ADMINISTRATION MILITARY LAW FIELD SERVICE REGULATIONS MARCHES AND CONVOYS BY CAPT. W. H. WALDRON 29th infantry Reprinted from "NIGHT OPERATIONS" Infantry Journal January, February, March, April, May and June, 1917 WASHINGTON United States Infantry Association 1917 b'l^ > .^

9. Admonition. Q. What legal punishments may courts- martial impose upon enlisted men? A. 1. Death. 2. Dishonorable discharge. 3. Confinement at hard labor. 4. Forfeiture of pay. 5. Hard labor without confinement. 6. Forfeiture of pay and allowances. 7. Detention of pay. 8. Reprimand. Q. What are the rules regarding the dis- honorable discharge of a soldier? A. 1. A dishonorable discharge can be im- posed only pursuant to the sentence of a general court-martial. 2. The date on which the; order pro- mulgating the sentence is received at the post where the soldier is held, is the date of discharge. 3. A sentence adjudging a dishonorable discharge to take effect at such period during a term of confinement as may be designated by the reviewing author- ity, is illegal. Q. May the deposits of a soldier be forfeited by the sentence of a court-martial? A. They may not. They are exempt from liability to sentence of a court-martial, 52 Night Operations imposing a forfeiture of pay and allow- ances. To sentence a soldier to deposit a certain amount of his pay is illegal. Q. When a disciplinary punishment is awarded a soldier by his company com- mander, what record is made of it? A. A brief record will be made showing : 1. Name of the accused. 2. Brief statement of the offense, showing time and place. 3. Statement as to whether or not the accused demanded trial by summary court. 4. Disposition of case, with date and pun- ishment awarded. 5. Whether or not appeal was made to higher authority. 6. Decision of higher authority on appeal. 7. Whether accused was required to serve punishment pending appeal. Q. What limitations are placed on courts- martial in imposing punishments on soldiers? A. 1. Punishing by branding, tattooing or marking the body, or by flogging is prohibited. 2. The following have been discarded: Carrying loaded knapsack; wearing irons; shaving the head; placarding; pillory; stocks, and tying up by the thumbs. 3. Military duty as a form of punishment tends to degrade duty and is to the prejudice of the best interests of the service. Punishment, such as imposing tours of guard duty, requiring a sol- dier to blow all calls for a period of time, are not imposed. 4. Solitary confinement on bread and water diet, and the placing of a prisoner in irons, are regarded as a means of enforcing prison discipline. They are not to be imposed by a court-martial as a punishment. Q. Where are the limits of punishment that may he imposed by a court-martial upon a soldier on conviction to be found? A. The latest executive order on the subject became operative on March 1st, 1917, as to offenses committed on and after that date, and as to criminal acts com- mitted prior to that date, whose maxi- mum punishment was not prescribed in the Executive Order of September Sth, 1914, published in G. O. No. 70. This order remains operative as to offenses committed before March 1st, 1917, ex- cept as to criminal acts whose maxi- mum punishment has been decreased by this order. Q. What are the general limitations with regard to the punishment that a court- martial may impose on a soldier? A, 1. A court shall not, by a single sentence which does not include dishonorable discharge, adjudge against a soldier: (a) Forfeiture of pay at a rate greater than two-thirds of his pay per month. (&) Forfeiture of pay in an amount greater than two-thirds of his pay for six months. {c) Confinement at hard labor for a period greater than six months. 2. A court shall not, by a single sentence, adjudge against a soldier: (a) Detention of pay at a rate greater than two-thirds of his pay per month. (&) Detention of pay in an amount greater than two-thirds of his * pay for three months, (c) Hard labor without confinement for a period greater than three months. Q. May general prisoners be tried by sum- mary court? A. They may, Q. May the summary court officer he chal- lenged by the accused? A. The summary court officer is not subject to challenge. Q. What is the limit of punishment that may be imposed upon a soldier by the sum- mary court? A. Not to exceed confinement at hard labor for three months, or forfeiture of three months' pay, or both; and, in addition thereto, reduction to the ranks in the cases of noncommissioned officers, and reduction in classification in the cases of first-class privates. Q. When the summary court officer is also the commanding officer, what action is necessary with respect to a sentence of the summary court? A. No sentence of such summary court- martial, adjudging confinement at hard labor or forfeiture of pay, or both, for a period in excess of one month, shall Night Operations 53 be carried into execution until the same has been approved by superior authority. Q. What are the functions of summary courts-martial? A. 1. Power to administer oaths. 2. To hear and determine cases and, when • satisfied of the guilt of the accused party, to adjudge the punishment to be inflicted. The following is the procedure in the in- stitution and conduct of a trial before a summary court-martial: 1. A summary court officer is appointed in every command by the commanding officer thereof, either in formal orders or verbally. This officer is usually the officer next in rank to the commanding officer, but may be any officer whom the commanding officer selects. * 2. A soldier commits an offense for which he may be properly tried by summary court. Oiarges and specifications are preferred against him on the blank forms provided for that purpose. These charges are made in triplicate and forwarded to the commanding officer for his action. They are usually handed in at the adjutant's office with the morning report, but may be sub- mitted at any time. 3. The charge sheet contains : 1. The name and rank of the accused. 2. Statement of service. 3. Date of arrest or confinement. 4. Number of previous convictions. 5. Witnesses for the prosecution and defense. 6. A statement of the charge. 7. A statement of the specification. 8. Signature of the officer preferring the charges. 4. The commanding officer determines whether or not the case shall be brought to trial and, when trial is de- cided upon, the charges are forwarded by indorsement to the summary court officer, the indorsement being signed by the adjutant. 5. The summary court usually sits at a stated hour daily, except Sunday (no legal objection to sitting on Sunday), at such time as will least interfere with the training of troops. The accused ' and all witnesses are ordered to appear at the specified time, and the trial pro- ceeds much in the manner of civil police courts. 6. The accused is brought before the sum- mary court officer, who reads the charges and specifications to him and calls upon him to plead to same. The plea is usually " guilty " or " not guilty." Note, — When the accused pleads guilty the summary court officer will explain to him : (a) The elements constituting the offense to which he has pleaded guilty, and (fc) The maximum punishment therefor. He will ask him whether he fully under- stands : (c) That by pleading guilty thereto, he admits all the elements of the crime or offense, and (&) That he may be punished as ex- plained above. 7. Witnesses for the prosecution are called and sworn by the summary court officer, who conducts the direct exami- nation, after which the accused is per- mitted to cross-examine. These are followed by the witnesses for the de- fense, who are likewise sworn and examined. The accused may then be sworn as a witness in his own behalf, make a statement and be cross- examined by the summary court, or he may make an unsworn statement, in which case he is not subject to cross- examination. 8. After all the evidence has been pre- sented in the case, the summary court officer arrives at a finding and enters the same in the appropriate space on the blank form. This is followed by the sentence he imposes on the accused, in case of a finding of guilty. He then signs the blank at the place provided for his signature. 9. The blanks, thus completed, are turned in to the adjutant, who examines the finding and verifies the sentence to see that it is not in excess of the limit prescribed in the executive order of the President, and submits them to the commanding officer for his action. 10. If the commanding officer concurs in the sentence, he approves the same by affixing his signature and dating it at 54 Night Operations the appropriate place on the blank, and the record of the court is complete and the sentence may be executed. 11. The second copy of the blank is then completed by making it an exact copy of the original, and it is certified as a true copy by the adjutant. 12. The original is filed at post head- quarters and forms the permanent record of cases tried by summary court. The second copy, authenticated by the adjutant, is furnished the company commander of the accused and forms the company record of the trial. The third is forwarded to the officer having general court-martial jurisdiction over the command. Q. What action is necessary before a sentence of a court-martial may be carried into execution? A. It must be approved by the officer ap- pointing the court, or by the officer commanding for the time being. The acquittal of the accused does not en- title him to be released from confine- ment at once. The acquittal is not effective until it has been acted upon by the proper reviewing authority. Q. What is the effect of a disapproval of a finding and sentence of a court-martial on the part of the reviezving authority f A. A disapproval of the sentence of a court- martial by the reviewing authority is not a mere expression of disapproba- tion, but is a final determinate act putting an end to the proceedings in a particular case and rendering them entirely nugatory and inoperative; and the legal effect of a disapproval is the same whether or not the officer dis- approving is authorized finally to con- firm the sentence. But to be thus operative, the disapproval should be ex- pressed. The effect of the entire dis- approval of a sentence is not merely to annul the same as such, but also to prevent the accruing of any disability or forfeiture, which would have been incidental on approval. Q. How are general court-martial trials of enlisted men published to the service? A. By general court-martial orders, promul- gated from headquarters of the officer authorized to convene general courts- martial. Q. What elements does a G. C. M. O. con- tain? A. So much of the proceedings of the court as will give the charges and specifi- cations, the pleas, findings, and sen- tences, and the action and remarks of the reviewing authority on the case. If the charges contain matter unfit for publication, it will be omitted from the order. Q. In what case is the confirmation of the President required? A. 1. Any sentence respecting a general officer. 2. Any sentence extending to the dismissal of an officer, except that in time of war a sentence extending to the dis- missal of an officer below the grade of brigadier-general may be carried into execution upon confirmation by the commanding general of the army in the field or by the commanding general of the territorial department or division. 3. Any sentence extending to the supen- sion or dismissal of a cadet. 4. Any sentence of death, except in the cases of persons convicted in time of war of murder, rape, mutiny, deser- tion, or as spies, and in such excepted cases, a sentence of death may be car- ried into execution upon confirmation by the commanding general of the army in the field, or by the command- ing general of the territorial depart- ment or division. Q. What is meant by mitigation of punish- ment? A. A reduction in quantity or quality, the general nature of the punishment re- maining the same. Q. May the sentence of a court-martial be added to in any way? A. Neither the reviewing authority nor any other officer is authorized to add to the punishment imposed by a court- martial. Q. Under what circumstances may soldiers convicted by court-martial be confined in a penitentiary? A. 1. Desertion in time of war. 2. Repeated desertion in time of peace. 3. Mutiny. 4. When the offense is of a civil nature, or by commutation of the death sen- tence. Night Operations 55 5. On conviction of two or more acts or omissions, any one of which is punish- able by confinement in a penitentiary. Q. What is fraudulent enlistment? A. An enlistment procured by means of wilful misrepresentation in regard to a . qualification or disqualification for en- listment; or by intentional concealment of a disqualification which has had the effect of causing the enlistment of a man not qualified to be a soldier and who, but for such false representation or concealment, would have been re- jected. Q. What elements must be proved to convict on a charge of fraudulent enlistment? A. 1. The enlistment of the accused in the military service as alleged. 2. That the accused wilfully misrepre- sented a certain fact, or facts, regard- ing his qualifications or disqualifica- tions for enlistment, or wilfully — that is, intentionally — concealed a disquali- fication as alleged. 3. That enlistment was procured by such misrepresentation or concealment. 4. That under such enlistment, the accused received either pay or allowances, or both, as alleged. 5. Where a soldier enlists without a dis- charge, the proof should include the fact that at the time of the alleged en- listment the accused was a soldier, and that the enlistment was entered into without a regular discharge from the former enlistment. Q. What is desertion? A. An absence without leave, accompanied by the intention not to return. Both elements are essential to the offense. The offense becomes complete when the person absents himself without authority from his place of service with intent not to return thereto. A prompt return and repentence are no defense, nor is it a defense that the deserter at the time of departure intended to re- port for duty elsewhere. Thus, a soldier who leaves his post, intending never to go back unless a certain event happens, or leaves his post with such intent and reports at another post, is a deserter; but unless such intent exists at some time, the soldier cannot be a deserter, whether his purpose is to stay away a definite or an indefinite time. Where a soldier, without having been discharged, again enlists in the army, or in the militia in the service of the United States, such enlistment is, by the twenty-ninth article of war, made sufficient evidence of desertion. In such case, proof of the intent to stay perma- nently away from his former place of service, and the status of absence with- out leave therefrom, are unnecessary. Q. What elements must he proved to convict a soldier of desertion? A. 1. That the accused absented himself or remained absent without authority from his place of service as alleged. 2. That he intended, at the time of absent- ing himself or at some time during his absence, to remain away permanently from such place. 3. That his absence was of a specified duration and was terminated as alleged. 4. That his act was done, if so alleged, in the execution of a certain conspiracy, or in the presence of a certain outbreak of Indians, or of a certain unlawful assemblage which his organization was opposing, or in time of war, where the court will not take judicial notice of the existence of a status of war. 5. Where the soldier enlisted without a discharge : that the accused was a soldier in a certain organization of the army, as alleged; and that without being dis- charged from such organization, he again enlisted in the army, navy or marine corps, or some foreign army, as alleged. In this case, proof of the absence without leave and of the in- tention not to return become unneces- sary. Q. What is absence without leave? A. When any person subject to military law is, through his own fault, not at the place where he is required to be, at a time when he should be there, he is said to be "absent without leave," or AWOL. Q. What elements must be proved in AWOL. A. 1. Where the accused fails to appear or goes from a place of duty : (o) That a certain authority ap- pointed a certain time and place for a certain duty by the accused, as alleged. 56 Night Operations (b) That he failed to report at such place at the proper time, or, having so reported, went from the same without authority from any one competent to give him leave to go. 2. Where the accused is charged with absenting himself without proper leave : (o) That the accused absented him- self from his command, guard, quarters, station, or camp for a certain period, as alleged. (b) That such absence was without authority from anyone com- petent to give him leave. Q. Distinguish between arrest and confine- ment f A. The arrest of an officer has been com- pared to an enlargement on bail, the security being the officer's commis- sion. It is for this reason that the punishment for breach of arrest may include dismissal. The distinction be- tween arrest and confinement lies in the difference between the kind of re- straint imposed. In arrest the restraint is moral, imposed by the orders fixing the limit of the arrest, or by the terms of the Article. Q. What constitutes breach of arrest? A. The offense is committed when the re- strained person infringes the limits set by orders, or by the 69th Article of War. The intention or motive that actuated him is immaterial to the ques- tion of guilt, though, of course, proof of inadvertence or bona fide mistake is admissible in guiding the court in fixing punishment. The unlawfulness of the arrest is a valid defense, but innocence of the accusation for which the arrest is imposed is entirely irrelevant. Q. What elements must be proved to convict of a breach of arrestt A. 1. That the accused was duly placed in arrest. 2. That before he was set at liberty by proper authority he transgressed the limits fixed by proper authority or by the 69th Article of War. Q. What is a countersign? A. A countersign is a word given from the principal headquarters of a command to aid guards and sentinels in their scrutiny of persons who apply for per- mission to pass the lines. Q. What is a parole? A. A parole is a word used as a check on the countersign. It is imparted only to those who are entitled to inspect the guards, and to commanders of guards. Q. What constitutes the offense of making known the countersign and parole? A. The class of persons entitled to receive the countersign will expand and con- tract with the varying circumstances of war. Who these persons are will be determined largely, in any particular case, by the general or special orders under which the accused was acting. It is no defense, under the terms of this law, that the accused did not know that the person to whom he communicated the countersign or parole was not en- titled to receive it. Before imparting such a word it behooves a person sub- ject to military law to determine at his peril that the person to whom he pre- sumes to give the countersign or parole is entitled to receive it. Field Service Regulations Q. What are the two general classes of mili- tary information f A. 1. That collected by the General Staff in time of peace. 2. That obtained by troops in the field after the outbreak of hostilities. (9) Q. To what does the information obtained in time of peace relate? A. To the geography, topography, resources and military strength of the various na- tions, and it enables the War Depart- ment to decide upon the size of an army or expedition, the proportion of the dif- ferent arms, character of clothing and equipment, that may be necessary in the event of war. (9) Q. To what does the information, in tim^e of war relate? A. To the theatre of operations and the posi- tion, strength and intentions of the enemy in the field. The possession of this information is absolutely essential in order that a commander may properly make his estimate of the situation, come to a decision as to what he is going to do, and issue his orders. (9) Q. What are the sources of information in the Held? A. 1. Higher commanders. In issuing field orders, the commander, in his first paragraph, gives all the information of the enemy and his own troops in his possession, or which it is intended sub- ordinate commanders should know. 2. Adjoining troops. Troops in active campaign always keep the commanders of nearby troops informed of the action they are taking. 3. Inhabitants. In hostile territory, influ- ential persons, especially those supposed to be active in the enemy's cause, may be seized and their persons and houses searched. 4. Newspapers, letters and telegraph files. Letters and newspapers found in post offices and telegraph files are carefully searched and everything of importance sent to higher authority. 5. Prisoners. Prisoners, captured from the enemy, are carefully questioned. 6. Deserters and spies. 7. Maps. Local maps of recent date may contain most valuable information. 8. Reconnaissance. (9-10) Q. How does a commander gain a knowledge of the terrain over which he intends to operate? A. By a careful study~of available maps, sup- plemented by thorough reconnaissance. (9) Q. What disposition is made of information that is gained? A. Information received by any person in the military service, and the action taken thereon, must be promptly reported to the proper military superior. This super- ior, in the case of forces larger than a brigade, is the chief of staff, by whom it is referred to the intelligence section of the general staff group at headquarters. In the division staff this is known as the third, or intelligence, section of the general staff and it concerns itself with the movements and dispositions of the enemy, including explorations, recon- naissance and the gathering and dis- tribution of information. (9-26) Q. What limitations are placed on the dis- cussion of military information? A. Unless instructions are given to spread false information, all persons connected with the military service are forbidden 67 58 Night Operations to discuss the military situation, plans, movements, etc., with or in the presence of civilians of any age, sex or nation- ality. Q. What do you understand by the term " reconnaissance "? A. It is a military term used to desigrnate the work of troops or individuals in gathering information in the field, (11) Q. When does reconnaissance begin and end? A. It begins as soon as the theatre of possi- ble operations is entered and ends at the conclusion of the campaign. Note: No matter what other sources of informa- tion may be available reconnaissance must be depended upon to obtain the in- formation upon which all tactical move- ments should be based. (11) Q. What are the functions of the aero squad- ron in reconnaissance? A. In a division or larger force, it will oper- ate in advance of the independent cav- alry, for the purpose of locating the enemy and keeping track of his move- ments. (12) Q. What are the general duties of the cav- alry in reconnaissance? A. 1. From the beginning of the cam- paign, it seeks to determine the enemy's strength and dispositions. 2. It protects its own army against sur- prise, screens its movements, and in- sures the safety of the other arms. 3. It defeats the opposing cavalry and ex- pels it from the field. 4. As the opposing armies draw nearer to each other, it endeavors to secure control of the ground between, and bends every effort to that continuous and close recon- naissance of the enemy's forces so vital to success. (13) Q. Distinguish between independent cavalry and divisional cavalry. A. 1. Independent cavalry is a body of cav- alry operating in advance of the main force and responsible only to the su- preme commander of the force with which it is operating. 2. Divisional cavalry is that which is at- tached to an infantry division. The force normally attached to an infantry divi- sion is one regiment of cavalry. When the division is operating independently, this cavalry may be employed as inde- pendent cavalry. When the division is operating as a part of a field army, the divisional cavalry is generally attached to the divisional covering troops. Q. What are the functions of independent cavalry? A. 1. It precedes the advance of the force at such distance as may be practicable. 2. If it is strong enough to defeat the enemy's cavalry, it should locate the hostile infantry and artillery and deter- mine their approximate strength. 3. If it is weaker than the enemy's cavalry, it must rely upon the work of strategical and tactical patrols to obtain detailed in- formation of the enemy or it must be assisted by the other arms. 4. On very wide fronts, an army is gen- erally covered by two or more bodies of independent cavalry ; each is informed of the extent of ground it is to cover and keeps in touch with the neighboring cavalry. ( 14) Q. What are the functions of the divisional cavalry? A. 1. Within its powers and limitations, it furnishes immediate security for the main body. 2. Though its reconnaissance is more re- stricted than that of the independent cavalry, it goes more into detail and gathers information as to the resources of the country, roads, camping places, etc. 3. As combat becomes imminent and the independent cavalry is drawn off to a flank, the divisional cavalry must be especially active to guard against sur- prise, gain information of the enemy's movements, and prevent the incursion of his patrols. 4. When there is independent cavalry in front, it maintains connection with it; when not, it reconnoitres far to the front and gains touch with the enemy. (15) Q. What is the general scope of the infantry reconnaissance ? A. 1. The close-in infantry reconnaissance is necessary for the immediate security of the troops and to determine the immedi- ate dispositions of the enemy. 2. In the absence of cavalry, extended reconnaissance is made by infantry pa- trols and scouts. 3. When the country is rough and broken, Night Operations 50 infantry reconnaissance may be neces- sary. Q. What factors determine the extent of the reconnaissance immediately preceding combat? A. 1. The time that can be spared for the purpose without losing the initiative in action. 2. The character of the information desired. 3. The efficiency of the measures taken by the enemy to conceal his dispositions. Q. Upon what does the strength of the force engaged in reconnaissance depend? A. 1. The character of the information de- sired. When detailed information of the enemy's position is desired, the strength of the reconnoitring forces must be suf- ficient to cause the deployment of his infantry and the opening of the fire by at least a part of his artillery. 2. The nature of the hostile screen. In this case the combat reconnaissance may de- velop into the opening phases of the combat, and care must be taken that enough troops are employed to change the course of the attack, if the informa- tion secured calls for such action. (18) Q. Describe the successive steps of the recon- naissance and development of an enemy in position. A. 1. The independent cavalry first comes in contact, drives in the enemy cavalry and gains such information as is possible; then, when the attacking force draws near, it withdraws to one or both flanks. 2. The advance cavalry, usually attached to the advance guard, and closely backed up by it, continues the reconnais- sance begun by the independent cavalry. 3. The advance of the infantry will finally force back all of the advance detach- ments of the enemy and bare his posi- tion. The artillery will assist the ad- vance by opening fire on any targets of importance that the infantry advance may uncover. 4. The enemy will have to disclose his artillery and infantry positions to keep down the fire of the hostile artillery and to stop the advance of the opposing infantry. 5. The information thus gained will en- able the commander to formulate his plan of action. (19) Q. What measures take the place of recon- naissance in rencontre or meeting en- gagements? A. The measures for security on the march must be relied upon to take the place of the more complete reconnaissance which the necessity of obtaining the initiative in deployments forbids. (19) Q. What reconnaissance is required of the infantry during combat? A. 1. Such as will enable it to keep contact with the enemy. 2. Acquaint itself with the terrain in the front. 3. To protect its flanks and rear. (20) Q. What reconnaissance is required of the aero squadron during combat? A. It will operate around the flanks and over the rear of his position, for the purpose of reporting his dispositions, the ap- proach of reinforcements and the begin- ning of a withdrawal. (21) Q. What reconnaissance is required of cav- alry during combat? A. It will conduct an extended reconnais- sance with small detachments around and to the rear of enemy's position. (22) Q. What is a patrol? A. The term patrol is used to designate small detachments employed for a variety of purposes, the name of the detachment in- dicating its duty as, visiting, connecting, combat, exploring, reconnoitring, flanking, harassing, and pursuing pa- trols. Q. What is the chief duty of reconnoitring patrols? A. To gather information. They habitually seek safety in flight, fighting only when the accomplishment of their mission demands it. (23) Q. How do patrols vary in strength? A. From two or three men to a company. (24) Q. What are the advantages of small patrols over strong patrols? A. 1. They have greater mobility. 2. They are more easily handled and con- trolled. 3. They do not draw heavily on the fight- ing strength of the command. (24) Q. What precautions are taken by the oM- cer sending out the patrol? 60 Night Operations A. He verifies the detail, gives the necessary instructions and designates a second in command. He eliminates horses of a conspicuous color, and those likely to make a noise when left alone. He takes precautions to see that equipment is arranged so that it will not glitter in the sunlight, nor rattle. (24) Q. What points are embraced in the orders and instructions given a patrol com- mander by the oiHcer sending out the patrol f A. 1. Where the enemy is or is supposed to be. 2. What information is desired. 3. What features are of special impor- tance. 4. The general direction to be followed. 5. Whether friendly patrols are likely to be encountered. 6. Where messages are to be sent or where the patrol is to report. Note. — Important and comprehensive in- structions should be in writing. Precautions against capture of papers must be taken. It must be certain that orders are fully under- stood. Detailed instruction is, as a rule, avoided. When necessary the time of return is stated. (24) Q. What qualifications should a patrol leader possess f A. Patrol leaders should combine the qual- ities of good health, vigorous physique, keen eyesight, presence of mind, and courage, with good judgment, military training and experience. They should be able to read maps, make sketches and send clear and concise messages. Officers on such duty often find themselves in positions where it is necessary to con- sider a situation from the viewpoint of the commander and should be able to reason accordingly. (25) Q. What governs the formation adopted by a patrol f A. No normal formation is or should be pre- scribed. The patrol takes such forma- tion as may be necessary to guard against surprise, usually with point and flankers. Scouts from the patrol may be sent out for short distances in order to extend the sphere of observation. Whatever the formation it should favor the escape of at least one man. (26) Q. How may the composition of an enemy's force on the march be estimated from the dust raised? A. 1. A thick, low cloud of dust indicates infantry. 2. A high, thin cloud indicates cavalry. 3. A broken cloud indicates artillery or wagon trains. (27) Q. How may the strength of an enemy's force on the march be estimated? A. By the time that it takes to pass a given point. A point is passed in one minute by 175 infantry, in column of squads. 110 cavalry, in column of fours, at a walk. 200 cavalry, in column of fours, at a trot. 5 guns or caissons. By the amount of road space occupied by the column. In estimating it is assumed that infantry, in column of squads, oc- cupies one-half yard per man; cavalry, in column of fours one yard per trooper ; artillery, 20 yards per gun or caisson. (27) Q. If the enemy is discovered, what points should the patrol leader's report con- tain? A. 1. His exact location, whether de- ployed, marching or in camp. 2. His strength and composition, (28) 0. What signals are authorized for use by patrols? A. 1. Enemy in sight, in small numbers : hold the rifle above the head horizontally. 2. Enemy in sight, in force: same as above, raising and lowering the rifle. 3. Take cover : a downward motion of the hand. (29) Q. What are the several classes of balloons and for what service are they employed? A 1. Free balloons: used to convey informa- tion from besieged places, the return message being sent by radiotelegraphy or carrier pigeons. 2. Captive balloons : for tactical recon- naissance, observation of artillery fire and signalling. 3. Dirigible balloons: for strategical rec- onnaissance, for travel to great dis- tances, to carry a large number of ob- Night Operations 61 servers, radio equipment, machine guns or a quantity of explosives (30) Q. For what classes of reconnaissance are aeroplanes employed? A. Strategical and tactical reconnaissance and the observation of artillery fire. (31) Q. What is included in strategical recon- naissance? A. The determining of the position, strength and direction of advance of the larger elements of an enemy's force ; ascertain- ing the character of the roads, railroads, streams, and general military topogra- phy of the theatre of operations. Q. What is the purpose of tactical recon- naissance? A. It is designed to discover tactical, turning and enveloping movements, the position and strength of the enemy's general re- serve, his artillery positions and the movements of his cavalry, and his tac- tical movements and dispositions in the rear of his lines. Q. What is a Held message? A. In the field, the term message is generally applied to written information sent by messenger or by wire. Q. What points are required in the compo- sition of Held messages? A. 1. They should be brief and clear, resem- bling telegrams. 2. The source of the information con- tained in the message should be given, the writer separating what he has ac- tually seen himself from that which has come to him second hand. 3. Expressions depending upon the view- point of the observer, except when ref- erence is made to the banks of a stream and the elements of a body of troops, should not be used. Points of the com- pass should be employed instead. 4. Geographical names should be printed in Roman capitals. 5. When two or more features on the map have the same name or designation, they should be designated by reference to other points. 6. The message should terminate with a sentence telling the commander what the writer proposes to do next. As "I remain in observation," or " I move to cross roads 45," etc. Q. What is a military report? A. A more or less formal account of some military enterprise, undertaking or event, such as a march, a reconnais- sance, battle, etc. Q. What scales are authorized for military maps and sketches? A. 1. One inch to one mile, vertical interval 60 feet; used for extended operations. The maps of our own country prepared by the Geological Survey are on a scale of 1 : 62500 (which is approximately 1 inch to the mile), with vertical interval 20 feet. 2. Three inches to one mile, vertical inter- val, 20 feet; used for road maps and sketches. 3. Six inches to one mile, vertical inter- val 10 feet; used for position sketches. 4. Twelve inches to one mile, vertical in- terval, 5 feet; used in siege operations in the field and for war games. (34) Q. What is a war diary? A. A record of events kept in campaign by each battalion and higher organization, each ammunition, supply and sanitary train. Entries are made daily and form a concise history of the military opera- tions in which the organization partici- pates. (35) Q. What elements are included in a war diary? A. 1. A march table, or statement of the operations, including an account of the weather, roads, camp, health of troops, etc. 2. A chronological record of events, in- cluding time and place of receipt of orders and messages, with a copy or synopsis of their contents. 3. After an engagement the war diary should contain a report of losses and captures and be accompanied by a sketch showing the positions of the com- mand at important phases. 4. Each day's record will be attested by the adjutant or the commander, and with copies of orders and messages, sent and received, forwarded daily to the next higher commander. (35) Q. How is military information transmitted? A. 1. By wire. (Telegraph, buzzer, tele- phone.) 2. By visual signalling. (Flag, helio, lamp.) 3. By radio. (Wireless.) 62 Night Operations 4. By messenger. (Foot, mounted, cycle, motor car, aeroplane.) (36) Q. What rules govern the transmission of messages by messengers? A. 1. They are inclosed in envelopes and properly addressed. 2. When not confidential, they are left un- sealed so that commanders along the line may read them. 3. On the envelope, is noted the name of the messenger, his time of departure and his rate of speed. Note: Ordinary speed for a mounted man means about 5 miles per hour; rapid, about 7 to 8 miles per hour; urgent, the highest speed consistent with certainty of arrival at destination. 4. The recipient of the message notes the time of receipt on the envelope and re- turns it to the bearer. (36) Q. When there is danger of messages falling into unauthorised hands what precau- tions are taken? A. 1. They may be sent in cipher. 2. They may be sent by two or more mes- sengers ; traveling different roads or routes. 3. Messengers are informed of the con- tents of messages. Q. Describe the method employed in relaying messages? A. When the usual means of communication cannot be established, or fail to work, relays of mounted men may become necessary. When such lines are estab- lished, connecting posts are generally placed on the roads at cross roads or road forks, bridges, etc. The distance between posts depends upon the rapidity of transmission desired, the number of men available for the service and the location of suitable stations. The usual distance is from 5 to 10 miles. The strength of posts varies from a non- commissioned officer and six men to half a troop. A record of all communications received and transmitted is kept. When a messenger arrives at a post, his mes- sage is turned over to a member of that post and relayed on to the next, the former messenger returning to his proper post. (36) The Service of Security Q. What elements does the service of secur- ity embrace? A. All those measures taken by a command to protect itself from observation, an- noyance, or surprise by the enemy. (37) Q. How are the various bodies of covering troops employed in the service of secur- ity designated? A. 1. On the march, these detachments are called advance, flank and rear guards. 2. In camp or bivouac, these troops are called outposts. (37) Q. What are the general duties of covering troops? A. 1. To facilitate the advance of the main body by promptly driving off small bodies of the enemy who seek to harass or delay it. 2. To remove obstacles from the line of advance. 3. To repair roads, bridges, etc. 4. To protect the main body by preventing the enemy from firing into them when in close formation. 5. To hold the enemy and thus enable the main body to deploy before coming under effective fire. 6. To prevent the enemy from discovering strength and • composition of the main body. 7. In retreat, to fight delaying actions in order to gain time for the main body to make its escape or to reorganize its forces. (37) Q. Describe the general formation assumed by covering troops? A. 1. The cavalry ; covering the front and ex- tending around the flanks. 2. A group (advance party of the advance gfuard) or line of groups (the outguards of an outpost) in observation. 3. A support or line of supports ; whose duty it is to furnish the observation and reconnaissance groups, and to hold the enemy pending the arrival of rein- forcements. 4. A reserve. (37) Q. What elements with respect to covering troops are contained in an order for the movement of a command? A. 1. Explain the situation. Give all informa- tion of the enemy and of our own troops. 2. Indicate, in general terms, the plan of the commander. 3. Detail the commander and troops for each covering detachment. 4. Specify the route to be taken and the Night Operations 63 distance to be maintained between the main body and its covering detachments. 5. Order such special reconnaissance as the commander desires to have made. (38) Q. What proportion of a command is detailed on covering duty? A. The strength may vary from one-twentieth to one-third of the command. (39) Q. What compliments are paid by troops en- gaged in the service of security? A. They pay no compliments. Individuals salute when they address, or are ad- dressed by, a superior officer. (39) Q. What is an advance guard? A. An advance guard is a detachment of the main body which precedes and covers it on the march. (40) Q. What are the duties of an advance guard? A. 1. To guard against surprise and furnish information through reconnaissance to the front and flanks. 2. To push back small parties of the enemy and prevent their observing, fir- ing upon, or delaying the advance of the main body. 3. To check the enemy's advance in force long enough to permit the main body to prepare for action. 4. When the enemy is encountered on the defensive, to seize a good position and locate his lines, care being taken not to bring on a general engagement, un- less the advance guard commander is empowered to do so. 5. To remove obstacles, repair the road, and favor in every way the steady and uninterrupted advance of the main body. (40) Q. What is the strength of an advance guard? A. One-twentieth to one-third of the entire force. (40) Q. What factors determine the strength and composition of the advance guard? A. 1. The larger the force, the larger in pro- portion the advance guard; because it takes a large force relatively longer to deploy. 2. In large commands, it is usually com- posed of all arms. The proportions de- pend upon the character of the country, the nature of the enemy and his strength and proximity. 3. In open country, the advance guard will be strong in cavalry and field artillery. 4. In swampy country and jungle, it may be composed of infantry alone. 5. Machine guns are useful in holding places of special importance. 6. Engineers are attached for pioneer work. 7. Sanitary detachments are attached for special work. (41) Q. What factors determine the distance be- tween the advance guard and the main body? A. 1. It must be sufficient to prevent needless interruptions to the march of the main body. 2. The distance must be such that sufficient time will be allowed the main body to deploy for action. 3. It must not be so great that it is im- practicable to support the advance guard. (42) Q. What are the elements of the advance guard. A. 1. The advance cavalry. 2. The support, from which is thrown out the advance party and the covering de- tachments. 3. The reserve, which forms the fighting element of the advance guard. (44) Q. What are the duties of the advance cavalry? A. 1. It reconnoitres far enough to the front and flanks to guard the column against surprise by artillery fire, and to enable timely information to be sent to the ad- vance guard commander. 2. If preceded by independent cavalry, the advance cavalry maintains connection therewith. If not preceded by independ- ent cavalry, it pushes well out and en- deavors to find the enemy, performing to a limited extent the functions of inde- pendent cavalry. (45) Q. What is the strength of the support? A. From one-fourth to one-half of the ad- vance guard. Q. What are the duties of the advance party? A It supplements the work of the advance cavalry, reconnoitring to the front and flanks to guard the support against surprise by effective rifle fire. (46) Q. What is the point of the advance guard? 64 Night Operations A. It is a patrol that precedes the advance party at a distance of about 150 to 200 yards. It generally consists of one squad under an officer or experienced sergeant (46) Q. What are the duties of the support com- mander f A. 1. He marches with the advance party, or goes wherever he is needed. 2. He sees that guides are left at towns and cross roads. 3. He sees that necessary repairs are made to roads, bridges, etc. 4. He sees that information of the enemy is promptly transmitted to the advance guard commander. 5. He sees that the reconnoitring parties, sent out from the support, do their work efficiently. (46) Q. What modifications are made in the nor- mal formations of an advance guard when it is covering a small command only. A. 1. A company or troop usually sends for- ward only a point. 2. A battalion or squadron sends forward an advance party. 3. A battalion or squadron at war strength would have an advance party of one company or troop. 4. The advance guard of a regiment would be one battalion or squadron. 5. When the advance guard is less than a battalion or squadron, the reserve is omitted. (49) Q. What modifications are made in the ad- vance guard covering the advance of a cavalry command? A. The formation is similar to that of the infantry or mixed command, except that the distances between the various ele- ments are much greater. (50) Q. What are leading troops? A. In a retreat the column is preceded by a body of troops designated " leading troops." Q. What are the duties and functions of leading troops? A. 1. To clear the road of obstacles and facilitate the withdrawal of the com- mand. 2. They afford protection against gueril- las or small parties that have succeeded in getting around the command. 3. If the rear is seriously threatened, the leading troops march practically in ad- vance formation and have the same role. (52) Q. What is a Hank guard? A. A covering detachment sent out to protect the flank of a column of troops on the march. (53) Q. What formation does a Hank guard assume? A. The normal formation of a column of troops on the march. It throws out an advance guard, also covering detach- ments on the exposed flank. (53) Q. What are the duties of a flank guard? A. Their duties are similar to those of the advance guard. They maintain constant communication with the troops of the main body and keep abreast of the unit from which they are sent out. They cover exposed points to protect the pas- sage of the main body. (53) Q. Under what circumstances does the flank guard become of great importance? A. When the main body is executing a flank march. (54) Q, What factors determine the strength and composition of a rear guard? A. 1. The nature of the country and the strength and character of the pursuing force. 2. Machine guns are especially useful in covering the crossings of rivers and the passage of defiles. (56) Q. From what troops is the rear guard usually taken? A. From those who have had previous local successes, or have suffered little loss and are comparatively fresh. (56) Q. What is the general formation of a rear guard? A. The formation is similar to that of an advance guard reversed. Its elements are the rear cavalry ; the support, di- vided into the support proper and the rear party ; and the reserve, which is the largest body and marches nearest to the rear of the main body. (57) Q. What is an outpost? A. A body of troops sent out to cover the front and flanks of a body of troops when halted, to protect it from surprise, and delay the enemy long enough for it to prepare for action. (60) Night Operations 65 Q. Upon what does the size and disposition of the outpost depend? A. The size of the whole command ; the proximity of the enemy and the situation with respect to him; and the nature of the terrain. (60) Q. What is the size of outpost for the various units? A. 1. For a single company in bivouac, a few sentinels and patrols will suffice. 2. For a battalion, a company. 3. For a regiment, a battalion. 4. For a brigade, a regiment. Note. — The outpost should be no stronger than is necessary to provide reasonable secur- ity. The integrity of units is preserved when- ever practicable. (60) p. What troops are generally detailed for the outpost? A. At the end of the day's march on the ad- vance, the advance guard generally forms the outpost. In retreat, the main body furnishes the outpost for the night. (61) Q. What are the functions of the several arms on outpost duty? A. 1. Infantry: The infantry is charged with the duty of local observation, especially at night, and with resisting the enemy long enough for the main body to pre- pare for action. It conducts the local reconnaissance in front of the outpost lines. 2. Cavalry : The cavalry is charged with the duty of reconnaissance in front and to the flanks of the outpost position. 3. Artillery: Artillery is useful to the out- post when it can be posted so that its fire can sweep defiles or large open spaces and when it commands positions that may be occupied by hostile artillery. 4. Machine guns are useful to command approaches and check sudden advances of the enemy. 5. Engineers are attached to the outpost to assist in laying out and constructing the defensive works connected therewith, clearing the field of fire, and preparing lateral and rearward communications. Q. What is the distribution of outpost troops? A. 1, The reserve, constituting the main body of the outpost, is held at some central point under the direct command of the outpost commander, so that it can read- ily support any of the troops in front, or hold a rallying position upon which they may retire. Its strength may be from one-fourth to two-thirds of the entire outpost. 2. The supports constitute a line of sup- porting and resisting detachments, vary- ing in size from a half a company to a battalion. They furnish troops for the outguards, and are generally, though not necessarily, posted on the line of re- sistance of the outpost. 3. The outguards constitute the line of small detachments most advanced to the front. They are posted along the line of observations, and furnish the sentinel posts of the outpost. 4. The advance cavalry reconnoitres in advance of the line of observation by day and is withdrawn behind the lines at night. (64) (65) Q. How are the supports numbered? A. They are numbered consecutively from right to left: as Support No. 1, Support No. 2, etc. (66) Q. Where are the suports usually posted? A. On or near a road leading towards the enemy. (66) Q. How are outguards classified? A. Pickets, sentry squads and cossack posts. (67) Q. What is a picket? A. A group consisting of two or more squads ordinarily not more than half a com- pany — posted in the line of outguards to cover a given sector. (68) Q. Where are pickets usually posted? A. At the most important points on the line of outguards, for example, at road forks or cross roads. (68) Q. Upon what does the strength of the picket 'depend? A. The number of small groups that it has to furnish in order to cover its sector, and the amount of patrolling that has to be carried on. (68) Q. What is a sentry squad? A. A sentry squad is a squad posted in ob- servation. It posts a double sentinel in observation, the remaining men resting nearby and furnishing reliefs for the sentinels. In some cases, it may be re- quired to furnish a patrol. (69) Q. What is a cossack post? 66 Night Operations A. It is an observation group composed of four men, similar to the sentry squad; it posts a single sentinel. The cossack post commander and three privates fur- nish the reliefs for the single sentinel post. (70) Q. What use is made of patrols in connec- tion with outpost service? A. Instead of using outguards along the en- tire front of observation, part of this front may be covered by patrols only. These should be used to cover such sections of the front as can be crossed by the enemy only with difficulty and over which he is not likely to attempt a crossing after dark. (73) Q. What resistance is required to be made by the several elements of the outpost? A. Each successive element of the outpostmust afford sufficient resistence to delay the enemy the length of time necessary for the next succeeding body to prepare to receive him. (74) Q. How is connection maintained between the several elements of the outpost? A. By patrols. (74) Q. What are detached posts? A. They are detachments sent out from the reserve to occupy positions of impor- tance that are not included in the gen- eral line assigned to the supports. In some instances they may be sent out from the main body to cover points not included in the general outpost line. (75) Q. What reference to the outpost is con- tained in the halt order issued by the commander of a force? A. A paragraph: 1. Detailing the troops of outpost duty. 2. Assigning an outpost commander. 3. Designating the general line to be oc- cupied. 4. When practicable, points of the gen- eral line to be held in case of attack. 07) Q. What elements are included in the order of the outpost commander? A. 1. All information of the enemy and our own troops that is necessary for the proper guidance of subordinates. 2. The designation of the troops to con- stitute the supports and the detailing of a commander for each. 3. The assignment of the sector that each support is to cover. 4. The detail of troops and commanders for all detached posts. 5. Orders for any special reconnaissance that it is desired be made. 6. The location and disposition of the reserve. 7. The disposition of the trains if they are ordered to join the outpost troops. 8. The place where information is to be sent. {77) Q. Describe in detail the method employed in posting the outpost. A. 1. The commander of the whole force issues his halt order. Based on this the outpost commander issues his order. 2. The reserve is marched directly to it« designated position, maintaining connec- tion with the main body, the supports and the detached posts that may have been sent out from it. 3. The supports march to their positions, using the necessary covering detach- ments. Each support sends forward a de- tachment to cover the posting of the outguards along the sector that it is to occupy. These detachments may be small patrols or a line of skirmishers. The support commander details the troops for each outguard and assigns a com- mander, defines its location and sector of the front to be covered. Posts senti- nels at the post of the support. The necessary reconnoitring patrols are sent out. Connection is established with the reserve, the adjoining supports, and all the elements of the support itself. 4. Each outguard is marched to its desig- nated location where sentinels are posted to cover the front of the sector assigned to the outguard. Connection is gained with adjoining outguards and sentinel posts and with the support. The senti- nels are given their instructions, which include the location and direction of the enemy, the number of the post, the posi- tion of the adjoining sentinel posts and outguards, the names of all towns, roads, rivers and principal features in sight. 5. The commander of each element of the outpost explains the military situation to the men of his command in sufficient detail to enable all of them to act in- telligently under the circumstances. As Night Operations 67 soon as the several elements are posted the commander conducts an inspection, makes any changes that may be necessary and renders a report of his disposi- tions to his next superior. Such in- trenching and field works are con- structed as the situation demands. (78-79-80) Q. What are the hours of special danger on the outposts? A. Evening and before dawn. The enemy may attack late in the day in order to establish himself on captured ground by intrenching during the night ; or he may send forward troops during the night under the cover of darkness in order to make a strong attack at early dawn. Q. At what hour is the outpost generally relieved? A. At daylight. This makes a double strength on the outpost line at the hour of greatest danger. Q. What is an examining post? A. A small detachment under the command of an officer or noncommissioned officer, stationed at some convenient point to examine strangers, receive flags of truce brought in by outguards or patrols. Q. Under what circumstances are examining posts used? A. 1. When the outguards do not speak the language of the country or the enemy. 2. When preparations are being made for a movement and strict scrutiny at the outguards has been ordered. 3. At sieges, whether, in attack or defense. (83) Marches and Convoys Q, Define a successful march? A. A successful march, whether in peace or war, is one that places the troops at their destination at the proper mo- ment and in the best possible condition. (96) Q. Upon what does the success of a march depend? A. Upon the skill with which it is conducted, careful preparation, strict discipline, and the observance of march sanitation. (96) Q. What are the general principles govern- ing the conduct of marches? A. 1. While conforming to other require- ments, marches are conducted so as to reduce to a minimum the hardships on the troops. 2. When possible ample notice is given so that preparations may be made without haste. 3. The march is habitually in route order. 4. Troops are informed of the length of halts, so that they can take full advan- tage of the same. 5. The men are not kept under arms longer than is necessary, nor required to carry heavy burdens when trans- portation is available. 6. Special care is paid to the feet of the men and the hoofs and backs of ani- mals. 7. In prolonged marches, at least one day in seven should be a day of rest. 8. A forced march is never undertaken unless the situation requires it. (96) Q. What compliments are paid by troops on the march? A. As a rule, troops on the march pay no compliments ; individuals salute when they address, or are addressed by a su- perior officer. (96) Q. What preparations for a march devolve upon the commander of a force? A. 1. That the men and animals are in fit condition, and that they are properly equipped. 2. That all trains accompanying the com- mand are loaded as prescribed. 3. That proper measures have been made for the replenishment of supplies. 4. That necessary arrangements have been made for the care and evacuation of the sick and wounded. (97) Q. When units are camped some distance apart, how is the march column formed? A. The column is formed by the successive arrival of the fractions at an initial or starting point which, as a rule, is lo- cated in the direction of the proposed march. The commander fixes the ini- tial point after considering the position of the troops and the location of the roads by which they can join the col- umn. He prescribes the hour by which the leading fraction clears the initial point, and if necessary the routes to be follovv'ed in reaching it. To prevent needless marching, he may designate special initial points for various units of the command. (98) Q. What road space is occupied by the troops of the several arms? A. 1. Foot troops in column of squads, two men per yard. 2. Cavalry in column of fours, one man per yard. 3. Guns, caissons or wagons, 20 yards. 4. Auto trucks, 12 yards. (This is be- lieved to be too little distance, Ed.) Q. What factors govern the distribution of troops in a column on the march? A. 1. Tactical considerations, which in the presence of the enemy are paramount. 2. By the rule requiring the hardships of troops to be reduced to a minimum. (99) Night Operations 69 Q. What rule is followed in designating the troops to lead in the column of march? A. The order of brigades in divisions, regi- ments in brigades, battalions or squad- rons in regiments, and company units in battalions and squadrons is generally changed from day to day — the leading -unit one day taking its place at the rear on the following day. (99) Q. What rules are prescribed for troops marching on roads f A. 1. They keep to the right of the road, leaving the left free. 2. When roads are narrow, space should be left for messengers to pass freely up and down the column. 3. When roads are soft with mud or heavy with sand or very dusty, it may be advisable to divide the column longi- tudinally, thus permitting the men and animals to pick their way, leaving the middle of the road clear. 4. Straggling and undue lengthening of the column is not permitted. (99) Q. What is the formation of the route col- umn for the various arms of the serv- ice? A. 1. Infantry, column of squads, or column of twos when necessary. 2. Cavalry, column of fours on good roads or when a compact formation is necessary, otherwise in column of twos, 3. Artillery, section column, or in double section column if the width of the road permits. (99) Q. What rules govern the time for starting a march? A. 1. As a rule, foot troops do not start be- fore broad daylight. 2. Mounted troops, when practicable, do not start until an hour after broad day- light. (Note: Tactical considerations are always paramount.) (1(X)) Q. What factors affect the rate of march of troops? A. 1. The length of the march to be made. 2. The size of the command. 3. The condition of the troops. 4. The condition of the roads. (Sandy, rough, muddy and slippery roads re- duce the rate of march.) 5. The state of the weather. (Great heat, strong head winds and storms re- duce the rate.) 6. The topography of the country. If hills are to be climbed or swampy coun- try is to be crossed, or defiles passed, liberal allowances must be made in time calculations. (101) Q. Under the varying conditions of service, what are the rates of march for infan- try? A. 1. For drill it is 100 yards per minute or 3.4 miles per hour. 2. On the road, the maximum to be counted upon is 88 yards per minute, or 3 miles per hour ; including halts 2j4 to 2^4 miles per hour. 3. Under ordinary conditions, the rate of infantry columns may be taken at 2% to 2y2 miles per hour. 4. For small bodies, the average day's march is 15 miles; for large bodies 12 miles is all that can be counted upon. Small commands of seasoned infantry marching on good roads in cool weather can average more than 20 miles a day. (101) Q. Under the varying conditions of the serv- ice, what are the rates of march for cavalry? A. 1. The walk, 4 miles, the trot 8 miles, and the gallop 12 miles per hour. The aver- age walk of a horse is at the rate of a mile in 16 minutes or 3^ miles per hour ; the average trot a mile in 8 min- utes or 7y2 miles an hour. 2. In the field, the usual gait is the walk which, including halts, make about 3J4 to ZYi miles an hour. 3. The average march of cavalry, after men and animals are hardened, is 25 miles a day. (101) Q. Under the varying conditions of the serv- ice, what are the rates of march of ar- tillery? A. The daily march of the field artillery is the same as that of the command of which it forms a part; if alone, it cov- ers from 15 to 25 miles. The rate of horse artillery is the same as that of the cavalry to which it is attached. (101) Q. What is the rate of m^trch of wagon trains? A. The rate of march of wagon trains varies with the condition of the draft animals, the load, the length of the column, and the condition of the roads. While large mules drawing light loads on good roads can cover nearly four miles an hour, in long columns a rate of two 70 Night Operations miles an hour is all that can be ex- pected. The daily march of a wagon train is about that of infantry. (101) Q. What is the average load for a pack mule? A. About 250 pounds. Q. What rules govern the halts of a column of troops on the march? A. The first halt is made after the troops have marched about 45 minutes, and is about 15 minutes long; after this, the troops are halted 10 minutes in each hour, that is, they march 50 minutes and halt 10 minutes. In very hot weather, the halts may be more fre- quent and for longer periods. For cavalry the hourly halts are shorter — 5 minutes. For artillery the hourly halts are from 5 to 10 minutes. When the day's march will run well into the afternoon, a halt of about an hour at noon time is advantageous. (102) Q. What rules govern the selection of places for haltsf A. 1. They should not be made in villages or towns where the object of the halt would be defeated. 2. Places for long halts should be selected with care; wood, water, grass, dry ground and shade are desirable fea- tures. (102) Q. How may troops be marched so as to avoid the mid-day heat in hot weather or in the tropics? A. If the march is long, the command may make an earlier start, or it may rest for three or four hours during the hottest part of the day and finish the march in the evening. As a general rule, it is undesirable to arrive at a strange place after nightfall, or even late in the aft- ernoon. (102) Q. What general rules govern the passage of troops through deiiles, across bridges, etc? A. 1. The troops in rear are notified of the minimum length of the delay and con- duct themselves as during a halt. 2. Where a reduction of front is neces- sary, every precaution is taken to pre- vent the interruption of troops in the rear. If the distances are not sufficient to prevent check, units are allowed to overlap. 3. If practicable streams are crossed at two or more places. 4. In passing through short defiles, the pace may be accelerated. 5. If a company unit is delayed while crossing an obstacle, the head slackens the pace or halts until all of that unit has passed ; it then resumes its place in the column, increasing the pace if necessary. (103) Q. What precautions are taken prior to the passage of troops over dangerous places? A. A careful examination is made of fords, boggy places, bridges of a doubtful character, ice, etc., before attempting to cross. When roads lead through swamps or quicksand, or across streams with treacherous bottoms, their limits are marked with stakes or bushes, or warnings are placed at dangerous points. At night lanterns are hung from the stakes, and a fire is built or a lantern hung from a stake to mark the landing. (103) Q. What precautions are taken when troops cross fords? A. 1. When the current is strong and the water deep, foot troops cross on as broad a front as possible, the men marching abreast and holding hands. They should not look at the water, but at the opposite shore. 2. If the ford is wide enough, mounted troops may cross at the same time up- stream, thus breaking the force of the current. (103) Q. When a passage of a stream is made in boats, what rules govern? A. 1. Persons operating the ferry are inter- fered with as little as possible. 2. The men enter the boats singly at the bow and move gradually towards the stern. 3. The men retain the places assigned to them, so as not to interfere with the handling of the boat. 4. In small boats, and where the water is rough, they are required to sit down, and in case the passage is dangerous, they may be required to remove equip- ments. (103) Q. What rules govern the ferrying of ani- mals across a stream? Night Operations 71 A. 1. Horses are loaded one at a time. When there is room for a single row only, they are alternate, heads and tails ; if in two rows they face inward. 2. If a horse falls into the water he is turned loose. (103) Q. What rules govern the supply of drinking • water for the men on the march f A. 1. Sources of water supply are examined by experts and marked good or bad. In countries infected with cholera or other injurious bacteria this action is imperative. 2. Soldiers should be trained to an eco- nomical use of water, and should keep a small supply in their canteens until there is opportunity to replenish it. 3. If water is plentiful, the men may drink often, but only a small quantity at a time. 4. Commanders will furnish the men ample opportunity for replenishing their canteens. This is done by order and not by straggling from the com- mand. 5. In certain cases, the advance guard may require the inhabitants to place water in vessels along the line of march for the convenient use of the troops. 6. On long marches, through country defi- cient in water, or where the water is bad, it may be necessary to carry a sup- ply in wagons. (104) Q. What rules govern the supply of drinking water for the animals on the march? A. The watering of cavalry horses on the march depends largely upon the facil- ities available. In hot weather, or if nothing is known of the water supply for the day's march, the horses are watered before leaving the camp. Good opportunities on the road for watering should not be neglected. To avoid de- lay, as many troops as possible are watered at the same time. As the head of the column approaches a place suit- able for watering, the several units are conducted to the different watering places. (104) Q. What precautions are taken for the Pro- tection of troops against hot weather on the march f A. 1. When practicable, halting places are se- lected where there is shade and free circulation of air, and the men are cau- tioned against drinking too much water. 2. Green leaves, or a moist handkerchief, in the hat, afford relief from the hot rays of the sun. 3. If the men are overheated, care is taken to prevent them from being chilled by exposure to cool winds or drafts. (104) Q. How are marches classified? A. 1. Marches in peace: 1. Marches in changing station. 2. Practice marches. 2. Marches in campaign. 1. Concentration marches. 2. Marches in the presence of the enemy. 3. Forced marches. 4. Night marches. (107) Q. When change of station is made by marching, what elements does the daily march order contain? A. 1. Distribution of troops. 2. Time of starting. 3. Location of camping places. 4. Service calls. (108) Q. What rules govern the conduct of the march in changing station? A. 1. The distances between the elements of the column may be materially increased. 2. In wet weather the mounted troops may be required to follow the foot troops. In going through high vegeta- tion or snow the mounted troops may be required to precede the foot troops to break the way. 3. Field trains may be permitted to fol- low immediately in rear of their regi- ments and supply trains may be placed so as to facilitate issues. (108) Q. What are the purposes of practice marches? A. 1. That of hardening the men and animals and keeping them in proper physical condition. 2. That of instructing officers and men in duties incident to a campaign — ^march- ing, camping, cooking, etc. — and the principles of tactics, including the service of information and security. (109) Q. For what purposes are concentration marches made? A. To assemble at a certain time and place bodies of troops from different local- ities. (110) Q. What action is taken when columns of troops meet on the march? 72 Night Operations A. 1. A column of troops on the march should not be cut by another. 2. If the heads of two columns meet at a distance from the enemy, the senior commander has the right of way; if near the enemy the senior determines the action to be taken. 3. If a column in march overtakes another at a halt, it may pass on, provided the commander be senior, or the other com- mander gives his consent. (110) Q. What considerations control the march of troops in the presence of the enemy? A. Tactical considerations. (Ill) Q. What rules govern the conduct of the march of troops in the presence of the enemy f A. 1. The order of march of the main body is determined by the contemplated em- ployment of the troops. 2. When contact with the enemy is prob- able, columns are closed up on the march on broad fronts. 3. Communication is maintained between the columns on parallel roads. 4. All impedimenta not necessary in the conflict is kept in the rear. 5. If a part of a unit is assigned to the advance guard the remaining part of that unit marches at the head of the main body. (Ill) Q. What rules govern the location of the ar- tillery in the column when a march is conducted near the enemy f A. 1. During the advance, in order to expe- dite the entry of the artillery into ac- tion, it is generally near the head of the main body, sufficient infantry lead- ing to insure proper protection. 2. If there is danger to the flanks from small bodies of the enemy, the artillery may be broken into columns not longer than a regiment ; it then marches like a convoy with infantry in front, in or near the center, and at the rear. (Ill) Q. Outline the disposition of the troops of a division column marching on one road? A. Advance Guard : Troops One brigade of Infantry. One regiment cavalry. One battalion field artillery. One company engineers. Detachment signal troops. Detachment sanitary troops. Dispositions : Independent cavalry: one regiment less one squadron, proceed several miles to the front. Advance cavalry : one squadron. Point and flanking patrols. Communica- tion maintained with independent cavalry. Support: one regiment infantry and mounted detachment of engineers. The support sends forward an ad- vance party of one company about 5(X) yards, and this, in turn, is pre- ceded by a point. The Reserve, in order of march: one battalion infantry, one battalion ar- tillery, two battalions infantry, one regiment infantry, one company en- gineers (less mounted detachment), one ambulance company. Main Body, in order of march : 1 regiment infantry. 1 battalion field artillery. 1 regiment field artillery. 2 brigades infantry (less 1 regiment). Engineers. Signal troops. Artillery combat trains. Trains. (Ill) Q. Who furnishes protection to the Held trains? A. The men on duty with the train ; convales- cents and other non-effectives ; dis- mounted men of the cavalry; and men from the battery reserves in the artil- lery. (112) Q. What action is taken when a wagon of the train breaks down? A. Its load is transferred to other wagons and the road cleared as soon as practi- cable. (112) Q. What factors control the conduct of forced marches? A. The distance to be covered and the time in which the march must be accom- phshed. (113) Q. What rules govern the forced marching of foot troops? A. The number of marching hours are in- creased, the halts and periods for cook- ing being arranged so as to derive the greatest benefit. The rules for the ordinary march are fol- lowed as closely as possible. For large columns of infantry marching Night Operations 73 long distances, an increase of pace is seldom advisable. The maximum day's march is 28 to 30 miles. The march cannot as a rule be prolonged profitably more than 36 hours. Foot troops are favored in every way pos- • sible. They are assigned to the best roads and are not intermingled with vehicles or mounted men. If trans- portation is available, their packs are lightened. (113) Q. What rules govern the forced marching of mounted troops? A. The gait as well as the number of march- ing hours may be increased. A rate of 50 miles in 24 hours may be maintained for several days. In addition to the usual halts, a special halt of 2 hours is made at the end of the first half of each day's march, dur- ing which time the horses are unsad- dled, permitted to roll and feed, and lie down. The rate is about 5 miles an hour exclu- sive of halts. Under favorable conditions, a march of 100 miles can be made in 24 to 30 hours. If the march is more than 150 miles, the marches begin at not more than 50 miles a day. Where the distance is more than 200 miles, the length of march is reduced to 30 to 40 miles a day. (113) Q. With what objects in view may night marches be made? A. 1. In very very hot weather, to avoid the heat of the day. 2. As a forced march, to surprise the en- emy or to secure a favorable position from which he may be attacked during the night or at dawn. (114) Q. What conditions favor night marching? A. Moonlight and good roads. A waning moon is of advantage in marches be- ginning early in the morning. (114) Q, What precautions are taken to keep the right road in night marches? A. 1. Contact between units is maintained at all times. 2. Men are stationed to mark changes of direction. 3. Guides are employed. 4. When, due to unfavorable conditions, units cannot be kept well closed up, men will be placed at forks, road cross- ings, and at any other point where there is any danger of the units in rear tak- ing the wrong road. (114) Q. When night marches are made with se- crecy, what precautions are taken? A. Silence is maintained; mouthpieces of bugles are removed; articles of equip- ment are secured to prevent rattling; smoking is prohibited ; villages and farmhouses are avoided on account of the warning that may be given by bark- ing dogs. (114y Q. In night marches where do the mounted troops march? A. They ordinarily march in rear of the in- fantry. (114) Q. What is the meaning of the term " con- voy " ? A. On land, the term " convoy " is usually applied to the trains by which supplies are forwarded from depots or maga- zines in rear to an army ; and to trains bringing in supplies collected by re- quisition. (115) Q. What is the limit as to sise for wagon convoys? A. It should not, as a rule, contain more than 100 wagons. (116) Q. Into what elements is a wagon convoy divided? A. Into sections of 20 to 30 wagons each. A noncommissioned officer or wagon mas- ter is placed in charge of each section. (116) Q. What is the distance between elements in a convoy? A. About 25 yards between sections and about 2 yards between wagons. (117) Q. How is security for a convoy provided? A. By the escort ; usually composed of in- fantry, with enough cavalry for scout- ing and communication, and some engi- neer troops. (118) Q. Upon what factors does the convoy es- cort depend? A. Upon the importance and size of the train, the risk, nature of the country, length of the journey, etc. A train containing explosives requires a strong escort to prevent the enemy from firing into it. (118) Q. What is the distribution of troops in the convoy? A. 1. Military police assigned to the differ- ent sections of the convoy. 2. The advance guard. 74 Night Operations 3. The main body. 4. Such flank guards as may be necessary. 5. The rear guard. (119) Q. What are the functions of the advance guard of the escort f A. The advance cavalry precedes the train 3 to 5 miles, scouting to the front and flanks. Careful examination is made of bridges, defiles and the country in the vicinity. Temporary guards are left at such points until the advance guard comes up. The remainder of the advance guard marches in normal ad- vance-guard formation about a mile in front of the train. (119) Q. Where does the main body of the escort march? A. At the most important point, usually op- posite the center of the train. (119) Q. What are the general rules regarding the camping of the convoy and escort? A. The place for camping is usually selected by the advance guard commander, due regard being paid to water supply, fuel, grass, and facilities for defense. A field inclosed by a wire fence is advan- tageous. The train is parked, the formation de- pending upon the proximity and charac- ter of the enemy and the amount of ground available. When the enemy is at a distance the train is usually parked in column of sections or half sections with distances of about 20 yards be- tween subdivisions, and intervals of 6 to 8 yards between wagons. A com- pact formation is secured by placing the wagons axle to axle and tying the ani- mals to picket lines in front of the wag- ons. For purposes of defense, wagons may be placed in two lines facing each other in the form of a square, rectangle, oval, or circle, the poles inside. The enclosure thus formed furnishes shel- ter for the men and animals inside. When there is time, wire entanglements are constructed and shelter trenches dug outside the corral. (120) Q. Describe the forming of the diamond cor- ral and state its advantages? A. It is formed as the wagons successively arrive on the ground. If the nature of the ground permits, the teams of the first two sections may countermarch before forming the corral, thus obviat- ing the necessity of unhitching. The advantages are that it can be rapidly formed and the march quickly resumed. (120) Q. What are the most vulnerable parts of a convoy? A. The flanks. (121) Q. What tactics are employed by the escort? A. 1. The chief duty of the escort is to keep the enemy from gaining a position per- mitting effective fire on the train. 2. The escort fights only when necessary, and does not pursue when the enemy is repulsed. 3. If the enemy is reported near, the wag- ons are closed up and the march is con- tinued in the most orderly manner pos- sible. If practicable, the wagons are formed in double column. 4. If the enemy holds a commanding po- sition or a defile on the line of march, he is either dislodged by the escort or the convoy takes another road. 5. The advance cavalry reports the pres- ence of the enemy with the utmost dis- patch so that the commander may change the direction of the march, park the train or make a retreat. 6. If menaced by small parties of the en- emy, the convoy continues its march under the protection of the escort If attacked by a superior force, the train is parked or a corral formed. Skirmish- ers are thrown out to delay the enemy and gain time for the formation. If possible, a defensive position at some distance from the train is intrenched and prepared for stubborn resistance. Word is sent to the nearest troops. Should the enemy be repulsed, his re- treat is carefully verified before the march is resumed. If it is evident that the train cannot be saved, the com- mander escapes with the most valuable part, the remainder being destroyed. (121) Q. What is the most favorable time for at- tacking a convoy? A. When it is passing through woods, a de- file, over a bridge; when it is going around a sharp bend in a road ; when it is ascending or descending difficult slopes or passing over bad sections of road ; when it is beginning to form cor- ral ; when teams are being watered ; or, Night Operations 75 generally, whenever the conditions are such that the escort cannot quickly pre- pare for defense. (122) Q. What tactics are employed in attacking a convoy? A. The attacking force endeavors to bring the convoy to a halt and to throw it into confusion by making an attack from an unexpected quarter. The fire of artillery and machine guns is very effective. (122) Q. What methods are employed in the con- duct of a convoy of prisoners? A. In addition to a guard to prevent at- tempts at rescue, a guard of about 10 foot soldiers and several mounted men is required for every 100 prisoners. The prisoners are formed in companies and marched in column, their officers marching separately. Prisoners are treated kindly, but they must be given to understand that any attempt to es- cape will draw fire. If the convoy is attacked, they are ordered to lie down. At night they are placed in well-lighted buildings or enclosures. (123) Q. What methods are employed for the con- voy of boats on interior waterways? A. For protection against guerillas and raid- ing parties, a shallow draft steamboat, provided with machine guns and shelter against rifle fire, carries part of the es- cort and precedes the convoy. Means for rapidly disembarking the escort is provided in order that hostile parties on shore may be dislodged. In case of narrow streams, or canals, lined with woods or other cover, it may be neces- sary to have the escort march on both banks and clear the country as it ad- vances. (124) Shelter Q. Under the varying conditions of the serv- ice how are troops sheltered? A. In time of peace troops in the field are generally sheltered under canvas. In local insurrections, riot or disorder, public buildings in the disturbed dis- trict may be used, when other shelter is not provided. Private buildings are not entered without the owner's con- sent, except in the performance of duty. (232) Q. Under what conditions is seizure of build- ing^ made for shelter? A. In enemy territory, public and private buildings may be used to shelter troops and for other mihtary purposes. When these buildings are to be taken for shelter, the civil authorities should be consulted and satisfactory arrange- ments made. Families are not to be re- moved from their dwellings if it can be avoided. (232) Q. Distinguish between the terms " camp," " bivouac " and " cantonment "? A, When troops are sheltered under canvas, they are in camp. When they rest on the ground without shelter, they are in bivouac. When they occupy buildings in towns and villages or occupy huts specially erected, they are in cantonment. (233) Q. To what conditions are cantonments espe- cially adapted? A. 1. During prolonged suspension of hos- tilities. 2. When enemy territory is occupied. 3. During sieges. (233) Q. What is meant by " billeting "? A. The assignment of troops to public and private buildings for quarters. (234) Q. What conditions should mobilization and concentration camps fulfill? A. 1. The grounds should be easily drained, naturally healthful and large enough for depots, corrals, hospitals, etc., and the encampment of the troops without crowding and with ample space for ex- ercise and instruction. 2. The water supply should be excellent and abundant and not liable to con- tamination from any source. 3. There should be ample railroad and switching facilities, and suitable ar- rangements for loading and unloading. 4. All parts of the camp should be easily accessible by good roads. (236) Q. What arrangements are made for the shelter of troops before they arrive at a mobilization or concentration camp? A. 1. Camps are laid out so as to preserve the integrity of units. 2. Tents are pitched and aligned. 3. Kitchens are equipped and arrange- ments made for the water and fuel supply. 4. Latrines are prepared. 5. Hospitals are erected. 76 Night Operations 6. Arrangements for mail, telegraph, and telephone service. 7. Depots and storehouses are con- structed. (236) Q. What rules govern the shelter and supply of troops in active campaign f A. If troops are actually engaged in field operations, their equipment, including tentage, is limited to that carried on the men and animals and in the trains. In certain instances, local buildings may be used. If the length of a halt is to be consider- able, when practicable additional camp equipment, baggage, tents, surplus kits, etc., are sent forward and placed at the disposition of organizations to the end that the troops may be made as com- fortable as possible during the halt. (237) Q. What requisites should camp sites in war fulfill when tactical considerations are not paramount? A. 1. The ground should accommodate the command with as little crowding as pos- sible, be easily drained, and have no stagnant water within 300 yards. 2. The water supply should be ample, pure and accessible. 3. There should be good roads to camp and good interior communication. 4. Wood, grass, forage and supplies must be at hand or easily obtainable. (238) Q. What classes of ground make the best camp sites? A. Closely cropped turf with sandy or gravelly subsoil ; high banks of rivers, provided no marshes are near, are suit- able. In hot summer months, the ground selected should be high, free from underbrush, and shaded with trees if possible. In cold weather ground sloping to the south with woods to break the north winds is desirable. (238) Q. What classes of ground should be avoided in the selection of camp sites? A. Old camp grounds and ground in the vicinity of cemeteries is undesirable. Marshy ground and ground near stag- nant water is to be avoided. Thick forests, dense vegetation, made ground, alluvial soil, punch-bowl depressions, inclosed ravines, and dry beds of streams are unfavorable camp sites. (238) Q, What rules govern the form and dimen- sion of camps? A. The form of a camp should be such as to facilitate the prompt encampment of troops after a march and their prompt departure when camp is broken. It will depend upon the tactical situation and the amount of ground available. In one night halts in the presence of the enemy, camps must of necessity be contracted. Where a more protracted halt is contemplated and where the tac- tical situation permits, a more com- fortable arrangement may be made by the expansion of the camp. (239) Q. What is the procedure in establishing a camp in campaign? A. A staff officer, accompanied by representa- tives from each command, precedes the troops. Camping places are assigned and the troops conducted thereto, as they arrive. The place for procuring drinking and cooking water, for water- ing animals and bathing and for wash- ing clothing, in the order named from upstream down, are designated and marked. On the arrival of troops, guards are posted over the water sup- ply. The interior camp guards are posted. The remaining troops pitch their tents, make camp, establish kitchens and picket lines. In the pres- ence of the enemy, assembly places in case of attack are designated. (240) Q. What is the procedure when troops are billeted? A. Staff officers and representatives from each unit precede the column. The staff officer confers with the civil au- thorities and makes an equitable dis- tribution of the quarters available and assigns sections to each unit. The troops are assigned to buildings by the immediate representatives. (241) Q. Under what conditions are bivouacs es- tablished? A. 1. In the presence of the enemy, such ac- tion may be necessary. 2. In fine weather, in midsummer, or in the tropics, the troops may bivouac from choice. (242) Q. What precautions are taken in the selec- tion of a bivouac site? A. The general principles that govern in the selection of a camp site are the same. The ground should be dry and pro- Night Operations 77 ^ tected from sun and wind. Light woods are nearly always good sites for infantry bivouacs on account of the available shelter and material. (242) Q. What arrangements and rules govern the sheltering of troops during battle f A. During a lull in an engagement, or vvhen hostilities are suspended for the night, • the troops bivouac in line of battle on or near the position they occupy, the offi- cers in rear of the center of their units. Reserves, required to be in instant readiness, generally bivouac in column with a flank to the front. (243) Q. How is shelter during sieges provided? A. The main body is some five miles to the rear, in camp or cantonment. To guard against surprise, a large part of the command is continually on outpost and when they coqiplete their tours of duty the troops return to their own camps. (244) Q. What precautions are taken with respect to the sleeping arrangements of the men in camp and bivouac f A. The men should not lie on the ground. In temporary camps and in bivouac, they raise their beds if suitable material such as straw, leaves or boughs are available, or use their ponchos or slick- ers. In cold weather when fuel is plen- tiful the ground may be warmed by fires, the men making their beds after raking away the ashes. (245) Q. What action is taken when a camp is to be occupied for some length of time? A. All underbrush is cleared away and the camp made as comfortable as possible. Watering troughs, shelter in cold weather, and shade in hot, are provided for the animals, if practicable. (245) Q. What is the daily routine prescribed for troops in camps f A. Guard and other routine duties follow about the same course as when in gar- rison. The watering, feeding and grooming of animals take place at reg- ular hours under the supervision of officers. The camp is policed daily after breakfast and all refuse matter is burned. Weather permitting, the walls of tents are raised and the bedding and cloth- ing aired daily. (245) Q. What precautions are taken with respect to the water supply of the camp? A. 1. The water supply is carefully guarded. When several units are camped along the same stream, this matter is regu- lated by the senior commander. 2. If the stream is small, the supply may be increased by building dams. Small springs will be dug out and lined with stone or brick, or empty barrels may be sunk in them. Surface drainage may be kept off by a bank of clay around the spring. 3. When sterlized water is not provided, or when there is doubt as to the purity of the water, it is boiled 20 minutes, then cooled and aerated. (245) Q. Where are latrines located? A. Always on the opposite side of the camp from the kitchens. Q. What are the general rules with respect to the class of latrines to be provided in the various types of camps? A. 1. When the camp is for one night only, straddle trenches will suffice. 2. In camps of longer duration, and when it is possible to provide latrine boxes, as in permanent camps, deeper trenches should be dug. These may be used as straddle trenches or a box provided or a seat improvised. 3. In more permanent camps, the trenches are not over two feet wide, 6 feet deep and 12 feet long and suitably screened. Seats with lids are provided, and the boxes extend down to the ground and made flyproof. Urinal troughs, which discharge into the trenches are provided. Latrine boxes are thoroughly cleaned daily. The seats are scrubbed. The pit is burned out with oil and straw or hay. When these latrines are filled within two feet of the surface, they are filled in and discarded and their position carefully marked. (245) Q. What precautions are taken when open trenches are used? A. The excrement must be kept covered at all times with a layer of earth. They are always filled before the march is resumed the next morning. (245) 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. TFE^ ?0-i- MAR 9 1968 t x,^ :5Pfr V ta."-" %^ ^ Si W ^ ^ LD 2]A-45m-9,'67 (H5067sl0)476B General Library University of California Berkelev