The generality of roses being on shrubs, 
 this grows on a tree. Its peculiarity consists in this fact, and 
 this particular character is expressed by the word tree j) re fixed. 
 A rose-tree is a tree of a particular sort, distinguished from 
 apple-trees, and trees in general (in other words, particularised 
 or defined) by the word tree prefixed. 
 
 A ground-nut is a nut particularised by growing in the 
 ground. A nut-ground is a ground particularised by producing 
 nuts. 
 
 A finger-ring, as distinguished from ear-rings, and from 
 rings in general (and so particularised), is a ring for the 
 finger. A ring finger, as distinguished horn fore-fingers, and 
 from fingers in general (and so particularised), is a finger 
 whereon rings are worn. 
 
 § 412. At times this rule seems to be violated. The words 
 spitfire and daredevil seem exceptions to it. At the first glance 
 it seems, in the case of a spitfire, that what he (or she) spits is 
 fire ; and that, in the case of a daredevil, what he (or she) 
 dares is the devil. In this case the initial words sjnt and 
 dare, are particularised by the final ones fire and devil. The 
 true idea, however, confirms the original rule. A spitfire 
 voids his fire by spitting. A daredevil, in meeting the fiend, 
 would not shrink from him, but would defy him. A spitfire 
 is not one who spits fire, but one whose fire is sjnt. A dare- 
 devil is not one who dares even the devil, but one by whom 
 the devil is even dared. 
 
 § 413. Of the two elements of a compound word, which is 
 the most important ? In one sense the latter, in another sense 
 the former. The latter word is the most essential; since the 
 general idea of trees must exist before it can be defined or 
 particularised ; so becoming the idea which we have in app>le- 
 tree, rose-tree, &c. The former word, however, is the most 
 infiuential. It is by this that the original idea is qualified. 
 The latter word is the staple oi-iginal element : the former is 
 the superadded influencing element. Compared with each
 
 COMPOSITION. 357 
 
 other, the former element is active, the latter passive. Ety- 
 mologically speaking, the former element, in English com- 
 pounds, is the most important. 
 
 § 414. Most numerous are the observations that bear upon 
 the composition of words ; e.g.-) how nouns combine with 
 nouns, as in sunbeam ; nouns with verbs, as in daredevil, &c. 
 It is thought sufficient in the present work to be content 
 with, J . defining the meaning of the term composition ; 2. 
 explaining the nature of some obscure compounds. 
 
 Composition is the joining together, in language, of two 
 different ioot'ds, and treating the combination as a single term. 
 Observe the words in italics. 
 
 In language. — A great number of our compounds, like the 
 Avord merry-jnaking, are divided by the sign -, or the hyphen. 
 It is very plain that if all words spelt with a hyphen were to 
 be considered as compounds, the formation of them would be 
 not a matter of speech, or language, but one of writing or 
 spelling. This distinguishes compounds in language from mere 
 printers' compounds. 
 
 Different. — In Old High German we find the form selp-selpo. 
 Here there is the junction of two words, but not the junction 
 of two different ones. This distinguishes composition from 
 gemination. — Grimm, Deutsche Gramn)atlk, ill. 405. 
 
 Words. — In fathers, clear-er, four-th, &c., there is the 
 addition of a letter or a syllable, and it may be even of the 
 part of a word. There is no addition, however, of a whole 
 word. This distinguishes composition from derivation. 
 
 Treating the combination as a single term. — In determining, 
 in certain cases, between derived words and compound words, 
 there is an occasional perplexity ; the perplexity, however, is 
 far greater in determining between a compound word and two 
 words. In the eyes of one grammarian the term mountain 
 height may be as truly a compound word as sunbeam. In the 
 eyes of another grammarian it may be no compound word, 
 but two words, just as Alpine height is two words ; mountain 
 being dealt with as an adjective. It is in the determination 
 of this that the accent plays an important part. This iiict 
 was foreshadowed in the Chapter upon Accents.
 
 358 DHlUVATIoN ANI> INFLECTION. 
 
 § H "). The nttention ot' the ivader is dniwn to the follow- 
 ing; line, slightly altered, from Churchill : — 
 
 " Then ri'st, my friend, and spare tliy precious breath." 
 
 ( )n eaeh of the syllables rest^ friend, spare, prec-, breath, 
 there is an accent. Each of these syllables must be compared 
 with the one that precedes it ; rest with then, friend with mi/, 
 and so on throughout the line. Compared with the word and, 
 the word spare is not only accented, but the accent is con- 
 spicuous and prominent. There is so little on and, and so 
 much on spare, that the disparity of accent is very manifest. 
 
 Now, if in the place of and, there was some other word, a 
 word not so much accented as spare, but still more accented 
 than and, this disparity would be diminished, and the accents 
 of the two words might be said to be at 2}cifi or nearly so. As 
 said before, the line was slightly altered from Churchill, the 
 real reading being 
 
 Tlicn re'st, my friend, spare, spare thy precious breath. — 
 
 In the true reading we actually find what had previously only 
 been supposed. In the words spare, Sjjare, the accents are 
 nearly at par. Such the difference between accent at par 
 and disparity of accent. 
 
 Good illustrations of the parity and disparity of accent may 
 be drawn from certain names of places. Let there be such 
 a sentence as the following : the lime house near the bridge 
 north of the neio port. Compare the parity of accent on the 
 separate words lime and house, bridge and north, new and port, 
 with the disparity of accent in the compound words Ltnie- 
 hoiise, Bridgenorth, and Newport. The separate words beef 
 steak, where the accent is nearly at par, compared with the 
 compound word siceej)staJces, where there is a great disparity 
 of accent, are further illustrations of the same difference. 
 
 § 416. The difference between a compound word and two 
 words is greatest where the first is an adjective. This we see 
 in comparing such terms as the following : black bird, vaean- 
 iug a, bird that is black, with blackbird = the Latin merula; 
 or blue bell, meaning a bell that is blue, with bluebell, the flower.
 
 COMPOSITION. 359 
 
 Expressions like a shdiy edged instrument^ meaning an instru- 
 ment that is sharp and has edges, as opposed to a sharp-edged 
 instrument, meaning- an instrument with sharp edges, further 
 exemplify this difference. 
 
 Subject to four small classes of exceptions, it may be laid 
 down, that, in the English language, there is no composition 
 unless there is either a change of form or a change of accent. 
 
 The reader is now informed, that unless, in what has gone 
 before, he has taken an exception to either a statement or an 
 inference, he has either seen beyond what has been already 
 laid down by the author, or else has read him with insufficient 
 attention. This may be shown by drawing a distinction be- 
 tween a compound form and a compound idea. 
 
 In the Avords a red house, each word preserves its natural 
 and original meaning, and the statement is that a house is red. 
 By a parity of reasoning a mad house should mean a house that 
 is mad ; and, provided that each word retain its natural 
 meaning and its natural accent, such is the fact. Let a house 
 mean, as it often does, a fo.mily. Then the phrase, a mad 
 house, means that the house, or family, is mad, just as a red 
 house means that the house is red. Such, however, is not the 
 current meaning of the word. Every one knows that a mad 
 house means a house for madmen; in which case it is treated 
 as a compound word, and has a marked accent on the first 
 syllable, just as Limehouse has. Now, compared with the word 
 red house, meaning a house of a red colour, and compared with 
 the words mad house, meaning a deranged family, the word 
 madhouse, in its common sense, expresses a compound idea ; 
 as opposed to two ideas, or a double idea. The word heef 
 steak is evidently a compound idea ; but, as there is no dis- 
 parity of accent, it is not a compound word. Its sense is 
 compound ; its form is not compound, but double. This in- 
 dicates the objection anticipated, which is this: viz., that a 
 definition, which would exclude such a word as beefsteak from 
 the list of compounds, is, for that very reason, exceptionable. 
 I answer to this, that the term in question is a compound 
 idea, and not a compound form ; in other words, that it is 
 a compound in logic, but not a compound in etymology.
 
 .'5(H) COMPOSITION. 
 
 Now etymology, takiiii,' cog'nlsance of forms only, lias 
 nothing,' to do witli ideas, except so fur as they intlueiicc 
 forms. 
 
 Such is the commentary uptui the words, " treating the 
 combination as a sinple term ;" in other words, such the dif- 
 ference between a compound word and two words. The 
 rule, being rej)eated, stands (subject to the four classes of 
 exceptions) thus : T/iere is no true composition without either a 
 chanae of form or a change of accent. As I wish to be clear 
 upon this point, I shall illustrate the statement by its applica- 
 tion. 
 
 The word tree-rose is often pronounced tree rose ; that is, 
 with the accent aipar. It is compound in the one case ; it 
 is two words in the other. 
 
 The words mountain ash and mountain height are generally 
 (perhaps always) pronounced with an equal accent on the 
 syllables mount- and ash, mount- and height, respectively. In 
 this case the word mountain must be dealt with as an adjective, 
 and the words considered as two. The word mountain wave 
 is often pronounced with a visible diminution of accent on the 
 last syllable. In this case there is a disparity of accent, and 
 the word is compound. 
 
 § 417. The following quotation indicates a further cause of 
 perplexity in determining between compound words and two 
 words : — 
 
 1. 
 A wet sheet and a blowing gale, 
 
 A breeze that follows fast ; 
 That fills the white and swelling sail, 
 And bends the gallant mast. 
 
 Allan Cunningham. 
 2. 
 Britannia needs no bulwarks, 
 No towers along the steej) ; 
 Her inarch is o'er the mountai7i-tcave, 
 Her home is on the deep. 
 
 Thomas CA.MPnELL. 
 
 To speak first of the word (or words) gallant mast. If gallant 
 mean brave, there are two icords. If the words be two, there
 
 COMPOSITION. 361 
 
 is a stronger accent on mast. If the accent on mast be 
 stronger, the rhyme with fast is more complete ; in other 
 words, the metre favours the notion of the words being con- 
 sidered as two. Gallant-mast, however, is a compound word, 
 with an especial nautical meaning. In this case the accent is' 
 stronger on gal- and weaker on -mast. This, however, is not 
 the state of things that the metre favours. The same applies 
 to mountain wave. The same person who in prose would 
 throw a stronger accent on mount- and a weaker one on wave 
 (so dealing with the word as a compound), might, in poetry, 
 make the words two, by giving to the last syllable a parity of 
 accent. 
 
 The following quotation from Ben Jonson may be read in 
 two ways ; and the accent may vary with the reading. 
 
 1. 
 
 Lay thy tow of pearl apart, 
 
 And thy silver sinning quiver. 
 2. 
 
 Lay thy bow of pearl apart, 
 
 And thy silver -shining quiver. 
 
 Cynthia's Revels. 
 § 418. On certain words wherein the fact of their being com- 
 pound is obscured. — Composition is the addition of a word to 
 a word, derivation is the addition of letters or syllables to a 
 word. In a compound form each element has a separate and 
 independent existence ; in a derived form, only one of the 
 elements has such. Now it is very possible that in an older 
 stage of a language two words may exist, may be put 
 together, and may so form a compound ; at the time in point 
 each word having a separate and independent existence : 
 whilst, in a later stage of language, only one of these words 
 may have a separate and independent existence, the other 
 having become obsolete. In this case a compound word 
 would take the appearance of a derived one, since but one of 
 its elements could be exhibited as a separate and independent 
 word. Such is the case with, amongst others, the word 
 bishopric. In the present language the word ric has no 
 separate and independent existence. ¥ov all this, the word
 
 .'^'Jv» COMPOSITION. 
 
 is :i true (•(uiipouiul, since, in Anglo-Saxon, we have the noun 
 rice as a separate, inth'pendent word, signifying kingdom or 
 domain. 
 
 Again, without hecoming obsolete, a word may alter its 
 form. 'J'his is the case with most of our adjectives in -Ip. 
 At present they apjjcar derivative ; their termination -ly 
 having no separate and independent existence. The older 
 language, however, shows that they are conij)ounds ; since 
 -ly is nothing else than -lie, Anglo-Saxon ; -lih, Old High 
 German ; -leils, Mooso-Gothic ; = like, or similis, and 
 equally with it an independent separate word. 
 
 For the following words a separate independent root is 
 presumed rather than shown. It is presumed, however, on 
 grounds that satisfy the etymologist. 
 
 Mis-, as in misdeed, S:c. — Mccso-Gothic, miss6=in 
 turns; Old Norse, a mis=^ alternately/ ; Middle High German, 
 misse = mistake. The original notion alternation, thence 
 change, thence defect. Compai'o the Greek ctk^Mg. — (irimm, 
 Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 470. 
 
 Dam, as in v:isdom, &c. — The substantive </o/?J presumed. — 
 Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 491. 
 
 Hood and head, as in Godhead, manhood, &c. — The substan- 
 tive huids =2)erson, order, kind, presumed. — Deutsche Gram- 
 matik, ii. 497. Nothing to do with the word head. 
 
 Shij), as in friendshi])- — Anglo-Saxon, -scijje and -sceci/t ; 
 German, -scha/t ; Moeso-Gothic, gaskafts = a creature, or 
 creation. The substantive ska/ts or ska2:> presumed. The 
 -skip or -scape in landskip is only an older form. — Deutsche 
 Grammatik, ii. 522. 
 
 Less, as in sleepless, &c., has nothing to do with less. 
 Derived from Idus, 16s, destitute of = Latin, expers. — Deutsche 
 Grammatik, ii. .565. 
 
 For the further details, which are very numerous, see the 
 Deutsche Grammatik, vol. iii. 
 
 § 419. " Subject to four classes of exceptions, it may be 
 laid down that there is no true composition unless there is either 
 a change of form or a change of accent.'''' — Such is the state- 
 ment made in p. o59. The first class of exceptions consists
 
 COMPOSITION. SC3 
 
 of those words where the natural tendency to disparity of 
 accent is traversed by some rule of euphony. For example, 
 let two words be put together, which at their point of contact 
 form a combination of sounds foreign to our habits of pro- 
 nunciation. The rarity of the combination will cause an effort 
 in utterance. The effort in utterance will cause an accent 
 to be laid on the latter half of the compound. This will 
 equalize the accent, and abolish the disparity. The word 
 monkshood, the name of a flower (aconitum napellus), where, 
 to my ear at least, there is quite as much accent on the -hood 
 as on the monks-, may serve in the way of illustration. Monks 
 is one word, hood another. When joined together, the h- of 
 the -hood is put in immediate opposition with the -s of the 
 tnonks-. Hence the combination monkshood. At the letters 
 s and h is the point of contact. Now the sound of s followed 
 immediately by the sound of A is a true aspirate. But true 
 aspirates are rare in the English language. Being of rare 
 occurrence, the pronunciation of them is a matter of attention 
 and effort ; and this attention and effort creates an accent 
 which otherwise would be absent. Hence words like monks- 
 hood, well-head, and some others. 
 
 Real reduplications of consonants, as in hop-pole, may have 
 the same parity of accent with the true aspirates : and for 
 the same reasons. They are rare combinations that require 
 effort and attention. 
 
 The second class of exceptions contains those words wherein 
 between the first element and the second there is so great a 
 disparity, either in the length of the vowel, or the length of 
 the syllable en masse, as to counteract the natural tendency 
 of the first element to become accented. One of the few 
 specimens of this class (which after all may consist of double 
 words) is the term upstanding. Here it should be remem- 
 bered, that words like haphazard, foolhardi/, upholder, and 
 withhold come under the first class of the exceptions. 
 
 The third class of exceptions contains words like perchance 
 and perhaps. In all respects but one these are double words, 
 just as ly chance is a double word. Per, however, differs 
 from Ij?/ in having no separate existence. This sort of words
 
 364 COMPOSITION. 
 
 \vc owe to tlu' iiuiltiplii-ity of olonients (classical aiitl (iotliic) in 
 the Kiii,^li.sli Iani>;uai*'c. 
 
 To anlicipato objoctions to the rule rc^pectino- the disparity 
 of accent, it may bo well to state in fresh terms a fact already 
 indicated, viz., that the same combination of words may in one 
 sense be compound, and in the other double (or two). An 
 uphill game gives us the combination up -f hill as a compound. 
 He ran up hill gives us the combination uj) + hill as two words. 
 So it is with down + hill, down + right, and other words. 
 Man-servant, cock-sparrow, &c., are double or compound, as 
 they are pronounced man-servant, man-servant, cock-spdrrow, 
 or cock-sparrow. 
 
 The fourth class is hypothetical. I can, however, imagine 
 that certain compounds may, if used almost exclusively in 
 poetry, and with the accent at par, become so accented even 
 in the current language. 
 
 § 420. For a remark on the words peacock, peahen, see the 
 Chapter upon Gender. — If these words be rendered masculine 
 or feminine by the addition of the elements -cock and -hen, 
 the statements made in the beginning of the present chapter 
 are invalidated. Since, if the word /;ga- be particularized, 
 qualified, or defined by the words -cock and -hen, the second 
 term defines or particularises the first, which is contrary to 
 the rule of p. 355. The truth, however, is, that the words 
 -cock and -hen are defined by the prefix pea-. Preparatory to 
 the exhibition of this, let us remember that the word ^v^ 
 (although now found in composition only) is a true and inde- 
 pendent substantive, the name of a species of fowl, like phea- 
 sant, partridge, or any other appellation. It is the Latin 
 pavo, German p/au. Now, if the word peacock mean a ^yea 
 (p/au or pavo) that is a male, then do toood-cock, black-cock, 
 and bantam-cock, mean icoods, blacks, and bantams that are 
 male. Or if the woxi[ peaheii mean a p^a {pfctu ox pavo) that 
 is female, then do moorhen and guineahen mean moors and 
 guineas that are female. Again, \i ti peahen mean a pea {pfau 
 ov ptavo) that is female, then does the coxx\'^o\xn([ pheasant-hen 
 mean the same as hen-pheasant ; which is not the case. The 
 fact is that peacock means a cock that is a pea {pfau or pavo) ;
 
 COMPOSITION. 365 
 
 peahen means a hen that is a pea (p/au or pavo) ; and, finally, 
 peafoicl means a foicl that is a pea (pfau or pavo). In the 
 same way moorfoicl means, not a moor that is connected with 
 a /owl, but afo2cl that is connected with a moor. 
 
 § 421. It must be clear, ex vi termini, that in every com- 
 pound word there are two parts ; i. e., the whole or part of 
 the original, and the whole or part of the superadded word. 
 In the most perfect forms of inflection there is a third ele- 
 ment, viz., a vowel, consonant, or syllable that joins the first 
 word with the second. 
 
 In the older forms of all the Gothic languages the presence 
 of this third element was the rule rather than the exception, 
 in the present English it exists in but few words. 
 
 a. The -a- in hlack-a-moor is possibly such a connecting 
 element. 
 
 1). The -in- in night-in-gale is most probably such a connect- 
 ing element. Compare the German form nacht-i-gale, and 
 remember the tendency of vowels to take the sound of -nci 
 before g. 
 
 § 422. Improper compounds. — The -s- in words like Thur- 
 -s-day, hunt-s-man, may be one of two things. 
 
 a. It may be the sign of the genitive case, so that Thurs- 
 day = Thoris dies. In this case the word is an improper 
 compound, since it is like the word pater-familias in Latin, in 
 a common state of syntactical construction. 
 
 h. It may be a connecting sound, like the -i- in nacht-i-gale. 
 Reasons for this view occur in the following fact : — 
 
 In the Modern German languages the genitive case of femi- 
 nine nouns ends otherwise than in -s. Nevertheless, the sound 
 of -s- occurs in composition equally, whether the noun it fol- 
 lows be masculine or feminine. This fact, as far as it (^oes, 
 makes it convenient to consider the sound in question as a 
 connective rather than a case. Probably, it is neither one nor 
 the other exactly, but the effect of a false analogy. 
 
 § 423. Decomposites. — " Composition is the joining together 
 oi' two words." — See p. 357. 
 
 In the first edition the sentence ran " two or more " words ; 
 being so written to account for compounds like mid-ship-man.
 
 3()t) COMPOSITION. 
 
 gentle-ma n-lih, \c., wliciv (he number of verbal elements 
 seems to amount to three. 
 
 Nevertheless, the caution was unnecessary. Compounil 
 radicals like miilshijf anil neuflemaii, arc, for the purposes of 
 composition, single words. Compounds wherein one element 
 is compound are called decom])osites. 
 
 § ■i:'2\r. The present chapter closes with the notice of two 
 classes of words. They are mentioned now, not because they 
 are comi)ounds, but because they can be treated of here more 
 conveniently than elsewhere. 
 
 There are a number of words which are never found by 
 themselves ; or, if so found, have never the same sense that 
 they have in combination. Mark the word combination. The 
 terms in question are points of combination, not of composi- 
 tion : since they form not the parts of words, but the parts of 
 phrases. Such are the expressions time and tide — might and 
 main — rede me my riddle — pay your shot — rhyme and reason, 
 he. These words are evidently of the same class, though 
 not of the same species with bishojyric, coleioort, spillikin, 
 gossip, mainswearer, and the words quoted in p. 362. These 
 last-mentioned terms give us obsolete w^ords preserved in com- 
 position. The former give us obsolete words preserved in 
 combination. 
 
 The other words are etymological curiosities. They may 
 occur in any language. The English, however, from the 
 extent of its classical element, is particularly abundant in 
 them. It is a mere accident that they are all compound 
 words.
 
 DERIVATION AND INFLECTION. 3G7 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 ON DERIVATION AND INFLECTION. 
 
 § 425. Derivation, like etymology^ is a word used in a 
 wide and in a limited sense. In the wide sense of the term 
 every word, except it be in the simple form of a root, is a 
 derived word. In this sense the cases, numbers, and genders 
 of nouns, the jiersons, moods, and tenses of verbs, the ordinal 
 numbers, the diminutives, and even the compound words, are 
 alike matters of derivation. In the wide sense of the term 
 the \VK)Y^ fathers^ h-ova father, is equally in a state of deriva- 
 tion with the word strength, from strong. 
 
 In the use of the word, even in its limited sense, there is 
 considerable laxity and uncertainty. 
 
 Gender, number, case. — These have been called the accidents 
 of the noun, and these it has been agreed to separate from 
 derivation in its stricter sense, or from derivation properly so 
 called, and to class together under the name of declension. 
 Nouns are declined. 
 
 Person, number, tense, voice. — These have been called the 
 accidents of a verb, and these it has been agreed to separate 
 from derivation properly so called, and to class together under 
 the name of conjugation. Verbs are conjugated. 
 
 Conjugation and declension constitute inflection. Nouns 
 and verbs, speaking generally, are inflected. 
 
 Inflection, a part of derivation in its wider sense, is sepa- 
 rated from derivation properly so called, or from derivation in 
 its limited sense. 
 
 The degrees of comparison, or certain derived forms of 
 adjectives ; the ordinals, or certain derived forms of the 
 numerals ; the diminutives, &c., or certain derived forms of 
 the substantive, have been separated from derivation properly
 
 3(;>S I»KI{IV.\T1(»N AM) INFLECTION. 
 
 so oalKul, 1 am not (-(Mtain, liowovor, that for so doing there 
 is any hotter reason than mere convenience. By some the 
 tleiiives ot" comparison are considered as points of inflection. 
 
 Derivation proper, the snhject of the presejit chapter, com- 
 prises all the changes that words undergo, which are not 
 referabU' to some of the i)reccding heads. As sudi, it is, in 
 its details, a wider field than even coniposition. The details, 
 however, are not entered into. 
 
 § 42G. Derivation proper may be divided according to a 
 variety of princij)les. Amongst others, 
 
 I. According to the evidence. — In the evidence that a word 
 is not simple, but derived, there are at least two degrees. 
 
 A. That the word strength is a derived word I collect to a 
 certainty from the word strong^ an independent form, which I 
 can separate from it. Of the nature of the word strength 
 there is the clearest evidence, or evidence of the first degree. 
 
 B. Foioli hail, nail, sail, tail, soul ; in Anglo-Saxon, fugel, 
 hagel^ neegel, segel, tfcgel, saioel. — These words are by the best 
 grammarians considered as derivatives. Now, with these 
 words I can not do what was done with the word strength, 
 I can not take from them the part which I look upon as 
 the derivational addition, and after that leave an inde- 
 pendent word. Strength — th is a true word ; fowl or fugel 
 — I is no true word. If I believe these latter words to be 
 derivations at all, I do it because I find in words like handle, 
 &c., the -I as a derivational addition. Yet, as the fact of a 
 word being sometimes used as a derivational addition does not 
 preclude it from being at other times a part of the root, the 
 evidence that the words in question are not simple, but derived, 
 is not cogent. In other words, it is evidence of the second 
 degree. 
 
 II. According to the effect. — The syllable -en in the word 
 whiten changes the noun ichite into a verb. This is its eiFect. 
 We may so classify as to arrange combinations like -en 
 (whose eiFect is to give the idea of the verb) in one order ; 
 whilst combinations like th (whose effect is, as in the word 
 strength, to give the idea of abstraction) from another order. 
 
 III. According to the form. — Sometimes the derivational
 
 DERIVATION AND INFLECTION. 
 
 369 
 
 element is a vowel (as the -ie in doggie) ; sometimes a conso- 
 nant combined : in other words, a syllable (as the -en in 
 ichiten) ; sometimes a change of vowel without any addition 
 (as the i in tij), compared with top) ; sometimes a change of 
 consonant without any addition (as the z m prize, compared 
 with price ; sometimes it is a change of accent, like a survey, 
 compared with to survey. To classify derivations in this 
 manner is to classify them according to their form. For the 
 detail of the derivative forms, see Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 
 89—405. 
 
 IV. According to the historical origin of the derivational 
 elements. — For this see the Chapter upon Hybridism. 
 
 V. According to the number of the derivational elements. 
 — In fsher, as compared with fsh, there is but one deriva- 
 tional affix. In fishery., as compared with fish., the number of 
 derivational elements is two. 
 
 § 427. The list (taken from Walker) of words alluded to 
 in p. 293, is as follows : — 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 A'bsent 
 
 absent. 
 
 A'bstract 
 
 abstract. 
 
 A'cccnt 
 
 accent. 
 
 A'ffix 
 
 aflFix, 
 
 Augment 
 
 augment. 
 
 Colleague 
 
 colle'ague. 
 
 Compact 
 
 compact. 
 
 Compound 
 
 compound. 
 
 Compress 
 
 compress. 
 
 Concert 
 
 concert. 
 
 Concrete 
 
 concrete. 
 
 Conduct 
 
 conduct. 
 
 Confine 
 
 confine. 
 
 Conflict 
 
 conflict. 
 
 Conserve 
 
 conse'rve. 
 
 Consort 
 
 consort. 
 
 Contract 
 
 contract. 
 
 Contrast 
 
 contrast. 
 
 Converse 
 
 converse. 
 
 Convert 
 
 convert. 
 
 Desert 
 
 desert. 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 Descant 
 
 Digest 
 
 E'ssay 
 
 E'xtract 
 
 Fe'rment 
 
 Frequent 
 
 I'mport 
 
 I'ncense 
 
 I'nsult 
 
 O'bject 
 
 Perfume 
 
 Permit 
 
 Prefix 
 
 Premise 
 
 Presage 
 
 Present 
 
 Produce 
 
 Project 
 
 Protest 
 
 Rebel 
 
 Record 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 descant. 
 
 digest. 
 
 essay. 
 
 extract. 
 
 ferment. 
 
 frequent. 
 
 import, 
 
 incense. 
 
 insult, 
 object. 
 
 perfume. 
 
 permit. 
 
 prefix. 
 
 premise. 
 
 presage. 
 
 prese'nt. 
 
 produce. 
 
 l)roject. 
 
 protest. 
 
 rebC'l. 
 
 record. 
 
 B B
 
 370 
 
 1»KRIVATI0N AND INFLECTION. 
 
 li^fuso 
 
 rt'lVise. 
 
 Torment 
 
 tornu'Mt. 
 
 Siihjecl 
 
 suliji'ct. 
 
 Transfer 
 
 transfer. 
 
 Survey 
 
 survey. 
 
 Tr;ins]>ort. 
 
 trun-sport 
 
 § 428. C/iurl, earl, owl, fowl, hail., nail, sail, snail, tail, 
 hazel, needle, soul, teazle, fair, beam, bottom, arm, team, worm, 
 heaven, morn, dust, nhost, breast, rest, night, spright, 
 blind, harp, fax, fox, finch, stork^ &c. All these words, for 
 certain etymological reasons, are currently considered, by the 
 latest philologists, as derivatives. Notwithstanding the 
 general prevalence of a fuller form in the Anglo-Saxon, it is 
 clear that, in respect to the evidence, they come under 
 division B. 
 
 § 429. Forms like tip, from top, price and prize, &c., are 
 of importance in general etymology. Let it be received as a 
 theory (as with some philologists is really the case) that 
 fragmentary sounds like the -en in tohiten, the -th in strength, 
 &c., were once words ; or, changing the expression, let it be 
 considered that all derivation was once composition. Let 
 this view be opposed. The first words that are brought to 
 militate against it are those like tip and prize, where, instead 
 of any addition, there is only a change ; and, consequently, 
 no vestiges of an older word. This argument, good as far 
 as it goes, is rebutted in the following manner. Let the word 
 top have attached to it a second word, in which second word 
 there is a small vowel. Let this small vowel act upon the 
 full one in top, changing it to tip. After this, let the second 
 word be ejected. We then get the form tip by the law of 
 accommodation, and not as an immediate sign of derivation. 
 The i in chick (from cock) may be thus accounted for, the -en 
 in chicken being supposed to have exerted, first, an influence 
 of accommodation, and afterwards to have fallen off. The i 
 in chick may, however, be accounted for by simple processes. 
 
 § 430. In words like bishopric, and many others mentioned 
 in the last ehajjter, \ve had compound words under the appear- 
 ance of derived ones ; in words like upmost, and many others, 
 we have derivation under the appearance of composition.
 
 ADVERBS, 371 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 § 431. Adverbs. — The adverbs are capable of being classi- 
 fied after a variety of principles. 
 
 Firstly, they may be divided according to their mean- 
 ing. In this case we speak of the adverbs of time, place, 
 number, manner. This division is logical rather than ety- 
 mological. 
 
 A division, however, which although logical bears upon 
 etymology, is the following : — 
 
 Well^ better^ ill, worse. — Here we have a class of adverbs 
 expressive of degree, or intensity. Adverbs of this kind 
 are capable of taking an inflection, viz.^i that of the compara- 
 tive and superlative degrees. 
 
 NoiD, then, here, there. — In the idea expressed by these 
 words there are no degrees of intensity. Adverbs of this 
 kind are incapable of taking any inflection. 
 
 Words like better and worse are adjectives or adverbs as 
 they are joined to nouns or verbs. 
 
 Adverbs differ from nouns and verbs in being susceptible of 
 one sort of inflection only, viz., that of degree. 
 
 Secondly, adverbs may be divided according to their 
 form and origin. This is truly an etymological classification. 
 
 A Better, worse. — Here the combination of sounds gives 
 equally an adjective and an adverb. IViis book is better than 
 that — here better agrees with book, and is therefore adjectival. 
 Thin looks better than that — here better qualifies looks, and is 
 therefore adverbial. Again ; to do a thing with violence is 
 equivalent to do a thing violently. This shows how adverbs 
 may arise out of cases. In words like the English better, 
 the Latin. vi=violenter, the Greek xdcXou = x-akcug, we liave 
 
 I! It 2
 
 372 ADVERBS. 
 
 adjectives in tluMr dogrors, aiul substantives in their cases, 
 with advcrhial powers. In other words, nouns arc deflected 
 tVoin their natural sense to an adverbial one. Adverbs of this 
 kind are advi-rbs of deileetion. 
 
 n lirinhlli/, braveb/. — Here an adjective is rendered adver- 
 bial by the addition of the derivative syllabic -ly. Adverbs 
 like bria/tth/, Sec, may (laxly speaking) be called adverbs of 
 derivation. 
 
 c Noic. — This word has not satisfactorily been shown to 
 have originated as any other part of speech but as an adverb. 
 ^V'^ords of this sort are adverbs absolute. 
 
 W/ien, noii\ well, ivorse, better — here the adverbial ex- 
 pression consists in a single word, and is simple. To-day, 
 yesterday, not at all, someioJiat — here the adverbial expression 
 consists of a compound word, or a phrase. This indicates 
 the division of adverbs into simple and complex. 
 
 § 432. The adverbs of deflection (of the chief importance 
 iu etymology) may be arranged after a variety of jjrinciples. 
 I. According to the part of speech from whence they origi- 
 nate. This is often an adjective, often a substantive, at times 
 a pronoun, occasionally a preposition, rarely a verb. II. Ac- 
 cording to the part of the inflection from whence they origi- 
 nate. This is often an ablative case, often a neuter accusative, 
 often a dative, occasionally a genitive. 
 
 The following notices are miscellaneous rather than sys- 
 tematic. 
 
 Else, unaicares, e/tsoons. — These are the genitive forms of 
 adjectives. By rights is a word of the same sort. 
 
 Once, twice, thrice. — These are the genitive forms of 
 numerals. 
 
 Needs (as in oieeds must go) is the genitive case of a sub- 
 stantive. 
 
 Seldom. — The old dative (singular or plural) of the adjec- 
 tive seld. 
 
 Whilom, — The dative (singular or plural) of the substan- 
 tive while. 
 
 Little, less, well. — Neuter accusatives of adjectives. Bright, 
 in the sun shines brinht, is a word of the same class. The
 
 ADVERBS. 373 
 
 neuter accusative is a common source of adverbs in all 
 tongues. 
 
 AtJncart. — A neuter accusative, and a word exhibiting the 
 Norse neuter in -t. 
 
 § 433. Darkling. — This is no participle of a verb darJcle, 
 but an adverb of derivation, like univaringun = unawares. 
 Old High German ; stillinge = secretly, Middle High German ; 
 hlindlings = hlindly. New High German ; darnungo ^:=secretly. 
 Old Saxon ; nichtinge = hy night. Middle Dutch ; hlindeling 
 = Uindly, New Dutch ; hcEclinga = hacJcwards, handlunga 
 = Jiand to hand, Anglo-Saxon ; and, finally, hlindlins, hacJc- 
 lins, darJclins, middlins, scantlins, stridelins, stoiclins, in Low- 
 land Scotch. — Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 236. 
 
 § 434. " Adverbs like hrightly may {laxly speaking) be 
 called adverbs of derivation." Such the assertion made a 
 few paragraphs above. The first circumstance that strikes 
 the reader is, that the termination -ly is common both to 
 adjectives and to adverbs. This termination was once an in- 
 dependent word, viz., leiJc. Now, as -ly sprung out of the 
 Anglo-Saxon -lice, and as words like early, dearly, &c., were 
 originally arlice, deorlice, &c., and as arlice, deorlice, &c., 
 were adjectives, the adverbs in -ly are {strictly speaking) 
 adverbs, not of derivation, but of deflection. 
 
 It is highly probable that not only the adverbs of deriva- 
 tion, but that also the absolute adverbs, may eventually be 
 reduced to adverbs of deflection. For now, see Deutsche 
 Grammatik, iii. 249.
 
 374 
 
 ON CERTAIN ADVERR8 OF PLAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 ON CERTAIN ADVERHS OF 1>LACE. 
 
 § 435. It is a common practice for languages to express 
 by Jifterent modifications of the same root the three following 
 ideas : — 
 
 1. The idea of rest in a place. 
 
 2. The idea of motion towards a place. 
 
 3. The idea of motion from a place. 
 
 This habit gives us three correlative adverbs — one of posi- 
 tion, and tvv^o of direction. 
 
 § 436. It is also a common practice of language to depart 
 from the original expression of each particular idea, and to 
 interchange the signs by which they are expressed. 
 
 § 437. This may be seen in the following table, illustrative 
 of the forms here, hither, hence, and taken from the Deutsche 
 Grammatik, iii. 199. 
 
 Mteso-G otitic I^ar, jjaf?, jjajjro, there, thither, thence. 
 
 her, hifj, liidro, here, hither, hence. 
 
 Old High German huar, huara, liuaiiaria, where, whither, whence. 
 
 (hir, dara, danana, there, thither, thence. 
 
 hear, hfira, hinana, here, hither, hence. 
 
 Old Saxon huar, huar, huanan, where, whither, whence. 
 
 thar, thar, thanan, ther-e, thither, thence. 
 
 her, her, henan, here, hither, hence. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon jjar, Jjidcr, jjonan, there, thither, thence. 
 
 hvar, hvidcr, livonan, where, whither, whence. 
 
 her, hider, henan, here, hither, hence. 
 
 Old Norse I^ar, {^a^ra, jsaSan, there, thither, thence. 
 
 hvar, hvert, livaSan, where, whither, whence. 
 
 her, hetJra, heSan, here, hither, hence, 
 
 saddle High German... da, dan,(lannen, there, thither, thence. 
 
 wa, war, wannen, xuhere, whither, whence, 
 
 hie, her, hcnncn, here, hither, hence.
 
 ON CERTAIN ADVERBS OF PLACE. o76 
 
 Modem High German., da, dar, danncn, there, thither, thence. 
 
 wo, wohin, wannen, where, xvhither, whence. 
 
 hier, her, liinnen, here, hither, hence. 
 
 § 438. These local terminations were commoner in the 
 earlier stages of language than at present. The following are 
 from the Maso-Gothic : — 
 
 Innafjro = J'rom within, 
 Utajiio = J'rom without. 
 InnaJ?r6 = J'rom above. 
 FairrajJro = from ajar. 
 Allajjro = J'l-om all quarters. 
 
 Now a reason for the comparative frequency of these forms 
 in Moeso-Gothic lies in the fact of the Gospel of Ulphilas 
 being a translation from the Greek. The Greek forms in -hv., 
 'iaudiv, e^co0zv, ui^coOsv, voppc/jOiv, Trccvrodiu, were just the forms 
 to encourage such a formation as that in -])ro. — Deutsche 
 Grammatik, iii. 199, &c. 
 
 § 439. The -ce ( = es) in hen-ce, tohen-ce, then-ce, has yet 
 to be satisfactorily explained. The Old English is whenn-es, 
 thenn-es. As far, therefore, as the spelling is concerned, they 
 are in the same predicament with the word 07ice, which is 
 properly on-es, the genitive of one. This statement, however, 
 explains only the peculiarity of their orthography ; since it by 
 no means follows, that, because the -s in ones and the -s in 
 wJiennes., thennes are equally replaced by -ce in orthography, 
 they must equally have the same origin in etymology. 
 
 § 440. Yonder. — In the Moeso-Gothic we have the follow- 
 ing forms : jdinar, jdina, jdin])r6 =^ illic, illuc, illinc They 
 do not, however, explain the form yon-d-er. It is not clear 
 whether the d = the -d in jdind, or the ]> in jdin]>ro. 
 
 Anon, as used by Shakspeare, in the sense of presently. — 
 The probable history of this word is as follows : tlie first 
 syllable contains a root akin to the root yon, signifying dis- 
 tance in place. The second is a shortened form of the Old 
 High German and Middle High German, -nt, a termination 
 exj)ressivo, 1, of removal in space; 2, of removal in time; 
 Old High German, dnont, iinnont ; Middle High German,
 
 370 ON CERTAIN ADVERBS OF PLACE. 
 
 e'nentlig, jenunt=bef/0Ji(l. I'lio transition from the idea of 
 place to that of ilin<' is shown in tlio Old High German, 
 ndhunt, and the MifhUe High CJerman, venient = lately ; the 
 first from the root w/////, the latter from the rootyar. — See 
 Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 215.
 
 ON WHEN, THEN, AND THAN. 377 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 ON WHEN, THEN, AND THAN. 
 
 § 441. The Anglo-Saxon adverbs are whenne and ]>enne = 
 vj/ien, then. 
 
 The masculine accusative cases of the relative and demon- 
 strative pronoun are Inceene (Jiwone) and \(Kne i\one). 
 
 Notwithstanding the difference, the first form is a variety of 
 the second ; so that the adverbs when and then are pronominal 
 in origin. 
 
 As to the word than., the conjunction of comparison, it is a 
 variety of then; the notions of order., sequence., and comparison 
 being allied. 
 
 This is good : then (or next in order) that is good, is an 
 expression sufficiently similar to this is better than that to have 
 given rise to it.
 
 'il8 PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 § 442. Prepositions. — Prepositions, as such, arc wholly un- 
 susceptible of inflection. Other parts of speech, in a state of 
 inflection, may be used with a prepositional sense. This, 
 however, is not an inflection of prepositions. 
 
 No word is ever made a preposition by the addition of a 
 derivational * element. If it were not for this, the practical 
 classification of the prepositions, in respect to their form, 
 would coincide with that of the adverbs. As it is, there are 
 only the prepositions of deflection, and the absolute prepo- 
 sitions. On another principle of division there are the simple 
 prepositions {in, on, Sec), and the complex prepositions {wpon, 
 roundabout., across). 
 
 The prepositions of deflection, when simple, originate 
 chiefly in adverbs, as uj), doivn, within, without, unless, in- 
 deed, we change the assertion, and say that the words in 
 point (and the others like them) are adverbs originating in 
 prepositions. The absence of characteristic terminations 
 renders these decisions difficult. 
 
 The prepositions of deflection, when complex, originate 
 chiefly in nouns, accompanied by an absolute preposition ; as 
 instead of of substantival, heticeen of adjectival origin. 
 
 The absolute prepositions, in the English language, are in, 
 oil, of, at, up, hy, to, for, from, till, vnth, through. 
 
 § 443. Conjunctions. — Conjunctions, like prepositions, are 
 wholly unsusceptible of inflection. Like prepositions they 
 
 * Over, under, after. — These, altliough derived forms, arc not preposi- 
 tions of derivation ; since it is not by the affix -cr that they are made pre- 
 l)o.sitioiis. lie icent over, he went under, he went uftcr — tiiese senieiiecs 
 prove tiic foriii.-^ to be as much adverbial a,- ]))epositional.
 
 PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 379 
 
 are never made by means of a derivational element. Like 
 prepositions they are either simple (as and^ if), or complex 
 (as also, nevertheless). 
 
 The conjunctions of deflection originate chiefly in impera- 
 tive moods (as all save one, all except one) ; participles used 
 like the ablative absolute in Latin (as all saving one, all 
 excepting one) ; adverbs (as so) ; prepositions (as for) ; and 
 relative neuters (as that). 
 
 The absolute conjunctions in the English language are and, 
 or, hut, if. 
 
 § 444. Yes, no. — Although not may be reduced to an ad- 
 verb, nor to a conjunction, and none to a noun, these two 
 words (the direct affirmative, and the direct negative) are 
 referable to none of the current parts of speech. Accurate 
 grammar places them in a class by themselves. 
 
 § 445. Particles. — The word particle is a collective term 
 for all those parts of speech that are naturally unsusceptible 
 of inflection ; comprising, 1, interjections ; 2, direct affirma- 
 tives ; 3, direct negatives ; 4, absolute conjunctions ; 5, ab- 
 solute prepositions ; 6, adverbs unsusceptible of degrees of 
 comparison ; 7, inseparable prefixes.
 
 380 aiUMMATIOAL POSITION OF THE 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 ON THE GRAMMATICAL POSITION OF THE WORDS MINE AND 
 
 THINE. 
 
 § 446. The inflection of pronouns has its natural peculiari- 
 ties in language ; it has also its natural difficulties in philology. 
 These occur not in one language in particular, but in all 
 generally. The most common peculiarity in the grammar of 
 pronouns is the fact of what may be called their convertibiliti/. 
 Of this convertibility the following statements serve as illus- 
 tration : — 
 
 1 . 0/ case. — In our own language the words m?/ and t/iy, 
 although at present possessives, were previously datives, and, 
 earlier still, accusatives. Again, the accusative 9/ou replaces 
 the nominative 7/e, and vice versa. 
 
 2. Of number. — The words thou and thee are, except in the 
 mouths of Quakers, obsolete. The plural forms, ye and yoM, 
 have replaced them. 
 
 3. Of person. — Laying aside the habit of the Germans 
 and other nations, of using the third person plural for the 
 second singular (as in expressions like wie hefinden sie sich = 
 hov: do they find themselves f instead of how do you find your- 
 self "^^ the Greek language gives us examples of interchange 
 in the way of persons in the promiscuous use of wv, [Mv^ (T(ps, 
 and iuvrov ; whilst sich and sik are used with a similar lati- 
 tude in the Middle High German and Scandinavian. 
 
 4. Of class. — T\\e demonstrative pronouns become 
 
 a. Personal pronouns. 
 
 b. Relative pronouns. 
 
 c. Articles. 
 
 The reflective pronoun often becomes reciprocal.
 
 WORDS MINE AND THINE. 381 
 
 These statements are made for the sake of illustrating, not 
 of exhausting, the subject. It follows, however, as an in- 
 ference from them, that the classification of j3ronouns is com- 
 plicated. Even if we knew the original power and derivation 
 of every form of every pronoun in a language, it would be 
 far from an easy matter to determine therefrom the paradigm 
 that they should take in grammar. To place a word accord- 
 ing to its power in a late stage of language might confuse the 
 study of an early stage. To say that because a word was 
 once in a given class, it should always be so, would be to 
 deny that in the present English tliey^ these, and she are per- 
 sonal pronouns at all. 
 
 The two tests, then, of the grammatical place of a pronoun, 
 lis, present power and its original 2>oicer, are often conflicting. 
 
 In the English language the point of most importance in 
 this department of grammar is the place of forms like )nine 
 and thine ; in other words, of the forms in -n. Are they 
 genitive cases of a personal pronoun, as mei and tui are sup- 
 posed to be in Latin, or are they possessive pronouns like 
 meus and tuus ? 
 
 Now, if we take up the common grammars of the English 
 language as it is, we find, that, whilst m?/ and thy are dealt 
 with as genitive cases, mine and thine are considered adjec- 
 tives. In the Anglo-Saxon grammars, however, min and ])in, 
 the older forms of mine and thine, are treated as genitives ; 
 of which my and thy have been dealt with as abbreviated 
 forms, and that by respectable scholars. 
 
 Now, to prove from the syntax of the older English that 
 in many cases the two forms were convertible, and to answer 
 that the words in question are either genitive cases or adjec- 
 tives, is lax philology ; since the real question is, which of the 
 two is the primary, and which the secondary meaning ? 
 
 § 447. The rt priori view of the likelihood of words like 
 mine and thine being genitive cases, must be determined by 
 the comparison of three series of facts. 
 
 1 . The ideas expressed by the genitive case, with particu- 
 lar reference to the two preponderating notions of possession 
 and partition.
 
 382 ORAMMATK'AL TOSITION OF THE 
 
 '2. Tlio cinMiinslniuH' <»1" tho |»niiicular notion of possession 
 bcinir, ill till-' i^:ist' of the personal pronouns of the two first 
 persons singular, generally expressed by a form undoubtedly 
 adjectival. 
 
 o. The extent to which the idea of partition becomes 
 merged in that of possession, and vice versa. 
 
 § 448. The ideas of possession and jJartition as expressed hy 
 pcnitive forms. — If we take a hundred genitive cases, and 
 observe their construction, we shall fnul, that, with a vast 
 majority of them, the meaning is reducible to one of two 
 heads ; viz., the idea of possession or the idea of partition. 
 
 Compared with these two powers all the others are incon- 
 siderable, both in number and importance ; and if, as in the 
 Greek and Latin languages, they take up a large space in the 
 grammars, it is from their exceptional character rather than 
 from their normal genitival signification. 
 
 Again, if both the ideas of possession and partition may, 
 and in many cases must be, reduced to the more general idea 
 of relation, this is a point of grammatical phraseology by no 
 means affecting the practical and special bearings of the pre- 
 sent division. 
 
 § 449. The adjectival expression of the idea of possession. — 
 All the world over, a property is a possession ; and persons, 
 at least, may be said to be the owners of their attributes. 
 Whatever may be the nature of words like mine and thine, 
 the adjectival character of their Latin equivalents, mens and 
 tuus, is undoubted. 
 
 The ideas of partition and possession merge into one 
 another. — A man^s spade is the possession of a man ; a man'^s 
 hand is the part of a man. Nevertheless, when a man uses 
 his hand as the instrument of his will, the idea which arises 
 from the fact of its being part of his body is merged in the 
 idea of the possessorship which arises from the feeling of 
 ownership or mastery which is evinced in its subservience and 
 application. Without following the refinements to which the 
 further investigation of these questions would lead us, it is 
 sufficient to suggest that the preponderance of the two allied 
 ideas of partition and possession is often determined by the
 
 WORDS MINE AND THINE. 383 
 
 personality or the non-personality of the subject, and that, 
 when the subject is a person, the idea is chiefly possessive; 
 when a thing, partitive — ca'put fiuvii = the head, which is a 
 j)(irt, of a river ; cafiit Toll =^ the head, lohich is the possession, 
 of Tolus. 
 
 But as persons may be degraded to the rank of things, and 
 as things may, by personification, be elevated to the level of 
 persons, this distinction, although real, may become apparently 
 invalid. In phrases like a trihutary to the Tiber — the criminal 
 lost his eye — this field belongs to that parish — the ideas of pos- 
 sessorship and partition, as allied ideas subordinate to the 
 idea of relationship in general, verify the interchange. 
 
 § 450. These observations should bring us to the fact that 
 there are two ideas which, more than any other, determine 
 the evolution of a genitive case — the idea of partition and the 
 idea of possession ; and that genitive cases are likely to he evolved 
 just in proportion as there is a necessity for the expression of 
 these two ideas. — Let this be applied to the question of the 
 a priori probablHty of the evolution of a genitive case to the 
 pronouns of the first and second persons of the singular number. 
 
 § 451. The idea o/ possession, and its likelihood of deter- 
 mining the evolution of a genitive form to the pronouns of the 
 first and second person singular. — It is less likely to do so with 
 such pronouns than with other words, inasmuch as it is less 
 necessary. It has been before observed, that the practice of 
 most languages shows a tendency to express the relation by 
 adjectival forms — meus, tuus. 
 
 An objection against the conclusiveness of this argument 
 will be mentioned in the sequel. 
 
 § 452, The idea of partition, and its likelihood of deter- 
 mining the evolution of a genitive form, Sfc. — Less than with 
 other words. 
 
 A personal pronoun of the singular number is the name of 
 a unity, and, as such, the name of an object far less likely to be 
 separated into parts than the name of a collection. Phrases 
 like, some of them, one of you, many of us, any of them, few of 
 us, &c., have no analogues in the singular number, such as 
 one of me, a feiv of thee, &c. The i)artltive words that can
 
 384 GRAMMATICAL POSITION OF THE 
 
 rDiiiMiic with siiiL,'ul;ir j)roiiouiis arc comparatively few ; viz., 
 half, qtiardr, pari, &c. : and they can all combine equally 
 with plurals — half of «^•, a quarter of them, a part of you, a 
 portion of us. The partition of a singular object with a 
 pronominal nnmo is of rare occurrence in language. 
 
 This last statement proves something more than appears at 
 first sight. It proves that no argument in favour of the 
 so-called sinqnlar genitives, like mine and thine, can be drawn 
 from the admission (if made) of the existence of the true ])lural 
 genitives ou-r, you-r, thei-r. The two ideas are not in the 
 same predicament. We can say,07ie of ten, or ten of tioenty ; but 
 we cannot say one of one — Was hira Matheus sum^=Mattheio 
 toas one of them ; Andreas — Your noither = neither of you ; 
 Amis and Ameloun — from Mr. Guest: Her eyder = either of 
 them ; Octavian. — Besides this, the form of the two numbers 
 are neither identical, nor equally genitival ; as may be seen 
 by contiasting mi-n and thi-n with ou-r and you-r. 
 
 § 453. Such are the chief a priori arguments against the 
 genitival character of words like m,ine and thine. 
 
 Akin to these, and a point which precedes the a posteriori 
 evidence as to the nature of the words in question, is the 
 determination of the side on which lies the onus prohandi. 
 This question is material ; inasmuch as, although the present 
 ■writer believes, for his own part, that the forms under dis- 
 cussion are adjectival rather than genitival, this is not the 
 point upon which he insists. What he insists upon is the 
 fact of the genitival character of mine and thine requiring a 
 particular proof ; which particular proof no one has yet given : 
 in other words, his position is that they are not to be thought 
 genitive until proved to be such. 
 
 It has not been sufficiently considered that the pritnd facie 
 evidence is against them. They have not the form of a 
 genitive case — indeed, they have a different one ; and who- 
 ever assumes a second form for a given case has the burden 
 of proof on his side. 
 
 § 454. Against this circumstance of the -n in mine and 
 thine being the sign of anything rather than of a genitive 
 case, and against the prima facie evidence afforded by it, the
 
 WORDS MINE AND THINE. 385 
 
 foUowino- facts may, or have been, adduced as reasons on the 
 other side. The appreciation of their value, either taken 
 singly or in the way of cumulative evidence, is submitted to 
 the reader. It will be seen that none of them are unexcep- 
 tionable. 
 
 § 455. The fact ^ that, if the words mine and thine are not 
 genitive cases, there is not a genitive case at all. — It is not 
 necessary that there should be one. Particular reasons 
 in favour of the probability of personal pronouns of the 
 singular number being destitute of such a case have been 
 already adduced. It is more likely that a word should he 
 defective than that it should have a separate form. 
 
 § 456. The analogy of the forms mei and \(Ji>ov in Latin 
 and Greek. — It cannot be denied that this has some value. 
 Nevertheless, the argument deducible from it is anything but 
 conclusive. 
 
 1. It is by no means an indubitable fact that mei and l^ov 
 are really cases of the pronoun. The extension of a principle 
 acknowledged in the Greek language might make them the 
 genitive cases of adjectives used pronominally. Thus, 
 
 To efiQV = eyw, 
 ToC €jjiov = ifiov, 
 Ta ejLico = efioi. 
 
 Assume the omission of the article and the extension of the 
 Greek principle to the Latin language, and Ipbov and mei may 
 be cases, not of l(/yZ and me, but of If/jog and mens. 
 
 2. In the classical languages the partitive power was 
 expressed by the genitive. 
 
 " multaquc pars mei 
 
 Vitabit Libitinam." 
 
 This is a reason for the evolution of a genitive power. Few 
 such forms exist in the Gothic ; part my is not English, nor 
 was drzl min Anglo-Saxon, ^=^part of me, or pars mei. 
 
 § 457. The following diifcrences of form, are found in the 
 different Gothic languages, between the equivalents of mei 
 and tui, the so-called genitives of ego and tu, and the equiva- 
 lents of mens and tuus, the so-called possessive adjectives.
 
 38(J ORAMMATICAT. POSITION OF TIIK 
 
 Ma<to-(iolhic iiiciiiji =z iiici ns (fpposctl to nieiiis =: incus. 
 
 Jjoiiin rz tui jjcins = tuus. 
 
 Old Uli;li (icniKiii mill = iiici miner = iiieus. 
 
 (iiii := liii (liner = tuus. 
 
 Old Norse miii =z iiici miiin = 7>icus. 
 
 \>\n =z tui fjinn =: tuus. 
 
 Middle Dutch mins =. mci min = uicus. 
 
 dins = tui din = tuus. 
 
 Modern High German mcin = mci mcincr=: meus. 
 
 dein = tui dcincr = tuus. 
 
 In this list, those languages where the two forms are alike 
 are not exhibited. This is the case with the Anglo-Saxon 
 and Old Saxon. 
 
 In the above-noticed differences of form lie the best 
 reasons for the assumption of a genitive case, as the origin of 
 an adjectival form ; and, undoubtedly, in those languages, 
 where both forms occur, it is convenient to consider one as a 
 case and one as an adjective. 
 
 § 458. But this is not the present question. In Anglo- 
 Saxon there is but one form, min and ])in = mei and meus, 
 tui and tuus, indifferently. Is this form an oblique case or an 
 adjective ? 
 
 This involves two sorts of evidence. 
 
 § 459. Etymological evidence. — Assuming two jyowers for 
 the words min and \in, one genitive, and one adjectival, 
 which is the original one % or, going beyond the Anglo-Saxon, 
 assuming that of two forms like meina and meins, the one 
 has been derived from the other, which is the primitive, 
 radical, primary, or original one? 
 
 Men, from whom it is generally unsafe to differ, consider 
 that the adjectival form is the derived one ; and, as far as forms 
 like miner, as opposed to min, are concerned, the evidence of 
 the foregoing list is in their favour. But what is the case 
 with the Middle Dutch ? The genitive mins is evidently the 
 derivative of min. 
 
 The reason why the forms like miner seem derived is be- 
 cause they are longer and more complex than the others. 
 Nevertheless, it is by no means an absolute rule in philology 
 that the least compound form is the oldest. A word may be
 
 WORDS MINE AND THINE. 387 
 
 adapted to a secondary meaning by a change in its j)ai-ts in 
 the way of omission, as well as by a change in the way of 
 addition. Such is the general statement. Reasons for be- 
 lieving that in the particular cases of the words in question 
 such is the fact, will be found hereafter. 
 
 As to the question whether it is most likely for an adjec- 
 tive to be derived from a case, or a case from an adjective, it 
 may be said, that philology furnishes instances both ways. 
 Ours is a case derived, in syntax at least, from an adjective. 
 Gujus (as in cujiim pecus) and sestertium are Latin instances 
 of a nominative case being evolved from an oblique one. 
 
 § 460. Syntactic evidence. — If in Anglo-Saxon we found 
 such expressions as dal min=2Mrs mei, half ])in^^dhnidium 
 tui, we should have a reason, as far as it went, for believing 
 in the existence of a genitive with a partitive power. Such 
 instances, however, have yet to be quoted ; whilst, even if 
 quoted, they would not be conclusive. Expressions like aog 
 '7rodog=desiderium tui, (ttj •7r§o[/jridia^^=providentid propter te, 
 show the extent to which the possessive expression encroaches 
 on the partitive. 
 
 ]. The words min or pin, with a power anything rather 
 than possessive, would not for that reason be proved (on the 
 strength of their meaning) to be genitive cases rather than 
 possessive pronouns ; since such latitude in the power of the 
 possessive pronoun is borne out by the comparison of lan- 
 guages — 'Trarsg rj^jjaJv (not rifMn^og) in Greek is pater noster 
 (not nostrum) in Latin. 
 
 § 46L Again — as min and yin are declined like adjectives, 
 even as meus and tuus are so declined, we have means of ascer- 
 taining their nature from the form they take in certain con- 
 structions ; thus, minm^= meoxuvLX, and minre=7ne£e, are the 
 genitive plural and the dative singular respectively. Thus, 
 too, the Anglo-Saxon for of tliy eyes should be eagena \inra, 
 and the Anglo-Saxon for to my widow, should be wuduvoan 
 minre ; just as in Latin, they would be ocidorum tuorum, and 
 viduce mew. 
 
 If, however, instead of this we find such expressions as 
 eagena pin, or tcudutvan min, we find evidence in favour of a 
 
 c n 2
 
 r>88 ORAMMATTOAL rOPTTTON OF THE 
 
 genitive case ; for tlu-n the constnu'tion is not one of concord, 
 but one of goveniuuMit, ;uul the words \>in and inin must be 
 construed as the Latin forms till and mei would be in oculorum 
 mei, and riditfv met ; viz. : as genitive cases. Now, whether 
 a sufficient proportion of such constructions (real or apparent) 
 exist or not, they have not yet been brought forward. 
 
 Such instances have yet to be quoted; whilst even if quoted, 
 they would not be conclusive. 
 
 § 462. A few references to the Deutsche Grammatik will 
 explain this. 
 
 As early as the Moeso-Gothic stage of our language, we find 
 rudiments of the omission of the inflection. The possessive 
 pronouns in the neuter singular sometimes take the inflection, 
 sometimes aj)pear as crude forms, nim thata hadi themata = 
 agov (Tov rov K^u^^arov (Mark ii. 9.) opposed to nim thata 
 hadi thein two verses afterwards. So also with mein and 
 meinata. — Deutsche (irammatik, iv. 470. It is remarkable that 
 this omission should begin with forms so marked as those of 
 the neuter (-ata). It has, perhaps, its origin in the adverbial 
 character of that gender. 
 
 Old High German. — Here the nominatives, both masculine 
 and feminine, lose the inflection, whilst the neuter retains it 
 — thin dohter, sin quend, min dohier, sinaz lib. In a few 
 cases, when the pronoun comes after, even the oblique cases 
 drop the inflection. — Deutsche Grammatik, 474 — 478. 
 
 Middle High German. — Preceding the noun, the nomina- 
 tive of all genders is destitute of inflection ; sin lib, min ere^ 
 din lib, &c. Folloiving the nouns, the oblique cases do the 
 same ; ine herse sin. — Deutsche Grammatik, 480. The influ- 
 ence of position should here be noticed. Undoubtedly a 
 j)lace after the substantive influences the omission of the in- 
 flection. This appears in its maximum in the Middle High 
 German. In Mccso-Gothic we have mein leik and leih meinata. 
 — Deutsche Grammatik, 470. 
 
 § 463. Now by assuming (which is only a fair assumption) 
 the extension of the Middle High German omission of the 
 inflection to the Anglo-Saxon ; and by supposing it to affect 
 the words in question in all positions {i.e.., both before and
 
 WORDS MINE AND THINE. 389 
 
 after their nouns), we explain these constructions by a process 
 which, in the mind of the present writer, is involved in fewer 
 difficulties than the opposite doctrine of a genitive case, in 
 words where it is not wanted, and with a termination which 
 is foreign to it elsewhere. 
 
 To suppose two adjectival forms, one inflected {min, minre, 
 &c.), and one uninflected, or common to all genders and both 
 numbers (min), is to suppose no more than is the case with 
 the uninflected ]>e, as compared with the inflected ])<£t. — 
 See pp. 251—253.
 
 SOO OONSTITUTIDN OF WEAK IMLETKIUTE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 ON TIIK CONSTITUTION OF THE WEAK PRyKTERITR. 
 
 § 464. The remote origin of the weak prseterite in -d or 
 -ti has been considered by Grimm, in the Deutsche Gram- 
 matik. He maintains that it is the d in d-d, the redupH- 
 cate preterite of do. In all the Gothic languages the termi- 
 nation of the past tense is either -c?a, -to, -de, -'Si, -d,-t, or -ed, 
 for the singular, and -do7i, -ton,-tumes, or-Sww-, for the plural; 
 in other words, d, or an allied sound, appears once, if not 
 oftener. In the plural prseterite of the Mocso-Gothic we have 
 something more, viz. the termination -dtdum ; as nas-idedum, 
 nas-idedub, nas-idedum, from nas-ja ; s6k-idedum, s6k-idedu^, 
 sok-idedum from s6k-ja ; salb-odedum, salb-odcduh, sdlh- 
 vdedun, from salho. Here there is a second d. The same 
 takes place with the dual form salb-odeduts, and with the 
 subjunctive forms, salh-odedjan, salb-odeduts, salb-odedi, salb- 
 odedeits, salb-odedeiina, salb-odedeib , salb-odedeina. The Eng- 
 lish phrase, we did salve, as compared with salb-odedum, is 
 confirmatory of this. — Deutsche Grammatik, i. 1042. 
 
 § 465. Some remarks of Dr. Trithen's on the Slavonic 
 prajterite, in the Transactions of the Philological Society, in- 
 duce me to identify the d- in words like moved, &c., with 
 the -t of the passive partici])les of the Latin language ; as 
 found in moii-z7-us, voc-a^-us, rap-^-us, and probably in Greek 
 forms like rv<p-&-iig. 
 
 1. The Slavonic prseterite is commonly said to possess gen- 
 ders : in other words, there is one form for speaking of a past 
 action when done by a male, and another for speaking of a 
 past action when done by a female. 
 
 2. These forms are identical with those of the participles, 
 masculine or feminine, as the case may be. Indeed the prsete- 
 rite is a participle ; and the fact of its being so accounts for
 
 CONSTITUTION OF WEAK PRETERITE. 391 
 
 the apparently remarkable fact of its inflection. If, instead 
 of saying- ille amavit, the Latins said ille amatus^ whilst 
 instead of saying ilia amavit they said ilia amata, they would 
 exactly use the grammar of the Slavonians. 
 
 8. Hence, as one language, the Slavonic gives us the un- 
 doubted fact of an active prseterite growing out of a passive 
 participle (unless, indeed, we chose to say that both are 
 derived from a common origin) ; and as the English participle 
 and pra^terite, when weak, are nearly identical, we have rea- 
 son for believing that the d, in the English active preterite, 
 is the t in the Latin passive participle. 
 
 § 4:66. The following extract exhibits Dr. Trithen's remarks 
 on the Slavonic verb : — 
 
 " A peculiarity which distinguishes the grammar of all the Slavish lan- 
 guages, consists in the use of the past participle, taken in an active sense, for 
 the purpose of expressing the prseterite. This participle generally ends in I ; 
 and much uncertainty prevails hoth as to its origin and its relations, though 
 the termination has been compared by various philologists with similar 
 affixes in the Sanscrit, and the classical languages. 
 
 "In the Old Slavish, or the language of the church, there are three 
 methods of expressing the past tense : one of them consists in the union of 
 the verb substantive with the participle ; as, 
 
 Rek esm' chital esmi' 
 
 Rek esi' chital csi' 
 
 Rek est' chital est'. 
 
 " In the corresponding tense of the Slavonic dialect we have tire verb 
 substantive placed before the participle : 
 
 Yasam imao mi' smo imuli 
 
 Ti si imao vi' ste i)nuli 
 
 On ye imao omi su iinuli. 
 
 " In the Polish it appears as a suffix : 
 
 Czytalem czi/talisiriij 
 
 Czytules czylaliscie 
 
 Czytal czytalie. 
 
 "And in the Servian it follows the participle : 
 
 Jgrao sum igrali smo 
 
 Jgrao si igrali ste 
 
 Jgrao ye igrali su. 
 
 " The ending ao, of igrao and imao, stands for the liussian al, ns in some 
 English dialects a' is used for a//."
 
 392 SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 
 
 I' A 1{ T V. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ON SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 
 
 § 467. The word $i/ntax is derived from the Greek syn 
 {with or together)^ and iaxis {arrangement). It relates to the 
 arraiigemcut, or putting together of words. Two or more 
 words must be used before there can be any application of 
 studied syntax. 
 
 Much that is considered by the generality of grammarians 
 as syntax, can either be omitted altogether, or else be better 
 studied under another name. 
 
 § 468. To reduce a sentence to its elements, and to show 
 that these elements are, 1, the subject, 2, the predicate, 3, 
 the copula ; to distinguish between simple terms and com- 
 plex terms, — this is the department of logic. 
 
 To show the difference in force of expression, between such 
 a sentence as great is Diana of the Ejyhesians, and Diana of the 
 Ephesians is great, wherein the natural order of the subject 
 and predicate is reversed, is a point of rhetoric. 
 
 / am moving. — To state that such a combination as / am 
 moving is grammatical, is undoubtedly a point of syntax. 
 Nevertheless it is a point better explained in a separate trea- 
 tise, than in a work upon any particular language. The 
 expression proves its correctness by the simple fact of its 
 universal intelligibility. 
 
 / speaks. — To state that such a combination as / speaks.
 
 SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 393 
 
 adinittiug that /is exclusively the pronoun in the first person, 
 and that speaJcs is exclusively the verb in the third, is un- 
 doubtedly a point of syntax. Nevertheless, it is a point 
 which is better explained in a separate treatise, than in a 
 work upon any particular language. An expression so un- 
 grammatical, involves a contradiction in terms, which un- 
 assisted common sense can deal with. This position will 
 again be reverted to. 
 
 There is to me a father. — Here we have a circumlocution 
 equivalent to / haw a father. In the English language 
 the circumlocution is unnatural. In the Latin it is common. 
 To determine this, is a matter of idiom rather than of 
 syntax. 
 
 / am speaking^ I loas reading. — There was a stage in the 
 Gothic languages when these forms were either inadmissible, 
 or rare. Instead thereof, we had the present tense, / spealc, 
 and the past, / spoJce. The same is the case with the classical 
 languages in the classical stage. To determine the difference 
 in idea between these pairs of forms is a matter of metaphysics. 
 To determine at what period each idea came to have a sepa- 
 rate mode of expression is a matter of the history of language. 
 For example, va,s Idisands appears in TJlphilas (Matt, vii.29). 
 There, it appears as a rare form, and as a literal translation of 
 the Greek riv ^ihaaKo^v (was teaching). The Greek form 
 itself was, however, an unclassical expression for zhi'^ocffxs. 
 In Anglo-Saxon this mode of speaking became common, 
 and in English it is commoner still. — Deutsche Gram- 
 matik, iv. 5. This is a point of idiom involved with one 
 of history. 
 
 Swear hy your sword — sioear on your sword. — Which of 
 these two expressions is right \ This depends on what the 
 speaker means. If he mean make your oath in the full re- 
 membrance of the trust you jmi in your sword^ and with the 
 imprecation, therein implied, that it shall fail you, or turn 
 against you if you speak falsely, the former expression is the 
 right one. But, if he mean swear with your hand upon your 
 sicord, it is the latter which expresses his meaning. To take 
 a different view of this question, and to write as a rule that
 
 oiH SYNTAX IN CENERAL. 
 
 verbs of sieeai'mn on^ followed />// the preposition on (or hi/\ is 
 to inistjike the province of the grammar. Grammar tells no 
 one what he should wish to say. It only tells him how what 
 he wishes to say should be said. 
 
 Much of the criticism on the use of will and shall is faulty 
 in this respect. Will exj)resses one idea of futurity, shall 
 another. The syntax of the two words is very nearly that of 
 any other two. That one of the words is oftenest used with 
 a first person, and the other with a second, is a fact, as will 
 be seen hereafter, connected with the nature of things, not of 
 words. 
 
 § 469. The following question now occurs. If the history 
 of forms of speech be one thing, and the history of idioms 
 another ; if this question be a part of logic, and that question 
 a part of rhetoric ; and if such truly grammatical facts as 
 government and concord are, as matters of common sense, to 
 be left uninvestigated and unexplained, what remains as syn- 
 tax ? This is answered by the following distinction. There 
 are two sorts of syntax ; theoretical and practical, scientific 
 and historical, pure and mixed. Of these, the first consists 
 in the analysis and proof of those rules which common practice 
 applies without investigation, and common sense appreciates, 
 in a rough and gross manner, from an appreciation of the re- 
 sults. This is the syntax of government and concord, or of 
 those points which find no place in the present work, for the 
 following reason — thei/ are either too easy or too hard for it. 
 If explained scientifically they are matters of close and minute 
 reasoning; if exhibited empirically they are mere rules for 
 the memory. Besides this they are universal facts of lan- 
 guages in general, and not the particular facts of any one 
 language. Like other universal facts they are capable of 
 being expressed symbolically. That the verb (A) agrees with 
 its pronoun (B) is an immutable fact : or, changing the mode 
 of expression, w^e may say that language can only fulfil its 
 great primary object of intelligibility when A = B. And so 
 on throughout. A formal syntax thus exhibited, and even 
 devised « priori, is a philological possibility. And it is also 
 the measure of philological anomalies.
 
 SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 395 
 
 § 470. Pure syntax. — So much for one sort of syntax ; viz.^ 
 that portion of grammar which bears the same relation to the 
 practice of language, that the investigation of the syllogism 
 bears to the practice of reasoning. The positions concerning 
 it are by no means invalidated by such phrases as / speaJcs 
 (for / speak), &c. In cases like these there is no contradic- 
 tion ; since the peculiarity of the expression consists not in 
 joining two incompatible persons, but in mistaking a third 
 person for a first — and as far as the speaker is concerned, 
 actually/ making it so. I must here anticipate some objec- 
 tions that may be raised to these views, by stating that I am 
 perfectly aware that they lead to a conclusion which to most 
 readers must appear startling and to some monstrous, viz., 
 to the conclusion that there is no such thing as bad gram- 
 mar at all ; that everything is what the speaker chooses to 
 make it ; that a speaker may choose to make any expression 
 whatever, provided it ansioer the purpose of language, and he 
 intelligible ; that, in short, tchatever is is right. Notwith- 
 standing this view of the consequence I still am satisfied 
 with the truth of the premises. I may also add that the 
 terms pui'e and m,ixed, themselves suggestive of much thought 
 on the subject which they express, are not mine but Professor 
 Sylvester's. 
 
 § 471 . Mixed syntax. — That, notwithstanding the previous 
 limitations, there is still a considerable amount of syntax in 
 the English, as in all other languages, may be seen from the 
 sequel. If I undertook to indicate the essentials of mixed 
 syntax, I should say that they consisted in the explanation of 
 combinations apparently ungrammatical ; in other words, that 
 they ascertained the results of those causes which disturb the 
 regularity of the pure syntax ; that they measured the extent 
 of the deviation ; and that they referred it to some principle 
 of the human mind — so accounting for it. 
 
 / am going. — Pure syntax explains this. 
 
 / have gone. — Pure syntax will not explain this. Never- 
 theless, the expression is good English. The power, however, 
 of both have and gone is diftercnt from the usual power of 
 those words. This difference mixed syntax explains.
 
 31)G SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 
 
 § 1-72. iMixeil Hj'iitax requires two sorts of knowledge — 
 inelapliysical, and historical. 
 
 1. To account for such a fact in language as the expression 
 the man as rides to marlet, instead of the usual expression the 
 man who rides to market, is a question of what is commonly 
 called metaphysics. The idea of comparison is the idea com- 
 mon to the words as and trho. 
 
 2. To account for such a fact in language as the expres- 
 sion / have ridden a horse is a question of history. We 
 must know that when there was a sign of an accusative case 
 in English the word horse had that sign ; in other words that 
 the expression was, originally, / have a horse as a ridden 
 thing. These two views illustrate each other. 
 
 § 473. In the English, as in all other languages, it is con- 
 venient to notice certain so-called figures of speech. They 
 always furnish convenient modes of expression, and some- 
 times, as in the case 'of the one immediately about to be 
 noticed, account for facts. 
 
 § 474. Personification. — The ideas of apposition and col- 
 lectiveness account for the apparent violations of the con- 
 cord of number. The idea of personification applies to the 
 concord of gender. A masculine or feminine gender, charac- 
 teristic of persons, may be substituted for the neuter gender, 
 characteristic of things. In this case the term is said to be 
 personified. 
 
 The cities who aspired to liberty. — A personification of the 
 idea expressed by cities is here necessary to justify the ex- 
 pression. 
 
 It, the sign of the neuter gender, as applied to a male or 
 female child, is the reverse of the process. 
 
 § 475. Ellipsis (from the Greek elleipein=^to fall short), 
 or a, falling short, occurs in sentences like / sent to the hook- 
 seller s. Here the word shop or house is understood. Ex- 
 pressions like to go on all fours, and to eat of the fruit of the 
 tree, are reducible to ellipses. 
 
 § 476. Pleonasm (from the Greek pleonazein = to be in 
 excess) occurs in sentences like the king, he reigns. Here 
 the word he is superabundant. In many pleonastic ex-
 
 SYNTAX m GENERAL. 397 
 
 pressions we may suppose an interruption of the sentence, 
 and afterwards an abrupt renewal of it ; as tlie hing — he 
 reigns. 
 
 The fact of the word he neither quahfying nor explaining 
 the word king, distinguishes pleonasm from apposition. 
 
 Pleonasm, as far as the view above is applicable, is reduced 
 to what is, apparently, its opposite, viz., ellipsis. 
 
 il/y banks, they are furnished, — the most straitest sect, — 
 these are pleonastic expressions. In the hing, he reigns, the 
 word king is in the same predicament as in the king, God bless 
 him. 
 
 The double negative, allowed in Greek and Anglo-Saxon, 
 but not admissible in English, is pleonastic. 
 
 The verb do, in / do speak, is not pleonastic. In respect 
 to the sense it adds intensity. In respect to the construction 
 it is not in apposition, but in the same predicament with 
 verbs like must and should, as in / must go, &c. ; i. e. it is a 
 verb followed by an infinitive. This we know from its 
 power in those languages where the infinitive has a charac- 
 teristic sign ; as, in German, 
 
 Die Angen t/taten ihm winken. — Goethe. 
 
 Besides this, make is similarly used in Old English. — But 
 men make dravj the branch thereof, and beren him to be graced 
 at Babyloyne. — Sir J. Mandeville. 
 
 § 477. The figure zeugma. — They wear a garment like that of 
 the Scythians, but a language peculiar to themselves. — 1'he verb, 
 naturally applying to garment only, is here used to govern 
 language. This is called in Greek, zeugma (junction). 
 
 § 478. My paternal home was made desolate, and he himself 
 was sacrificed. — The sense of this is plain ; ^g means my father. 
 Yet no such substantive as father has gone before. It is 
 supplied, however, from the word paternal. The sense indi- 
 cated hy paternal gives us a subject to which he can refer. In 
 other words, the word he is understood, according to what is 
 indicated, rather than according to what is expressed. This 
 figure in Greek is called pros to semainomenon {according to the 
 thing indicated).
 
 398 SYNTAX IN r.ENKRATi. 
 
 § 47}>. Ap/x'sitioii. — Cffnar, t/w Ihmwn emperor, invades 
 Jintaiii. — lloiT tlio words iiow/aw cm^wror explain, or defiiu*, 
 the word Co'sar ; mid tlie sentence, filled up, might stand, 
 CfTsar, that 7s, t/ie lioman emperor, &c. Again, the word 
 lloman emperor might he wholly ejected; or, if not ejected, 
 they might he thrown into a parenthesis. The practical 
 hearing of this fact is exhibited hy changing the form of the 
 sentence, and inserting the conjunction and. In this case, 
 instead of one person, two are spoken of, and the verb 
 invades must be changed from the singular to the plural. 
 
 Now tlie words lioman emiycror are said to be in apposition 
 to Casar. They constitute, not an additional idea, but an 
 explanation of the original one. They are, as it were, laid 
 alongside (apjjositi) of the word Casar. Cases of doubtful 
 number, wherein two substantives precede a verb, and wherein 
 it is uncertain whether the verb should be singular or plural, 
 are decided by determining whether the substantives be in 
 apposition or the contrary. No matter how many nouns 
 there may be, as long as it can be shown that they are in 
 apposition, the verb is in the singular number. 
 
 § 480. Collectiveness as opposed to plurality. — In sentences 
 like the meeting was large, the multitude pursue pleasure, 
 meeting, and multitude are each collective nouns ; that is, 
 although they present the idea of a single object, that object 
 consists of a plurality of individuals. Hence, pursue is put 
 in the plural number. To say, however, the meeting were large 
 would sound improper. The number of the verb that shall 
 accompany a collective noun depends upon whether the idea 
 of the multiplicity of individuals, or that of the unity of the 
 aggregate, shall predominate. 
 
 Sa7id and salt and a mass of iron is easier to bear than a 
 man tcithotit tinderstanding . — Let sand and salt and a mass of 
 iron be dealt with as a series of things the aggregate of which 
 forms a mixture, and the expression is allowable. 
 
 The king and the lords and commons forms an excellent frame 
 of government. — Here the expression is doubtful. Substitute 
 with for the first and, and there is no doubt as to the propriety 
 of the singidar form is.
 
 SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 399 
 
 §481. The reduction of complex forms to simple ones. — 
 Take, for instance, the current illustration, viz., the-Mng-of- 
 Saxony''s army. — Here the assertion is, not that the army 
 belongs to Saxony, but that it belongs to the king of Saxony ; 
 which words must, for the sake of taking a true view of the 
 construction, be dealt with as a single word in the possessive 
 case. Here two cases are dealt with as one ; and a complex 
 term is treated as a single word. 
 
 The same reasoning applies to phrases like the ttvo king 
 Williams. If we say the two kings William, we must account 
 for the phrase by apposition. 
 
 § 482. True notion of the ixirt of speech in use. — In he is 
 gone, the word gone must be considered as equivalent to 
 absent ; that is, as an adjective. Otherwise the expression 
 is as incorrect as the expression she is eloped. Strong parti- 
 ciples are adjectival oftener than weak ones ; their form being 
 common to many adjectives. 
 
 True notion of the original form. — In the phrase 1 must speak, 
 the word speak is an infinitive. In the phrase / am forced to 
 speak, the word speak is (in the present English) an infinitive 
 also. In one case, however, it is preceded by to ; whilst in 
 the other, the particle to is absent. The reason for this lies 
 in the original diiference of form. Sj^eak — ^o = the Anglo- 
 Saxon s^r^'mw, a simple infinitive ; to speak, or speak + to = 
 the Anglo-Saxon to sprecanne, an infinitive in the dative 
 case. 
 
 § 488. Convertibility. — In the English language, the greater 
 part of the words may, as far as their form is concerned, be 
 one part of speech as well as another. Thus the combinations 
 s-a-n-th, or fr-e-n-k, if they existed at all, might exist as 
 either nouns or verbs, as either substantives or adjectives, as 
 conjunctions, adverbs, or prepositions. This is not the case 
 in the Greek language. There, if a word be a substan- 
 tive, it will probably end in -s, if an infinitive verb, in -ein, 
 &c. The bearings of this difference between languages 
 like the English and languages like the Greek will soon 
 appear. 
 
 At present, it is sufficient to say that a word, origi-
 
 lOO SYNTAX IN OKNERAL. 
 
 nally oiio |)nrt of spoech {r. n. a noun), may become anollier 
 («'. p. a verb). Tbis may be oallcil tbe convertibility of words. 
 
 There is an ctymoh)gical convertibility, and a syntactic 
 convertibilit}' ; and although, in some cases, the Hne of demar- 
 cation is not easily drawn between them, the distinction is 
 intelligible and convenient. 
 
 § 484. Ett/moloqical convertibility/. — The words theii and 
 t/ian, now adverbs or conjunctions, were once cases: in other 
 words, they have been converted from one part of speech to 
 another. Or, they may even be said to be cases, at the 
 present moment ; although only in an historical point of view. 
 For the practice of language, they are not only adverbs or 
 conjunctions, but they are adverbs or conjunctions exclusively. 
 
 § 485. Si/ntactic convertibility. — The combination to err, 
 is at this moment an infinitive verb. Nevertheless it can be 
 used as the equivalent to the substantive error. 
 
 To err is human = error is human. Now this is an in- 
 stance of syntactic conversion. Of the two meanings, there 
 is no doubt as to which is the primary one ; which primaiy 
 meaning is part and parcel of the language at this moment. 
 
 The infinitive, when used as a substantive, can be used in 
 a singular form only. 
 
 To err=error ; but we have no such form as to errs= 
 errors. Nor is it wanted. The infinitive, in a substantival 
 sense, always conveys a general statement, so that even when 
 singular, it has a plural power ; just as man is mortal=men 
 are mortal. 
 
 § 486. The adjective used as a substantive. — Of these, we 
 have examples in expressions like the blacks of Africa — the 
 bitters and siceets of life — all fours ivere put to tlie ground. 
 These are true instances of conversion, and are proved to be 
 so by the fact of their taking a plural form. 
 
 Let the blind lead the blind is not an instance of conversion. 
 The word blind in both instances remains an adjective, and is 
 shown to remain so by its being uninflected. 
 
 § 487. Uninflected parts of speech, used as substantive. — 
 When King Richard III. says, 7ione of your ifs, he uses the 
 word ?yas a suhni-Axiiiw e=expressions of doubt.
 
 SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 401 
 
 So in the expression one long now, the word noic =present 
 time. 
 
 § 488. The convertibility of words in Enghsh is very 
 great ; and it is so because the structure of the language 
 favours it. As few words have any pecuHar signs expressive 
 of their being particular parts of speech, interchange is easy, 
 and conversion follows the logical association of ideas un- 
 impeded. 
 
 The convertibility of words is in the inverse ratio to the 
 amount of their inflection.
 
 I()2 SYNTAX OF SU15STANTIVES. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 SYNTAX or SUnSTANTIVfiS. 
 
 § 481). Tm: i)henomena of convertibility have been already 
 explained. 
 
 The remaining points connected with the syntax of sub- 
 stantives, are chiefly points of either ellipsis, or apposition. 
 
 Ellipsis of substantives. — The historical view of phrases, 
 like Rundell and Bridges., St. Pauls\ &c., shows that this 
 ellipsis is common to the English and the other Gothic 
 languages. Furthermore, it shows that it is met with in 
 languages not of the Gothic stock ; and, finally, that the 
 class of words to which it applies, is, there or thereabouts, the 
 same generally. 
 
 A. 1. The words most commonly understood, are house and 
 family, or words reducible to them. In Latin, Diajia =: adem 
 Diana:. — Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 262. 
 
 2. Country, retinue. — Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 262. 
 
 3. Son, daughter, wife, loidow. — Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 
 262. — l^rfkivg Ko^foy, Greek. 
 
 B. The following phrases are referable to a different class 
 of relations — 
 
 1. Right and left — supply ^awo?. This is, probably, a real 
 ellipsis. The words right and left, have not yet become true 
 substantives ; inasmuch as they have no plural forms. In 
 this respect, they stand in contrast with hitter and sweet ; 
 inasmucli as we can say he has tainted both the bitters and sweets 
 of life. Nevertheless, the expression can be refined on. 
 
 2. All fours. — To go on all fours. No ellipsis. The 
 wov([ fours, is a true substantive, as proved by its existence as 
 a plural. 
 
 From expressions like '^orriPiov -^^vy^^ov (Matt. xiv. 51),
 
 SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 40.3 
 
 from the Greek, and perfundit gelido (understand latice), 
 from the Latin, we find that the present elHpsis was used with 
 greater latitude in the classical languages than our own. 
 
 § 490. Proper names can only he used in the singular 
 number. — This is a rule of logic, rather than of grammar. 
 When we say the four Georges^ the Pitts and Gamdens, &c., 
 the words that thus take a plural form, have ceased to 
 be proper names. They either mean — 
 
 1. The persons called George, &c. 
 
 2. Or, persons so like George, that they may be considered 
 as identical. 
 
 §491. Collocation. — In the present English, the genitive 
 case always precedes the nonn by which it is governed — the 
 mans hat = hominis pileus ; never the hat mans = pileus 
 hominis. 
 
 I) D 2
 
 ■Wl SYNTAX nV AD.l K(TI VKS. 
 
 CHAPTER HI, 
 
 SYNTAX or A1).)K< TIVKS. 
 
 § 41)2. Pleonasm. — Pleonasm can take place with adjec- 
 tives only in the expression of the degrees of comparison. 
 Over and above the etymological signs of the comparative and 
 sujKM-lative degrees, there may be used the superlative words 
 more and inost. 
 
 And this pleonasm really occurs — 
 
 T/ic more scrcncr spirit. 
 The. most straitcst sect. 
 
 These are instances of pleonasm in the strictest sense of the 
 term. 
 
 § 493. Collocation. — As a general rule, the adjective pre- 
 cedes the substantive — a good man, not a man cjood. 
 
 When, however, the adjective is qualified by either the 
 expression of its degree, or accompanied by another adjective, 
 it may follow the substantive — 
 
 A manjus/ anrt good. 
 
 A woman wise undjuir. 
 
 A hero devoted to his country. 
 
 A patriot disinterested to a great degree. 
 
 Single simple adjectives thus placed after their substantive, 
 belong to the poetry of England, and especially to the ballad 
 poetry — sighs profound — the leaves green. 
 
 § 494. Government. — The only adjective that governs a 
 case, is the word like. In the expression, this is like him, 
 &c., the original power of the dative remains. This we 
 infer — 
 
 1 . From the fact that in most languages which have inflec-
 
 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 405 
 
 tions to a sufficient extent, the word meaning like governs a 
 dative ease. 
 
 2. That if ever we use in English any preposition at all to 
 express similitude, it is the preposition to — like to me, like to 
 death, &c. 
 
 Expressions like full of meat, good for John, are by no 
 means instances of the government of adjectives ; the really 
 governing words being the prepositions to and/br respectively. 
 
 The most that can be said, in cases like these, is that par- 
 ticular adjectives determine the use of particular preposi- 
 tions — thus the preposition of generally follows the adjective 
 full, &:c. 
 
 § 495. The positive degree preceded by the adjective more, 
 is equivalent to the comparative form — e. g., more wise= 
 wiser. 
 
 The reasons for employing one expression in preference to 
 the other, depend upon the natui*e of the particular word 
 used. 
 
 When the word is, at one and the same time, of Anglo- 
 Saxon origin and monosyllabic, there is no doubt about the 
 preference to be given to the form in -er. Thus, icis-er is 
 preferable to more wise. 
 
 When, however, the word is compound, or trisyllabic, the 
 combination with the word more, is preferable. 
 
 more fruitful J'ruitfuller. 
 
 mure villanuus villunouser. 
 
 IJetween these two extremes, there are several interme- 
 diate forms wherein the use of one rather than another, 
 will depend upon the taste of the writer. The question, 
 however, is a question of euphony, rather than of aught 
 else. It is also illustrated by the principle of not multiply- 
 ing secondary elements. In such a word as fruit-fill-er, 
 there are two additions to the root. The same is the case 
 with the s\ipQY\aV\\o, fruitfull-est. 
 
 § 496. The 9th Chapter of Part IV., should be read 
 carefully. There, there is indicated a refinement upon the 
 current jiotions as to the power of the conij)ar;itive degree,
 
 10(i SYNTAX OF AD.IECTIVKS. 
 
 and reasons are given tor I)elieving that the fundamental 
 notion expressed liy the eonij)arative inflexion is the idea of 
 comparison or contrast between iico objects. 
 
 In this ease, it is better in speaking of only two objects 
 to nsc tlic comparative degree rather than the superlative 
 — oven when we use the definite article the. Thus — 
 
 This is the heller of tlic two 
 is preferable to 
 
 This is the best of tlic two 
 
 This principle is capable of an application more extensive 
 than our habits of speaking and writing will verify. Thus, 
 to go to other parts of speech, we should logically say — 
 
 Whctlier of the two 
 rather than 
 
 Which of the two. 
 Either tlic father or the son, 
 
 but not 
 
 Either the father, the son, or the daughter. 
 
 This statement may be refined on. It is chiefly made for 
 the sake of giving fresh prominence to the idea of duality 
 expressed by the terminations -er and -ter. 
 
 § 497. The absence of inflection simplifies the syntax of 
 adjectives. Violations of concord are impossible. We could 
 not make an adjective disagree with its substantive if we 
 wished.
 
 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 407 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 § 498. The syntax of substantives is, in English, simple, 
 from the paucity of its inflections, a condition which is un- 
 favourable towards the evolution of constructional complexi- 
 ties ; the most remarkable exception being the phenomenon 
 of convertibility noticed above. 
 
 The same is the case with adjectives. The want of in- 
 flexion simplifies their syntax equally with that of the sub- 
 stantives. 
 
 But with the pronouns this is not the case. Here we 
 have — 
 
 1. Signs of gender ; 2. Signs of case ; 8. Signs of num- 
 ber, to a greater extent, and with more peculiarities, than 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Furthermore, the pronouns exhibit in a great degree the 
 phenomena of conversion indicated in p. 400. 
 
 § 499. Pleonasm in the syntax of pronouns. — In the fol- 
 lowing sentences the words in italics are pleonastic. 
 
 1. The king he is just. 
 
 2. I saw her, the queen, 
 
 3. The men, they were there. 
 
 4. The king, his crown. 
 
 Of these forms, the first is more common than the second 
 and third, and the fourth more common than the first. 
 
 § 500. The fourth has another element of importance. It 
 has given rise to the absurd notion that the genitive case in 
 -s (fathers) is a contraction from hi.i (father his). 
 
 To say nothing about the inapplicability of this rule to 
 feminine genders, and plural numbers, the whole history of 
 the Indo-Germanic languages is against it.
 
 408 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 1. We cannot rtMlucc the queens majesti/ to the queen his 
 inaji'sti/. 
 
 2. \V^o cannot rcilnce thv children s bread to the children his 
 bread. 
 
 3. The Anglo-Saxon forms are in -es, not in his. 
 
 4. The woril his itself nuist he accounted for; and that 
 cannot he done hy assuming to he he + his. 
 
 5. The -s in fathers is the -is in patris, and the -og in 
 •TrccTicog. 
 
 § 501. The preceding examples illustrate an apparent 
 paradox, viz., the fact of pleonasm and ellipsis being closely 
 allied. The king he is Just, dealt with as a single sentence, 
 is undoubtedly pleonastic. But it is not necessary to be 
 considered as a mere simple sentence. The king — may repre- 
 sent a first sentence incomplete, whilst he is Just represents a 
 second sentence in full. What is pleonasm in a single sen- 
 tence, is ellipsis in a double one.
 
 TRUE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 409 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE TRUE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 § 502. Personal pronouns. — The use of tlie second person 
 plural instead of the second singular has been noticed in p. 
 246. This use of one number for another is current 
 throughout the Gothic languages. A pronoun so used is 
 conveniently called the pronomen reverentite. 
 
 § 503. In English, however, there is a second change over 
 and above the change of number, viz. that of case. We not 
 only say i/e instead of thou, but i/ou instead of ye. — (See p. 
 245). 
 
 Mr. Guest remarks, " that at one time the two forms ye 
 and you seem to have been nearly changing place in our 
 language. 
 
 As I have made i/e one, Lords, one remain ; 
 So I grow stronger i/ou more honour gain. 
 
 Henri/ VIII. 4, 2. 
 What gain t/ou hy forbidding it to teazc j/e, 
 It now can neitlicr trouble you nor please ye. 
 
 Dryden." 
 
 In German and the Danish the pronomen reverenfia; is 
 got at by a change, not of number, but of person — in other 
 words, the pronoun of the third person is used instead of that 
 of the second ; just as if, in the English, we said tc'dl they 
 walk^will you %valk, will ye walk, loilt thou walk. 
 
 § 504. Dativus ethicus. — In the phrase 
 
 Rob uie the exchequer. — Henri/ IV. 
 
 the me is expletive, and is equivalent to for me. Tliis 
 exjjletive use of the dative is conveniently called the dativus 
 ethicus. It occurs more frequently in the Latin than in the
 
 •MO TIIUK PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 English, ami more Cioiiuontly in the Greek than in the 
 Latin. 
 
 § 505. Tho reflected personal j)ro7ioun. — In the Enghsli 
 language there is no equivalent to tho Latin se, the German 
 sic/i, anil the Scandinavian sik^ and si(^. 
 
 It follows from this that the word self is used to a greater 
 extent than would otherwise be the case, 
 
 / strile me is awkward, but not ambiguous. 
 
 Thou strikest thee is awkward, but not ambiguous. 
 
 He strikes him is ambiguous; inasmuch as Aim may mean 
 either the person who strikes or some one else. In order to be 
 clear we add the word self \y\\cn the idea is reflective. lie 
 strikes himself is, at once, idiomatic, and unequivocal. 
 
 So it is with the plural persons. 
 
 We strike us is awkward, but not ambiguous. 
 
 Ye strike you is the same. 
 
 They strike them is ambiguous. 
 
 This shows the value of a reflective pronoun for the third 
 person. 
 
 As a general rule, therefore, whenever we use a verb 
 reflectively we use the word self in combination with the 
 personal pronoun. 
 
 Yet this was not always the case. The use of the simple 
 personal pronoun was current in Anglo-Saxon, and that, not 
 only for the two first persons, but for the third as well. 
 
 The exceptions to this rule are either poetical expressions, 
 or imperative moods. 
 
 He sat him down at a pillar's base. — Byuon. 
 Sit thee down. 
 
 § 506. Reflective neuters. — In the phrase / strike me the 
 verb strike is transitive ; in other words, the word me ex- 
 presses the object of an action, and the meaning is different 
 from the meaning of the simple expression / strike. 
 
 In the phrase I fear me (used by Lord Campbell in his Lives 
 of the Chancellors), the verb fear is intransitive or neuter ; 
 in other words, the word me (unless, indeed, /gar mean terrify)
 
 TRUE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 411 
 
 expresses no object of any action at all ; whilst the meaning 
 is the same as in the simple expression I fear. 
 
 Here the reflective pronoun appears out of place, i. e., after 
 a neuter or intransitive verb. 
 
 Such a use, however, is but the fragment of an extensive 
 system of reflective verbs thus formed, developed in difi'erent 
 degrees in the different Gothic languages ; but in all more 
 than in the English. 
 
 § 507. Equivocal reflectlves. — The proper place of the 
 reflective is after the verb. 
 
 The proper place of the governing pronoun is, is the 
 indicative and subjunctive moods, before the verb. 
 
 Hence in expressions like the preceding there is no doubt 
 as to the power of the pronoun. 
 
 The imperative mood, however, sometimes presents a 
 complication. Here the governing person may follow the verb. 
 
 Mount yg=either he mounted^ or mount yourselves. In 
 phrases like this, and in phrases 
 
 Busk ye, busk ye, my bonny, bonny bride, 
 Busk ye, busk ye, my winsome marrow, 
 
 the construction is ambiguous. Ye may either be a nomina- 
 tive case governing the verb lusl; or an accusative case 
 governed by it. 
 
 This is an instance of what may be called the equivocal 
 reflective.
 
 11- ON THE yViNTAX OK 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 O.V THE SYNTAX OF THE OEMOXSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, AND THE 
 PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON. 
 
 § 508. Reasons have been given in p. 249, for considering 
 the so-called pronouns of the third person {he, she, it, they') 
 demonstrative rather than truly personal. 
 
 § 509. As his, and her, are genitive cases (and not ad- 
 jectives), there is no need of explaining such combinations 
 as his mother, her father, inasmuch as no concord of gen- 
 der is expected. The expressions are respectively equiva- 
 lent to 
 
 mattr ejus, not mater sua ; 
 pater ejus, — pater suus. 
 
 § 510. From p. 250, it may be seen that its is a secondary 
 genitive, and it may be added, that it is of late origin in the 
 language. The Anglo-Saxon form was his, the genitive o^ he 
 for the neuter and masculine equally. Hence, uhen, in the 
 old writers, we meet his, «hcre we expect its, we must not 
 suppose that any personification takes place, but simply that 
 the old genitive common to the two genders is used in pre- 
 ference to the modern one limited to the neuter, and irregu- 
 larly formed. This has been illustrated by Mr. Guest. 
 
 The following instances are the latest specimens of its use. 
 
 " The apoplexy is, as I take it, a kind of lethargy. I have read the cause 
 oi his effects in Galen ; if is a kind of deafness." — 2 Henry IV. i. 2. 
 
 " If the salt have lost his flavour, wherewith shall it be seasoned. It is 
 neither fit for the land nor yet for the dunghill, but men cast it out." — 
 Luke .\iv. 35. 
 
 " Some affirm that every plant has his particular fly or caterpillar, vvliich 
 it breeds and feeds." — Walton's Angler. 
 
 " This rule is not so general, but lliat it adniitteth of his exceptions." 
 — Carew.
 
 THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 413 
 
 " The genitive its is of late introduction into our language. 
 Though used by our dramatists and many of their cotem- 
 poraries, it does not occur in the versions of our Bible, 
 the substitute being his or the compound term thereof.'''' — 
 Phil. Trans., No. 25. 
 
 § 511. For the archaic and provincial use of him and he 
 for it see ibid. ; remembering that the two cases are different. 
 His for its is an old form retained : him and he for it are 
 really changes of gender. 
 
 § 512. Take them th'mgs away. — Here we have them for 
 those. The expression, although not to be imitated, is ex- 
 plained by the originally demonstrative power of them. 
 
 Sometimes the expression is still more anomalous, and we 
 hear the so-called nominative case used instead of the accusa- 
 tive. In the expression take they things away^ the use of they 
 for them (itself for those) is similarly capable of being, down 
 to a certain period of our language, explained as an archaism. 
 The original accusative was ]?«, and ]>o : the form in -m being 
 dative. 
 
 § 513. This and that. — The remarks upon the use of these 
 words in certain expressions is brought at once to the Latin 
 scholar by the quotation of the two following lines from Ovid, 
 and the suggestion of a well-known rule in the Eton Latin 
 Grammar. 
 
 Qu'icunque uspicies nihil at nisi pontus et aer ; 
 Nubibus hie tumiduSjJluctibus ille minax. 
 
 Here hie {=this or the one) refers to the antecedent last 
 named (the air ) ; whilst ille ( = that or the other) refers to the 
 antecedent first named (the sea). 
 
 Now on the strength of this example, combined with 
 others, it is laid down as a rule in Latin that hie (this) refers 
 to the last-named antecedent, ille to the first-named. 
 
 § 514. What is the rule in English ; 
 
 Suppose we say Johns is a good sword and so is Charleses ,• 
 this cut through a thick rope., the other cut through an iron rod. 
 Or instead of saying this and that we may say the one and 
 the other. Tt is clear that, in determining to which of the
 
 m ON THE SYNTAX OF 
 
 t\v«) swords the respective demonstrJitives refer, tlie meanini,' 
 will not lu'lp lis at all, so that our only recourse is to the rules 
 ot" ^M•au^lKU• ; anil it is the opinion of the present writer that 
 the rules of grannnar will help us just as little. 'J'lie Latin 
 rule is adopted by scholars, but still it is a Latin rule rather 
 than an English one. 
 
 The truth is, that it is a question which no authority can 
 settle ; and all that grammar can tell us is (what we know 
 without it) that this refers to the name of the idea which is 
 logically the most close at hand, and that to the idea which 
 is logically the most distant. 
 
 ^Vhat constitutes nearness or distance of ideas, in other 
 words, what determines the sequence of ideas is another ques- 
 tion. That the idea, however, of sequence, and, consequently 
 of logical proximity and logical distance, is the fundamental 
 idea in regard to the expressions in question is evident from 
 the very use of the words this and that. 
 
 Now the sequence of ideas is capable of being determined 
 by two tests. 
 
 1. The idea to which the name was last given, or (changing 
 the expression) the name of the last idea may be the nearest 
 idea in the order of sequence, and, consequently, the idea 
 referred to by the pronoun of proximity. Li this case the idea 
 closest at hand to the writer of the second line of the couplet 
 quoted above was the idea of the atmosphere (aer), and it was, 
 consequently, expressed by (this) hie. 
 
 2. Or the idea to which the name was first given, or (chang- 
 ing the expression) the name of the first idea may be the 
 nearest idea in the order of sequence, and consequently the 
 idea referred to it by the pronoun of proximity ; inasmuch 
 as the idea which occurs first is the most prominent one, and 
 what is prominent appears near. In this case, the idea 
 closest at hand to the writer of the second line of the couplet 
 quoted above would have been the idea of the sea {pontus), 
 and it would, consequently, have been the idea expressed by 
 this (hie). 
 
 As Ovid, however, considered the idea at the end of the 
 last half of one sentence to be the idea nearest to the be-
 
 THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 415 
 
 ginning of the next, we have him expressing himself as 
 he does. On the other hand, it is easy to conceive a writer 
 with whom the nearest idea is the idea that led the way to 
 the others. 
 
 As I believe that one and the same individual may mea- 
 sure the sequence of his ideas sometimes according to one 
 of these principles, and sometimes according to another, I 
 believe that all rules about the relations of this and that 
 are arbitrary. 
 
 It is just a matter of chance whether a thinker take up his 
 line of ideas by the end or by the beginning. The analogies 
 of such expressions as the following are in favour of this, in 
 English, applying to the^rs^ subject, that to the second ; since 
 the word attorney/ takes the place of this^ and applies to the 
 first name of the two, i. e., to Thurlow. 
 
 " It was a proud day for the bar when Lord North made Thvu-low (1) 
 and (2) Wedderburn (1) Attorney (2) and Solicitor General." — Mutliias 
 from Lord CumpbtU's Lives of the Chancelloi's.
 
 4I(»" ON THE WORD SELF. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ON THE OONSniUCTION or THE WOHD SELF. 
 
 § 51-5. The umloubted constructions of the word self] in the 
 jjresent state of the cultivated EngUsh, are three-fold. 
 
 1. Government. — In mi/-self, ihi/self, ourselves, and your- 
 selves, the construction is that of a common substantive with 
 an adjective or genitive case. My-self=my individuality, 
 and is similarly construed — mea individualitas (or persona), 
 or mei individualitas {or persona). 
 
 2. Appositio7i. — In him-self and themselves, when accusa- 
 tive, the construction is that of a substantive in apposition with 
 a pronoun. Himself =^liim, the individual. 
 
 3. Conip)Ositio7i. — It is only, however, when himself and 
 themselves, are in the accusative case, that the construction is 
 appositional. When they are used as nominatives, it must be 
 explained on another principle. In phrases like 
 
 He Itimself w&s present. 
 The^ themselves were present. 
 
 There is neither apposition nor government ; him and them, 
 being neither related to my and thy, so as to be governed, 
 nor yet to he and they, so as to form an apposition. In 
 order to come under one of these conditions, the phrases 
 sliould be either he his self (they their selves), or else he 
 he self (they they selves). In this difficulty, the only logical 
 view that can be taken of the matter, is to consider the words 
 himself and themselves, not as two words, but as a single word 
 compounded ; and even then, the compound will be of an 
 irregular kind ; inasmuch as the inflectional element -m, is 
 dealt with as part and parcel of the root. 
 
 §516. Herself. — The construction here is ambiguous. It 
 is one of the preceding constructions. Which, however it is.
 
 ON THE WORD SELF. 417 
 
 is uncertain ;* since her may be either a so-called genitive, like 
 my^ or an accusative like 1dm. 
 
 Itself — is also ambiguous. The s may represent the -s in 
 its., as well as the s- in self. 
 
 This inconsistency is as old as the Anglo-Saxon stage of 
 the English language. 
 
 § 517. In the exhibition of the second construction of the 
 word self it was assumed that the case was a case of apposi- 
 tion, and that self VI ^^ substantival in character. Neverthe- 
 less, this is by no means a necessary phenomenon. /S**'^ might, 
 as far as its power is determined by its construction alone, in 
 words like himself as easily be an adjective as a substantive. 
 In which case the construction would be a matter, not of 
 apposition, but of agreement. To illustrate this by the Latin 
 language, himself might equal either eum personam {him, the 
 person), or eum personalem (him personal). The evidence, 
 however, of the forms like myself as well as other facts ad- 
 duceable from comparative philology, prove the substantival 
 character of self. On the other hand, it ought not to be con- 
 cealed that another word, whereof the preponderance of the 
 adjectival over the substantival power is undoubted, is found 
 in the Old English, with just the same inconsistency as the 
 word self ; i.e., sometimes in government (like a substantive), 
 and sometimes in either concord or apposition, like a word 
 which may be either substantive or adjective. This word is 
 one; the following illustratiojis of which are from Mr. Guest. 
 —Phil. Trans. No. 22. 
 
 In tliis world vvotc 1 no kuiglit, 
 Who durst his one with Iiyni figlit. 
 
 Ipomcdon, IfinO. 
 \)-a\\ \va /lire one were 
 Aycin so kene kcisere and ,il liis kine riche. 
 
 /S7. Catheiine, !)(». 
 Tliougli she ulone were 
 Against so fierce a kaiser, and all his kingdom. 
 
 Here his one, her one, mean his singleness, her singleness. 
 
 He made his mono 
 AV'ithin a garden all him otic. 
 
 GowKn, Confess. AmaiU. 
 E E
 
 us ON Tin-: W()1{1> SELF. 
 
 IliTO ////// o)U'--—hlni.<e/f\n irspcct to its ooiistiiiction. 
 
 § ')18. As to till' iiiilt'ftiuii (if tlio word -sel/, all its coiii- 
 pouiids are suhstantivos ; iiiasiiuK-li as tlioy all take plural 
 tonus as i'ar as certain logical limitations will allow them to do 
 so — ourselves i yourselves, themselves. 
 
 ^fysilf, tlii/si'lf, himself, itself, and herself, are naturally 
 singular, and under no circumstances can become plural. 
 
 T/iemselves is naturally plural, and under no circumstances 
 can become singular. 
 
 Ourselves and yourselves are naturally })lural ; yet under 
 certain circumstances they become singular. 
 
 a. Just as men say ice for /, so may they say our for my. 
 
 h. Just as men say you for thou, so may they say your for 
 thy. 
 
 In respect to the inflection in the way of case, there are 
 no logical limitations whatever. There is nothing against 
 the existence of a genitive form selfs except the habit of 
 the English language not to use one, founded on the little 
 necessity for so doing. — Are you sure this is your oion ? Yes, 
 I am sure it is my oion selfs. Such an expression is both 
 logic and grammar. 
 
 When an adjective intervenes between self and its per- 
 sonal pronoun the construction is always in the way of 
 government ; in other words, the personal pronoun is always 
 put in the genitive case. 
 
 His own self, iwt him own self. 
 
 Their own selves, iiol them own selves. 
 
 § .519. The construction of s^^' and a personal pronoun with 
 a verb may be noticed in this place. It is only in the case of 
 the two pronouns of the singular number that any doubt can 
 arise. 
 
 1. When myself or thyself stands alone, the verb that 
 follows is in the third person — myself is (not am) imak, 
 thyself is (not art) weak. Here the construction is just the 
 .same as in the proposition 7ny body is iveaJc. 
 
 2. When myself or thyself is preceded by / or thou, 
 the verb that follows is in the first person — /, myself, am 
 (not is) weak ; thou, thyself, art (not is) weak.
 
 ON THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 419 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ON THE POSSESSfVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 § 520, The possessive pronouns fall into two classes. The 
 first class contains the forms connected, partially in their 
 etymology and wholly in their syntax, with my and thy^ &c. 
 The second class contains the forms connected, partially in 
 their etj'^mology and wholly in their syntax, with mine and 
 thine^ &c. 
 
 The first class is the class of what may be called the 
 oblique possessives; the name being founded upon the etymo- 
 logical fact of their being connected with the oblique cases of 
 the pronominal inflection. — J/y, ihy^ Ms (as in his book), her, 
 its (as in its book), our, your, their. These are conveniently 
 considered as the equivalents to the Latin forms mei, tui, ejus, 
 nostrum, vestrum, eorum. 
 
 The second class is the class of what may be called the 
 absolute possessives ; the name being founded upon the 
 syntactic fact of tlieir being able to form the term of a j)ropo- 
 sition by themselves ; as v.ihose is this ? Mine (not my). — 
 Mine, thine, his (as in the book is his). Iters, ours, yours, theirs 
 are conveniently considered as the equivalents to the Latin 
 forms meus, mea, meum ; tuus, tua, tuum ; suus, sua, suum ; 
 noster, nostra, nostrum ; vester, vestra, vestrum. 
 
 How far either or both of these two classes of pronouns are 
 cases, or adjectives, is a point of etymology that has already 
 been noticed (Part IV., chap. .37). 
 
 How far either or both are cases or adjectives is, in syntax, 
 a matter of indifference. 
 
 § 52L There is, however, a palpable difference between the 
 construction of my and mine. We cannot say this is mine hat, 
 and we cannot say this hat is my. Nevertheless, this differ- 
 
 K R 2
 
 420 ON TUK POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 eiice is not explained l)y any elKinge of construction iVoni that 
 of adjectives to that of cases. As far as the syntax is concerned 
 the construction of ?«// and )ni)ie is equally that of an adjective 
 agreeuu] with a substantive, and of a genitive (or possessive) 
 case governed by a substantive. 
 
 Now a common genitive case can be used in two ways; 
 either as part of a term, or as a whole term (/.<?., absolutely). 
 — 1 . As part of a term — this is John's hat. 2. As a whole term 
 — this hat isJo/ins. 
 
 And a common adjective can be vised in two ways.; either 
 as part of a term, or as a whole term (i. e., absolutely). — 1. As 
 part of a term — these are good hats. 2. As a whole terra — 
 these hats are good. 
 
 Now whether we consider wiy, and the words like it, as 
 adjectives or cases, they possess only one of the properties 
 just illustrated, i. e., they can only be used as part of a term 
 — this is my hat ; not this hat is my. 
 
 And whether we consider mine^ and the words like it, as 
 adjectives or cases, they possess only one of the properties just 
 illustrated, i. e.^ they can only be used as whole terms, or 
 absolutely — this hat is mine ; not this is mine hat. 
 
 For a full and perfect construction whether of an adjective 
 or a genitive case, the possessive pronouns present the pheno- 
 menon of being, singly, incomplete, but, nevertheless, compli- 
 mentary to each other when taken in their two forms. 
 
 In the absolute construction of a genitive case, the term is 
 formed by the single word only so far as the expression is con- 
 cerned. A substantive is always understood from what has 
 preceded. — This discovery is Newton s =^ this discovery is 
 NewtorHs discovery. 
 
 The same with adjectives. — This weather is fine = this 
 weather is fine w:eather. 
 
 And the same with absolute pronouns. — This hat is mi7ie = 
 this hat is my hat ; and this is a hat of mine = this is a hat of 
 my hats. 
 
 In respect to all matters of syntax considered exclusively, 
 it is so thoroughly a matter of indifference whether a word 
 be an adjective or a genitive case that Wallis considers the
 
 ON THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 421 
 
 forms in -'s, like fathers, not as genitive cases but as adjec- 
 tives. Looking to the logic of the question alone he is right, 
 and looking to the practical syntax of the question he is 
 right, also. He is only wrong on the etymological side of 
 the question. 
 
 " Nomina substantiva apud nos nullum vel generum vel casuum discrimen 
 sortiuntur." — p. 76. 
 
 "Duo sunt adjectivorum genera, a substantivis immediate descendentia, 
 quse semper substantivis suis prseponuntur. Primum quidem adjectivum 
 possessivum libet appellare. Fit autem a quo vis substantive, sive singular! 
 siveplurali, addito -s. — Ut man's nature, the nature of man, natura hnmana 
 vel hominis ; men's nature, natura liumana vel hominum ; VirgiVs poems, 
 the poems of Virgil, poemata Virgilii vel Virgiliana." — p. 89.
 
 'V^2 TllK liKLATlVK PUONOUNS. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE RELATIVE PHONOUNS. 
 
 § 522. Tin: word that, although originally, uheii u clemon- 
 strative prououn, a neuter singular, is now used as a relative 
 for all genders, and both numbers. 
 
 1. He t/iat spoke. — JMascuUne gender, 
 
 2. She that spoke. — Feminine gender. 
 
 3. Tliey that fought. — Plural number. 
 
 4. Tlic man that I struck. — Objective case. 
 
 § 523. Etymologically, which is no true neuter of toho, but 
 a compound word. It is used, however, with less latitude 
 than that. The beginning of the Lord's Prayer exhibits it 
 in combination with a masculine noun. Generally, how- 
 ever, it is confined to the neuter gender ; in which it is com- 
 mon to both numbers. 
 
 1. The dagger which stabbed Caesar. — Nominative singular. 
 
 2. The daggers which stabbed Caesar. — Nominative plural. 
 
 3. The dagger which I grasp. — Objective singular. 
 
 4. The daggers which I grasp. — Objective plural. 
 
 § 524. Which has so nearly replaced what that the general 
 use of this last word with its proper power, as a neuter 
 relative, is, in the present English, vulgar, e.g., 
 
 1. The dagger what stabbed Csesar. 
 
 2. The dagger what I grasp. 
 
 In one case, however, what is used as a true relative, viz., 
 when the antecedent is either this or that. 
 
 This is what 1 mean ; nut, tliis is which I mean. 
 Tiiat is what I mean ; not, that i.s which 1 mean.
 
 THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 423 
 
 § 525. The word as, properly a conjunction, is occasionally 
 used as a relative — the man as rides to marhet. 
 
 This expression is not to be imitated. It ought, however, 
 to be explained. As is a conjunction denoting comparison. 
 The ideas of comparison and equivalence are allied. The 
 relative is ex vl termini the equivalent, in one part of a 
 sentence, to the antecedent in another. 
 
 (1) The man — (2) wlio speaks. 
 Here who=man. 
 
 (1) As white — (2) as snow. 
 
 Here snow-white. 
 
 § 626. It is necessary that the relative be in the same 
 gender as the antecedent — the man icho — the woman who — 
 the thing which. 
 
 § 527. It is necessary that the relative be in the same num- 
 ber with the antecedent. As, however, who, which, whom, are 
 equally singular and plural, and as what, which is really 
 singular, is not used as a relative, the application of this law 
 is limited to the word whose. Now whose is, etymologically, 
 a genitive case, and a genitive case of the singular number. 
 Hence the expression the men whose daggers stabbed Ccesar can 
 only be justified by considering that the word ivhose is plural 
 as well as singular. Such is the case. If not the expression 
 is as illogical as homines cujus sico"., &c. would be in Latin. 
 
 § 528. It is not necessary for the relative to be in the same 
 case with its antecedent. 
 
 1. John, who trusts me, comes here. 
 
 2. Jolm, whom I trust, comes here. 
 
 3. John, lohose confidence I possess, comes here. 
 
 4. I trust John w/io trusts me. 
 
 § 529. The reason why the relative must agree with its 
 antecedent in both number and gender, whilst it need not 
 agree with it in case, is found in the following observations. 
 
 1. All sentences containing a relative contain two verbs — 
 John who (1) trusts me (2) comes here. 
 
 2. Two verbs express two actions — (1) trust (2) come. 
 
 3. Whilst, however, the actions are two in number, the
 
 4x'4 TUK KKLATIVIO rUONOUNS. 
 
 ])L'rs(tii i»r tliiiiy wliirli iloos, ov siiU'ers tlioin is single — 
 Jo/i II . 
 
 4. Jff (^•A(' or //) is single ex vi tenuitii. The relative 
 expresses the identity between the subjeets (or objects) of 
 the two net ions. Thus icho=John, or is another name for 
 John. 
 
 /). 'I'hings and persons tiiat are one and the same, are of 
 one and the same gender. 'YhaJohn who trusts is necessarily 
 of the same gender with the John who comes. 
 
 (). Things and persons that are one and the same, are of 
 one and the same number. The number of Johns who trust, 
 is the same as the number of Johns who come. Both these 
 elements of concord are immutable. 
 
 7. But a third element of concord is not immutable. The 
 person or thing that is an agent in the one part of the 
 sentence, may be the object of an action in the other. The 
 John whom I trust may trust me also. Hence 
 
 a. I trust John — John tlie object. 
 
 b. Joliii trusts mc— John the agent. 
 
 As the relative is only the antecedent in another forn), it 
 may change its case according to the construction. 
 
 1. I trust John — (2) John trusts me. 
 
 2. I trust John — (2) He trusts mc. 
 
 3. 1 trust John— (2) Who trusts me. 
 
 4. John trusts me — (2) I trust John. 
 
 5. John trusts me — (2) I trust him. 
 
 6. Jolui trusts me — (2) I trust whom, 
 
 7. John trusts me— (2) Whom I trust. 
 
 8. John — (2) Whom. I trust trusts me. 
 
 § 530. The hooks I xcant are here. — This is a specimen of 
 a true ellipsis. In all such phrases in full, there are three 
 essential elements. 
 
 1. The first proposition ; as the hooks are here. 
 
 2. The .second proposition ; as / want. 
 
 '.). The word which connects the two propositions, and 
 without which, they naturally make separate, independent, 
 unconnected statements. 
 
 Now, although true and unequivocal ellipses arc scarce,
 
 THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 425 
 
 the preceding is one of the most unequivocal kind — the word 
 which connects the two propositions being wanting. 
 
 § 531. One or two points connected with the construction 
 of those sentences wherein relative pronouns occur, are 
 necessary to be familiarly understood in order for us to see 
 our way clearly to certain real and apparent anomalies in the 
 syntax of this class of words. 
 
 1. Every sentence wherein a relative occurs, is complex, 
 i. e., it consists of two propositions — the man who rides is 
 come=(l) (he man is come ; (2) tvho rides. Here the relative 
 toho has no meaning in itself, but takes a meaning from the 
 noun of the preceding clause. 
 
 2. The relative is the demonstrative or personal pronoun 
 under another form. — The two propositions (1) the man is 
 come ; (2) loho rides = {\) the man is come ; (2) he rides. 
 
 3. The demonstrative or personal pronoun is the substantive 
 in another form. — The two propositions (1) the man is come ; 
 (2) he rides=^{l) the man is come ; (2) the man rides. 
 
 4. Hence the relative is the equivalent to a demonstrative 
 pronoun, or to a substantive, indifferently. 
 
 5. But the relative is the equivalent to the pronoun and 
 substantive, and something more. In sentences like 
 
 The man is come — he rides — 
 The man is come — the man rides. 
 
 The identity between the person mentioned in the two 
 propositions is implied, not expressed. This the relative 
 exp>resses ; and hence its use in languages. 
 
 6". From these observations we get a practical rule for 
 determining doubtful constructions. 
 
 a. Reduce the sentence to the several propositions (which 
 are never less than two) which it contains. 
 
 h. lleplace the relative by its equivalent personal or demon- 
 strative pronoun, or by its equivalent substantive. 
 
 c. The case of the demonstrative or substantive, is the 
 case of the relative also. 
 
 By applying this rule to such expressions as 
 
 Satan, tlian whum 
 None iiiglicr sat, tlms spake
 
 <•-'!> TlIK UKLATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 \vi> lliid (Ik'iu, accunliiip tu the current etymolociif^ incor- 
 ivct — 
 
 Siitaii spftkc — none sat liijjlicr tlian he sat. 
 
 Satan sjmke — none sat liighor tlian Satan sat. 
 
 Hence the expression should be, 
 
 Satan tlian who 
 None liiglicr sat. 
 
 Ohferve. — The words, according to the current ctymologn, 
 indicate an explanation which, rightly or wrongly, has been 
 urged in favour of expressions like the one in question, and 
 Avhich will be noticed in a future chapter. 
 
 § 532. Observe. — That three circumstances complicate the 
 syntax of the relative pronoun. 
 
 1. The elliptic form of the generality of the sentences 
 wherein it follows the word than. 
 
 2. The influence of the oblique interrogation. 
 
 3. The influence of an omitted relative. 
 
 § 533. This last finds place in the present chapter. 
 
 When the relative and antecedent are in different cases, and 
 the relative is omitted, the antecedent is sometimes put in the 
 case of the relative. 
 
 He whom I accuse has entered. 
 
 Contracted according to p. 424. 
 
 He I accuse has entered. 
 Changed, according to the present section, — 
 Him I accuse has entered. 
 
 And so (as shown by Mr. Guest, Philological Transactions), 
 Shakspeare has really written, — 
 
 Him I accuse, 
 The city gates by tliis has entered. 
 
 Coriolaims, v. 5. 
 
 liettcr leave undone, than by our deeds acquire 
 Too high a fame, when liivi we serve 's away. 
 
 Aiitoni/ and Cleopuiru, iii. 1. 
 
 The reason of this is clear. The verb that determines
 
 THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 427 
 
 the case of the relative is brought in contact with the ante- 
 cedent, and the case of the antecedent is accommodated 
 to the case of the relative. 
 
 The Greek phrase, •)(^^co^o(,i (oi(o}Joig oig iyj>)-, is an instance 
 of the converse process. 
 
 § 534. When there are two icorcls in a clause^ each capable 
 of being an antecedent, the relative refers to the latttr. 
 
 1. Solomon the son of David who slew Goliah. This is 
 unexceptionable. 
 
 2. Solomon the son of David loho built the temple. This 
 is exceptionable. 
 
 Nevertheless, it is defensible, on the supposition that Solo- 
 mon-the-son-of-David is a single many-worded name.
 
 428 Till-: INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 0\ TlIK INTEKROGATIVIO PRONOUN. 
 
 § 535, Questions are of two sorts, direct aud oblique. 
 
 Direct. — \Vho is he? 
 
 Ohlique. — Who do you say that he is? 
 
 All difficulties about the cases of the interrogative pro- 
 noun may be determined by framing an answer, and observing 
 the case of the word with which the interrogative coincides. 
 ^Vhatever be the case of this word will also be the case of 
 the interrogative. 
 
 DIRECT. 
 
 Qu. Who is this ? — Ans. I. 
 
 Qii. W/iose is tliis l — Ans. His. 
 
 Qu. W/iom do yon seek ? — Ans. Him. 
 
 OBLIQUE. 
 
 Qu. Who do you say that it is ? — Ans. He. 
 
 Qu. Whose do you say that it is ? — Ans. His. 
 
 Q'/. Who7n do you say that they seek ? — Ans- Him. 
 
 Note. — The answer should always be made by means of 
 a pronoun, as, by so doing we distinguish the accusative case 
 from the nominative. 
 
 Note. — And, if necessary, it should be made in full. Thus 
 the full answer to whom do you say that they seek I* is, / say 
 that they seek him. 
 
 § 536. Nevertheless, such expressions as whom do they say 
 that it is ? are common, especially in oblique questions. The 
 following examples are Mr. Guest's, — Philological Trans- 
 actions. 
 
 "And he axed hem and seidc, whom seieii the jicople that I am ? Thei 
 answeretlen and seidcn, Jon Baptist — and he seide to liein, But whom seien 
 ve that I am ?" — VV^hlik, J.wAe ix.
 
 THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 429 
 
 " Tell me in sadness whom she is you love." 
 
 Romeo and Juliet, i. 1. 
 
 " And as John fulfilled his course, he said, whom think ye that I am? — 
 Acts xiii. 25. 
 
 Two circumstances encourage this confusion. 1. The 
 presence of a second verb, which takes the appearance of a 
 governing verb. 2. The omission of a really oblique antece- 
 dent or relative. 3. The use of accusative for nominative 
 forms in the case of personal pronouns. 
 
 § -537. The presence of a second verb, &c. — Tell me tohom 
 she is. Here tell is made to govern whom, instead of lohom 
 being left, as w/io, to agree with she. 
 
 § 538. The omission. Sec. — Tell me lohom she is you love. 
 Here the full construction requires a second pronoun — tell 
 me loho she is whom you love ; or else, tell me her whom you 
 love. 
 
 § 539. To the question, icho is this ? many would answer 
 not /, but me. This confusion of the case in the answer 
 favours a confusion of case in the question. 
 
 It is clear that much of this reasoning applies to the rela- 
 tive powers of who, as well as to the interrogative. 
 
 But, it is possible that there may be no incorrectness 
 at all : insomuch as whom may have become a true no- 
 minative. Mr. Guest has truly remarked that such is 
 the case in the Scandinavian language, where hce-m=-who 
 = qui. 
 
 This view, if true, justifies the use of inhom after the con- 
 junctions than and as ; so that the expression, — 
 
 Satan tlian whom. 
 None higher sat, 
 
 may be right. 
 
 Nevertheless, it does not justify such expressions as — 
 
 None sit higher than ;«e. 
 None sit higher than thee. 
 None sit liigher than us. 
 None sit higher than her.
 
 l.'JO THK INTKUIUXJATIVK IMIONOUN. 
 
 The ivasoii ot' tliis is cloar. \r/io7n is .supposed to be 
 mlinis^ihle, not l)oc:iiise the sentence admits an accusative 
 case; Imt l)eeause custoni lias converted it into a nomina- 
 tive. For my own part, I douht tlie aj)plication of the 
 Danish rule to the I'^nglish language. Things may be going 
 that way. but thoy have not, as yet, gone far enough.
 
 THE RECIPROCAL CONSTRUCTION. 431 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE RECIPROCAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 § 540. In all sentences containing the statement of a re- 
 ciprocal or mutual action there are in reality two assertions, 
 viz., the assertion that A. strikes (or loves) B., and the as- 
 sertion that B. strikes (or loves) A. ; the action forming one, 
 the reaction another. Hence, if the expressions exactly 
 coincided with the fact signified, there would always be two 
 propositions. This, however, is not the habit of language. 
 Hence arises a more compendious form of expression, giving 
 origin to an elli})sis of a peculiar kind. Phrases like Eteocles 
 and Polynices hilled each other are elliptical, for Eteocles and 
 Polynices hilled — each the other. Here the second proposi- 
 tion expands and explains the first, whilst the first supplies 
 the verb to the second. Each, however, is elliptic. The 
 first is without the object, the second without the verb. That 
 the verb must be in the plural (or dual) number, that one of 
 the nouns must be in the nominative case, and that the other 
 must be objective, is self-evident from the structure of the 
 sentence ; such being the conditions of the expression of the 
 idea. An aposiopesis takes place after a plural verb, and 
 then there follows a clause wherein the verb is supplied from 
 what went before. 
 
 § 541. This is the syntax. As to the power of the words 
 each and one in the expression {each other and one another)., I 
 am not prepared to say that in the common practice of the; 
 English language there is any distinction between them. A 
 distinction, however, if it existed would give strength to our 
 language. Where two persons performed a reciprocal action 
 on another, the expression might be one another; as Eteocles 
 and Polynices hilled one another. Where more than two per-
 
 iS2 TlIK RKCIPUOCAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 sons wore onijfai,^oil on vnch side «)!' a ri't'i[)rocal action tho 
 expression might be each other; as, the ten champions praised 
 each other. 
 
 This amount of perspieuity is attained, by diti'ereut pro- 
 cesses, in the Frencli, Spanish, and Scandinavian languages. 
 
 1. French. — Ih{i.e., A. and B.) se hattaient — Fun Cautre. 
 lis (A. B. C.) sc hattaient — Ic)^ uns les autres. In Spanisli, 
 uno otro = Vun rautre, and unos otros = les uns les autres. 
 
 2. Danisli, — ///wander ^= the French l\in Vautre ; whilst 
 hverandre = les uns les autres. 
 
 The Lapplandic, and, probably other languages, have the 
 same elements of perspicuity.
 
 THE INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS, 433 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 § 542. Different nations have different methods of ex- 
 pressing indeterminate propositions. 
 
 Sometimes it is hy the use of the passive voice. This is 
 the common method in Latin and Greek, and is also current 
 in EngHsh — dicihir, Xsy&rcci, it is said. 
 
 Sometimes the verb is reflective — si dice = it says itself., 
 Itahan. 
 
 Sometimes the plural pronoun of the third person is used. 
 This also is an English locution — they say = the world at 
 large says. 
 
 Finally, the use of some word =man is a common indeter- 
 minate expression. 
 
 The word man has an indeterminate sense in the Modern 
 German ; as, man sagt = they say. 
 
 The word man was also used indeterminately in the Old 
 English, although it is not so used in the Modern. — 
 Deutsche Grammatik. 
 
 In the Old English, the form man often lost the -n, and be- 
 came me. — Deutsche Grammatik. This form is also extinct. 
 
 The present indeterminate pronoun is one ; as, one says = 
 they say = it is said = tnan sagt, German = on dit, French 
 ^ si dice, Italian. 
 
 It has been stated in p. 257, that the indeterminate pronoun 
 one has no etymological connection with the numeral one ; 
 but that it is derived from the French 07i = homme = homo 
 =man ; and that it has replaced the Old English, man or 
 me. 
 
 § 54o. Two other pronouns, or, to speak more in accord- 
 ance with the present habit of the English language, one 
 
 F F
 
 4.'H TIIK INDETERMINATK PRONOUNS. 
 
 pronoun, and one lulverb of pronominal origin are also used 
 intletorniinately viz., it and there. 
 
 § r)4i. It can bo either the subject or the predicate of a 
 sentence, — it is this, this is it, I am it^ it is I. When it is 
 the subject of a proposition, the verb necessarily agrees with 
 it, and can be of the singular number only ; no matter what 
 be the number of the predicate — it is this, it is these. 
 
 When it is tlie predicate of a proposition, the number of 
 the verb depends upon the number of the subject. These 
 points of universal syntax are mentioned here for the sake of 
 illustrating some anomalous forms. 
 
 § 545. There can only bo the predicate of a subject. It 
 difters from it in this respect. It follows also that it must 
 diiFer from it in never affecting the number of the verb. 
 This is determined by the nature of the subject — there is 
 this, there are these. 
 
 When we say there is these, the analogy between the words 
 these and it misleads us ; the expression being illogical. 
 
 Furthermore, although a predicate, there always stands in 
 the beginning of propositions, i.e., in the place of the subject. 
 This also misleads. 
 
 § 546. Although it, when the subject, being itself singular, 
 absolutely requires that its verb should be singular also, there 
 is a tendency to use it incorrectly, and to treat it as a plural. 
 Thus, in German, when the predicate is plural, the verb 
 joined to the singular form es ( = it) is plural — es sind men- 
 schen, literally translated = it are men; which, though bad 
 English, is good German.
 
 THE ARTICLES. 435 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE ARTICLES. 
 
 § 547. The rule of most practical importance about the 
 articles is the rule that determines when the article shall be 
 repeated as often as there is a fresh substantive, and when it 
 shall not. 
 
 When two or more substantives following each other de- 
 note the same object, the article precedes the first only. 
 We say the secretary and treasurer (or, a secretary and trea- 
 surer^^ when the two offices are held by one person. 
 
 When two or more substantives following each other de- 
 note different objects, the article is repeated, and precedes 
 each. We say the (or a) secretary and the (or a) treasurer^ 
 when the two offices are held by different persons. 
 
 This rule is much neglected. 
 
 F F 2
 
 43() THE NUMERALS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 THE NUMERALS. 
 
 § 548. The numeral one is naturally single. All the rest 
 are naturally plural. 
 
 Nevertheless such expressions — one two ( = one collection 
 of two), two threes { = two collections of three), are legitimate. 
 These are so because the sense of the word is changed. We 
 may talk of several ones just as we may talk of several aces ; 
 and oi' 07ie /wo just as oi one j>air. 
 
 Expressions like the thousandth-ancl-first are incorrect. 
 They mean neither one thing nor another: 1001st being 
 expressed by the thousand-and-Jirst, and 1 000th + 1 st being 
 expressed by the thousandth and the first. 
 
 Here it may be noticed that, although I never found it to 
 do so, the word odd is capable of taking an ordinal form. 
 The thousand-and-odd-th is as good an expression as the 
 thousand- and-eight-th. 
 
 The construction of phrases like the thousand- and-first 
 is the same construction as we find in the king -of- Saxony s 
 army. 
 
 § 549. It is by no means a matter of indiiFerence whether 
 we say the two first or the first tico. 
 
 The captains of two different classes at school should be 
 called the two first hoys. The first and second boys of the 
 same class should be called the first two hoys. I believe that 
 when this rule is attended to, more is due to the printer 
 than to the author : such, at least, is the case with myself.
 
 ON VERBS IN GENERAL. 437 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 ON VERBS IN GENERAL. 
 
 § 550. For the purposes of syntax it is necessary to divide 
 verbs into the five following divisions : transitive, intransitive, 
 auxiliary, substantive, and impersonal. 
 
 Transitive verbs. — In transitive verbs the action is never 
 a simple action. It always affects some object or other, — / 
 move my limbs ; I strike my enemy. The presence of a tran- 
 sitive verb implies also the presence of a noun ; which noun 
 is the name of the object affected. A transitive verb, 
 unaccompanied by a noun, either expressed or understood, 
 is a contradiction in terms. The absence of the nouns, in and 
 of itself, makes it intransitive. / move means, simply, / am 
 in a state of moving. I strike means, simply, / am in the 
 act of striking. Verbs like move and strike are naturally 
 transitive. 
 
 Intransitive verbs. — An act may take place, and yet no 
 object be affected by it. To hunger, to thirst, to sleep, to wake, 
 are verbs that indicate states of being, rather than actions 
 affecting objects. Verbs like hunger, and sleep, are naturally 
 intransitive. 
 
 Many verbs, naturally transitive, may be used as intran- 
 sitive, — e.g., I move, I strike, &c. 
 
 Many verbs, naturally intransitive, may be used as 
 transitives, — e. g., I walked the horse = I made the horse 
 walk. 
 
 This variation in the use of one and the same verb is of 
 much importance in the question of the government of verbs. 
 
 A. Transitive verbs are naturally followed by some noun 
 or other ; and that noun is always the name of something 
 affected by them as an object.
 
 4o8 ON VERHS IN CENKRAL. 
 
 n. Intransitive verbs are not naturally tolloued by any 
 noun at all ; and when they are so followed, the noun is 
 never the name of anything affected by them as an object. 
 
 Nevertheless, intransitive verbs may be followed by nouns 
 denoting the manner, degree, or instrumentality of their 
 action, — / tcalk with mr/ feet=incedo j)edihus. 
 
 § 551. The auxiliary verbs will be noticed fully in Chapter 
 XXIII. 
 
 § 552. The verb substantive has this peculiarity, viz. that 
 for all purposes of syntax it is no verb at all. / sj^eak may, 
 logically, be reduced to / am speakinri ; in which case it is 
 only the part of a verb. Etymologically, indeed, the verb 
 substantive is a verb ; inasmuch as it is inflected as such : 
 but for the purposes of construction, it is a copula only, ^.e., it 
 merely denotes the agreement or disagreement between the 
 subject and the predicate. 
 
 This does not apply to the infinitive mood. The infinitive 
 mood of the so-called verb substantive is a noun ; not, how- 
 ever, because it is a verb substantive, but because it is an 
 infinitive mood. 
 
 For the impersonal verbs see Part IV., Chapter 27.
 
 THE CONCORD OP VERBS. 439 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE CONCORD OF VERBS. 
 
 § 553. The verb must agree with its subject in person, / 
 walk^ not / walks : he walks, not he walk. 
 
 It must also agree with it in number, — we tcalk, not we 
 toalks : he toalks, not he walk. 
 
 Clear as these rules are, they require some expansion before 
 they become sufficient to solve all the doubtful points of 
 English syntax connected with the concord of the verb. 
 
 A. It is I, your master, loho command you. Query \ would 
 it is /, your master, who commands you, be correct ? This is 
 an example of a disputed point of concord in respect to the 
 person of the verb. 
 
 B. The wages of sin is death. Query ? would the wages of 
 sin are death be correct l This is an example of a disputed 
 point of concord in respect to the number of the verb. 
 
 § 554. In respect to the concord of person the following 
 rules will carry us through a portion of the difficulties. 
 
 Hule. — In sentences, where there is but one proposition, 
 when a noun and a pronoun of different persons are in apposi- 
 tion, the verb agrees with the first of them, — /, your master, 
 command you (not commands) : your master, /, commands 
 you, (not command). 
 
 To understand the nature of the difficulty, it is necessary 
 to remember that subjects may be extremely complex as well 
 as perfectly simple ; and that a complex subject may contain, 
 at one and the same time, a noun substantive and a pronoun, — 
 /, the keeper ; he, the merchant, &c. 
 
 Now all noun-substantives are naturally of the third person 
 — John speaks, the men run, the commander gives orders. 
 Consequently the verb is of the third person also.
 
 lU) TIIK CONCORD OP VERBS. 
 
 Uiit. the iiroiiDuii with wliii-li surli a noun-substantlve may 
 lu> |>1;uim1 in apposition, may be a pronoun of either person, 
 the first or second : / or thou — / the commander — tho%i the 
 commander. — In this case the construction recjuires considera- 
 tion. With wliich does the verb agree? with the substantive 
 which requires a tliird person ? or with the pronoun whidi 
 rccpiircs a fu'st or second i 
 
 Undoubtedly the idea which comes first is the leading idea; 
 and, undoubtedly, the idea which explains, qualifies, or 
 defines it, is the subordinate idea : and, undoubtedly, it is 
 the leading idea which determines the construction of the 
 verb. We may illustrate this from the analogy of a similar 
 construction in respect to number — a man toith a horse and a 
 pig meets me on the road. Here the ideas are three ; never- 
 theless the verb is singular. No addition of subordinate ele- 
 ments interferes with the construction that is determined by 
 the leading idea. In the expression /, ^our master, the ideas 
 are two ; viz. the idea expressed by /, and the idea expressed 
 by master. Nevertheless, as the one only explains or defines 
 the other, the construction is the .same as if the idea were 
 single. Your master, /, is in the same condition. The 
 general statement is made concerning the master, and it is 
 intended to say what he does. The word / merely defines the 
 expression by stating who the master is. Of the two expres- 
 sions the latter is the awkwardest. The construction, how- 
 ever, is the same for both. 
 
 From the analysis of the structure of complex subjects of 
 the kind in question, combined with a rule concerning the 
 position of the subject, which will soon be laid down, I believe 
 that, for all single propositions, the foregoing rule is absolute. 
 
 liule. — In all single propositions the verb agrees in person 
 with the noun (whether substantive or pronoun) which comes 
 first. 
 
 § 555. But the expression it is /, 9/our master, who com- 
 mand (or commands) t/ou, is not a single proposition. It is a 
 sentence containing two propositions. 
 
 1. It is 7. 
 
 2. W/io commands you.
 
 THE CONCORD OF VERBS. 44-1' 
 
 Here, the word master is, so to say, undistributed. It may 
 belong to either clause of the sentence, z.^., the whole sentence 
 may be divided into 
 
 Either — it is I your master — 
 
 Or — your master who commands you. 
 
 This is the first point to observe. The next is that the 
 verb in the second clause {command or commands) is governed, 
 not by either the personal pronoun or the substantive, but by 
 the relative, i.e.^ in the particular case before us, not by either 
 / or master., but by rclio. 
 
 And this brings us to the following question — with which 
 of the two antecedents does the relative agree i with / or with 
 master ? 
 
 This may be answered by the two following rules : — 
 
 Rule 1. — When the two antecedents are in the same pro- 
 position, the relative agrees with the first. Thus — 
 
 1. It is J your master — 
 
 2. Who command you. 
 
 Rule 2. — When the two antecedents are in different pro- 
 positions, the relative agrees with the second. Thus — 
 
 1. It is I— 
 
 2. Your master who commands you. 
 
 This, however, is not all. What determines whether the 
 two antecedents shall be in the same or in different proposi- 
 tions ? I believe that the following rules for what may be 
 called the distribution of the substantive antecedent will bear 
 criticism. 
 
 Rule 1 . That when there is any natural connection between 
 the substantive antecedent and the verb governed by the 
 relative, the antecedent belongs to the second clause. Thus, 
 in the expression just quoted, the word master is logically 
 connected with the word command ; and this fact makes the 
 expression, It is I your master who commands you the better 
 of the two. 
 
 llule 2. That when there is no natural connection between 
 the substantive antecedent and the verb governed by the
 
 M~* THK OONCOIU) (»K VKRRS. 
 
 ivlulivo, the antocedent belongs to the first cluuse. It is 7, 
 John^ who command (not commands) you. 
 
 To recapitulate, the train ot" reasoning has been as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 1. The person ot" the second verb is the person of the 
 relative. 
 
 2. The person of the relative is that of one of two 
 antecedents. 
 
 3. Of such two antecedents the relative agrees with the 
 one which stands in the same proposition with itself. 
 
 4. Which position is determined by the connection or 
 want of connection between the substantive antecedent and 
 the verb governed by the relative. 
 
 Respecting the person of the verb in the Jirst proposition 
 of a complex sentence there is no doubt. /, i/our master, 
 who commands you to make haste, am (not is) in a hurry. 
 Here, / am in a hurry is the first proposition ; who com- 
 mands you to make haste, the second. 
 
 It is not difficult to see why the construction of sentences 
 consisting of two propositions is open to an amount of lati- 
 tude which is not admissible in the construction of single 
 propositions. As long as the difterent parts of a complex 
 idea are contained within the limits of a single proposition, 
 their subordinate character is easily discerned. When, how- 
 ever, they amount to whole propositions, they take the 
 appearance of being independent members of the sentence. 
 
 § 556. The concord of numher. — It is believed that the 
 following three rules will carry us through all difficulties of 
 the kind just exhibited. 
 
 Rule 1. That the verb agrees with the subject, and with 
 nothing but the subject. The only way to justify such 
 an expression as the wages of sin is death, is to consider 
 death not as the subject, but as the predicate ; in other 
 words, to consider the construction to be, death is the wages 
 of sin. 
 
 Rule 2. That, except in the case of the word there (p. 4-34), 
 the word which comes first is always the subject, until the 
 contiary bo proved.
 
 THE CONCORD OF VERBS. 443 
 
 Rule 3. That no number of connected singular nouns can 
 govern a plural verb, unless they be connected by a copula- 
 tive conjunction. The sun and moon shine, — the sun in con- 
 junction with the moon shines. 
 
 § 557. Plural subjects with singular predicates. — The wages 
 of sin are death. — Honest men are the salt of the earth. 
 
 Singular subjects with plural predicates. — These construc- 
 tions are rarer than the preceding : inasmuch as two or more 
 persons (or things) are oftener spoken of as being equivalent 
 to one, than one person (or thing) is spoken of as being- 
 equivalent to two or more. 
 
 Sixpence is twelve halfpennies. 
 He is all head and shoulders. 
 Vulnera totus erat. 
 Tu es delicise meae. 
 
 ExTop, arap av fioi f<r(r\ TrarTyp /cat ttotvui ni^rrjp, 
 'HSe KaalyvrjTos, <tv 8e fxoi daXepos napaKoirrjs.
 
 444 TIIK GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 ON THE GOVERNMENT OP VERBS. 
 
 § 558. The government of verbs is of two sorts, (1.) 
 objective^ and (2.) modal. 
 
 It is objective where the noun which follows the verb is 
 the name of some object affected by the action of the verb, — 
 as Jie strikes me ; he wounds the enemy. 
 
 It is modal when the noun which follows the verb is not 
 the name of any object affected by the verb, but the name of 
 some object explaining the manner in which the action of 
 the verb takes place, the instrument with which it is done, the 
 end for wdiich it is done, &c. 
 
 The government of all transitive verbs is necessarily objec- 
 tive. It may also be modal, — / strike the enemy with the 
 sword =■ f trio hostem gladio. 
 
 The government of all intransitive verbs can only be modal, 
 — / walk with the stick. When we say, / walk the horse^ the 
 word walk has changed its meaning, and signifies make to 
 walk^ and is, by the very fact of its being followed by the name 
 of an object, converted from an intransitive into a transitive 
 verb. 
 
 The modal construction may also be called the adverbial 
 construction ; because the effect of the noun is akin to that of 
 an adverb, — / Jif/ht with bravery =z I Jight bravely : he walks 
 a king = he walks regally. The modal (or adverbial) con- 
 struction (or government) sometimes takes the appearance of 
 the objective : inasmuch as intransitive verbs are frequently 
 followed by a substantive ; which substantive is in the ob- 
 jective case. Nevertheless, this is no proof of government. 
 For a verb to be capable of governing an objective case, it 
 must be a verb signifying an action affecting an object : and
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 445 
 
 if there be no such object, there is no room for any objective 
 government. To hreah the sleep of the righteous, is to affect, 
 hy breaking, the sleep of the righteous : but, to sleep the sleep 
 of the righteous, is not to affect hy sleeping the sleep of the 
 righteous; since the act of sleeping is an act that affects no 
 object whatever. It is a state. We may, indeed, give it the 
 appearance of a transitive verb, as we do when we say, the 
 opiate slept the patient, meaning thereby, lulled to sleep ; but 
 the transitive character is only apparent. 
 
 To sleep the sleep of the righteous is to sleep in agreement 
 with — or according to — or after the manner of — the sleejy of the 
 righteous, and the construction is adverbial. 
 
 In the grammars of the classical languages, the following 
 rule is exceptionable — Quodvis verhum admittit accusativum 
 nominis sihi cognati. It does so ; but it governs the accu- 
 sative case not objectively but modally. 
 
 § 55.9. Modal verbs may be divided into a multiplicity of 
 divisions. Of such, it is not necessary in English to give 
 more than the following four : — 
 
 1. Appositional. — As, she walks a queen : you consider me 
 safe. The appositional construction is, in reality, a matter 
 of concord rather than of gender. It will be considered 
 more fully in the following section. 
 
 2. Traditive. — As, I give the hook to you = do lihrum tibi. 
 I teach you the lesson — ^ihd(rx,co a\ rrju ^ihccffKuktCiv. In all 
 traditive expressions there are three ideas; (1.) an agent, 
 (2.) an object, (3.) a person, or thing, to which the object is 
 made over, or transferred, by the agent. For this idea the 
 term dative is too restricted : since in Greek and some other 
 languages, both the name of the object conveyed, and the 
 name of the person to whom it is conveyed are, frequently, 
 put in the accusative case. 
 
 3. Instrumental. — As, I fght with a sword =pugno ense=- 
 feohte sweorde, — Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 4. Emphatic. — As, he sleeps the sleep of the righteous. 
 
 § 560. Verh and nominative case. — No verb governs a nomi- 
 native case. The appositional construction seems to require 
 such a form of government ; but the form is only apparent.
 
 J-^t' TIIK GOVERNMKNT OF VERBS. 
 
 It Lv I. 
 It is thuu. 
 It is lie, &0. 
 
 Hero, altliuugh the word is is follomed by a nominative 
 case, it by no means governs one — at least not as a verb. 
 
 It lias bi'i'u stated above that the so-eaHed verb substantive 
 is only a verb for the ])urj)Oses ot" etymology. In syntax, it 
 is only a part of a verb, i. e., the copula. 
 
 Now this fact changes the question of the construction in 
 expressions like it is /, &c., from a point of government to 
 one of concord. In the previous examples the words it, is, 
 and /, were, respectively, subject, copula, and predicate ; and, 
 as it is the function of the copula to denote the agreement 
 between the predicate and the subject, the real point to in- 
 vestigate is the nature of the concord between these two parts 
 of a proposition. 
 
 Now the predicate need agree with the subject in case only. 
 
 1. It has no necessary concord in gender — she is a man in 
 courage — he is a woman in effeminacy — it is a girl. 
 
 2. It has no necessary concord in number — sin is the wages 
 of death — it is these that do the mischief. 
 
 S. It has no necessary concord in person — / am Jie whom 
 you mean. 
 
 4. It has, however, a necessary concord in case. Nothing 
 but a nominative case can, by itself, constitute a terra of 
 either kind — subject or predicate. Hence, both terms must 
 be in the nominative, and, consequently, both in the same 
 case. Expressions like this is for me ?lvq Q\\\^i\Q . The logi- 
 cal expression is this is a thing for me. 
 
 Rule. — The predicate must be of the same case with its 
 subject. 
 
 Hence — The copula instead of determining'" a case ex- 
 presses a concord. 
 
 * In the first edition of tiiis worlc I wrote, " Verbs substantive govern the 
 nominative case." Upon this Mr. Connon, in his "System of Englisli 
 Grammar," remarks, " The idea of the iiovdnative being governed is con- 
 trary to all received notions of grammar. 1 consider that the verb to be, in 
 all its parts, acts merely as a connective, and can have no eifcct in govern-
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 447 
 
 Bute ] . — All words connected with a nominative case by 
 the copula (i.e., the so-called verb-substantive) must be nomi- 
 native, — It is I ; I am safe. 
 
 Rule 2. — All words in apposition with a word so connected 
 must be nominative. — It is difficult to illustrate this from the 
 English language from our want of inflexions. In Latin, 
 however, we say vocor Johannes =: / am called John, not vocor 
 Johannem. Here the logical equivalent is ego sum vocatus 
 Johannes — where — ■ 
 
 1. Ego, is nominative because it is the subject. 
 
 2. Foca^zfs is nominative because it is the predicate agree- 
 ing with the subject. 
 
 8. Johannes, is nominative because it is part of the predi- 
 cate, and in apposition with vocatus. 
 
 N.B. Although in precise language Johannes is said to agree 
 with vocatus rather than to be in apposition with it, the ex- 
 pression, as it stands, is correct. Apposition is the agreement 
 of substantives, agreement the apposition of adjectives. 
 
 Bule 3. — All verbs which, when resolved into a copula 
 and participle, have their participle in apposition (or agreeing) 
 with the noun, are in the same condition as simple copulas — 
 she walks a queen — she is walking a queen — ilia est incedens 
 regina. 
 
 Rule 4. — The construction of a subject and copula preceded 
 by the conjunction that, is the same in respect to the predi- 
 cate by which they are followed as if the sentence were an 
 isolated proposition. 
 
 This rule determines the propriety of the expression — / 
 believe that it is he as opposed to the expression / believe that 
 it is him. 
 
 I believe = I am believing, and forms one proposition. 
 
 It is he, forms a second. 
 
 That, connects the two ; but belongs to neither. 
 
 ing anything." Of Mr. Connon's two reasons, the second is so sufficient 
 that it ought to have stood alone. Tlie true view of the so-called verb sub- 
 stantive is that it is no verb at all, but only the fraction of one. Hence, what 
 I wrote was inaccurate. As to the question of the impropriety of consider- 
 ing nominative cases fit subjects for government it is a matter of definition.
 
 448 THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 Now, as the rolation hotwccn the subject and predicate of 
 a jiroposition cannot be affected by a word which does not 
 bchiiio- to it, the construction is the same as if the proposi- 
 tions wore wholly separate. 
 
 N.13. 'I'he question (in cases where the conjunction that is 
 not used), as to the greater propriety of the two expressions 
 — / believe it to bo him — I believe it to be he — has yet to be 
 considered. 
 
 § 561. The verb and penitive case. — No verb in the pre- 
 sent English governs a genitive case. In Anglo-Saxon cer- 
 tain verbs did : e.g., verbs of ruling and others — tceolde thises 
 middangeardes =^ he rided (tcealded) this earth'' s. Genitive 
 cases, too, governed by a verb are common both in Latin and 
 Greek. To eat of the fruit of the tree is no genitive construc- 
 tion, however much it may be equivalent to one. Fruit is in 
 the objective case, and is governed not by the verb but by the 
 preposition of 
 
 § 562. The verb and accusative. — All transitive verbs govern 
 an accusative case, — he strikes me., thee., him, her, it, us, you, 
 them. 
 
 The verb and dative case. — The word give, and a few 
 others, govern a dative case. Phrases like give it him, 
 whom shall I give it, are perfectly correct, and have been 
 explained above. The prepositional construction give it to 
 him, — to whom shall I give it ? is unnecessary. The evidence 
 of this is the same as in the construction of the adjective like. 
 
 § 563. The partitive construction. — Certain transitive verbs, 
 the action whereof is extended not to the whole, but only to 
 a part of their object, are followed by the preposition of and 
 an objective case. To eat of the fruit of the tree = to eat a 
 part (or some) of the fruit of the tree : to drink of the water of 
 the well = to drink a part (or some) of the water of the well. 
 It is not necessary, here, to suppose the ellipsis of the words 
 part (or some). The construction is a construction that has 
 grown out of the partitive power of the genitive ease ; for 
 which case the pre{)osition of followed by the objective, serves 
 as an equivalent. 
 
 § 564. It has been already stated that forms like / believe
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 449 
 
 it to he Mm, and forms like / helieve it to be he, had not been 
 investigated. Of these, the former is, logically, correct. 
 
 Here, the word, to be, is, in respect to its power, a noun. 
 
 As such, it is in the accusative case after the verb believe. 
 
 With this accusative infinitive, it agrees, as being part of 
 the same complex idea. And him does the same. 
 
 In English we have two methods of expressing one idea ; 
 the method in question, and the method by means of the con- 
 junction, that. 
 
 1. I believe it to be him. 
 
 2. I believe that it is he. 
 
 In the first example, it is the object ; and it-to-be-him forms 
 one complex term. 
 
 In the second, he agrees with it ; and it is the subject of a 
 separate, though connected, proposition. 
 
 Of these two forms the Latin language adopts but one, mz., 
 the former, — credo euni esse, not credo quod illiid est ille. 
 
 § 565. The expression ob difFerentiam. — The classical lan- 
 guages, although having but one of the two previous forms, 
 are enabled to effect a variation in the application of it, which, 
 although perhaps illogical, is convenient. When the speaker 
 means himself, the noun that follows, esse, or zivui, is nomina- 
 tive, — (p^^Jjl ihui })i(T'7rorr,g = / say that I am the master : ait 
 fuisse celerrimns=^he says that he himself teas the swiftest — but, 
 <pri\JA sheet ^ity^orrjv = I say that he (some one else) is the mas- 
 ter ; and ait fuisse celerrimum^=he says that he (some one 
 else) is the swiftest. This, though not adopted in English, is 
 capable of being adopted, — He believes it to be he (^. e., the 
 speaker) icho invented the machine ; but, he believes it to be him 
 (that is, another person) who invented it. 
 
 § 5(jG. When the substantive infinitive, tobe, is preceded by 
 a passive participle, combined with the verb substantive, the 
 construction is nominative, — it is believed to be he loho 
 spoke, not it is believed to be him. — Here there are two pro- 
 positions : 
 
 1. It is believed. — 
 
 2. Who spoke.
 
 4'5l) TIIV; COVKHNMKNT OF VKUUS. 
 
 Now, lioro, it is tlio snhjoct, and, as sucli, nominative. Hut it 
 is also the 0(]uIvalent to to be /it', which nuist bo nominative as 
 well. Tit be he is believed ■= esse-ille creditur, — or, changing 
 the moilo ot" proof, — 
 
 1. 7/ Is the suhjoct and nominative. 
 
 2. Believed is part of the j)redicate ; and, consequently, 
 nominative also. 
 
 3. To be he Is a subordinate part of the predicate, in appo- 
 sition with believed — est creditum, nempe entitas ejus. Or, to 
 be he is believed = ess0-ille est creditum. 
 
 As a general expression for the syntax of copulas and aj)po- 
 sltional constructions, the current rule, that copulas and apim- 
 sitional verbs must be followed by the same case by loliicli they 
 are preceded^ stands good.
 
 ON THE PARTICIPLES. 451 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 ON THE PARTICIPLES. 
 
 § 567. The present participle, or the participle in -ing, 
 must be considered in respect to its relations with the substan- 
 tive in -inp. Dying-day is, probably, no more a participle 
 than morning-wane. In respect to the syntax of such expres- 
 sions as the forthcoming, I consider that they are eitlier parti- 
 ciples or substantives. 
 
 1. When substantives, they are in regimen, and govern a 
 genitive case — What is the meaning of the ladys holding up 
 her train 9 Here the word holding = the act of holding. — 
 Quid est significatio elevationis palla de parte fmmince. 
 
 2. When participles, they are in apposition or concord, 
 and would, if inflected, appear in the same case with the sub- 
 stantive, or pronoun, preceding them — What is the meaning 
 of the lady holding up her train? Here the word holding = in 
 the act of holding., and answers to the Latin foemina. elevantis. 
 — Quid est signijicatio fcemina elevantis pallam ? 
 
 For the extent to which the view differs from that of 
 Priestley, and still more with that of Mr. Guest, see Phil. 
 Trans., 25. 
 
 § 568. The past participle corresponds not with the Greek 
 form TVTrro^jjZvog, but with the form rirv^jj^Avog. I am heaten 
 is essentially a combination, expressive not of present but of 
 past time, just like the Latin sum verheratus. Its Greek 
 equivalent is not z^m rvTrroiMvog = / am a man in the act of 
 being heaten, but e/^y// riru[jj[jAvog = I am a man who has been 
 beaten. It is past in respect to the action, though present 
 in respect to the state brought about by the action. This 
 essentially past element in the so-called present expression, / 
 am heaten, will be again referred to. 
 
 O G 2
 
 +r)2 ON THE IMOODS. 
 
 CHAPTER XTX. 
 
 ON TIIK MOODS. 
 
 § 569. TiiR infinitive mood is a noun. The current rule 
 tliat when two verbs come together the latter is •placed in the in- 
 finitive mood means that one verb can govern another only by 
 converting it into a noun — I begin to move = I begin the act of 
 moving. Verbs, as verbs, can only come together in the way 
 of apposition — I irritate, I beat, I talk at him, I call him 
 names, &c. 
 
 § 570. The construction, however, of English infinitives is 
 twofold. (1.) Objective. (2.) Gerundial. 
 
 When one verb is followed by another without the prepo- 
 sition to, the construction must be considered to have grown 
 out of the objective case, or from the form in -an. 
 
 This is the case with the following words, and, probably, 
 with others. 
 
 I may go, not I may to go. 
 
 I might go, — I might to go. 
 
 I can move, — I can to move. 
 
 I could move, — I could to move, 
 
 I will speak, — I will to speak. 
 I would speak, — I would to speak. 
 
 I shall wait, — I shall to wait. 
 
 I should wait, — I should to wait. 
 
 Let me go, — Let me to go. 
 
 He let me go, — He let me to go. 
 
 I do speak, — I do <o speak. 
 
 I did speak, — I did to speak. 
 
 I dare go, — I dare to go. 
 
 I durst go, — I durst to go. 
 
 Thou shalt not see thy hrotlicr's ox or his ass fall down by the way. 
 We heard liim sai/ I will destroy the temple.
 
 ON THE MOODS. 453 
 
 IJeet the pain abate. 
 
 He hid her alight. 
 
 I would fain have any one name to me that tongue that any one can speak 
 as he should do by the rules of grammar. 
 
 This, in the present English, is the rarer of the two con- 
 structions. 
 
 When a verb is followed by another, preceded by the 
 preposition to^ the construction must be considered to have 
 grown out of the so-called gerund, i. e., the form in -nne, i. e., 
 the dative case — / beffiti to move. This is the case with the 
 great majority of English verbs. 
 
 The following examples, from the Old English, of the gerun- 
 dial construction where we have, at present, the objective, are 
 Mr. Guest's. 
 
 1. Eilrid mt/ght nought to stand {^am ageyn. 
 
 R. Br. 
 
 2. Whether feith schall mowe to save him ? 
 
 WicLiF, James ii. 
 
 3. My woful child what flight maist thou to take ? 
 
 HiGGiNS, Lady Sabrine, 4. 
 
 4. Never to rctourne no more, 
 
 Except he would his life to loose therfore. 
 
 HiGGiNS, King Albunaet, 6. 
 
 5. He said he could not to forsake my love. 
 
 HiGGiNS, Queen Elstride, 20. 
 
 6. The mayster lette X men and mo 
 Jh wende. 
 
 Octavian, 381. 
 
 7. And though we owe the fall of Troy requite. 
 Yet let revenge thereof from gods to lighte. 
 
 HiGGiNS, King Albunaet, IG. 
 
 8. I durst, my lord, to wager she is honest. 
 
 Othello, iv. 2. 
 
 1). VVIioni, when on ground, she grovelling saw to roll, 
 She ran in haste, &c. 
 
 F. Q. iv. 7, 32.
 
 451 ON THE MOODS. 
 
 §671. Iinporatives liave three peculiarities. (1.) They tan 
 only, in Enyhsh, be tisiul in the second person : (2.) Tliey 
 take pronouns allor, insteail of before, them : (3.) They often 
 omit the jirououn altoi,'ether. 
 
 § 572. For tlie syntax of subjunctives, sec the Chapter on 
 Conjunctions.
 
 ON THE TENSES. 455 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 ON THE TENSES. 
 
 § 573. Notwithstanding its name, the present tense in 
 English, does not express a strictly present action. It rather 
 expresses an habitual one. He speaks tcell — he is a good 
 speaker. Tf a man means to say that he is in the act of 
 speaking-, he says / am speaking. 
 
 It has also, especially when combined with a subjunctive 
 mood, a future power — / leat you ( = / will heat you) if you 
 (lout leave off. 
 
 § 574. The English prseterite is the equivalent, not to the 
 Greek perfect but the Greek aorist. / heat='irv'>^a, not 
 TiTu(pu. The true i3erfect is expressed, in English, by the 
 auxiliary have + the past participle.
 
 456 SYNTAX OF TlIK 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE PERSONS OF VERBS. 
 
 § 675. Foil the impersonal verbs see Part IV. Chapter 
 27. 
 
 § 576. The concord of persons. — A difficulty that occurs 
 frequently in the Latin language is rare in English. In ex- 
 pressions like ego et ille followed by a verb, there arises a 
 question as to the person in which that verb should be used. 
 Is it to be in the first person in order to agree with ego, or 
 in the third in order to agree with ille ? For the sake of 
 laying down a rule upon these and similar points, the classi- 
 cal grammarians arrange the persons (as they do the genders) 
 according to their dignity^ making the verb (or adjective if 
 it be a question of gender) agree with the most worthy. In 
 respect to persons, the first is more worthy than the second, 
 and the second more worthy than the third. Hence, the 
 Latins said — 
 
 Ego et Balbus sustuliinus uiaiius. 
 Tu et Balbm siislulistis manus. 
 
 Now, in English, the plural form is the same for all three 
 persons. Hence we say / and you are friends, you and I 
 are friends, I and he are friends, &c., so that, for the prac- 
 tice of language, the question as to the relative dignity of the 
 three persons is a matter of indifference. 
 
 Nevertheless, it may occur even in English. Whenever 
 two or more pronouns of different persons, and of the singu- 
 lar number, follow each other disjunctively, the question of 
 concord arises. / or you, — you or he, — he or I. I believe 
 that, in these cases, the rule is as follows : — 
 
 1. Whenever the words either or neither precede the pro-
 
 PERSONS OF VERBS. 457 
 
 nouns, the verb is in the third person. Either you or I is 
 in the lorong ; neither you nor I is iri the wrona. 
 
 2. Whenever the disjunctive is simple (i. e. unaccompanied 
 with the word either or neither) the verb agrees with the Jirst 
 of the two pronouns. 
 
 I or he am in the wrong. 
 He or I is in the wrong. 
 Thou or he art in the wrong. 
 He or thou is in the wrong. 
 
 The reasons for these rules will appear in the Chapter on 
 Conjunctions. 
 
 Now, provided that they are correct, it is clear that the 
 English language knows nothing about the relative degrees 
 of dignity between these three pronouns ; since its habit is 
 to make the verb agree with the one which is placed first — 
 whatever may be the person. I am strongly inclined to be- 
 lieve that the same is the case in Latin ; in which case (in 
 the sentence ego et Balhus sustulimus nianus) sustuUmus agrees, 
 in person, with epo, not because the first person is the wor- 
 thiest, but because it comes first in the proposition. That 
 the greater supposed worth of the first person may be a rea- 
 son for putting it first in the proposition is likely enough.
 
 458 TIIK VOICES OK VERBS. 
 
 cijai*ti<:r XXII. 
 
 ON TUK VOICES OV VERDS. 
 
 § 577. In English there is neither a passive nor a middle 
 voice. 
 
 The following coui)let from Dryden's " Mac Flecnoe " ex- 
 hibits a construction which requires explanation : — 
 
 An ancient fabric, raised to'inform the sight, 
 There stood of yore, and Barbican it higlit. 
 
 Here the word hi(jht=^was called^ and seems to present 
 an instance of the participle being used in a passive sense 
 without the so-called verb substantive. Yet it does no such 
 thing. The word is no participle at all ; but a simple pre- 
 terite. Certain verbs are naturally either passive or active, 
 as one of two allied meanings may predominate. To he called 
 is passive ; so is, to he heaten. 13ut, to hear as a name is ac- 
 tive ; so is, to taJce a heating. The word, Mght, is of the same 
 class of verbs with the Latin vapulo ; and it is the same as 
 the Latin word, duo. — Barhican cluit = Barhican audivit = 
 Barhican it /tight.
 
 THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 459 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 ON THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 § 578. The auxiliary verbs, in English, play a most im- 
 portant part in the syntax of the language. They may be 
 classified upon a variety of principles. The following, how- 
 ever, are all that need here be applied. 
 
 A. Classification of auxiliaries according to their inflectional 
 or non-injlectional poioers. — Inflectional auxiliaries are those 
 that may either replace or be replaced by an inflection. 
 Thus — / am strucJc = the Latin ferior, and the Greek TV'zro- 
 iMUi. These auxiliaries are in the same relation to verbs that 
 prepositions are to nouns. The inflectional auxiliaries are, — 
 
 1 . Have ; equivalent to an inflection in the way of tense 
 — / Jiam bitten = mo-mordi. 
 
 2. Shall; ditto. I shall call =voc-aho. 
 
 3. Will; ditto. I ii:iU call = voc-abo. 
 
 4. Ma?/ ; equivalent to an inflection in the way of mood. 
 / am come that I may see = venio ut vid-eam. 
 
 5. Be ; equivalent to an inflection in the way of voice. 
 To he beaten = verberari, rv'Tmadoii. 
 
 6. Am, art, is, are ; ditto. Also equivalent to an inflec- 
 tion in the way of tense. / am moving = move-o. 
 
 7. Was, were; ditto, ditto. I was beaten = l-Tv(p&r]v. I 
 was moving = move-bam. 
 
 Do, can, must, and Ut, are non-inflectional auxiliaries. 
 
 13. Classification of auxiliaries according to their non-auxi- 
 liary significations. — The power of the word have in the 
 combination of/ have a horse is clear enough. It means pos- 
 session. The i)0vver of the same word in the combination / 
 have been is not so clear ; nevertheless it is a power which 
 has grown out of the idea of possession. This shows that
 
 4()() TllK Al'XILIARY VKRIiS. 
 
 the power of a veil) as an auxiliary may be a inodification 
 of its original power ; i. e., of the power it has in non-auxili- 
 ary eonstruetions. Sometimes the diflerenco is very little: 
 the word let, in let us (/o, has its natural sense of permission 
 unimpaired. Sometimes it is lost altogether. Can and may 
 exist only as auxiliaries. 
 
 1. Auxiliary derived from the idea of possession — have. 
 
 2. Auxiliaries derived from the idea of existence — be, is, 
 teas. 
 
 S. Auxiliary derived from the idea of future destination, 
 dependent upon circumstances external to the agent — shall. 
 There are etymological reasons for believing that shall is no 
 present tense, but a perfect. 
 
 4. Auxiliary derived from the idea of future destination, 
 dependent upon the volition of the agent — toill. Shall 
 is simply predictive; ^oill is predictive and promissive as 
 well. 
 
 5. Auxiliary derived from the idea of power, dependent 
 upon circumstances external to the agent — niai/. 
 
 6. Auxiliary derived from the idea of power, dependent 
 upon circumstances internal to the agent — can. May is 
 simply permissive ; can is potential. In respect to the idea 
 of power residing in the agent being the cause which deter- 
 mines a contingent action, can is in the same relation to may 
 as will is to shall. 
 
 " May et can, cum coruni prfctcritis imperfectis, might ct could, potcntiaui 
 innuunt : cum hoc tamcn discrimine : may et might vcl do jure vel saltern 
 de rei possibilitate dicuntur, at can et could de viribus agcntis." — Wallis, 
 p. 107. 
 
 7. Auxiliary derived from the idea of sufferance — let. 
 
 8. Auxiliary derived from the idea of necessity — must. 
 
 " Must necessitatem innuit. Debeo, oportct, necesse est urerc, I munt 
 burn. Aliquando sed rarius in praeterito dicitur must (quasi ex must^d seu 
 musVt contractum). Sic, si de praetcrito dicatur, he must (seu mustH) be 
 burnt, oportebat uri seu necesse habuit ut urcretur." — Wallis, 107. 
 
 9. Auxiliary derived from the idea of action — do. 
 
 C. Classification of auxiliary verbs in respect to their mode
 
 THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 461 
 
 of construction. — Auxiliary verbs combine with others in three 
 ways. 
 
 1. With pai'ticiples. — a) With the present, or active, par- 
 ticiple — I am speaking : h) With the past, or passive, parti- 
 ciple — / am heaten^ I have beaten. 
 
 2. With hifinitives. — a) With the objective infinitive — 
 / can speaJc : h) With the genindial infinitive — / have to 
 s'peali. 
 
 3. With both infinitives and participles. — / shall have done, 
 I mean to have done. 
 
 D. Auxiliary verbs may be classified according to their 
 effect. — Thus — have makes the combination in which it ap- 
 pears equivalent to a tense ; i^ to a passive form ; may to a 
 sign of mood, &c. 
 
 This sketch of the different lights under which auxiliaiy 
 verbs may be viewed, has been written for the sake of illus- 
 trating, rather than exhausting, the subject. 
 
 § 579. The following is an exhibition of some of the times 
 in which an action may take place, as found in either the 
 English or other languages, expressed by the use of either an 
 inflection or a combination. 
 
 Time considered in one point only — 
 
 1 . Present. — An action taking place at the time of speak- 
 ing, and incomplete. — / am beating, I am being beaten. Not 
 expressed, in English, by the simple present tense ; since / 
 beat means / am in the habit of beating. 
 
 2. Aorist. — An action that took place in past time, or pre- 
 vious to the time of speaking, and which has no connection 
 with the time of speaking. — / struck, I was stricken. Ex- 
 pressed, in English, by the prseterite, in Greek by the aorist. 
 The term aorist, from the Greek k-o^isrog — undefined, is a 
 convenient name for this sort of time. 
 
 3. Future. — An action that has neither taken place, nor is 
 taking place at the time of speaking, but which is stated as 
 one which will take place. — Expressed, in English, by the 
 combination of will or shall with an infinitive mood. In 
 Latin and Greek by an inflection. / shall (or will) speak, 
 XiK-au, dica-m.
 
 H5:>? TlIK Al'XlMAKY VKRliS. 
 
 Noiio of those oxprossions imply more titan .1 sino-lo action ; 
 in other worils, they have no relation to any second action 
 occurring simultaneously with them, before them, or after 
 them. — / am speaking note, I spoke yesterday/, I shall speak 
 tomorrow. Of course, the act of mentioning them is not 
 consiilered as an action related to them in the sense here 
 meant. 
 
 ]3y considering past, present, or future actions not only by 
 themselves, but as related to other past, present, or future 
 actions, we get fresh varieties of expression. Thus, an act 
 may have been going on, when some other act, itself an act 
 of past time, interrupted it. Here the action agrees with a 
 present action, in being incomplete ; but it differs from it in 
 having been rendered incomplete by an action that has past. 
 This is exactly the case with the — 
 
 4. Imperfect. — / was reading token he entered. Here we 
 have two acts ; the act of reading and the act of entering. 
 Both are past as regards the time of speaking, but both are 
 present as regards each other. This is expressed, in English, 
 by the past tense of the verb substantive and the present 
 participle, / tnas sjyeaking ; and in Latin and Greek by the 
 imperfect tense, dicebam, trvTrrov. 
 
 5. Perfect. — Action past, but connected with the present 
 by its effects or consequences. — / have written, and here is 
 the letter. Expressed in English by the auxiliary verb have, 
 followed by the participle passive in the accusative case and 
 neuter gender of the singular number. The Greek ex- 
 presses this by the reduplicate perfect : rs-rupcc = I have 
 beaten. 
 
 6. Pluperfect. — Action past, but connected with a second 
 action, subsequent to it, ichich is also past. — / had written 
 when he came in. 
 
 7. Future jrresent. — Action future as regards the time of 
 speaking, present as regards some future time. — / shall be 
 speaking about this time to-morrow. 
 
 8. Future preterite. — Action future as regards the time of 
 speaking, past as regards some future time. — I shall have 
 spoken by this time to-morrow.
 
 THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 4f)3 
 
 These ai-e the chief expressions which are simply deter- 
 mined by the relations of actions to each other, and to the 
 time of speaking, either in the English or any other language. 
 But over and above the simple idea of time, there may be 
 others superadded : thus, the jihrase, / do speak means, not 
 only that / am in the habit of speaking, but that I also insist 
 upon it being understood that I am so. 
 
 Again, an action that is mentioned as either taking place, 
 or as having taken place at a given time, may take place 
 again and again. Hence the idea of habit may arise out of 
 the idea of either present time or aorist time. 
 
 a. In English, the present form expresses habit. See 
 p. 455. 
 
 (B. In Greek the aorist expresses habit. 
 
 Again, one tense, or one combination, may be used for 
 another. / was speaking when he enters. 
 
 The results of these facts may now be noticed : 
 
 1. The emphatic present and praferite. — Expressed by do 
 (or did), as stated above. A man says I do (or did) speak, 
 read, &c., when, either directly or by implication, it is 
 asserted or implied that he does not. As a question implies 
 doubt, do is used in interrogations. 
 
 " Do et did iudicant cmphatice tcmpus prsesens, et prseteritum impcr- 
 fectum. Uro, urebam ; I burn, I burned: vel (cmphatice) I do burn, I did 
 burnr — Wallis, p. 106. 
 
 2. The predictive future. — / shall he there to-morrow. This 
 means simply that the speaker will be present. It gives no 
 clue to the circumstances that will determine his beinof so. 
 
 3. The promissive future. — / will be there to-morrow. — This 
 means not only that the speaker will be present, but that he 
 intends being so. For further observations on shall and loill, 
 see pp. 471 — 474. 
 
 4. That the power of the present tense is, in English, not 
 present, but habitual, has already been twice stated. 
 
 § 580. The representative expression of past and future 
 time. — An action may be past; yet, for the sake of bringing 
 it more vividly before the hearers, we may make it present.
 
 I(!l' TIIH AUXILIARY VERl^S. 
 
 He iraf^s (for inrUed) itp to hhn^ and hioch (for hiocled) 
 him down. This denotes a single action ; and is by no means 
 the natural habitual power of the English present. So, in 
 resjiect to a future, / heat you if you dont leave off., for I icUl 
 heat you. This use of the present tense is sometimes called 
 the historic use of the present tense. I find it more conve- 
 nient to call it the representative use ; inasmuch as it is used 
 more after the principles of painting than of history ; the 
 former of which, necessarily, represents things as present, the 
 latter, more naturally, describes them as past. 
 
 The use of the representative present to express simple ac- 
 tions is unequivocally correct. To the expression, however, 
 of complex actions it gives an illogical character, — As I teas 
 doing this he enters (for entered). Nevertheless, such a use of 
 the present is a fact in language, and we must take it 
 as it occurs. 
 
 § 581. The present tense can be used instead of the fu- 
 ture ; and that on the principle of representation. Can- a 
 future be used for a present I No. 
 
 The present tense can be used instead of the aorist ; and 
 that on the principle of representation. Can a past tense, or 
 combination, be used for a present I 
 
 In respect to the perfect tense there is no doubt. The 
 answer is in the affirmative. For all purposes of syntax a 
 perfect tense, or a combination equivalent to one, is a present 
 tense. Contrast the expression, / come that I may see ; with 
 the expression, / ca77ie that I might see ; i. e., the present 
 construction with the aorist. Then, bring in the perfect con- 
 struction, / have come. It differs with the aorist, and agrees 
 with the present. / have come that I may see. The reason 
 for this is clear. There is not only a present element in all 
 perfects, but for the purposes of syntax, the present element 
 predominates. Hence expressions like I shall go, need give 
 us no trouble ; even though shall be considered as a perfect 
 tense. Suppose the root, sk-ll to mean to be destined (or 
 fated). Provided we consider the effects of the action to be 
 continued up to the time of speaking, we may say /have been 
 destined to go, just as well as we can say / am destined to go.
 
 THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 46,) 
 
 The use of the aorist as a present (except so far as both 
 tlie tenses agree in their power of expressing habitual actions) 
 is a more difficult investigation. It bears upon such ex- 
 pressions as / ought to go, &c., and will be taken up in 
 §475. 
 
 § 582. Certain adverbs, i. e., those of time, require certain 
 tenses. / am then, I was now, I loas hereafter, &c., are con- 
 tradictory expressions. They are not so much bad gram- 
 mar as impossible nonsense. Nevertheless, we have in Latin 
 such expressions as 
 
 " Vt sumns in ponto ter frigore constitit Ister." 
 
 Here the connection of the present and perfect ideas ex- 
 plains the apparent contradiction. The present state may 
 be the result of a previous one ; so that a preterite element 
 may be involved in a present expression. Ut siimus^= since 
 I have leen ivhere I am. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to remark that such expressions as 
 since I am here (where since = inasmuch as) do not come 
 under this class. 
 
 § 583. Two fresh varieties in the use of tenses and auxili- 
 ary verbs may be arrived at by considering the following 
 ideas, which may be superadded to that of simple time. 
 
 1. Continuance in the case of future actions. — A future action 
 may not only take place, but continue : thus, a man may, on 
 a given day, not only be called by a particular name, but 
 may keei? that name. When Hesiod says that, notwithstand- 
 ing certain changes which shall have taken place, good shall 
 continue to be mixed with bad, he does not say, ladXa, 
 ^iy^&Tiairai aayjjiaiv, but, 
 
 'AXX' efxnrjs Koi to'ktl nffii^erai eaBXa KaKoiaiv. 
 
 Opera et Dies. 
 
 Again, — 
 
 'EneiO o TToXtV/js evredels ev Karakoyo} 
 Ov8f\s Kara (nrovbas fifT(yypa(Pi]<7(Tai, 
 AXX oanfp jjv to npa>TiJv eyyeypuip-eTai. 
 
 AiusToi'H. Equitcs, 1366. 
 H H
 
 •!•()() Till-: AUXlLIAin' VKItHS. 
 
 Here ^iTiyyDa(pr,(JiTat moans channe from one class to an- 
 of/wr, iyyiycuypirai continuance in the same. — See Matliiae, 
 ii. § 4i)8. 
 
 Upon tlio linos, — 
 
 06€V npOi (lubpav VUTtpUlV K(K\lj(T(Tai 
 Aovpcior ITTTTOS". 
 
 Trtiudcs, 13, 14. 
 
 Seidlor remarks that, KXridrjasrctt, est nomen accipiet ; xsxAr]- 
 ffsrai, nomen geret. 
 
 Now it is quite true that this Greek tense, the so-called 
 2)aido-i)ost-futiirum, " bears the same relation to the other 
 futures as, among the tenses of past time, the perfectum does 
 to the aorist." — (Mathiae.) And it is also true that it by no 
 means answers to the English sliall ham been. Yet the losfi- 
 cal elements of both are the same. In the English expres- 
 sion, the past power of the perfect predominates, in the 
 Greek its j^resent power. 
 
 . 2. Habit in the case of past actions. — / had dined when I 
 rode out. This may apply to a pai'ticular dinner, followed 
 by a particular ride. But it may also mean that when the 
 speaker had dined, according to habit, he rode out, according to 
 habit also. This gives us a variety of pluperfect ; which is, 
 in the French language, represented by separate combina- 
 tion — javais dine, feus dine. 
 
 § 584, It is necessary to remember that the connection be- 
 tween the present and the past time, which is involved in 
 the idea of a perfect tense (rsry^a), or perfect combination 
 {I Jiave beaten), is of several sorts. 
 
 It may consist in the j^^^sent proof of the ^;as< fact, — / 
 have written, and here is the evidence. 
 
 It may consist in the present ejects of the past fact, — / 
 have written, and here is the answer. 
 
 Without cither enumerating or classifying these different 
 kinds of connexion, it is necessary to indicate two sorts of 
 inference to which they may give origin. 
 
 1. Tfie inference of continuance. — When a person says, / 
 have learned my lesson, we presume that he can say it, i. e., 
 that, he has a present knowledge of it. Upon this principle
 
 THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 467 
 
 KiKr^^(x,i=^ I have earned =■ I possess. The past action is 
 assumed to be continued in its effects. 
 
 2. The inference of contrast. — When a person says, / 
 have been i/oung, we presume that he is so no longer. The 
 action is j^ast, but it is continued up to the time of speaking 
 by the contrast which it supplies. Upon this principle, /wiV 
 Ilium means Ilium is no more. 
 
 In speaking, this difference can l)e expressed by a differ- 
 ence of accent. / have learned my lesson., implies that / 
 dovbt mean to learn it again. I have learned my lesson, im- 
 plies that / can say it. 
 
 § .585. The construction of the auxiliary, may, will be con- 
 sidered in the Chapter on Conjunctions ; that of can, must, 
 and let, offer nothing remarkable. The combination of the 
 auxiliary, have, with the past participle requires notice. It 
 is, here, advisable to make the following classifications. 
 
 1. The combination with the participle of a transitive verb. 
 — / have ridden the horse ; thou hast broken the sword ,• he has 
 smitten the enemy. 
 
 2. The combination with the participle of an intransitive 
 verb, — / have waited ; thou hast hungered ; he has slept. 
 
 8. The combination with the participle of the verb sub- 
 stantive, — / have been ; thou hast been ; he has been. 
 
 It is by examples of the first of these three divisions that 
 the true construction is to be shown. 
 
 For an object of any sort to be in the possession of a per- 
 son, it must previously have existed. If I possess a horse, 
 that horse must have had a previous existence. 
 
 Hence, in all expressions like / have ridden a horse, there 
 are two ideas, a past idea in the participle, and a present idea 
 in the word denoting possession. 
 
 For an object of any sort, affected in a particular manner, 
 to be in the possession of a person, it must previously have 
 been affected in the manner required. If I possess a horse 
 that has been ridden, the riding must have taken place before 
 I mention the fact of the ridden horse being in my posses- 
 sion ; inasmuch as I speak of it as a thing already done, — 
 the participle, ridden, being in the past tense. 
 
 H n 2
 
 46'8 TIIK Al'XlIilAUY VERBS. 
 
 I have r'uhhni a horse = I have a horse ridden = I have a 
 horse as a ridden horse, or (clianging the gender and dealing 
 with the wonl ho/'se as a thiiiii) = 7 have a horse as a ridden 
 thing. 
 
 In this case the syntax is of the usual sort. (I) Have 
 = oicn = hali'o^teneo ; (-) horse is the accusative case = 
 iquum ; (o) ridden is a past participle agreeing either with 
 horse, or with a word in apposition with it understood, 
 
 ■Mark the words in italics. The word ridden does not 
 agree with horse, since it is of the neuter gender. Neither if 
 w^e said / have ridden the horses, would it agree witli horses; 
 since it is of the singular number. 
 
 The true construction is arrived at by supplying the word 
 thing. I have a horse as a ridden thing = haheo equum equi- 
 tatum (neuter). Here the construction is the same as triste 
 lupus stahidis. 
 
 I have horses as a ridden thing = habeo equos equitatum 
 (singular, neuter). Here the construction is — 
 
 " Triste inaturis frugibus iinbros, 
 
 Arboribus venti, nobis Amaryllidus irse." 
 
 or in Greek — 
 
 Afivov yvvai^lv al 8i uibivoiv yova'i. 
 
 The classical wTiters supply instances of this use of have. 
 Compertum haheo, milites, verba viris virtutem non addere = 
 I have discovered ■= I am in possession of the discovery. Quae 
 cum ita sint, satis de Ceesare hoc dictum haheo. 
 
 2. The combination of have with an intransitive verb is 
 irreducible to the idea of possession : indeed, it is illogical. 
 In / have icaited, we cannot make the idea expressed by 
 the word waited the object of the verb have or 2)ossess. The 
 expression has become a part of language by means of the 
 extension of a false analogy. It is an instance of an illegi- 
 timate imitation. 
 
 3. The combination of have with been is more illogfical still, 
 and is a stronger instance of the influence of an illegitimate 
 imitation. In German and Italian, where even intransitive 
 verbs are combined with the equivalents to the English have
 
 THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 469 
 
 {haheih and avere)^ the verb substantive is not so combined ; 
 on the contrary, the combinations are 
 
 Italian ; io sono stato = I urn been. 
 German ; ich bin gewesen = ditto. 
 
 which is logical. 
 
 § 586. / am to speak. — Three facts explain this idiom, 
 
 1. The idea of direction toivarcls an object conveyed by the 
 dative case, and by combinations equivalent to it. 
 
 2. The extent to which the ideas of necessity, obligation, 
 or intention are connected with the idea of something that has 
 to he done, or something towards which some action has a ten- 
 dency. 
 
 o. The fact that expressions like the one in question histo- 
 rically represent an original dative case, or its equivalent ; 
 since to speak grows out of the Anglo-Saxon form to spre- 
 canne., which, although called a gerund, is really a dative case 
 of the infinitive mood. 
 
 When Johnson (see Mr. Guest, Phil. Trans. No. 44) 
 thought that, in the phrase he is to blame, the word blame 
 was a noun, if he meant a noun in the way that cidpa is a 
 noun, his view was wrong. But if he meant a noun in the 
 way that culpare, ad culpandum, are nouns, it was right. 
 
 § 587. / am to blame. — This idiom is one degree more com- 
 plex than the previous one ; since / am to blame = I am to be 
 blamed. As early, however, as the Anglo-Saxon period the 
 gerunds were liable to be used in a passive sense : he is to 
 lujigenne= not he is to love, but he is to be loved. 
 
 The principle of this confusion may be discovered by con- 
 sidering that an object to be blamed, is an object for some one to 
 blame, an object to be loved is an object for some one to love. 
 
 § 588. Shall and vnll. — The simply predictive future verb 
 is shall. Nevertheless, it is only used in the first person. 
 The second and third persons are expressed by the promissive 
 verb will. 
 
 The promissive future verb is loill. Nevertheless, it is only 
 used in the first person. Tiie second and third persons are 
 expressed by the [)redicLive verb shall.
 
 470 TIIK AUXIMAUY VERBS. 
 
 '• 111 priiiiis peisonis tt/utl/ siiiipliciter proedicentis est ; will, 
 «)uasi proiiiltti'iitis aut iiiiiiaiitis. 
 
 '• In secuiulis ot tcrtiis porsonis, shall promittentis est aut 
 miimntis : icifl siinplioitor praidiccntis. 
 
 " Urani = I slioll burn. 
 Urcs ^ T/iou wilt liurn. 
 Uret ^ He will burn. 
 
 ncmpe, hoc futurum prsedico. 
 
 " I will burn. 
 Thou shall burn. 
 He shall burn. 
 
 Uicinus = We shall burn. 
 Uretis = Ye will bunt. 
 Urent = They will burn. 
 
 We will burn. 
 Ye shall burn. 
 They shall burn. 
 
 ncmpe, hoc futurum spondeo, vcl faxo ut sit." 
 
 Again — " would et slioidd iUud indicant quod crat vel esset 
 futurum : cum hoc tantum discrimine : would vokmtatem 
 inuuit, seu agentis propensionem : should simpliciter futuri- 
 tionem."— WalHs, p. 107. 
 
 § 589. Archdeacon Hare explains this by a usus ethicus. 
 " In fact, this was one of the artifices to which the genius 
 of the Greek language had recourse, to avoid speaking pre- 
 sumptuously of the future : for there is an awful, irrepres- 
 sible, and almost instinctive consciousness of the uncertainty 
 of the future, and of our own powerlessness over it, which, 
 in all cultivated languages, has silently and imperceptibly 
 modified the modes of expression with regard to it : and 
 from a double kind of litotes., the one belonging to human 
 nature generalh% the other imposed by good-breeding on 
 the individual, and urging him to veil the manifestations of 
 liis will, we are induced to frame all sorts of shifts for 
 the sake of speaking with becoming modesty. Another 
 method, as we know, frequently adopted by the Greeks 
 was the use of the conditional moods : and as sentiments of 
 this kind always imply some degree of intellectual refinement, 
 and strengthen with its increase, this is called an Attic usage. 
 The same name too has often been given to the above- 
 mentioned middle forms of the future ; not that in either 
 case the practice was peculiar to the Attic dialect, but that it 
 was more general where the feelings which produced it were
 
 THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 471 
 
 strong- and more distinct. Here again our own language 
 supplies us with an exact parallel : indeed this is the only 
 way of accounting for the singular mixture of the two verbs 
 shall and loill, by which, as we have no auxiliary answering 
 to the German werde, we express the future tense. Our 
 future, or at least what answers to it, is, / shall, thou wilt, he 
 toill. When speaking in the first person, we speak submis- 
 sively : when speaking to or of another, we speak courteously. 
 In our older writers, for instance in our translation of the 
 Bible, shall is applied to all three persons : we had not then 
 reacht that stage of politeness which shrinks from the appear- 
 ance even of speaking compulsorily of another. On the other 
 hand the Scotch use will in the first person : that is, as a 
 nation they have not acquired that particular shade of good- 
 breeding which shrinks from thrusting itself* forward." 
 
 * The paper On certain tenses attributed to the Greek verb has already 
 been quoted. The author, however, of the doctrine on the use of shall 
 and will, is not the author of the doctrine alluded to in the Chapter on 
 the Tenses. There are, in the same number of the Philological Museum, 
 two papers under one title : first, the text by a writer who signs himself 
 T. F. B. ; and, next, a comment, by the editor, signed J. C. H. (Julius 
 Charles Hare). The usus ethicus of the future is due to Archdeacon 
 Hare ; the question being brought in incidentally and by way of illustration. 
 
 The subject of the original paper was the nature of the so-called second 
 aorists, second futures, and preterite middles. These were held to be no 
 separate tenses, but irregular forms of the same tense. Undoubtedly this 
 has long been an opinion amongst scholars ; and the writer of the comments 
 is quite right in stating that it is no novelty to the learned world. I think, 
 however, that in putting this forward as the chief point in the original 
 pa])cr, he does the author somewhat less than justice. His merit, in my 
 eyes, seems to consist, not in sliowing that real forms of the uoristus secun- 
 dus,J]tturum secundum, and prceteritum medium were either rare or equivocal 
 (this having been done before), but in illustrating his point from the Eng- 
 lish language ; in showing that between double forms like (Tvvikkx6r}v and 
 avveXeyrjv, and double forms like hang and hanged, there was only a difter- 
 ence in degree (if there was that), not of kind ; and, finally, in enouncing 
 the very legitimate inference, that cither we had two preterites, or tliut the 
 Greeks had only one. "Now, if the circumstances of tke Greek and Eng- 
 li.sli, in regard to these two tenses, are so precisely parallel, a simple and 
 obvious inquiry arises, Wliich are in tlie right, the Greek grammarians or
 
 ITJ> THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 § 590. Notice of the nae of \\\\\ (tnd shall, hy Professor De 
 Morgan. — " Tlio n.:itti.'r to he explnint'tl is the synonymous 
 character o'( ir'dl in the first person with shall in the second and 
 third ; and of shall in the first person with will in the second 
 and third: shall (1) and trill (2, S) are caWed predictive ; 
 shall (2, 3) and irill (1) promissive. The suggestion now 
 proposed will ret]uire four distinctive names. 
 
 " Archdeacon Hare's usus ethicus is taken from the hrighter 
 side of human nature : — ' When speaking in the first person 
 we speak submissively ; when speaking to or of another, we 
 speak courteously.*' This explains / shall, thou tvilt ; but I 
 cannot think it explains / 2vill, thou slialt. It often happens 
 
 our own ? For cither ours must be wrong in not having fitted up for our 
 verb the framework of a first and second preterite, teaching tlie pupil to 
 say, 1st pret. I finded, 2d pret. I found ; 1st pret. I glided, 2d prct. / 
 glode : or the others must be so in teaching the learner to im igine two 
 aorists for fvpiaKco, as, aor. 1, evprjaa, aor. 2, tvpov ; or for a/covo), aor. 1, 
 jJKovaa, aor. 2, rJKoov." — p. 198. 
 
 The inference is, that of the two languages it is the English that is in 
 the right. Now the following remarks, in the comment, upon this infer- 
 ence are a step in the wrong direction :—" The comparison, I grant, is 
 perfectly just ; but is it a just inference from that comparison, that we 
 ought to alter the system of our Greek grammars, which has been drawn up 
 at the cost of so much learning and thought, for the sake of adapting it to 
 the system, if system it can be called, of our own grammars, which are 
 seldom remarkable for anything else than their slovenliness, their ignorance, 
 and their presumption ? Is the higher to be brought down to the level of 
 the baser ? is Apollo to be drest out in a coat and waistcoat ? Rather 
 might it be deemed advisable to remodel the system of our own grammars." 
 
 This, whether right or wrong as a broad assertion, was, in the case in 
 hand, irrelevant. No general superiority had been claimed for the English 
 grammars. For all that had been stated in the original paper they might, 
 as compared with the Greek and Latin, be wrong in ninety-nine cases out 
 of a hundred. All that was claimed for them was that they were right in 
 the present instance ; just as for a clock that stands may be claimed the 
 credit of being right once in every twelve hours. That the inference in 
 favour of altering the system of the Greek grammars is illegitimate is most 
 undeniably true ; but tlien it is an inference of the critic's not of the 
 author's. As the illustration in question has always seemed to me of great 
 value, — although it may easily be less original than I imagine, — I have 
 gone thus far towards jjutting it in a proper light.
 
 THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 473 
 
 that you loill, with a persuasive tone, is used courteously for 
 something next to, if not quite, you shall. The present ex- 
 planation is taken from the darker side ; and it is to he feared 
 that the a priori prohahilities are in its favour. 
 
 " In introducing the common mode of stating the future 
 tenses, grammar has proceeded as if she were more than a 
 formal science. She has no more huslness to collect together 
 / shall, thou wilt, he toill, than to do the same with / rule, 
 thou art ruled, he is ruled. 
 
 " It seems to be the natural disposition of man to think of 
 his own volition in two of the following catagories, and of 
 another man's in the other two : 
 
 Compelling, non-compelling ; restrained, non-restrained. 
 
 Taking up the question where it is left by the two writers in question, 
 we find that the difficulties of the so-called second tenses in Greek are met 
 by reducing them to the same tense in different conjugations ; and, accord- 
 ing to the current views of grammarians, this is a point gained. Is it so 
 really ? Is it not rather the substitution of one difficulty for another ? A 
 second conjugation is a second mode of expressing the same idea, and a 
 second tense is no more. Real criticism is as unwilling to multiply the 
 one as the other. Furthermore, the tendency of English criticism is to- 
 wards the very doctrines which the Greek grammarian wishes to get rid of. 
 We have the difficulty of a second conjugation : but, on the other hand, 
 instead of four past tenses (an imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and aorist), 
 we liave only one (the aorist). Now, when we find that good reasons can 
 be given for supposing that the strong preterite in the Gothic languages 
 was once a reduplicate perfect, we are at liberty to suppose that what is 
 now the same tense under two forms, was, originally, different tenses. 
 Hence, in English, we avoid the difficulty of a second conjugation by the 
 very same process which we eschew in Greek ; viz., the assumption of a 
 second tense. But this we can do, as we have a tense to spare. 
 
 Will any process reconcile this conflict of difficulties ? I submit to 
 scholars the following hypotheses : — 
 
 1. That the true second future in Greek (i. e., the future of verbs with a 
 liquid as a characteristic) is a variety of the present, formed by accentuating 
 the last syllabic ; just as I bedt you = I will beat you. 
 
 2. That this accent effects a change on the quantity and nature of the 
 vowel of the penultimate. 
 
 .3. That the second aorist is an imperfect formed from this sccoiuhiry 
 prescht. 
 
 4. Thnt the so-called ])erfcct middle is a similar perfect active.
 
 •tTi TilK ArXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 " The cpo, with relc-reiiee to the non-cpo, is apt, thinking' of 
 himself, to propound the alternative, ' Shall I compel, or shall 
 I leave him to do as he likes?' so that, thinkinjj; of the other, 
 the altern;itive is, ' shall he he restrained, or shall he be left 
 to his own will I ' Accordingly, the express introduction of 
 his own will is likely to have reference to compulsion, in case 
 of opposition : the express introduction of the will of another, 
 is likely to mean no more than the gracious permission of the 
 eao to let non-erio do as he likes. Correlatively, the suppres- 
 sion of reference to his own will, and the adoption of a simply 
 predictive form on the part of the ego^ is likely to be the 
 mode with which, when the person is changed, he will asso- 
 ciate the idea of another having his own way ; while the 
 suppression of reference to the will of the non-ego is likely to 
 infer restraint produced by the predominant will of the ego. 
 
 "Occasionally, the will of the non-ego is referred toasmider 
 restraint in modern times. To / loill not, the answer is some- 
 times you shall, meaning, in spite of the will — sometimes i/ou 
 icill, meaning that the will will be changed by fear or sense of 
 the inutility of resistance."* 
 
 § 591. / am beaten. — This is a present combination, and 
 it is present on the strength of the verb am, not on the 
 strength of the participle heaien, which is prseterite. 
 
 The following table exhibits the exjyedients on the part 
 of the different languages of the Gothic stock, since the loss 
 of the proper passive form of the Moiso-Gothic. 
 
 Language. Latin datur. Latin datus est. 
 
 Maso- Gothic gibada, ist, vas, varth gibans. 
 
 Old High German ist, wirdit kcjmn, was, warth kcpau. 
 
 Notker wilt kebcn, ist kcbcn. 
 
 Middle High Germun ... wirt gebcn, ist gcben. 
 
 New High Gennan wild gegebcn. ist gegcbcn worden. 
 
 Old Saiu7i is, wirtheth gebhan, was, wartli gcbhan. 
 
 Middle Dutch cs, blift glicghcven waert, bl6f ghegeven. 
 
 New Dutch woidt gcgeven, cs gegc ven worden . 
 
 Old Frisian weith ejeven, is ejeven. 
 
 * Transactions of Philological Society. No. '.)(), Jan. 25, 1S50.
 
 THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 475 
 
 Language. Latin datur. Latin datus est. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon weordcd gifen, is gifen. 
 
 English is given, has been given. 
 
 Old Norse er gefiun, hefr verit gefinn . 
 
 Sivedis/i gifves, har varit gifven. 
 
 Danish bliver, voider given, har varet given. 
 
 Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 19. 
 
 § 592. Ought, would, <^c., used as presents. — These words 
 are not in the predicament of shall. 
 
 They are present in power, and^as^ in form. So, perhaps, 
 is shall. 
 
 But they are not, like shall, perfect forms ; i. e., they have 
 no natural present element in them. 
 
 They are aorist praeterites. Nevertheless, they have a 
 present sense. 
 
 So had their equivalents in Greek : IxS^" ~ %^^' ^^^' ~ ^^^' 
 
 In Latin, too, would was often not represented by either 
 volo or volebam, but by velim. 
 
 I believe that the usus ethicus is at the bottom of this 
 construction. 
 
 The assertion of duty or obligation is one of those asser- 
 tions which men like to soften in the expression : should, 
 ought. 
 
 So is the expression of power, as denoted by mai/ or can — 
 might, could. 
 
 Very often when we say i/ou should (or ought to) do this, 
 we leave to be added by implication — but you do not. 
 
 Very often when we say / could (or might) do this, we 
 leave to be added by implication — but I do not exert my 
 power. 
 
 Now, if what is left undone be the present element in this 
 assertion, the duty to do it, or the power of doing it, consti- 
 tutes a past element in it ; since the power (or duty) is, in 
 relation to the performance, a cause — insufficient, indeed, but 
 still antecedent. This hypothesis is suggested rather than 
 asserted. 
 
 § 593. J3y substituting the words / am bound for / ought.
 
 4-76 TIJK ATXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 we may see the expedients to which this present use of the 
 pra'terite forces us. 
 
 1 am bound to do this no\v = / owe to do this now. How- 
 ever, we do not say oici\ but ought. 
 
 Hence, when we wish to say / A\'as bound to do this two 
 years ago, we cannot say / ought {owed) to do this, &c., since 
 ought is ah-eady used in a present sense. 
 
 We therefore say, instead, / ought to have done this two 
 years ago ; which has a similar, but by no means an identical 
 meaning. 
 
 / icas hound to 'pay two years ago, means two years ago I 
 was under an obligation to make a payment, either then or at 
 some future time. 
 
 I was hound to have paid, &c., means / was under an ohli- 
 gation to have made a payment. 
 
 If we use the word ought, this difference cannot be ex- 
 pressed. 
 
 Common people sometimes say, you had not ought to do so 
 and so ; and they have a reason for saying it. 
 
 The Latin language is more logical. It says not dehet 
 factum fuisse, but dehuit fieri.
 
 SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 477 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 THE SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 
 
 § 594. The syntax of the adverb is simpler than that of 
 any other part of speech, excepting, perhaps, that of the 
 adjective. 
 
 Adverbs have no concord. 
 
 Neither have they any government. They see7n, indeed, 
 to have it, when they are in the comparative or superlative 
 degree ; but it is merely apparent. In this is better than that, 
 the word that is governed neither by better nor by than. It 
 is not governed at all. It is a nominative case ; the subject 
 of a separate proposition. This is better {i.e., more good) than 
 that is good. Even if we admit such an expression as he is 
 stronger than me to be good English, there is no adverbial 
 government. Than, if it govern me at all, governs it as a 
 preposition. 
 
 The position of an adverb is, in respect to matters of 
 syntax, pre-eminently parenthetic ; i. e., it may be omitted 
 without injuring the construction. He is fighting — noio ; 
 he was fighting — then; he fights — bravely; I am — almost — 
 tired, &c. 
 
 § 595. By referring to the Chapter on the Adverbs, we 
 shall find that the neuter adjective is frequently converted 
 into an adverb by deflection. As any neuter adjective may 
 be so deflected, we may justify such expressions asfiull (for 
 full?/) as conspicuous, and peculiar (for peculiarly) bad grace, 
 &c. We are not, however, bound to imitate everything that 
 we can justify. 
 
 § 596. The termination -ly was originally adjectival. 
 At present it is a derivational syllable by which we can 
 convert an adjective into an adverb : brave, brave-ly.
 
 478 SYNTAX OF ADVERRS. 
 
 Wlu'ii, howcvor, the adjective ends in -ly already, the for- 
 mation is awkward. / eat m>/ Jaili/ bread is unexceptionable 
 English; / cat mi/ bread da Ui/ is exceptionable. One of two 
 tilings must here take place : the two syllables -/y are packed 
 into one (the full expression being dai-li-ly), or else the con- 
 struction is tliat of a neuter adjective deflected. 
 
 Adverbs are convertible. The then men = ot vvv (i^oroi, 
 &c. This will be seen more clearly in the Chapter on Con- 
 junctions. 
 
 § 597. It has been remarked that in expressions like he 
 sleeps the sleep of the ri(jhteous, the construction is adverbial. 
 So it is in expressions like he tccdked a mile, it weighs a pound. 
 The ideas expressed by mile and pound are not the names of 
 anything that serves as either object or instrument to the 
 verb. They only denote the manner of the action, and define 
 the meaning of the verb. 
 
 § 598. From whence, from thence. — This is an expression 
 which, if it liave not taken root in our language, is likely to 
 do so. It is an instance of excess of expression in the way 
 of syntax ; the -ce denoting direction from a place, and the 
 preposition doing the same. It is not so important to deter- 
 mine what this construction ?s, as to suggest what it is not. 
 It is not an instance of an adverb governed by a preposition. 
 If the two words be dealt with as logically separate, tchence 
 (or thence^ must be a noun = which place (or that place) ; 
 just as frmn. then till now = from that time to this. But if 
 (which is the better view) the two words be dealt with as 
 one {i. e., as an improper compound) the preposition from has 
 lost its natural power, and become the element of an adverb.
 
 ON PREPOSITIONS. 479 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 ON PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 § 599. All prepositions govern an oblique case. If a word 
 cease to do this, it ceases to be a preposition. In the first of 
 the two following- sentences the word up is a preposition, in 
 the second an adverb. 
 
 1. 1 climbed up the tree. 
 
 2. J climbed up. 
 
 All prepositions in English precede the noun which they 
 govern. / climhed up the tree., never / climhed the tree up. 
 This is a matter not of government, but of collocation. It is 
 the case in most languages ; and, from the frequency of its 
 occurrence, the term pre-position (or prefix) has originated. 
 Nevertheless, it is by no means a philological necessity. In 
 many languages the prepositions are post-positive., following 
 their noun. 
 
 § 600. No preposition, in the present English, governs a 
 genitive case. This remark is made, because expressions like 
 the part of the body —pars corporis, — a piece of the hread^:^ 
 port'io panis, make it appear as if the preposition of did so. 
 The true expression is, that the preposition of followed by 
 an objective case, is equivalent, in many instances, to the 
 genitive case of the classical languages, 
 
 § 601. The writer, however, of a paper on English prete- 
 rites and genitives, in the Philological Museum (ii. 261) ob- 
 jects to the current doctrine concerning such constructions as, 
 this is a jyicture of the kinfs. Instead of considering the sen- 
 tence elliptic, and equivalent to this is a picture of or {from) 
 the kinf s pictures., he entertains the following view, — " 1 con- 
 fess, however, that I feel some doubt whether this phrase is
 
 ■ISO ON rUKPOSITIONS. 
 
 iiuloccl to 1)0 rojjfanlod as elliptical, that is, whether the phrase 
 in room of which it is said to staiul, was ever actually in use. 
 It has sometimes struck me that this may be a relict of the 
 old practice of using the genitive after nouns as well as be- 
 fore them, only with the insertion of the preposition of. One 
 of the passages quoted above from 'Arnold's Chronicle,' sup- 
 plies an instance of a genitive so situated ; and one cannot 
 help thinking that it was the notion that of governed the 
 genitive, that led the old translators of Virgil to call his 
 poem The Booke of Eneidos, as it is termed by Phaer, and 
 Gawin Douglas, and in the translation printed by Caxton. 
 Hence it may be that we put the genitive after the noun in 
 such cases, in order to express those relations which are most 
 appropriately expressed by the genitive preceding it. ^1 
 picture of the king's is something very different from the king's 
 jyicture: and so many other relations are designated by of 
 with the objective noun, that if we wish to denote posses- 
 sion thereby, it leaves an ambiguity : so, for this purpose, 
 when we want to subjoin the name of the possessor to the 
 thing possest, we have recourse to the genitive, by prefixing 
 which we are wont to express the same idea. At all events 
 as, if we were askt whose castle Alnwick is, we should answer. 
 The Duke of Northumherland''s ; so we should also say, What 
 a grand castle that is of the Duke of Northumherland' s ! with- 
 out at all taking into account whether he had other castles 
 besides: and our expression would be equally appropriate, 
 whether he had or not." 
 
 Again, Mr. Guest quotes, amongst other passages, the 
 following : — 
 
 Suffice this hill of ours — 
 
 They fought two hourcs of the nighles — 
 
 Yet neither class of examples is conclusive. 
 
 Ours does not necessarily mean of us. It may also mean 
 of our hills, i. e., of the hills of our choice. Nightes may mean 
 of the nighfs hours. In the expression, tohat a grand castle, 
 &c., it is submitted to the reader that we do take into, our 
 account other castles, which the Duke of Northumberland
 
 ON PREPOSITIONS. 481 
 
 may or may not have. The Booke of Eneidos is a mistaken 
 Latinism. As it does not seem to have been sufficiently con- 
 sidered that the real case governed by of (as by de in Latin) 
 is the ablative, it is the opinion of the present writer that no 
 instance has yet been produced of of either governing, or hav- 
 ing governed a genitive case. 
 
 § 602. It is not so safe to say in the present English that 
 no preposition governs a dative. The expression give it Mm 
 is good English ; and it is also equivalent to the Latin da ei. 
 But we may also say give it to him. Now the German zu 
 = to governs a dative case, and in Anglo-Saxon, the prepo- 
 sition to, when prefixed to the infinitive mood, required the 
 case that followed it to be a dative. 
 
 § 603. When the infinitive mood is used as the subject of a 
 proposition, i.e., as a nominative case, it is impossible to allow 
 to the preposition to, by which it is preceded, any separate 
 existence whatever, — to iHse — rising ; to err = error. Here 
 the prejjosition must, for the purposes of syntax, be consi- 
 dered as incorporated with the noun, just like an inseparable 
 inflection. As such it may be preceded by another preposi- 
 tion. The following example, although a Grecism, illustrates 
 this : — 
 
 Yet not to have been dipt in Lethe's lake, 
 Could save the son of Thetis f7'om to die. 
 
 § 604. Akin to this, but not the same, is the so-called vul- 
 garism, consisting of the use of the preposition for. I am 
 ready to go=-I am ready for going = the so-called vulgar- 
 ism, / am ready for to go. Now, this expression differs from 
 the last in exhibiting, not only a verbal accumulation of pre- 
 positions, but a logical accumulation as well : inasmuch as for 
 and to express like ideas. 
 
 § 605. Composition converts prepositions into adverbs. 
 \Vhether we say upstanding or standing-up, we express the 
 manner in which an action takes place, and not the relation 
 between two substantives. The so-called prepositional com- 
 pounds in Greek (avujSuivcj, UTToOvriGKco, &c.) are all adver- 
 bial. 
 
 I I
 
 482 <»N CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 ON (X>NJ UNCTIONS. 
 
 § ()06. A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech which connects 
 fro2)ositions, — the day is bright, is one proposition. The sun 
 shines, is another. The day is bright because the sun shines 
 is a pair of prepositions connected by the conjunction, because. 
 
 From this it follows, that whenever there is a conjunction, 
 there are two subjects, two copulas, and two predicates : i.e., 
 two propositions in all their parts. 
 
 ]Jut this may be expressed compendiously. The sun shines, 
 and the moon shines, may be expressed by the sun and moon 
 shine. 
 
 Nevertheless, however compendious may be the expression, 
 there are always two propositions wherever there is one con- 
 junction. A part of speech that merely combines two words 
 is a preposition, — the sun along with the moon shines. 
 
 It is highly important to remember that conjunctions con- 
 nect propositions. 
 
 It is also highly important to remember that many double 
 propositions may be expressed so compendiously as to look 
 like one. When this takes place, and any question arises as to 
 the construction, they must be exhibited in their fully ex- 
 panded form ; i.e., the second subject, the second predicate, 
 and the second copula must be supplied. This can always be 
 done from the first proposition, — he likes you better than me 
 = he likes you better than he likes me. The compendious ex- 
 pression of the second proposition is the first point of note in 
 the syntax of conjunctions. 
 
 § 607. The second point in the syntax of conjunctions is 
 the fact of their great convertibility. Most conjunctions have 
 been developed out of some other part of speech.
 
 ON CONJUNCTION'S. 483 
 
 The conjunction of comparison, than, is derived from the 
 adverb of time, then ; which is derived from the accusative 
 singular of the demonstrative pronoun. 
 
 The conjunction, that, is derived also from a demonstrative 
 pronoun. 
 
 The conjunction, therefore, is a demonstrative pronoun + a 
 preposition. 
 
 The conjunction, hecause, is a substantive governed by a 
 preposition. 
 
 One and the same word, in one and the same sentence, 
 may be a conjunction or preposition, as the case may be. 
 
 AH fled but John. — If this mean all fled except John, the 
 word hut is a preposition, the word John is an accusative case, 
 and the proposition is single. If, instead of John, we had a 
 personal pronoun, we should say all fled hut him. 
 
 All fled hut John. — If this mean all fled, but John did not 
 fly, the word but is a conjunction, the word John is a nomina- 
 tive case, and the propositions are two in number. If, instead 
 o^ John, we had a personal pronoun, we should say, all fled 
 but he. 
 
 From the fact of the great convertibility of conjunctions 
 it is often necessary to determine whether a word be a con- 
 junction or not. If it he a conjmiction, it cannot govern a 
 case. If it govern a case, it is no conjunction but a prepo- 
 sition. A conjunction cannot govern a case, for the following 
 reason, — the word that follows it must be the subject of the 
 second proposition, and, as such, a nominative case, 
 
 § 608. The third point to determine in the syntax of con- 
 junctions is the certainty or uncertainty in the mind of the 
 speaker as to the facts expressed by the propositions which 
 they serve to connect. 
 
 1 . Each proposition may contain a certain, definite, abso- 
 lute fact — the day is clear because the sun shines. Here, 
 there is neither doubt nor contingency of either the day being 
 clear, or of the sun shining. 
 
 2. Of two propositions one may be the condition of the 
 other — the day will be clear if the sun shine. Here, although 
 it is certain that if the sun shine the day will be clear, there is 
 
 I I 2
 
 I-Si ON OON.TUXrTTONS. 
 
 no cortalntv of Ihe sioi s/iininp. Ol' the two propositions one 
 only onil)Oilies a certain fact, and that is certain only con- 
 ilitionally. 
 
 Now an action, wherein there enters any notion of uncer- 
 tainty, or imlefniitude, anil is at the same time connected with 
 another action, is expressed, not by the indicative mood, but 
 by the subjunctive. ffthe sun shine (not ahines) the day will 
 be clear. 
 
 Simple uncertainty will not constitute a subjunctive con- 
 struction, — / am, perhaps, in the lorong. 
 
 Neither will simple connection, — / am wrong because you 
 are right. ' 
 
 But, the two combined constitute the construction in ques- 
 tion, — if I be wrong, you are right. 
 
 Now, a conjunction that connects two certain propositions 
 may be said to govern an indicative mood. 
 
 And a conjunction that connects an uncertain proposition 
 with a certain one, may be said to govern a subjunctive mood. 
 
 The government of mood is the only form of government of 
 which conjunctions are capable. 
 
 § 60.9. Previous to the question of the government of con- 
 junctions in the way of mood, it is necessary to notice certain 
 points of agreement between them and the relative pronouns ; 
 inasmuch as, in many cases, the relative pronoun exerts the 
 same government, in the way of determining the mood of the 
 verb, as the conjunction. 
 
 Between the relative pronouns and conjunctions in general 
 there is this point of connection, — both join propositions. 
 Wherever there is a relative, there is a second proposition. 
 So there is wherever there is a conjunction. 
 
 Between certain relative pronouns and those particular con- 
 junctions that govern a subjunctive mood there is also a point 
 of connection. Both suggest an element of uncertainty or 
 indefinitude. This the relative pronouns do, through the 
 logical elements common to them and to the interrogatives : 
 these latter essentially suggesting the idea of doubt. Wher- 
 ever the person, or thing, connected with an action, and ex- 
 pressed by a relative be indefinite, there is room for the use
 
 ON CONJUNCTIONS. 185 
 
 of a .subjunctive mood. Thus — he that troubled you shall 
 bear his judgment, tvhosoever he he. 
 
 § 610. By considering the nature of such words as when, 
 their origin as relatives on the one liand, and their conjunc- 
 tional character on the other hand, we are prej)ared for finding 
 a relative element in words like till, mitll, before, as long as, 
 &c. These can all be expanded into expressions like until the 
 time when, during the time tohen, &c. Hence, in an expression 
 like seek out his loickedness till thou find (not findest) none, 
 the principle of the construction is nearly the same as in he 
 that troubled you, &c., or vice versa.* 
 
 §G11. In most conditional expressions the subjunctive 
 mood should follow the conjunction. All the following ex- 
 pressions are conditional. 
 
 1. Except I he by Silvia in the night, 
 There is no music in tlie niglitingale. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 2. Let us go and sacrifice to tlie Lord our God, lest he fall upon us with 
 pestilence. — Old Testament. 
 
 3. Revenge back on itself recoils. 
 
 Let it. I reck not, so it light well aimed. 
 
 J. Milton. 
 4. 7/" this be the case. 
 
 5. Although my house be not so with God. — Old Testament. 
 
 6. He shall not cat of the holy thing unless lie ivash his flesh with water. 
 — Old Testament. 
 
 Expressions like except and unless are equally conditional 
 with words like if and provided that, since they are equivalent 
 to if- — not. 
 
 Expressions like though and although are peculiar. They 
 join propo.sitions, of which the one is a prima facie rea.son 
 against the existence of the other : and this is the conditional 
 element. In the sentence, if the children he so badly brought 
 up, they are not to be trusted, the bad hringing-up is the reason 
 
 * Notwithstanding the extent to which a relative may take the apjjcar- 
 ance of conjunction, there is always one unequivocal method of deciding its 
 rue nature. The relative is always a part of the second proj)osition. A 
 conjunction is no part of either.
 
 4J<t) ON OONJ I' NOTIONS. 
 
 for their fu'inp unfit to be trusted ; ami, as far as the expression 
 is ooncerued. /cJ inlinitted to be so. The only uneertainty lies 
 in the question as to the degree of the badness of the oduea- 
 tion. The interenee from it is unequivocal. 
 
 But if, instead of Sivying if, «e say althouoh, and omit the 
 word not, so that the sentence run although the children be so 
 biidli/ brought up thei/ are to be trusted, we do two things : we 
 indicate the general relation of cause and etlect that exists 
 between bad brinpina-up and imjitncss for beina trusted, but 
 we also, at the same time, take an exception to it in the par- 
 ticular instance before us. These remarks have been made 
 for the sake of showing the extent to which words hke though^ 
 &c., are conditional. 
 
 It must be remembered, however, that conjunctions, like 
 the ones lately quoted, do not govern subjunctive moods 
 because they are conditional, but because, in the particular 
 condition which they accompany, there is an element of un- 
 certainty. 
 
 § 612. This introduces a fresh question. Conditional con- 
 junctions are of two sorts : — 
 
 1. Those which express a condition as an actual fact, and 
 one admitted as such by the speaker. 
 
 2. Those which express a condition as a possible fact, and 
 one which the speaker either does not admit, or admits only 
 iu a qualified manner. 
 
 Since the children are so badli/ brought up, kc. — This is an 
 instance of the first construction. The speaker admits as an 
 actual fact tlie had hringing-iip of the children. 
 
 If the children be so badly hrought-up, Sec — This is an 
 instance of the second construction. The speaker admits as a 
 possible (perhaps, as a probable) fact the bad bringing-iip 
 of the children : but he does not adopt it as an indubitable 
 one. 
 
 § 613. Now, if every conjunction had a fixed unvariable 
 meaning, there would be no difficulty in determining whether 
 a condition was absolute, and beyond doubt, or possible, and 
 liable to doubt. But such is not the case. 
 
 Although may precede a proposition which is admitted as 
 well as one which is doubted.
 
 ON CONJUNCTIONS. 4-87 
 
 a. Although the children are, &c. 
 h. Although the children be, &c. 
 
 //, too, may precede propositions wherein there is no doubt 
 whatever implied : in other words it may be used instead of 
 since. 
 
 In some languages this interchange goes farther than in 
 others ; in the Greek, for instance, such is the case with s/, to 
 a very great extent indeed. 
 
 Hence we must look to the meaning of the sentence in 
 general, rather than to the particular conjunction used. 
 
 It is a philological fact (probably referable to the usus 
 ethicus) that if may stand instead of since. 
 
 It is also a philological fact that when it does so it should 
 be followed by the indicative mood. 
 
 This is written in the way of illustration. What applies 
 to if applies to other conjunctions as well. 
 
 § 614. As a point of practice, the following method of 
 determining the amount of doubt expressed in a conditional 
 proposition is useful : — 
 
 Insert, immediately after the conjunction, one of the two 
 following phrases, — (1 .) as is the case ; (2.) as may or may not 
 he tfte case. By ascertaining which of these two supplements 
 expresses the meaning of the speaker, we ascertain the mood 
 of the verb which follows. 
 
 When the first formula is one required, there is no element 
 of doubt, and the verb should be in the indicative mood. If 
 (as is t/ie case), he is (/one, I must foUov) him. 
 
 When the second formula is the one required, there is an 
 element of doubt, and the verb should be in the subjunctive 
 mood. If {as may or may not he the case) he be gone, I must 
 follow him. 
 
 § Glo. The use of the word that in expressions like / eat 
 that I may live, &e., is a modification of the subjunctive con- 
 struction, that is conveniently called potential. It denotes 
 that one act is done for the sake of supplying the potcer or 
 opportunity for the performance of another. 
 
 In English the word that, so used, cannot be said to govern 
 a mood, although generally followed by either may or might.
 
 488 ON CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 It sliouUl nitlitT be sukl to ri'iiuiro ;i certain combiiuitiou to 
 follow it. The most important point connected with the 
 powers of that is the so-called succession of tenses. 
 
 §6Jt>. The succession of tenses. — Whenever the conjunc- 
 tion that expresses intention, and consequently connects two 
 verbs, the second of which takes place after the first, the 
 verbs in question must be in the same tense. 
 
 I do this tlntt I vuttj gain by it. 
 I did this tliul I viiglit gain by it. 
 
 In the Greek language this is expressed by a difference of 
 mood ; the subjunctive being the construction equivalent to 
 may.) the optative to might. The Latin idiom coincides with 
 the English. 
 
 A little consideration will show that this rule is absolute. 
 For a man to he doing one action (in present time) in order 
 that some other action may follow it (in past time) is to re- 
 verse the order of cause and effect. To do anything in a.d. 
 1851, that something may result from it in 18.50 is a contra- 
 diction ; and so it is to say / do this that / might gain hy it. 
 
 The reasons against the converse construction are nearly, 
 if not equally cogent. To have done anything at any pre- 
 vious time in order that a j)^'<^sent effect may follow, is, ipso 
 facto, to convert a past act into a present one, or, to speak in 
 the language of the grammarian, to convert an aorist into a 
 perfect. To say / did this that / may gain hy it, is to make, 
 by the very effect of the expression, either may equivalent to 
 might, or did equivalent to have done. 
 
 I did t/iis tliat / miglit gain. 
 
 I have done t/iis that / may gain. 
 
 A clear perception of the logical necessity of the law of the 
 succession of tenses, is necessary for understanding the nature 
 of several anomalous passages in the classical writers. In the 
 following, an aorist is followed not by an optative, but by a 
 subjunctive. 
 
 OvK ayadov TToKvKoipaviT]' tis Koipavos fcrru), 
 Kii j:iacn\evs, ca e^coKf Kpovov ttuIs dyKvXonrjTeto 
 ^K^TTTpuv T iqUe dtpiiTTus, Ivu (T(f)i(riv ep^aaCkevt].
 
 ON CONJUNCTIONS. 489 
 
 Here it is necessary to construe ehcopcs, has given and con- 
 tinues to allow, which is to construe it like 2i 'perfect ''" tense. 
 Upon similar passages Mathia; writes, " hut frequently the 
 conjunctive is used, although the preceding word he in the 
 time past, viz., when the verh which depends upon the con- 
 junction shows an action continued to the present time." 
 That means when the verb is really a perfect. 
 
 In Latin, where the same form is both aorist and perfect, 
 the succession of tenses is a means of determining which of 
 the two meanings it conveys. Veni ut mdeam^ I have come 
 that I may see. Veni ut viderem = / came that I might see. 
 
 Arnold states, from Kriiger and Zurapt, that even where 
 the prseterite was clearly a perfect {i. <?., = to have with the 
 participle), the Roman ear was so accustomed to the imper- 
 fect subjunctive, that it preferred such an expression as diu 
 duhitavi num melius esset to diu duhitavi num melius sit. The 
 latter part of the statement is sure enough ; but it is by no 
 means so sure that duhitavi, and similar forms in similar con- 
 structions are perfects. There is no reason for considering 
 this to be the case in the present instance. It seems to be 
 so, because it is connected with diu ; but an action may 
 last a long time, and yet not last up to the time of speaking. 
 Diu duhitavi probably expresses, / doubted a long time, and 
 leaves it to be inferred that now I do not doubt. 
 
 § 617. It has been stated above that whilst the Latin and 
 English have a succession of tenses, the Greek language 
 
 * Unless another view be taken of the construction, and it be argued 
 that eSwKe is, etymologically speaking, no aorist but a perfect. In form, it 
 is almost as much one tense as another. If it wants the reduplication of 
 the perfect, it has the perfect characteristic k, to the exclusion of the aorist 
 0-; and tliiis far the evidence is equal. The persons, however, are more 
 aorist tlian perfect. For one of Mathite's aorists (fi(dfJKf) a still better case 
 might be made, showing it to be, even in etymology, more perfect than 
 aorist. 
 
 Kxf ti/et fJ-e x^fjvcrov, tov TiikcuTTbipov, X^P'-^ 
 
 Sevos 7raTf)uos, /cat ktuviov es ol^ix d\6s 
 
 Medrjx, IV avTOi ;^pi;o-of ev 8ufj.ois exiJ. 
 
 Kf'tfiiu 8 fTT (Iktuis. 
 
 EuK. lice.
 
 4D0 ON CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 exhibits what may bo callod a succession of moods. This 
 sugirosts inquiry. Is tlie tliH'orencc real ? If so, how is it 
 explained i If not, Avhich of the two grammatical systems is 
 rights — the Englit^h ami Latin on the one side, or the Greek 
 on the other I Should TU'7rT0i[jji be reduced to a past tense, 
 or verberarem be considered an optative mood. 
 
 The {)resent writer has no hesitation in stating his belief, 
 that all the jjhainoniena explicable by the assumption of an 
 optative mood are equally explicable by an expansion of the 
 subjunctive, and a different distribution of its tenses. 
 
 1 . Let rv-^co be considered a subjunctive future instead of 
 a subjunctive aorist. 
 
 2. Let rv7i;roi[jji be considered an inij^er/ect suhjuncthe. 
 
 3. Let TBrv^oi(jji be considered a pluperfect subjunctive. 
 
 4. Let TV-<pai(Jji be considered on aorist subjunctive. 
 Against this view there are two reasons : 
 
 1. The double forms ru'<pui(Jtji and rv-<poi(/ji^ one of which 
 would remain miplaced. 
 
 2. The use of the optative and conjunctive in simple pro- 
 positions, as — 
 
 CO Trai, ytvoio miTpos evTV)(^e(TTepos. 
 
 The first reason I am not prepared to impugn. Valeat 
 quantiim, &c. The second indicates a class of expressions 
 which tense will not explain, and which mood will. Yet this 
 is not conclusive. Would tliat thou wert is thoroughly opta- 
 tive : yet it is expressed by a tense. 
 
 The form of the so-called optatives proves nothing. 
 Neither the subjunctive nor the optative has any signs of 
 mood at all, except the negative one of the absence of the 
 augment. Their signs arc the signs o^ tense. 
 
 In favour of the view are the following reasons : — 
 
 1 . The analogy of other languages. The imperfect has a 
 subjunctive in Latin. So has the future. 
 
 2. The undoubtedly future character of the so-called aorist 
 imperative. To give an order to do a thing in past time is 
 a philological contradiction. Forms like ^Ksi^ov must be fa- 
 ture. Though Osg and rtdsi differ in power, they both mean an
 
 ON CONJUNCTIONS. 491 
 
 action subsequent to, ov, at any rate, simultaneous with tlie 
 order given ; certainly not one anterior to it. 
 
 § 618. Be may stand for may be. In this case the prete- 
 rite is not loere but might he. The sentence, icJiat care 
 I hoio fair the lady be, if she he not fair to her admirer? is 
 accurate. Here he = may he. But, ichat cared / hoio fair 
 the lady were, if she tcere not fair to her admirer ? is inaccu- 
 rate. It ought to run thus, — what cared / how fair the lady 
 might be, if she loere not fair to her admirer ?''' 
 
 §619. Disjunctives. — Disjunctives (or, nor) are of two 
 sorts, real, and nominal. 
 
 A king or queen always rules in England. Here the dis- 
 junction is real ; king or queen being different names for dif- 
 ferent objects. In all real disjunctions the inference is, that 
 if one out of two (or more) individuals (or classes) do not 
 perform a certain action, the other does. 
 
 A sovereign or siqrreme ruler always rules in England. 
 Here the disjunction is nominal ; sovereign and supreme gover- 
 nor being different names for the same object. In all nomi- 
 nal disjunctives the inference is, that if an agent (or agents) 
 do not perform a certain action under one name, he does (or 
 they do) it under another. 
 
 Nominal disjunctives are called by Harris, SMMisjunctives. 
 
 In the English language there is no separate word to dis- 
 tinguish the nominal from the real disjunctive. In Latin, 
 
 * It is almost unnecessary to state that the sentence quoted in the text 
 is really a beautiful couplet of Withers's poetry transposed. It was advis- 
 able to do this, for the sake of guarding against the eifect of the rhyme. To 
 have written, 
 
 What care I how fair she is 
 If she be not fair to me ? 
 
 would have made the grammar seem worse than it really was, by disa])i)oiiit- 
 ing the reader of a rhyme. On the other hand, to have written, 
 
 What care I how fair she were, 
 If she were not kind a'^Jair ? 
 
 would have made the grammar seem better than it really was, by sup- 
 plying one.
 
 •1-:>L' ON CONJUNCTION'S. 
 
 <"«/ is roiisidt'ii'tl liy Ilanis to bo (Hsjunctivc, sive subdisjunc- 
 livi\ As a iioripliiasis tlif cunibiiiatiou in other words is 
 subdisjimctive. 
 
 JJoth nominal and real disjiuictivcs agree in this, — what- 
 ever may be the number of nouns which they connect, the 
 construction of the verb is the same as if there were but one 
 — Henry or John, or Thomas, icalks (not walk) ; the sun, or 
 solar luminary, shines (not shine). The disjunctive isolates 
 the subject however much it may be placed in juxtaposition 
 with other nouns. 
 
 § G20. Either., neither. — Many disjunctives imply an alter- 
 native. If it be not this person (or thing) that performs a 
 certain action (or exists in a certain state) it is some other. 
 If a person (or thing) do not perform a certain action (or 
 exist in a certain state), under one name, he (or it) does so 
 under another. This alternative is expressed by the word 
 either. 
 
 When the word either is connected immediately with the 
 copula of a proposition, it is, if not a true conjunction, at 
 leasta^j«r^ of a conjunctional peri^jhrasis. — This either is or 
 is not so. 
 
 When it belongs more to one of the terms of a proposition 
 than to the copula, it is a pronoun, — Either I or you is in the 
 wrong. It is either you or I. 
 
 I use the words, part of a conjunctional periphrasis., be- 
 cause the full conjunction is either + or (or neither + nor) ; 
 the essential conjunctions being the latter words. To these, 
 either (or neither) is superadded, indicating the manner in 
 which the disjunction expressed by or (or nor) takes place ; 
 i. e., they show that it takes place in the manner of an alter- 
 native. Now, this superadded power is rather adverbial than 
 conjunctional. 
 
 §621. From the pronominal character of the word either, 
 when it forms part of a term, and from the power of the dis- 
 junctive, or, in isolating the subject of the verb, combined 
 with an assumption which will be explained hereafter, we get 
 at the principle of certain rules for doubtful constructions. 
 
 In expressions like either you or I is in the wrong, we must
 
 ON CONJUNCTIONS. 493 
 
 consider either not only as a pronoun, but as the leading pro- 
 noun of the proposition ; a pronoun of which or I is an 
 explanation ; and, finally, as the pronoun which determines 
 the person of the verb. Either you or I is icrong = one of us 
 (you or I) is wrong. 
 
 Then, as to expressions like /, or you, am in the wrong. 
 Here, / is the leading pronoun, which determines the person 
 of the verbs; the words, or you, being parenthetic, and subor 
 dinate. These statements bear upon the rules of p. 457. 
 
 § 622, Will this principle justify such expressions as either 
 they or we is in the wrong ? 
 
 Or will it justify such expressions as either he or they is in 
 the wrong ? 
 
 Or will it justify such expressions as / or they am in the 
 wrong? In all which sentences one pronoun is plural. 
 
 Perhaps not. The assumption that has been just alluded 
 to, as helping to explain certain doubtful constructions, is the 
 following, viz.^ that in cases of apposition, disjunction, and 
 complex terms, the first word is the one which determines 
 the character of the sentence wherein it occurs. This is a 
 practice of the English language, which, in the o^jinion of the 
 present writer, nothing but a very decided preponderance of 
 a difference in person, gender, or number, can overrule. Such 
 may fairly be considered to be the case in the three examples 
 just adduced ; especially as there is also the secondary influ- 
 ence of the conjunctional character of the word either. Thus, 
 although we say, — 
 
 One of two parties, they or ice, is in the lorong. 
 We also say, — 
 
 Either they or we are in the wrong. 
 
 As for the other two expressions, they are in the same 
 predicament, with an additional reason for the use of the 
 plural. It contains the singular. The chief object of the 
 present remarks has been less to explain details than to give 
 due prominence to the following leading principles. 
 
 1. That either (or neither) is* essentially singular in 
 number. 
 
 * In the first edition of tlie present work I inaccurately stated tliat
 
 4.04 ON (KWJUNCTIONS. 
 
 2. That it is, liko any romnion noun, of the third person. 
 
 3. That it is pronominal where it is in apposition with 
 another noun. 
 
 4. That when it is the llrst word of the proposition it deter- 
 mines the concord of the verb, unless its diaracter of a noun 
 of the sinofular number and third person be disguised by tlie 
 prominence of some phiral form, or some pronoun of the first 
 or second person in the latter part of the term. 
 
 5. That in a simple disjunctive proposition {i.e., one where 
 either does not occur) all nouns are subordinate to the first. 
 
 § 623. I believe that the use of either is limited to real 
 disjunctives ; in other words, that we can say either a king or 
 a queen always reigns in England, but that we cannot say 
 either a sovereign or a supreme ruler always reigns in England. 
 
 neither should take a iilural and cither a singular verb; adding that "in 
 predicating something concerning neither you nor I, a negative assertion is 
 made concerning both. In predicating something concerning citheryou nr I, 
 a positive assertion is made concerning one of two." This Mr. Connon (p. 
 129) has truly stated to be at variance with the principles laid down by me 
 elsewhere.
 
 SYNTAX OF THE NEGATIVE. 495 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 THE SYNTAX OF THE NEGATIVE. 
 
 § 624. When the verb is in the infinitive mood, the nega- 
 tive precedes it. — Not to advance is to retreat. 
 
 When the verb is not in the infinitive mood, the neoative 
 follows it. — He advanced not. I cannot. 
 
 This rule is absolute. It only seems to precede the verb in 
 such expressions as I do not advance, I cannot advance, I 
 have not advanced, &c. However, the words do, can, and 
 have, are no infinitives; and it consequently follows them. 
 The word advance is an infinitive, and it consequently pre- 
 cedes it. Wallis's rule makes an equivalent statement, 
 although dilFerently. " Adverbium negandi not (non) verbo 
 postponitur (nempe auxiliari primo si adsit ; aut si non adsit 
 auxiliare, verbo principali) : aliis tamen orationis partibus 
 prsefigi solet." — P. 113. 
 
 That the negative is rarely used, except with an auxiliary, 
 in other words, that the presence of a negative converts a 
 simple form like it burneth not into the circumlocution it does 
 not burn, is a fact in the practice of the English language. 
 The syntax is the same in either expression. 
 
 § 625. What may be called the distribution of the nega- 
 tive is pretty regular in English. Thus, when the word oiot 
 comes between an indicative, imperative, or subjunctive mood 
 and an infinitive verb, it almost always is taken with the 
 word which it follows — / can not eat may mean either I can 
 — not eat {i.e., I can abstain), or I can not — eat (i.e., I am un- 
 able to eat) ; but, as stated above, it almost always has the 
 latter signification. 
 
 But not always. In Byron's " Deformed Traiisformod " 
 we find the following lines : —
 
 4i)(> SYNTAX OF TliR NKGATIVK. 
 
 Clay ! not iload but soulless, 
 
 Tlioupfh no mortal man would choose thee, 
 
 An iuiniort.il no less 
 
 Deigns nut to refuse tiiet'. 
 
 Here not to refuse = io accept ; and is i)robably a Grecism. 
 To not refuse would, perhaps, be better. 
 
 The next expression is still more foreign to the English 
 idiom : — 
 
 For not to have been dipped in Lethe's lake 
 Could s(>vc the son of Thetis from to die. 
 
 Here 7iot is to be taken with could. 
 
 § 626. In tiie present English, two negatives make an 
 affirmative. / have not not feen him = I have seen him. In 
 Greek this was not the case. Daco aut lylures negative apud 
 Grt£cos vehementiiis negant is a well-known rule. The Anglo- 
 Saxon idiom differed from the English and coincided with the 
 Greek. The French negative is only apparently double ; 
 words like point, p>as, mean not not, but at all. Je ne parle 
 pas = I not speak at all, not / not speak no. 
 
 §627. Questions of appeal. — All questions imply want of 
 information ; want of information may then imply doubt ; 
 doubt, perplexity : and perplexity the absence of an alterna- 
 tive. In this way, what are called, by Mr. Arnold,* questions 
 of appeal, are, practically speaking, negatives. What should 
 I do ? when asked in extreme perplexity, means that nothing 
 can well be done. In the following passage we have the 
 presence of a question instead of a negative: — 
 
 Or hear'st thou {cUds, Lat.) rather pure scthcrial stream, 
 Whose fountain who {no one) shall tell ] 
 
 Paradise Lost. 
 
 § 628. The following extract from the Philological Mu- 
 seum (vol. ii.) illustrates a curious and minute distinction, 
 which the author shows to have been current when Wicliffe 
 wrote, but which was becoming obsolete when Sir Thomas 
 More wrote. It is an extract from that writer against 
 Tyndall. 
 
 * Latin Prose Composition, p. 123.
 
 SYNTAX OF THE NEGATIVE. 407 
 
 " I would not here note by the way that Tyndall here 
 translateth no for ^mi/, for it is but a trifle and mistaking of 
 the Englishe worde : saving that ye shoulde see that he whych 
 in two so plain Englishe wordes, and so common as in naye 
 and no can not tell when he should take the one and when 
 the tother, is not for translating into Englishe a man very 
 mete. For the use of these two wordes in aunswering a ques- 
 tion is this. No aunswercth the question framed by the 
 affirmative. As for ensample if a manne should aske Tindall 
 himselfe : ys an heretike meete to translate Holy Scripture 
 into Englishe ? lo to thys question if he will aunswere trew 
 Englishe, he must aunswere na7/ and not no. But and if the 
 question be asked hym thus lo : is not an heretike mete to 
 translate Holy Scripture into Englishe ? To this question if 
 he will aunswere trewe Englishe, he must aunswere no and 
 not nay. And a lyke difference is there betwene these two 
 adverbs ye and yes. For if the question bee framed unto 
 Tindall by the affirmative in thys fashion. If an hcretique 
 falsely translate the New Testament into Englishe, to make 
 his false heresyes seem the word of Godde, be his bokes 
 worthy to be burned ? To this questyon asked in thys 
 wyse, yf he will aunswere true Englishe, he must aunswere 
 ye and not yes. But now if the question be asked him thus 
 lo ; by the negative. If an heretike falsely translate the 
 Newe Testament into Englishe to make his false heresyes 
 seme the word of God, be not hys bokes well worthy to be 
 burned ? To thys question in thys fashion framed if he will 
 aunswere trewe Englishe he may not aunswere ye but he 
 must answere yes, and say yes marry be they, bothe the trans- 
 lation and the translatour, and al that wyll hold wyth them."
 
 l!)8 THE CASE AUSOLUTK. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 ON THE CASE ARSOLUTE. 
 
 § ()29. Broadly speaking, all adverbial construct Ions are 
 absolute. The tei*m, however, is conveniently limited to a 
 particular combination of the noun, verb, and i)articiple. 
 When two actions are connected with each other either by 
 the fact of their simultaneous occurrence, or as cause and 
 effect, they may be expressed within the limits of a single pro- 
 position, by expressing the one by means of a verb, and the 
 other by means of a noun and participle agreeing with each 
 other. The door being open^ the horse was stolen. 
 
 Considering the nature of tlie connection between the two 
 actions, we find good grounds for expecting a priori that the 
 jiarticiple will be in the instrumental case, when such exists 
 in the language ; and when not, in some case allied to it, i.e.^ 
 the ablative or dative. 
 
 In Latin the ablative is the case that is used absolutely. 
 Sole orto, claruit dies. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon the absolute case was the dative. This is 
 logical. 
 
 In the present English, however, the nominative is the 
 absolute case, ffe made the best proverbs^ him alone excepted., 
 is an expression of Tillotson's. We should now write he 
 alone excepted. The present mode of expression is only to be 
 justified by considering the nominative form to be a dative 
 one, just as in the expression you are here, the word you, 
 although an accusative, is considered as a nominative. A 
 real nominative absolute is as illogical as a real accusative 
 case governing a verb.
 
 PART VI. 
 
 ON THE PROSODY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 § 630. Prosody deals with metre ; and with accent, quan- 
 tity and the articulate sounds, as subordinate to metre. 
 For these the reader is referred to Part III. Chapters 1. 
 6.7. 
 
 Metre is a general term for the recurrence, within certain 
 intervals, of syllables similarly affected. 
 
 Syllables may be similarly affected : 1. in respect to their 
 quantities ; 2. in respect to their accents ; 3. in respect to 
 their articulations. 
 
 1. 
 
 Palai kynsegStounta kai mgtroumSnon. 
 
 IlaXdt KvvfJYeTovvTa Kai jjierpovfievov. — SoPH. Ajax, 3. 
 
 Here there is the recurrence of similar quantities. 
 
 2. 
 The way was long, the wind was cold. 
 
 Lay of the Last Minstrel. 
 
 Here there is the recurrence of similar accents. 
 
 3. 
 
 The way was long, the wind was cold, 
 The minstrel was infirm and old. — Ditto. 
 
 Here, besides the recurrence of similar accents, there is a re- 
 currence of the same articulate sounds ; viz. of o + Id. 
 
 § 631. Metres founded upon the periodic recurrence of 
 similar articulations are of two sorts. 
 
 1. Alliterative metres. — In alliterative metres a certain 
 
 KK 2
 
 oOO TTTK PHOSODY OF 
 
 nuin1)or of words, williin a ccitaiii j)c'rio(l, must befjfin with a 
 similar arlioulation. 
 
 Ill Caiiu's fyimo 
 
 ^onv fwcalin ycwiax". 
 
 CyKDMON. 
 
 Alliteration is the general character of all the earli/ Gothic 
 metres. (See Rask's Aufjlo-Saxon Grammar, llask, On the Ice- 
 landic Prosody, and Conjbeare, On Anglo-Saxon Poetry.') 
 
 2. Assonant metres. — In assonant metres a certain number 
 of words, within a certain period, must end with a similar 
 articulation. All rhymes and all approaches to rhyme, form 
 the assonant metres. The word assonant has a limited as well 
 as a general sense. 
 
 § 632. All metre goes by the name of poetry, although all 
 poetry is not metrical. The Hebrew poetry {see Lowth, De 
 Sacra Poesi Hehraoruni) is characterized by the recurrence 
 of similar ideas. 
 
 § 633. The metres of the classical languages consist essen- 
 t'laUy in the recurrence of similar quantities ; accent also 
 playing a part. The incompatibility of the classical metres 
 with the English prosody lies in the fact (stated at p. ] ^^')., 
 that the classic icriter measures quantity ly the length of the syl- 
 lable taJcen altogether, while the Englishman measures it hy the 
 length of the vowel alone. 
 
 § 634. The English metres consist essentially of the recur- 
 rence of similar accents ; the recurrence of similar articula- 
 tions being sometimes (as in all rhyming poetry) supei-added. 
 
 § 635. In the specimen of alliteration lately quoted the only 
 articulation that occurred was the letter c. It is very evident 
 that the two, the three, or the four first letters, or even the 
 whole syllable, might have coincided. Such is the case with 
 the following lines from Lord Byron : 
 
 Already doubled is tlie cape, the bay 
 
 Keceives the prow, tliat pjvudly spurns the s^ray. 
 
 Alliteration, as an ornament, must be distinguished from 
 alliteration as the essential character of metre. Alliteration, 
 as an ornament, is liable to many varieties.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 501 
 
 § 63b\ Rhyme. — In English versification, rhyme is, next to 
 accent, the most important element. The true nature of a 
 rhyme may best be exhibited after the analysis of a syllable, 
 and the exhibition of certain recurrent combinations, that look 
 like rhyme without being- so. 
 
 Let the syllable told be taken to pieces. For metrical 
 purposes it consists of three parts or elements : 1, the vowel 
 (o) ; 2, the part preceding the vowel {t) ; 8, the part follow- 
 ing the vowel {Id). The same may be done with the word 
 hold. The two words can now be compared with each other. 
 The comparison shows that the vowel is in each the same (o) ; 
 that the part following the vowel {Id) is the same ; and, 
 finally, that the part preceding the vowel is different {t and h). 
 This difference between the part preceding the vowel is 
 essential. 
 
 Told^ compared with itself {told)., is no rhyme, but an 
 homoeoteleiiton {ofjjo7og, homoios = like, and nXevrri, teleuta 
 = end) or like-ending. It differs from a rhyme in having the 
 parts preceding the vowel alike. Absolute identity of termi- 
 nation is not recognized in English poetry, except so far as it 
 is mistaken for rhyme. 
 
 The soft-flowing outline tliut steals from the eye, 
 Who threw o'er the surface ? did you or did 1 ? 
 
 Whitehead. 
 
 Here the difference in spelling simulates a difference in sound, 
 and a homceoteleuton takes the appearance of a rhyme. 
 
 Bold and note. — As compared with each other, these words 
 have two of the elements of a rhyme : viz. the identity of the 
 vowel, and the difference of the parts preceding it. They 
 want, however, the third essential, or the identity of the parts 
 following ; Id being different from t. The coincidence, how- 
 ever, as far as it goes, constitutes a point in metre. The 
 words in question are assonances in the limited sense of the 
 term ; and because the identity lies in the vowels., they may 
 be named vowel assonances. Vowel assonances are recog- 
 nized in (amongst others) the Spanish and Scandinavian me- 
 trical systems. In English they occur only when they j)ass 
 as rhymes.
 
 508 THE PROSODY OF 
 
 liuhl and wi //(/. — Here also are two of the elements of a 
 rhyme, viz., the identity of the parts following the vowel {Id), 
 and the ditloience of the jiarts precedinij^ {h and m). The 
 identity of the vowel (o being ditfercnt from i) is, however, 
 wanting. The words in question are assonances in the limited 
 sense of the term, and consonantal assonances. Recognized 
 iu the Scandinavian, they occur in English only when they 
 pass as rhymes. 
 
 Rhymes may consist of a single syllable, as told, hold, of 
 two syllables, as icater, daughter; of three, as cheerily, tcea- 
 rily. Now, the rhyme begins where the dissimilarity of parts 
 immediately before the main vowel begins. Then follows the 
 vowel ; and, lastly, the parts after the vowel. All the parts 
 after the vowel must be absolutely identical. Mere similarity 
 is insufficient. 
 
 Then come ere a minute's gone, 
 
 For the long summer day 
 Puts its wings, swift as linnets^ on, 
 For flying away.— Clare.* 
 
 In the lines just quoted there is no rhyme, but an asso- 
 nance. The identity of the parts after the main syllable is 
 destroyed by the single sound of g in gone. 
 
 A rhyme, to be perfect, must fall on syllables equally 
 accented. — To make ski/ and the last syllable of merri/y serve 
 as rhymes, is to couple an accented syllable with an un- 
 accented one. 
 
 A rhyme, to be perfect, must fall upon syllables absolutely 
 accented. — To make the last syllables of words like flighty 
 and merrily serve as rhymes, is to couple together two unac- 
 cented syllables. 
 
 Hence there may be (as in the case of blank verse) accent 
 without rhyme ; but there cannot be rhyme without accent. 
 
 A rhyme consists in the combination of like and unlike 
 sounds. — Words like / and e^e (homoeoteleuta), ease and cease 
 (vowel assonances), love and grove (consonantal assonances), 
 are printers' rhymes ; or mere combinations of like and unlike 
 letters. 
 
 * Quoted from (Juest's English Rhythms.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 503 
 
 A rhyme, moreover, consists in the combination of hke and 
 unlike articulate sounds. Hit and it are not rhymes, but 
 identical endings ; the h being no articulation. To my ear, 
 at least, the pair of words, hit and it, comes under a different 
 class from the pair hit (or it) and ^nt. 
 
 § 637. A full and perfect rhyme (the term being strin- 
 gently defined) consists in the recurrence of one or more final 
 syllables equally and absolutely accented^ wherein the vowel and 
 the fart folloioing the •voioel shall he identical^ whilst the part 
 preceding the votvel shall he different. It is also necessary that 
 the part preceding the vowel be articulate* 
 
 The deviations from the above-given rule, so common in 
 the poetry of all languages, constitute not rhymes, but asso- 
 nances, &c., that, by poetic licence, are recognized as equiva- 
 lents to rhymes. 
 
 § 638. Measure. — In lines like the following, the accent 
 occurs on every second syllable ; in other words, every ac- 
 cented syllable is accompanied by an unaccented one. 
 
 The way was long, the wind was cold. 
 
 This accented syllable and its accompanying unaccented one 
 constitute a oneasure. The number of the syllables being two, 
 the measure in question is dissyllabic. 
 
 § 639. In lines like the following the accent falls on every 
 third syllable, so that the number of syllables to the measure 
 is three, and the measure is trisyllabic. 
 
 At the close of the day when the hamlet is still. — Beattie. 
 The primary division of the English measures is into the 
 dissyllabic and the trisyllabic. 
 
 * To the definition in the text, words like old and hold form no excep- 
 tion. At the first view it may be objected that in words like old there is no 
 part preceding the vowel. Compared, however, with bold, the negation of 
 that part constitutes a difference. The same applies to words like go and 
 lo, where the negation of a part following the vowel is a point of identity. 
 Furthermore, I may observe, that the word part is used in the singular 
 number. The assertion is not that every individual sound preceding the 
 vowel must be different, but that the aggregate of tlicm must be so. Hence, 
 pray and bray (where the r is common to both forms) form as true a rhyme 
 as bray and play, where all the sounds preceding a, differ.
 
 'A)l 'I'lIK rivOSoDY OK 
 
 § tl M». /H.<.<///((i/)i(' iiKoxuriK. — 'J'lie words f//raii( :iiul jirc- 
 siiiiiiiuv i'iiii;illy (lissyllalilc nioasures ; in one, howcvor, tlic 
 accent falls (»n tlu' lirst, in the other on the second syllable. 
 This loads ns to a farther division of the English measures. 
 
 A measure like ^>/V6V<mt' (where the accent lies on the 
 second syllable) may be repeated throughout a whole verse, 
 or a whole series of verses ; as, 
 
 Tlicn fare tlico well mine own dear love ; 
 
 Tlie world has now for us 
 No greater grief, no pain above, 
 
 The pain of parting thus. — Mooue. 
 
 Here the accent falls on the second syllable of the measure. 
 
 A measure like tyrant (where the accent lies on the first 
 syllable) may be repeated throughout a whole verse, or a 
 whole series of verses ; as, 
 
 Ile'ed ! O heed, my fatal story ; 
 
 I' am Hosier's injured ghost ; 
 Come to seek for f;inie and glory, 
 
 For the glory I' have lost. — Glovk.u. 
 
 The number of dissyllabic measures is, of necessity, limited 
 to two. 
 
 § 641. Trlsf/llabic measures. — The words merrily^ disable^ 
 cavalier^ are equally trisyllabic, but not similarly accented. 
 Each constitutes a separate measure, which may be continued 
 through a whole verse, or a whole series of verses ; as, 
 
 I. 
 
 Merrily, merrily, shall I live now, 
 
 U'nder the blossom that hangs on the hough. 
 
 'i'tnqital . 
 
 2. 
 But vainly thou warrcst ; 
 For this is alone in 
 
 Thy power to declare : 
 That in the dim forest 
 Thou iieard'st a low moaning, 
 
 And saw'st a brigiit lady surjiassingly fair. 
 
 Cliriduhcl.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 505 
 
 There 's a beauty for e'ver unfadingly bright ; 
 
 Like the long ruddy lapse of a sumrner-day's night. • 
 
 Lalla Rook/i, 
 
 The number of trisyllabic measures is, of necessity, limited 
 to three. 
 
 § 642. The nature of measures may, as we have already 
 seen, be determined by the proportion of the accented and 
 unaccented syllables. It may also be determined by the pro- 
 portion of the long and short syllables. In the one ease we 
 measure by the accent, in the other by the quantity. Mea- 
 sures determined by the quantity are called feet. The word 
 foot being thus defined, we have no feet in the English metres ; 
 since in English we determine our measures by accent only. 
 
 The classical grammarians express their feet by symbols ; 
 
 " denoting length, " shortness. Forms like " " &c., 
 
 are the symbolical representations of the classical feet. 
 
 The classical grammarians have names for their feet; e.(/., 
 iambic is the name of ^ , trochee of ", dactyle of " " ., amphi- 
 brachys of'", Anapast of " , &c. 
 
 The English grammarians have no symbols for their feet : 
 since they have no form for expressing the absence of the 
 accent. Sometimes they borrow the classical forms" and". 
 These, however, being originally meant for the expression of 
 quantitT/^ confusion arises from the use of them. 
 
 Neither have the English grammarians names for their 
 measures. Sometimes, they borrotv the classical terms iambic, 
 trochee, &c. These, however, being meant for the expression 
 of quantity, confusion arises from the use of them. 
 
 As symbols for the English measures, I indicate the use of 
 a as denoting an accented, x an unaccented syllable ; or else 
 that of + as denoting an accented, — an unaccented syllable. 
 Finally, ' may denote the accent, " the absence of it. 
 
 As names for the English measures I have nothing to offer. 
 At times it is convenient to suppose that they have a definite 
 order of an*angement, and to call words like tyrant thcj^r.s^ 
 measure, and words like presume the second measure. In 
 like manner, merrily is measure 3 ; disable, 4 ; and cavalier, 
 5. As the number of measures is (from the necessity of the 
 case) limited, this can be done conveniently. The classical
 
 606 TIIK I'ROSODY OF 
 
 iiainos arc iiovcr used with imi)Uiilty. Tlirir adoption iii- 
 varialdy I'liycmlors conf'u.sion. It is very true Ihiit^ iimtai is 
 mutandis [i. e., accent being substituted for (juantity), words 
 like tiinint and presume are troclieos and iambics ; but it is 
 also true that, with the connnon nomenclature, the lull extent 
 of the change is rarely appreciated. 
 
 Symbolically expressed, the following forms denote the 
 following measures : 
 
 1. H J or ' •• , or « j: = tfirunt. 
 
 2. 1- J or" ' , or X a =■ presume. 
 
 3. -| , or ' '• **, or a j: r = mcriilt/. 
 
 4. ( , or ■ ■ ' " J OT X a X = disable. 
 
 5. 1-, or "■ " ' , ox X X a ^= cavulier. 
 
 On these measures the following general assertions may be 
 made ; vis. 
 
 That the dissyllabic measures are, in English, commoner 
 tlian the trisyllabic. 
 
 That, of the dissyllabic measures, the second is commoner 
 than the first. 
 
 That of the trisyllabic measures, No. S is the least common 
 
 That however much one measure may predominate in a 
 series of verses, it is rarely unmixed with others. In 
 
 Tyrants swim safest in a purple flood — 
 
 Marlowe — 
 
 the measure a x appears in the place of x a. This is but a 
 single example of a very general fact, and of a subject liable 
 to a multiplicity of rules. 
 
 § G4o. Grouped together according to certain rules, mea- 
 sures constitute lines or verses ; and grouped together accord- 
 ing to certain rules, lines constitute couplets, triplets, stan- 
 zas, &c. 
 
 The absence or the presence of rhyme constitutes blank 
 verse, or rhyming verse. 
 
 The succession, or periodic return, of rhymes constitutes 
 stanzas, or continuous metre as the case may be. 
 
 The quantity of rhymes in succession constitutes couplets, 
 or triplets. 
 
 The quantity of accents in a line constitutes the nature of 
 the verse, taken by itself.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 507 
 
 The succession, or periodic return, of verses of the same 
 length has the same effect with the succession, or periodic 
 return, of rhymes ; viz., it constitutes stanzas, or continuous 
 metre, as the case may be. 
 
 This leads to the nomenclature of the English metres. Of 
 these, none in any of the trisyllabic measures have recognized 
 and technical names ; neither have any that are referable to 
 the measure a x. 
 
 § 644. Taking, however, those that are named, we have 
 the following list of terms. 
 
 1. Octosyllabics. — Four measures x a, and (unless the 
 rhyme be double) eight syllables. Common in Sir W. Scott's 
 poetry. 
 
 The way was long the wind was cold. 
 
 Lay of the Lust Minstrel. 
 
 2. Heroics. — Five measures x a. This is the common 
 measure in narrative and didactic poetry. 
 
 To err is human, to forgive divine. 
 
 3. Alexandrines. — Six measures x a. This name is said 
 to be taken from the early romances on the deeds of Alex- 
 ander the Great. 
 
 He lifted up his hand | that back againe did start. — Spenser. 
 
 4. Service metre. — Seven measures x a. This is the com- 
 mon metre of the psalm- versions. Thence its name. 
 
 But one request I made to him | that sits the skies above, 
 That I were freely out of debt | as I were out of love. 
 
 Sir John Suckling. 
 
 § 645. Such are the names of certain lines or verses taken 
 by themselves. Combined or divided they form — 
 
 1. Heroic couplets. — Heroics, in rhyming couplets, succes- 
 sive. — 
 
 'Tis hard to say if greater want of skill 
 Appear in writing or in judging ill. 
 
 Essay on Criticism. 
 
 The heroic couplet is called also riding rhyme ; it being the 
 metre wherein Chaucer''s Canterbury Tales (told by a party 
 riding to Canterbury) are chiefly written.
 
 o08 TlIK PROSODY OF 
 
 2. Heroic friphi.'f. — Same as the precedluuf, oxc-opt that 
 throe rhyinos fonie in succession, 
 
 3. lihuik verse, — Heroics without rhyme. 
 
 4. Eh'nlacs. — Tlie metre of Gray's Elegy. Heroics in four- 
 Hne stan/as with alternate rhymes. 
 
 5. R/if/me royal. — Seven lines of heroics, with the last two 
 rhymes successive, and the first five recurring' at intervals. 
 Sometimes the last line is an Alexandrine. There are va- 
 rieties in this metre according to the intervals of the first 
 five rhymes : — ■ 
 
 This Troilus in gift of curtcsie 
 
 Witli haukc on liund, ami witii u huge rout 
 
 Of knights, rode and did her conipanie 
 Passing all the valey far without, 
 And ferther would have ridden out of doubt, 
 
 Full faine, and wo was him to gone so sone, 
 
 And tourne lie must, and it was eke to doen. 
 
 Chaucer's Troilus. 
 
 6. Ottava rinia. — The metre in Italian for narrative poetry. 
 Eight lines of heroics ; the first six rhyming alternately, the 
 last two in succession. — Byron's Don Juan in English, Or- 
 lando Furioso, &c., in Italian. 
 
 7. Spenserian stanza. — Eight lines of heroics closed by an 
 Alexandrine. There are varieties of this metre according to 
 the interval of the rhymes. 
 
 8. Terza rima. — Taken from the Italian, where it is the 
 metre of Dante's Divina Commedia. Heroics with three 
 rhymes recurring at intervals. — Lord Byron's Prophecy of 
 Dante. 
 
 9. Poulterers measure. — Alexandrines and service mea- 
 sures alternately. Found in the poetry of Henry the Eighth's 
 time. 
 
 10. Ballad metre. — Stanzas of four lines; the first and 
 third having four, the second and fourth having three mea- 
 sures each. Ilhymes alternate. 
 
 Turn, gentle hermit of the dale. 
 
 And guide thy lonely way, 
 To where yon ta]ier eheers the vale 
 With hu.-^iiitablc ray. 
 
 Edwin and Aniiciuia.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 509 
 
 § 646. Scansion — Let the stanza just quoted Le read as 
 two lines, and it will be seen that a couplet of ballad metre is 
 equivalent to a line of service metre. Such, indeed, was the 
 origin of the ballad metre. Observe also the pause (marked 
 I ) both in the Alexandrine and the service metres. This in- 
 dicates a question as to where lines end; in other words, 
 how can we distinguish one long line from two short 
 ones. 
 
 It may, perhaps, partake of the nature of a metrical fic- 
 tion to consider that (in all rhyming poetry) the length of the 
 verse is determined by the occurrence of the rhyme. Never- 
 theless, as the matter cannot be left to the printer only, and 
 as some definition is requisite, the one in point is attended by 
 as few inconveniences as any other. It must not, however, 
 be concealed that lines as short as 
 
 It screamed and growled, | and cracked and howled — 
 
 it treats as two ; and that lines as long as 
 
 Where Virtue wants and Vice abounds, 
 And Wealth is but a baited hook — 
 
 it reduces to a single verse. 
 
 § 64)7. In metres of measure a a?, the number of syllables 
 is double the number of accents, unless the final rhyme be 
 single ; in which case the syllables are the fewest. 
 
 In metres of measure x a the number of syllables is double 
 the number of accents, unless the rhyme be double (or treble) ; 
 in which case the syllables are the most numerous. 
 
 Now this view (which may be carried throughout the 
 whole five measures) of the proportion between the accents 
 and the syllables, taken with the fact that it is determined 
 by the nature of the final syllable, indicates a division of our 
 metres into symmetrical (where the number of the syllables 
 is the multiple of the number of accents), and unsymmetrical 
 (where it is not so). 
 
 For practical purposes, however, the length of the last 
 measure may be considered as indifl'erent, and the terms indi- 
 cated may be reserved for the forthcoming class of metres.
 
 510 THE TROSODV OF 
 
 § (!1.S. Of [ho molros in t|m\sli()ii, (/oloridgo\s Cliristabol 
 and I {y ion's Sii'go of Corinth are the current specimens. In 
 the latter we have the couplet : 
 
 lie sat liiiii Jown at ii pillar's base, 
 Ami tlri'-w his liaiid iitliwiirt his face. 
 
 In the second of these lines, the accents and the syllables 
 are symmetrical ; which is not the case with the first. Now 
 to every, or an}^, accent in the second line an additional un- 
 accented syllable may be added, and the movement be still 
 preserved. It is the fact of the accents and syllables (irre- 
 spective of the latitude allowed to the final measure) being 
 here unsymmetrical (or, if symmetrical, only so by accident) 
 that gives to the metres in question their peculiar character. 
 Added to this, the change from cc x a, to as a x, and a x x, is 
 more frequent than elsewhere. One point respecting them 
 must be borne in mind ; vh., that they are essentially trisyl- 
 labic metres from which unaccented syllables are withdrawn, 
 rather than dissyllabic ones wherein unaccented syllables are 
 inserted. 
 
 § 649. Of measures of one, and of measures of four syllables 
 the occurrence is rare, and perhaps equivocal. 
 
 § 650. The majority of English words are of the form a x ; 
 that is, words like tyrant are commoner than words like 
 jyresume. 
 
 The majority of English metres are of the form x a ; that 
 is, lines like 
 
 The wdi/ was long, the wind was cold 
 
 are commoner than lines like 
 
 Qiieen and huntress chaste and fair. 
 
 The multitude of unaccentuated words like the, from, &c., 
 taken along with the fact that they precede the words with 
 which they agree, or which they govern, accounts for the 
 ai)parent antagonism between the formulse of our words and 
 the formulie of our metres. The contrast between a Swedish 
 line of the form a x, and its literal English version (x a).
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 511 
 
 shows this. In Swedish, the secondary part of the construc- 
 tion /o?^o^cs, in English it precedes, the main word: — 
 
 Swedish. Varen kdmme?- ; fiigle« qvittrar ; skdve« Idfvas ; 
 
 s61e« \€i, 
 English. The spring is come ; the bird is blythe ; the wood is green ; 
 
 the sun is bright. 
 
 This is quoted for the sake of showing the bearing of the 
 etymology and syntax of a language upon its prosody. 
 
 § 651. The classical metres as read hy Englishmen. — In 
 p. 500 it is stated that " the metres of the classical lan- 
 guages consist essentially in the recurrence of similar quan- 
 tities ; accent playing a part.''"' Now there are reasons for 
 investigating the facts involved in this statement more 
 closely than has hitherto been done ; since the following cir- 
 cumstances make some inquiry into the extent of the differ- 
 ences between the English and the classical systems of metre, 
 an appropriate element of a work upon the English language. 
 
 1 . The classical poets are authors preeminently familiarized 
 to the educated English reader. 
 
 2. The notions imbibed from a study of the classical pros- 
 odies have been unduly mixed up with those which should 
 have been derived more especially from the poetry of the 
 Gothic nations. 
 
 3. The attempt to introduce (so-called) Latin and Greek 
 metres into the Gothic tongues, has been partially successful 
 on the Continent, and not unattempted in Great Britain. 
 
 § 652. The first of these statements requires no comment. 
 
 The second, viz., " that the notions imbibed, &c." will 
 bear some illustration ; an illustration which verifies the as- 
 sertion made in p. 505, that the English grammarians " some- 
 times borrow the classical terms iambic, trochee,'''' &c., and 
 apply them to their own metres. 
 
 How is this done ? In two ways, one of which is wholly 
 incorrect, the other partially correct, but inconvenient. 
 
 To imagine that we have in English, for the practical 
 purposes of prosody, syllables long in quantity or short in 
 quantity, syllables capable of being arranged in groups con-
 
 5J2 TIIK TKOSODY <>F 
 
 stiliiting iVol, nii'l feet nil;i|)(('(l for tlio conslruction of lio.va- 
 iiiotros, pcutainotros, sa|)|)liics, aiul alcaics, Just as tho Latins 
 and (Jrooks had, is \vliolly incorrect. The English system 
 of vorsilication is founded, not upon the periodic recurrence 
 of siniihir quantities, but upon the periodic recurrence of 
 similar accents. 
 
 The less incorrect metliod consists in giving up all ideas of 
 the existence of quantit?/, in the proper sense of the word, as 
 an essential clement in English metre ; whilst we admit 
 accent as its equivalent; in which case the presence of an 
 accent is supposed to have the same import as the lengthen- 
 ing and the absence of one, as the shortening of a syllabic ; so 
 that, mutatis mutandis, a is the ecjuivalent to , and x to . 
 
 In this case the metrical notation for — 
 
 The Wciy was long, the wind was cold — 
 Merrily, merrily, shall I live now — 
 would be, not — 
 
 ,r a, X a, ,r «, ,r a, 
 a ,r .r, a x x, a x x, a 
 
 respectively, but — 
 
 Again — 
 
 is not — 
 but 
 
 As they splash in the blood of the slippery street, 
 
 X X a, X X a, x x a, x x n. 
 
 § 653. With this view there are a certain number of 
 classical feet, witli their syllables affected in the way of 
 quantity, to which they are equivalent English measures with 
 their syllables affected in the way of accent. Thus if the 
 formula 
 
 A,"" be a classical, the formula a x is an Enghsh trochee. 
 
 "> jj „ X a „ iambus. 
 
 ^> j> }, ax X „ dactyle. 
 
 ^'> 3j „ X a x „ amphibiachijs. 
 
 >} „ X X a „ aiiapcest. 
 
 E,
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 513 
 
 And so on in respect to the larger groups of similarly 
 affected syllables which constitute whole lines and stanzas ; 
 verses like 
 
 A, Come to seek for fame and glory — 
 
 B, The way was long, the wind was cold — 
 c. Merrily, merrily shall I live now — 
 
 D. But vainly thou warrest — 
 
 E. At the close of the day when the hamlet is still — 
 
 are (a), trochaic ; (b), iambic ; (c), dactylic ; (d), amplii- 
 brachych ; and (e), anapsestic, respectively. 
 
 And so, with the exception of the word ampJiibrachych 
 (which I do not remember to have seen) the terms have 
 been used. And so, with the same exception, systems of 
 versification have been classified. 
 
 § 654. Reasons against the classical nomenclature as applied 
 to English metres. — These lie in the two following fiicts : — 
 
 1 . Certain English metres have often a very different cha- 
 racter from their supposed classical analogues. 
 
 2. Certain classical feet have no English equivalents. 
 
 § 655. Certain English metres have often a very different me- 
 trical character., &SC' — Compare such a so-called English ana- 
 paest as — 
 
 As they splash in the blood of the slippery street — 
 with 
 
 Ae/caroj/ /xei/ eros toK enti IIpiafJLOV. 
 
 For the latter line to have the same movement as the former, 
 it must be read thus — 
 
 Dekaton men etos to d' cpei Priamou. 
 
 Now Ave well know that, whatever may be any English scho- 
 lar's notions of the Greek accents, this is not the way in 
 which he reads Greek anapaests. 
 
 Again the trochaic movement of the iambic senarius is a 
 point upon which the most exclusive Greek metrists have 
 insisted ; urging the necessity of reading (for example) the 
 first line in the Hecuba — 
 
 Hse'ko nckron kcntlmiona kai skotou pylas.
 
 .'iU THE PROSODY OF 
 
 rallior th;m — 
 
 Ilii'kd lu'kriiii keutliin()iia kai skotou pylas. 
 
 § 65G. I have said that certain English metres have often a 
 very different metrical character, &c. I can strengthen tlie 
 reasons against the use of classical terms in English prosody, 
 by enlarging upon the word often. The frequency of the 
 occurrence of a difterence of character between classical and 
 English metres similarly named is not a matter of accident, 
 but is, in many cases, a necessity arising out of the structure 
 of the English language as compared with that of the Greek 
 and Latin — especially the Greek. 
 
 With the exception of the so-called second futures, there is 
 no word in Greek whereof the last syllable is accented. 
 Hence, no English line ending with an accented syllable can 
 have a Greek equivalent. Accent for accent — 
 
 Typto, ' Voco = Tyrant, 
 
 Ti/ptomen, Scrihere = Merrily, 
 Keuthmona, Vidhtis = Disable, 
 
 but no Greek word (with the exception of the so-called second 
 futures like H[jjCo = 'nem6) and (probably) no Latin word at 
 all, is accented like presume and cavalier. 
 
 From this it follows that although the first three measures 
 of such so-called Enghsh anapaests as — 
 
 As they splasli in the blood of tlie sh'ppery street, 
 
 may be represented by Greek equivalents {i. e., equivalents in 
 the way of accent) — 
 
 Ep' omoisi feroiisi ta klci'na — 
 
 a parallel to the last measure (-ery street) can only be got at 
 by one of two methods ; i. e., by making the verse end in a 
 so-called second future, or else in a vowel preceded by an ac- 
 cented syllable, and cut off — 
 
 Ep' omdi&i ferdusi ta klei'na nemo —
 
 TUB ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 515 
 
 or, 
 
 Ep' omoisi ferdnsi ta kleina prosop'.* 
 
 Now it is clear that when, over and above the fact of certain 
 Greek metres having a different movement from their supposed 
 English equivalents, there is the additional circumstance of 
 such an incompatibility being less an accident than a neces- 
 sary effect of difference of character in the two languages, the 
 use of terms suggestive of a closer likeness than either does 
 or ever can exist is to be condemned ; and this is the case 
 with the words, dactylic, ti'ochaic, iambic, anapastic, as ap- 
 plied to English versification. 
 
 § 657. Certain classical feet have no English equivalents. — 
 Whoever has considered the principles of English prosody, 
 must have realized the important fact that, ex vi termini, no 
 English measure can have either more or less than one accented 
 syllable. 
 
 On the other hand, the classical metrists have several mea- 
 sures in both predicaments. Thus to go no farther than the 
 trisyllabic feet, we have the pyrrhic ("" ) and tribrach ( " ) 
 without a long syllable at all, and the spondee ("), amphi- 
 macer ( '), and molossus (" ) with more than one long syl- 
 lable. It follows, then that {q\ en mutatis mutandis, i.e., with 
 the accent considered as the equivalent to the long syllable) 
 English pyrrhics, English tribrachs, English amphimacers, 
 English spondees, and English molossi are, each and all, pros- 
 odial impossibilities. 
 
 It is submitted to the reader that the latter reason (based 
 wholly upon the limitations that arise out of the structure 
 of language) strengthens the objections of the previous sec- 
 tion. 
 
 § 658. The classical metres metrical even to English readers. 
 The attention of the reader is directed to the difficulty in- 
 volved in the following (apparently or partially) contradic- 
 tory facts. 
 
 1. Accent and quantity differ; and the metrical systems 
 founded upon them differ also. 
 
 * For prosupa. Tlic Greek hus been transliterated into Englisli for the 
 sake of showing tlic effeet of tlie accents more conveniently. 
 
 L 1, 2
 
 .TIG TTTi', rnopoDY or 
 
 2. The classical systems aro foun<lo(l u|)oii quantity. 
 
 0. The English upon accent. 
 
 4. Nevertheless, notwithstanding the dilference of the prin- 
 ciple upon which they are constructed, the classical metres, 
 even as read by lOnglishmen, and read accentually^ are metri- 
 cal to English ears. 
 
 § 65!). Preliminary to the investigation of the problem in 
 question it is necessary to remark — 
 
 1. That, the correctness or incorrectness of the English 
 ]nonunciation of the dead languages has nothing to do with 
 the matter. Whether wc read Homer exactly, as Homer 
 would read his own immortal poems, or whether we read 
 them in such a way as would be unintelligible to Homer re- 
 appearing upon earth, is perfectly indiiferent. 
 
 2. That whether, as was indicated by the author of Mgr^ov 
 tt^KTTOv, we pronounce the anap;cst patulw, precisely as we pro- 
 nounce the dactyle Tltyre^ or draw a distinction between 
 them is also indifferent. However much, as is done in sonic 
 of the schools, we may say scri-here rather than scrib-ere. or am- 
 or, rather than a-mor, under the notion that we are lengthening 
 or shortening certain syllables, one unsurmountable dilemma 
 stiU remains, viz., that the shorter we pronounce the vowel, 
 the more we suggest the notion of the consonant which fol- 
 lows it being doubled ; whilst double consonants lengthen the 
 vowel which precedes them. Hence, whilst it is certain that 
 •patult and Tityre may be pronounced (and that without 
 hurting the metre) so as to be both of the same quantity, it 
 is doubtful what that quantity is. Sound for sound Tityre 
 may be as short as patulec. Sound for sound pattal<£ may be 
 as long as Titty re. 
 
 Hence, the only assumptions requisite are — 
 
 a. That Englishmen do not read the classical metres ac- 
 cording to their quantities. 
 
 h. That, nevertheless, they find metre in them. 
 
 § 660. Why are the classical metres metrical to English 
 readers ? — Notwithstanding the extent to which quantity 
 differs from accent, there Is no metre so exclusively founded 
 u])on the former as to be without a certain amount of the
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 517 
 
 latter ; and in the majority (at least) of the classical (and 
 probably other) metres there is a sufficient amount of accent- 
 ual eleinents to constitute metre ; even independent of the quan- 
 titative ones. 
 
 §661. Latitude in respect to the periodicity of the recurrence 
 of similarly accented syllables in English. — Metre (as stated 
 in p. 499), " is the recurrence, within certain intervals, of 
 syllables similarly affected." 
 
 The particular way in which syllables are affected in English 
 metre is that of accent. 
 
 I'he more regular the period at which similar accents re- 
 cur the more typical the metre. 
 
 Nevertheless absolute regularity is not requisite. 
 
 This leads to the ditference between symmetrical and un- 
 symmetrical metres. 
 
 § 662. Symmetrical metres. — Allowing for indifference of 
 the number of syllables in the last measure, it is evident that 
 in all lines where the measures are dissyllabic the syllables 
 will be a multiple of the accents, i. e., they will be twice as 
 numerous. Hence, with three accents there are six syllables ; 
 with four accents, eight syllables, &c. 
 
 Similarly, in all lines where the measures are trisyllabic 
 the syllables will also be multiples of the accents, i. e., they 
 will be thrice as numerous. Hence, with three accents there 
 will be nine syllables, with four accents, twelve syllables, and 
 with seven accents, twenty-one syllables. 
 
 Lines of this sort may be called symmetrical. 
 
 § 663. Unsymmetrical metres. — Lines, where the syllables 
 are not a multiple of the accents, may be called unsymmetri- 
 cal. Occasional specimens of such lines occur interspersed 
 amongst others of symmetrical character. Where this oc- 
 curs the general character of the versification may be con- 
 sidered as symmetrical also. 
 
 The case, however, is different where the whole cha- 
 racter of the versification is unsymmetrical, as it is in the 
 greater part of Coleridge's Christabel, and Byron's Siege of 
 Corinth.
 
 518 TlIK rUOSODY OK 
 
 In the ycnr since J^sus died for ni^n, 
 
 Eiglitccn hundred yej'irs nnd ten, 
 
 We were n gallant company', 
 
 Killing o'er land and sailing o'er. s^a. 
 
 Oil ! but w6 went merrily' ! 
 
 We forded the river, and clomb the high hill, 
 
 Ne'vcr our steads for a day stood still. 
 
 Whether we lay in the cave or the sh^d, 
 
 Our sleep fell soft on the hardest bed ; 
 
 Whether we couch'd on our rough capote. 
 
 Or the rougher plank of our gliding boat ; 
 
 Or stretch'd on the beach or our saddles spread 
 
 Asa pillow beneath the resting head. 
 
 Fresh we woke upon the morrow. 
 
 A'll our thoughts and words had scope, 
 
 W^ had health and w^ had hope. 
 
 Toil and travel, but no sorrow. 
 
 § 664. Many {perhaps all) classical metres on a level iviih 
 the unsymmetrical English ones. — Tlie following is the notation 
 of the extract in the preceding section. 
 
 xxaxaxa.va 
 
 a X a X a X a 
 
 axxaxaxa 
 
 axxaxaxxa 
 
 a X a X a X X 
 
 xaxxaxxaxxa 
 
 axxaxxaxa 
 
 axxaxxaxxa 
 
 xaxaxxaxa 
 
 axxaxxaxa 
 
 xxaxaxxaxa 
 
 xaxxaxxaxa 
 
 xxaxxaxaxa 
 
 axaxaxax 
 
 a X a X a X a 
 
 a X a X a X a 
 
 axaxaxax 
 
 Now many Latin metres present a recurrence of accent 
 little more irregular than the quotation just analysed. The 
 following is the accentual formula of the first two stanzas of 
 the second ode of the first Book of Horace.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 519 
 
 Accentual Formula of the Latin Sapphic. 
 
 a a X a X \ a X ax ax 
 a X X a X \ ax ax ax 
 a X X a X \ a X ax ax 
 a X X a X 
 
 a X X a X \ a X ax ax 
 a X X a X \ a X ax ax 
 a X X a X \ a X ax ax 
 a X X ax 
 
 Latin Asclepiad. 
 Horace, Od. I., i., I — 6. 
 
 X a X a X X 
 
 a X X a X X 
 
 ax a X a X X 
 
 ax ax ax 
 
 ax ax ax 
 
 X a X a X X 
 
 a X X a X X 
 ax ax ax 
 a X X a X X 
 a X X a X X 
 ax X a X X 
 ax X a X a X 
 
 Latin Hexameter. 
 jEn. I., 1 — 5. 
 ax X a X ax ax x a x x ax 
 
 3C €b 00 OC (Jj 00 0j X iXf ih CL OC 00 Ch 00 
 
 a X X X a X a x x x a x x ax 
 X a X X a X a x x x a x x ax. 
 
 A longer list of examples would show us that, throughout 
 the whole of the classical metres the same accents recur, 
 sometimes with less, and sometimes with but very little more 
 irregularity than they recur in the unsymmetrical metres of 
 our own language. 
 
 § 665. Conversion of English into classical metres. — In the 
 preface to his Translation of Aristophanes, Mr. Walsh has 
 shown (and, I believe, for the first time), that, by a different 
 distribution of lines, very fair hexameters may be znade out 
 of the well-known lines on the Burial of Sir John Moore : — 
 
 Not a drum was 
 Heard, not a funeral note as his corse to the rampart we hurried, 
 
 Not a soldier dis- 
 charged his farewell shot o'er the grave wliere our hero wc buried.
 
 520 TIIK I'KOSODY OV 
 
 Wo buried liim 
 Darkly at tlcad of night, the soils with our bayonets turning ; 
 
 By the struggling 
 Moonbeams' misty liglit and the lunlern dimly burning. 
 
 Lightly they '11 
 Talk of the spirit that 's gone, and o'er his cold ashes upbraid him, 
 
 But little he'll 
 Reck if they let him sleep on in the grave where a Briton has laid liinj. 
 
 § 666. Again, such lines as Coleridge''8 — 
 
 1. Make ready my grave clothes to-m6rrow ; 
 
 or Shelly 's — 
 
 2. Liquid Peneus was flowing, 
 
 are the exact analogues of lines like — 
 
 1. Jam lacte depiilsum ledncm, 
 and 
 
 2. Grato Py'rrha sub antro. 
 
 § 667. The rationale of so remarkable a phrenomenon as 
 regularity of accent in verses considered to have been composed 
 with a view to quantity only has yet to be investigated. That 
 it was necessary to the structure of the metres in question is 
 certain. 
 
 § 668. C(RSura. — The casura of the classical metrists is 
 the result of — 
 
 1. The necessity in the classical metres (as just indicated) 
 of an accented syllable in certain parts of the verses. 
 
 2. The nearly total absence in the classical languages of 
 words with an accent on the last syllable. 
 
 From the joint effect of these two causes, it follows that in 
 certain parts of a verse no final syllable can occur, or (changing 
 the expression) no word can terminate. 
 
 'J'hus, in a language consisting chiefly of dissyllables, of 
 which the first alone was accented, and in a metre which 
 required the sixth syllable to be accented, the fifth and seventh 
 would each be at end of words, and that simply because the 
 sixth was not. 
 
 Whilst in a language consisting chiefly of either dissyl- 
 lables or trisyllables, and in a metre of the same sort as before,
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 5^1 
 
 if the fifth were not final, the seventh woukl be so, or vice 
 versa. 
 
 § 669. Casura means cutting. In a hxnguage destitnte 
 of words accented on the last syllable, and in a metre re- 
 quiring the sixth syllable to be accented, a measure (foot) of 
 either the formula x a, or x x a («. e., a measure with the 
 accent at the end), except in the case of words of four or 
 more syllables, must always be either itself divided, or else 
 cause the division of the following measures — division mean- 
 ing the distribution of the syllables of the measure (foot) 
 over two or more words. Thus — 
 
 a. If the accented syllable (the sixth) be the first of a 
 word of any length, the preceding one (the fifth) must be the 
 final one of the word which w^ent before ; in which case the 
 first and last parts belong to different words, and the mea- 
 sure (foot) is divided or cut. 
 
 h. If the accented syllable (the sixth) be the second of a 
 word of three syllables, the succeeding one which is at the 
 end of the word, is the first part of the measure which fol- 
 lows ; in which case the first and last parts of the measure 
 (foot) which follows the accented syllable is divided or cut. 
 
 As the casura, or the necessity for dividing certain mea- 
 sures between two words, arises out of the structure of lan- 
 guage, it onl}^ occurs -in tongues where there is a notable 
 absence of words accented on the last syllable. Consequently 
 there is no caesura* in the English. 
 
 § 670. As far as accent is concerned, the classical poets 
 write in measures x^ihexihnn feet. See p. 505. 
 
 • For the sake of showing the extent to which the accentual dement must 
 be recognised in the classical metres, I reprint the following paper On the 
 Doctrine of the Cajsura in the Greek senarius, from the Transactions of 
 the Philological Society, June 23, 1843 :— 
 
 " In respect to the csesura of the Greek tragic senarius, the rules, as laid 
 down by Porson in the Supplement to his Preface to the Hecuba, and as 
 recognized, more or less, by the English school of critics, seem capable of a 
 more general expression, and, at the same time, liable to certain limitations 
 in regard to fact. This becomes apparent when we investigate the prin- 
 ciple that serves as the foundation to these rules ; in other words, when we 
 exhibit the rationale, or doctrine, of the caesura in (juestion. At this we
 
 522 THE PROSODY OF 
 
 § (»7l. AIthoui,'h the iiloa of wi-itini>- Englisli hcxamotcra, 
 &c., oil tlie jn-inciple of an accnt in a measure taking the 
 place of the long syllables in a foot, is chinierical ; it is per- 
 fectly practicable to write P]nglish verses upon the same 
 
 can arrive by taking cognizance of a second element of metre beyond that of 
 quantity. 
 
 " It is assumed that the element in metre which goes, in works of dif- 
 ferent writers, imder tlic name of ictus metricus, or of arsis, is the same 
 as accent, in the sense of that word in English. It is tliis tliat constitutes 
 the diftorence between words like tf/rant and resume, or survey and survey ; 
 or (to take more convenient examples) between the word August, used as 
 the name of a month, and august, used as an adjective. Without inquiring 
 how far this coincides with the accent and accentuation of the classical 
 grammarians, it may be stated that, in the forthcoming pages, arsis, ictus 
 metricus, and accent (in the English sense of the word), mean one and the 
 same thing. With this view of the arsis, or ictus, we may ask how far, in 
 each particular foot of the senarius, it coincides with the quantity. 
 
 First Foot. — In the first place of a tragic senarius it is a matter of indif- 
 ference whether the arsis fall on the first or second syllable ; that is, it is a 
 matter of indifference whether the foot be sounded as tyrant or as resume, 
 as August or as august. In the following lines the words »;/cq), TroAat, etVep, 
 Tivas, may be pronounced either as t]'k<o, ira'Xai, einep, ri'vas, or as tjko)', 
 TToXat', finep, riva's, without any detriment to the character of the line 
 wherein they occur. 
 
 'H'kw veKpcov Kevdpava Kai aKorov TrvKas. 
 
 Ila'Xat KvvijyeTovvra (cat piTpovyavov. 
 
 'Ei'irep diKaios eaB" epos ra TrarpoBev. 
 
 Ti'vas TTod' e8pas raa8f poi doa^ere. 
 or, 
 
 'Hkco' veKpMV Kevdpmva km aKorov irvKas. 
 
 IlflXat KvvqyeTovvra Kai perpovpfvov. 
 
 EiTTep' SiKaios eaff epos ra Trarpodev. 
 
 Tiva's "Koff edpas racrSe pot doa^ere. 
 
 Second Foot. — In the second place, it is also a matter of imlifferencc 
 whether the foot be sounded as August or as august. In tlie first of the four 
 lines quoted above we may say either ve Kputv or veKpulv, without violating 
 the rhythm of the verse. 
 
 Third Foot. — In this part of the senarius it is no longer a matter of indif- 
 ference whether the foot be sounded as August or as august ; that is, it is no 
 longer a matter of indifference whether the arsis and the quantity coincide. 
 In the circumstance that the last syllabic of the third foot must be accented 
 (in the English sense of the word), taken along with a second fact, soon
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 528 
 
 principle which the chxssics themselves have written on, i.e., 
 with accents recurring within certain limits ; in which case 
 the so-called classical metre is merely an unsymmetrical verse 
 of a new kind. This may be either blank verse or rhyme. 
 
 about to be exhibited, lies the doctrine of the penthimimer and hepthimimer 
 ctesuras. 
 
 The proof of the coincidence between the arsis and the quantity in the 
 third foot is derived partly from a posteriori, partly from a /?rJo?7 evidence. 
 
 1. In the Supplices of iEseliylus, the Persse, and the Bacchse, three 
 dramas where licences in regard to metre are pre-eminently common, the 
 number of lines wherein the sixth syllable (i. e., the last half of the third 
 foot) is without an arsis, is at the highest sixteen, at the lowest five ; 
 whilst in the remainder of the extant dramas the proportion is undoubtedly 
 smaller. 
 
 2, In all lines where the sixth syllable is destitute of ictus, the iambic 
 character is violated : as 
 
 QprjKTjv nepaaa vres jioyis ttoXXo) ttovo). 
 Avoiv yepovToi'v 8e o-TpaTrjyeiTai (pvyrj. 
 
 These are facts which may be verified either by referring to the tragedians, 
 or by constructing senarii like the lines last quoted. The only difficulty 
 that occurs arises in determining, in a dead language like the Greek, the 
 absence or presence of the arsis. In this matter the writer had satisfied him- 
 self of the truth of the two following propositions : — 1. That the accentuation 
 of the grammarians denotes some modification of pronunciation other than 
 that which constitutes the difi'erence between August and august; since, if 
 it were not so, the word ayyiKov would be sounded like merrily, and the 
 word ayyeKav like disable ; which is improbable. 2. That the arsis lies 
 upon radical rather than inflectional syllables, and out of two inflectional 
 syllables upon the first rather than the second ; as /SXeV-o), ^Xeyj^-a a-a, not 
 p\eir-o>', ^\c\lr-a(T-a' . The evidence upon these points is derived from the 
 structure of language in general. The onus probandi lies with the author 
 who presumes an arsis (accent in the English sense) on a wora-radical syl- 
 lable. Doubts, however, as to the pronunciation of certain words, leave the 
 precise number of lines violating the rule given above undetermined. It is 
 considered sufficient to show that wherever they occur the iambic character 
 is violated. 
 
 The circ\imstance, however, of the last half of the third foot requiring an 
 arsis, brings us only half way towards the doctrine of the caesura. With 
 this must be combined a second fact, arising out of the constitution of the 
 Greek language in respect to its accent. In accordance with the views just 
 exhibited, the author conceives that no Greek word has an arsis upon the 
 last syllable, except in the three following cases : —
 
 o24 TIIK rnOSJODY OF 
 
 § C>72. The rlilot' rcnsoii against tin; iiatiirali/ation of metres 
 of the sort in iiuestion (over and above the practieal one ot" 
 our having another kind iu use already), lies in the fact of 
 their being jjcrjilexing to the readers who have not been 
 
 1. Moiiosyllal'Ks, not enclitic ; m^acfxov, na's, xOco'v, 8fi<o's, vu>v, w'v, &c. 
 
 2. Circuuillex futures ; as i/e^w', rf/xw', «Src. 
 
 3. Wonls nl)bicvi;iteil by ai)oeo])o ; in wliicli case tlie ])cnultiinate is con- 
 verted into ft final syllabic ; ga>'/x', (^eiSetr'^' Kevreir, eyw'-y', &c. 
 
 Now the fact of a syllable with an arsis being, in Greek, rarely final, taken 
 along with that of tlic sixth syllable requiring, in the senarius, an arsis, gives 
 as a matter of necessity, the circumstance that, in the Greek drama, the sixtli 
 syllable shall occur anywhere rather than at the end of a word ; and this is 
 only another way of saying, that, in a tragic senarius, the syllable in question 
 shall generally be followed by other syllables in the same word. All this 
 the author considers as so truly a matter of necessity, that the objection to 
 liis view of the Greek caesura must lie either against his idea of the nature 
 of the accents, or nowhere; since, that being admitted, the rest follows of 
 course. 
 
 As the sixth syllable must not be final, it must be followed in the same 
 word by one syllable, or by more than one. 
 
 1. The sixth syllable followed by one si/llable in the same word. — Tiiis is 
 only another name forthe seventh syllable occurring at the end of a word, 
 and it gives at once the hepthimimcr caesura : as 
 
 'Hko) vfKpoov Kevdfico'va Kai ctkotov TwXas. 
 'I/cTT/piois KKa8oiaiv e^earfufiepoi. 
 'Ofiov re naiavco'v re km rrrfvaynaroDV. 
 
 2, The sixth syllables followed by two {or more) syllables in the same word. 
 This is only another name for the eighth (or some syllable after the eighth) 
 syllabic occurring at the end of a word ; as , 
 
 08fJLT) ^poreicov al'iMiTav fxe TtpocryeKa. 
 Aafiirpovs Swacrras e/jLTrpewovTas aidepi. 
 
 Now this arrangement of syllables, taken by itself, gives anything rather 
 than a hejjthimimer ; so that if it was at this point that our investigations 
 terminated, little would be done towards the evolution of the rationale 
 of the caesura. It will appear, however, that in those cases where the cir- 
 cumstance of the sixth syllable being followed by two others in the same 
 words, causes the eighth (or some syllable after the eighth) to be final, 
 either a penthimimer ctesura, or an equivalent, will, with but few excep- 
 tions, be the result. This we may prove by taking the eighth syllable and 
 counting back from it. Whidfollows this syllable is immaterial : it is the 
 number of syllables in the same wor<l that precedes it tliat demands attention.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 525 
 
 trained to classical cadences, whilst they suggest and violate 
 the idea of quantity/ to those who have. 
 
 Why his idea of quantity is violated may be seen in 
 p. 165. 
 
 1. The eighth syllable preceded in the same uord. by nothing. — Tliis is 
 equivalent to the seventh sj^llahle at tlie end of the preceding' woid : a state 
 of things which, as noticed above, gives the hcpthiminicr cjesiu'a. 
 
 AvTjpidfiov yfXa'dfxa Tra[j.\fjLi]Top 8e yrj. 
 
 2. The eighth syllable precpded in the same word by one syllable. — This is 
 equivalent to the sixth syllable at the end of the word preceding ; a state of 
 things which, as noticed above, rarely occurs. When however it does occur, 
 one of the three conditions under which a final syllable can take an arsis 
 must accompany it. Each of these conditions requires notice. 
 
 a). With a non-enclitic mono-syllable the result is a penthimimer caesura; 
 since the syllable preceding a monosyllable is necessarily final. 
 
 'Hkq) ae^i^cou cro'v YiXv' Tai\iivr](jrpa Kparos. 
 No remark has been made by critics upon lines constructed in this manner, 
 since the caesura is a penthimimer, and consequently their rules are undis- 
 turbed. 
 
 /3). With j5o/j/-syllabic circumflex futures constituting the third foot, there 
 would be a violation of the current rules respecting the csesura. Notwith- 
 standing this, if the views of the present paper be true, there would be no 
 violation of the iambic character of the senarius. Against such a line as 
 
 Kayo) TO crov vefxai 7To6€i\i>ov avXiov 
 tliere is no argument a priori on the score of the iambic character being vio- 
 lated ; whilst in respect to objections derived from evidence a posteriori, 
 there is sufficient reason for such lines being rare. 
 
 y). With po/(/-syllables abbreviated by apocope, we have the state of 
 tilings which the metrists have recognised under the name of quasi-c£csura ; as 
 Kej/retTf p.r} ^eiSeV^' ey<u | VeKov ILapiv. 
 
 3. The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by two syllables. — This is 
 equivalent to the fifth syllable occurring at the end of the word preceding : a 
 state of things whicli gives the penthimimer caesura ; as 
 
 O^firi ^poreicov ai paraiv \ /xe Tvpotryeka. 
 {* Aapnpovs 8vvu(TTas fp.'np(TrovTas ai6(pi. 
 A'^v)(ov (iKo) 7rpo'o-ye\<u|o"a (TcofMaTOS. 
 
 4. The eighth syllable preceded in the same woi-d by three or more than 
 three syllables. — This is equivalent to the fourth (or some syllabic preced- 
 ing the fourtli) syllable occurring at the end of the word preceding ; a state 
 of thing.s wliich would include the third and fourth feet in one and the
 
 r)2fi TUK ri{(is()i)v OK 
 
 § ()7'^. Convertible iiwtir^. — Such u line as — 
 Eri' luT faitliloss sons bi-tray'tl licr, 
 
 mav l>o roail in two ways. We may either hiy full stress 
 upon the word t/r, and read — 
 
 E'rc licr faithless sons httray'd licr ; 
 
 or we may lay little or no stress upon either ere or her, rcserv- 
 ingf the full accentuation for the syllable /a iV/i- \n faithless,, in 
 which case the reading would be 
 
 Ere her faithless sons betray'd her. 
 
 Lines of this sort may be called examples of convertible 
 metres, since by changing the accent a dissyllabic line may be 
 converted into one partially trisyllabic, and mce versa. 
 
 This property of convertibility is explained by the fact of 
 accentuation being a relative quality. In the example before 
 us ere is sufficiently strongly accented to stand in contrast to 
 her, but it is not sufficiently strongly accented to stand upon 
 a par with the faith- m faithless if decidedly pronounced. 
 
 The real character of convertible lines is determined from 
 the character of the lines with which they are associated. 
 
 same word. This concuirenee is denounced in the Supplement to the 
 Preface to the Hecuba ; where, however, the rule, as in the case of the 
 quasi-csesura, from being based upon merely empirical evidence, requires 
 limitation. In lines like 
 
 Kat TuWa TroXX enei Kaaai ! hiKuiov tju, 
 or (an imaginary example), 
 
 Tots croiaiv acrnLbr] aTpo(f)oi(T\i,v audpatri, 
 there is no violation of the iambic character, and consequently no reason 
 against similar lines having been written ; altliough from the average pro- 
 portion of Greek words lik(; tneiKaaat and aa-niSrjaTpocjioca-iv, there is every 
 reason for their being rare. 
 
 After the details just given, the recapitulation is brief. 
 
 1. It wa.s essential to the character of the senarius that the sixth syllable, 
 or latter half of the third foot, should have an arsis, ictus metiicus, or 
 accent in the English sense. To this condition of the iambic rhythm the 
 Greek tragedians, cither consciously or unconsciously, adhered. 
 
 2. It was the character of the Greek language to admit an arsis on the 
 last syllable of a word only under circumstances comparatively rare.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 5!^7 
 
 That the second mode of reading the line in question is the 
 proper one, may be shown by reference to the stanza wherein 
 
 it occurs. 
 
 Let E'rin remember her days of old, 
 
 Ere her faithless sonsbetray'd her, 
 When Malachi wore the collar of gold. 
 
 Which he won from the proud invader. 
 
 Again, such a hne as 
 
 For the glory I have lost, 
 although it may be read 
 
 For the glory I have lost, 
 would be read improperly. The stanza wherein it occurs is 
 essentially dissyllabic (a x). 
 
 Heed, oh heed my fatal story ! 
 
 r am Hosier's injured ghost. 
 Come to seek for fame and glory — 
 
 For the glory V have lost. 
 
 § 674. Metrical and grammatical comhinations. — Words, or 
 parts of words, that are combined as measures, are words, or 
 parts of words, combined metrically^ or in metrical combination. 
 
 3. These two facts, taken together, caused the sixth syllable of a line to 
 be anywhere rather than at the end of a word. 
 
 4. If followed by a single syllable in the same word, the result was a 
 licpthimimer ccesura. 
 
 5. If followed by more syllables than one, some syllable in an earlier 
 part of the line ended the word preceding, and so caused either a penthi- 
 mimer, a quasi- caesura, or the occurrence of the third and fourth foot in the 
 same word. 
 
 6. As these two last-mentioned circumstances were rare, the general 
 phtcnomenon presented in tlie Greek senarius was the occurrence of eitlier 
 the penthimimer or hcpthimimer. 
 
 7. Respecting these two sorts of caesura, the rules, instead of being exhi- 
 bited in detail, may be replaced by the simple assertion that there should be 
 an arsis on the sixth syllable. From this the rest follows. 
 
 8. Respecting the non-occurrence of the third and fourth feet in the same 
 word, the assertion may be witiidrawn entirely, 
 
 9. Respecting the quasi-csesura, the rules, if not altogether withdrawn, may 
 be extended to the admission of the last syllable of circumflex futures (or 
 to any other ])olysyllables with an equal claim to be considered accented on 
 the last syllabic) in the latter half of the third foot.
 
 .'iiS Tlir, PHO.SO^Y OF 
 
 Syllables r()inl)inrtl as words, or words coinbijied as j)or 
 lions of a si'iiti'iice, are syllables and words grammaticalh/ 
 combined, or in nraminatical combination. 
 
 The syllables ore her faith- form a metrical combination. 
 
 The words her faithless sons form a grammatical com- 
 bination. 
 
 When the syllables contained in the same measnre (or con- 
 nected metrically) are also contained in the same construction 
 (or connected grammatically), the metrical and the gramma- 
 tical combinations coincide. Such is the case with the line 
 Rcniembcr | the glories | of Bri'un | the Brave ; 
 
 where the same division separates both the measure and the 
 subdivisions of the sense, inasmuch as the word the is connected 
 with the word glories equally in grammar and in metre, in 
 syntax and in prosody. So is of with Brian, and the with 
 Bra ve. ♦ 
 
 Contrast with this sucli a line as 
 
 A chieftain to the Higlilands bouiul. 
 
 Here the metrical division is one thing, the grammatical divi- 
 sion another, and there is no coincidence. 
 3Ietrical, 
 
 A chief I tain to | the High | lands bound. 
 Grammatical, 
 
 A chieftain ( to the Higlilands | bound. 
 
 In the following stanza the coincidence of the metrical and 
 grammatical combination is nearly complete : — 
 
 To arms ! to arms ! The serfs, they roam 
 
 O'er hill, and dale, and glen ; 
 The king is dead, and time is come 
 To choose a chief again. 
 In 
 
 Warriors or chiefs, should the shaft or the sword 
 Pierce me in leading the host of the Lord, 
 Heed not the corse, though a king 's in your path. 
 Bury your steel in the bosoms of Gath. — Byron. 
 
 there is a non- coincidence equally complete. 
 
 § 675. Rhythm. — The character of a metre is marked and 
 prominent in proportion as the metrical and the grammatical
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 5^9 
 
 combinations coincide. The extent to which the measure 
 a X a; is the basis of the stanza last quoted is concealed by the 
 antagonism of the metre and the construction. If it were not 
 for the axiom, that every metre is to be considered uniform 
 until there is proof to the contrary, the lines might be divided 
 
 thus : — 
 
 a X, X U) X X a, x x a, 
 a X, X a X, X a X, X a, 
 a X, X a, X x a, X x u, 
 a X, X a X, X a x,x a. 
 
 The variety which arises in versification from the different 
 degrees of the coincidence and non-coincidence between the 
 metrical and grammatical combinations may be called rhythm. 
 
 § 676. Constant and inconstant ^^arfe of a rhythm. — See 
 § 6S6. Of the three parts or elements of a rhyme, the vowel 
 and the part which follows the vowel are constant, i.e., they 
 cannot be changed without changing or destroying the rhyme. 
 In told and bold, plunder, blunder, both the o ox u on one side, 
 and the -Id or -nder on the other are immutable. 
 
 Of the three parts, or elements, of a rhyme the part which 
 precedes the vowel is inconstant, i.e, it must be changed in 
 order to effect the rhyme. Thus, old and old, told and told, 
 bold and bold, do not rhyme with each other ; although old, 
 bold, told, scold, &c. do. 
 
 Rule 1. In two or more syllables that rhyme with each 
 other, neither the vowel nor the sounds which follow it can be 
 different. 
 
 Rule 2. In two or more syllables that rhyme with each 
 other, the sounds which precede the vowel cannot be alike. 
 
 Now the number of sounds which can precede a vowel is 
 limited : it is that of the consonants and consonantal combina- 
 tions ; of which a list can be made a priori. 
 
 p 
 
 pi 
 
 pr 
 
 b 
 
 bl 
 
 br 
 
 ./■ 
 
 Jl 
 
 fr 
 
 V 
 
 vl 
 
 vr 
 
 t 
 
 a 
 
 tr 
 
 d 
 
 dl 
 
 dr 
 
 th 
 
 ihi 
 
 t/ir 
 
 dli 
 
 dhl 
 
 dhr 
 
 k 
 
 Id 
 
 kr 
 
 & 
 
 gl 
 
 gr 
 
 .s 
 
 sp 
 
 ■•if 
 
 St 
 
 Sl/l, 
 
 4 c. 
 
 and so on, the combinations of 
 
 s bei 
 
 ing the 
 
 ; most complex 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M M
 
 5;>0 IMIOSODY OF KNCMSll LANMl UAOK. 
 
 This tjivos us tho tolluwiiig nu-tliod (or lecoijit) tor the dis- 
 covorv ot" rhyiiu's : — 
 
 1. Diviilo tlic word to whidi ;i iliyine is required, into its 
 coniftaat and iHrDiiaicOif oleuRMits. 
 
 2. Make up the inconstant element hy the ditlerent conso- 
 nants and consonantal combinations until they are exhausted. 
 
 3. In the list of words so formed, mark off those which 
 have an existence in the laniruage ; these will all rh3me with 
 each other ; and if the list of combinations be exhaustive, 
 there are no other words which will do so. 
 
 Examj)le. — From the word told, separate the o and -Id, 
 which are constant. 
 
 Instead of the inconstant element t, write successively, p, 
 pi, pr, h, hi, hr, &c. : so that you have the following list: — 
 t-old, p-old, pl-old, pr-old, h-old, hl-old, hr-old, &c. 
 
 Of these plold, hlold, and hrold, have no existence in the 
 language ; the rest, however, are rhymes. 
 
 § 677. All words have the same number of possible, but 
 not the same number of actual rhymes. Thus, silver is a word 
 amenable to the same process as told — -pilver, pliher, prilver, 
 hilver, &c. ; yet silver is a word without a corresponding 
 rhyme. This is because the combinations which answer to it 
 do not constitute words, or combinations of words in the 
 English language. 
 
 This has been written, not for the sake of showing poets 
 how to manufacture rhymes, but in order to prove that a 
 result which apparently depends on the ingenuity of writers, is 
 reducible to a very humble mechanical process, founded upon 
 the nature of rhyme and the limits to the combinations of 
 consonants.
 
 PART VII. 
 
 THE DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 § 678. The consideration of the dialects of the English lan- 
 guage is best taken in hand after the historical investigation 
 of the elements of the English population. For this, see 
 Part I. 
 
 It is also best taken in hand after the analysis of the gram- 
 matical structure of the language. For this, see Part IV. 
 
 This is because both the last-named subjects are necessary 
 as preliminaries. The structure of the language supplies us 
 with the points in which one dialect may differ from another, 
 whilst the history of the immigrant populations may furnish an 
 ethnological reason for such diiferences as are found to occur. 
 
 For a further illustration of this see pp. 4, 5. 
 
 § 679. By putting together the history of the migrations 
 into a country, and the grammatical structure of the language 
 which they introduced, we find that there are two methods of 
 classifying the dialects. These may be called the ethnologi- 
 cal, and the structural methods. 
 
 According to the former, we place in the same class those 
 dialects which were introduced by the same section of immi- 
 grants. Thus, a body of Germans, starting from the same 
 part of Germany, and belonging to the same section of the 
 Germanic population, even if, whilst at sea, they separated 
 into two, three, or more divisions, and landed upon widely 
 separated portions of Great Britain, would introduce dialects 
 which were allied ethnolocjically ; even though, by one of 
 them changing rapidly, and the others not changing at all, 
 they might, in their external characters, diftor from each 
 other, and agree with dialects of a diiferent introduction. 
 Hence, the etlmological principle is essentially historical, and 
 
 M M 2
 
 •'532 THK IHALKOTS OF 
 
 is based upon (ho idou of ajfiliation or ufiinity In llio way of 
 descent. 
 
 The structural principle is different. Two dialects intro- 
 duced 1)V different sections (perliaj)s it would be better to say 
 .<«i-sections) of an immigrant population may suffer similar 
 changes ; e. p., they may lose the same inflexions, adopt 
 similar euphonic processes, or incorporate the same words. 
 In this case, their external characters become mutually' alike. 
 Hence, if we take two (or more) such dialects, and place them 
 in the same class, we do so sim|dy because they are alike ; 
 not because they are afKliated. 
 
 Such are the two chief principles of classification. Gene- 
 rally, they coincide; in other words, similarity of external 
 characters is prima facie evidence of affinity in the way of 
 affiliation, identity of origin being the safest assumption in the 
 way of cause ; whilst identity of origin is generally a suffi- 
 cient ground for calculating upon similarity of external form ; 
 such being, a priori^ its probable effect. 
 
 Still, the evidence of one in fixvour of the other is only 
 prima facie evidence. Dialects of the same origin may grow 
 unlike ; dialects of different origins alike. 
 
 § ()8(). The causes, then, which determine those minute 
 differences of language, which go by the name o^ dialects are 
 twofold. — 1. Original difference; 2. Subsequent change. 
 
 § 681. The original difference between the two sections (or 
 SM^-sections) of an immigrant population are referable to 
 either — 1. Difference of locality in respect to the portion of 
 the country from which they originated ; or 2. Difference in 
 the date of the invasion. 
 
 Two bodies of immigrants, one from the Eyder, and the 
 other from the Scheldt, even if they left their respective lo- 
 calities on the same day of the same month, would most pro- 
 bably differ from one another ; and that in the same way 
 that a Yorkshireman differs from a Hampshire man. 
 
 On the other hand, two bodies of immigrants, each leaving 
 the very same locality, but one in 200 a.d., and the other in 
 .500 A.D., would also, most probably, differ ; and that as a 
 Yorkshireman of IS-'jO a.u. differs from one of 1550 a.o.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 533 
 
 § 682. The subsequent changes which may affect the dialect 
 of an immigrant population are chiefly referable to either, 
 1. Influences exerted by the dialects of the aborigines of the 
 invaded country; 2. Influences of simple growth, or develop- 
 ment. A dialect introduced from Germany to a jjortion of 
 Great Britain, where the aborigines spoke Gaelic, would (if 
 affected at all by the indigenous dialect) be differently affected 
 from a dialect similarly circumstanced in a British, Welsh, and 
 Cambrian district. 
 
 A language which changes raj)idly, will, at the end of a 
 certain period, wear a different aspect from one which changes 
 slowly. 
 
 § G83. A full and perfect apparatus for the minute phi- 
 lology of the dialects of a country like Great Britain, would 
 consist in — 
 
 J . The exact details of the present provincialisms. 
 
 2. The details of the history of each dialect through all its 
 stages. 
 
 8. The exact details of the provincialisms of the whole of 
 that part of Germany which contributed, or is supposed to 
 have contributed, to the Anglo-Saxon immigration. 
 
 4. The details of the original languages or dialects of the 
 Aboriginal Britons at the time of the different invasions. 
 
 This last is both the least important and the most unattain- 
 able. 
 
 § 684. Such are the preliminaries which are wanted for the 
 purposes of investigation. Others are requisite for the proper 
 understanding of the facts already ascertained, and the doc- 
 trines generally admitted ; the present writer believing that 
 these two classes are by no means coextensive. 
 
 Of such preliminaries, the most im^iortant are those con- 
 nected with 1. the structure of language, and 2. the history 
 of individual documents ; in other words, certain ])oints of 
 philology, and certain points of bibliography. 
 
 § 685. Philological preliminaries. — These are points of 
 pronunciation, points of grammatical structure, and glossarial 
 peculiarities. It is only the first two which will be noticed. 
 They occur in I. the modern, 2. the ancient local forms of speech.
 
 534 THE DIALECTS OK 
 
 § ()86. J'rt'sent provincial dialects. — In the way of gram- 
 mar \vi' fiiul, ill the present provincial dialects (amongst many 
 others), the t()lU)\vini,' old forms — 
 
 1. A plural in in — ire call-en., ye call-en, ihey call-en. Re- 
 specting this, the writer in the Quarterly Review, has the 
 following doetrine : — 
 
 " It ap[)ears to have been poj)ularly known, if not in East 
 Auglia proper, at all events in the district immediately to the 
 westward, since we find it in Orm, in an Eastern-Midland 
 copy of the Kule of Nuns, siec. XIII., and in process of time 
 in Suffolk. Various conjectures have been advanced as to the 
 origin of this form, of which we have no certain examples 
 before the thirteenth century.* We believe the true state of 
 the case to have been as follows. It is well known that the 
 Saxon dialects differ from the Gothic, Old-German, &c. in the 
 form of the present indicative plural — making all three per- 
 sons to end in -a]> or -ad; — we — ^e — hi — luji-a\> {-ad). Schmel- 
 ler and other German philologists observe that a nasal has 
 been here elided, the true ancient form being -and, -ant, or -ent. 
 Traces of this termination are found in the Cotton MS. of the 
 Old Saxon Evangelical Harmony, and still more abundantly 
 in the popular dialects of the Middle-Rhenish district from Co- 
 logne to the borders of Switzerland. These not only exhibit 
 the full termination -ent, but also two modifications of it, one 
 dropping the nasal and the other the dental. E. g. : — 
 
 Vres. Indie. Plur. 1, 2, 3 liebent ; 
 „ „ lieb-et ; 
 
 „ „ lieb-en; 
 
 — the last exactly corresponding with the Mercian. It is re- 
 markable that none of the above forms aj)pear in classical 
 German compositions, while they abound in the Miracle-plays, 
 vernacular sermons, and similar productions of the thirteenth 
 and fourteenth centuries, specially addressed to the unedu- 
 cated classes. W^e may, therefore, reasonably conclude from 
 analogy that similar forms were popularly current in our 
 midland counties, gradually insinuating themselves into the 
 
 * Sceolon, aron, and a few similar words, are no real exceptions, being in 
 structure not present tenses but preterites.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 535 
 
 written language. We liave plenty of examples of jsimilar 
 phenomena. It would be difficult to find written instances of 
 the pronouns scho, or she, their, you, the auxiliaries sal, suld^ 
 &c., before the tAvelfth century ; but their extensive pre- 
 valence in the thirteenth proves that they must have been 
 popularly employed somewhere even in times which have left 
 us no documentary evidence of their existence." 
 
 I prefer to consider this termination as -en, a mere extension 
 of the subjunctive form to the indicative. 
 
 2. An infinitive form in -ie ; as to soioie, to reapie, — 
 Wiltshire. (i\Ir. Guest). 
 
 3. The participial form in -and ; as goand, slepand, — 
 Lincolnshire (?), Northumberland, Scotland. 
 
 4. The common use of the termination -th in the third 
 person present ; goeth, hath, sj)ealceth, — Devonshire. 
 
 5. Plural forms in -en ; as housen, — Leicestershire and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 6. Old preterite forms of certain verbs ; as, 
 
 Clorn, 
 
 from 
 
 climb, 
 
 Hereford and elsewhere. 
 
 Hove, 
 
 — 
 
 heave. 
 
 ditto. 
 
 Puck, 
 
 — 
 
 pick. 
 
 ditto. 
 
 Shuck, 
 
 — 
 
 shook. 
 
 ditto. 
 
 Squoze, 
 
 — 
 
 squeeze, 
 
 ditto. 
 
 Shew, 
 
 — 
 
 sow, 
 
 Essex. 
 
 Rep, 
 
 — 
 
 reap, 
 
 ditto. 
 
 Mew, 
 
 — 
 
 mow, 
 
 ditto, &c. 
 
 The following changes (a few out of many) are matters 
 
 not of grammar, but of pronunciation : — 
 
 Ui for 00 — cuil, bluld, for cool, blood, — Cumberland, Scot- 
 land. 
 
 Oy for i — foyne, twoyne, for fine, twine, — Cheshire, Cam- 
 bridgeshire, Sufi'olk. 
 
 Oy for 00 — -foyt ^oy foot, — Halifax. 
 
 Oy for — noite, foil, coil, hoil, for note, foal, coal, hole, — 
 Halifax. 
 
 Oy for a — loyne for lane, — Halifax. 
 
 Ooy for 00 — nooin, gooise, fooil, tooil, for noon, goose, fool, 
 tool, — Halifax.
 
 5S6 TllK DlAl.KCTS (»K 
 
 \V int;ortt'il (\>itli or witliout a modillcatioii) — as spivorf, 
 scworn, ichoani, tor sf>urt, scorn, home, — Cumberland, West 
 Ruling of York.sliire. 
 
 Ew for 00, or ?/oo — town for tunc, — Siiflolk, Westniorelaml. 
 
 Iv for 00, or i/oo when a vowel follows — as Samivel for 
 Samuel; Emmanlvel for Emmanuel. In all these wc 
 have seen a tendency to dljJt/honnal sounds. 
 In the following instances the i)ractice is niversed, and 
 
 instead of the vowel being made a diphthong, the diph- 
 thong becomes a vowel, as, 
 
 O for oy — boh for Joy, Suffolk, &c. 
 
 Oo for oic — hroon for brown, — Bilsdale. 
 
 Ee for i — neet for night, — Cheshire. 
 
 O for ou — bawn' for bound, — Westmoreland. 
 
 Of these the substitution of oo for oio, and of ee for i, are 
 
 of importance in the questions of the Aj)pendix. 
 
 Ee for a — theere for there, — Cumberland. 
 
 Ee for e — reed, seeven, for red, seven, — Cumberland, Craven. 
 
 A for — sair, mair, baith, for sore, more, both, — Cumber- 
 land, Scotland. 
 
 A" for — saft for soft, — Cheshire, 
 
 O for « — mon for Qnan, — Cheshire. Lond for land, — East- 
 Anglian Semi-Saxon. 
 
 Y inserted before a vowel — styahe, ryape, for stake, rope, — 
 IJorrowdale ; especially after g (a point to be noticed), 
 qyarden, gyown, for garden, gown, — Warwickshire, &c. ; 
 and at the beginning of a word, as yat, yan, for ate, one 
 {cme), — Westmoreland, Bilsdale. 
 
 ZT inserted — hafter, hoppen, for after, ojyen, — Westmore- 
 land, &c. 
 
 H omitted — at, ard, for hat, hard, — Passim. 
 
 Transition of Consonants. 
 
 B for V — Whitehebbon for Whitehaven, — Borrowdale. 
 
 P for b — poat for boat. — Welsh pronunciation of many 
 
 English words. See the speeches of Sir Hugh Evans iu 
 
 Merry Wives of Windsor. 
 Ffor/ — vind iovfind, — characteristic of Devoushire, Kent.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 5^37 
 
 T for d (final) — deet for deed^ — Borrowdale. 
 
 7^ for ch (fsh) — fet for fetch, — Devonshire. 
 
 D for J (dzh) — sled for sledge, — Hereford. 
 
 D for th (p) — wid=-tmth; tudder = the other, — Borrowdale, 
 
 Westmoreland. Initial (especially before a consonant) — 
 
 drash, droo = thrash, through, — Devonshire, Wilts, 
 ^for ch {tsh) — thacJc,2)ich, for thatch, pitch, — Westmoreland, 
 
 Lincolnshire, Halifax. 
 G forj i^dzh) — hrig for bridge — Lincolnshire, Hereford. 
 G preserved from the Anglo-Saxon — lig, lie. Anglo-Saxon, 
 
 licgan, — Lincolnshire, North of England. 
 Z for s — zee for see, — Devonshire. 
 S for sh — sail for shall, — Craven, Scotland. 
 Y for g — yet for gate, — Yorkshire, Scotland. 
 Wfor V — zoiew for view, — Essex, London. 
 iVfor ng — hleedin for bleeding, — Cumberland, Scotland. 
 Sk for sh — busk for bush, — Halifax. 
 
 Ejection of Letters. 
 
 ^before s, the preceding vowel being lengthened by way of 
 
 compensation — neist for next, seist for sixth, — Halifax, 
 D and v after a consonant — gol for gold, siller for silver, — 
 
 Suffolk. The ejection of f is rarer ; mysel for myself, 
 
 however, occurs in most dialects. 
 L final, after a short vowel, — in which case the vowel is 
 
 lengthened — poo for pidl, — Cheshire, Scotland. 
 Al changed to a open — haiof for half saumon for salmon, — 
 
 Cumberland, Scotland. 
 
 Transposition. 
 
 Transpositions of the liquid r are common in all our j)ro- 
 vincial dialects ; as gars, brid, perty, for grass, bird, pretty. 
 Here the provincial forms are the oldest, gccrs, brid, &c., 
 being the Anglo-Saxon forms. Again ; acsian, Anglo-Saxon 
 = ask, English. 
 
 § 687. Ancient forms of speech. — In the way of grammar — 
 1. The ge- (see § 409), prefixed to the past participle 
 (ge-boren=borne) is, in certain localities,* omitted. 
 * Quarterly Review, No. elxiv.
 
 588 Till-: UlALECTS OF 
 
 2. Till" incscnt * plunil I'orin -s, encroaches upon the form 
 in -;/. Thus, muniices = jnuuucan = inonls. 
 
 0. The iiifniitive ends in -a, instead of -an. This is 
 Scandinavian, but it is also Frisian. 
 
 4. The particle at is used instead of to before the infinitive 
 verb. 
 
 5. The article * the is used instead of se, seo, ]>a:t = o, ^, to, 
 for both the numbers, and all the cases and genders. 
 
 G. The form in -s (use, usse) replaces ^lre = our. 
 In the way of sound — 
 
 1. Forms with the slenderer, or more vocalic* sounds, re- 
 place forms which in the West-Saxon are broad or dij^lithon- 
 gal.-f- Beda mentions that CwUn is the Northumbrian form 
 of Ceawlin. 
 
 2. The simple * sound of h replaces the combination out 
 of which the modern sound of ch has been evolved. 
 
 3. The sound of sk replaces either the sh, or the sound out 
 of which it has been evolved. 
 
 The meaning of these last two statements is explained by 
 the following extract : " Another characteristic is the infu- 
 sion of Scandinavian words, of which there are slight traces 
 in monuments of the tenth century, and strong and unequi- 
 vocal ones in those of the thirteenth and fourteenth. Some 
 of the above criteria may be verified by a simple and obvi- 
 ous process, namely, a reference to the topographical nomen- 
 clatui-e of our provinces. Whoever takes the trouble to 
 consult the Gazetteer of England will find, that of our numer- 
 ous ' Carltons ' not one is to be met with south of the Mersey, 
 west of the Staffordshire Tame, or south of the Thames ; 
 and that ' Fiskcrtons,'' ' Skiptons,' ' Skelbrookes,' and a whole 
 host of similar names are equally introuvables in the same 
 district. They are, with scarcely a single exception, northern 
 or eastern ; and we know from ^Ifric's Glossary, from 
 Domesday and the Chartularies, that this distinction of pro- 
 nunciation was established as early as the eleventh century. 
 ' Kirby ' or ' Kirkby,' is a specimen of joint Anglian and 
 
 * Quarterly Review, No. clxiv. 
 t From the Quarterly Review, No. ex.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 539 
 
 Scandinavian influence, furnishing a clue to the ethnology of 
 the district wherever it occurs. The converse of this rule 
 does not hold with equal universality, various causes having 
 gradually introduced soft palatal sounds into districts to which 
 they did not properly belong. Such are, however, of very 
 partial occurrence, and form the exception rather than the 
 rule.^"* — Quarterly Review, No. clxiv. 
 
 BihliograpMcal preliminaries. — The leading facts here are 
 the difference between 1. the locality of the authorship, 
 and 2, the locality of the transcription of a book. 
 
 Thus: the composition of a Devonshire poet may find 
 readers in Northumberland, and his work be transcribed by 
 a Northumbrian copyist. Now this Northumbrian copyist 
 may do one of two things : he may transcribe the Devonian 
 production verbatim et literatim ; in which case his country- 
 men read the MS. just as a Londoner reads Burns, i.e., in the 
 dialect of the writer, and not in the dialect of the reader. On 
 the other hand, he may accommodate as well as transcribe, i.e., 
 he may change the wow-Northumbrian into Northumbrian ex- 
 pressions, in which case his countrymen read the MS. in their 
 own rather than the writer"'s dialect. 
 
 Now it is clear, that in a literature where transcription, 
 combined with accommodation, is as common as sim,ple tran- 
 scription, we are never sure of knowing the dialect of an 
 author unless we also know the dialect of his transcriber. In 
 no literature is there more of this S(2;;^j-translation tlian in the 
 Anglo-Saxon and the early English ; a fact which sometimes 
 raises difficulties, by disconnecting the evidence of author- 
 ship with the otherwise natural inferences as to the dialect 
 employed ; whilst, at others, it smoothes them away by sup- 
 plying as many specimens of fresh dialects, as there are extant 
 MSS. of an often copied composition. 
 
 Inquiring whether certain peculiarities of dialect in Laya- 
 mon's Brut, really emanated from the author, a writer in 
 the Quarterly Review, (No. clxiv.) remarks, that to de- 
 cide this it " would be necessary to have access either to 
 the priest's autograph, or to a more faithful copy of it than it 
 was the practice to make cither in his age or the succeeding
 
 'fM TllK 1>1ALE0TS OF 
 
 oiu'S. A transcriber of an oarly English composition tol- 
 lowitl his t)\\ n iileas of hanguivge, grammar, and orthography ; 
 ami it' ho ditl not entirely obliterate the characteristic ])ecii- 
 liarities of bis original, he was 2)retty sure, like the Conde de 
 Olivares, ' cVy meter beaucour dii sein.' The practical proof 
 of this is to be found in the existing copies of those works, 
 almost every one of which exhibits some j)eculiarity of fea- 
 tures. We have ' Trevisa'' and ' Robert of Gloucester,' in two 
 distinct forms — ' Pier's Plouglnnan,"' in at least three, and 
 ' IIampole"'s Pricke of Conscience,*' in half a dozen, without 
 auy absolute certainty which approximates most to what the 
 authors wrote. With regard to Layamon, it might be suj)- 
 j)oscd that the older copy is the more likely to represent the 
 original ; but we have internal evidence that it is not the 
 priest's autograph ; and it is impossible to know what altera- 
 tions it may have undergone in the course of one or more 
 transcriptions.'' 
 
 Again, in noticing the orthography of the Ormulum (alluded 
 to in the present volume, § 266), he writes : " It is true that 
 in this instance we have the rare advantage of possessing the 
 author's autograph, a circumstance which cannot with con- 
 fidence be predicated of any other considerable work of the 
 same period. The author was, moreover, as Mr. Thorj)e 
 observes, a kind of critic in his own language ; and we there- 
 fore find in his work, a regularity of orthography, grammar, 
 and metre, hardly to be paralleled in the same age. All this 
 might, in a great measure, disappear in the very next copy ; 
 for fidelity of transcription was no virtue of the thirteenth or 
 the fourteenth century ; at least with respect to vernacular 
 works. It becomes, therefore, in many cases a problem of no 
 small comj)lication, to decide with certainty resj>ecting the 
 original metre, or language, of a given mediaeval composition, 
 with such data as we now possess." 
 
 From all this it follows, that the inquirer must talk of copies 
 rather than of authors. 
 
 § 688. Caution. — Differences of spelling do not always imj)ly 
 differences of pronunciation ; perhaps they may be prima 
 facie o^ Bxxch. Still it is uncritical to be over-hasty in sepa-
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 541 
 
 rating, as specimens of dialect^ works which, perhaps, only 
 differ in being specimens of separate ortliogra'pliies. 
 
 § 689. Caution. — The accommodation of a transcribed work 
 is susceptible of degrees. It may go so far as absolutely to 
 replace one dialect by another, or it may go no farther than 
 the omission of the more unintelligible expressions, and the 
 substitution of others more familiar. I again quote the 
 Quarterly Review, — " There are very few matters more diffi- 
 cult than to determine a priori, in what precise form a verna- 
 cular composition of the thirteenth century might be written, 
 or what form it might assume in a very short period. Among 
 the Anglo-Saxon charters of the eleventh and twelfth centu- 
 ries, many are modelled upon the literary Anglo-Saxon, with 
 a few slight changes of orthography and inflection ; while 
 others abound with dialectical peculiarities of various sorts. 
 Those peculiarities may generally be accounted for from local 
 causes. An East- Anglian scribe does not employ broad 
 western forms, nor a West of England man East-Anglian 
 ones ; though each might keep his provincial peculiarities out 
 of sight, and produce something not materially diiferent from 
 the language of ^Ifric." 
 
 § 690. Caution. — In the Reeve's Tale, Chaucer puts into 
 the mouth of one of his north-country clerks, a native of the 
 Strother, in the north-west part of the deanery of Craven, 
 where the Northumbrian dialect rather preponderates over the 
 Anglian, certain Yorkshire glosses. " Chaucer* undoubtedly 
 copied the language of some native ; and the general accuracy, 
 with which he gives it, shows that he was an attentive ob- 
 server of all that passed around him. 
 
 " We subjoin an extract from the poem, in order to give our 
 readers an opportunity of comparing southern and northern 
 English, as they co-existed in the fifteenth century. It is 
 from a MS. that has never been collated ; but which we 
 believe to be well worthy the attention of any future editor 
 of the Canterbury Tales. The italics denote variations from 
 the printed text : — 
 
 * From the (j)niiit(.rly Jtcvicw, No. ex.
 
 5i~* TlIK DIALECTS OF 
 
 " Jolin liighte tlinl oun iiiul Aleyn liijflito tliat other 
 Of oo touii were tlioi horn that liiglitc Strothcr, 
 Ffor in the north I can not tcllon where. 
 Tliis Ah'vn ninketh rcily nl his gcre — 
 Antl on an hors the sak he caste anoon. 
 Ffortli gotli Aleyn tiio clerk and also John, 
 AN'ith good swerde and hokeler hy his side, 
 John knewc the weyc — hym ncdes no gide ; 
 And atte melle the sak a down lie layth. 
 Aleyn spak first : Al hcyle, Syniond — in fayth — 
 How fares thi fayre daughter and thi wyf ? 
 Aleyn welcome — quod Symkyn — be my lyf — 
 And John also — how now, what do ye here ? 
 By God, quod John — Symond, nede has na pore. 
 Hym hihovcs to serve him self that has na swayn : 
 Or ellis he is a fool as clerkes sayn. 
 Oure maunciple I hope he wil be ded — 
 Swa werkes hi/in ay the wanges in his heed. 
 And therefore is I come and cek Aleyn — 
 To grynde oure corn, and carye it ham agayne, 
 I pray yow spedes* us hethen that ye may. 
 It shal be done, quod Symkyn, by my fay ! 
 What wol ye done while it is in hande ? 
 By God, right by the hoper wol I stande, 
 Quod John, and see how gates the corn gas innc ; 
 Yit saugh I never, by my fader kynne. 
 How that the lioper wagges til and fra ! 
 Aleyn answerde — John wil ye swa ? 
 Than wil I be bynethe, by my crown, 
 And se how gates the mele falles down 
 In til the trough— that sal be my disport. 
 Quod John — In faith, I is of youre sort — 
 I is as ille a mcllcr as are ye. 
 
 # -Sf * * 
 
 And when the mele is sakked and ybounde, 
 This John goth out and fynt his hors away — 
 And gan to crie, harow, and vvele away ! — 
 Our hors is lost — Aleyn, for Godde's banes, 
 Stepe on thi feet — come of man attanes ! 
 Alias, oure wardeyn has his palfrey lorn ! 
 This Aleyn al forgat bothe mele and corn — 
 
 * Apparently a lapsus calami for spede.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 543 
 
 Al was out of his mynde, his housbonderie. 
 What — whilke way is he goon 1 he gan to crie. 
 Tlie wyf come lepynge in at a ren ; 
 Slie saide — Alias, youre hors goth to the fen 
 With wylde mares, as faste as he may go. 
 Unthank come on this hand that ba?id him so — 
 And he that bei sholde have knet the reyne. 
 Alas ! quod John, Alayn, for Criste's peyne, 
 Lay down thi swerde, and I wil myn alswa ; 
 
 I is ful sivift — God wat — as is a ra — 
 
 By Goddcs hei'te he sal nought scape us bathe. 
 Why ne hadde thou put the capel in the lathe ? 
 
 II hayl, by God, Aleyn, thou is fonne." 
 
 " Excepting the obsolete forms hethen (hence), swa, lorn, 
 toMlke, alswa, capel — all the above provincialisms are still, 
 more or less, current in the north-west part of Yorkshire. 
 Na, hai7i(e),fra, banes, attanes, ra, bathe, are pure Northum- 
 brian. Wang (cheek or temple) is seldom heard, except in 
 the phrase tvanp tooth, dens molaris. Ill, adj., for bad — lathe 
 (barn) — and fond (foolish) — are most frequently and fami- 
 liarly used in the West Riding, or its immediate borders." 
 
 Now this indicates a class of waitings which, in the cri- 
 tical history of our local dialect, must be used with great 
 caution and address. An imitation of dialect may be so lax 
 as to let its only merit consist in a deviation from the standard 
 idiom. 
 
 In the Lear of Shakspeare we have speeches from a 
 Kentish clown. Is this the dialect of the character, the 
 dialect of the writer, or is it some conventional dialect appro- 
 priated to theatrical purposes ? I think the latter. 
 
 In Ben Jonson's Tale of a Tub, one (and more than one 
 of the characters) speaks thus. His residence is the neigh- 
 bourhood of London, Tottenham Court. 
 
 Is it no sand ? nor buttermilk? if 't be, 
 
 Ich 'am no aivc, or watering-pot, to draw 
 
 Knots in your 'casions. If you trust me, zo— 
 
 If not, p7-aforme 't your solves, 'Cham no man's wife, 
 
 But resolute Hilts : you '11 ?;iiid me in the buttry. 
 
 Act I. Scene 1 .
 
 .'ill THE DIALECTS OF 
 
 I consiilor that this rcprcsonts the dialect of the neigh- 
 bourhooil of Loiulon, not on the strength of its being put in 
 the nioutli of a man of Tottenham, but from other and inde- 
 pendent circumstances. 
 
 Not so, however, with the provincialisms of another of 
 Ben Jonson''8 plays, the Sad Shepherd : — 
 
 shew your sell 
 
 Tu nil the shccpards, bauUlly ; gaing amang hem. 
 Be niickle in their eye, frequent and fugeand. 
 And, gif thoy ask ye of Eiarine, 
 Or of these claithes ; say that I ga' hem ye, 
 And say no more. I ha' that wark in hand, 
 That web upon the luinic, sail gar cm thinke. 
 
 Act II. Scene 3. 
 
 The scene of the play is Sherwood Forest : the language, 
 however, as far as I may venture an opinion, is not the lan- 
 guage from which the present Nottinghamshire dialect has 
 come down. 
 
 § 691. Caution. — Again, the word old, as applied to lan- 
 guage, has a double meaning. 
 
 The language of the United States was imported from 
 England into America in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The 
 language of South Australia has been introduced within the 
 present generation. Tn one sense, the American English is 
 older than the Australian. It was earliest separated from the 
 mother-tongue. 
 
 The language, however, of America may (T speak only in 
 the way of illustration, and consequently hypothetically), in 
 the course of time, become the least old of the two ; the word 
 old being taken in another sense. It may change with greater 
 rapidity. It may lose its inflections. It may depart more 
 from the structure of the mother-tongue, and preserve fewer 
 of its old elements. In this sense the Australian (provided 
 that it has altered least, and that it retain the greatest number 
 of the old inflections) will be the older tongue of the two. 
 
 Now what may be said of the language of two countries, 
 may be said of the dialects of two districts. The one dialect 
 may run its changes apace ; the other alter but by degrees.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 515 
 
 Hence, of two works in two such dialects, the one would 
 appear older than the other, although in reality the two were 
 cotemporarv. 
 
 Hence, also, it is a lax expression to say that it is the old 
 forms (the archaisms) that the provincial dialects retain. The 
 provincial forms are archaic only when the current language 
 changes more rapidly than the local idiom. When the local 
 idiom changes fastest, the archaic forms belong to the standard 
 mode of speech. 
 
 The provincial forms, goand, slepand, for going and sleeping^ 
 are archaic. Here the archaism is with the pi'ovincial form. 
 
 The forms almost, horses, nought but, contrasted with the 
 provincialisms ommost, hosses, nohhot, are archaic. They have 
 not been changed so much as they will be. Here the archaism 
 (that is, the nearer approach to the older form) is with the 
 standard idiom. A sequestered locality is preservative of old 
 forms. But writing and education are preservatives of them 
 also. 
 
 § 692. With these preliminaries a brief notice of the En- 
 glish dialects, in their different stages, may begin. 
 
 The districts north of the Humher. — There is so large an 
 amount of specimens of the dialects of this area in the 
 Anglo-Saxon stage of our language, the area itself so closely 
 coincides with the political division of the kingdom of North- 
 umberland, whilst the present arrangement (more or less 
 provisional) of the Anglo-Saxon dialects consists of the 
 divisions of them into the, 1, West-Saxon ; 2, Mercian ; and 
 8, Northumbrian, that it is best to give a general view of the 
 whole tract before the minuter details of the different coun- 
 ties which compose them are noticed. The data for the 
 Northumbrian division of the Anglo-Saxon dialects are as 
 follows : — 
 
 1. Wa7ileys Fragment of Cadmon. — The north-east of 
 Yorkshire was the birth-place of the Anglo-Saxon monk 
 Caedmon. Nevertbeless, the form in wbich his poems in full 
 have come down to us is that of a West-Saxon composition. 
 This indicates the prol)ability of the original work having 
 first been re-cast, and afterwards lost. 13e this as it may, the 
 
 N N
 
 .k; 
 
 NORTH UMIUU AN SPECIMENS. 
 
 followiiiij short iVni^'mont lias l)Oon printed by W.iiiley, from 
 an ancient MS., and by lliekes from lU-de, Hist. Eccl., 4, 24, 
 and it is considered, in the first form, to approach or, perhaps, 
 to represent the Northumbrian of the original poem. 
 
 1. 
 
 Wan lei/. 
 Nu pcylun Iicrgan 
 Herfaeii-ricacs uard, 
 Metudcs uia;cti, 
 End liis modgctlianc. 
 Uerc uuldur fadur, 
 Sue he mindra giluiacs, 
 Eci drictin, 
 Ord stclida.'. 
 He oerist scopa, 
 Elda barnum, 
 Ht'bcn til lirofu ; 
 Haleg scepen : 
 Tha mittungeard, 
 Moncynnrcs uard, 
 Eci drictin, 
 iEftcr tia«ae, 
 Firum foldu, 
 Frea allmectig. 
 
 2. 
 Hickes. 
 
 Nil we sccolan hcrigcan 
 Hcofon-riccs weard, 
 Metodes niilitc, 
 And his modgcthanc. 
 Wcorc wuhlor-feedcr, 
 Sva he wundra gewaes, 
 Ece driten, 
 Ord onstealdc. 
 Ne JErcst scop, 
 EorSan bcarnum, 
 Heofon to rofc ; 
 Halig scyppcnd : 
 Da middangcard, 
 Moncynncs weard, 
 Ece drihten, 
 yEftcr teode, 
 Firuni foldan, 
 Frea almihtig. 
 
 Translation. 
 
 Now we should praise 
 
 The heaven-kingdom's preserver, 
 
 The might of the Creator, 
 
 And his mood-thought. 
 
 The glory-father of works, 
 
 As he, of wonders, each 
 
 Eternal Lord, 
 
 Originally established. 
 
 He erst shaped, 
 
 For earth's bairns, 
 Heaven to roof ; 
 Holy shapcr ; 
 Then mid-earth, 
 Mankind's home, 
 Eternal Lord, 
 After formed, 
 For the homes of men, 
 Lord Almighty. 
 
 2. Tke death-bed verses of Bede. 
 
 Fore the neidfaerae, Before the necessary journe}'^, 
 
 Naenig uuiurthit No one is 
 
 Thoc-snotturra Wiser of thought 
 
 Than him tharf sie Than he hath need 
 
 To ymbhycganne. To consider.
 
 THE RUTHWELL RUNES. 
 
 51' 
 
 Aer his hionongac, 
 Huact, his gastac, 
 Godaes aeththa yflaes, 
 iEfter deotlidaege, 
 Doemid uuieorthae. 
 
 Before his departure, 
 
 What, for his spirit. 
 Of good or evil, 
 After tiie death-day, 
 Shall be doomed. 
 
 From a MS. at St. Gallen ; quoted by Mr. Kemble, Archcco- 
 locfia, vol. xxviii. 
 
 8. The Rttthioell Runes. — The inscription in Anglo-Saxon 
 Runic letters, on the lluthwell Cross, is thus deciphered and 
 translated by Mr. Kemble : — 
 
 mik. 
 
 RiiknsD kyningk 
 
 Hifuiipes hlafard, 
 
 Hselda ic ne dserstaj. 
 
 Bismerede ungket men, 
 
 Ba8etgSE;d[r]e, 
 
 Ik (n)i«b3edi bist(e)me(d) 
 
 . . . . geredae 
 Hinoc gamceldse 
 Estig, t5a he vvalde 
 An galgu gistiga 
 Modig fore 
 Men, 
 
 Mid stralum givvundaud, 
 Alegdun hioe hinse, 
 Limvverigne. 
 Gistodun him . . . 
 
 Krist wees on rodi ; 
 HwctSraj ther fusse 
 Fcarran cwomu 
 iE^Sihe ti henum. 
 Ic that al bill (cold) 
 
 see ( ... ) 
 
 Ic w(ai)s ini(d) ga(l)gu 
 
 iE (. . . .) rod . ha . 
 
 me. 
 
 The powerful King, 
 
 The Lord of Heaven, 
 
 I dared not hold. 
 
 They reviled us two, 
 
 Both together, 
 
 I stained with the pledge of crime. 
 
 . prepared 
 Himself .spake 
 Bcnignantly when he would 
 Go up upon the cross. 
 Courageously before 
 Men 
 
 Wounded with shafts. 
 They laid him down, 
 Limb-weary. 
 Tiiey stood by him. 
 
 Christ was on cross. 
 Lo ! there with speed 
 From afar came 
 Nobles to him in misery. 
 I that all behold 
 
 I was will) the cross 
 
 iN N 2
 
 .'■>i-S NOliTlllMlMilAN Sl'KCIlMKN. 
 
 " The tlialiH't o\' llicsi> linos is that of NorthuniboHaii<l in 
 the seventh, eiirhth, and even ninth centuries. 'J'he first pecn- 
 haril\ !•> in the rr tor i' in the ohhtjue cases, and which 1 have 
 observed in the coteniporary MS. of CnSberht's letter at St. 
 Gallon. This, which is strictly organic, and represents the 
 nncorrupted Gothic genitive in -as, and dative in -a, as well as 
 the Old Saxon forms of the substantive, Is evidence of great 
 aiitii|uity. Jiut that wbich is, perhaps, the most characteristic 
 of the Northumbrian dialect is the formation of the infinitive 
 in -a and -<r, instead of-aM (^halda, gistigd). The Durham IJook 
 has, I believe, throughout but one single verb, which nuUies 
 the infinitive in -an, and that is the anomalous word bean = to 
 he ; even wosa and wiortha following the common rule. The 
 word ungJcet is another incontrovertible proof of extreme 
 antiquity, having, to the best of my knowledge, never been 
 found but in this passage. It is the dual of the first perso- 
 nal pronoun Ic, and corresponds to the very rare dual of 
 the second personal pronoun incit, which occurs twice in 
 Cajdmon." * 
 
 4. The Cotton Psalter. — This is a Latin Psalter in the 
 Cotton collection, accompanied by an Anglo-Saxon interline- 
 ation. Place uncertain. Time, ninth century or earlier. 
 The following points of difference between this and the West- 
 Saxon are indicated by Mr. Garnett, Phil. Soc. No. 27. 
 
 COTTON PSALTER. 
 
 WEST-SAXON. 
 
 Boen, prayer 
 
 Ben. 
 
 Boec, hooks 
 
 . Bee. 
 
 Coelan, cool 
 
 Celan. 
 
 Docman, J«f/ge 
 
 . Deman. 
 
 Foedan, feed 
 
 Fe'dan. 
 
 Speed, fortune 
 
 . Sped. 
 
 Swoet, sweet 
 
 Swe't. 
 
 Wocnan, think, ween 
 
 . Wenan. 
 
 .5. The Durham Gospels — Quatuor Evangelia Latine, ex 
 franslatione B. Hieronymi, cum glossd interlineatd Saxonica. 
 Nero, D. 4. 
 
 * J. M. Kcrnble, " On Anglo-Saxon Runes," Arclitrologio, vol. xxviii.
 
 THE DURHAM BOOK. 
 
 5VJ 
 
 Cimi 
 
 ill die bus 
 
 cwoniuii 
 veiierunt 
 
 Matthew^ cap. 2. 
 
 arod gccenned were haclcnd in <5£er byrig 
 
 ergo natus esset Jesus in IJethleem Judsese 
 
 lajifiun Herodcs cyniuges lieomi <5a tuiigulcraeftga of ctistdael 
 
 Herodis llegis, ecce 
 
 cweoSonde 
 to liierusalcui liiu cwoedon liuer 
 Hierosolymam, dicentes, Ubi 
 
 maofi ab orieute 
 
 is cynig Judeunu gesegon we foriSoii 
 
 est rex Judseorum "? vidimus enim 
 custdajl and we cwonion to worSanne liine 
 orieute et venimus adorare eum. 
 
 licrodes sc cynig gedroefed 
 Herodes turbatus 
 
 wses and alle 
 
 is ^e acenned 
 est qui natus 
 
 tungul 
 
 sterru liis in 
 
 stellam ejus in 
 
 geherde wiototliec 
 
 Audiens autem 
 
 <5a burgwaeras 
 tSa hierusolenusca luicS 
 
 est et omnis Hierosolyma cum 
 
 inm 
 illo 
 
 and gesomnede alle 
 
 Et congregatis {sic) omnes 
 
 geascode 
 and tSa uSuutta tS.ies folces georne gefragnde 
 
 et scribas populi, sciscitabatur 
 
 acenned were. 
 
 nasceretur. 
 
 mesapreusti 
 Sa aldonncnn biscopa 
 principes sacerdotum 
 
 fra 
 ab 
 
 him hucr 
 iis ubi 
 
 crist 
 Christus 
 
 6. The Rituale Ecclesice Dunhelmensis. — Edited for the 
 Surtees Society by Mr. Stevenson. Place : neighbourhood of 
 Durham. Time : a.d. 970. Differences between the Psalter 
 and Ritual : — 
 
 a. The form for the first person is in the Psalter gene- 
 rally -u. In the Ritual it is generally -o. In West 
 Saxon, -e. 
 
 Psalter. — Getreow-w, I believe; cleopi-u, I call; sell-u, I 
 give ; ondred-u^ I fear ; ageld-u^ I pay ; getimhr-u, I build. 
 Forms in -o ; sitt-o, I sit ; drinc-o, I drink. 
 
 Ritual. — Feht-o, I fight ; wuldrig-o, I glory. The end- 
 ing in -u is rarer. 
 
 b. In the West Saxon the plural present of verbs ends in 
 -a8 •• we lufi-a^^ ge lufi-a'S, hi lufi-a^. The Psalter also ex- 
 hibits this West Saxon form. Ijut the i)]urals of the Ritual
 
 •"^■JO NORTIIUMRRIAN DIALECTS. 
 
 t'lul in -s ; as, f)id(l-(fs= we pnri/ ; ffiwoed-es^^*'^^ ^''^^ »' ''^y^'*^- 
 (ts = do. 
 
 c. The iiitliiitivos of" verbs end in the West Saxon in -an^ 
 as ciced-an = to say. So they do in the Psalter. But in 
 the Ritual the -n is omitted, and the infinitive ends simply 
 in -a : cuoetha = to say ; inngeonqa = to enter. 
 
 d. The oblique cases and plurals of substantives in West 
 Saxon end in an : as heortan = hearfs ; heortan = hearts. 
 So they do in the Psalter. But in the Ritual the -n is 
 omitted, and the word ends simply in -a or -e ; as norm =^ of 
 a name (West Saxon nam-an) ; hearta = hearts. 
 
 7. The Biishtcorfh Gospels. — Place, Harevvood in Wharf- 
 dale, Yorkshire, Time, according to Wanley, the end of 
 the ninth century. 
 
 Here observe — 
 
 1. That the Ruthwell inscription gives us a sample of the 
 so-called Northumbrian Anglo-Saxon, and that as it is spoken 
 in Scotland, i.e., in Galloway. For the bearings of this see 
 Part II., c. 3. 
 
 2. That the Rushworth Gospels take us as far south as the 
 West Riding of Yorkshire. 
 
 S. That there are no specimens from any Cumberland, West- 
 moreland, or North Lancashire localities, these being, most 
 probably, exclusively Celtic. 
 
 § 693. The most general statements concerning this great 
 section of the Anglo-Saxon, is that — 
 
 1 . It prefers the slenderer and more vocalic to the broader 
 and more diphthongal forms. 
 
 2. The sounds of k and s, to those of ch and sh. 
 
 3. The forms without the prefix ge-, to those with them. 
 Nevertheless the form ge-cenned ( = natus) occurs in the 
 first line of the extract from the Durham Gospels. 
 
 § 694. The Old and Middle English MSS. from this quarter 
 are numerous ; falling into two classes : 
 
 1. Transcriptions with accommodation from works com- 
 posed southwards. Here the characteristics of the dialect 
 are not absolute.
 
 NORTHUMBRIAN DIALECTS. 551 
 
 2. Northern copies of northern compositions. Here the 
 characteristics of the dialect are at the maximum. Sir Tris- 
 tram is one of the most important works of this class ; and 
 in the wider sense of the term Nortlmmhrian^ it is a matter of 
 iudiiference on which side of the Border it was composed. 
 See § 190. 
 
 § %'d^. Taking the counties in detail, we have — 
 
 Northumherland. — Northern frontier, East Scotland ; the 
 direction of the influence being from South to North, rather 
 than from North to South, ^^ ^., Berwickshire and the Lo- 
 thians being Northumbrian and English, rather than Nor- 
 thumberland Scotch. 
 
 West frontier Celtic — the Cumberland and Westmoreland 
 Britons having been encroached upon by the Northumbrians 
 of Northumberland. 
 
 Present dialect. — Believed to be nearly uniform over the 
 counties of Northumberland and Durham ; but changing in 
 character in North Yorkshire, and in Cumberland and West- 
 moreland. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon immigration considered to have been 
 Angle (so-called) rather than Saxon. 
 
 Danish admixture — Very great. Possibly, as far as the 
 marks that it has left on the language, greater than in any 
 other part oi England* — See § 152. 
 
 Cumherland,W esttiioreland,North Lancashire. — Anglo-Saxon 
 elements introduced from portions of Northumbria rather than 
 directly from the Continent. 
 
 Celtic language persistent until a comparatively late thougli 
 undetermined period. 
 
 Northern frontier, West-Scotland — the direction of the in- 
 fluence being from Scotland to England, rather than vice 
 versa ; Carlisle being more of a Scotch town than Berwick. 
 
 Specimens of the dialects in the older stages, few and 
 doubtful. 
 
 Topographical nomenclature characterized by the prepon- 
 derance of compounds of -thwaite ; as Braithwaite, &rc. 
 
 * But not of Great Britain. The Lowland Scotch is, jiiobably, more 
 Danish than any South-Britibli dialect.
 
 5">2 Y(>1{KSII1KK I>IALKrTS. 
 
 North Laiu-asliirc, W't'stuioivhiinl, ;iii(l C'unil)i'ilaii(l, " ex- 
 liiliil many Aiiylian* pt'ciiliaritios, wliidi may have been oc- 
 casiioiiecl in .some deyree l)y the eohjnies in the south, |)hiiite(l 
 in that distriet by Wilham Rntus (Saxon Chronicle, a.d. 
 I0i)2.) A comparison of Andersou"'s l)allads with Burus's 
 sonys, will !sho\v how like Cumbrian is to Scotti.sh, but iiow 
 dili'erent. \Ve believe that Weber is right in referring the 
 romance of Sir Amadas to this district. The naixture of 
 the Anglian forms (jv>o^ ptcon^ l/vons, hoyd-word (in pure 
 Northumbrian), cfae, pane, banes^ bod-worde., with the north- 
 ern terms, tynt, kent^ bathe, 7nare, and many others of the 
 same class, could hardly have occurred in any other part of 
 Enghmd. ' -f 
 
 Yorkshire, North and pari of West Riding. — The Anglo- 
 Saxon specimens of this area have been noticed in § 692. 
 
 The extract from Chaucer is also from this district. 
 
 The modern dialects best known are — 
 
 J. The Cracen. — This, in northern localities, "becomes 
 slightly tinctured with Northun)brian.'"' — Quart. Rev. ut supra. 
 
 2. The Cleveland. — With not only Northumbrian, but even 
 Scotch characters. Quart. Rev. lit supra. 
 
 Danish admixture — Considerable. 
 
 All these dialects, if rightly classified, belong to the Nor- 
 thumbrian division of the Angle branch of the Anglo-Saxon 
 language; whilst, if the prima facie view of their affiliation 
 or descent, be the true one, they are the dialects of § 692, in 
 their modern forms, 
 
 § ^S)^. The classification which gives this arrangement now 
 draws a line of distinction at the river Ribble, in Lancashire, 
 which separates tSoiith from North Lancashire ; whilst in York- 
 shire, the East Riding, and that part of the West which does 
 not belong to the Wapentake of Claro, belong to the class 
 which is supposed to exclude the previous and contain the 
 following dialects : — 
 
 § Q*^!. South Lancashire and Cheshire. — Sub- varieties of 
 
 * In oi)po.sitioii to the ty]>ical Noitlmiubriaii. 
 t (imirtcily Review — ut supra.
 
 MERCIAN DIALECTS (sO-CALLED). 553 
 
 the same dlulects, but not sub-varieties of the previous 
 ones. 
 
 The plural form in -en is a marked character of this dialect 
 — at least of the Lancashire portion. 
 
 Supposed original poj)ulation — Angle rather than Saxon. 
 
 Original political relations — Mercian rather than Northum- 
 brian. 
 
 These last two statements apply to all the forthcoming 
 areas north of Essex. The latter is a simple historical fact ; 
 the former supposes an amount of difference between the 
 Angle and the Saxon which has been assumed rather than 
 proved ; or, at any rate, which has never been defined accu- 
 rately. 
 
 The elements of uncertainty thus developed, will be noticed 
 in §§ 704) — 708. At present it is sufficient to say, that if the 
 South Lancashire dialect has been separated from the north, 
 on the score of its having been Mercian rather than Northum- 
 brian^ the principle of classification has been based upon 
 political rather than philological grounds ; and as such is 
 exceptionable. 
 
 § 698. Shropshire^ Staffordshire, and West Derbyshire. — 
 Supposing the South Lancashire and Cheshire to be the Mer- 
 cian (which we must remember is a "political term), the Shrop- 
 shire, Staffordshire, and West Derbyshire are Mercian also ; 
 transitional, however, in character. 
 
 Shropshire and Cheshire have a Celtic frontier. 
 
 Here, also, both the a priori probabilities and the known 
 facts make the Danish intermixture at its minimum. 
 
 § 699. East Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire. — Here the 
 language is considered to change from the mode of speech of 
 which the South Lancashire is the type, to the mode of speech 
 of which the Norfolk and Suffolk dialect is the type. 
 
 Danish elements may now be expected, Derbyshire being 
 the most inland Danish area. 
 
 Original political relations — Mercian. 
 
 Specimens of the dialects in their older stages, preeminently 
 scanty. 
 
 llallamshire. — This means the parts about Slu.'fHekl ex-
 
 •''.'34 LINCOLNSHIRE, ETC. 
 
 U'lult'tl so as to incIiuU' that. |>orti<>ii of the West Hiding of 
 Yorkshire which stands over from § 69 G. Probably belong- 
 ing to the same group with the Soutk Lancashire. 
 
 East Ridinff of Yorkshire. — It is not safe to say more of 
 this dialect than that its affinities are with the dialects spoken 
 to the north rather than with those spoken to the south of it, 
 i.e., that of — 
 
 Lincolnshire. — Frontier — On the Nottinghamshire and Lei- 
 cestershire frontier, passing into the form of speech of those 
 counties. Pretty definitely separated from that of Norfolk. 
 Less so from that of North Cambridgeshire. Scarcely at all 
 from that of Huntingdonshire, antl North Northamptonshire. 
 
 Danish admixture. — The number of towns and villages end- 
 ing in the characteristic Danish termination -iy, at its maxi- 
 mum ; particularly in the neighbourhood of Spilsiy. 
 
 Traditions Danish, e. p., that of Havelok the Dane, at 
 Grimsby. 
 
 Physiognomy, Danish. 
 
 Language not Danish in proportion to the other signs of 
 Scandinavian intermixture. 
 
 Specimens of the dialects in its older form — Havelok* the 
 Dane (?), Manning's Chronicle (supposing the MS. to have 
 been transcribed in the county where the author was born). 
 
 Provincial peculiarities {i.e., deviations from the written 
 language) nearly at the minimum. 
 
 Huntingdonshire, North Northamptonshire, and Rutland. — 
 Anglo-Saxon period. — The latter part of the Saxon Chronicle 
 was written at Peterboro. Probably, also, the poems of 
 Helena and Andreas. Hence, this area is that of the old 
 Mercian in its most typical form ; whilst South Lancashire is 
 that of the new — a practical instance of the inconvenience 
 of applying political terms to philological subjects. 
 
 § 700. Norfolk, Suffolk, and the fen part of Cambridge- 
 shire. — Here the population is pre-eminently Angle. The po- 
 litical character East- Anglian rather than Mercian. 
 
 * Tlie subject is a Lincolnsliire tradition ; the language, also, is pre-emi- 
 nently Danish. On the other hand, the modern Lincolnshire dialect is by 
 no means evidently descended from it.
 
 THE WRITTEN ENGLISH. 555 
 
 Specimens of the dialects in the Anglo-Saxon stage. — The 
 Natale St. Edmuudi, in Thorpe's Analecta Anglo-Saxonica. 
 
 Early English — The Promtuarium Parvuloruni. 
 
 § 701. Leicestershire, Warioichhire, mid South Northam'p- 
 tonshire. — Mercian (so-called) rather than West-Saxon (so- 
 called). 
 
 Probably, approaching the written language of England 
 more closely than is the case with the dialects spoken to the 
 south of them. 
 
 Certainly, approaching the written language of England 
 less closely than is the case with the dialect of Huntingdon- 
 shire, North Nortluimptonshire, and South Lincolnshire. 
 
 § 702. These remarks have the following import. They 
 bear upon the question of the origin of the written language of 
 England. 
 
 Mr. Guest first diverted the attention of scholars from the 
 consideration of the West Saxon of the chief Anglo-Saxon 
 writers as the mother-dialect of the present English, to the 
 Mercian ; so turning their attention from the south to the 
 centre of England, 
 
 The general principle that a ceiitrtd locality has the a pri- 
 ori likelihood in its favour, subtracts nothing from the value 
 of his suggestion. 
 
 Neither does the fact of the nearest approach to the written 
 language being found about the parts in question ; since the 
 doctrine to which the present writer commits himself, viz., 
 that in the parts between Huntingdon and Stamford, the pu- 
 rest English is most generally spoken, is, neither universally 
 recognised, nor yet part of Mr. Guest's argument. 
 
 Mr. Guest's arguments arose out of the evidence of the 
 MSS. of the parts in question. 
 
 That the dialect most closely allied to the dialect (or dia- 
 lects) out of which the present literary language of England 
 is developed, is to be found either in Northamptonshire or 
 the neighbouring counties is nearly certain. Mr. Guest looks 
 for it on the western side of that county (Leicestershire) ; 
 the present writer on the eastern (Huntingdonshire). 
 
 § 703. It is now convenient to puss from the dialects of
 
 ."):>() ^AXON DIALECTS (S0-CAI;I>K1)). 
 
 llu> wator-systoni of the Ouso, Nciu', anil Wollniid to tliost.' 
 s|)itlvoii along tlio lower course of the Tliames. 
 
 These, to a ecitaiii extent, may be dealt with like those to 
 tlie north of the 1 lumber. Just as the latter were, in the 
 ru>t instance, and in the more general way, thrown into a 
 single class (the Northumbrian), so may the dialects in ques- 
 tion form the provisional centre of another separate class. 
 For this we have no very convenient name. 'J'he dialects, 
 however, which it contains agree in the following points. 
 
 1 . These are considered to be derived from that variety of 
 the Anglo-Saxon which is represented by the chief remains 
 of the Anglo-Saxon literature, i. e., the so-called standard or 
 classical language of Alfred, /Elfric, the present text of Ca^d- 
 nion, &c. 
 
 2. About half their present eastern area consists of the 
 counties ending in -sex ; viz., Suss^a;, Ess^a;, and Middles^o;. 
 
 3. Nearly the whole of their original area consisted in 
 kinqdoms (or sub-kingdoms) ending in -sex ; viz., the districts 
 just euumei'ated, and the kingdom of Wess^a?. 
 
 Hence they are — 
 
 a. — Considered iviih reference to their literary history. — 
 They are dialects whereof the literary development began 
 early, but ceased at the time of the Norman Conquest, being 
 superseded by that of the central dialects {^Mercian so-called) 
 of the island. The truth of this view depends on the truth 
 of Mr. Guest's doctrine noticed in page 555. If true, 
 it is by no means an isolated phecnomenon. In Plolland 
 the present Dutch is the descendant of some dialect (or 
 dialects) which was uncultivated in the earlier periods of the 
 language ; whereas the Old Frisian, which was then the writ- 
 ten language, is now represented by a jirovincial dialect 
 only. 
 
 " In speaking of the Anglo-Saxon language, scholars mii- 
 versally intend that particular form of speech in which all the 
 principal monuments of our most ancient literature are com- 
 posed, and which, with very slight variations, is found in Beo- 
 wulf and Caedmon, in the Exeter and Vercelli Codices, in 
 the translation of the Gospels and Homilies, and in the works
 
 SAXON DIALECTS (sO-CALLED). 5-'>'7 
 
 of iElfred the Great. For all general purposes this nomen- 
 clature is sufficiently exact ; and in this point of view, the 
 prevalent dialect, which contains the greatest number of 
 literary remains, may be fairly called the Anglo-Saxon lan- 
 guage, of which all varying forms were dialects. It is, how- 
 ever, obvious that this is in fact an erroneous way of con- 
 sidering the subject ; the utmost that can be asserted is, that 
 Alfred wi'ote his own language, viz., that which was current 
 in Wessex ; and that this, having partly through the devas- 
 tations of heathen enemies in other parts of the island, partly 
 through the preponderance of the West-Saxon power and 
 extinction of the other royal families, become the language of 
 the one supreme court, soon became that of literature and the 
 pulpit also."— Kemble. Phil. Trans. No. 35. 
 
 h. — Considered in respect to their political relations. — Sub- 
 ject to the influence of the Wessex portion of the so-called 
 Heptarchy, rather than to the Mercian. 
 
 c. — Considered ethnologically — Saxon rather than Angle. 
 
 The exceptions that lie against this class will be noticed 
 hereafter. 
 
 § 704. Kent — Theoretically., Kent, is Jute rather than 
 Saxon, and Saxon rather than Angle. 
 
 Celtic elements, probably, at the minimum. 
 
 Predominance of local terms compounded of the word 
 -hurst ; as, PensAwrs^, Staple/i2«rs^, &c. 
 
 Frisian hypothesis. — The following facts and statements 
 (taken along with those of §§ 15 — 20, and §§ 129 — 131), 
 pre-eminently recpiire criticism. 
 
 1. Hengest the supposed father of the Kentish kingdom is 
 a Frisian hero — Kemble's Sdchsische Stamtaffel. 
 
 2. The dialect of the Durham Gospels and Ritual contain 
 a probably Frisian form. 
 
 3. "The country called by the Anglo-Saxons Northumber- 
 land, and which may loosely be said to have extended from 
 the Humber to Edinburgh, and from the North Sea to the 
 hills of Cumberland, was peopled by tribes of Angles. Such, 
 at least, is the tradition reported by Beda, who adds that 
 Kent was first settl(;d bv Jutes. Who these Jutes were is
 
 SnS TlIK FRISIAN IIYI'OTIIKRIS. 
 
 not cloaily ascortaincil, but from various circunistnnccs it may 
 he inferred that tluMc was at least a considerable admixture 
 of Frisians amont>fst tbem. Ilengcst, the supposed founder of 
 the Kentish kingih>m, is a Frisian hero, and Jutes, ' eoteuas,' 
 is a usual name for the Frisians in Beowulf. Beda, it is 
 true, does not enumerate Frisians among he Teutonic races 
 by which England was colonized, but this omission is repaired 
 by the for more valuable evidence of Procopius, who, living 
 at the time of some great invasion of Britain by the Germans, 
 expressly numbers Frisians among the invaders. Now the 
 Anglo-Saxon traditions themselves, however obscurely they 
 may express it, point to a close connection between Kent and 
 Northumberland : the latter country, according to these tra- 
 ditions, was colonized from Kent, and for a long time received 
 its rulers or dukes from that kingdom. Without attaching 
 to this legend more importance than it deserves, we may con- 
 clude that it asserts an original communion between the tribes 
 that settled in the two countries ; and consequently, if any 
 Frisic influence is found to operate in the one, it will be neces- 
 sary to inquire whether a similar action can be detected in the 
 other. This will be of some moment hereafter, when we 
 enter upon a more detailed examination of the dialect. The 
 most important peculiarity in which the Durham Evangeles 
 and Ritual differ from the Psalter is the form of the infinitive 
 mood in verbs. This in the Durham books is, with exception 
 of one verb, bean, esse, invariably formed in -a, not in -an, the 
 usual form in all the other Anglo-Saxon dialects. Now this 
 is also a peculiarity of the Frisic, and of the Old Norse, and 
 is found in no other Germanic tongue ; it is then an interest- 
 ing inquiry whether the one or the other of these tongues is 
 the origin of this peculiarity ; whether, in short, it belongs 
 to the old, the original Frisic form which prevailed in the fifth, 
 sixth and seventh centuries, or whether it is owing to Norse 
 influence, acting in the ninth and tenth, through the establish- 
 ment of Danish invaders and a Danish dynasty in the coun- 
 tries north of the Humber." — Kemble. Phil. Trans. No. 35. 
 The details necessary for either the verification or the 
 overthrow of the doctrine of a similarity of origin between
 
 BERKSHIRE, ETC. 559 
 
 portions of the Northumbrian * and portions of the Kentish 
 population have yet to be worked out. 
 
 So have the differentue between the dialects of Kent^ and 
 the dialects of Sussea?, Essea?, Middles^a?, and Wess^a;. 
 
 Probable Anglo-Saxon of Kent. — Codex Diplomaticus, 
 No. 191. 
 
 § 705. Sussex. — The characteristics are involved in those of 
 Kent — thus, if Kent be simply Saxon the two counties have 
 the same ethnological relation ; whilst if Kent be Frisian or 
 Jute (?) Sussex may be either like or unlike. 
 
 Hampshire. — Theoretically^ Saxon i-ather than Angle, and 
 West Saxon (Wessex) rather than south, east, or Middle- 
 Saxon. 
 
 Jute elements in either the Hants or Isle of Wight dialects, 
 hitherto undiscovered. Probably, non-existent. 
 
 Present dialect certainly not the closest representative of 
 the classical Anglo-Saxon, i.e.^ the so-called West Saxon. 
 
 Berkshire. — Present dialect, probably, the closest represen- 
 tative of the classical Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Cornwall. — Celtic elements at the maximum. 
 
 Devonshire and West Somerset. — Present dialect strongly 
 marked by the use of z for s (Zomerzet = Somerset) . 
 
 Celtic elements probably considerable. 
 Worcestershire. — The language of the Anglo-Saxon period 
 is characterized by the exclusive, or nearly exclusive, use of 
 s in the forms usse and usses for ure and ures. See Codex 
 Diplomaticus, Nos. 95 and 97. 
 
 The affiliation of the present dialect has yet to be inves- 
 tigated. 
 
 North Glostershire. — Politically/., both North Glostcr and 
 Worcestershire are- Mercian rather than West-Saxon. 
 
 Now the language of Layamon was North Gloster. 
 
 And one at least of the MSS. is supposed to represent this 
 language. 
 
 Nevertheless its character is said to be West Saxon rather 
 than Mercian. 
 
 What does this prove ? Not that the West Saxou dialect 
 * For sonic few details see Phil. Trans., No. 3G.
 
 .'>C0 PAXON DIATiKOTS (s^O-CALLKD). 
 
 rxhMulcd into Mt'rria, hut tliat a political nomenclature is 
 out ot" j)lace in pliilolou'V. 
 
 The Wc/s/i froiitler. — Herefordshire, <^-c. — Celtic elements, 
 (leneral character of the dialects, prohahly, that of the coun- 
 ties innnediately to the east of them. 
 
 Essex. — Theoretically., Saxon lathcr than Annfle. No such 
 distinction, however, is indicated hy the ascertained character- 
 istic of the Essex dialects as opposed to the J'jast Anglian, 
 Suffolk, and the Mercian. 
 
 Ilcriforthliire. — T am not aware of any thing that distin- 
 guishes the South Hertfordshire form of speech from those of — 
 
 Middlesex. — Here, as far as there are any characteristics at 
 all, they are those of Esficx. The use of v for w, attrihuted 
 (and partially due) to Londoners, occurs — not because there 
 is any such thing as a London dialect, but because London is 
 a town on the Essex side of Middlesex. 
 
 Surrey. — The name (Su^ r/fte = southern kingdom) indi- 
 cates an original political relation with the parts north rather 
 than south of the Thames. 
 
 The evidence of the dialect is, probably, the other way. 
 
 § 706. Sui^posed East-Anglian and Saxon frontier. — For 
 the area just noticed there are two lines of demarcation — one 
 geographical, and one ethnological. 
 
 a. Geographical. — The river Thames. 
 
 b. Ethnological. — The line which separates Middles^a' and 
 Yissex {so-called Saxon localities) from Herts and Suffolk 
 {so-called Angle localities). 
 
 Of these the first line involves an undeniable fact ; the 
 second a very doubtful one. No evidence has been adduced 
 in favour of disconnecting Saxon Essex from Anglian Suffolk, 
 nor yet for connecting it witli Suss^a; and Weasex. The ter- 
 mination -sex is an undoubted fact ; the difference between 
 the Saxons and Angles which it is supposed to indicate is an 
 assumption. 
 
 § 707. The dialects of the remaining counties have, pro- 
 bably, the transitional characters, indicated by their geographi- 
 cal position. 
 
 Dorset — Hants and Somerset.
 
 LANGUAGE OF PEMBROKESHIRE, ETC. 561 
 
 Wilts. — Hants, Dorset, Somerset, Berks. 
 
 BucJcingham, Beds, Northampton. — These connect the 
 two most convenient 2)rovisional centres of tlie so-called 
 West-Saxon of Alfred, &c., and mother-dialect of the pre- 
 sent written English, viz. : Wantage and Stamford (or 
 Huntingdon) ; and in doing this they connect dialects which, 
 although placed in separate classes (West-Saxon and Mer- 
 cian), were, probably, more alike than many subdivisions of 
 the same group. 
 
 To investigate the question as to the Mercian or West- 
 Saxon origin of the present written English without pre- 
 viously stating whether the comparison be made between 
 such extreme dialects as those of the New Forest, and the 
 neighbourhood of Manchester, or such transitional ones as those 
 of Windsor and Northampton is to reduce a real to a mere 
 verbal discussion. 
 
 Warivickshire, StaffijrdsJdre. — From their central position, 
 probably transitional to both the north and south, and the 
 east and west groups. 
 
 Celtic elements increasing. 
 
 Danish elements decreasing. Perhaps at the minimum. 
 
 § 708. The exceptions suggested in §§ 703, 704, lie not 
 only against the particular group called West-Saxon, but (as 
 may have been anticipated) against all classifications which 
 assume either — 
 
 1. A coincidence between the philological divisions of the 
 Anglo-Saxon language, and the political division of the 
 Anglo-Saxon territory. 
 
 2. Any broad difference between the Angles and the 
 Saxons. 
 
 3. The existence of a Jute population. 
 
 § 709. English dialects not in continuity imth the mother- 
 tongue. — Of these the most remarkable are those of — 
 
 1. Little England heyond Wales. — In Pembrokeshire, and 
 a part of Glamorganshire, the language is English rather than 
 Welsh. The following extracts from lligden have effected 
 the belief that this Is the result of a Flemish colony. '•'• Sed 
 
 o o
 
 5():.' 
 
 COWKI! VOCAIJI'LAKV 
 
 et Fhmthrnsd'it^ t<'tiij>oir Jkeq'is Jfennci Prbni in maqna copia 
 jtuia Mailt'os ad orlenlalem Auql'Kr j^lagam habitationein jn'o 
 tempore accipientes, septiinam in insula gentem fecerunt : jubente 
 tamen eodem n>m\ ad occidentalem Wa I lire partem, apud Ilaver- 
 
 ford, sunt translafi. Sicque Britannia his nationihus 
 
 habitatur in preesenti Flandrensibus In West Wallia.'''' 
 
 A little below, however, wc learn that these Flemings are 
 (.listinguised by their origin only, and not by their language : 
 — " Flandrenses vero qui in Occidua Wallite incolunt, dimissa 
 Jam barbarie, Saxonice satis loquuntur.'''' — Higden, edit. Gale, 
 p. 210. 
 
 On the other hand, Mr. Guest has thrown a reasonable doubt 
 upon this inference ; suggesting the probability of its having 
 been simply English. The following vocabulary collected by 
 the Rev. J. Collins,* in the little peninsula of Gower, con- 
 firms this view. It contains no exclusively Flemish elements. 
 
 Anglctouch, n. s. worm. Flamiring, s. an eruption of the na- 
 
 ture of erysipelas. 
 
 Fraitli, ^A]. free-spoken, talkative. 
 
 Fritliing:, adj. a fence made of thorns 
 u-altled. 
 
 Foust, V. act. to tumble. 
 
 Flathin, n. s. a dish made of curds, 
 eggs, and milk. 
 
 Gloy, 11. s. refuse straio after the 
 
 "reed" has been taken out. 
 Gloice, n. s., a sharp pang of pain. 
 
 Hcavgar, adj. heavier (so also nea?- 
 ger, fur-ger). 
 
 Hainiacb, n. s. harness collar made of 
 straw. 
 
 Hay, n. s. a small plot of ground at- 
 tached to a dwelling. 
 
 Kittybags, n. s. gaiters. 
 
 Lipc, n. s. matted basket of peculiar 
 shape. 
 
 Bumbagus, n. s. bittern. 
 Brandis, n. s. iron stand fur a pot or 
 kettle. 
 
 Caffle, adj. entangled. 
 
 Cammet, adj. crooked. 
 
 Cloam, II. s. earthenware. 
 
 Charnel, n.s. a place raised in the roof 
 
 for hanging bacon. 
 Clit, V. to stick together. 
 
 Deal, n. s. Utter, of pigs. 
 Dotted, adj. giddy, of a sheep. 
 Dome, adj. dump. 
 Drcshel, n. s. a fail. 
 
 Eddish, n. s. wheat-stubble. 
 Evil, n. s. a three-pronged fork for 
 dung, 4c. 
 
 Firmy, v. to dean out, of a stable, ^c. 
 Fleet, adj. exposed in situation, bleak. 
 Flott, n. s. aftergrass. 
 
 * Transactions of the Philological Society. No. 93.
 
 BARONIES OF FORTH AND BARGIE. 
 
 563 
 
 Letto, n. s. a lout, a foolish fellow. 
 
 Main, adj. strong, fine {of growing 
 crops). 
 
 Nesseltrip, ii. s. the small pig in a 
 
 litter. 
 Nommet, n. s. « luncheon of bread, 
 
 cheese, S,c. — not a regular meal. 
 Noppct, ^ 
 Nipperty, J ^'^^- ^'^elj/— convalescent. 
 
 Ovice, n. s. eaves of a building. 
 
 Plym, V. to fill, to plump up. 
 
 Plym, adj. full. 
 
 Planche, v. to make a boarded fioor. 
 
 Peert, adj. lively, brisk. 
 
 Piirty, V. n. to turn sulky. 
 
 Quat, V. act. to press down, fatten. 
 Quapp, V. n. to throb. 
 
 Rathe, adj. early, of crops, 
 Reremouse, n. s. bat. 
 Ryle, V. to angle in the sea. 
 RifF, n, s. an instrument for sharpen- 
 ing scythes. 
 
 Seggy, V. act. to tease, to provoke. 
 Semmatt, n. s. sieve made of skin J'ur 
 winnowing. 
 
 Shoat, n. s. small wheaten loaf. 
 Sliowy, V. n, to clear (if weather) ; 
 (show, with termination y, cotn- 
 mon) . 
 Soul, n. s. cheese, butter, Sfc. (as eaten 
 
 with br^ad). 
 Snead, n. s. handle of a scythe. 
 Songalls, n. s. gleanings: "to gather 
 
 songaW' is to glean. 
 Sull, or Zull, n. s., a wooden plough. 
 Stiping, n. s. a mode of fastening ^ 
 sheep's foreleg to its head by a band 
 of straw, or withy. 
 Susan, n. s. a brown carthemcai-e 
 
 pitcher. 
 Sump, n, s., any bulk that is carried. 
 Snant, part, regular in oi'der. 
 Slade, n. s. ground sloping towards 
 the sea. 
 
 Tite, V. to tumble over. 
 
 Toit, n. s. a small seat or stool made 
 
 of straw. 
 Toit, {iA]. frisky, luanton. 
 
 Vair, n. s. weasel or stoat. 
 
 Want, n. s. a mole. 
 Wirg, n. s. a willow. 
 Wimble, v. to ivinnow. 
 Weest, adj. lonely, desolate. 
 Wash-dish, n. s. the titmouse. 
 
 710. The baronies of Forth and Bargie in the County Wex- 
 ford. — The barony of Forth " lies south of the city of Wex 
 ford, and is bounded by the sea to the south and cast, and by 
 the barony of Bargie to the west. It is said to have been 
 colonized by the Welshmen who accompanied Strongbow in 
 his invasion of Ireland ; but by the term Welshmen, as here 
 u.sed, we must no doubt understand the English settlers of 
 Gowcr and Pembroke. Vallancey published a specimen of 
 their language. Some of the grammatical forms can hardly 
 
 o 2
 
 rm 
 
 .SI'KCIMKXS OF TlIK 
 
 tail to interest tlio F-nylisli scliolar, and wo may venture more 
 partieularly to eall his attt'ulioii to the verbal entliiig tk. In 
 no other of our spoken dialects do we Hnd the th still linger- 
 ing as an inflection of the plural verb." 
 
 Address in tiik Ijahuny ok Foutii Langiage. 
 
 Presented in Avgiist 183G, to the Maiquis of Nornianbij, then Eurl of Miit- 
 gidve, and Lord Lieutenant of Inlnnd ; loithu Translation of the Address 
 in English. 
 
 To His Ea'celleuci/Constantine Henri/ 
 Phipps, Earl ]\Iulgrave,Lord Lieu- 
 teiiant-Gencral and General Go- 
 vernor (f Ireland: The humble Ad- 
 dress of the Inhabitants of Barony 
 Forth, Wexford. 
 May it please your Excellency, 
 
 We, tlie subjects of His Most Gra- 
 cious Majesty William IV., and as 
 we truly believe both faithful and 
 loyal inhabitants of the Barony Forth, 
 beg leave, at this favourable opportu- 
 nity to approach Your Excellency, 
 and in the simple garb of our 
 old dialect to pour forth from the 
 strength (or fulness) of our hearts, 
 our strength (or admiration) of the 
 qualities which characterize your 
 name, and for which we have no 
 words but of "Governor," "States- 
 man,'' &c. Sir, each and every con- 
 dition, it is with joy of heart that our 
 eyes rest upon the representative of 
 that Sovereign, William IV., under 
 whose paternal rule our days are 
 spent ; for before your foot pressed 
 the soil, your name was known to us 
 as the Friend of Liberty, and He 
 who broke the fetters of the Slave. 
 Unto ourselves — for we look on Ire- 
 land to be our common coiintry — 
 you have with impartiality (of hand) 
 ministered the laws made for every 
 
 To 's Etcellencie Consautine Harrie 
 Phipps, Earle Mulgravc, " Lord 
 Lieutcnant-General, and General 
 Governor of Ireland;" Ye sou- 
 missive spakeen o' ouz Dwellers o' 
 Baronie Forthe, Weisforthe. 
 Mai't be plesaunt to th' Exccllencie, 
 Wee, Vassalcs o' " His Most Gra- 
 cious ^lajesty" Wilyame ee 4th an 
 az wee vcrilic chote na coshe an loy- 
 alc Dwellers na Baronie Forth, crave 
 na dicke luckie acte t'uck nccher th' 
 Excellencie, an na plaine garbe o' 
 oure yola talke, wi' vengem o' core 
 t'gieoure zcnse o'ye grades wilke be 
 ee dighte vvi' yer name, and whilke 
 wee canna zic, albeit o' " Governere" 
 " Statesman" an alike. Yn ercha an 
 ol o' whilke yt beeth vvi' gleezom 
 o'core th' oure eene dwitheth apan 
 ye vigere o'dicke zovereine,Wilyarae 
 ee Vourthe unnere fose fatherlie zwae 
 oure deis be ee spant, az avare ye 
 trad dicke lone ver name was ee kent 
 var ee Vriene o' Levertie, an Hefo 
 brack ge neckers o' Zlaves — Mang 
 ourzels — var wee dwitheth an Irelonc 
 az oure general haime — y'ast bie' 
 ractzomhomedclt tons yclasseemate 
 var ercha vassale, ne'er dwith ee na 
 dicke wai n'ar dicka. Wee de withe 
 ye ane fose deis bee gien var ee gu- 
 devare o' ee lone ye zwae, t'uvance
 
 BARONY OF FORTH DIALECT. 
 
 505 
 
 pace ail levertie, an wi'out vlinch ee 
 garde o' general rioclits an poplare 
 vartue. — Ye pace — yea wee raa' zei 
 ye vaste pace wliilke be ee stent o'er 
 ye lone zince th' ast ee cam, prooth, 
 y'at we alane needed ye giftes o' ge- 
 neral riochts, az be displayte bie ee 
 factes o' thie governmente. Ye state 
 na dicke die o'ye lone, na whilke be 
 ne'er fash n'ar moil, albeit " Consti- 
 tutional Agitation," ye wake o'hopes 
 ee blighte, stampe na per zwae ee be 
 rare an lightzom. Yer name var zetcli 
 avanct avare y'e, e'en a dicke var 
 hie, arent whilke ye brine o' zea, an 
 ee crags o'noghanes cazed nae balk. 
 Na oure glades ana whilke we dellte 
 wi' mattoc, an zing t'oure caules wi 
 plou, we hert ee zough o'ye colure o' 
 pace na name o' " il/u/grare." Wi 
 " Irishmen" oure general hopes be 
 ee bond, az " Irishmen," an az dwel- 
 lers na coshe an loyale o' Baronie 
 Forthe, w'oiil dei an ercha dei, oure 
 niaunes an aure gurles, prie var lang 
 an happie zins, home o'lcurnagh an 
 ee vilt wi benizons, an yersel an oure 
 zoverine 'till ee zin o'oure deis be 
 var ay be ee go t'glade. 
 
 subject, without regard to this party 
 or that. We behold you, one whose 
 days devoted to the welfare of the 
 land yougovern,to promote peace and 
 liberty — the uncompromising guard- 
 ian of common rights and ])ublic vir- 
 tue. The peace, yes we may say the 
 profound peace, which overspreads 
 the land since your arrival, proves 
 that we alone stood in need of the 
 enjoyment of common privileges, as 
 is demonstrated by tiie results of your 
 government. The condition, this day, 
 of the country, in which is neither 
 tumult nor confusion, but that con- 
 stitutional agitation, the consequence 
 of disappointed hopes, confirm your 
 rule to be rare and enlightened. Your 
 fame for such came before you, even 
 into this retired spot, to which neither 
 the waters of the sea yonder, nor the 
 mountains above, caused any impe- 
 diment. In our valleys, where we 
 were digging with the spade, or as 
 we whistled to our horses in the 
 plough, we heard in the word " Mul- 
 grave," the sound of the wings of 
 the dove of peace. With Irishmen 
 our common hopes are inseparably 
 wound up; as Irishmen, and as in- 
 habitants, faithful and loyal, of the 
 Barony Forth, we will daily, and 
 every day, our wives and our chil- 
 dren, implore long and happy days, 
 free from melancholy and full of 
 blessings, for yourself and good So- 
 vereign, until the sun of our lives be 
 for ever gone down the dark valley of 
 death.* 
 
 §711. Americanisms. — These, which may be studied in 
 the excellent dictionary of J. 11. Bartlett, are chiefly refer- 
 able to five causes — 
 
 * I'liiiological Transactions. No. 84.
 
 566 TIIK KN(JMS1I 
 
 1. liilliK'iK'e of the aboriginal liulian huiguages. 
 
 2. Influence of the huiguagcs introduced from Europe 
 anterior to the jiredoniinance of Enuflish ; viz. : French in 
 Louisiana, Spanish in Florida, Swedish in Pennsylvania and 
 Delaware, and Dutch in New York. 
 
 o. lidluence, &c., subsequent to the predominance of the 
 English ; viz. : German in Pennsylvania, and Gaelic and Welsh 
 generally. 
 
 4. Influence of the original difference of dialect between 
 the different portions of the English population. 
 
 5. Influence of the preponderance of the Anglo-Saxon over 
 the Anglo-Norman element in the American population in 
 general. 
 
 § 712. Extract. — In a sound and sagacious paper upon the 
 Probable Future Position of the Ensflish Lanofuage,* Mr. 
 Watts, after comparing the previous predominance of the 
 French language beyond the pale of France, with the present 
 spread of the German beyond Germany, and after deciding 
 in favour of the latter tongue, remarks that there is " The 
 existence of another language whose claims are still more com- 
 manding, 'i'hat language is our own. Two centuries ago 
 the proud position that it now occupies was beyond the reach 
 of anticipation. We all smile at the well-known boast of 
 Waller in his lines on the death of Cromwell, but it was the 
 loftiest that at the time the poet found it in his power to 
 make : — 
 
 ' Unflt-r the tio])ic is our language spoke, 
 And ])ait of Flantlers liath received our yoke.' 
 
 " ' I care not,' said Milton, ' to be once named abroad, 
 though perhaps I could attain to that, being content with 
 these islands as my world.' A French Jesuit, Gamier, in 
 1678, laying down rules for the arrangement of a libi-ary, 
 thought it superfluous to say anything of English books, be- 
 cause, as he observed, ' libri Anglica scripti lingua vix mare 
 transmittunt.'' Swift, in the earlier part of the eighteenth 
 century, in liis ' Proposal for correcting, improving, and as- 
 
 * 'J'rarisactioii.s of the Pliilological Society, No. 92,
 
 OF AMERICA. 567 
 
 certainiug the English Tongue,' observed, ' the fame of our 
 writers is usually confined to these two islands.' Not quite a 
 hundred years ago Dr. Johnson seems to have entertained far 
 from a lofty idea of the legitimate aspirations of an English 
 author. He quotes in a number of the 'Rambler' (No. 118, 
 May 4th, J 75 1), from the address of Africanus as given by 
 Cicero, in his Dream of Scipio : — ' The territory which you 
 inhabit is no more than a scanty island inclosed by a small 
 body of water, to which you give the name of the great sea 
 and the Atlantic Ocean. And even in this known and fre- 
 quented continent what hope can you entertain that your 
 renown will pass the stream of Ganges or the clitls of Cauca- 
 sus, or by whom will your name be uttered in the extremi- 
 ties of the north or south towards the rising or the setting 
 sun ? So narrow is the space to which your fame can be 
 propagated, and even there how long will it remain V ' I am 
 not inclined,' remarks Johnson, ' to believe that they who 
 among us pass their lives in the cultivation of knowledge or 
 acquisition of power, have very anxiously inquired what 
 opinions prevail on the further banks of the Ganges .... 
 The hopes and fears of modern minds are content to range 
 in a narrower compass : a single nation, and a few years have 
 generally sufficient amplitude to fill our imagination.' What 
 a singular comment on this passage is supplied by the fact 
 that the dominions of England now stretch from the Ganges 
 to the Indus, that the whole space of India is dotted with 
 the regimental libraries of its European conquerors, and that 
 Rasselas has been translated into Bengalee ! A few years 
 later the great historian of England had a much clearer per- 
 ception of what was then in the womb of Fate. When 
 Gibbon, as has been already mentioned, submitted to Hume, 
 a specimen of his intended History of Switzerland, composed 
 in French, he received a remarkable letter in reply : ' Why,' 
 said Hume, ' do you compose in French and carry faggots into 
 the wood, as Horace says with regard to Romans who wrote 
 in Greek ? I grant that you have a like motive to those 
 Romans, and adopt a language much more generally diffused 
 than your native tongue, but have you not remarked the fate
 
 oC}H TllK KNCJLISII 
 
 of those t\\u aucu'iit hiuguagesi in foUowiiio- ages? The Latin, 
 thongh then h'ss celeUrated and confined to more; narrow 
 limits, has in some measure outlived the Greek, and is now 
 more generally understood by men of letters. Let the French 
 therefore triumi)li in the present diffusion of their tongue. 
 Our solid and increasing estahlishments in America, where we 
 need less diead the inundation of barbarians, promise a superior 
 stability and duration to the English language."" 
 
 " Every year that has since elapsed has added a superior 
 degree of probability to the anticipations of Hume. At 
 present the prospects of the English language are the most 
 splendid that the world has ever seen. It is spreading in 
 each of the quarters of the globe by fashion, by emigration, 
 and by conquest. The increase of population alone in the 
 two great states of Europe and America in which it is spoken, 
 adds to the number of its speakers in every year that passes, 
 a greater amount than the whole number of those who speak 
 some of the literary languages of Europe, either Swedish, or 
 Danish, or Dutch. It is calculated that, before the lapse of 
 the present century, a time that so many now alive will live 
 to witness, it will be the native and vernacular language of 
 about one hundred and fifty millions of human beings. 
 
 " What will be the state of Christendom at the time that 
 this vast preponderance of one language will be brought to 
 bear on all its relations, — at the time when a leading nation 
 in Europe and a gigantic nation in America make use of the 
 same idiom, — when in Africa and Australasia the same lan- 
 guage is in use by rising and influential communities, and the 
 world is circled by the accents of Shakspeare and Milton I 
 At that time such of the other languages of Europe as do 
 not extend their empire beyond this quarter of the globe will 
 be reduced to the same degree of insignificance in comparison 
 with English, as the subordinate languages of modern Europe 
 to those of the state they belong to, — the Welsh to the 
 English, the Basque to the Spanish, the Finnish to the Rus- 
 sian. This ])redominance, we may flatter ourselves, will be 
 a more signal blessing to literature than that of any other 
 language could possibly be. The English is essentially a
 
 OF AMERICA. 569 
 
 medium language ; — in the Teutonic family it stands midway 
 between the Germanic and Scandinavian branches — it unites 
 as no other language unites, the Eomanic and the Teutonic 
 stocks. This fits it admirably in many cases for translation. 
 A German writer, Prince Piickler Muskau, has given it as 
 his opinion that English is even better adapted than German 
 to be the general interpreter of the literature of Europe. 
 Another German writer, Jenisch, in his elaborate ' Compari- 
 son of Fourteen Ancient and Modern Languages of Europe,' 
 which obtained a prize from the Berlin Academy in 1796, 
 assigns the general palm of excellence to the English. In 
 literary treasures what other language can claim the supe- 
 riority ? If Rivarol more than sixty years back thought the 
 collective wealth of its literature able to dispute the jDre- 
 eminence with the French, the victory has certainly not 
 departed from us in the time that has since elapsed, — the 
 time of Wordsworth and Southey, of Rogers and Campbell, 
 of Scott, of Moore, and of Byron. 
 
 " The prospect is so glorious that it seems an ungrateful task 
 to interrupt its enjoyment by a shade of doubt : but as the 
 English language has attained to this eminent station from 
 small beginnings, may it not be advisable to consider whether 
 obstacles are not in existence, which, equally small in their 
 beginnings, have a probability of growing larger? The first 
 consideration that presents itself is that English is not the only 
 language firmly planted on the soil of America, the only one 
 to which a glorious future is, in the probable course of things, 
 assured. 
 
 "A sufficient importance has not always been attached to the 
 fact, that in South America, and in a portion of the northern 
 continent, the languages of the Peninsula are spoken by large 
 and increasing populations. The Spanish language is un- 
 doubtedly of easier acquisition for the purposes of conversa- 
 tion than our own, from the harmony and clearness of its 
 })ronunciation ; and it has the recommendation to the inhabit- 
 ants of Southern Europe of greater affinity to their own 
 languages and the Latin. Perhaj)s the extraordinary neglect 
 which has been the portion of this language for the last cen-
 
 570 THE ENGLISH 
 
 lurv ;uul a halt' may soon give place to a juster measure of 
 cultivation, and iinlcctl the recent labours of Prescott and 
 Ticknor seon> to show that the dawn of that period has 
 already broken. That the men of the Xorth should ac(juire an 
 easy and harmonious southern language seems in itself much 
 more probable than that the men of the south should study 
 a northern language, not oidy rugged in its pronunciation, 
 but capricious in its orthograjihy. The dominion of Spanish 
 in America is, however, interrupted and narrowed by that of 
 I'ortuguese, and to a singular degree by that of the native 
 languages, some of which are possibly destined to be used for 
 literary purjjoses in ages to come. 
 
 " At the time when Hume wrote his letter to Gibbon, the 
 conquest of Canada had very recently been effected. The 
 rivalry of the French and English in North America had been 
 terminated by the most signal triumph of the English arms. 
 Had measures been taken at that time to discourage the use 
 of French and to introduce that of English, there can be 
 little doubt that English would now be as much the lan- 
 guage of Quebec and Montreal as it is of New York 
 and the Delaware. Those measures were not taken. At 
 this moment, when we ai*e approaching a century from the 
 battle of the Heights of Abraham, there is still a distinction 
 of races in Canada, nourished by a distinction of language, 
 and both appear likely to continue. 
 
 " Within the United States themselves, a very large body 
 of the inhabitants have remained for generation after genera- 
 tion ignorant of the English language. The number is uncer- 
 tain. According to Strieker, in his dissertation ' Die Ver- 
 breitung des deutschen Volkes iiber die Erde,' published in 
 1845, the population of German origin in the United States 
 hi 1844 was 4,886,632, out of a total of 1 8,980,6-50. This 
 statement, though made in the most positive terms, is founded 
 on an estimate only, and has been shown to be much ex- 
 aggerated. Wappaus (in his ' Deiitsche Auswanderung und 
 Colonisation*'), after a careful examination, arrives at the con- 
 clusion that the total cannot amount to a million and a half 
 Many of these are of course acquainted with both languages
 
 OF AMERICA. 571 
 
 — in several cases where amalgamation has taken place, the 
 German language has tlied out and been replaced by the English, 
 — but the number of communities where it is still prevalent is 
 much larger than is generally supposed. In Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
 and Missouri, to say nothing of other states, there are masses of 
 population of German origin or descent, who are only ac- 
 quainted with German. This tendency has of late years 
 increased instead of declining. It has been a favourite pro- 
 ject with recent German emigrants to form in America a state, 
 in which the language should be German, and from the vast 
 numbers in which they have crossed the Atlantic, there is 
 nothing improbable in the supposition, that, by obtaining a 
 majority in some one state, this object will be attained. In 
 1835 the legislature of Pennsylvania placed the German lan- 
 guage in its legal rights on the same footing with the English. 
 
 " It may be asked if any damage will be done by this ? 
 The damage, it may be answered, will be twofold. The 
 parties who are thus formed into an isolated community, with 
 a language distinct from that of those around them, will be 
 placed under the same disadvantages as the Welsh of our own 
 day, who find themselves always as it were some inches 
 shorter than their neighbours, and have to make an exertion 
 to be on their level. Those of them who are only masters of 
 one language are in a sort of prison ; those who are masters 
 of two, might, if English had been their original speech, have 
 had their choice of the remaining languages of the world to 
 exert the same degree of labour on, with a better prospect 
 of advantage. In the case of Welsh, the language has many 
 ties : even those who see most clearly the necessity of forsak- 
 ing it, must lament the harsh necessity of abandoning to 
 oblivion the ancient tongue of an ancient nation. But these 
 associations and feelings could not be pleaded in favour of 
 transferring the Welsh to Otabeite ; and when these feelings 
 are withdrawn, what valid reason wil| remain for the per- 
 petuation of Welsh, or even, it may be said, of German ? 
 
 " The injury done to the community itself is perhaps the 
 greatest ; but there is a damage done to the world in general. 
 It will be a splendid and a novel experiment in modern society, 
 if a single language becomes so predominant over all others as
 
 "xii (3YPSY LANCiUAGE. 
 
 to iiHluct.' tlioni ill cumparisioii to iho proportion of provincial 
 diiilec'ts. To have this experiment fairly tried, is a great 
 object. Every atom that is subtracted from the amount of 
 the majority has its influence — it yoes into the opposite scale. 
 If the Germans succeed in establishing their language in the 
 United States, other uations may follow. The Hungarian 
 emigrants, who are now removing thither from the vengeance 
 of Austria, may perpetuate their native Magyar, and America 
 may in time present a surface as checkered as Europe, or in 
 some parts, as Hungary itself, where the traveller often in 
 j)assing from one village to another, finds himself in the do- 
 main of a different language. That this consummation may 
 be averted must be the wish not only of every Englishman and 
 of every Anglo-American, but of every sincere friend of the 
 advancement of literature and civilization. Perhaps a few 
 more years of inattention to the subject will allow the evil to 
 make such progress that exertion to oppose it may come too 
 late." 
 
 ^■vif ^ -J^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 § 713. Of the Gypsy language I need only say, that it is 
 not only Indo-Germanic, but that it is Hindoo. Few words 
 from it have mixed themselves with our standard (or even our 
 provincial) dialects. 
 
 Thieves^ language, or that dialect for which there is no 
 name, but one from its own vocabulaiy, viz. Slang, is of greater 
 value in philology than in commerce. It serves to show that 
 in speech nothing is arbitrary. Its compound phrases are 
 either periphrastic or metaphorical : its simple monosyllables 
 are generally those of the current language in an older form. 
 The thieves of London are conservators of Anglo-Saxonisms. 
 In this dialect I know of no specimens earlier than the reign 
 of Queen Elizabeth. In the dramatic literature of that age 
 they are rife and common. The Roaring Girl, the Jolly Beg- 
 gars, amongst the plays, and Deckar's Bellman amongst the 
 tracts, preserve us a copious vocabulary, similar to what we 
 have now, and similar to what it was in Gay's time. Of this 
 the greater part is Saxon. Here and there appears a word of 
 Latin origin, e.r/., pannum, bread ; cassons, cheese. Of the 
 Gypsy language I have discovered no trace.
 
 TALKEE-TALKEE. 573 
 
 § 714. The Talkee-Talkee is a Lingua Franca based on the 
 English, and spoken by the Negroes of Surinam. 
 
 It is Dutch rather than EngUsh ; it shows, however, the 
 latter language as an element of admixture. 
 
 SPECIMEN.* 
 
 1. Drie deh na bakka dem lioli wan bruiloft na Cana na Galilca ; en 
 mamma va Jesus ben de dapeh. 
 
 2. Ma dem ben kali Jesus nanga hem discipel toe, va kom na da bruiloft. 
 
 3. En teh wieni kaba, mamma va Jesus takki na hem ; dem no liabi wieni 
 morro. 
 
 4. Jesus takki na hem : mi mamma, hoeworko mi habi nanga joe l Tem va 
 mi no ben kom jette. 
 
 5. Hera mamma takki na dem foetoeboi ; oene doe sanni a takki gi oene. 
 
 6. Ma dem ben poetti dapeh siksi biggi watra-djoggo, na da fasi va Djoc vo 
 kiieni dem : inniwan djoggo holi toe effi drie kannetjes. 
 
 7. Jesus takki na dem [foetoeboi] : Oene foeloe dem watra-djoggo nanga 
 watra. Ed dem foeloe dem teh na mocfFe. 
 
 8. En dan a takki na dem : Oene poeloe pikinso, tjarri go na grang-foctoc- 
 boi. En dem doe so. 
 
 9. Ma teh grangfoetoeboi tesi da watra, dissi ben tron wieni, kaba a no 
 sabi, na hoepeh da wieni komotto (ma dem foetoeboi dissi ben teki da watra 
 ben sabi) : a kali da bruidigom. 
 
 10. A takki nahem : Inniwan somma njoesoe va gi fossi da morro switti 
 wieni, en teh dem dringi noeffe kaba, na bakka da mendre swittiwan ; ma joe 
 ben kiebri da morro bocnnewan. 
 
 11. Datti da fossi marki dissi Jesus ben doe ; en datti ben passa na Cana 
 na Galilea va dem somma si hem glori. En dem discipel va hem briebi na 
 hem. 
 
 1. Three day after back, them hold one marriage in Cana in Galilee, and 
 mamma of Jesus been there. 
 
 2. But them been call Jesus with him disciple, for come to that marriage. 
 
 3. And when wine end, mamma of Jesus talk to him, them no have wine 
 more. 
 
 4. Jesus talk to him, me manmia how work me have with you? Time of 
 nic no been come yet. 
 
 5. Him mamma talk to them footboy, ye do things he talk to ye. 
 
 G. But them been put there six big water-jug, after the fashion of Jew for 
 clean them ; every one jug hold two or three firkins. 
 
 * Quarterly Review, vol. xliii.
 
 571' TALKKE-TALKEE. 
 
 7. Josus tnlk to tliom (ruotboy) : yi' till tluiii wntor jus: with water. And 
 tlii'iii fill tiK-iii till tonioiith. 
 
 8. And tiien lio talk to tiieni, yo ]nnn litllo, carry go to grandfootboy 
 And tlicni do so. 
 
 J>. But when grandfootboy taste tlint water, tliis been turn wine, could lie 
 no know from where that wine conie-out-of (hut tlieni foothoy this been take 
 that water well know) : he call the bridegroom. 
 
 10. He talk to him, everyone man use of give first the more sweet wine ; 
 and when them drink enough end, alter back the less sweety wine : but you 
 been cover that more good wine. 
 
 11. That the first miracle that Jesus been do, and that been pass in Caua in 
 Galilee, for them men see him glory. And them disciple of him believe in 
 him. 
 
 § 715. That the Anglo-Norman of England was, in the 
 reign of Edward III., not the French of Paris (and mo.st 
 probably not the Franco-Norman of Normandy), we learn 
 from the well-known quotation from Chaucer : — 
 
 And Frenche she spake ful feteously, 
 After the scole of Stratforde at Bowe, 
 For Frenche of Parys was to her unknowe. 
 
 Prologue to the Canterbury Tales. 
 
 § 716. The concluding extract from the Testamenta Ebo- 
 racensia, published by the Surtees"" Society, is from the will 
 of a gentleman in Yorkshire. To me it seems to impugn 
 the assertion of Higden, that the Norman was spoken through- 
 out England without a variety of pronunciation : " Miran- 
 dum videtur quomodo nativa propria Anglorum lingua, in 
 unica insula coartata, pronunclatione ipsa fit tam diversa, cum 
 tamen Normannica lingua, qusc adventicia est, univoca maneat 
 penes cunctos." — Bd. Gale, p. 210. 
 
 Testamenta Bboracensia, clix. 
 
 En le noune de Dicu et de notre Dame Sante Marie, et en noun de teuz 
 lez sauntez de Paradyse, Amen. Moi Brian de Stapylton devise m'alme a 
 Dicu et a notre Dame Saunte Marie, et a touz lez Sauntz de Paradyse, et 
 mon chautiff corps d'cstre enterre en le Priourie de le Parke decoste ma 
 compaigne, que Dicu I'assoillc, et sur mon corps seit un drape de blewsaye ; 
 et ma voluntc ett au I'aide de Dieu d'avoire un herce ov synke tapirs, ches- 
 cun tapir de synk livers, et tresze hommes vestuz en bluw ov tresze torchez,
 
 CHARACTER OF DIALECTS. 575 
 
 (le qncux tvesze torchez, si nc saiount dcgastez, jco voile que quatre demore 
 a le dit Piioiie. 
 
 Item jeo devyse que j'ay un liomme arnics en nics amies et ma liewme 
 ene sa teste, et quy soit bicn monte et un homme de bon entaille de qil 
 condicon que y sort. 
 
 Item jeo devyse que touz ceaux, qui a moy appendent meignialx en ma 
 maison, soient vestuz en bluw a mes costagez, Et a touz les poores, qils 
 veignent le jour de men enterment jeo devise et voile que chescun ait un 
 denier en ovre de charrte, et en aide de ma chitifFe alme, et jeo voile que 
 les sires mes compaignons mez aliez et mez voiseignez, qui volliont venir de 
 lour bone gre prier pour moy et pour faire honour a mon chettife corps, qi 
 peue ne vault, jeo oille et chargez mez executour que y soient mesme eel 
 jour bien a eise,et q'il eient a boiere asseth, et a cest ma volunte parfournir 
 jeo devise ci marca3 o\e I'estore de maison taunke juiste seit. 
 
 § 717. Relations of dialects {so-called) to languages (so- 
 called). — " It is necessary clearly to conceive the nature and 
 character of what we call dialects. The Doric, ^olic, and 
 Ionic for example, in the language of grammarians, are dia- 
 lects of the Greek : to what does this assertion amount ? To 
 this only, that among a people called the Greeks, some being 
 Dorians spoke a language called Doric, some being ^olians 
 spoke another language called ^olic, while a third class, 
 lonians, spoke a third language called, from them, Ionic. 
 But though all these are termed dialects of the Greek, it does 
 not follow that there was ever a Greek language of which 
 these were variations, and which had any being apart from 
 these. Dialects then are essentially languages : and the name 
 dialect itself is but a convenient grammarian*'s phrase, in- 
 vented as part of the machinery by which to carry on reason- 
 ings respecting languages. We learn the language which 
 has the best and largest literature extant ; and having done 
 so, we treat all very nearly resembling languages as variations 
 from what we have learnt. And that dialects are in truth 
 several languages, will readily appear to any one who per- 
 ceives the progressive development of the principle of sepa- 
 ration in cognate tongues. The language of the Bavarian 
 highlander or High Dutch, the language of the Hanoverian 
 lowlander or Low Dutch, are German dialects : elevate, as it 
 is called, regulate, and purify the one, and it assumes the
 
 .076 CII.M?.\(TKU OF DIALECTS. 
 
 n:vim> ami chaiactor oi' a language — it is (lerinaii. Trans- 
 plant the other to Englanil, let nine centuries pass over it, 
 and it becomes a language too, and a language of more im- 
 portance than any whidi was ever yet spoken in the world, 
 it has become English. Yet none but practised philologists 
 can acknowledge the fact that the German and English 
 languages are dialects of one Teutonic tongue." 
 
 § 718. Relation of dialects to the older stages of the mother- 
 tonaue. — This has been noticed in § 691. The following- 
 extract from Mr. Kemble's paper just quoted, illustrates 
 what he calls the spontaneity of dialects : — 
 
 " Those who imagine language invented by a man or men, 
 originally confined and limited in its powers, and gradually 
 enlarged and enriched by continuous practice and the reflec- 
 tion of wise and learned individuals — unless, indeed, they 
 look upon it as potentially only — \n posse though not in esse — 
 as the tree may be said to exist in the seed, though requir- 
 ing time and culture to flourish in all its majesty — appear to 
 neglect the facts which history proves. There is nothing 
 more certain tlian this, that the earlier we can trace back 
 any one language, the more full, complete, and consistent are 
 its forms ; that the later we find it existing, the more com- 
 pressed, colloquial, and business-like it has become. Like the. 
 trees of our forests, it grows at first wild, luxuriant, rich in 
 foliage, full of light and shadow, and flings abroad in its vast 
 branches the fruits of a vigorous youthful nature : transplanted 
 into the garden of civilization and trained for purposes of 
 commerce, it becomes regulated, trimmed and pruned ; nature 
 indeed still gives it life, but art prescribes the direction and 
 extent of its vegetation. Compare the Sanscrit with the 
 Gothic, the Gothic with the Anglo-Saxon, and again the 
 Anglo-Saxon with the English : or what is even better, take 
 two periods of the Anglo-Saxon itself, the eighth and tenth 
 centuries for example. Always we perceive a compression, a 
 gradual loss of fine distinctions, a perishing of forms, termi- 
 nations and conjugations, in the younger state of the lan- 
 guage. The truth is, that in language up to a certain period, 
 there is a real indwelling vitality, a principle acting uncon-
 
 CHARACTER OF DIALECTS. ^77 
 
 sciously but pervasively in every part : men wield their forms 
 of speech as they do their limbs, spontaneously, knowing 
 nothing of their construction, or the means by which these 
 instruments possess their power. There are flexors and ex- 
 tensors long before the anatomist discovers and names them, 
 and we use our arms without inquiring by what wonderful 
 mechanism they are made obedient to our will. So is it with 
 language long before the grammarian undertakes its investi- 
 gation. It may even be said, that the commencement of the 
 age of self-consciousness is identical with the close of that of 
 vitality in language ; for it is a great error to speak of lan- 
 guages as dead, only when they have ceased to be spoken. 
 They are dead when they have ceased to possess the power of 
 adaptation to the wants of the people, and no longer contain 
 in themselves the means of their own extension. The Anglo- 
 Saxon, in the spirit and analogy of his whole language, could 
 have used words which had never been heard before, and been 
 at once understood : if we would introduce a new name for 
 a new thing, we must take refuge in the courtesy of our 
 neighbours, and borrow from the French, or Greek, or Latin, 
 terms which never cease to betray their foreign origin, by 
 never putting off the forms of the tongue from which they 
 were taken, or assuming those of the tongue into which they 
 are adopted. The English language is a dead one. 
 
 " In general it may be said that dialects possess this vitality 
 in a remarkable degree, and that their very existence is the 
 strongest proof of its continuance. This is peculiarly the 
 case when we use the word to denote the popular or provin- 
 cial forms of speech in a country where, by common consent 
 of the learned and educated classes, one particular form of 
 speech has been elevated to the dignity of the national lan- 
 guage. It is then only the strength of the principles which 
 first determined the peculiarities of the dialect that continues 
 to support them, and preserves them from being gradually 
 rounded down, as stones are by friction, and confounded in 
 the course of a wide-spreading centralization. Increased op- 
 portunity of intercommunion with other provincials or the 
 metropolis (dependent upon increased facilities of locomotion, 
 
 p p
 
 r»78 EFFECT OF PHYSICAL CONDITIONS 
 
 till' iiM[)rovoinciit of roads and the spread of mechanical in- 
 ventions) sweeps away nuich of these original distinctions, 
 but it never destroys them all. This is a necessary conse- 
 quence of the fact that thoy are in some degree connected 
 Avith the physical features of the country itself, and all those 
 causes which influence the atmosphere. A sort of pseudo- 
 vitality even till late periods bears witness to the indwelling 
 power, and the consciousness of oppression from without : 
 faho analogies are the form this life assumes. How often 
 have we not heard it asserted that particular districts were 
 remarkable for the Saxonism of their speech, because they 
 had retained the archaisms, kine, shoon, housen ! Well and 
 good ! Archaisms they are, but they are false forms never- 
 theless, based upon an analogy just as erroneous as that which 
 led men in the last century to say crotved, hanged for crew, 
 hung. The Anglo-Saxon language never knew any such 
 forms, and one wonders not to find by their side equally gi-a- 
 tuitous Saxonisms, mousen, louseny — Phil. Soc. No. 35. 
 
 The doctrine that languages become dead when they lose 
 a certain power of evolving new forms out of previously exist- 
 ing ones, is incompatible with views to which the present 
 writer has committed himself in the preface. If the views 
 there exhibited be true the test of the mtality of a language, 
 if such metaphors must be used, is the same as the test of 
 vitality in material organisms, i.e., the power of fulfilling cer- 
 tain functions. Whether this is done by the evolution of 
 new forms out of existing materials, or by the amalgamation 
 (the particular power of the English language) of foreign terms 
 is a mere difference of process. 
 
 § 719. Effect of common physical conditions. — I again quote 
 the same paper of Mr. Kemble's : — 
 
 " Professor Willis of Cambridge, in the course of some most 
 ingenious experiments upon the organization and conditions 
 of the human larynx, came upon the law which regulated the 
 pronunciation of the vowels. He found this to be partly in 
 proportion to the size of the opening in the pipe, partly to the 
 force with which the air was propelled through it, and by the 
 adaptation of a tremulous artificial larynx to the pipe of an
 
 ON LANGUAGE. 579 
 
 organ, he produced the several vowels at will. Now bearing 
 in mind the difterenee between the living organ and the dead 
 one, the susceptibility of the former to dilatation and com- 
 l^ression, from the effects, not only of the human will, but 
 also of cold, of denser or thinner currents of air, and above all 
 the influence which the general state of the body must have 
 upon every part of it, we are furnished at once with the neces- 
 sary hypothesis ; viz. that climate, and the local positions on 
 which climate much depends, are the main agency in pro- 
 ducing the original variations of dialect. Once produced, 
 tradition perpetuates them, with subsequent modifications 
 proportionate to the change in the original conditions, the 
 migration to localities of a different character, the congrega- 
 tion into towns, the cutting down of forests, the cultivation of 
 the soil, by which the prevalent degrees of cold and the very 
 direction of the currents of air are in no small degree altered. 
 It is clear that the same influences will apply to all such con- 
 sonants as can in any way be affected by the greater or less 
 tension of the organs, consequently above all to the gutturals ; 
 next to the palatals, which may be defined by the position of 
 the tongue ; least of all to the labials, and generally to the 
 liquids also, though these may be more or less strongly pro- 
 nounced by different peoples. This hint must suffice here, as 
 the pursuit of it is rather a physiological than a philological 
 problem, and it is my business rather to show historically 
 what facts bear upon my present inquiry, than to investigate 
 the philosophical reasons for their existence. Still, for the 
 very honour of human nature, one of whose greatest and most 
 universal privileges is the recognition of and voluntary sub- 
 jection to the laws of beauty and harmony, it is necessary to 
 state that no developed language exists which does not ac- 
 knowledge some internal laws of euphony, from which many 
 of its peculiarities arise, and which by these assimilates its 
 whole practice and assumes an artistical consistency. On this 
 faculty, which is rather to be considered as a moral quality of 
 the people than a necessity of their language, depends the faci- 
 lity of employing the language for certain purposes of art, and 
 
 p p 2
 
 580 niYSrOAL CONDITIONS AFFECT LANQUAQE. 
 
 tlio t'onu wliic'li jtoi'trv ami rhytlim sliall assume in the period 
 of their cultivation. 
 
 " In reviewing the principal lan^'uages of the ancient and 
 modern world, where the migrations of those that spoke them 
 can be traced with certainty, we are struck with the fact that 
 the dwellers in chains of mountains, or on the elevated plains 
 of hilly districts, strongly affect broad vowels and guttural 
 consonants. Compare the German of the Tyrol, Switzerland, 
 or Bavaria, with that of the lowlands of Germany, West- 
 phalia, Hauover, and Mecklenburg : compare the Doric with 
 the Attic, or still more the soft Tonic Greek : follow the 
 Italian of our own day into the mountains of the Abruzzi : 
 pursue the English into the hills of Northumberland ; mark 
 the characteristics of the Celtic in the highlands of Wales and 
 Scotland, of the Vascongado, in the hilly ranges of Spain. 
 Everywhere we find the same type ; everywliere the same 
 love for broad sounds and guttural forms ; everywhere these 
 appear as the peculiarity of mountaineers. The difference 
 of latitude between Holstein and Inspruck is not great ; that 
 between Newcastle and Coventry is less ; Sparta is more 
 southerly than Athens ; Crete more so than either ; but this 
 does not explain our problem; its solution is found in the 
 comparative number of feet above the level of the sea, in the 
 hills and the valleys which they enclose."'"' 
 
 If true, the bearings of this is important ; since, if common 
 physical conditions effect a common physiognomy of language, 
 we may have a certain amount of resemblance without a cor- 
 responding amount of ethnological affinity.
 
 PRAXIS. 
 
 The following extracts are given in the form of simple texts. 
 They are meant, more especiall)', to be explained by masters 
 to their classes; and as such were used by myself during the 
 time that I was Professor of the English language and litera- 
 ture at University College. They are almost all taken from 
 editions wherein either a translation or a full commentary can 
 be found by reference. To have enlarged the present Appen- 
 dix into a full Praxis, would have been to overstep the pre- 
 scribed limits of the present work. 
 
 MCESO-GOTHIC. 
 Mark, Chap. 1. 
 
 1. 2. Anastodeins aivaggeljons iesuis xristaus sunaus gufs. sve 
 ganieli)) ist in esa'i in praufetau. sai. ik 'insandja aggilu meina- 
 na faura pus. saei gamanveij> vig feinaua faura }nis. stibna vop- 
 
 3. jandins in aupidai. nianvei]> vig fraujins. railitos vaurkei}) 
 
 4. staigos gujjs unsaris. vas iohannes daupjands in aufidai jah 
 
 5. raerjands daupein idreigos du aflageinai fravaurhte. jah usid- 
 djedun du imnia all iudaialaud jah iairusaulymeis jah daupidai 
 vesun allai in iaurdane awai fram imma andbaitandans fra- 
 
 6. vaurhtim seinaim. vasuf-fan iohannes gavasif»s taglam ulbau- 
 daus jah gairda filleina bi hup seinana jah matida pramsteins 
 
 7. jah niilip hailiivisk jah merida (jij'ands. qirai]) svin|)oza mis sa 
 afar mis. j)izei ik ni im vairj« anahneivands audbindan skauda- 
 
 8. raip skohe h. aj»j»au ik daupja izvis in vatin. i]) is daupeij> iz-
 
 682 I'UAXis. 
 
 0. vis 111 uliiiiiii viMlKiiiiiiia. jali v;u|' in jainaim dagain. qam 
 lesus fraui uaz.ii"u|» galeilaias jah ilaupi)>s vas frain iohanne in 
 
 10. VaurJane. jah suns usgaggauds us l)amraa vatin gasaw usluk- 
 
 11. nans himinana jah ahman sve ahak atgaggandan ana ina. jah 
 stibna qam us hiininam. ))u is sunus ineins sa liuba. Yn ]m- 
 
 \'2. zoi vaihv galoikaida. jah suns sai. ahma ina ustauh in aufida. 
 13. jah vas in pizai aupidai dage fidvortiguns fraisans fram satanin 
 11. jah vas mi|) diu/aui jah aggileis andbahtidedun imma. ip afar 
 
 |)atei atgibuns var]) iohannes. qam iosus in galeilaia merjands 
 15. aivaggeljon piudangardjos guj)s qipands fatci usfullnoda }»ata 
 
 rael jah atncwida sik ])iudangardi gu]>s. idreigo]' jah galaubei)> 
 IG. in aivaggeljon. jah warbouds faur marein galeilaias gasaw 
 
 seimonu jah andraian bropar 'is. pis seimonis. vairpandans 
 
 17. uati in marein. vesuu auk fiskjans. jah qap im iesus. hir- 
 
 18. jats afar mis jah gatauja igqis vairpan nutans manne. jah suns 
 1 9. afFetandans po natja seina laistidedun afar imma. jah jainpro 
 
 inngaggands framis leitil gasaw iakobu pana zaibaidaiaus jah 
 
 20. iohanne bropar is jah pans in skipa manvjandans natja. jah 
 suns haihait ins jah afFetandans attan seinana zaibaidaiu in pam- 
 ma skipa mij) asnjam galipun afar imma jah galijiun in kafar- 
 
 21. naum. jah suns sab bato daga galeipands in synagogen laisida 
 
 22. ins jah usfilmans vaurpun ana pizai laiseinai is. unte vas lais- 
 
 23. jands ins sve valdufui habands jah ni svasve pai bokarjos. jah 
 vas in pizai synagogen ize manna in unhrainjamma ahmin jah 
 
 24. ufhropida qipands. fralet. wa uns jah pus iesu nazorenai. 
 qamt fraqistjan uns. kann puk was pu is. sa veiha gups. 
 
 25. jah andbaitina iesus qipands. pahai jah usgagg ut us pamma. 
 
 26. ahraa unhraiuja. jah tahida ina ahma sa unhrainja jah hrop- 
 
 27. jands stibnai mikilai usiddja us imma. jah afslaupnodedun 
 allai sildaleikjandans. svaei sokidedun mip sis misso qipandans. 
 wa sijai pata. wo so laiseino so niujo. ei mip valdufnja jah 
 ahmam paim unhrainjam anabiudip jah ufhausjand imma. 
 
 28. usiddja pan meripa is suns and allans bisitands galeilaias. 
 
 29. jah suns us pizai synagogen usgaggandans qemun in garda sei- 
 
 30. monis jah andraii'ns mip "iokobau jah i'ohannem. ip svaihro 
 
 31. seimonis log in brinnon. jah suns qepun imma bi ija. jah 
 duatgaggands urraisida po undgrcipands handu izos. jah affai- 
 
 32. lot po so brinno suns jah andbahtida im. andanahtja pan vaur- 
 paiiamma. pan gasaggq sauil. berun du imma allans pans ubil
 
 PRAXIS. 588 
 
 33. habandans jah unhulpons habandans. jah so baurgs alia ga- 
 
 34. runnana vas at daura. jah gahailida managans ubil habandans 
 missaleikaim sauhtim jah unhulpons manages usvarp jah ni 
 
 35. fralailot rodjan Jjos unhulj^ons. unte kunpedun ina. jah air 
 uhtvon usstandans usiddja jah galaip ana au]ijana staj? jah jai- 
 
 36. nar ba]). jah galaistans vaurpun imma seimon jah ))ai mij> 
 
 37. imma. jah bigitandans ina qe})un du imma fatei allai J)uk 
 
 38. sokjand. jah qa}) du im. gaggam du paim bisunjane haimom 
 
 39. jah baurgim. ei jah jainar merjau. unte dufe qam. jah 
 vas merjands in synagogim he and alia galeilaian jah unhol- 
 
 40. ))ons usvairpands. jah qamatimma prutsfiU habands bidjands 
 ina jah knivam knussjands jah qipands du imma )?atei. jabai 
 
 41. vileis. magt mik gahrainjan. i]) iesus infeinands ufrakjands 
 handu seina attaitok imma jah qa]> imma. viljau. vair]> brains. 
 
 42. jah bipe qaj) j>ata iesus. suns fata prutsfiU afFaiJ) af imma jah 
 
 43. brains var]?. jah gawotjands imma suns ussandida ina jah qa}' 
 
 44. du imma. saiw ei mannhun ni qipais vaiht ak gagg ]>uk sil- 
 ban ataugjan gudjin jah atbairfram gahraineinai peinai. fatei 
 
 45. anabauj? moses du veitvodipai im. i]> is usgaggands dugann 
 merjan filu jah usqifan fata vaurd. svasve is jufan ni mahta 
 andaugjo in baurg galeifan ak uta ana aufjaim stadim vas. 
 jah iddjedun du imma allafro. 
 
 II. 
 
 OLD HIGH-GERMAN. 
 
 MUSPILLI. 
 
 From Schmeller. 
 
 . . . . sin ta piqueme, 
 Das er towian seal, 
 Wanta sar so sih dui sela 
 In dem sind arhevit, 
 Ente si den lihhamun 
 Likkan lazzit ; 
 So quimith ein heri 
 Fona himilzungalon ; 
 Daz andar fona pehhe :
 
 SSi I'UAXIS. 
 
 l>ar jnigant siu uinpi. 
 
 SorgC'n mac din sela, 
 
 llnzi diu siioiia arget, 
 
 Za widereiuo herie, 
 
 Si gihalot werde. 
 
 Wanta ipu sia daz Satanazsses 
 
 Kisindi giwinnit, 
 
 Das leitct sia sar 
 
 Dar iru leid wirdit, 
 
 In fiur enti in finstri, 
 
 Dazu ist reht virinlih ding. 
 
 Upi sia avar kilialont die, 
 
 Die dar fona himile quemant, 
 
 Enti si dero engilo eigan wirdit, 
 
 Die pringant sia sar uf in hiinilo rihhi, 
 
 Dari est lip ano t6d, lioht ano finstri, 
 
 Selida ano sorgun ; dar nist neoman suih. 
 
 Denue der mar in pardisu 
 
 Pu kiwinnit, 
 
 Hus iu himile, 
 
 Dar quimit imu bilfa kinuok 
 
 Pidiu ist durft mihhil alloro manno welilihemo 
 
 Daz iu es sin muot kispane, 
 
 Daz er kotes willun 
 
 Kerno tuo, 
 
 Ente hella fuir 
 
 Harto wise, 
 
 Pehhes pina, 
 
 Dar piutit den Satauaz altist 
 
 Heizzan lauc. So mac huckan za diu, 
 
 Sorgen drato 
 
 Der sih suntigen weiz. 
 
 We demo in vinstri seal 
 
 Sine virina stuen, 
 
 Prinnan in pehhe ; 
 
 Daz ist rehto palwig ding — 
 Daz man den baret ze gote, 
 Ente imo helf'a ni quimit ; 
 Wanit sih kinada
 
 PRAXIS. 585 
 
 Diu wenaga sela 
 
 Ni ist in kihuctin 
 
 Himiliskin gote, 
 
 Wanta hiar in werolti 
 
 After ni werkota. 
 
 So denne der mahtigo khuninc 
 
 Daz mahal kipannit 
 
 Dara seal queman 
 
 Chunno kilihhaz 
 
 Denne ni kitar parno nohhein 
 
 Den pan furisizzan, 
 
 Di allero manno welih 
 
 Ze demo maliale sculi, 
 
 Der seal er, vora demo rieehe, 
 
 Az rahhu stantan, 
 
 Pi daz er, in werolti, 
 
 Kiwerkota hapeta. 
 
 Daz hort ih rahhon 
 
 Dia werolt-rehtwisou, 
 
 Daz sculi der Antichristo 
 
 Mit Eliase pagan. 
 
 Der warch ist kiwafanit ; 
 
 Denne wirdit untar in wik arhapan ; 
 
 Khensun sind so kreftic, 
 
 Diri kosa ist so mihhil, 
 
 Elias stritit 
 
 Pi den ewigon lip, 
 Will den rehtkernon 
 
 Daz rihhi kistarkan ; 
 
 Pidiu seal inio hall'au 
 Der himiles kiwaltit. 
 
 Der Anticristo stet 
 
 Pi dem Altfiante 
 
 Stet pi demo Satanase, 
 
 Der inan farsenkau seal ; 
 
 Pidiu seal er in der wicsteti 
 
 Wunt pivallan, 
 
 Euti in demo sinde 
 
 Sijcalos wordan.
 
 •'»86 1' RAX IS. 
 
 lK>li wauit ties vila gotiuaiiiio, 
 
 Daz Elias iu demo wige arwartit (wcrdit). 
 
 Si'ir so daz Eliascs pluot 
 
 In crda kitruifit, 
 
 So inprinnant die perga, 
 
 Poum ni kistentit 
 
 Einic in erdu. 
 
 Aha artruknent, 
 
 Muor varsuilhet sih, 
 
 Suilizot lougui der himil 
 
 Mano vallit, 
 
 Prinnit mittilagart, 
 
 Stein ni kistentit einik in erdu. 
 
 Verit denne stuatago in lant, 
 
 Verit mit diu viuriu 
 
 Viriho wison, 
 
 Dar ni naai denne iiiak andremo 
 
 Ilelfan vora dema Muspille. 
 
 Denne daz preila wasal 
 
 Allaz varprinnit, 
 
 Enti viur enti luft 
 
 Iz allaz arfurpit, 
 
 War ist denne diu marha, 
 
 Dar man dar eo mit sinem magon 
 
 (Diu marha ist farprunnan 
 
 Diu sela stet pidungan), 
 
 Ni vveiz mit wiu puoze ; 
 
 Sar verit si za wize. 
 
 Pidui ist dem manne so guot, 
 
 Denne er ze demo mahale quiniit, 
 
 Daz er rahhono welihha 
 
 Rehto arteile ; 
 
 Denne ni darf er sorgen, 
 
 Denne er ze deru suonu quimit, 
 
 Denne varant engila ; 
 
 Uper dio marho, 
 
 Wecchant diota, 
 
 Wissant ze dinge ; 
 
 Denne seal manno gelih
 
 PRAXIS. 587 
 
 Fona deru moltu arsten; 
 
 Lossan sih ar dero leuuo vazzou 
 
 Seal imo avar sin lip piqueman, 
 
 Daz er sin reht allaz 
 
 Kirahhon niuozzi, 
 
 Enti imo after sinen tatin 
 
 Arteilet werde. 
 
 Denne der gisizzit, 
 
 Der dar suonnan seal, 
 
 Enti arteillan seal, 
 
 Toten enti quekken, 
 
 Denne stet darumpi 
 
 Engilo menigi, 
 
 Quotero gomono girust so mihhil. 
 
 Dara quimit ze deru rightungu so vilo dia dar arstent, 
 
 So dar manno nohhein 
 
 Wiht pimidan ni mak ; 
 
 Dar seal denne hant sprehhan, 
 
 Houpit sagen, 
 
 Allero lido wehh 
 
 Unsi id den luzigun vinger. 
 
 Ni weiz der wen ago man 
 
 Wielihhan urteil er habet ; 
 
 Denne er mit den miaton 
 
 Marrit daz rehta, 
 
 Daz der tiuval darpi 
 
 Kitarnit stentit ; 
 
 Der habet in ruovu 
 
 Rahhono welihha, 
 
 Daz der man er enti sid 
 
 Upiles kifrumita, 
 
 Daz er iz allaz kisagct, 
 
 Denne or ze deru suonu quimit.
 
 5SS I'liAXIS. 
 
 III. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON. 
 
 Evangelium Nicodeini, xxi. 
 
 From Thwaite's Heptateuch. 
 
 llyt woes (Sa swi)>e angrislic, Sa 8a Satanas, iivere Helle ealdor aud 
 )>£es deaj>es heretoga, cw£ej) to J)sere Hello ; " Gegearwa ])e sylfe, Jjat 
 " ?iu maege Chryst oufon ; se hyne sylfne gewuldrod haefiS, and ys 
 " Godes sunu and eac man, and eac se DeaS ys hyne oudrajdende, 
 " and myn sawl ys swa unrot ]>xt me J)incJ) fset ic alybban ne raaeg, 
 " for ]ng he ys mycel wySerwynna and yfel wyrcende ongean me, 
 " and eac ongean ]>c : and foela, ))e ic hsefde to me gewyld and to 
 '' atogen, blynde and healte, gebygede and hreoslan, eallo he fram 
 " iSe atyhc!)." Seo Hell fa, swi]>e grymme and swife egeslice, answa- 
 rode 8a Satanase 8am ealdan deofle, and cwajS : " Hwsct is se fe ys 
 " swa Strang and swa myhtig, gif he man is, ]>sot he ne sig J)one 
 " DeaS ondrredende, ])e wyt gefyru boclysed hsefdon, for J)am ealle j»a 
 " ))e on eorpan anweald hajfdon pn hig myd pynre myhte to me 
 '• getuge, and ic hig fteste geheold ; and, gif pu swa mihhtig eart 
 " swa ])u oer wa>re, hwset ys se man and se Haeleud })e ne sig ])one 
 " Dea8 and fyne mihte ondraedende 1 to for8an ic wat, gif he on 
 " mennyscnysse swa mihtig ys, ])set he naper ne unc ne J>ond Dea8 ne 
 " ondrset, )'onne gefohS he J>e and ]»e hyp tefre wa to ecere worulde." 
 Satanos pa, pass cwicsusles ealdor prere Helle andswarode, and ))us 
 cwasd : " Hwset twyneS pe, o]>]>e hwset ondrsedst pu pe pone Htelend 
 " to onfonne, mynne wyperwynnan and eac pynne ; Ac for8on ic his 
 " costnode, and ic gedyde him pset eal pret ludeisce folc ptet hig 
 " waeron ongean him myd yrre and mid andan awehte, and ic gedyde 
 " paet he wses mid spere gesticod, and ic gedyde pset hym man dryn- 
 " can mengde myd eallan and myd ecede, and ic gedyde pact man 
 " hym treowene rode gegearwode, and hyne p£er on aheng, and hyne 
 " mid naeglum gefaestnode and nu aet nextan ic wylle his deaS to pe 
 " gelsedan, and he sceal been underpeod agwhaer ge me ge pe." Seo 
 Hell pa swype aiigrysenlice pus cwoep ; " Wyte past 8u swa do pa3t he 
 " Sa deadan fram me ateo, for ]>am pe her faela syndon geornfulle 
 " fram me mig, piet hig on me wuuian noldon ; ac ic wat pact hig
 
 PRAXIS. 589 
 
 " fram mig ne gewyta)) ])urh heora agene myhte, butan hig se TElmy- 
 " tiga God fram me ateo, se ]>e Lazarum of me genam, ])one |>e ic 
 " heold deadue feower nyht faestne gebunden, ac ic hyne eeit cwicue 
 " ageaf ))urh his bedodu." Da andswarode Satanas and cwaej? : " Se 
 "ylca hyt is se ]>e Lazarum of unc bam genam." Seo Hell hym jia 
 pus to cwsBjn "■ Eala bic halgige ))e Jmbr j'yne maagenu, and eac 
 " Jjubr myne, ]>set ]m njefre ne ge])afige ]>eet he on me cume, for ])am 
 " ])a ic gehyrde, past worde his bebodes, ic was myd miclum ege 
 " afyriht, and ealle mynne arleasan ])enas waeron samod myd me 
 " gedrehte and gedrefede, swa ]>aet we ni rayhton Lazarum gehealdan, 
 " ac he wses hyne asceacende eal swa earn Jjonne he myd hra3dum 
 "flythe wyle for8 afleon, and he swa wses fram us rrefende, and seo 
 " eor|)e ]>e Lazarus deadan lichaman heold, heo hyne cwycne ageaf, 
 " and J)8et ic nu wat ]>set se man ))e call ]>set gedyde ]>set he ys on 
 " Gode Strang and myhtig, and gif ])u hyne to me Isedest, ealle pa pe 
 " her syndon on pysum wselhreowan cwearterne beclysde, and on 
 " pysum bendum myd synnum gewrySene, ealle he myd pys god- 
 " cundnysse fram me atyhS, and to lyfe gelset." 
 
 IV. 
 
 From SchmidCs Anglo-Saxon Laws. 
 pis syndon pa domas pe -Alfred se cyning geccas. 
 
 Drihten wses precende pses word to Moyse and pus cwreS : 
 L Ic eam drihten pin god. Ic pe utgelajdde of yEgypta land 
 and of heora peowdome ; ne lufa pu o6re fremde godas ofer me. 
 
 2. Ne minne naman ne cig pu on idelnesse, forpon pe pu ne bist 
 unscyldig wiS me, gif pu on idelnesse cigst minne naman. 
 
 3. Gemine pset pu gehalgie pone rsestedseg. WyrceaS eow syx 
 dagas, and on pam seofaSan restaS eow, pu and pin sunu and pine 
 dohter and pin peowe and pine wylne and pin weorcynten and se cuma 
 pe biS binnan pi nan durum. Forpam on syx dagum Crist geworhte 
 heofenas and eorfian, sseas and ealle gesceafta pe on him sint and hine 
 gereste on pam seofa^an d;ege, and forpon drihten hine gehalgode. 
 
 4. Ara pinum ficder and pinre meder, pa |)e drihten sealde pe, piet 
 |)u sy py leng libbende on eorfian. 
 
 5. Ne slea pu.
 
 590 PRAXIS. 
 
 0. No stala |>u. 
 
 7. No lijji' |)u iloanuintja. 
 
 8. Ne sa'go |>ii loaso gcwitncsso wiJS |)imim nehstan. 
 
 9. Ne wiliKi |>u |)inos nelistan yrfes luid unrihte. 
 
 10. Ne wyrc )ni )'e gyldene godas ob8e seolfrene. 
 
 11. pis synd J'a donias )>e )'u him settan scealt. § 1. Gif hwa 
 gebycgo Christenne )>co\v, VI gear ])eowige he, )>e scofotian beo he 
 freoh orceapunga. § 2. Mid swylce hncgle he incode, mid swilcc 
 gange he ut. § 3. Gif he wif sylf hoebbe, gange heo ut mid him. 
 § 4. Gif se hlaford I>onne him wif sealde, sy heo and hire beam J^aes 
 lilafordes. § 5. Gif se |)eowa ])onne cwa^Se : nelle ic fram minura 
 lilafordo, ne fram minum wife, ne fram minum bearne, — breng hine 
 Jjonne his hlaford to ]>seTe dura ))3es temples and furhpyrlige his eare 
 mid eale to tacne, ]>xt he sy pofre sytSSan ])eow. 
 
 13. Se man ]>& his gewealdes monnan ofslea, swelte se deaSe. 
 Se-]>e hine J^onne neades ofsloge otSfie unwillum oSSe ungewealdes, 
 swylce hine god swa sende on his honda and he hine ne ymb syrede, 
 sy he his feores wyrSe and folcrihtre hot, gif he frySstowe gesece. 
 Gif hwa )>onne of gyrnesse o66e gewealdes ofslea his ))one nehstan 
 )>urh syrwa, aluc ]m hine fram minum weofode, to ]>am Jjsct he deaSe 
 swelte. 
 
 14. Se-])e slea his feeder oS6e his modor, ne sceal dea8e swelfcan. 
 
 15. Se-fe frione forstaele and he hyne bebycge and hit onbetaeled 
 sy, ])(st he hine bereccan ne mseg, swelte se deaSe. § 1. Se-se wyrge 
 his feeder o66e his modor, swelte se dea^e. 
 
 16. Gif hwa slea his ]'one nehstan mid stane o^Se mid fyste, and 
 he }:>eah utgangan mtege be stafe, begyte him laece and wyrce his 
 weorc ]ja hwile, ]>e he sylf ne majge. 
 
 17. Se-])e slea his agenne ]?eowne esne oS?ie mennen, and he ne sy 
 jjy dceges dead, ]>eah he libbe twa niht oS8e J)reo, ne biS he ealles 
 swa scyldig, for]>on ]je hit waes his agen feoh. Gif he ponne sy 
 idffiges dead, ponne sitte seo scyld on him. 
 
 18. Gif hwa on ceast eacniend wif gewerde, bete jjone sefwyrdlan 
 swa him domeras gercccan. Gif heo dead sy, sylle sawle wiS sawle. 
 
 19. Gif hwa oSrum his eage otSdo, sylle his agen for ; to6 for toS, 
 handa for handa, fet for fet, beerning for bserning, wuud wit5 wund, 
 lajl wi5 la3le.
 
 PRAXIS. 591 
 
 20. Gif hwa ofslea his ])eowe oS6e his peowenne pset eage iit, and 
 he ponne hi gedo aenigge, gefreoge hi forfon. Gif he ]>onne toS 
 ofslea, do pset ylce. 
 
 21. Gif oxa ofhnite wer o88e wif, jjtet hy deade synd, sy he mid 
 stanum ofweorpod and ne sy his flaesc geeton and se hlaford biS 
 unscyldig. § 1. Gif se oxa hnitol wEere twara dagum sere oS6e 
 ])rym and se hlaford hit wist and hine inne betynan nolde, and he 
 J)onne were oSSe wif ofsloge, sy he mid stanum ofworpod and sy se 
 hlaford ofslegen oSSe forgolden, swa pset witan to riht findan. § 2. 
 Sunu o'SSe dohtor gif he ofstinge, J^ces ylcan domes sy he wyrSe- 
 § 3. Gif he ])onne peow o66e peowe mennen ofstynge, gesylle )>aem 
 hlaford XXX scill. seolfres and se oxa sy mid stanum ofworpod. 
 
 22. Gif hwa adelfe wseterpytte o6Se betynedne untyne and hine 
 eft ne betyne, gyld swylc neat swa ]>ser on befealle and hsebbe him 
 past dead. 
 
 23. Gif oxa oSres mannes oxan gewundige and he ponne dead sy, 
 bebycggen ])one oxan and haibben him J)£et weorS gemtene and eac 
 \>set floesc swa })fes deadan. Gif se hlaford ponne wiste, }7£et se oxa 
 hnitol wsere and hine healdan nolde, sylle him o^erne oxan fore and 
 hfebbe him ealle ]>set flassc. 
 
 24. Gif hwa forstajle oSres oxan and hine ofslea oSSe bebyco-e, 
 sylle twegen wiS and feower sceap wiS anum. Gif he htebbe hwjet 
 he sylle, sy he sylf beboht wiS })am feoh. 
 
 25. Gif feof brece mannes hus nihtes and he wyrSe Jjser ofsla3o-en 
 ne sy he na mansloeges scyldig, ])e him sloge. Gif he sySSan jefter 
 sunnan upgonge fis deS, he biS mansleges scyldig and he J^onne sylfa 
 swylte, butan he nyddceda wjere. Gif mid him cwicum sy funden 
 faet he ser stale, be twyfealdum forgylde hit. 
 
 26. Gif hwa gewerde oSres monnes wingeard oSSe his ajceras 
 o6Se his landes awuht, gebete swa hit man geeahtige. 
 
 27. Gif fyr sy ontended ryt to bsernenne, gebete ])one osfwerdelsan 
 se ]>ist fyr ontende6. 
 
 28. Gif hwa ofificste his friend feoh, gif he hit sylf stscl, forgylde 
 be twyfealdum. § 1. Gif he nyste, hwa hit stajle, geladige hine 
 sylfue, yxt he jner nan facn ne gefremede. § 2. Gif hit J^onne cucu 
 feoh woere and he secge, ])aet hit here name 0(56e J^a^t hit sylf acwa^le 
 and he gewitnesse hajbbe, ne })earf he })8et gyldan. § 3. Gif he 
 ])onne gewitnesse nasbbe, and he him ne getriewe ne sy, sweri'>e he 
 bonne.
 
 i"»J>~* PRAXIS. 
 
 30. pa f(Pinnan )'e gowunniaiS onfon galdorcrpcftigan and scinlan- 
 can ami wiccan, ne kct J'u pa libban. 
 
 ******* 
 
 32. And se J)e godgeldura onsaecge ofer god aenue, swelte deatSe. 
 
 33. Utancumene and aelj)eodige ne geswenc )>u no, forpon ]>e ge 
 waeron a-lpeodige on iEgypta land. 
 
 34. pa wudewan and pa steopcilde ne sceaSSaS ne hi nawer deriaS. 
 Gif ge ponne elles docS, hi cleopiaS to me and ic gehire hi, and ic 
 eow ponne slea mid minum sweorde and ic gedo pset eowra wif biS 
 wudewan and eowre beam byS steopcilde. 
 
 35. Gif ])u feoh to borh gesjlle pinum geferan, pe mid pe eardian 
 wille, ne nide pa bine swa nidling and ne gehene pu bine mid ]>y 
 eacan. 
 
 36. Gif man najbbe butan anfeald hraegle bine mid to wreonne 
 and to werianne and he hit to wedde sylle, ter sunnan setlgange sy 
 hit agyfen. Gif pu swa ne dest, ponne cleopatS he to me and ic hine 
 gehyre, forpon pe ic eom swi6e mildheort. 
 
 37. Ne tael pu pinne drihten, ne pone hlaford p£es folces ne 
 werge pu. 
 
 38. pine teoSan sceattas and pine frumripan gangendes and weax- 
 endos agyfe pu gode. 
 
 39. Ealle paet flaesc pset wilddeor laefan, ne etan ge pi3et ac syllat5 
 hit hundum. 
 
 40. Leases mannes word ne recce pu no pses to gehyranno, ne his 
 domas ne gepafa pu, ne nsene gewitnysse fefter him ne saga pu. 
 
 41. Ne wend pu pe na on pees folces unrsed and on unriht gewillon 
 hiora spraece and gecleps ofer pin riht, and on pees unwisestan lare 
 pu ne gepafa. 
 
 42. Gif pe becume ot5res raannes gymeleas feoh on hand, peah hit 
 sy pin feonde, gecySe hit him. 
 
 43. Dem pu swic5e emne ; de dem pu oSerne dom psem welegan 
 o6erne pam earman, ne oSerne para leofran oSerne pam laSran ne 
 deme pu. 
 
 44. Onscuna pu a leasunga. 
 
 45. SoSfsestne man and unscildigne, ne acwele pu pone sefre. 
 
 40. Ne onfo pu nsefre medsceattum, forpon hi ablendaS ful oft 
 wisra manna gepoht and hiora word onwendaS.
 
 PRAXIS. 
 
 593 
 
 47. pam ael})eodigan and utancumenan ne laet ]m na uncuSlice 
 \vi8 hine, ne mid nanum unrihtum )m hine ne drecce. 
 
 48. Ne swerigen ge neefre under hseSene godas, ne on nanum 
 J'ingum ne cleopien ge to him. 
 
 V. 
 
 OPENING OF BEOWULF. 
 
 Edited and Translated by J. M. Kemhle. 
 
 HwiET we Gar-Dena, 
 in gear-dagum, 
 )»e6d-cyninga, 
 \>rjm ge-frunon — 
 hu Sa tepelingas 
 alien fremedon — 
 oft Scyld Scefing, 
 sceaj)en(a) Jjreatum, 
 monegu msegjjum, 
 meodo-setla of-teah — 
 egsode eorl — 
 sy'SSan te'rest weartS 
 fe^-sceaft funden ; 
 he fass frofre ge-ba(d), 
 weox under wolcnum, 
 weor5-m jndum fah ; 
 o8 ^ him se'g-hwlyc 
 fara ymb-sittendra, 
 ofer hron-rade, 
 hyran scolde, 
 gomban gyldan — 
 f wae's god cyning — 
 Saem eafera wee's 
 jefer cenned, 
 geong in geardum, 
 fone god sende 
 folce to frofre ; 
 fyren-))earfe on-geat, 
 f hie ae'r drugon, 
 
 aldor-(le)ase. 
 lange hwile, 
 him ))aes lif-frea, 
 wuldres wealdend, 
 worold-are for-geaf — 
 Beo-wulf wae's breme, 
 blse'd wide sprang, 
 Scyldes eafera, 
 Scede-landum in — 
 swa sceal (wig-fru)ma 
 gode ge-wircean — 
 fromum feo-giftum, 
 on feeder- (feo)rme ; 
 i> hine, on ylde, 
 eft ge-wunigen 
 wi(l)-ge-sij)as, 
 }>onne wig cume. 
 leode ge-lge'sten, 
 lof-dae'du sceal, 
 in msegj^age-hwaere, 
 
 man ge-peon 
 
 him, 8a Scyld ge-wiit 
 to ge-sc9ep hwile 
 fela-hror feran 
 on frean wse re — 
 hi hyne pa set-bac'ron 
 to brimes faroSe, 
 swae'se ge-si})as, 
 swa he selfa baed ; 
 
 u Q
 
 594 
 
 PRAXIS. 
 
 |>entlen wordum wcold 
 wine Sovldinga 
 leof land-fruraa 
 
 lango ahtc 
 
 |'0?r ;vt hyi^o stod 
 hringed-stefna, 
 isig and ut-fus, 
 rej'elinges fasr ; 
 Ti-ledon J'a 
 leofne peoden, 
 beaga bryttan, 
 on bearm scipes, 
 mfe'rne be mse'ste : 
 J'ser waj's madma fela 
 of feor-wegum 
 frfetwa ge-la;'ded. 
 Ne hyrde ic cymlicor 
 ceol ge-g}Twan, 
 hilde-waepnum 
 and heaSo-wse'dum, 
 billum and byrnum ; 
 him on bearme laeg 
 madma menigo, 
 
 ]>a him mid scoldon 
 
 on flodes aeht 
 
 feor ge-witan. 
 
 Nalivs hi bine laissan 
 
 Ificum teodan, 
 
 feod-ge-streonum, 
 
 fon J)ii dydon 
 
 ]>c hine, ait frum-sceafte, 
 
 forS on-sendon, 
 
 ae'nne ofer ySe, 
 
 umbor-wesende. 
 
 J)a gyt hie him a-setton 
 
 segen (gyl) denne, 
 
 heah ofer heafod — 
 
 leton holm ber(au) 
 
 geafon on g£r-secg : 
 
 him wae's geomor-sefa 
 
 murnende mod 
 
 men ne cunnon 
 secgan, to s68e, 
 sele raedenne, 
 haeleC under heofenu 
 hvva jjaem hlaeste on-feng. 
 
 VI. 
 
 THE BATTLE OF BRUNANBURG. 
 
 From Wartoiis History of English Poetry. Ed. 1840. Vol. I. 
 p. Ixvii. Translaied by R. Taylor. 
 
 ^THELSTAN cyning, 
 eorla drihten, 
 boorna beah-gyfa, 
 and his brother eac, 
 Eadmund astheling, 
 ealdor langne tir, 
 geslogon aet secce, 
 sweorda ecgum, 
 
 ymbe Brunanburh. 
 Bord-weal clufon, 
 heowon heatho-linda, 
 hamora lafum, 
 eaforan Eadweardes. 
 Swa him geaethele wais 
 from cneo-ma;gum 
 tha;t hift a^t campe oft,
 
 PRAXIS. 
 
 .595 
 
 with latlira gehwjene, 
 
 land ealgodon, 
 
 Lord and hamas, 
 
 hettend crungon. 
 
 Scotta leode, 
 
 and scip-flotan, 
 
 fsege feollon. 
 
 Feld dennade, 
 
 secga swate, 
 
 sith-than sunne up, 
 
 on morgen-tid, 
 
 msere tuncgol, 
 
 glad ofer grundas, 
 
 Godes candel be orht, 
 
 eces Drihtnes ; 
 
 oth-thset sio aethele gesceaft, 
 
 skh to setle. 
 
 Thser Iseg secg monig, 
 
 garum ageted, 
 
 guman northere, 
 
 ofer scyld scoten. 
 
 Swylc Scyttisc eac, 
 
 werig wiges ssed. 
 
 West-Seaxe forth, 
 
 ondlangne dseg 
 
 eorod-cystum, 
 
 on last Isegdon 
 
 lathum theodum. 
 
 Heowon here-flyman, 
 
 hindan thearle, 
 
 mecum mylen-scearpum. 
 
 Myrce ne wyrndon 
 
 heardes hand-plegan, 
 
 hasletha nanum, 
 
 thara the mid Anlafe, 
 
 ofer ear-geblond, 
 
 on lides bosme, 
 
 land gesohton, 
 
 faege to feohte. 
 
 Fife liegon, 
 
 on tham canapstede, 
 
 cyningas geonge, 
 
 sweordum aswefede. 
 
 Swylc seofen eac 
 
 eorlas Anlafes ; 
 
 unrim heriges, 
 
 flotan and Sceotta. 
 
 Thaer geflymed wearth 
 
 Northmanna bregu, 
 
 nyde gebaeded, 
 
 to lides stefne, 
 
 litle werede. 
 
 Cread cnear on-flot, 
 
 cyning ut-gewat, 
 
 on fealowe flod, 
 
 feorh generede. 
 
 Swylc thser eac se froda, 
 
 mid fleame com, 
 
 on his cyththe north, 
 
 Constantinus, 
 
 bar hylderinc 
 
 Hreman ne thorfte 
 
 meca gemanan. 
 
 Her wses his maga sceard, 
 
 freonda gefylled, 
 
 on folc-stede, 
 
 beslsegen set secce ; 
 
 and his sunu (he) forlet 
 
 on wasl-stowe, 
 
 wundum-forgrunden, 
 
 geongne aet guthe. 
 
 Gylpan ne thorfte, 
 
 beorn blanden-feax, 
 
 bill-geslehtes, 
 
 eald inwitta ; 
 
 ne Anlaf thy ma, 
 
 mid heora here-lafum, 
 
 hlihan ne thorfton, 
 
 (i (I 2
 
 5.0 C 
 
 TRAXIS. 
 
 tlurt hi lunulu-wcorcii 
 
 botonm wunlon, 
 
 on cainp-stede, 
 
 curabol-gehnastes, 
 
 gar mi t tinge, 
 
 guniena gemotes, 
 
 wjepen-gewrixles, 
 
 tines the hie on woel-felda 
 
 with Eadweardes 
 
 edforan plegodon. 
 
 Gewiton hym tha Northmen, 
 
 ntegledon cnearrum, 
 
 dreorig daretha Ifif, 
 
 on dinges mere, 
 
 ofcr deop wteter, 
 
 Dyflin secan, 
 
 eft Yraland, 
 
 86 wise-mode. 
 
 Swylce tha gebrother, 
 
 begen aet samne, 
 
 cyning and aetheling, 
 
 cyththe sohton, 
 
 West Seaxna land, 
 
 wiges hremige. 
 
 Lacton him behindan, 
 
 hra brittian. 
 
 salowig padan, 
 
 thonc swcartan hrcefn, 
 
 hyrncd-nebban ; 
 
 and tbone hasean padan, 
 
 earn oeftan liwit, 
 
 aeses brucan, 
 
 gracdigne guth-hafoc ; 
 
 and tluet grsege deor, 
 
 wulf on wealde. 
 
 Ne wearth wael niSre, 
 
 on thys igland, 
 
 a-fre gyta, 
 
 folces gefylled, 
 
 beforan thissum, 
 
 sweordes ecgum, 
 
 thres the us secgath bee, 
 
 ealde uthwitan, 
 
 sith-than eastan hider 
 
 Engle and Seaxe 
 
 up becomon, 
 
 ofer brade brimu 
 
 Brytene sohton, 
 
 wlance wig-sraithas, 
 
 Weales ofer-comon, 
 
 eorlas arhw^te, 
 
 eard be^eaton. 
 
 VII. 
 
 HILDIBRAND AND HATHUBRAND. 
 
 TEXT OF GRIMM. TRANSLATION IBID. 
 
 Also in — Langue et Literature des Anciens Francs, par G. Gley. 
 
 In gihorta that seggen, that sie urhettoii renon muotin 
 Hildibraht enti Hathubrant untar heriuntuem, 
 Sunu fatar ungo ; iro saro rihtun, 
 Garutun se iro guthhamun, gurtun sih iro suert ana, 
 Helidos, ubar ringa, do sie to dero hiltu ritun.
 
 PRAXIS. '"^^T 
 
 Hiltibraht gimahalta, Heribrantes sunu, her was heroro man, 
 
 Ferahes frotoro, her fragen gistuont, 
 
 Fohem wortum : wer sin fater wari ; 
 
 Fires in folche, eddo weliches cnuosles du sis 1 
 
 Ibu du mi aenan sages, ik mideo are-wet, 
 
 Chind in chuninchriche, chud ist min al irmindeot. 
 
 Hadubraht gimahalti Hiltibrantes sunu : Dat sagetun mi 
 
 Usere liuti alte anti frote, dea erhina warun, 
 
 Dat Hilbrant haetti min fater, i'h heittu Hadubraut. 
 
 Forn her ostar gihueit, floh her Otachres nid 
 
 Hina miti Theotriche enti sinero degano filu ; 
 
 Her furlach in lante luttila sitten 
 
 Prut in bure ; barn unwahsan, 
 
 Arbeolosa heraet, ostar hina det, 
 
 Sid delriche darba gistuontum, fatereres mines, 
 
 Dat was so friuntlaos man, her was Otachre unmettirri, 
 
 Degano dechisto, unti Deotriche darba gistontum ; 
 
 Her was eo folches at ente, imo was eo feheta ti leop. 
 
 Chud was her chonnem mannuma, ni wanin ih, in lib habbe. 
 
 Wittu Irmin-Got, quad Hiltibraht, obana ab havane, 
 
 Dat du neo danahalt mit sus sippan man dine in gileitos ! 
 
 Want her do ar arme wuntane bouga, 
 
 Cheiswringu gitan, so imo seder chuning gap 
 
 Huneo truhtin ; dat ih dir it un bi huldi gibu ! 
 
 Hadubraht gimalta, Hiltibrantes sunu : 
 
 Mit geru seal man geba infahan, 
 
 Ort widar orte, du bist dir, alter Hun, ummet, 
 
 Spaher, spenis mi mit dinem wortema, 
 
 Wilihuh di nu speru werpan, 
 
 Pist al so gialtet man, so du ewin inwit fortos ; 
 
 Dat sagetun mi Sacolidante 
 
 Westar ubar Wentilsaeo, dat man wic furnam, 
 
 Tot ist Hiltibraht Heribrantes suno, 
 
 Hildibrant gimahalta Heribrantes suno : wela gisihu ih, 
 
 In dinem hrustim, diit du habes heine herron goten, 
 
 Dat du noh bi desemo riche reccheo ni wurti, 
 
 Welaga, nu waltant Got, quad Hiltibrant, we wurt skihit I 
 
 Ih vvallota sumaro enti wintro sehstick urlante. 
 
 Dar man mih eo scerita in fulc scestantero.
 
 ol)8 l'I{AXI8. 
 
 So iiKiu iiiir at Inirc (.'iiiigoru banun ni gil'asta ; 
 
 Nu seal mill suasat chiutl suertu hamvaii, 
 
 IJioton mit simi billiu, cddo ih imo ti banin werden. 
 
 Doll nialit du nu aodliclio, ibu dir din client aoc, 
 
 In sus heremo man hrusti girwinnan ; 
 
 Rauba bi hrahaucn ibu du dar cnic rcbt habes. 
 
 Der si doll nu argosto, quad Ilildibrant, ostarliuto, 
 
 Der dir nu wiges warue, nu dih es so vvel lustit. 
 
 Gudea gimeirum niused emotti. 
 
 Wer dar sih hiutu dero prel-zilo hrumen muotti, 
 
 Erdo desero brunnono bedero waltan. 
 
 Do laettun se aerist asckim scritan 
 
 Scarpen scurim, dat in dem sciltim stout ; 
 
 Do stoptun tosamene, starmbort chludun, 
 
 Hewuu harmilicco huitte scilti 
 
 Uuti im iro lintun luttilo wurtun — 
 
 VIII. 
 
 OLD SAXON. 
 
 FROM THE TEXT OF A. VPEIJ. 
 
 Taalkundig Magazijn. P. 1, No. 1. — j). 54. 
 Psalm LIV. 
 
 2. Gehori got gebet min, in ne furuuir bida mina ; thenke te 
 mi in gehori mi. 
 
 3. Gidruouit bin an tilogon minro, in raistrot bin fan stimmon 
 fiundes, in fan arbeide sundiges. 
 
 4. Uuanda geneigedon an mi unrcht, in an abulge unsuoti 
 uuaron mi. 
 
 5. Herta min gidruouit ist an mi, in forta duodis fiel ouir mi. 
 
 6. Forthta in biuonga quamon ouer mi, in bethecoda mi 
 thuisternussi. 
 
 7. In ic quad " uuie sal geuan mi fetheron also duuon, in ic 
 fliugon sal, in raston sal." 
 
 8. Ecco ! firroda ic fliende, inde bleif an eudi. 
 
 9. Ic sal beidan sin, thie behaldon mi deda fan luzzilheide 
 geistis in fan geuuidere.
 
 PRAXIS. 599 
 
 10. Bescurgi, herro, te deile tunga iro, uuanda ic gesag unriht 
 in fluoc an burgi. 
 
 11. An dag in naht umbefangan sal sia ouir mura ira, unreht 
 in arbeit an mitdon iro in unreht. 
 
 12. In ne te fuor fan straton iro prisma in losunga. 
 
 13. Uuanda of fiunt flukit mi, is tholodit geuuisso ; in of thie 
 thie hatoda mi, ouir mi mikila tiling spreke, ic burge mi so mohti 
 geburran, fan imo. 
 
 14. Thu geuuisso man einmuodigo, leido min in cundo min. 
 
 15. Thu samon mit mi suota nami muos, an huse gode giengon 
 uuir mit geluni. 
 
 16. Cum dot ouir sia, in nithir stigin an hellon libbinda. 
 Uuanda arheide an selethe iro, an mitdon ini. 
 
 17. Ic eft te gode riepo, in herro behielt mi. 
 
 18. An auont in an morgan in an mitdondage tellon sal ic, in 
 kundon ; in he gehoron sal. 
 
 19. Irlosin sal an frithe sela mina fan then, thia ginacont mi, 
 uuanda under managon he uuas mit mi. 
 
 20. Gehorun sal got in ginetheron sal sia ; thie ist er uueroldi. 
 
 21. Ne geuuisso ist ini uuihsilj in ne forchtedon got. Theneda 
 hant sina an uuitherloni. 
 
 IX. 
 
 MODERN DUTCH OF HOLLAND. 
 
 Marh, Chap. I. 
 
 1. Het begin des Evangelies van Jezus Cliristus, den Zoon van 
 God. 
 
 2. Gelijk geschreven is in de Profeten : ziet, Ik zend mijnen 
 Engel voor uw aangezigt, die uwen weg voor u heen bereiden zal. 
 
 3. De stem des roependen in de woestijn : bereidt den weg des 
 Heeren, maakt zijne paden regt ! 
 
 4. Johannes was doopendc in de woestijn, en predikende den 
 doop der bekeering tot vergcving der zonden, 
 
 5. En al het Joodsche land ging tot hem uit, en die van Jeru- 
 zalem ; en werden alien van hem gedoopt in the rivier de Jordaan, 
 belijdende hunne zonden. 
 
 6. En Johannes was gekleed met kemelshaar, en met eeneu
 
 fiOO PRAXIS. 
 
 lederen gonlol oiu zijiio lendenen, en at sprinkhannen en wilden 
 honig. 
 
 7. En hij predikte, zeggcnde : ua mij komt, die sterker is dan 
 ik, wien ik niet waardig ben, nederbukkende, den riemzijner schoe- 
 non te ontbinden. 
 
 8. Ik. heb ulieden wel gedoopt met water, maar hij zal u doopen 
 met den Ileiligen Geest. 
 
 9. En het geschiedde in diezelve dagen, dat Jezus kwam van 
 Niizareth, gelcgen in Galilea, en werd van Johannes gedoopt in de 
 Jordaan. 
 
 10. En terstond, als hij uit het water opklom, zag bij de heme- 
 len opengaan, en den Geest, gelijk eene duive, op hem neder- 
 dalen. 
 
 11. En er geschiedde eene stem uit de hemelen : gij zijt mijn 
 geliefde Zoon, in denwelken Ik mijn welbehagen heb ! 
 
 12. En terstond dreef hem de Geest uit in de woestijn. 
 
 13. En hij was aldaar in de woestijn vertig dagen, verzocht 
 van den Satan ; en was bij de wilde gedierten ; en de Engelen 
 dienden hem. 
 
 14. En nadat Johannes overgeleverd was, kwam Jezus in Galilea, 
 predikende het Evangelie van het Koningrijk Gods, 
 
 1.5. En zeggende : de tijd is vervuld, en het Koningrijk Gods 
 nabij gekomen ; bekeert u, en gelooft het Evangelie. 
 
 16. En wandelende bij de Galilesche zee, zag hij Simon en An- 
 dreas, zijnen breeder, werpende het net in de zee (want zij waren 
 visschers ); 
 
 17. En Jezus zeide tot hen : volgt mij na, en ik zal maken, dat 
 gij visschers der menschen zult worden. 
 
 18. En zij, terstond hunne netten verlatende, zijn hem gevolgd. 
 
 19. En van daar een weinig voortgegaan zijnde, zag hij Jacobus, 
 den zoon van Zebedeiis, en Johannes, zijnen broeder, en dezelve in 
 het schip hunne netten vermakende. 
 
 20. En terstond riep hij hen ; en zij, latende hunnen vader Zebe- 
 deiis in het schip, met de huurlingen, zijn hem nagevolgd. 
 
 21. En zij kwaraen binnen Kapernaiim ; en terstond op den Sab- 
 batdag in de Sjnagoge gegaan zijnde, leerde hij. 
 
 22. En zij versloegen zich over zijne leer : want hij leerde hen, 
 als magt hebbende, en niet als de Schriftgeleerden.
 
 PRAXIS. 601 
 
 23. En er was in hunne Synagoge een mensch, met eenen on- 
 reiuen geest, en hij riep uit, 
 
 24. Zeggende : laat af, wat hebben wij met u te doen, gij Jezus 
 Nazarener ! zijt gij gekomen, om ons to verderven ? Ik ken u, wie 
 gij zijt, namelijk de Heilige Gods. 
 
 25. En Jezus bestrafte hem, zeggende : zwijg stil, en ga uit van 
 hem. 
 
 2Q. En de onreine geest, hem scheurende, en roepende met eene 
 groote stem, ging uit van hem. 
 
 27. Enzij werden alien verbaasd, zoodat zij onder elkander vraag- 
 den, zeggende : wat is dit 1 wat nieuwe leer is deze, dat hij met 
 magt ook den onreineen geesten gebiedt, en zig hem gehoorzaam 
 zijn ! 
 
 2S. En zijn gerucht ging terstond uit, in het geheel omliggen 
 land van Galilea. 
 
 29. En van stonde aan uit de Sjnagoge gegaan zijnde, kwamen 
 zij in het huis van Simon en Andreas, met Jacobus en Johannes, 
 
 30. En Simons vrouws moeder lag met de koorts ; en terstond 
 zeiden zij hem van haar. 
 
 31. En hij, tot haar gaande, vattede hare hand, en rigtte ze op ; en 
 terstond verliet haar de koorts, en zij diende henlieden. 
 
 32. Als het nu avond geworden was, toen de zon onderging, brag- 
 ten zij tot hem alien, die kwalijk gesteld, en van den duivel bezeten 
 waren. 
 
 33. En de geheele stad was bijeenvergaderd omtrent de deur. 
 
 34. En hij genas er velen, die door verscheidene ziekten kwalijk 
 gesteld waren ; en wierpe vele duivelen uit, en liet de duivelen nieb 
 toe te spreken, omdat zij hem kenden. 
 
 3-5. En des morgens vroeg, als het nog diep in den nacht was, 
 opgestaan zijnde, ging hij uit, en ging henen in eene woeste plaats, 
 en bad aldaar. 
 
 36. En Simon, en die met hem waren, zijn hem nagevolgd. 
 
 37. En zij hem gevonden hebbende, zeiden tot hem : zig zoeken u 
 alien. 
 
 38. En hij zeide tot hen : laat ons in de bijliggende vlekken gaan, 
 opdat ik ook daar predike : want daartoe ben ik uitgegaan. 
 
 39. En hij predikte in hunne Sjnagogen, door geheel Galilea, en 
 wierp de duivelen uit. 
 
 40. En tot hem kwaui eon melaatsche, biddeude hem, en vallende
 
 (>()!> 
 
 PRAXIS. 
 
 voor heui op ilo knioon, en tothem zcggende : indien gij wilt, gij 
 kunt mij rcinigen. 
 
 •11. En Jezus, met barmhartigheid innerlijk bewogen zijnde, 
 strekte de hand uit, en raaktc hem aan, en zeide tot hem : ik wil, 
 word goreinigd. 
 
 42. En als hij dit gezegd had, ging do melaatschhcid terstondvan 
 hem, en hy werd gereinigd. 
 
 43. En als hij hem strengelijk verboden had, deed hij hem ter- 
 stoud van zich gaan ; 
 
 44. En zeide tot hem : zie, dat gij niemand iets zegt ; maar ga 
 been en vertoon u zelven den Priester, en offer voor uwe reiniging* 
 hetgeen Mozes geboden heeft, bun tot eene getuigenis. 
 
 45. Maar hij vitgegaan zijnde, begon vele dingen te verkondigen, 
 en dat woord te verbreiden, alzoo dat hij niet meer opeubaar in de 
 stad kou komen, maar was buiten in de woeste plaatsen ; en zij 
 kwamen tot hem van alio kanten. 
 
 X. 
 
 OLD NORSE. 
 
 TUE DESCENT OF ODIN. 
 
 From the Edda of Sceniund. Copenhagen Edition, 
 
 Upp reis 08inn 
 alda gautr, 
 ok hann a Sleipni 
 S(38ul um lagSi ; 
 reiS hann niSr paSan 
 Niflheljar til, 
 mcetti hann hvelpi 
 ))eim er or helju kom. 
 
 Sa var bloSugr, 
 um brjost framan, 
 ok galdrs fciSur 
 "o\ um lenffi. 
 
 Framm rei3 OSinn, 
 foldvegr dundi, 
 hann kom at hafu 
 Ileljar ranni. 
 
 4. 
 
 p^ reiS OSinn 
 fyr austan dyrr, 
 J)ar er hann vissi 
 volu leiSi. 
 Nam hann vittugri 
 valgaldr kveSa, 
 unz nauSig reis, 
 nas or6 um kva6 :
 
 PRAXIS. 
 
 603 
 
 5. 
 " Hvat er manna pat 
 mer okunnra, 
 er mer hefir aukit 
 erfit sinni ? 
 var ek snivin snjofi 
 ok slegin regni 
 ok drifin dciggu, 
 dau6 var ek lengi. 
 
 6. 
 
 " Vegtamr ek heiti, 
 sonr em ek Valtams, 
 segSu mer or he\ju, 
 ek mun or heimi : 
 hveim eru bekkir 
 baugum sanir, 
 flet fagrlig 
 fl6« gulli 1 
 
 " Her stendr Baldri 
 of brugginn mjo'8r, 
 skirar veigar, 
 liggr skjoldr yfir ; 
 en asmegir 
 i ofvaeni ; 
 nauSug sagSak 
 nu mun ek pegja. 
 
 " pegiattu volva ! 
 J)ik vil ek fregna, 
 unz alkunna, 
 vil ek enn vita : 
 hverr mun Baldri 
 at bana verSa, 
 ok 08ins son 
 aldri rajna ? 
 
 " HiJSr berr bafan 
 hroSrbarm pinnig ; 
 hann mun Baldri 
 at bana ver6a, 
 ok OSins son 
 aldri ra3na ; 
 nauSug sagSak, 
 nu mun ek pegja. 
 
 10. 
 " pegiattu volva ! 
 ))ik vil ek fregna, 
 unz alkunna, 
 vil ek enn vita : 
 hverr mun heipt HeSi 
 hefnt of vinna 
 eSa Baldrs bana 
 a bal vega 1 
 
 11. 
 " Rindr berr 
 i vostrscilum, 
 sa mun OSins sonr 
 einnaettr vega ; 
 bond um pvser 
 ne h(3fuS kembir 
 aSr a bal um berr 
 Baldrs andskota ; 
 nauSug sagSak, 
 mi mun ek pegja. 
 
 12. 
 " pegiattu volva ! 
 pik vil ek fregna, 
 unz alkunna, 
 vil ek enn vita : 
 hverjar 'ro peer meyjar, 
 er at muni grata 
 ok a liimin verpa 
 balsa skautum ?
 
 Ii04 PRAXIS. 
 
 13. 14. 
 
 " Ertattu Vegtainr, " Heim riS J)u, 05inn ! 
 
 soiu ck hugSa, ok ver lirofiigr! 
 
 lieldr crtu OiSinn, sva koinit manna 
 
 aldinn gautr." moir aptr a vit, 
 
 '' Ertattu volva er lauss Loki 
 
 ne vis kona, li<Sr or biiniluni, 
 
 beUlr ertu )>riggja ok ragna rok 
 
 |»ursa moSir. rjufcndr konia." 
 
 XI. 
 
 ICELANDIC. 
 
 From Unorrds Heimskringla. Translated by Laing. 
 
 y'nglinga saga. 
 
 KAP. I. 
 
 Her Segir frd Landa Skipan. 
 
 Sva er sagt, at kringla heimsins, sii er mannfolkit byggir, er mjiik 
 vag-skorin : ganga hijf stor lir utsjanum inn i jordina. Er ])at kun- 
 nigt, at haf gengr af Njorvasundum, ok allt ut til Jo'rsala-lands. 
 Af hafinu gengr langr hafsbotn til landnordrs, er heitir Svartahaf : 
 sa skilr heims ])ridjungana : heitir fjrin austan Asia, en fyrir vestan 
 kalla sumir Evropa, en sumir Enea. En nordan at Svartahafi gengr 
 Svijjjod in mikla eda in kalda- Svi))j6d ena miklu kalla sumir 
 menn ecki minni enn Serkland hit mikla ; sumir jafna henni vid 
 Blaland hit mikla. Hinn neyrdri lutr Svijijodar liggr obygdr af 
 frosti ok kulda, swa sem hinn sydri lutr Blalands er audr af solar- 
 bruna. I Svif)j6d eru stor herut morg : })ar eru ok margskonar 
 )>jodir undarligar, ok margar tungur : ]iar eru risar, ok ]>ar eru dver- 
 gar : ))ar eru ok blaraenn ; par eru dyr ok drekar furdulega storin. 
 Ur Nordri fra fjiiUum ])eim, er fyrir utan eru bygd alia, fellr a um 
 Svi])j6d, su er at rettu heitir Tanais ; hun var fordura kollut Tana- 
 qvisl edr Vanaquisl ; hi'in keraur til sjavar inu i Svarta-haf. I Vana- 
 qvislum var j^a kallat Vanaland, edr Vanheimr ; su a skiir heims- 
 pridjiingana ; heitir fyrir austan Asia, en fyrir vestan Evropa.
 
 PRAXIS. 605 
 
 Frd Asia Monnum. 
 Fyrir austan Tanaqvisl i Asia, var kallat Asa-land edr Asaheimr ; 
 en hofutborgina, er i var landinu, koUudu ]?eir Asgard. En i bor- 
 ginni var hofdingi sa er Odinn var kalladr, ))ar var blotstadr mikill. 
 par var par sidr at 12 hofgodar voru seztir ; skyldu J)eir rada fyrir 
 blotum ok domum manna i milli ; ])at eru Diar kalladir edr drott- 
 nar : feim skyldi J)j6nustu veita allr folk ok lotning. Odinn var 
 hermadr mikill ok mjok vidforull, ok eignadiz morg riki : ban var 
 sva Sigrfsell, at i bvorri orustu feck bann gagn. Ok sva kom at 
 bans menn trudu J>vi, at bann aetti beimilann sigr i bverri orustu. 
 pat var battr bans ef ann sendi menn sina til orustu, edr adrar 
 sendifarar, at bann lagdi adr hendur i bcifut peim, ok gaf feim 
 bjanak ; trudu J)eir at fa mundi vel faraz. Sva var ok um bans 
 menn, bvar sem peir urdu i naudum staddir a sja edr a landi, 
 fa koUudu feir a nafn bans, ok fottuz jafnan fa af ])vi fro ; far f ot- 
 tuz feir ega allt traust er bann var. Hann for opt sva langt i brot, 
 at bann dvaldiz i ferdinni morg misseri. 
 
 XXL 
 
 SAGA o'lAFS KONU'nGS TRYGGVASONAR. 
 
 Bardagi i Stoi'^. 
 Hakon konungr bafSi fa fylkt liSi sino, ok segja menn at hann 
 steypti af scr brynjunni atJr orrostan tsekist ; Hakon konungr valdi 
 nijcik menn meS ser i birS at afli ok breysti, sva sem gert baf^i 
 Haraldr konungr faSir bans ; far var fa meS konungi poralfr binn 
 sterki Skolrasson, ok gekk £ aSra bliS konungi ; bann baf^i bjalm 
 ok skjold, kesju ok sverS fat er kallat var retbreit5r ; fat var maelt 
 at feir Hikon konungr vaeri jafnsterkir ; f essa getr porSr Sjareksson 
 i drapu f eirri er hann orti um poralf : 
 
 par er bavSharSir borSust 
 
 bands jo draugar landa 
 
 lystr gekk berr til hjorva 
 
 hnitz 1 StorS a Fitjum : 
 
 ok gimslongvir ganga 
 
 gifrs hlemana drifu 
 
 nausta blaks hit naesta 
 
 NorSmanna gram foriJi.
 
 <'0G IMIAXIS. 
 
 Knor fylkingar goncfu sanian, var fyrst skotit spjotiini, J)v{nfest 
 brugiSu menn svcrcSinn ; Gcrfiist ))t'i orostan 66 ok mannskia*(l ; 
 Iliikon konungr ok ])6r.'illr gengu jiii fram um nierkin ok hjoggu til 
 beggja haiula ; Ilakon koiu'ingr var autikendr, meiri enn atSrir menn, 
 Ivsti ok nijuk af lij:ilmi huns cr solin shein <i ; )>d vartS vopnabur<Sr 
 mikill at kouiingi ; tok |>a Eyvindr Finnsson liatt einn, ok setti yfir 
 hjdlm konungsins ; ))<i kallarSi hdtt Eyvindr Skreyja : leynist hann 
 nu NorJSnianna konungr, eJSr hefir hann flyit, |'viat horfinn cr nu 
 guUhjalmrinn ? Eyvindr ok A'Ifr broSir bans gengu yfi hart fram 
 sva sem 68ir ok galnir vaeri, hjoggu til beggja handa ; fa maelti 
 IlTikon konungr hStt til Eyvindar : baltu sva fram stefnunni ef ))u 
 vill finna hann NorSmanna konung. Var J)^ skampt at biSa at 
 Eyvindr kom jur, reiddi upp sverj)it ok hjo til konungs ; poralfr 
 skaut vi(5 honum Eyvindi skildinum, sva at hann stakaSi vieS ; 
 konungr tok ))d tveim hondura sver))it Kvernbit, ok hjo til Eyvindar, 
 klauf hjitlminn ok hofu(5it alt i herj)ar ni8r ; 1 ])vi bili drap poralfr 
 A'lf Askmann. Sva segir Eyvindr Skaldaspillir : 
 
 Veit ek at beit enn bitri 
 byggving meSal dyggvan 
 bulka skiSs or biiSum 
 benvondr konungs hcindum : 
 ilfselinnklauf ala 
 eldraugar skur hauga 
 guUhjaltaSum galtar 
 grandrdSr Dana brandi. 
 
 Eptir fall ])eirra braeSra gekk Hakon konungr sva hart fram at alt 
 hravkk fur honum ; sl6 J)a felmt ok flotta a li6 Eiriks sona, en 
 Hakon konungr var i ondverfiri sinni fylking, ok fylg^i fast flotta- 
 miJnnum, ok hjo tidt ok hart ; fa flo or ein, er Fleinn er kalla^r, ok 
 kom i bond Hakoni konungi uppi i miisina firir nefan cixl, ok er 
 fat margra manna sogn at skosveinn Gunnhildar, sa er Kispingr er 
 nefndr, Ijop fram i fysinn ok kalla^i : gefi rum konungs bananum, 
 ok skaut fit fleinnum til konungs ; en sumir segja at engi vissi hverr 
 skaut ; m^ fat ok vel vera, firir fvi at ijrvar ok spjot ok onnur 
 skotvapn flugu sva fykkt sem drifa ; fjoldi manns fell far af Eiriks 
 sonum, en honungarnir allir komust a skipin, ok rero fegar undan, 
 en Hakonar menn eptir feim ; sva segir porSr Sjareksson :
 
 PRAXIS. 
 
 607 
 
 VarSi viga myr5ir 
 vidt sva skal fri^ slita 
 jofur vildo ])ann eldast 
 bndvert folk a londum : 
 starf hofst upp, ]m er arfi 
 otta vanr a flotta 
 gulls er gramr var fallinn 
 Gunnhildar kom sunnan. 
 
 prot var synt ]A er settust 
 sinn roSr viS ]»raura stinna 
 maSr let ond ok annarr 
 ufar bsendr sarir 
 afreks veit J'at er jijfri 
 allrikr i styr slikum 
 gondlar njortir sk er gerSi 
 gekk naest hugins drekku. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 MODERN SWEDISH. 
 
 FRITHIOFS SAGA. 
 XI. 
 
 Frithiqf hos Angantyr. 
 
 1. 
 
 Nu ar att saga huru 
 
 Jarl Angantyr satt iin; 
 Uti sin sal af furu, 
 
 Ock drack med sina man; 
 Han var sa glad i hagen, 
 
 Sag ut at blanad ban, 
 Der solen sjunk i vagen, 
 
 AUt som an gyllne svan. 
 
 2. 
 Vid fonstret, gamle Ilalvar 
 
 Stod utanfor pa vakt ; 
 Hann vaktade med allvar, 
 
 Gaf ock pa mjodet akt. 
 
 En sed den gamle liade ; 
 
 Hann jemt i botten drack ; 
 Ock intet ord bann sade ; 
 
 Blott bornett i bann stack. 
 
 Nu slangde ban det vida 
 
 I salen in ocb qvad, 
 " Skepp ser jag boljan rida ; 
 
 " Den fiirden ar ej glad. 
 " Man ser jag doden nara, 
 
 " Nu lagga de i land : 
 " Ock tvenne jjittar biira 
 
 " De bleknade pa strand."
 
 G08 
 
 PR AX IP. 
 
 4. 
 
 Utofver biiljans spogol, 
 
 Fran salcn Jarl sag ncd : 
 " Det jir Ellidas scgel, 
 
 " Och Frithiof, tror jag, mcd. 
 " Pa g;'mgan och pa pannan, 
 
 " Kanns Thorstens son igen : 
 *' Sa blickar ingen aiinan 
 
 " I Nordens land sora den." 
 
 5. 
 Fran dryckesbord held modig 
 
 Sprang Atle Viking da : 
 Svartskiiggig Berserk, blodig 
 
 Ock grym at se uppa. 
 " Nu, sad' han, vil jag profva, 
 
 " Hvad rjcktet ment dermed, 
 " At Frithiof svard kann dofVa ; 
 
 " Och alldrig ber om fred." 
 
 6. 
 Och upp med honom sprungo 
 
 Hanns bistra kampar tolf : 
 Med forhand luften stungo, 
 
 Och sviingde sviird ock kolf. 
 De stormade mot stranden, 
 
 Hvor trottadt drakskepp stod. 
 Men Frithiof satt a sanden 
 
 Ock talte kraft och mod. 
 
 " Latt kunde jag dig falla," 
 
 Shrek Atle med stort gny. 
 " Vill i ditt val dock stalla, 
 
 " Att kampa eller fly. 
 " Men blott om fred du beder 
 
 " Fastan an kampe hard, 
 " Jag som an van dig leder, 
 
 " Allt up til Jarlens gard." 
 
 8. 
 " Viil sir jag tnitt af fardcn ;" 
 
 Genmalte Frithiof vrcd, 
 " Dock ma vi profva sviirden, 
 
 " Furr an jag tigger fred." 
 Dii siig man stiilen Ijunga, 
 
 I solbrun kampehand ; 
 Pli Angurvadcls tunga, 
 
 Hvar runa stod i brand. 
 
 9. 
 
 Xu skiftas svardshugg dryga, 
 
 Och drapslag hagla nu ; 
 Och begges skjoldar flyga, 
 
 Pa samma gang itu. 
 De kampar utan tadel 
 
 Sta dock i kredsen fast; 
 Men skarpt bet AngurvadeL 
 
 Och Atles klinga brast. 
 
 10. 
 " Mod svardlijs man jag svanger," 
 
 Sad Frithiof, "ei mitt svard." 
 Men lyster det dig langer, 
 
 Vi profva annau fard. 
 Som viigor da om hosten, 
 
 De begge storma an ; 
 Ock stallbekladda brosten, 
 
 Sla tatt emot hvarann. 
 
 11. 
 
 De brottades som bjornar, 
 
 Uppa sitt fjall af sno ; 
 De spande hop som ornar, 
 
 Utofver vredgad sjo. 
 Rodfastad klippa holle 
 
 Vel knappast ut att sta ; 
 Ock lummig jernek fcille 
 
 For mindre tag an sa.
 
 PRAXIS. 
 
 609 
 
 12. 
 Fran pannan svetten lackar, 
 
 Och brbstet hafves kallt; 
 Och buskar, sten, ock backar, 
 
 Uppsparkas tifver allt. 
 Med bafvan slutet bida 
 
 Stallkladde man a strand ; 
 Det brottandet var vida 
 
 Beromdt i Nordeus land. 
 
 14. 
 " Det skal ei hinder briuga,' 
 
 Sad Atle stolt i hag, 
 " Ga du, ock ta din klinga, 
 
 " Jag licgar som jag lag. 
 " Den ena, som den andra, 
 
 " Skal engang Valhall se : 
 " Idag skal jag val vandra ; 
 
 " I morion du kanske." 
 
 13. 
 Til slut dock Frithiof fallde 
 
 Sin fiende til jord, 
 Haun knat mod brostet stallde, 
 
 Och tallte vredens ord, 
 " Blott nu mitt svai-d jag hade, 
 
 " Du svarte Berserksskagg, 
 " Jag genom lifvet lade, 
 
 " Pa dig den hvassa agg. 
 
 15. 
 Ei lange Frithiof drojde ; 
 
 Den lek han sluta vill : 
 Han Angurvadel hojde ; 
 
 Men Atle lag dock still. 
 Det rorde hjeltens sinne ; 
 
 Sin vrede da hann band ; 
 HoU midt i huggett inne, 
 
 Ock tog den fallnes hand. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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 Imponderables, Heat, Electricitj', and Magnetism. This principle, denominated 
 Odvle by the author, is characterised by the effects which it produces on the senses 
 of touch and sight. 1. In exciting peculiar sensations in the human frame; and 
 2. In exhibiting luminous emanations issuing from the poles and sides of magnets. 
 
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 pervade the wliole material world, — is observed to flow, are chiefly the Magnet, 
 Crystals, the Human Body, Heat, Electricity, Friction, and Chemical Action. In a 
 history of experiments, repeated in great variety of forms, the author traces the power 
 from its numerous sources in its irritative effects on persons possessing extraordinary 
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 sometimes to actual adhesion) between the living hand and a powerful magnet. 
 Terrestrial Maguetism is proved to act sensibly on the human organism. Lunar 
 Radiation is shown to be an agent which affects the vital forces of diseased, 
 particularly of nervous, persons ; and the foundation of what is called Animal Mag- 
 netism is traced to a similar power residing in the human hand. 
 
 The sections on the Odylic Light present a series of experiments developing 
 the various forms, characters, and properties of the light given out b^^ magnets. This 
 m.ngnetic light appears, under different circumstances, as glow, flames, fibrous downy 
 light, scintillations, and luminous nebula, vapours, smoke, and clouds. (Engravings 
 are given of these various forms.) Crystals, besides exhibiting a specific action on the 
 animal nerves, send forth a delicate flame-like light from their poles. The odylic 
 luminous phenomena are further remarkable as possessing polarity, appearing with 
 constantly different properties at the opposite poles of magnets. This polarity 
 extends even to the two sides of the human body, the fingers of the right and of the 
 left hand having been observed to give out light of different colours. Bodies may be 
 charged with Odyle, wliich may .also be transferred from one body to another, and the 
 luminous emanations may be concentrated by lenses. 
 
 Among the most important Contents of this original work will be found an expla- 
 nation of the Aurora Uorealis, a phenomenon caus'id by the magnetism of the earth. 
 This is considered by the author as an example of odylic emanations on a great scale ; 
 and he succeeded in establishing this identity by actually producing, at the poles of 
 an iron sphere or tcrrelle constructed for the purpose, magnetic odylic flame analogous 
 in all its properties to the Northern Lights. The luminous appearances (called 
 corpsc-liijlds) said to be sometimes observed over graves, and of which the real exist- 
 ence has been incontrovertibly ascertained by the author, are referred to the category 
 of odylic light proceeding from chemical action. One of the sections is devoted to an 
 attempt to establish fixed physical laws in regard to the variable phenomena hitherto 
 classed under the name of Animal Magnetism ; and the phenomena of Artificial 
 Somnambulism, commonly known under the name of Mesmerism, arc shown by the 
 author to admit of being studied as a part of physical science.
 
 PRINTED FOR TAYLOR, WALTON, AND MABERLY. 3 
 
 GREEK TESTAMENT.— GRIESBACH'S TEXT, WITH 
 THE VARIOUS READINGS OP MILL AND SCHOLZ. 
 Foolscap 8yo., cloth, 6s. 6d. 
 
 The extensive collations on which Geiesbach's critical labours were founded, the 
 skill with which he corrected the errors of previous editors, and the judgment with 
 which he estimated the claims of conflicting readings, have fully established the 
 superiority of his Text of the New Testament. That Text is here presented to the 
 student accompanied by copious marginal references, and by a limited number of 
 various lections at the bottom of each page. 
 
 Among the multitudes of various readings appended to voluminous editions of the 
 Greek Testament, but few, comparatively, are of any importance, in either a philo- 
 logical or a doctrinal point of view ; and it is, therefore, the latter class exclusively 
 that requires the attention of the theologian. The selection made for this edition 
 embraces such readings only as, if admitted into the Text, would in some measure 
 affect the construction, alter the narrative, or modify the meaning, of the original ; 
 and their comparative value is indicated by appropriate marks. The study of these 
 variations, in connection with the Text, is essential to the biblical student in his 
 investigation of disputed passages, and will serve as an introduction to a critical 
 acquaintance with sacred writ. Besides this selection from Griesbach's various 
 lections, a collation of the differences between the Texts of Griesbach and Scholz 
 is given at the end of the volume. In the Text itself, all passages of doubtful 
 authority are enclosed within brackets. 
 
 References to parallel passages are placed at the side of each page, to assist the 
 student in a theological view of the subject ; and an improvement has been made in 
 the mode of reference, by observing a distinction between parallels of single passages 
 or words, and those which furnish an harmonious narrative of the same events. 
 
 The introductory matter consists of: — 1. A history of the received text and its 
 versions in ancient languages, with an account of the most important manuscripts (as 
 the Vatican, Alexandrine, etc.), and of the critical labours of Mill, Wetstein, and 
 other celebrated editors. 2. A Chronological Harmony of the Four Gospels, 
 followed by the Chronology of the Apostolic History. Two coloured fac-siniks are 
 also prefixed : one from the Cotton Manuscript in the miciul character, and the 
 other a specimen of a manuscript in the cursive style. 
 
 This edition is in paragraphs, in order to preserve the continuity' of the narrative 
 or discourse, the numbers of the verses appearing only in the margin. It is printed 
 in a clear type, and great pains have been taken to secure typographical accuracy. 
 
 PROFESSOR DE MORGAN'S WORKS. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF ARITHMETIC. FIFTH EDITION 
 WITH ELEVEN NEW APPENDIXES. Royal 12mo'. 
 5s. cloth. 
 
 This treatise (reconnnended by the Committee of Council on Education) is 
 designed for teaching Arithmetic as a part of mathematical science, and not as a 
 mechanical art. The iirst part contains the Principles of Arithmetic, in wliich the 
 fundamental processes are fully explained, as well as the doctrine of ratios, propor- 
 tions, progressions, and combinations. 'J"he student is introduced from the beginning 
 to algebraic;il notiition, and is tlius piei)ired for entering on algebra. 
 
 The second part consists of the principal rules of Connnercial Arithmetic, which are
 
 4 IMJINTKI^ Koll TAYLOll, WALTON, AND MABERLY. 
 
 rullowoil liy 'I'wolve Appeiulixcs, of which elo\-oii appear lor tlie lirst tune in tliis 
 fdition. 'I'his supplementary luatter contains, among otiter tilings, intormation on 
 "Scales of N'ot^iiion ; " on "Decimal Money," in wiiicii rules are given which 
 confer on the leiirner the greater part of the advanUiges of calculation to be derived 
 from u decimal coinage; on "the Alain I'rinciple of Book-keeping;" on some 
 general properties of numbers ; and on " Horner's Method of Solving Equations." 
 The last subject is explained at considerable length, numerous instances with answers 
 being given in order to make the student well ac(iuaiuted with this useful process. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF ALGEBRA, PRELIMINARY TO THE 
 DlFFEUEiXTIAL CALCULUS. Secoud Edition. Royal 12mo. 
 Ds. cloth. 
 
 This treatise is adapted to students willing to encounter the real ditticul- 
 ties of the subject, instead of contenting themselves with acquii'ing dexterity' in 
 the manipulation of algebraical symbols. Hence the examples it contains are intro- 
 duced rallier as a basis for developing principles than as a praxis on the rules. The 
 nature of negative quantities is minutely investigated ; and the student is instructed 
 in the interpretations to be assigned to results apparently unintelligible, and in the 
 correction ot the language of the problems which produce them. Throughout the 
 work, the attention of the reader is particularly directed to the algebraical extension 
 of the meaning of terms belonging originally to arithmetic or geometry, or of notation 
 previously taken in a restricted sense ; and some of the problems are calculated to lay 
 the foundation for the application of algebra to geometry. The general theory of ex- 
 pressions of the first and second degree is ktid down ; and demonstrations are given of 
 the binomial theorem, the theory of logarithms, <ltc. 
 
 The author considers the , notion of limits as indispensable to the strict theory even 
 of common algebra ; accordingly this notion is introduced, applied and insisted on. 
 The notation and classihcation of algebraical and transcendental functions are ex- 
 plained, and exponential and logarithmic series developed. The work concludes 
 with a chapter on the mode of using tables of logarithms. 
 
 FORMAL LOGIC ; OR, THE CALCULUS OF INFER- 
 ENCE, NECESSARY AND PRUliABLE. 8vo., 12s. 
 
 The first chapter of this work (First Notions J is an elementary introduction to 
 ordinary logic, which first appeared in a separate form. With the second chapter, 
 On Objects, Ideus, and Names ; part of the seventh, On tlui Aristotelian Sylloyisiii ; 
 part of the eleventh, On Induction ; the twelfth. On Old Logical Terms ; and the 
 thirteenth, On Fallacies — it forms a work on ordinary logic, independent of the rest. 
 The remainder of tlie work is devoted to the development of two new views. The 
 first, that in which contrary terms are considered as formally admissible, and all 
 modes of predication are adopted, whether the terms be the terms of the conclusion, 
 or their contniries. The second, in which the proposition is made numArically 
 definite, the numher of instances of which affirmation or denial is made, taking the 
 place of aW ov some of the ordinary logical proposition. All cases in which infer- 
 ence can be made are demonstratively collected, and the particular cases which form 
 the ordinary system of syllogism are shown to be contained in the system. Two 
 chapters are devoted to the explanation of probability and its mathematical appli- 
 cation to questions of probable inference. The new matter which this work contains 
 is pointed out by Italics in the table of Contents. In an Appendix is contained the 
 author's final reply to the charges made against him by Sir William Hamilton of 
 Edinburgh
 
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