*B as? flPA 
 
 ! . GREENE'S FIKSi lcooQNS IN GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 FIRST LESSONS IN GRAMMAR, 
 
 BASED UPON TUTS 
 
 CONSTRUCTION ANtf ANALYSIS Of SjENTEKCES ; 
 
 DBSIGN^T^Vs AN INTRODUCTION TO THE 
 
 Dj±S AN I 
 
 "ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES." 
 
 BY SAMUEL S. GJF5.EENE, A.M. 
 
 .PRINCIPAL OF THE PHILLIPS "GRAMMAR SCPOOL, BOSTON. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT & CO. 
 
 -•New York, Geo. F. Cootedge 61 Brother ;— Boston, Phillipsf-Sampson 6c Co., B. B. Mussey 
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 J. F. Desilver ;— Nashville, V/hf. T. Berry, Chas. W, 
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 Macon, Geo., J. M. Board man. 
 
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GREENE'S FIRST LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 
 
 FIRST LESSONS IN GRAMMAR, 
 
 BASED UPON THB 
 
 CONSTRUCTION AND ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES; 
 
 DESIGNED AS AN INTRODUCTION TO THE 
 
 'ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES." 
 
 By SAMUEL S. GREENE, A. M. 
 
 fUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, PROVIDENCE, AND PROFESSOR 
 OF THE NORMAL DEPARTMENT OF BROWN UNC^RSITY. 
 
 
 •yj 
 
 
 03r *tb> 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 THOMAS, COWPERTHWA1T & CO. 
 
 Sf^w York, Geo. F. Cooledge <fe Brother ;— Boston, Pliillips, Sampson <fe Co., B. B. Mussey 
 
 <k Co. ;— Baltimore, Cushing & Brother ;— Charleston, S. C.McCarter <fc Allen ;- 
 
 Vouisville, Ky., Morton & Griswold, Beckwith & Morton: — St. Louis, 
 
 Fisher & Bennett, Wm. D. Skillman, Shultz & Eberlin ; — Cincinnati, 
 
 J F. Deader; — Nashville, Wm. T. Berry, Chas. W. Smith; — 
 
 Men phis, U C. Cleaves ; — Lexington, C. S. Bodley & C«. ; — 
 
 Macon. Gso., J. M B«ardmua. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1R48. 
 
 BY SAMUEL S. GREENE. 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of thu District of Massacnusetts. 
 
 2-i^ffS' 
 
 PRINTED BY SMITH & PETERS, 
 Franklin Buildings, Sixth Street below Arch, Philadelphia. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The following Lessons are designed as an intro- 
 duction to a larger work, on the "Analysis of Sen- 
 tences." The author has endeavored to simplify the 
 system, without depriving it of any of its essential 
 characteristics, — to reduce it, and yet retain its spirit 
 In thus adapting it to the capacity of beginners, he 
 has avoided repeated and unnecessary explanation, 
 tedious alike to the teacher and pupil, and, in its stead, 
 has introduced copious exercises, intended to elucidate 
 the parts to be learned. A single model accompanies 
 the exercises, wherever it is necessary, and to prevent 
 confusion, all superfluous or unexplained elements are 
 avoided ; so that the learner has before him, at any 
 stage of his progress, but a single unknown element. 
 The advantage of thus bringing forward only one 
 thing at a time, every experienced teacher will readily 
 appreciate. With beginners, success in the use of 
 these Lessons will depend, in no small degree, upon a 
 faitliful ^performance of the exercises. They are to 
 grammar what problems or questions are to arithmetic ; 
 and, it is believed, that children perceive grammatical 
 as well as arithmetical relations more easily from what 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 they have to perform, than from what they have to 
 commit to memory. 
 
 In some of the exercises all the elements are given, 
 to be pointed out and explained ; in others, some are 
 given and others required ; in others, none are given 
 and all are required ; while in others still, certain 
 elements are given in one form, to be changed to 
 equivalent ones in another form. 
 
 The work is divided into two parts. Part I. is 
 devoted to the formation of words ; and contains the 
 principles of orthography and etymology. Part II. 
 is occupied with the formation of sentences, and con- 
 tains Rules for construction, and Models for analyzing 
 and parsing, sufficient to guide the learner in all ordi- 
 nary cases. It is to this part particularly that the 
 author would invite attention. The peculiar feature 
 of the work consists in unfolding the principles of 
 grammar in connection with the construction and 
 analysis of sentences. The sentence is brought for- 
 ward, at first, in its simplest state. The learner is 
 next made to witness its growth by the addition of 
 words, phrases, and clauses. It is treated of through- 
 out as consisting of elements both essential and subor- 
 dinate. The elements are first introduced in the 
 simplest form of single words. They next appear 
 as they exist in the more expanded state of phrases; 
 and farther on, in the still more expanded *state of 
 clauses. So that the pupil, who in the first place 
 saw the noun, the adjective, and the adverb, occu- 
 pying important positions in the sentence, next sees 
 these same parts of speech, having grown up into 
 
PREFACE. 5 
 
 phrases or clauses, still enter into the structure of the 
 sentence in the same relations as before. Every 
 sentence has a meaning and a form, — a soul and a 
 
 t$ body ; the form may change, while the meaning may 
 remain unaltered ; hence, in studying a sentence, both 
 the thought and mode of expression should be exam- 
 ined. The form of a sentence changes when its 
 
 * elements change. Thus, in the sentence, "An indus- 
 trious man will gain a competence," industrious desig- 
 nates the man who will gain a competence. But what 
 industrious does in this sentence, of industry, or who 
 is industrious, does in the following sentences: "A 
 man of industry will gain a competence ; " "A man 
 who is industrious, will gain a competence." And yet 
 there is no difference in the meaning of these three 
 sentences. The facilities which are thus afforded for 
 an interchange of equivalent words, phrases, or clauses, 
 it is believed, have been too much overlooked in 
 treatises on the English language. As soon, then, as 
 the pupil becomes familiar with the distinctive features 
 of these three classes of the elements, he should have 
 frequent exercises on equivalents. 
 
 To these peculiarities the author would direct par- 
 ticular attention. Experience has fully proved, that 
 grammar taught in this manner becomes a thought- 
 stirring, a profitable, and a deeply interesting study. 
 Those who seek for a more extended treatise on the 
 analysis of the language, are referred to the author's 
 larger work. 
 
 SAMUEL S. GREENE. 
 BOSTON, July, 1848. 
 
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 As the work is, in many material respects, different from the 
 common treatises on Grammar, the author may be pardoned for 
 making a few suggestions in regard to the manner of using it. 
 
 1. Let the pupil learn the first ten Lessons in the order in which 
 they are arranged, paying particular attention to the Exercises. 
 
 2. After having learned the parts of speech in Lesson X., he 
 should commence Lesson XXV. p. 81, and associate the remaining 
 Lessons of Part I. with the corresponding Lessons of Part II. 
 
 3. As the learner commences the construction of sentences, it is 
 indispensable, if he is a beginner, and very young, that he should 
 receive much oral instruction on the blackboard. Let the teacher 
 propose subjects, for example, and require of the class appropriate 
 predicates to be given orally by the pupils. 
 
 4. In order to ensure success, the habit of regarding a sentence 
 as a picture of some scene, transaction, or event, must be earlv 
 established. When the pupil says, " The waves dash" he should 
 be taught to form in his mind a picture of waves in motion. In 
 other words, he should be taught to bring the whole scene to hi:* 
 mind as if it were a reality. In this way, only, the full force of the 
 terms modify, limit, and restrict, can be understood. 
 
 5. In adding words to the subject and predicate, great care should 
 be taken to explain their modifying effects ; show in what way the 
 added word, phrase, or clause, modifies the picture which the learner 
 is forming in his mind. See introduction, p. 9. 
 
 6. As soon as the learner has mastered the classified examples 
 in the Exercises, he should commence analyzing promiscuous 
 examples in his reading lessons. Let him be careful to note the 
 distinction between simple, complex, and compound elements. 
 
 7. To test the progress of a class, it is a good exercise for the 
 teacher to describe the elements of a sentence, requiring the class 
 to recollect the description. Then let the teacher give the page of 
 the class book from which it was selected, leaving the class to hunt 
 it out from their recollection of its elements. Another valuable 
 exercise consists in giving, as above, the description of a sentence 
 which is to be written on the slate, by each of the class. 
 
 8. The pupil is now supposed to have mastered the forms or the 
 materials of which a sentence is made. Let him next re-arrange oi 
 reconstruct these materials so as to express his thoughts in the mosf 
 agreeable and forcible manner. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 lessor. page. 
 
 Introduction, 9 
 
 I. Elementary Sounds, 13 
 
 II. Letters, 15 
 
 III. United Letters, 17 
 
 IV. Syllables, 18 
 
 V. Words used to represent Sound, 20 
 
 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OP WORDS. 
 
 VI. Words classified according to their Formation, • • • 22 
 
 VII. Prefixes, 24 
 
 VIII. Suffixes, 28 
 
 IX. List of the principal Suffixes, * 31 
 
 PARTS OP SPEECH — INFLECTION. 
 X. Words Classified according to their Meaning and 
 
 Use, 34 
 
 XL Nouns, • 36 
 
 ,XII. Pronouns, 37 
 
 XIII. Number of the Noun or Pronoun,* 39 
 
 XIV. Gender of the Noun or Pronoun, • • • • 41 
 
 XV. Person of the Noun or Pronoun, 43 
 
 XVI. The Case of the "Noun or Pronoun, 44 
 
 XVII Adjective Words, 47 
 
 XVIII. Classes of Verbs, 50 
 
 XIX. Number, Person, and Voice of the Verb, 58 
 
 XX. Mode of the Verb, 59 
 
 XXI. Tense of the Verb, • 62 
 
 XXII. Adverbs, 75 
 
 XXIII. Prepositions, 77 
 
 XXIV. Interrogatives and Connectives, *8 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 LESSOlf. PAOK. 
 
 XXV. Definitions, 81 
 
 XXVI. Objects, or Things, and their Attributes, .... 82 
 XXVII. Assumed and Predicated Attributes, 85 
 
 SIMPLE SENTENCES. 
 
 XXVIII. The Proposition or Simple Sentence, 87 
 
 XXIX. The Subject modified by Inflection, 91 
 
 XXX. The Predicate modified by Inflection, 95 
 
 XXXI. Classes of Sentences, 105 
 
 XXXII. The subject modified by single Words, 106 
 
 XXXIIL The Predicate modified by single Words, 114 
 
 XXXIV. Interjections, and the Case Independent, .... 119 
 
 XXXV. Complex and Compound Elements, 120 
 
 XXXVI. The Subject modified by Phrases, 127 
 
 XXXVII. The Predicate modified by Phrases, 130 
 
 XXXVIII. Complex and Compound Phrases, 135 
 
 XXXIX. Classes of Interrogative Sentences, 138 
 
 COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 
 XL. The Subject modified by Clauses, 140 
 
 XLI. The Predicate' modified by Clauses, 145 
 
 XLII. Complex and Compound Elements containing 
 
 Clauses, 155 
 
 XLIII. Phrases and Clauses used as the Subject or 
 
 Predicate, 157 
 
 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
 
 XLTV. Classes of Coordinate Clauses, 162 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 XLV. Different kinds of Verse, 164 
 
 XLVE. Punctuation, 168 
 
 XLVII. Rules, — Examples to be corrected, 173 
 
 XLVCH. Various peculiarities and idioms, 181 
 
> v 01- THE 
 
 (VHIVER! 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 To tell others what we think, what we feel, or what 
 we desire, we have only to speak or write a certain 
 collection of words. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 " The rose is a beautiful flower." 
 * The good child loves its parents." 
 " Sarah wishes to learn music." 
 But it must not be understood that every collection 
 
 of words will express our thoughts, feelings, or desires. 
 Thus, if we should use the words, — 
 
 " Being a beautiful flower," 
 
 " The good child loving its parents," 
 
 " Sarah wishing to learn music," — we should feel 
 
 that something more was needed to make a statement. 
 
 Although nothing is stated in either of the last ex 
 amples, containing from four to six words each, yet 
 
10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 we can make a statement with only two words. Thus, 
 
 (1.) Horses ran. 
 
 But this assertion is very indefinite ; it does not tell 
 how many horses, what kind of horses, — nor how 
 they ran, where they ran, when thsy ran. or why the) 
 ran. 
 
 Let us observe how other words may be' added to 
 these two, to answer such inquiries. Thus, How 
 many horses ran ? 
 
 ( 2.) TWO HORSES RAN. 
 
 In number (1.) the assertion would be true of any 
 number of horses, but in ( 2.) it is confined to two 
 horses. What kind of horses were they ? 
 
 (3.) Two white horses ran. 
 
 We must now think of only two horses, and they 
 must be white. In what condition were they ? 
 
 ( 4.) Two white horses which were attached to a 
 coach, RAN. 
 
 We have now excluded from the statement any 
 number of horses above two, also, all horses except 
 white ones, and no two white horses can be taken into 
 the account unless they are attached to a coach. ILrw 
 did these two, white, harnessed horses run ? 
 
 ( 5.) Two white horses which were attached to a 
 coach, ran furiously. 
 
 This addition defines exactly the manner of running. 
 Where did they run ? 
 
 ( 6.) Two white horses which were attached to a 
 coach, ran furiously through the streets of Boston. 
 
JFIVIESIT12 
 $&£IE 11 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 This group of words lays the scene of the event in 
 Boston. Still nothing shows the time of the event. 
 
 ( 7.) Two white horses which were attached to a 
 coach, ran furiously through the streets of Boston, 
 one morning in June. 
 
 Let us now add something to show the cause of their 
 running. 
 
 ( 8.) Two white horses which were attached to a 
 coach, ran furiously through the streets of Boston, 
 one morning in June, because they were frightened by 
 the crash of some falling timbers. 
 
 Thus, by seven successive additions, each of which 
 has given a peculiar shading to the picture, we have a 
 complete statement of an event. 
 
 The most remarkable feature in this collection is, 
 that the two words, printed in capitals, which appeared 
 alone at the beginning, are the essential parts on which 
 all the other words depend. If either should be re- 
 moved, nothing would be asserted. 
 
 Each of the above eight examples is called a sen 
 tence, because it expresses a thought. The first con- 
 tains only the two essential parts, and is vague and 
 incomplete ; while the last contains not only these 
 parts but all the additions made to them, and is definite 
 and complete. 
 
 It will be seen that some of the additions are single 
 words, as in examples (2.), (3.), and (5.) ; others are 
 groups of words, as in examples (4.), ( 6.), ( 7.), and 
 (8.). Hence, the parts of a sentence may be eith.** 
 words or groups of words. 
 
12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Every sentence in the language is formed in a man- 
 ner similar to the above. It must consist of the two 
 essential parts only, like ( 1.), — or it must contain 
 those two parts with additions, like ( 2.), (3.), ( 4.), &c. 
 But, before the learner can thoroughly understand 
 how to construct a sentence, he must know something 
 of the formation of words. 
 
 It is the office of Grammar to teach how to form 
 words and entire sentences correctly. 
 
 Since words include the letters and syllables which 
 compose them, and sentences, the words and groups 
 of words which compose them, grammar may be con- 
 veniently divided into two parts, — the formation of 
 words and the formation of sentences. 
 
 How may we tell others what we think, feel, or desire ? Does 
 every collection of words express a thought, feeling, or desire? 
 What is the least number of words that can be used to make a 
 statement ? Why is the statement " Horses ran " indefinite ? 
 What does the word two added to horses show ? How many horses 
 might be included if two were not added ? What does the word 
 white added to horses show? What kinds of horses does it ex- 
 clude ? ( Ans. Black, gray, red, &c. horses.) What does the group 
 of words "which were attached to a coach'''' show? What two 
 white horses might it exclude? What does the word furiously 
 added to ran, show ? What other modes of running might there 
 be ? What does the group " through the streets of Boston," show ? 
 What does the group, " one morning in June," show ? What 
 shows why the horses ran ? What is each of the examples called ? 
 What is the office of Grammar ? Into how many parts is Gram 
 mar divided ? 
 
PART I. 
 
 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 Part I. embraces orthography and etymology. 
 The former treats of letters and their various com- 
 binations ; the latter of the classification and vari- 
 ous modifications of words. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 
 
 An elementary sound is the simplest sound of 
 the language ; as a, e ; b, k. (See Note, next page.) 
 
 The English language contains about forty ele- 
 mentary sounds. 
 
 These sounds are divided into three classes, — 
 vocals, subvocals, and aspirates. 
 
 The vocals consist of pure tone only ; as, a, e, 
 I, 0, u. 
 
 The subvocals consist of tone united with breath ; 
 as, 6, d, Z, w, 7i, r. 
 
 The aspirates consist of pure breath only ; as, p, 
 t, hj. 
 
 2 
 
14 FIRST LESSOXS 
 
 EXERCISE.* 
 
 Ttte following words contain the different elementary 
 sounds in the language. Utter first the word, and then the 
 element printed in Italics. 
 
 Vocals. N-a-me, f-a-r, b-a-11, a-t; m-e, m-e-t; f-i-ne, 
 p-z-n ; s-o-ld, m-o-ve, n-o-t ; m-w-te, p-w-11, c-w-p ; f-ow-nd. 
 
 Subvocals. jB-at, d-og, g-o, j-oy, Z-ife, m-an, no, so-ng, 
 ba-r, $-ose, v-oice, WMse, y-es, z-one, a-z-ure. 
 
 Aspirates, .F-aith, h-&t, ar-&, p-ine, s-un, £-ake, ^A-ink, 
 s7i-one, ch-urch, wh~en. 
 
 Tell by the sound which letters in the following promiscuous 
 examples are vocals, which are subvocals, and which are 
 
 ASPIRATES, — 
 
 And, great, made, fame, sad, mete, gave, life, voice, six, 
 zebra, full, sup, dine, bid, bag, kite, pare, when, this, shall, 
 ocean, king, feel, drive, make, link. 
 
 | * These sounds can only be represented by the living voice. 
 Repeated illustrations should, therefore, be given by the teacher, 
 until the pupil can utter distinctly every element in the language. 
 A sure method of teaching a child the power of a letter is, to 
 give him a word, as bat, and require him to pronounce it. Next let 
 him pronounce as before, omitting the t, thus ba. Then omit the a 
 and what remains will be the power of b. In like manner find the 
 sound of a and U 
 
 What is an elementary sound ? How many elementary sounds 
 does the English language contain? How are they divided? 
 What is a vocal ? A subvocal ? An aspirate ? 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 15 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 LETTERS. 
 
 A letter is a character used to represent an ele-^ 
 mentary sound. 
 
 The English Alphabet contains twenty-six let- 
 ters, — A, a; B, b; C,c; D, d ; E, e; F, f ; G, g; 
 H, h ; I, i ; J, j ; K, k ; L, 1 ; M, m ; N, n ; 0, o : 
 P, p;Q,q;R,r; S, s; T, t; U, u; V, v ; W, w; 
 X, x; Y, y; Z, z. 
 
 It will be seen (Lesson I.) that there are more elementary sounds 
 than letters. Hence some letters must represent more than one 
 sound each. 
 
 Those letters which represent vocals are called 
 vowels. They are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w 
 and y. 
 
 Wand Fare consonants when they precede a vowel in the same 
 syllable ; as, wine, twine, yes, yet. In all other situations they are 
 vowels. 
 
 Those letters which represent subvocals and aspi- 
 rates are called consonants. 
 
 The consonants are b, d, g, I, m, n, r, v, z, (sub- 
 vocals,) and /, h, k, c, q, p, t, s, (aspirates;) xis 
 a subvocal when it is equivalent to gs, an aspirate, 
 when it is equivalent to ks. 
 
 Many letters have two or more distinct sounds ; 
 as, a in name, far, fare, war, what, at. 
 
 The same sound is often represented by different 
 letters ; as, c in suffice, z in amaze, s in was, 
 
16 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Many of the letters in some uses, have no sound ; 
 they are then called silent; as, gh in wight, a in 
 read. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Tell which letters are vowels and which are consonants in 
 the following words, — 
 
 Name, war, come, peace, tree, fish, good, live, old, sad, 
 young, wine, said, yet, win, new, gay, day. 
 
 Tell which of the following letters represent vocals, which 
 subvocals, and which aspirates, — 
 
 a, f, g, m, c, k, d, p, o, w, s, h, y, t, r, v, x, 1, e, j. 
 
 Give the sounds of a in — name, war, bat, cabbage, fare, 
 all, what ; of e in — mete, met, they, there, her ; of i in — 
 pine, pin, sir ; of u in — mute, put, but, fur ; of c in — 
 mice, sacrifice, cat; of f in — fare, of ; of g in — give, go, 
 gem, George ; of r in — read, rude, bar, far ; of s in — sit, 
 sin, was, does, measure, pleasure ; of Kin — wax, example. 
 
 Tell the different letters which represent the same sound in 
 fare, there ; her, sir, fur, liar, doctor, zephyi ; was, maze ; 
 ice, sin ; feign, lain, mane. 
 
 Tell what letters are silent in light, true, though, eight, 
 great, know, mean, dear, lieu, sail. 
 
 Analyze the following words by giving, in orde 4 ., the elemen- 
 tary sounds (not the names of the letters'). Thus, b-a-t t bat. 
 cat, sad, mete, laugh, bought, fought, believe, phthisic. 
 
 What is a letter? How many letters are there? What 
 are vowels? Name them. How many consonants are 
 there ? Name them. How many sounds have many letters? 
 How is the same sound often represented ? What are silent 
 letters? 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 17 
 
 LESSON III. 
 UNITED LETTERS. 
 
 A diphthong is the union of two vowels in ono 
 syllable ; as, ou in sound, oi in voice. 
 
 A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels 
 are sounded ; as, ou in thou. 
 
 An improper diphthong is one in which one of 
 the vowels is silent ; as, the a in heat. 
 
 A triphthong is the union of three vowels in one 
 syllable ; as, eau in beauty. 
 
 A proper tripth thong is one in which the three 
 vowels are sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. 
 
 An improper triphthong is one in which one or 
 two of the vowels are silent ; as, ea in beauty ; ie 
 in adieu. 
 
 Two consonants often unite to represent one or 
 more elementary sounds ; as, th in think, this ; ch 
 in church, chaise, tetrarch; ph in phase, Stephen ; 
 wh in when ; sh in shall. X is equivalent to gs or 
 Jcs ; as, in exist, wax. 
 
 Many of the vowels and consonants are doubled ; as in po>tr, 
 pee); Isaac, egg, buzz, staff, ebb. 
 
 The following combinations of a consonant and 
 a vowel, ti, si, ci, ce, as, in martial, mission, offi- 
 cial, ocean, are equivalent to sh. 
 
 -Most of the combinations represent bnt a single elementary 
 •ound. 
 
 2* B 
 
18 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Point out the combinations in the following words ; teU 
 whether the diphthongs and triphthongs are proper or im- 
 proper. 
 
 Fear, pear, voice, sound, pierce, receive, Europe, popple, 
 view, adieu, beauty, think, though, shine, when, whip, chip 
 phrase, chaise, architect, motion, partial, option, session. 
 
 What is a diphthong ? What is a proper diphthong ? What is 
 an improper diphthong ? What is a triphthong ? What is a 
 proper triphthong? What is an improper triphthong? Do two 
 consonants ever unite ? Give examples. What consonants and 
 vowels are equivalent to sh t 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 SYLLABLES. 
 
 A syllable is a letter or combination of letters 
 uttered with one impulse of the voice ; as, mat, 
 matter, ma-te~ri-al. 
 
 The essential part of a syllable is a vowel. 
 
 Note. By vowel here is meant a vowel sound, whethei rer re 
 sented by a single letter, a diphthong, or a triphthong. 
 
 A syllable may consist, 
 
 (1.) Of a vowel ; as, a-cre, either. 
 
 ( 2.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants 
 prefixed ; as, basis, bri-er, three, phthisis. 
 
 (3.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants 
 affixed ; as, in, elf, intev-ests, earths. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 19 
 
 (4.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants 
 both j)refixed and affixed ; as, w-oo-w, tr-u-th, 
 thr-u-sts. 
 
 Note. In the preceding lessons the pupil has been occupied 
 with elementary sounds and the characters which represent them. 
 In this lesson he is taught the modes of combining them into 
 syllables. It is often necessary to separate a syllable into its ele 
 ments. 
 
 The process of combining elementary parts is 
 called synthesis ; that of separating a combination 
 into its elements is called analysis. 
 
 Note. In analyzing a syllable, let the learner tell, (1.) the 
 essential part, that is, the vowel or diphthong; (2.) the consonant 
 or consonants which are prefixed to it; (3.) the consonant or con 
 sonants which are affixed to it. 
 
 Models for analyzing Syllables. 
 
 An- • • is a syllable consisting of two elements: 
 
 A • • • • is the essential element, — it is a vowel. (Give its 
 sound.) 
 
 n is a consonant and represents a sub vocal ; it is affixed 
 
 to a. (Give its sound.) 
 
 Break is a syllable consisting of three parts : 
 
 ea-««-is the essential part, — it is a diphthong (why?), 
 improper (why ?) ; e is silent, — a only is sounded. 
 (Give its sound.) 
 
 Br is a union of two consonants, both representing sub- 
 vocals, b and r which are prefixed to ea. (Give 
 their sounds separately, then together.) 
 
 k is a consonant representing an aspirate and is affixed 
 
 to ea. (Give its sound.) 
 
20 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following syllables, and describe each element, — > 
 Kite, dog, numb, boat, friend, truth, day, wax, bat, view, 
 sound, aid, meat, suit, rude, the, think, sit, leave, three, 
 oursts, threats. 
 
 Form syllables by prefixing one consonant to a, ay, ey, ou, 
 ieu, y ; two consonants to e, oo, oe, i, ou, oi ; three conso- 
 nants to ee, ea, ay, i, ey ; — by affixing one, two, or three 
 consonants to any five of the above vowels or diphthongs. 
 Form ten syllables in which one, two, or more consonants 
 shall be prefixed and affixed. 
 
 What is a syllable ? What is the essential part of a syllable ? 
 Of what may a syllable consist ? What is the process of com 
 bining elementary parts called ? What is analysis ? 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 WORDS USED TO REPRESENT SOUNDS. 
 
 Note. Written words are used to represent both sounds and 
 ideas. As the representatives of sounds, they are classified accord 
 ing to the number of syllables they contain. 
 
 A word may consist of one syllable alone, or of 
 two or more syllables united. 
 
 A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; 
 as, boy, pen, tree. 
 
 A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable ; 
 as, na-ture, faitJi-ful. 
 
 A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable ; 
 as nat-ur-al, faithful-ness. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 21 
 
 4 
 
 A word of four or more syllables is called a poly- 
 syllable ; as, un-nat-u-ral, un-faith-ful-nessi 
 
 Accent is a stress of the voice placed upon a 
 particular syllable, to distinguish it from others. 
 
 Every word of more than one syllable has one 
 of its syllables accented. 
 
 The accented syllable may be either the first, 
 last, or a middle syllable ; as, dv!ty, be-long* \ pre- 
 p arming. 
 
 Some words have a primary and secondary accent; as, in' '-de- 
 fat Hgable, in ' '-compreken 'sible. 
 
 Note. In separating a word into its syllables, we should divide 
 it as it is pronounced. Thus, some pionounce pat'ri-ot, others 
 paHri-ot, and the t must be joined to the first or second syllable 
 accordingly. The learner should tell how many syllables a word 
 contains, calling it a monosyllable, dissyllable, &c, then point out 
 the accented syllable, and analyze each according to the preceding 
 models, (page 19.) 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Analyze and describe the following words : — 
 Beat, said, tree ; friendship, social, himself, stately ; com- 
 plaining, interpret, indolence ; incessantly, condemnation, 
 interdicting, domesticate ; consanguinity, confederation, im- 
 penetrable ; mispronunciation, incomprehensible, indefati- 
 gable; impenetrability; incomprehensibility. 
 Correct the accent in the following words : — 
 Local, indolence, memorable, ig / noble, frequently, 
 lamentable, actu'al, indisputable, immutable, retrospect, 
 completion, late'ral. Change the accent in the following 
 words to the second syllable and give their meaning, — 
 August, con'jure, des'ert, entrance, min'ute, pres'ent* 
 proj'ect, in'valid. 
 
22 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Write the following words upon ike slate, and divide them 
 into syllables, marking the accented salable . — 
 
 Conscience, detecting, inability, indubitable, commotion, 
 laborious, relate, detestation, infesting, exemplary. 
 
 Model. Con'-science. 
 
 Miscellaneous Questions for Review.* 
 How many letters should we have, if each element were repro 
 sented by a single letter ? In what respect does a vocal differ from 
 a subvocal? A subvocal from an aspirate? What is the difference 
 between a letter and an elementary sound ? What is the difference 
 between the name of a letter and its sound ? In what respect do 
 the names of most of the letters resemble their sounds ? Are tk t 
 chr, phi, phth, sts, syllables ? Why ? How many elementary 
 sounds in though, neigh f In the first syllables of [j] unity, union ? 
 How are syllables formed ? What should be your guide in dividing 
 words into syllables ? Have ate, brought, fine, any accent ? Why ? 
 How would you mark august so as to make it mean grand f Utter, 
 in succession, the elementary sounds of believing, composing, delin- 
 quent. 
 
 * These Questions are intended as a general exercise on the preceding 
 lessons. They cannot always be answered directly from any one para- 
 graph in the text, but are designed to test the pupil's knowledge of th© 
 subject. The teacher should multiply such questions according to th% 
 wants of his class. 
 
 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 WORDS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR FORMATION. 
 
 Note. The English language contains about eighty thousand 
 words. Considered as the representatives of ideas, these words 
 are classified according to their formation, or according to their 
 meaning and use. Classified according to their formation, a# 
 ■words are either primitive, derivative, or compound, 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 23 
 
 A word in no way derived from another is a 
 radical or primitive word ; as, form, harm. 
 
 A word formed by joining to a primitive some 
 letter or syllable, to modify its meaning, is a de- 
 rivative word ; as, re-form, harm-Zess. 
 
 A word formed by uniting two or more entire 
 words, is a compound word ; as, inkstand, school- 
 house. 
 
 The parts of those compounds which have been long in use are 
 generally united closely; as, nevertheless, sunrise; in others, the 
 hyphen (-) is used to separate the parts ; as, labor-saving. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Tell which of the following words are primitive, which 
 derivative, and which compound : — 
 
 Bright, fair, told, meek, some, playful, joyless, income, 
 bookstore, playmate, cloud-capped, ink, housetop, fearful, 
 reform, dismember, dreary. 
 
 Form derivative words from the following primitives, and 
 draw a line under the added syllable or letter: — hope, fear, 
 harm, love, care, know, peer, ape, weed, cloud, form, grade, 
 place, joy, truth, poet, fade, weep, laugh. 
 
 Model. Hopete. . ' 
 
 Form compound words, by joining some appropriate word 
 to each of the following : — Air, chest, alms, bank, birth, 
 bill, fire, eye, weed, toll, wood, foot, work, play, land, busy, 
 tree, breeze. 
 
 Model. Air-pump. 
 
 "VThat is a radical or primitive word? What is a derivative 
 word ? W aat is a compound word ? 
 
24 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 PREFIXES. 
 
 That part of a derivative word whicli is placed 
 before the radical is called a prefix', as, re-turn, 
 pre-pay. 
 
 In applying prefixes to radicals, certain changes often take 
 place, to render the sound more agreeable. These changes are 
 made according to the following rules : — 
 
 Rule I. Dropping the final letter. — The 
 final letter of a prefix is sometimes omitted ; as, 
 coexistent for e<m-existent, antarctic for cmfo'-arctic. 
 
 Rule II. Changing the final letter. — The 
 final letter of a prefix is often changed to one which 
 will harmonize, in sound, with the initial letter of 
 the radical ; as, zm-pious for zVpious. 
 
 The final letter of the prefix generally becomes the same as the 
 first letter of the radical ; as, i7-limitable. 
 
 The principal prefixes which undergo this change are ad, (ac, af, 
 ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at;) con, (cog, com, col, cor;) en, (em ;) e, (ex 
 ec, ef;) dis, (dif, di;) ob, (of, pc, op;) sub, (sue, suf, sug, sup, sur;) 
 syn, (sym, syl). 
 
 EXERCISE ON RULES I. II. 
 
 Write derivatives by prefixing anti to arctic ; con to tern 
 porary, laborer, extensive, location, mend, mix, mingle, 
 nomen, relative ; ad to scribe, credit, firm, fluent, legation, 
 rest, point, ply, tempt; in to religious, legal, legible, liberal, 
 noble, perfect, penitent, potent, prove; en to body, broil; 
 ob to position, press, cur, fend ; sub to session, fix, fumiga- 
 tion, fusion, gest, press, render ; syn to pathetic, logistic ; ex 
 to centric, flux ; dis to fuse, late. 
 
%* 
 
 o*- 
 
 ' i' n 
 
 IN GRAMMAR. 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ; 
 
 Correct the following examples by Rule II. Inply, suu- 
 render, inmediate, synpathetic, adlegation, adfect, adcredit, 
 obpose, obportunity, exfect, disfer, inluminate, conlect, con- 
 niend, enploy, subgest. 
 
 Note. The most common prefixes are contained in the follow 
 ing list. They are chiefly prepositions of Saxon, Latin, or Greek 
 origin. The roots to which they are prefixed are not always used 
 as distinct words in the English language. The meaning of such 
 radicals may generally be determined by applying different pre- 
 fixes. Thus, in m-pel, ex-ne\, o^s-pel, corn-pel, j^ro-pel, one would 
 readily see, by comparison, that pel means to drive. 
 
 SI1 
 
 
 PREFIXES OF SAXON ORIGIN. 
 
 "Prefix. 
 
 Signification. 
 
 Example. 
 
 A. 
 
 on or in. 
 
 Aboard, ashore. 
 
 Be. 
 
 near, on, for, over, 
 
 -Beside, oestir. 
 
 For. 
 
 against, from. 
 
 .Forbid, forsake. 
 
 Fore. 
 
 before. 
 
 Foresee, ybretell. 
 
 Mis. 
 
 wrong, error. 
 
 Mistake, misspell. 
 
 Over. 
 
 above, beyond. 
 
 Oyerdo, overload. 
 
 Out. 
 
 beyond, more. 
 
 Outrun, outdo. 
 
 Un. 
 
 not, negation. 
 
 Unwise, unkind. 
 
 Under. 
 
 beneath, inferior. 
 
 Understand, undergo. 
 
 Up. 
 
 above, subversion. 
 
 Qslift, upset. 
 
 With. 
 
 against, from. 
 
 Withsta,nd, withdraw. 
 
 
 PREFIXES OF 
 
 LATIN ORIGIN. 
 
 A, ab, abs. 
 
 from, away. 
 
 -45stract, avert. 
 
 Ad* 
 
 to, at, towards. 
 
 -4ajoin, approach (move). 
 
 Ante. 
 
 before. 
 
 -decedent (going). 
 
 Bene. 
 
 good, well. 
 
 J5eraevolent, oeweficent (doinj^ 
 
 Bis or bi. 
 
 twice, two. 
 
 insect (cut), foped (feet). 
 
 Circum. 
 
 around, about. 
 
 tt'rcwwmavigate (sail). 
 
 Cis. 
 
 on this side. 
 
 Cisalpine. 
 
 Coa* 
 
 together, with. 
 
 CWlect, cowflne. 
 
 Contra. 
 
 against. 
 
 Contradict (speak). 
 
 * Those prefixes marked with the star have other forms. See Lesson VIL 
 
 3 
 
26 
 
 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Prefix 
 
 Signification. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Be. 
 
 from, down. 
 
 .Dethrone, detract (draw). 
 
 Dis.* 
 
 asunder. 
 
 .Distract, . divert ( turn. ) 
 
 E (ex).* 
 
 out of, from. 
 
 Eject (drive), expel (cast). 
 
 Extra. 
 
 beyond. 
 
 Potfraordinary. 
 
 In* 
 
 into, in; not.-\ 
 
 Inform, include ; inactive. 
 
 Inter. 
 
 between. 
 
 Interpose (place,. 
 
 Intro. 
 
 in, within. 
 
 Introduce (lead). 
 
 Non. 
 
 not. 
 
 iVonconformist. 
 
 Ob.* 
 
 against. 
 
 ^struct (build). 
 
 Per. 
 
 through jy. 
 
 Pe?'fect (made). 
 
 Post. 
 
 after. 
 
 Postpone (place). 
 
 Pre. 
 
 before. 
 
 Precede (go). 
 
 Pro. 
 
 for, forth, fortoards 
 
 . Pronoun, progress (go). 
 
 Preter. 
 
 past, beyond. 
 
 Preternatural. 
 
 Re. 
 
 back, again. 
 
 Recall. 
 
 Retro. 
 
 backwards. 
 
 Pe^rograde (move). 
 
 Se. 
 
 apart, separation. 
 
 £ecede (go). 
 
 Sine. 
 
 without. 
 
 5mecure (care). 
 
 Snb.* 
 
 under. 
 
 Subscribe (write). 
 
 Snper. 
 
 over, beyond. 
 
 /Superscribe (write). 
 
 Trans. 
 
 over, change. 
 
 Transplant. 
 
 Uni. _ 
 
 one. 
 
 Uniform. 
 
 
 GREEK PREFIXES. 
 
 A or an. 
 
 •without. 
 
 Anonymous (name). 
 
 Amphi. 
 
 both, double. 
 
 Amphibious (living). 
 
 Ana. 
 
 through, up. 
 
 Anatomy (cut). 
 
 Anti. 
 
 against. 
 
 yl?*^*christian. 
 
 Apo or Aph. 
 
 from. 
 
 ^ogee (earth). 
 
 Dia. 
 
 through. 
 
 Diameter (measure). 
 
 Epi. 
 
 upon. 
 
 Ppitaph (tomb). 
 
 Hyper. 
 
 over, above. 
 
 /7j/percritical. 
 
 Hypo. 
 
 under. 
 
 Hypocrite. 
 
 Meta or Meth. 
 
 change, beyond. 
 
 J/efomorphose (form). 
 
 Para. 
 
 from, against 
 
 Paradox (opinion). 
 
 Peri. 
 
 around. 
 
 Pe?^'meter (measure ). 
 
 Syn* 
 
 with. 
 
 Sympathy (feeling). 
 
 t Before a verb, in signifies into, in. and sometimes against ; before \ 
 adjective it has a negative meaning. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 27 
 
 Note. Many of the roots to which the prefixes are added are 
 not distinct words in the English language. In the following exer 
 cises, as in the above examples, such roots will ]be defined in a 
 parenthesis. The pupil should analyze derivative words according 
 to the following 
 
 MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 
 
 Impenitent .... is a derivative word, (why?) 
 
 Penitent is the radical part, and signifies repenting. 
 
 Im is the prefix (in, Rule II.) and signifies not. 
 
 Hence, impenitent, not repenting. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following derivative words according to the 
 model : — 
 
 Aboard, aground, accredit, accustom, aggrieve, antepast 
 (taste), forgive, bestir, foreknow, misplace, overtake, ab- 
 stract (draw), outrun, uncommon, adjoin, understand, up- 
 hold, withdraw, benevolent (wishing), circumscribe (write 
 or mark), cisalpine, bivalve, complete (fill), dispel (drive), 
 imprint, interdict (speak), oppose (place), pervade (pass), 
 premeditate, preoccupy, post mortem (death), progress (go), 
 refer (carry), reanimate, subterraneous (earth), support 
 (bear), superstructure, transpose (place), acephalous (head), 
 antipathy (feeling), apostatize (standing), aphasresis (tak- 
 ing), diagonal (angle), epitaph (tomb), paraphrase (speak- 
 ing), periphrasis. 
 
 Study the list of prefixes, and then add to the following 
 roots all that may be used appropriately. Define each word. 
 
 Form, spire* (to breathe), rect (to make straight), part, 
 sign, sume (to take), scribe (to write), tract (to draw), duce 
 (to lead), sist (to stand), lude (to play), cede (to go, to 
 yield), elude (to shut or close), port (to carry), act, claim 
 
 *To many of the radicals two prefixes are added, each having its peculia* 
 loroe ; as, re-con-struct, re-ad-mit. The pupil should explain each 
 
28 , FIRST LESSONS 
 
 (to call or speak), natural, sure, prove, join, struct (to 
 build), course, cur (to run), vention (the act of coming or 
 going), graph (marked or written), fuse, press, pel (to urge 
 or drive), volve (to roll or turn), gress (to step, pass), fix, 
 fiux, fer or late (to bear, carry), mise or mit (to send), tain 
 (to hold), diet (to speak), pose (to place), vers or vert (to 
 turn). 
 
 Model. Cbraform, to form together, i. e., to assimilate, to yield 
 
 to custom, 
 ifoform, to form again, i. e., to renew. 
 Inform, to form in [the mind], i. e., to tell, [figure 
 Deform, to form from [the proper shape], i. e., to dis 
 Perform, to form through, i. e., thoroughly, to complete. 
 Transform, to form over, i. e., to change the form. 
 
 Note. By exercises like the above, multiplied at the discretion 
 of the teacher, the pupil may soon perceive the force of all the 
 prefixes. It is a good exercise to take the dictionary and require 
 the pupil to explain all the derivatives from any given root. 
 i 
 
 What is a prefix ? Give the Rules for the changes in some of 
 the prefixes. What is the meaning of each of the prefixes ? Give 
 an example. 
 
 LESSON VIII 
 
 SUFFIXES. 
 
 That part of a derivative word, which is placed 
 after the radical, is called a suffix; as, faith/wZ, 
 end-less. 
 
 Note. In applying suffixes, the final letter or letters of the 
 radical are often changed. Such changes are made according to 
 the following rules : — 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 29 
 
 Rule I. Doubling the final letter. — On 
 receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel, the final 
 consonant of a monosyllable, or of any word ac- 
 cented on the last syllable, is doubled, — if the . 
 radical ends with a single consonant, preceded by a 
 single vowel ; otherwise it remains single ; as, dig- 
 zng, di#-#ing; defer-mg, defer-ring, Not so, re- 
 paying, defending, differ-ing. 
 
 Many words ending in I ; as, travel, libel, cancel, cavil, chisel, 
 counsel, duel, equal, grovel, model, pencil, revel, rival, trammel, tun- 
 nel, &c, double the I on receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel, 
 though not accented on the last syllable. To these add worship, 
 bias, kidnap ; worship-ping, bizs-sing, kidnap-^'ra^. 
 
 Rule II. Dropping the final "letter. — On 
 receiving a suffix, beginning with a vowel, the final 
 vowel of the radical is dropped in most words end- 
 ing in e, silent ; as, love-ing, loving ; — also, in some 
 words ending in y and i ; as, felicity-ate, felicitate ; 
 dezism, deism. 
 
 Contrary to the general rule, the final e is retained, when pre- 
 ceded by c or g ; as, peace-a&£e, peaceable ; change-aWe, change- 
 able. 
 
 The final letters le, when followed by ly, are dropped ; as, noble 
 ly } nobly. So also t or te before ce or cy ; as, vagrant-c?/, vagrancy ; 
 prelate-c?/, prelacy. 
 
 Words ending in II drop one I on taking an additional syllable, 
 beginning with a consonant ; as, &ki\\-ful, skilful. 
 
 Rule III. Changing the final letter. — The * 
 final y of a radical word is generally changed to «', 
 if preceded by a consonant, otherwise it usually 
 remains unchanged ; as, happy-es£, happiest ; duty- 
 es, duties ; day-s, days. 
 3* 
 
30 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Tlie /J in words ending in f or fe, is generally changed to v t 
 when the suffix begins with a vowel; as, life, lives. 
 
 To prevent doubling i, the y is not changed when the suffix be- 
 gins with i; as, marry-iw<7, marrying. For the same reason, the « 
 being dropped by Rule II. in die, lie, tie, vie, the i is changed to y; 
 as, dying, lying, tying, vying. 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE RULES. 
 
 Add ing, ed, or er, to beg, sit, dig, dim, bed, dog, let, 
 bet, prefer, transfer, forget, dispel, propel, befit, control, 
 travel, level, counsel ; love, compile, receive, leave, grieve, 
 confine, define. Add able to peace, change, sale ; — ly to 
 able, disagreeable, conformable, idle, noble ; — ful to skill, 
 will; — es, ed, or ing, to duty, lily, glory, story, history, 
 beauty, beautify, amplify, rectify. 
 
 Correct the following, and explain your corrections : — 
 beding, beting, wifes, debared, abhorent, alkalioid, gloryous, 
 citys, fancyful, tarriing, earning, dutyful, bountyful, hand- 
 someest, bloting, fameous, agreeabley, incompatabley. 
 
 What is a suffix ? Give Rules I., II., and III. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL SUFFIXES. 
 
 The following list contains the principal suffixes. They sig 
 nify,— 
 
 I. The person who, the female who. 
 
 Ant, ar, ard, ary, eer, er, ee, ent, ist, ite, ian, ive, or, ner, 
 ster, yer, zen ; ess, ress, ix, ine. 
 
 Examples. African, one who lives in Africa. Servant, one who 
 serves. Beggar, one who begs. Adversary, one wlio opposes. So, 
 dotard, charioteer, laborer, mortgagee, presided, favorite, economic, 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 31 
 
 arithmetician, operative, actor, partner, teamster, lawyer, citizen; 
 poetess, instructress, testatrix, heroine. 
 
 II. The thing which, the act of the quality of, 
 or state of, 
 
 Acy, age, al, ade, ancy, ance, ency, ence, ety, hood, ion, 
 ism, ice, ment, mony, ness, ry, ship, ude, (tude,) th, ty, ure, 
 dom, ric. 
 
 Examples. Privacy, the state of being private. Justice that ivhich 
 is just. Meekness, the quality of being meek. So, bondage, re- 
 fusal, cannonade, expectancy, repentance, penitence, emergency, 
 variety, childhood, erection, despotism, commandmew^ acrimony, 
 goodness, rivalry, scholarship, quietnde, truth, novelty, pressure, 
 Christendom, bishopric. 
 
 III. The property pertaining to, belonging to, 
 or abounding in. 
 
 Ac, al, an (ian, ean), ar, ary, ate, ic (tic or atic), ile, ine, 
 ory, ose, ous (ious, eous, uous), ful, ey, y. 
 
 Examples. Elegiac, pertaining to an elegy. Mountainon*, 
 abounding in mountains. So, autumna?, antedeluvian, emblematic, 
 lunatic, consular, discretionary, juvenile, adamantine, transitory, 
 verbose, wondrons, affectionate, hopeful, sunny. 
 
 IV. To cause, to make. 
 
 Ate (iate, uate), en, fy, ish, ize, ise. 
 
 Examples. Alienate, to make an alien. So, justi/y, stablwfc 
 soften, civilise, criticise. 
 
 V. Diminution. 
 
 Cle, cule-, kin, let, ling, ock. 
 
 Examples. Corpuscle, a little body or particle. So, animalcttte, 
 lambfcin, eagfci, duckling, hillock. 
 
 VI. (Miscellaneous.*) 
 
 Oid, like; as, spheroid — ive, tending to; as, delusive — 
 ward, towards; as, eastward — less, without; as, sleep/ess 
 
32 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 — ics, science of; as, mathematics — ish, somewhat ; as, 
 blui'sA — like, resembling; as, warlike — ly, in — manner, 
 as, wisely — able (ible) capable of; as, credible. 
 
 Note. The following terminations are properly grammatical 
 inflections, used to denote the accidents of the noun, verb, adjective, 
 or adverb. 
 
 s or es, more than one, (plural ;) as, birds* ; churches. 
 ed, . . . past time or the passive state ; as, loved (did love, 
 
 or was loved.) 
 ing, . . . continuing to do ; as, lowing. 
 er, est, more, most; as, warmer, warmest. 
 
 Note. The general significations of the various suffix 2S are 
 given in the above list. The particular variations of these mean 
 ings, to suit given cases, will readily suggest themselves. 
 
 MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 
 
 Quietude, .... It is a derivative word, (why?) 
 
 Quiet, is the radical part and signifies rest. 
 
 Ude, is the suffix and signifies state of. 
 
 Hence, quiet-ude, state of rest. 
 Note. By combining this with the preceding model, the pupil 
 can analyze all words having both a prefix and a suffix. All com 
 pounds may be analyzed according to the following 
 
 MODEL. 
 
 Sea-breeze . . is a compound word, (why ?) formed from 
 
 Sea, which means the ocean, and 
 
 breeze, .... which means a gentle wind. 
 
 Hence, Sea-breeze, a gentle wind from the ocean. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Sjudy the list of suffixes and prefixes, and then analyze the 
 following derivative words : — 
 
 Incomplete, famous, peerage, childhood, peaceable, ani- 
 
 * Wlien 5 or es are added to the present tense of the verh, they denote the 
 singular nuraher 
 
IN GRAMMAR. S3 
 
 inalcule, pupilage, globule, hopeful, kingdom, friendship, 
 expectation, indecisive, incompatible, incomprehensibility, 
 righteous, signature, prepossession, dissimilarity, discovery, 
 recoverable, reorganize, transparency, debasement, promo- 
 tion, derangement, reinstate, predisposition, illumination^ 
 ignominiously, allegation, confederation, impenetrability, 
 disqualification. 
 
 Analyze the following compound words: — 
 
 Seahorse, timepiece, cloudcapped, fireplace, inkstand, 
 tree-top, woodhouse, schoolroom, mousetrap, whaleship, 
 sunrise, drawbridge, newspaper, copy-book, breastplate, 
 eyesight, airpump, cornstalk, woodpile. 
 
 Add as many prefixes and suffixes as you can to the fol- 
 lowing radicals, and count the number of words you form 
 from each : — 
 
 Form, gress (go), press, grade, range, merge, number, 
 face, brace, value, measure, like, state, cloud, fair, stable, 
 equal, print, trust, burden, mix, mount, line, social, move, 
 base, animate, judge, test, use, lay, figure, firm, vene (come), 
 join, struct (build), charge, cede, serve, tend. 
 
 Model. Form — form.?, former, formed, forming, form- 
 ation, formaZ, formally, formality, formalist, formalism, form- 
 ative, reform, reforms, reformed, reforming, reformation, 
 reformatory, reformative, reformer, inform, informs, informer, 
 informed, informing, informal, informally, informality, in- 
 formant, misinform, misinformed, perform, performs, per- 
 former, performed, performing, performance, performance, 
 deform, deforms, deformed, deforming, deformity, transform > 
 transforms, transforming, transformed, transformation, con* 
 form, conforms, conforming, conformed, conformer, conform- 
 able, conformably, conformation, conformist, conform^, 
 tionco^rmist, nonconformity, wnform, nnformed, uniform, 
 owiforms, uniformly, uniformity. 65 words. 
 G 
 
34 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Note. Care should be taken that no word be sanctioned which 
 is not in good nse. Analogy will lead the learner to form words 
 which have not the sanction of usage. 
 
 How many classes of suffixes are given? What does each 
 denote ? Mention the principal suffixes under each. 
 
 PARTS OF SPEECH— INFLECTION. 
 LESSON X. 
 
 WORDS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR MEANING 
 
 AND USE. 
 Note. This classification cannot be fully understood till tha 
 pupil learns to combine words into sentences ; and as it depends 
 upon the use of words, the same word may belong to one class in 
 one connection, and to another in another. Yet all words may be 
 reduced to eight classes, called parts of speech. 
 
 A noun is the name of an object ; as, fruit, 
 Henry, Boston. 
 
 The noun (from the Lat. nomen, a name) embraces a large num 
 ber of words. All words which are the names of persons, animals* 
 places, or things, material or immaterial, are called nouns. 
 
 A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a 
 noun ; as, 1", he, you, who. 
 
 This part of speech (derived from the Lat. pronomen,ybr a name) 
 embraces but a small number of different words ; yet any noun 
 may be represented by a pronoun. 
 
 An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify 
 the meaning of a noun or pronoun; as, good, faith 
 ful, this, some. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 35 
 
 The adjective (from the Lat. adjectus, added to, i. e., to a noun) 
 embraces a large class of words, which are added to nouns lo ex 
 press their qualities or define them ; as, " Worthy citizens ; " " thii 
 book." It will be seen that these three parts of speech are inti 
 inately connected; the first is the name of an object, — the seconJ 
 may take the place of the first, — the third expresses the properties 
 <tf either. All words which are united to nouns answering such 
 questions as What? WhatTdndl How many? are adjectives. 
 
 A verb is a word which expresses being, action, 
 or state ; as, be, read, sleep, is loved. 
 
 Nothing can be affirmed without a verb. It is derived from the 
 Lat. verbum, the word, i. e., the important word ; it embraces a 
 large class of words. The different uses of the verb, as well as 
 those of the other parts of speech, will be explained in Part II. 
 
 An adverb is used to modify the meaning of a 
 verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, quickly, 
 first, far. 
 
 The adverb (from the Lat. adverbum, added to a verb) embraces 
 all those words which are added to verbs, adjectives, or other 
 adverbs, to denote time, place, and manner. 
 
 A preposition is a word used to show the relation 
 between a noun or pronoun and some preceding 
 word ; as, upon, on, with. 
 
 This part of speech embraces a small list of words, which are 
 used to denote the relations of place, time, cause, manner, property, 
 quality, &c. It is called a preposition (from the Lat. prepositus, 
 placed before) from the circumstance of its being placed before the 
 object with which it is always associated. 
 
 A conjunction is a word used to connect either 
 words, phrases, or propositions ; as, and, but, or. 
 
 The conjunction includes but a small plass of words, which are 
 used to join the parts of a sentence ; it is derived from the Lat son 
 junctus, joined. 
 
36 FI31ST LESSONS 
 
 An interjection is a word used to express some 
 emotion of the mind; as, oh! alas! 
 
 The term interjection, (from the Lat. interjectus, thrown between,) 
 is app'ied to a few words that do not enter into the structure cf 
 a sentence; but may be thrown in at pleasure, to express our 
 feelings. 
 
 Note. The exercises on the parts of speech are deferred till the 
 earner shall commence the construction of sentences. The pupil 
 should now commence Part II., page 81. 
 
 How many parts of speech are there ? What is a noun V A 
 pronoun ? An adjective ? A verb ? An adverb ? A preposition ? 
 A conjunction ? An interjection ? 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 A noun is the name of an object. 
 
 Note. — The word object, as here used, embraces every species 
 of existence, whether material or immaterial. 
 
 Nouns are divided into two classes, — proper and 
 common. 
 
 A proper noun is the name of an individual 
 object ; as, James, Erie. 
 
 A common noun is a name which applies to each 
 individual of a class of objects ; as, man, boy^ 
 house. 
 
 Under the head of common nouns are commonly reckoned 
 collective, abstract, and verbal nouns. 
 
 A collective noun is one which, in the singular, denotes mora 
 than one object as, army, family, flock. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 37 
 
 An abstract noun is the name of a property considered apan 
 from the object to which it belongs ; as, goodness, virtue, wisdom. 
 
 A verbal noun is a participle used as a noun ; as, " He was con 
 victed of stealing." 
 
 The infinitive is a kind of verbal noun ; as, " To see the sun n 
 aloasant." 
 
 A phrase or entire proposition may be used as a noun; as, 
 " From Boston to Providence is a pleasant route ; " " That you 
 have wronged me, doth appear in this." 
 
 Note. The noun is often called a substantive. All phrases 01 
 clauses, used as nouns, are called substantive phrases or clauses. 
 
 What is a noun ? Into how many classes are nouns divided ? 
 What is a proper noun ? What is a common noun ? A collective 
 noun ? An abstract noun ? A verbal noun ? 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a 
 noun. 
 
 Note. The pronoun is used to represent an object as having 
 Deen previously mentioned, or as having some relation to the 
 speaker. 
 
 Pronouns ate divided into three classes, — per- 
 sonal, relative, and interrogative. 
 
 A personal pronoun is used both to represent a 
 noun and to show whether it is of the first, second, 
 or third person. 
 
 I (plural, we} is of the first person ; thou 
 (plural, ye or you) is of the second person ; he, 
 4 
 
38 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 she, and ft, (plural, they,*) are of the third person, 
 masculine, feminine, and neuter, respectively. 
 
 When self (plural, selves) is added to the personal pronouns, 
 they are called compound personal pronouns ; as, myself, thyself 
 himself herself itself; ourselves, yourselves, themselves. 
 
 These seldom, if ever, are used as the subject; they may he in 
 apposition with the subject. 
 
 It is often used in a vague sense, as the subject of verbs descrip- 
 tive of the weather ; as, " It rains ; " " It thunders." It is used as 
 an expletive, or when we wish to identify a person ; as, " It is 
 pleasant to see the sun ; " " It is Moses." 
 
 A relative pronoun is used to represent a pre- 
 ceding noun or pronoun, called the antecedent; as, 
 " Those who wish for favors, must assist others." 
 
 The simple relative pronouns are who, which, and 
 that. 
 
 Who is used to represent persons ; which, to 
 represent things, and that to represent both persons 
 and things. 
 
 What, whatever, ivhatsoever, whoever, whosoever, 
 whichever, whichsoever, are called compound rela- 
 tive pronouns, because they represent both the 
 antecedent and relative. 
 
 The compound relative pronouns include both the antecedent 
 and relative, and are equivalent, — -what to that which; whatever to 
 any thing which, whoever or whosoever, to any one who. 
 
 The compound relatives are often used, both as adjectives and 
 pronouns at the same time ; as, " He will furnish whatever book* 
 you need." 
 
 Interrogative pronouns are used in asking ques- 
 tions ; as, " Who came ? " 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 39 
 
 The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and 
 what. Who is used in inquiring for persons ; what 
 and which for things. 
 
 Note. Interrogative pronouns are declined like relatives. 
 
 What is a pronoun? Into how many classes are pronouii3 
 divided? What is a personal pronoun? Mention the personal 
 pronouns. Mention the compound personal pronouns. What is 
 a relative pronoun? Give them. Give the compound relative 
 pronouns. What is an interrogative pronoun ? Which are the 
 interrogative pronouns ? 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 NUMBER OF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN. 
 
 Number is that property of a noun or pronoun 
 which distinguishes one object from more than one. 
 
 The noun or pronoun has two numbers, — the 
 singular and plural. 
 
 The singular number denotes but one object ; as, 
 Jwrse, river, nation. 
 
 The plural denotes more than one object; as, 
 horses, rivers, nations. 
 
 The plural of nouns is regularly formed, — 
 
 (1.) By adding s, when the singular ends with a 
 sound that can unite with s ; as, booh, boohs ; tree, 
 trees ; — 
 
 (2.) By adding es, when the singular ends with 
 a sound that cannot unite with s ; as, box, boxes ; 
 cliwreh, churches. 
 
FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Many nouns form their plurals more or less 
 irregularly. 
 
 Note. Many nouns ending with y, preeeded by a consonant, or 
 with f or fe, follow the general rule for the addition, but undergo 
 <i change in their termination 5 as, duty, duties ; fly, Jlies ; hiife, 
 hiives. 
 
 When y is preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed regularly ; 
 as, day, days ; play, plays. 
 
 Nouns ending in 0, preceded by a vowel, add s. Most nouns 
 ending in 0, preceded by a consonant, add es ; yet, in canto, 
 grotto, quarto, junto, duodecimo, octavo, solo, halo, tyro, only s is 
 added. 
 
 The following nouns form the plural irregularly : — child, chil- 
 dren; man, men; woman, women; brother, brothers, or brethren; 
 louse, lice ; mouse, mice ; die, dice, (dies, when it means a stamp ;, 
 tooth, teeth ; foot, feet ; goose, geese ; penny, pence, or pennies. 
 
 Proper nouns, most- abstract nouns, and nouns denoting sub- 
 stance, have no plural; as, Boston, Philadelphia, iron, gold, ice* 
 patience, idleness. 
 
 Proper nouns, however, may take the plural form when two 
 iY more persons are classed together ; as, " the Ccesars ; " " the 
 Scipios." 
 
 When a title is prefixed to a proper name so as to form ens 
 complex noun, the name is generally varied to form the plural ; as, 
 " the Miss Browns." Usage is, however, by no means uniform. 
 Many writers pluralize the title and not the name ; as, " the Misses 
 Brown." 
 
 Some nouns are used only in the plural ; as, riches, scissors, 
 shears, lungs. 
 
 Some are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine. 
 
 Many nouns from foreign languages retain their original plurals. 
 The following are among the most common in use ; as, antithesis, 
 antitheses; automaton, automata; axis, axes; bandit, banditti; beau, 
 beaux; cherub, cherubim; criterion, criteria; datum, data; desider 
 atum, desiderata ; encomium, encomia ; erratum, errata ; focus, foci , 
 formula, formulas ; hypothesis, hypotheses; madame, mesdames; ma- 
 gus, magi ; memorandum, memoranda ; monsieur, messieurs ; nebulck 
 nebula ; phenomenon, phenomena ; radius, radii ; seraph, seraphim j 
 itimulus, stimuli; stratum f strata. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 41 
 
 In compound words, if the -word denoting the principal idea is 
 placed first, it is changed to form the plural ; as, courts-martial 
 but if placed last, the change takes place at the end of the word j 
 as, hand-fuls. 
 
 The plural of the pronouns is formed irregularly ; as, I t we , 
 thou, ye. 
 
 What is number ? How many numbers has a noun or pronoun ? 
 What does the singular denote ? What does the plural denote ? 
 Give the general rules for the formation of the plural. (Read care 
 fully t) e particular rules.) 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 GENDER OF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN. 
 
 Gender is a distinction of nouns or pronouns in 
 regard to sex. 
 
 There are three genders, — the masculine, femi- 
 nine, and neuter. 
 
 Nouns or pronouns which denote males are of 
 the masculine gender ; as, man, heroes, he. 
 
 Nouns or pronouns which denote females are of 
 the feminine gender ; as, girl, women, she. 
 
 Nouns or pronouns which denote objects without 
 life, are of the neuter gender; as, tree, it; fow&rs, 
 they. 
 
 Nouns which are equally applicable to a male or female, are 
 sometimes said to be of the common gender / as, parent, teacher. 
 But such nouns must be either masculine or feminine, and the time 
 gender may generally be determined by the connection. 
 
 By a figure of speech, (personification,) inanimate objects are 
 spoken of as male or female. Thus, in speaking of a ship, we say 
 "Sh* sails." 
 
 4* 
 
42 fir?t lessons 
 
 There are three methods of distinguishing the 
 sexes : — 
 
 (1.) By using different words ; — 
 
 Examples. Bachelor, maid; beau, belle; boar, sow; boy, girl; 
 brother, sister; buck, doe; bull, cow; cock, hen; drake, duck; earl, 
 zountess ; father, mother ; gander, goose ; horse, mare ; husband, 
 wife ; king, queen ; lad, lass ; lord, lady ; male, female ; man, wo- 
 man; nephew, niece; ram, ewe; son, daughter; stag, hind; uncle, 
 aunt ; wizard, witch. 
 
 (2.) By a difference of termination ; — 
 
 Examples. Abbot, abbess ; actor, actress ; administrator, admin- 
 istratrix ; adulterer, adulteress; ambassador, ambassadress; author, 
 authoress ; baron, baroness ; bridegroom, b?*ide ; benefactor, benefac- 
 tress ; count, countess ; dauphin, dauphiness ; deacon, deaconess ; 
 director, directress; duke, duchess; emperor, empress; executor, 
 executrix; governor, governess; heir, heiress; hero, heroine; hun- 
 ter, huntress ; host, hostess ; instructor, instructress ; jew, Jewess ; 
 landgrave, landgravine ; lion, lioness ; marquis, marchioness ; moni- 
 tor, monitress ; patron, patroness ; poet, poetess ; priest, priestess ; 
 pnnce, princess; prophet, prophetess ; shepherd, shepherdess ; testa- 
 tor, testatrix ; tiger, tigress ; tutor, tutoress ; widower, widow. 
 
 ( 3.) By prefixes and suffixes. 
 
 Examples. Landlord, landlady ; gentleman, gentlewoman ; pea- 
 cock, neahen ; fte-goat, she-goat ; maw-servant, maid-servant ; male 
 child, female-child ; cocZr-sparrow, fteTi-sparrow. 
 
 Personal pronouns of the first and second person have no form 
 to indicate gender. 
 
 Those of the third person have a distinct form for each gender ; 
 as, he, masculine ; she, feminine ; it, neuter. 
 
 What is gender ? How many genders are there ? What nouns 
 or pronouns are of the masculine gender ? What are of the femi- 
 nine ? What of the neuter ? How many methods of distinguish 
 ing the sexes are there ? What is the first ? The second ? Tb.« 
 third? 
 
[UtilVEKSIT" 
 
 IN GRAMMAR. V, /* A c^odS ^ k 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 
 PERSON OF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN. 
 
 Note. This lesson is to be studied in connection with the per 
 son of the subject. ' 
 
 Person is that property of a noun or pronoun 
 which shows its relation to the speaker. 
 
 A noun or pronoun must represent either the speaker, the person 
 spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 
 
 There are three persons, — the first, second, and 
 third. 
 
 The first person denotes the speaker ; as, " I, 
 John, saw." 
 
 The second person denotes the person spoken to ; 
 as, " Children, obey your parents." 
 
 The third person denotes the person or thing 
 spoken of; as, "Thomas did not come;" " The 
 harvest is abundant." 
 
 Nouns in the first and second persons are never used as the sub 
 ject or object of a verb, but may be in apposition with either. 
 
 It is the appropriate office of the personal pronouns to denote 
 person. 
 
 What is person ? How many persons are there ? What does 
 the first person denote ? The second ? The third ? 
 
44 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 
 THE CASE OF THE XOUX OR PRONOUN. 
 
 Case denotes the relation of a noun or pronoun 
 to other words. 
 
 There are three cases, — the nominative, posses- 
 sive, and objective. 
 
 The nominative case is the simplest form of the 
 noun or pronoun, and is commonly used as the sub- 
 ject of a proposition ; as, " George speaks ; " " The 
 door was shut." 
 
 Besides being the subject of a proposition, the nominative case 
 may be nsed, 1st, as the attribute of a proposition ; 2d, it may be 
 used to identify the subject; 3d, it may be independent of any 
 other word. 
 
 The possessive case denotes the relation of prop- 
 erty or possession ; as, " DavioTs harp." 
 
 The possessive case of nouns is formed by adding 
 an apostrophe ( ' ) and the letter s to the nominative ; 
 as, man 9 8 j men's. 
 
 "When the plural ends* in «, the apostrophe only is 
 added ; as, boys\ 
 
 So, sometimes when the singular ends in the sound of s or z, the 
 apostrophe only is added • as, " Moses' law." 
 
 The possessive case of the personal pronouns is formed irregu 
 larly; as, I, my, or mine; thou, thy, or thine; he, his; she, her, or 
 hers. 
 
 The possessives, mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are used 
 when the object possessed is understood. Hence they have the 
 construction of the noun ; as, ■ Mine is a pleasant task." 
 
 When a noun or pronoun follows a transitive verb 
 or a preposition, it is in the objective case ; as, 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 
 
 45 
 
 "Thomas opened his knife;" "The bird sat on 
 the tree" 
 
 The objective case of the norm is the same in form as the 
 nominative ; but the objective case of a personal pronoun, except 
 t£, is unlike the nominative; as, J, me; thou, thee; he y him; she, 
 her. 
 
 DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 
 
 The declension of a noun or pronoun is its varia- 
 tion to denote number and case. 
 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 
 
 Declension of Nouns. 
 
 
 1. Boy. 
 
 \ 
 
 Nom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 Sing. 
 Boy, 
 Boy's, 
 Boy. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Boys, 
 Boys', 
 Boys. 
 
 v 
 
 2. Fly. 
 
 
 Nom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 Sing. 
 Fly, 
 Fly's, 
 Fly. 
 
 8. John. 
 
 Pint. 
 
 Flies, 
 Flies', 
 Flies. 
 
 Nom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 Sing. 
 John, 
 John's, 
 John. 
 
 Flur. 
 Wanting. 
 
 
 
 4. Goodness. 
 
 
 Nom, 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 Sing. 
 Goodness, 
 Goodness', 
 Goodness. 
 
 Plur. 
 Wanting. 
 
 
46 
 
 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Declension of Personal Pronouns, 
 First Person. 
 Sing. Plus. 
 
 Norn. I, We, 
 
 Poss. My or mine, Our or ours, 
 
 Obj. Me. Us. 
 
 
 Second Person. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Thou, 
 
 Ye or you, 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Thy or thine 
 
 , Your or Your^ 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Thee. 
 
 You. 
 
 
 Third Person. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur 
 
 Nom. 
 
 He, 
 
 They, 
 
 Poss. 
 
 His, 
 
 Their or theirs, 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Him. 
 
 Them. 
 
 
 Third Person. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 She, 
 
 They, 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Her or hers, 
 
 Their or theirs. 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Her. 
 
 Them. 
 
 
 Third Person. 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 
 Sing 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 It, 
 
 They, 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Its. 
 
 Their or theirs, 
 
 Obj. 
 
 It. 
 
 Them. 
 
 Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. 
 
 Sing. $ Plur. Sing. $ Plw 
 
 Nom. Who, Which, 
 
 Poss. Whose, Whose, 
 
 Obj. * Whom. Which. 
 
 That, what, have no variation. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 47 
 
 What does case denote? How many cases are there? What 
 is the nominative case ? "What does the possessive case denote ? 
 How is the possessive formed? What is the objective case? 
 What is the declension of a noun or pronoun? Repeat tht 
 examples. 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 ADJECTIVE WORDS. 
 
 Note. All words which have the construction of the adjective, 
 are here considered under the head of "Adjective Words," what- 
 ever may be their particular classification. 
 
 An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify th© 
 meaning of a noun. 
 
 All adjective words are divided into two classes,— 
 limiting and qualifying. 
 
 I. — LIMITING ADJECTIVES. 
 
 A limiting adjective is used to define or restrict 
 ft the meaning of a noun, without expressing any of 
 its qualities ; as, " the house ; " "five books ; " 
 "Arabian horses." 
 
 Aeticles. The particular limiting adjectives the, and a 
 or an' are called articles. 
 
 The is called the definite article, because it points out 
 lome particular thing ; as, " the desk ; " " the sun." 
 
 A or an is called an indefinite article, because it does not 
 point out any particular thing ; as, " a pen ; " " an orchard." 
 
 An is used before a vowel sound, and a before a consonant sound ; 
 v. " an apple ; " "a pin." 
 
48 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 I 
 
 Pronominal Adjectives. Those limiting adjectives 
 which may, without the use of the article, represent a noun 
 - when understood, are called pronominal adjectives as, 
 " That [book] is his ; this is yours." 
 
 Qualifying adjectives may represent a noun when understood, 
 but the article must be prefixed ; as, " The good are happy." 
 
 The principal pronominal adjectives are, — this, that, these, those, 
 former, latter, which, what, each, every, either, neither, some, one, 
 none, any, all, such, many, muck. 
 
 When such adjectives represent a noun understood, they are 
 generally called irronouns. They may more properly be called 
 pronominal adjectives used as nouns ; as, " This is my book." Thd 
 articles never represent a noun understood. 
 
 Numeral Adjectives. Numeral adjectives are used 
 to express number; as, one, two^three, &c. 
 
 Numerals are divided into two classes : — 
 
 Cardinal; as, one, two, three, four, &c. ; — 
 
 Ordinal ; as, first, second, third, fourth, &c. 
 
 Note. Adjectives, which denote time or place, are called cir 
 cumstantial ; as, "a morning walk;" '.'an eastern custom;" "a 
 Turkish vessel." 
 
 II. — QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. 
 
 A qualifying adjective is one which limits the 
 meaning of a noun, by denoting some property or 
 quality ; as, " a virtuous man ; " "a running 
 horse." 
 
 To this class of adjectives belong the participles, 
 which have the signification of the verb and the 
 construction of the adjective. 
 
 When the participle is placed before the noun which it modules, 
 it is called a participial adjective; as, " The Hsing sun." When i% 
 is placed after the noun, and itself limited by other words, it is 
 parsed as a participle ; as, " The sun rising in the east." 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 49 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 When different objects are compared with each 
 other, the adjective expressing the property by 
 f means of which they are compared, undergoes a 
 change called comparison. 
 
 There are three degrees of comparison, — tho 
 positive, comparative, and superlative. 
 
 The positive simply denotes a quality ; as, right- 
 eous, pleasant. 
 
 The comparative shows that one of two objects 
 possesses a quality in a higher degree than the 
 other ; as, " This tree is taller than that." 
 
 The superlative shows that one of several objects 
 possesses a quality in the highest degree, when com- 
 pared with all the rest ; as, " That pine is the tall- 
 est tree in the grover." 
 
 The comparative of monosyllables is regularly 
 formed by adding r or er, and the superlative by 
 adding st or est, to the positive; as, wise, wiser, 
 wisest; bald, holder, boldest. 
 
 The comparative of most adjectives of more than 
 one syllable, is formed by prefixing more or less, 
 and the superlative, by prefixing most or least, to 
 the positive ; as, industrious, more industrious, most 
 industrious. 
 
 The following adjectives are compared irregularly : — good, 
 letter, best; bad, worse, worst; ill, worse, worst; little, less or lesser, 
 aast; much, more, most; many, more, most; far, farther, farthest; 
 near, nearer, nearest or next ; late, later, latest or last ; old, ojkr or 
 elder, oldest or eldest 
 
 5 d 
 
50 FIKST LESSONS 
 
 i 
 
 What is an adjective ? How are adjectives divided ? What is 
 a limiting adjective ? What are the, a, and an, called? Which is 
 the definite article ? Which the indefinite ? What are pronominal 
 adjectives ? What are numeral adjectives ? What is a qualifying 
 adjective ? To what class of adjective words does the participle 
 belong? When is the participle strictly an adjective. What is 
 comparison ? How many degrees of comparison are there ? Name 
 them. What does the positive denote ? The comparative ? The 
 superlative? How are the comparative and superlative degrees 
 of monosyllables formed ? How are the comparative and super- 
 lative degrees of most adjectives of more than one syllable formed ? 
 
 LESSON XVIII. 
 
 CLASSES OF VERBS.. 
 
 A verb is a word which expresses being, action, 
 or state ; as, be, read, sleep, is loved. 
 
 The being, action, or state, may be affirmed, 
 assumed, or used abstractedly ; as, " George runs; " 
 " George running ; " " to run" 
 
 Verbs are divided, according to their use, into 
 transitive and intransitive. * 
 
 A transitive verb requires the addition of an 
 object to complete its meaning ; as, " James struck 
 John." 
 
 An intransitive verb does not require the addition 
 of an object to complete its meaning ; as, " The 
 horse runs." 
 
 Verbs are divided, according to their form, into 
 regular and irregular. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 
 
 51 
 
 A regular verb is one in which the past tense 
 and past participle are formed by adding d or ed to 
 the present ; as, love, loved, loved ; gain, gained, 
 gained. 
 
 An irregular verb is one in which the past tense 
 and past participle are formed in some other way ; 
 as, see, saw, seen ; write, wrote, ivritten. 
 
 The present, past, and past participle of a verb 
 are called its principal parts. 
 
 The following list contains the principal parts of 
 the irregular verbs : — 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 Abide, 
 
 Abode, 
 
 Abode. 
 
 Am, . x 
 
 Was, 
 
 Been. 
 
 Awake, 
 
 Awoke, r.* 
 
 Awaked. 
 
 Bear, (to brine/ forth,} 
 
 i Bore, 
 
 Born. 
 
 Bear, (to carry,) 
 
 Bore, 
 
 Borne. 
 
 Beat, 
 
 Beat, 
 
 Beaten, beat. 
 
 Begin, 
 
 Began, 
 
 Begun. 
 
 Bend, 
 
 Bend, r. 
 
 Bent. 
 
 Bereave, 
 
 Bereft, r. 
 
 Bereft, r. 
 
 Beseech, 
 
 Besought, 
 
 Besought. 
 
 Bid, 
 
 Bid, bade, 
 
 Bidden, bid. 
 
 Bind, 
 
 Bound, 
 
 Bound. 
 
 Bite, 
 
 Bit, 
 
 Bitten, bit. 
 
 Bleed, 
 
 Bled, 
 
 Bled. 
 
 Blow, 
 
 Blew, 
 
 Blown. 
 
 Break, 
 
 Broke, 
 
 Broken. 
 
 Breed, 
 
 Bred, 
 
 Bred. 
 
 Bring, 
 
 Brought, 
 
 Brought 
 
 Build, 
 
 Built, r. 
 
 Built 
 
 Burn, 
 
 Burnt, r. 
 
 Burnt, r. 
 
 ♦Those verbs whose past tense or past participle is followed by R., haTi 
 also a regular form ; as, awoke or awaked 
 
52 
 
 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Pnsent. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past ParticipU 
 
 Burst, 
 
 Burst, 
 
 Burst. 
 
 Buy, 
 
 Bought, 
 
 Bought. 
 
 Cast, 
 
 Cast, 
 
 Cast. 
 
 Catch, 
 
 Caught, R. 
 
 Caught, e. 
 
 Chide, 
 
 Chid, 
 
 Chidden, chic 
 
 Choose, 
 
 Chose, 
 
 Chosen. 
 
 Cleave, Jr adhere,) 
 
 Cleaved, 
 
 Cleaved. 
 
 Cleave, {to split,) 
 
 Clove, cleft, 
 
 Cloven. 
 
 Cling, 
 
 Clung, 
 
 Clung. 
 
 Clothe, 
 
 Clad, e. * 
 
 Clad, e. 
 
 Come, 
 
 Came, 
 
 Come. 
 
 Cost, 
 
 Cost, 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Creep, 
 
 Crept, 
 
 Crept. 
 
 Crow, 
 
 Crew, e. 
 
 Crowed. 
 
 Cut, 
 
 Cut, 
 
 Cut. 
 
 Dare, 
 
 Durst, 
 
 Dared. 
 
 Deal, 
 
 Dealt, r. 
 
 . Dealt, e. 
 
 Dig, 
 
 Dug, E, 
 
 Dug, E. 
 
 Do, 
 
 Did, 
 
 Done. 
 
 Draw, 
 
 Drew, 
 
 Drawn. 
 
 Dream, 
 
 Dreamt, b. 
 
 Dreamt, e. 
 
 Drink, 
 
 Drank, 
 
 Drunk, drank. 
 
 Drive, 
 
 Drove, 
 
 Driven. 
 
 Dwell, 
 
 Dwelt, e. 
 
 Dwelt, e. , 
 
 Eat, 
 
 Ate, eat, 
 
 Eaten. 
 
 Fall, 
 
 Fell, 
 
 Fallen. 
 
 Feed, 
 
 Fed, 
 
 Fed. 
 
 Feel, 
 
 Felt, 
 
 Felt. 
 
 Fight, 
 
 Fought, 
 
 Fought. 
 
 Find, 
 
 Found, 
 
 Found. 
 
 Flee, 
 
 Fled, 
 
 Fled. 
 
 Fling, 
 
 Flung, 
 
 Flung. 
 
 Fly, 
 
 Flew, 
 
 Flown. 
 
 Forsake, 
 
 Forsook, 
 
 Forsaken. 
 
 Freeze, 
 
 Froze, 
 
 Frozen. 
 
 Freight, 
 
 Freighted, 
 
 Fraught, r. 
 
 Get, 
 
 Got, 
 
 Got, gotten, 
 
 Gild, 
 
 Gilt, e. 
 
 Gilt, r. 
 

 IN GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 Presen* 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 Gird, 
 
 Girt, r. 
 
 Girt, R. 
 
 Give, 
 
 Gave, 
 
 Given. 
 
 Go, 
 
 Went, 
 
 Gone. 
 
 Grave, 
 
 Graved 
 
 -Graven, r. 
 
 Grind, 
 
 Ground, 
 
 Ground. 
 
 Grow, 
 
 Grew, 
 
 Grown. 
 
 Hang, 
 
 Hung, 
 
 Hung. 
 
 Have, 
 
 Had, 
 
 Had. 
 
 Hear, 
 
 Heard, 
 
 Heard. 
 
 Heave, 
 
 Hove, r. 
 
 Hoven, r. 
 
 Hew, 
 
 Hewed, 
 
 Hewn, r. 
 
 Hide, 
 
 Hid, 
 
 Hidden, hi* 
 
 Hit, 
 
 Hit, 
 
 Hit. 
 
 Hold, 
 
 Held, 
 
 Held. 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 Hurt. 
 
 Keep, 
 
 Kept, 
 
 Kept. 
 
 Kneel, 
 
 Knelt, r. 
 
 Knelt, r. 
 
 Knit, 
 
 Knit, r. 
 
 Knit, r. 
 
 Know, 
 
 Knew, 
 
 Known. 
 
 Lade, 
 
 Laded, 
 
 Laden. 
 
 Lay, 
 
 Laid, 
 
 Laid. 
 
 Lead, 
 
 Led, 
 
 Led. 
 
 Leave, 
 
 Left, 
 
 Left. 
 
 Lend, 
 
 Lent, 
 
 Lent. 
 
 Let, 
 
 Let, 
 
 Let* 
 
 Lie, (to reclintiJ 
 
 Lay, 
 
 Lain. 
 
 Light, 
 
 Lh, it. 
 
 Lit, r. 
 
 Load, 
 
 Loaded, 
 
 . Laden, r. 
 
 Lose, 
 
 Lost, 
 
 Lost. 
 
 Make, 
 
 Made, 
 
 Made^ 
 
 Mean, 
 
 Meant, 
 
 Meant 
 
 Meet, 
 
 Met, 
 
 Met. 
 
 Mow, 
 
 Mowed, 
 
 Mown, r. 
 
 Pay, 
 
 Paid, 
 
 Paid. 
 
 Pen, (to enclose,) 
 
 Pent, r. 
 
 Pent, r. 
 
 Put, 
 
 Put, 
 
 Put. - 
 
 Quit, 
 
 Quit, r. 
 
 Quit, r. 
 
 Re*d, 
 
 Read, 
 
 Read. 
 
 53 
 
 5* 
 
54 
 
 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Present, 
 
 fast. 
 
 Past Particrr& 
 
 Rend, 
 
 Rent, 
 
 Rent. 
 
 Rid, 
 
 Rid, 
 
 Rid. 
 
 Ride, 
 
 Rode, 
 
 Ridden. 
 
 Ring, 
 
 Rang, rune 
 
 Rung. 
 
 Rise, 
 
 Rose, 
 
 Risen. 
 
 Rive, 
 
 Rived, 
 
 Riven. 
 
 Run, 
 
 Ran, 
 
 Run. 
 
 Saw 
 
 Sawed, 
 
 Sawn, R. 
 
 Say 
 
 Said, 
 
 Said. 
 
 See, 
 
 Saw, 
 
 Seen. 
 
 Seek, 
 
 Sought, 
 
 Sought. 
 
 Seeth* 
 
 Sod, k. 
 
 Sodden. 
 
 Sell, 
 
 Sold, 
 
 Sold. 
 
 Send, 
 
 Sent, 
 
 Sent. 
 
 Set, 
 
 Set, 
 
 Set. 
 
 Sit, 
 
 Sat, 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Shake, 
 
 Shook, 
 
 Shaken. 
 
 Shape, 
 
 Shaped, 
 
 Shapen, it. 
 
 Shave, 
 
 Shaved, 
 
 Shaven, r. 
 
 Shear, 
 
 Sheared, 
 
 Shorn, B. 
 
 Shed, 
 
 Shed, 
 
 Shed. 
 
 Shine, 
 
 Shone, 
 
 Shone. 
 
 Shoe, 
 
 Shod, 
 
 Shod. 
 
 Shoot, 
 
 Shot, 
 
 Shot. 
 
 Show, * 
 
 Showed, 
 
 Shown. 
 
 Shred, 
 
 Shred, 
 
 Shre<* 
 
 Shrink, 
 
 Shrunk, shrank. 
 
 Shrunk. 
 
 Shut, 
 
 Shut, 
 
 Shut. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 Sang, sung, 
 
 Sung. 
 
 Sink, 
 
 Sunk, sank, 
 
 Sunk. 
 
 Slay, 
 
 Slew, 
 
 Slain. 
 
 Sleep, 
 
 Slept, 
 
 Slept. 
 
 Slide, 
 
 Slid, 
 
 Slidden, slid. 
 
 Sling, 
 
 Slung, 
 
 Slung. 
 
 Slink, 
 
 Slunk, 
 
 Slunk. 
 
 Slit, 
 
 Slit, 
 
 Slit, b. 
 
 Smite 
 
 Smote, 
 
 Smitten, smit. 
 
 Sow, (to scatter,) 
 
 Sowed, 
 
 Sown, p.. 
 

 IN GRAMMAR. 
 
 * 5i 
 
 Present 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past Participle 
 
 Speak, 
 
 Spoke, 
 
 Spoken. 
 
 Speed* 
 
 Sped, 
 
 Sped. 
 
 Spell, 
 
 Spelt, r. 
 
 Spelt, r. 
 
 Spend, 
 
 Spent, 
 
 Spent. 
 
 Spill, 
 
 Spilt, r. 
 
 Spilt, r. 
 
 Spin, 
 
 Spun, 
 
 Spun. 
 
 Spit, 
 
 Spit, 
 
 Spit- 
 
 Split, 
 
 Split, 
 
 Split. 
 
 Spread, 
 
 Spread, 
 
 Spread. 
 
 Spring, 
 
 Sprang, sprung, 
 
 Sprung. 
 
 Stand, 
 
 Stood, 
 
 Stood. 
 
 Steal, 
 
 Stole, 
 
 Stolen. 
 
 Stick, 
 
 Stuck, 
 
 Stuck. 
 
 Sting, 
 
 Stung, 
 
 Stung. 
 
 Stride, 
 
 Strode, strid, 
 
 Stridden. 
 
 Strike, 
 
 Struck, 
 
 Struck, stricken. 
 
 String, 
 
 Strung, 
 
 Strung. 
 
 Strive, 
 
 Strove, 
 
 Striven. 
 
 Strow or strew, 
 
 S trowed or strewed, 
 
 Strown, strewn, «. 
 
 Swear, 
 
 Swore, 
 
 Sworn. 
 
 Sweat, 
 
 Sweat, r. 
 
 Sweat, r. 
 
 Sweep, 
 
 Swept, 
 
 S\*ept. 
 
 Swell, 1 
 
 Swelled, 
 
 Swollen, r. 
 
 Swim, 
 
 Swam, swum, 
 
 Swum. 
 
 Swing. 
 
 Swung, 
 
 Swung. 
 
 Take, 
 
 Took, 
 
 Taken. 
 
 Teach, 
 
 - Taught, 
 
 Taught. 
 
 Tear, 
 
 Tore, 
 
 Torn. 
 
 Tell, 
 
 Told, 
 
 Told. 
 
 Think, 
 
 Thought, 
 
 Thought. 
 
 Thrive, 
 
 Throve, 
 
 Thriven. 
 
 Throw, 
 
 Threw, 
 
 Thrown. 
 
 Thrust, 
 
 Thrust, 
 
 Thrust. 
 
 Tread, 
 
 Trod, 
 
 Trodden, trod. 
 
 Wax, 
 
 'Waxed, 
 
 Waxen, R. 
 
 Wear, 
 
 Wore, 
 
 Worn. 
 
 » Weave, 
 
 Wove, 
 
 Woven. 
 
 Weep, 
 
 Wept, 
 
 Wept. 
 
56 * FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 * 
 
 Past ParticipU. 
 
 Wet, 
 
 Wet, r. 
 
 
 Wet, r. 
 
 Whet, 
 
 Whet,.R. 
 
 
 Whet, r. | 
 
 Win, 
 
 Won, 
 
 
 Won. 
 
 Wind, 
 
 Wound, 
 
 
 Wound. 
 
 Work, 
 
 Wrought, 
 
 
 Wrought, r. 
 
 Wring, 
 
 Wrung, 
 
 
 Wrung. 
 
 Write, 
 
 Wrote, 
 
 
 Written. 
 
 
 AUXILIARIES. 
 
 
 An auxiliary verb is one which is employed in 
 conjugating other verbs. The auxiliaries are, do, 
 be, have, shall, will, may, can, must. 
 
 1. The auxiliaries are used to form the modes and tenses of othei 
 verbs. 
 
 2. They give peculiar shades of meaning to the modes and tenses 
 in which they are used. 
 
 Be is the copula ; its uses have been explained. 
 
 Do, in declarative sentences, denotes emphasis. 
 
 Have den6tes completion. It is used in the perfect tenses. 
 
 May denotes possibility or permission. 
 
 Can denotes ability or power. 
 
 Must denotes necessity or obligation. 
 
 Shall and will, in general, denote futurity. 
 
 Note. In declarative sentences, shall, in the first person, and 
 will, in the second and third, predict or express determination ; while 
 wiU, in the first, and shall, in the second and third, express a volition, 
 or promise. In interrogative sentences, the above order in the use 
 of these two auxiliaries is reversed. 
 
 3. They are used to introduce direct interrogative sentences ; a?, 
 
 " Does he write ? " u May we go ? " >. 
 
 Note. Do, which denotes emphasis in declarative sentences, 
 denotes merely inquiry in interrogative sentences ; it must be sup- 
 plied in the latter, where it would not be usei in the former ; as 
 " It snows ; " " Does it snow ? " ♦ 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 
 
 57 
 
 4. They are used' at the^elose of an elliptical clause, to represent 
 the principal verb ; as, " Ycu must write as he does, i. e., writes." 
 
 5. The. auxiliaries, as such, have only two tenses ; the present and 
 the past, except must, which has no variation. They may be thu? 
 represented : — 
 
 Present, 
 
 CONJUGATION OF 
 
 THE 
 
 AUXILIARIES. 
 
 
 
 Singular^ 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 1st Per. 
 
 2d Per. 
 
 3d Per 
 
 1st Pei 
 
 . 2d Per. 
 
 3d Per. 
 
 / 
 
 Thou 
 
 He 
 
 We 
 
 You 
 
 They 
 
 Am 
 
 art 
 
 is 
 
 are 
 
 are 
 
 are 
 
 Do 
 
 dost 
 
 does 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 Have 
 
 hast 
 
 has 
 
 have 
 
 have 
 
 have 
 
 Will 
 
 wilt 
 
 will 
 
 will 
 
 will 
 
 will 
 
 Shall 
 
 shalt 
 
 shall 
 
 shall 
 
 shall 
 
 shall 
 
 May 
 
 mayst 
 
 may 
 
 may 
 
 may 
 
 may 
 
 Can 
 
 canst * 
 
 can 
 
 can 
 
 can 
 
 can 
 
 Must 
 
 must 
 
 must 
 
 must 
 
 must 
 
 must 
 
 'Was 
 
 wast 
 
 was 
 
 were 
 
 were 
 
 were 
 
 Did 
 
 didst 
 
 did 
 
 did 
 
 did 
 
 did 
 
 Had 
 
 hadst 
 
 had 
 
 had 
 
 had 
 
 had 
 
 Past, -j Would wouldst would would would would 
 
 Should shouldst should should should should 
 
 Might mightst might might might might 
 
 Could couldst could could could could. 
 
 Defective verbs are those in which some of the 
 parts are wanting. They are, beware, quoth, ought, 
 and all the auxiliaries except do, be, and have. 
 These, when used as principal verbs, have all their 
 parts. 
 
 What is a verb ? How may the being, action, or state be used ? 
 How are verbs divided according to their use ? What is a transi 
 tive verb ? An intransitive verb ? How are verbs divided accord- 
 ing to their form ? What is a regular verb ? *What are irregular 
 verbs ? Which are the principal parts of verbs ? What ftre auxil 
 iary verbs ? What are the princ'pal uses of the auxiliaries ? What 
 are defective verbs ? 
 
58 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 * 
 LESSON XIX. 
 NUMBER, PERSON, AND VOICE OF THE VERB. 
 
 The number and person of the verb are proper- 
 ties which show its agreement with the subject. 
 Like the subject, the verb has two numbers and 
 three persons. 
 
 In the solemn style, the second person singular of the verb, in the 
 present tense, is formed by adding st or est to the first ; but in the 
 common style, it ends like the second person plural ; the third per 
 son singular is formed by adding s or es, and formerly eth. 
 
 ■ Voice is applied to the two forms of the transitive 
 verb, and is either active or passive. 
 
 The active voice represents the subject as acting ; 
 as, " John struck William. 
 
 The passive voice represents the subject as being 
 acted upon ; as, " William was struck by John." 
 
 The passive verb is formed by adding the passive 
 participle of a transitive verb to the copula. 
 
 Any sentence containing a transitive verb may take two equiv- 
 alent forms, — one in which the verb is in the active voice, and the 
 other in which it is in the passive. When the verb is in the pas- 
 sive voice, the agent is in the objective case following by ; as, 
 " William was struck by John." Sometimes the agent is omitted ; 
 as, " A plot was discovered." 
 
 What is meant by the number and person of the verb ? How many 
 numbers and persons have verbs ? W T hat is voice ? How many 
 voices are there ? * What does the active voice represent ? What 
 does the* passive voice represent ? How is the passive verb 
 fonned ? 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 59 
 
 LESSON XX. 
 
 MODE OF THE VERB. 
 
 Mode shows the manner in which an attribute 
 is asserted of the subject. 
 
 There are commonly reckoned five modes, — the 
 indicative, potential, subjunctive, imperative, and 
 infinitive. 
 
 The indicative mode asserts a thing as actually 
 existing ; as, " James is rich; " " George writes" 
 
 The potential mode asserts a thing as possible, 
 probable, or necessary ; as, " James may be rich;*' 
 " George must write" 
 
 The subjunctive mode *asserts a thing as con- 
 ditional or doubtful; as, "If James be rich;" 
 " Should George write." 
 
 The imperative mode asserts a command, an 
 exhortation, an entreaty, or a permission; as y 
 " Write; " " Go thou ; " " Be satisfied." 
 
 The infinitive * represents an attribute as an 
 abstract noun ; as, " To be rich ; " " To write" 
 
 The indicative, potential, and imperative modes are used in prin- 
 cipal propositions. The subjunctive is always used in subordinate 
 
 * The infinitive is here placed among the modes, because it has been thus 
 ranked by common consent ; yet it is as really a participle as the forms 
 •which bear that name. It does not assert action at all, and therefore cannot 
 properly be said to have mode. It is the simple name of the verl^ taken 
 abstractly, and partakes of the properties of the noun and verb, jusTas the 
 narticiple partakes of the properties of the adjective and verb Both are 
 used in abridged propositions, one in reducing substantive, and the other in 
 •educing adjective clauses. 
 
DO FIRST LESSON'S 
 
 propositions, and the infinitive and participles, in abridged propo 
 sitions. 
 
 Note. The indicative and potential modes are often used in 
 subordinate propositions. The imperative mode is sometimes made 
 subordinate in direct quotation; as, "God said, Let there be 
 light.'* 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 A participle is a form of the verb by which the 
 being, action, or state, is used as an adjective. 
 
 The participle is so called, because it participates, of the proper- 
 ties of the verb and adjective. 
 
 There are two participles, — the present and 
 perfect ; as, reading, having read. 
 
 These two participles correspond to the present and perfect 
 tenses in each of the three grand divisions of time. 
 
 Transitive verbs have* an active and passive par- 
 ticiple. 
 
 examples. 
 
 ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
 
 Present. Loving, Loved or being loved. 
 
 Perfect. Having loved, Having been loved. 
 
 Though there are but two distinct participles, 
 there are three different forms called participles, — 
 the present, the past, and the perfect 
 
 The past participle is never used except in combination with 
 some modification of have, to form the perfect tenses ; as, have 
 loved, had loved, to have loved, having loved. It belongs to all verbs 
 transitive and intransitive. It has an active signification, denotes 
 past time, but is never used, like the other forms, to limit a noun 
 by expressing an assumed attribute. Its entire use is, to aid in the 
 formation of the tenses. The past participle is, however, identical 
 in form with the present passive participle, when used without 
 being. Mark the difference in the following examples : — " Th# 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 61 
 
 boy has respected the wishes of his parents ; " u The boy lives 
 (being) respected by all." In the last example, "respected " ha? a 
 passive signification, denotes present time, and limits " boy " fry 
 assuming (not affirming) that he is in a certain state. This last is 
 called the passive participle of " respect ; " respecting being the cor 
 responding active participle. Intransitive verbs have no passive 
 participle. 
 
 The present active participle denotes an action 
 or state present but unfinished at the time denoted 
 by the principal verb ; as, " We found him sitting 
 in a chair." 
 
 The present passive participle denotes the recep- 
 tion of an act, which is present at the time denoted 
 by the principal verb ; as, " He lives loved by all." 
 
 The perfect active participle denotes an action or 
 state past and completed at the time denoted by the 
 principal verb ; as, " Saving finished his speech, 
 he sat down." 
 
 The perfect passive participle denotes the recep- 
 tion of an act past and completed at the time 
 denoted by the principle verb ; as, " Having been 
 driven from home, he enlisted in the army." 
 
 Participles, like the subordinate clauses for which they stand, 
 denote a time present ovpast in relation to the principal verb, and 
 not in relation to the speaker. Hence the present participle may 
 denote, with reference to the speaker, present, past, or future time. 
 So the perfect participle may denote an act completed in past, 
 present, or future time. ' It is worthy of notice, that each grand 
 division of time has two tenses, — & present and a perfect; and that 
 this distinction exists in all the verbal forms, the infinitive and 
 participles as well as the modes properly so called. 4 
 
 A participle, like an adjective, may be either 
 assumed or predicated of a noun ; as, "A boat 
 6 
 
62 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 sailing on the water is a pleasant object ; " u The 
 boat is sailing on the water." 
 
 An assumed participle, with the words depending 
 upon it, is equivalent to a subordinate clause. 
 
 The active participle w T hen predicated, constitutes, 
 with the copula, the progressive form of the verb ; 
 as, " The farmer vjas reaping" 
 
 The passive participle, when predicated, forms, 
 with the copula, the jussive verb ; as, " His expec- 
 tations were realized". 
 
 What does mode show ? How many modes are there ? What 
 is the indicative mode ? The potential ? The subjunctive ? The 
 imperative ? The infinitive ? What is a participle ? How many 
 participles are there ? How many participles have transitive verbs ? 
 How many forms called participles are there ? What does the 
 present active participle denote ? What does the present passive 
 participle denote ? What does the perfect active participle denote ? 
 What does the perfect passive participle denote ? How may par- 
 ticiples be used ? What does the active participle constitute, 
 when predicated ? What the passive ? 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 
 TENSE OF THE VERB. 
 
 Tense denotes the time of an action or event. 
 
 There are three divisions of time, — the past, 
 the present, and the future. 
 
 Eajh division has two tenses, — an absolute and 
 a relative. There are, therefore, six tenses, — three 
 absolute 'and three relative. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 63 
 
 The absolute tenses take the name of the division to which they 
 belong, namely, the present tense, the past tense, and the future 
 tense. 
 
 The relative tenses add to the name of the division the word 
 v perfect ; " — present perfect, past perfect, future perfect, 
 
 , The present tense denotes present time ; as, "I 
 write" 
 
 The present perfect tense denotes past time 
 completed in the present ; as, "I have written" 
 
 The past tense denotes past time ; as, " I wrote" 
 
 The past perfect tense denotes past time com- 
 pleted in the past ; as " I had written." 
 
 The future tense denotes future time ; as, " I 
 shall write" 
 
 The future perfect tense denotes a future time 
 completed in the future ; as, " I shall have zvritten" 
 
 Note. It is believed that the above division of the tenses better 
 represents the different relations of time than the old ; but if any 
 prefer the old, the following table will enable them to use it. i 
 
 Old division. New division. Examples. 
 
 Present tense, Present tense, I write. 
 
 Imperfect tense, Past tense, I wrote, 
 
 Perfect tense, Present perfect tense, I have written, 
 
 Pluperfect tense, Past perfect tense, I had written, 
 
 First future tense, Future tense, I shall or will write, 
 
 Second future tense. Future perfect tense. I shall have written. 
 
 FORMS OF THE VERB. 
 
 There are three different forms of the verb, in the activo 
 voice, namely, the common, the emphatic, the progressive , 
 the passive has but one form. 
 
 COMMON FORM. 
 
 The common form denotes a customary act ; its tenses are 
 thus formed : — 
 
64 
 
 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Absolute 
 
 Tenses. 
 
 Relative 
 Tenses. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 The present is the first or simple form of the vert) , 
 as, love. 
 
 The past is the second form of the verb ; as, loved. 
 
 The future is formed by joining to the simple verb 
 the auxiliary shall or will; as, shall love, will love. 
 
 The present perfect is formed by joining the present 
 tense of have to the past participle of the verb ; as, 
 have loved. 
 
 The past perfect is formed by joining the past tense 
 of have to the past participle ; as, had loved. 
 
 The future perfect is formed by joining the future 
 tense of have to the past participle ; as, shall have loved. 
 
 Absolute 
 Tenses. 
 
 Relative 
 
 POTENTIAL MODE. 
 
 The present potential is formed by joining the pres- 
 ent tense of may", can, or must to the simple or first 
 form of the verb ; as, may, can, or must love. 
 
 The past potential is formed by joining the past 
 tenses of may, can, will, or shall, to the simple form of 
 the verb ; as, might, could, would, or should love. 
 
 The present perfect is formed by joining the piesent 
 potential of have to the past participle ; as, may, can, 
 or must have loved. 
 
 The past perfect is formed by joining the past po 
 tential of have to the past participle ; as, might, could, 
 would, or should have loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 
 The subjunctive mode is the same in form as the indica 
 live or potential, with if, unless, though, &c., prefixed ; as, 
 if I love if I can love. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 
 The imperative has but one tense, — the present, — which 
 Is the simple form of the verb, generally used without the 
 subject expressed ; as, love. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 65 
 
 INFINITIVE MODE. 
 
 The infinitive mode has two tenses, — a present and a 
 verfect, The present is the first form of the verb joined to 
 k> ; as, to love, 
 
 The perfect is formed by joining the present infinitive of 
 have to tin past participle of the verb; as, to have loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 The present participle is formed by adding ing to the first 
 form of the verb ; * as, loving. 
 
 The past participle is formed, for regular verbs, by adding 
 id to the simple verb ; * as, loved. 
 
 The perfect participle is formed by joining the present 
 participle of have to the past participle ; as, having loved. 
 
 EMPHATIC FORM. 
 
 The emphatic form is used to express emphasis ; it belongs 
 to the active voice of the indicative and imperative modes. 
 It is formed by joining the auxiliary do to the first form of 
 the verb, for the present tense, and did to the same, for the 
 past tense ; as, do love, do thou love, did love. 
 
 PROGRESSIVE FORM. 
 
 The progressive form represents an unfinished act ; it is 
 the common form of the copula, to he, added to the present 
 participle ; as, am loving, have teen loving, &c. 
 
 PASSIVE FORM. 
 
 The passive form denotes the reception of an act ; it is 
 the common form of the copula, to be, joined to the passive 
 participle, (same in form as the past participle ;) as, is loved, 
 has been loved, &c. 
 
 * When the simple verh ends in i foe e should be dropped, according to 
 Rule II. p 29. 
 
66 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 CONJUGATION. 
 
 The conjugation of a verb is the regular arrange- 
 ment of its several modes, tenses, voices, numbers, 
 and persons. 
 
 The following is the conjugation of the verb TO BE : ^» 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 ABSOLUTE TENSES. 
 
 Present Tense 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. I am. 
 
 We are. 
 
 2. Thou art.* 
 
 You are.f 
 
 3. He is. 
 
 They are. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. I was. 
 
 We were. 
 
 2. Thou wast. 
 
 Tou were. 
 
 3. He was. 
 
 They were. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall or will be. We shall or will be. 
 
 2. Thou shalt or wilt be. You shall or will be. 
 
 3. He shall or will be. They shall or will be 
 
 KELATIVE TENSES. 
 
 Present Perfect. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have been. We have been. 
 
 2. Thou hast been. You have been. 
 
 3. He has been. They have been. 
 
 * Thou is used in the solemn or poetical style, but you is used in tin 
 lingular in the common style ; as, I am, you are, he is. 
 t Ye is also used in the plural ; thus, Ye or you are. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. *J7 
 
 Past Perfect. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I had been. We had been. 
 
 2. Thou hadst been. You had been. 
 
 3. He had been. They had been 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall have been. We shall have been 
 
 2. Thou wilt have been. You will have been. 
 
 3. He will have been. They will have beea 
 
 i 
 
 POTENTIAL MODE. 
 ABSOLUTE TENSES. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I may be. We may be. 
 
 2. Thou mayst be. You may be. 
 
 3. He may be. They may be. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I might be. We might be. 
 
 2. Thou mightst be. You might be. 
 
 3. He might be. They might be. 
 
 EELATIVE TENSES. 
 
 Present Perfect. 
 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 1. I may have been. We may have been. 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been. You may have been. 
 8. He may have been. They may have been. 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 Singular. . Plural. 
 
 1. I might have been. We might have been. 
 
 2. Thou mightst have been. You might have been. 
 
 3. He might have been. They might have bean* 
 
68 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 ABSOLUTE TENSES. 
 
 Present Tense- 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I am. If we are. 
 
 2. If thou art. If you are. 
 
 3. If he is. If they are. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I was. If we were. 
 
 2. If thou wast. If you were. 
 
 3. If he was. If they were. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plwal. 
 
 1. If I shall or will be. If we shall or will be. 
 
 2. If thou shalt or wilt be. If you shall or will be. 
 
 3. If he shall or will be. If they shall or will ba 
 
 RELATIVE TENSES 
 Present Perfect. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 • 1. If I have been. If we have been. 
 
 2. If thou hast been. If you have been. 
 
 3. If he has been. If they have been. 
 
 ■ % Past Perfect. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I had been. If we had been, 
 
 2. If thou hadst been. If you had been. 
 & If he had been. If they had been, 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I shall have been. If we shall have been. 
 
 2. If thou shalt have been. If you shall have been. 
 8. If he shall have been If they shall have been. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 
 
 69 
 
 Besides the forms already given, the subjunctive hai 
 another for the present and past. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 
 If I be. 
 If thou be. 
 If he be. 
 
 Plural. 
 If we be. 
 If you be. 
 If they be. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Past 
 
 Singula). 
 If I were. 
 If thou wert* 
 If he were. 
 
 Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 If we were. 
 If you were. 
 If they were. 
 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Be, or Be thou. 
 
 Be ye or you. 
 
 INFINITIVE MODE. 
 
 Present Tense, To be. 
 
 Present Perfect, 
 
 To have been. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present, Being. 
 
 Past, Been. 
 
 Perfect, Having been. 
 
 Synopsis is a short view of a verb, showing its form& 
 through the modes and tenses in a single number and per- 
 son. The following is a synopsis, 1st person singular oi 
 HAVE: — 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 ABSOLUTE TENSES. 
 I have, I nad. I shall have. 
 
70 FIRST LES30NS 
 
 RELATIVE TENSES. 
 I have had. I had had. I shall have had. 
 
 Let the learner write out the second and third persons in 
 the same manner, and complete the synopsis in all the 
 modes. 
 
 The regular verb LOVE is thus conjugated : — 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 Note. The four forms — the common, emphatic, progressive, 
 and passive — are arranged together. The pronouns are placed at 
 the head of the column, and should be taken in connection with 
 the forms below them. When read downwards, the several form9 
 in each person will be given ; when read across the page, the seve 
 ral persons in each form will be given. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 
 1.... Singular. 
 
 2.... Singular. 
 
 3.... Singular 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Thou 
 
 He, She, It 
 
 
 ( Com. 
 
 love, 
 
 lovest, 
 
 loves, 
 
 ACT. 
 
 <JEmp. 
 
 do love, 
 
 dost love, 
 
 does love, 
 
 
 1 Prog. 
 
 am loving, 
 
 art loving, 
 
 is loving, 
 
 PAs. 
 
 
 am loved, 
 
 art loved, 
 
 is loved. 
 
 
 
 l....Plurnl. 
 
 2.. ..Plural. 
 
 3. .Plural 
 
 
 
 We 
 
 Ye or You 
 
 They 
 
 
 (Com. 
 
 love, 
 
 love, 
 
 love, 
 
 ACT. 
 
 < Emp. 
 
 do love, 
 
 do love, 
 
 do love, 
 
 
 1 Prog. 
 
 are loving, 
 
 are loving, 
 
 are loving, 
 
 PAS. 
 
 
 . are loved, 
 
 are loved. 
 
 are loved. 
 
 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 
 
 
 1 • • Singular. 
 
 2.- • Singular. 
 
 3.- 'Singular 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Thou 
 
 He, She, It 
 
 
 C Com. 
 
 loved, 
 
 lovedst, 
 
 loved, 
 
 ACT. 
 
 < Emp. 
 
 did love, 
 
 didst love, 
 
 did love, 
 
 
 1 Prog. 
 
 was loving, 
 
 wast loving, 
 
 was loving, 
 
 PAS. 
 
 
 was loved, 
 
 wast loved, 
 
 was loved. 
 

 
 IN GRAMMAR. 
 
 7] 
 
 
 
 1 . .Plural. 
 
 2....Plural. 
 
 8.. .Ftvral. 
 
 
 
 We 
 
 Ye or You 
 
 Thky 
 
 
 (Com. 
 
 loved, 
 
 loved, 
 
 loved, 
 
 ACT. 
 
 < Emp. 
 
 did love, 
 
 did love, 
 
 did love, 
 
 
 (Prog. 
 
 were loving, 
 
 were loving, 
 
 were loving, 
 
 PAS. 
 
 
 were loved, 
 
 •wprp. InvprL 
 
 were loved. 
 
 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 
 
 
 1.... Singular. 
 
 2.... Singular. 
 
 3.... Singular 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Thou 
 
 He, She, It < 
 
 
 f Com. 
 
 shall * love, 
 
 shalt love, 
 
 shall love, 
 
 
 { Prog. 
 
 shall be loving, 
 
 shalt be loving, 
 
 shall be loving, 
 
 PAS. 
 
 
 , shall be loved, 
 
 shalt be loved, 
 
 shall be loved. 
 
 l....Plural. 2....Plural. 3.. ..Plural. 
 
 We Ye or You They 
 
 ( Com. shall love, shall love, shall love, 
 
 \ Prog, shall be loving, shall be loving, shall be loving, 
 pas shall be loved, shall be loved, shall be loved. 
 
 Present Perfect. 
 
 1.... Singular. 2.... Singular. 3.... Singular. 
 
 I Thou He, She, It 
 
 (" Com. have loved, hast loved, has loved, 
 
 ACT. -< 
 
 " ( Prog, have been loving, hast been loving, has been loving, 
 pas. ...".. have been loved, hast been loved, has been loved. 
 
 l....Plural. 
 We 
 
 ACT J ^ 0m " k aVe l° ve d, 
 
 i Prog, have been loving, have been loving, have been loving, 
 pas have been loved, have been loved, have been loved. 
 
 Past Perfect. 
 
 1.... Singular. 2.... Singular. 3.... Singular. 
 
 I Thou He, She, It 
 
 < Com. had loved, hadst loved, had loved, 
 
 ACT -j ' 
 
 I Prog, had been loving, hadst been loving, had been loving,. 
 pas had been loved, hadst been loved, had been loved. 
 
 2....Plural. 
 
 3.... Plural. 
 
 Ye or You 
 
 They 
 
 have loved, 
 
 have loved, 
 
 * The pupil should be accustomed 
 (See auxilariee, shall and will.) 
 
 > use either auxiliary, shall or will 
 
72 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 l....Plural 2....Plural. B....Plural. 
 
 We Ye or You They 
 
 act I ^° m ' had loved > tad loved > had loved, 
 
 { Prog, had been loving, had been loving, had been loving, 
 pas had been loved, had been loved, had been loved. 
 
 Future Perfect 
 
 1.... Singular, 2.... Singular. 
 
 I Thou 
 
 j Com. shall have loved, shalt have loved, 
 
 " ( Prog, shall have been loving, shalt have been loving, 
 
 pas shall have been loved, shalt have been loved, 
 
 3.... Singular. 
 He, She, It 
 f Com. shall have loved, 
 i Prog, shall have been loving, 
 pas shall have been loved. 
 
 ACT. 
 
 l....Plural. 2....Plural. 
 
 We Ye or You. 
 
 (Com. shall have loved, shall have loved, 
 
 ' ( Prog, shall have been loving, shall have been loving 
 
 pas shall have been loved, shall have been loved. 
 
 3.. ..Plural. 
 They 
 (" Com. shall have ioved, 
 ( Prog, shall have been loving, 
 pas. ..... shall have been loved. 
 
 POTENTIAL MODE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1.... Singular. 2.. ..Singular. 3... .Singular. 
 
 I Thou He, She, It 
 
 ( Com. may * love, mayst love, may love, 
 
 " \ Prog, may be loving, mayst be loving, may be loving 
 
 pas may be loved, mayst be loved, may be loved. 
 
 * Let the pupil use also the auxiliaries can and must, in the present and 
 present perfect tenses ; and could., would, and should, in the past and pas* 
 perfect tenses. 
 
Ifl*rf> 
 
 V^ OF TBK 
 
 [UNIVERSIT 
 
 > 
 
 IN GRAMMAR^ 
 
 -! 
 
 Com. 
 Prog. 
 
 l....Plural. 
 We 
 may love, 
 
 may be loving, 
 may be loved, 
 
 2.... Plural. 
 Ye or You 
 
 may love, 
 may be loving, 
 may be loved, 
 
 
 73 
 
 They 
 may love, 
 may be loving, 
 may be loved. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1.... Singular. 
 
 ACT. \° m ' mi S htlove > 
 * ( Prog, might be loving, 
 
 pas might be loved, 
 
 2 . . . . Singular. 3. . . . Singular. 
 
 Thou He, She, It 
 
 mightst love, might love, 
 
 mightst be loving, might be loving, 
 mightst be loved, might be loved. 
 
 ( Com. 
 
 1.... Plural. 
 We 
 might love, 
 
 2.... Plural. 
 Ye or You 
 might love, 
 
 3....Plural. 
 They 
 might love, 
 might be loving, 
 mia;ht be loved. 
 
 \Prog. might be loving, might be loving, 
 pas might be loved, might be loved, 
 
 Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 1. . . . Singular. 2. . . . Singular. 
 
 I Thou 
 
 f Com. may have loved, mayst have loved, 
 
 [ Prog, may have been loving, mayst have been loving, 
 ..... may have been loved, mayst have been loved. 
 3.... Singular. 
 He, She, It 
 ( Com. may have loved, 
 " \ Prog, may have been loving, 
 PAS may have been loved. 
 
 ACT. 
 PAS. 
 
 ACT. 
 PAS. 
 
 ■i 
 
 l....Plural. 
 We 
 (Pk%. may have loved, - 
 Prog may have been loving, 
 . . may have been loved, 
 
 3.. ..Plural. 
 They 
 C Com. may have loved, 
 ' \ Prog, may have been loving, 
 pas may have been loved. 
 
 7 
 
 2....Plural. 
 Ye or You 
 may have loved, 
 may have been loving, 
 may have been loved. 
 
i! 
 
 T4 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Past Perfect Tense. 
 
 1.... Singular. 2.... Singular. 
 
 I Thou 
 
 ( C<«». might have loved, mightst have loved, 
 
 " \ Prog, might have teen loving, mightst have been loving, 
 
 pas. might have been loved, mightst have been loved. 
 
 3.... Singular. 
 He, She, It 
 ( Gm. might have loved, 
 " ^ Prog, might have been loving, 
 
 pas might have been loved. 
 
 1.... Plural. 2.. ..Plural. 
 
 We Ye or You 
 
 Com. might have loved, might ha?e loved, 
 
 ^ Prog, might have been loving, might have been loving, 
 
 pas might have been loved, might have been loved. 
 
 3.... Plural, 
 They 
 ( Com. might have loved, 
 " \ Prog, might have been loving, 
 pas might have been loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 
 The subjunctive mode is the same as the indicative o* 
 potential, with if prefixed. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 ( Com. Love, or Love thou. Love, or Love ye or you. 
 
 act. < Emp. Do thou Love. Do ye or you love, 
 
 ^ Prog. Be thou loving. Be ye or you loving. 
 
 pas Be thou loved. Be ye or yxm lovoo. 
 
 INFINITIVE MODE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 < Com.. To love. 
 
 ACT. < 
 
 ' \ Prog. To be loving. 
 pas To be loved. 
 
Pres ■} 
 
 IN GRAMMAR. T5 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 <" Com. To have loved. 
 ( Prog. To have been laving. 
 pas To have been loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 ( Loving, (common form.) 
 I Being loving, (progressiva form.) 
 pas. . Being loved, or loved. 
 Past, Loved, (used only in combination.) 
 
 , C ( Having loved, (common form.) 
 
 Perf. < I Having been loving, (progressive form.) 
 
 ( pas. . Having been loved. 
 Note. Some few intransitive verbs take the passive form ; a*> 
 " I am come ; " " The sun is risen ; " " He is fallen.'''' 
 
 What does tense denote ? How many divisions of tense are 
 there ? How many tenses has each division V What are they ? 
 How many tenses are there in all ? What does the present tense 
 denote ? What does the present perfect tense denote ? What does 
 the past tense denote ? What does the past perfect tense denote ? 
 What does the future tense denote ? What does the future perfect 
 tense denote ? How many forms have verbs in the active voice ? 
 How many in the passive ? Mention the forms. "What is conjuga 
 tion ? Conjugate to be. What is a synopsis ? (jrive a synopsis 
 of to have. Give also a synopsis of to be. Conjugate to love. 
 Give a synopsis of it. 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning 
 of a verb, adjective, participle, or other adverb 
 
76 • FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Adverbs may be divided into four genera] 
 classes, — adverbs of place, of time, of cause, of 
 manner. 
 
 Adverbs of place answer the questions, Where f 
 Whither ? Whence ? as, here, there, above, yonder, 
 below, somewhere, bach, upwards, downwards r &c. 
 
 Adverbs of time answer the questions, When ? 
 How long t Hoiv often? as, then, yesterday, always, 
 ever, continually, often, frequently, &c. 
 
 Adverbs of cause answer the questions, Why? 
 Wherefore ? as, why, wherefore, therefore, then. 
 
 Note. Casual relations are commonly expressed by phrases and 
 clauses. 
 
 Adverbs of manner answer the question, How ? 
 as, elegantly, faithfully, fairly, &c. They are gen- 
 erally derived from adjectives denoting quality. 
 
 Under this head may be classed those which answer the question, 
 How 1 in respect to quantity or quality ; as, How much ? How 
 good ? &c. ; as, too, very, greatly, chiefly, perfectly, mainly, wholly, 
 totally, quite, exceedingly. 
 
 Modal adverbs which show the manner of the assertion (see Modes, 
 Lesson XX.) belong to this class also. The following are the prin 
 cipal modal adverbs: — yes, yea, verily, truly, surely, undoubtedly, 
 doubtless, forsooth, certainly; no, nay, not ; possibly, probably, per- 
 haps, peradventure, perchance. 
 
 All phrases or clauses which denote place, time, 
 cause, or manner, are of the nature of adverbs. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 
 
 Many adverbs, like adjectives, admit of com 
 parison ; as, soon, sooner, soonest ; bravely, more 
 bravely, most bravely. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 
 
 77 
 
 Note. 
 XXIV. 
 
 For interrogative and conjunctive adverbs, see Lesson 
 
 What is an adverb ? Into how many classes are adverbs divided ? 
 What questions do adverbs of place answer ? Adverbs of time ? 
 Adverbs of cause ? Adverbs of manner ? What forms are of the 
 nature of adverbs ? 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Note. For the construction and use of the prepositions, see 
 Lessons XXXVI and XXXVII. 
 
 A preposition is a word used to show the relation 
 between a noun or pronoun and some preceding 
 word ; as, upon, on, ivith. 
 
 The following is a list of the principal prepo- 
 sitions in use : — , 
 
 Aboard, 
 
 before, 
 
 for, 
 
 throughout 
 
 about, 
 
 behind, 
 
 from, 
 
 till, 
 
 above, 
 
 below, 
 
 in, into, 
 
 to, 
 
 according to, 
 
 beneath, 
 
 notwithstanding, 
 
 touching, 
 
 across, 
 
 beside or 
 
 of, 
 
 toward or 
 
 after, 
 
 besides, 
 
 off, 
 
 towards, 
 
 against, 
 
 between, 
 
 on, 
 
 under, 
 
 along, 
 
 betwixt, 
 
 out of, 
 
 underneatu, 
 
 amid or 
 
 beyond, 
 
 over, 
 
 until, 
 
 amidst, 
 
 by, 
 
 past, 
 
 unto, 
 
 among or 
 
 concerning, 
 
 regarding, 
 
 up, 
 
 amongst, 
 
 down, 
 
 respecting, 
 
 upon, 
 
 around, 
 
 during, 
 
 round, 
 
 with, 
 
 at. 
 
 except, 
 
 since, 
 
 within, 
 
 athwart, 
 
 excepting, 
 
 7* 
 
 through, 
 
 without. 
 
78 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 An interjection is a word used to express some 
 emotion of the mind ; as, oh ! alas ! 
 
 Interjections are to be found chiefly in sentences expressive of 
 joy, sorrow, or reverence. 
 
 What is a preposition ? Repeat the list. What is an interjes 
 tion? 
 
 LESSON XXIV. 
 INTERROGATIVES AND CONNECTIVES. 
 
 Interrogatives are words used in asking ques- 
 tions. 
 
 There are three kinds of interrogatives, — pro- 
 nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. 
 
 Interrogative pronouns are used to inquire for 
 some person or thing. They are who, which, and 
 what. 
 
 Who is used to inquire for persons ; what, as a 
 pronoun, inquires for things; ivhich refers to one 
 tf several persons or things; as, " Who wrote.? 
 James." " What do you see ? A tree." " Which 
 shall I take ? The largest one." 
 
 Interrogative adjectives are used to inquire for' 
 some description of a person or thing. They are 
 which, what, joined to the noun to be described ; 
 how many, used to inquire for number ; as, " What 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 79 s 
 
 book have you ? A blank book." " Which path 
 shall we follow ? The right-hand path." " How 
 many lessons has he learned ? Four lessons." 
 
 Interrogative adverbs inquire for some circum- 
 stance of place, time, cause, or manner ; as, 
 " Where, when, why, how, did he go?" 
 
 Note. For a list of interrogative adverbs see Lesson XXXIX. 
 
 Connectives are words used to unite the elements 
 of a sentence ; as, " When a wise man is derided 
 by a foolish, he will not be indignant." 
 
 Connectives are divided into two classes, — coor- 
 dinate and subordinate. 
 
 Coordinate connectives are always conjunctions. 
 They are used to unite either coordinate clauses or 
 coordinate parts of a clause ; as, " Life is short 
 and art is long ; " " Vice and misery are insep- 
 arable." 
 
 Coordinate conjunctions are of three kinds, — 
 copulative, adversative, and alternative. 
 
 A subordinate connective is used to join a sub- 
 ordinate clause to some preceding word or clause ; 
 as, " I knew that he was deceitful." 
 
 Subordinate connectives are conjunctions, relar 
 tive pronouns, and conjunctive adverbs. 
 
 Subordinate connectives are used to connect the 
 three kinds of clauses, — substantive, adjective, and 
 adverbial. 
 
 Substantive clauses are connected by that and 
 the various interrogatives. (See Lesson XXXIX.) 
 
80 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Adverbial clauses are connected by conjunctive 
 adverbs. 
 
 Adjective clauses are connected by relative pro* 
 nouns. 
 
 What are interrogatives ? How many classes of interrogatives 
 are there ? For what do interrogative pronouns inquire ? Inter- 
 rogative adjectives? Interrogative adverbs? What are connec- 
 tives ? How are they divided ? What are coordinate connectives, 
 and tow are they used ? How many kinds are there ? How are 
 subordinate connectives used? What are subordinate connec- 
 tives ? What kinds of clauses do subordinate connectives join ? 
 What connectives join substantive clauses? What adverbial? 
 What adjective ? 
 
 Miscellaneous Questions on the preceding Lessons. 
 How many classes of words are there when classed according to 
 their formation? How many when classed according to their 
 meaning and use? What is the difference between a primitive 
 and a derivative word? A derivative and a compound word? 
 Give five of each kind. What is the difference between a noun 
 and a pronoun ? Could we dispense with the pronoun ? Why ? 
 What is the difference between an adjective and a noun ? How 
 may an adjective be known ?^ What is the difference betweer a 
 common and a proper noun ? How does a collective noun differ 
 from other common nouns ? Give four collective nouns. Give 
 the plural of phenomenon. Give the possessive case of conscience. 
 Achilles. Write the possessive plural of mouth, duty, winter. What 
 is the difference between a limiting and a qualifying adjective ? 
 Illustiate it. In comparing two objects, which degree of compari- 
 son should we use? What is the difference between a cardinal 
 and an ordinal adjective ? Compare near. What is the difference 
 between a transitive and an intransitive verb ? What is the differ 
 ence between a passive and an active verb ? What is the differ 
 ence between the indicative and potential modes ? The present 
 tense and the present perfect ? ■ The passive and past participles ? 
 Write upon your slates the verb sing, in the second person, singular 
 number, past perfect tense, potential mode. 
 
FART li. 
 
 FORMATION OF SENTENCES* 
 
 Part II. embraces syntax and prosody. Th* 
 former treats of the formation of sentences in 
 general; the latter of the formation of sentences 
 into verse. 
 
 LESSON XXV 
 
 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 A sentence is a thought expressed in words ; as, 
 " Life is short." 
 
 A sentence may contain one proposition or more. 
 
 A proposition is the combination of a subject and 
 a predicate. 
 
 The component parts of a sentence are called its 
 elements. 
 
 The elements of a sentence may be either words, 
 phrases, or clauses. 
 
 Those elements which are essential to the for 
 
 mation of a sentence, are called principal elements , 
 F 
 
32 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 those which are not thus essential, are called sulk 
 ordinate elements. 
 
 A simple sentence contains but one proposition ; 
 as, " The winds blow." 
 
 A complex sentence contains two or more dissim 
 ilar propositions ; as, " When the winds blow, the 
 trees bend." 
 
 A compound sentence contains two or more sim- 
 ilar propositions ; as, " The winds blow and the 
 trees bend." 
 
 In the sentence, " When the winds blow, the trees bend," the 
 first proposition is wholly dependent upon the other, hence they are 
 dissimilar ; in the next example, u The winds blow and the tree* 
 bend," the two propositions are independent of each other, hence 
 they are similar. 
 
 What does Part II. embrace ? What is a sentence ? How many 
 propositions may a sentence contain ? What is a proposition ? 
 What is the subject of a proposition ? What is the predicate of a 
 proposition ? What is a simple sentence V What is a complex 
 sentence ? What is a compound sentence ? 
 
 LESSON XXVI. 
 
 OBJECTS, OR THINGS, AND THEIR ATTRIBUTES. 
 
 All persons, animals, places, and things, whether 
 material or immaterial, are called objects. 
 
 Note. It is important that the learner should know that the 
 names of all the objects which he can see, feel, taste, smell, hear, 
 or think of, are nouns. He should be accustomed to name all the 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 83 
 
 objects he has seen during a walk, a ride, a sail, &c. Let him 
 write upon the slate the following 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Write the names of all the objects in this room ; — of 
 all the objects which you would probably see in a walk in 
 spring, — in summer, — in autumn, — - in winter ; — in a sail 
 down a river ; — in a ride through a village,* — a city , — in 
 a visit to a museum, — a ship, — a store, — a factory. 
 
 Model. In this room, — fireplace, bricks, iron, boards, 
 paper, glass, plaster, ceiling, stove, funnel, desks, books, boys, 
 girls, hats, bonnets, &c. &c. &c. 
 
 Tell what ivords are names of objects in the following sen- 
 tences : — 
 
 " The soil of Scotland produces wheat, rye, barley, oats, 
 hemp, flax, hay, and pasture. The country contains few 
 or no animals not to be found among neighboring nations 
 Black cattle abound, especially upon the Highlands." 
 
 All objects possess certain properties, called attri- 
 butes. 
 
 Thus, we say, " The rose is beautiful, sweet, fragrant, red, white." 
 Beautiful, sweet, fragrant, red, and white, are attributes of the 
 *-ose. 
 
 Attributes are of three kinds : — 
 
 (1.) Those which denote the class of objects; 
 as, beast, bird, tree; — 
 
 (2.) Those which denote the qualities of objects ; 
 as, good) old, sweet ; — 
 
 (3.) Those which denote the actions of objects \ 
 as, run, crawl, fly. 
 
 * Each pupil should he encouraged to write the names of as many object* 
 as possible, and such exercises should he multiplied at the discretion of the 
 teacher. 
 
84 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 EXERCISE.* 
 
 Give the class to which the following objects may 
 belong : — 
 
 Oak, water, cherries, iron,, swords, dogs, scholars, flutes, 
 George, Hartford, Thames, France, priest, sparrow. 
 
 Model. Oak, — a tree, a plant, a substance. 
 
 Give some of the qualities of the following objects: — 
 
 Lily, horse, gold, man, peach, tree, house, garden, water, 
 sky, clouds, sun, apples, grapes, fishes, truth, education. 
 
 Model. Lily, — white, delicate, fragrant, sweet. 
 
 Write appropriate actions to the following objects: — 
 
 Birds, serpents, flies, sun, stars, insects, rain, children, 
 armies, wasps, weeds, acorns, historians, fishes, worms. 
 
 Model. Birds, — fig, sing, run, hop, eat, sleep, chirp, 
 lag, set, hatch, brdod, feed, protect. 
 
 Write appropriate objects to the following miscellaneous 
 attributes : — 
 
 Short, faithful, watchful, writes, sings, animal, king, wise, 
 dubious, dances, opening, melts, lives, tree, vegetable, omi- 
 nous, dutiful, pleasing, painful, punctilious, swims, crawl, 
 degrading. 
 
 Model. Short, — life, cane, face, shoes, hair, cloak, 
 fingers, nails, journey, time. 
 
 What does the word object embrace ? Mention six objects ? 
 What do all objects possess? How many kinds of attribute* aro 
 there ? Give them in order. 
 
 * The pupil should be considered as having performed his task if L« 
 tdves but one attribute to each objeet j yet he should be encouraged fcr givti 
 Kfl many tc each as possible. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 85 
 
 LESSON XXVII. 
 ASSUMED AND PREDICATED ATTRIBUTES. 
 
 An attribute may be joined to an object in two 
 ways : — 
 
 (1.) It may be assumed of it; as, blue sky, 
 rough sea, poisonous reptiles ; — 
 
 ( 2.) It may be predicated of it ; as, " The sky 
 is blue;" "The sea is rough;" "Reptiles are 
 poisonous" 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Assume the following qualities of gold,* — porous, rough, 
 yellow, precious, heavy ; — of water, — pure, clear, turbid, 
 salt, fresh ; — of a horse, noble, spirited, active, brave, 
 frantic, wild, white, lame, young, old, sick, dead, heavy, 
 nimble. 
 
 Model. Porous gold, rough gold, yellow gold, precious 
 gold, heavy gold. 
 
 Predicate the same qualities. 
 
 Model. Gold.is^orows. Gold is rough. Gold is yellow. 
 Gold is precious. Gold is heavy. 
 
 Assume and then predicate the following qualities of 
 appropriate objects : — 
 
 Wise, great, amiable, fruitful, happy, idle, lazy, dull, fret- 
 ful, pleasant, joyful, green, old, white, zealous, sagacious. 
 
 Assume and then predicate an appropriate action of each 
 of the following : — 
 
 Bees, whales, winds, waves, merchants, kings, trees, 
 Samuel, Susan, scholars, water, rain, hens, minstrels, 
 Feter, George. 
 
 Model. Buzzing bees. Bees are buzzing, or buzz. 
 
 8 
 
86 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Assume and then predicate the class of the following:— > 
 
 Wasps, adder, thrush, Susan, piony, ash, birch, beer, coat, 
 intemperance, the bible, the earth. 
 
 Model. The wasp, an insect.* The wasp is an insect. 
 
 Show which of the following expressions contain predicated, 
 and which assumed attributes : — 
 
 Crawling serpents. The workmen are idle. John the 
 carpenter. A white horse. The sun is setting. Ice melts. 
 The moon shines. An old story. Wisdom is profitable. 
 The jeweller is an artizan. Fading flowers. Snow is fall- 
 ing. Sour grapes. Fire burns. Singing birds. Serpents 
 hissing. Trees falling. The journey is long. 
 
 Change the above examples, — predicate the assumed, and 
 assume the predicated attributes. 
 
 When an attribute is assumed of its object, it is 
 said to modify or limit it. 
 
 The assumed attribute is said to modify or limit because it 
 restricts a general term to a particular class. Thus, "horses" 
 means all the horses in the world; but "while horses" applies to 
 those of one color, excluding black, red, grey, &c. horses. 
 
 When an attribute is predicated of an object, the 
 two united form a proposition or simple sentence ; 
 as, " Snow is white ; " " Trees grow ; " " The 
 earth is a 'planet" 
 
 In how many ways may an attribute be used? What is the 
 meaning of assumed? (Ans. to take for granted; used in opposi 
 tion to predicate.) What is the meaning of predicate? (Ans. to 
 affirm, declare, or say; used when an attribute is declared to belong 
 to its object. Assume is used when it is taken for granted that an 
 attribute belongs to its object. Compare "Snow is white" and 
 "ichite snow.") When is an attribute said to modify or limit its 
 object ? When does an attribute form with its object a proposition 
 or simple sentence ? 
 
 * In assuming the class or species of an object, we place the noun denfifc 
 ing the class in what is called ajqiosition with the object. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 87 
 
 SIMPLE SENTENCES. 
 LESSON XXVIII 
 
 THE PROPOSITION OR SIMPLE SENTENCE. 
 
 A proposition is the combination of a subject 
 and predicate, and is either a simple sentence or 
 part of a complex or compound sentence. 
 
 The subject of a proposition is that of which 
 something is affirmed; as, " Birds fly;" "Horses 
 run." 
 
 The predicate of a proposition is that which is 
 affirmed of the subject ; as, " Trees grow ; " " The 
 winds are boisterous" 
 
 The predicate may be either affirmed or denied of the subject ; 
 but the denial of any thing is only affirming a negative ; as, " The 
 fruit is not ripe." 
 
 The subject is commonly a noun or pronoun ; as, 
 " Greorge writes ; " "He reads." 
 
 , Any word, syllable, letter, phrase, or proposition, may be the 
 subject, when used as a noun; as, "Is is a verb;" "A is a 
 vowel ; " "To read is profitable ; " " That the earth revolves on it* 
 axis, is clearly proved." 
 
 The predicate consists of two parts, — the verb 
 or copula, and the attribute ; as, " Snow is white," 
 
 Is is the copula, and white, the attribute. 
 
 The copula is some modification (is, are, was, 
 &c.) of the verb to be. Its office is, to assert an 
 attribute of the thing to which it belongs. 
 
 It very often happens that the attribute and 
 copula are united in one word. 
 
88 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 
 Suhj'JCt. 
 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 Birds 
 
 
 sing, (are singing. 
 
 George 
 
 
 comes. 
 
 Winds 
 
 
 blow. 
 
 Stars 
 
 
 shine. 
 
 Note. When the predicate contains the copula and the attri- 
 bute in one word, it may always be resolved into these two parts ; 
 as, " Winds blow," u Winds are blowing." 
 
 When the two parts of the predicate are united 
 in one word, that word is always a verb ; as, " John 
 ivrites" 
 
 Verbs which contain the copula and attribute are sometimes 
 called attributive verbs, because the attribute is included in them. 
 
 The verb to be is sometimes an attributive verb ; it then denotes 
 existence, and is commonly preceded by there, and followed by its 
 subject; as, " There are dolphins," " Dolphins exist." 
 
 Besides the verb to be, there are several others which do not 
 complete the predicate, but take after them some word denoting a 
 property of the subject ; as, " Beggars are becoming numerous ; " 
 ' l lle is called handsome." These verbs are sometimes called copu 
 lative verbs. 
 
 Note. The pupil has already seen that the simplest element of 
 the language is a letter. Letters unite and form syllable*. 
 Syllables, either alone or united, form primitive words. Primi- 
 tive words, by the addition of syllables or other words, become 
 derivative or compound words. Words unite and form sex 
 tences. Sentences unite and form paragraphs. Paragraphs 
 unite and form sections, chapters, and entire discourses or t 
 treatises. The reverse of this process of combination is analy 
 «is. Each of these combinations can be resolved into the next 
 tower, till we return t^> letters, which cannot be reduced. 
 
 In the combination*, me pupil has seen that a syllable consists 
 eithor of the essential part alone, (a vowel,) or of the essential part 
 with dependent parts, (consonants.) So, a word consists either of 
 the essential part alone, (a radical,) or of the essential part with 
 dependent parts, (prefixes and suffixes.) So, again, a sentenco 
 consists either of the essential parts, (the subject and predicate, 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 89 
 
 or of the essential parts with dependent parts, (the subordinate 
 elements, or various added words.) 
 
 The essential parts of a sentence are the subject 
 and predicate. 
 
 Sentences containing only the two essential parts are analyzed 
 according to the following 
 
 MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 
 
 Birds fly. 
 
 It is a proposition, because it contains a subject and 
 
 predicate. 
 Birds . . is the subject, because it is that of which the action " fly " 
 
 is affirmed. 
 Fly ... is the predicate, because it is the action affirmed of 
 
 "birds." 
 
 Snow is white. 
 
 It is a proposition, because it contains a subject and 
 
 predicate. 
 Snow, .is the subject, because it is that of which the qualify 
 
 "white" is affirmed. 
 Is white, is the predicate, because it is that which is affirmed of 
 
 "snow." "Is" is the verb or copula, and "white" is 
 
 the attribute." 
 
 Gold is a metal. 
 
 It is a proposition, because it contains a subject and 
 
 predicate. 
 Gold ... is the subject, because it is that of which the class metal 
 
 is affirmed. 
 Is a metal is the predicate, because it denotes that which is affirmed 
 
 of " gold." " Is " is the verb, and " metal," the attribute. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Analyze the following propositions according to the 
 models : — 
 
 Brutus determined. George was conscious. Stars shine. 
 Writers differ. Trees are plants. Virtue ennobles. Wis- 
 dom directs. Caesar conquered. Kings reign. Richard 
 8* 
 
90 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 was bold. Nero was cruel. Socrates was a philosopher. 
 Night comes. Exercise strengthens. Serpents crawl. 
 Winds blow. Eagles soar. Historians write. Boys play 
 Geography is interesting. 
 
 Predicate action of the following subjects* : — 
 
 Horses, water, eagles, whales, quadrupeds, Columbus, i 
 Washington, father, mother, insects, wind, stars, children, 
 fire, rain, leaves, grass, time, robbers, armies, moon, George, 
 kings, wasps, acorns. 
 
 Model. Horses run. Water flows. 
 
 Predicate quality of the following nouns : — 
 
 Life, peaches, ice, play, arithmetic, cloth, chairs, money, 
 health, intemperance, history, darkness, morning, wisdom, 
 fruit, clothing, ink, grass, sky, cherries, silver, fruit, soldiers, 
 labor, wool, Mary. 
 
 Model. Life is short. Peaches are ripe. 
 
 Predicate the class of the following subjects : — 
 
 Henry, lemons, ducks, lilies, city, dogs, trouts, lions, lead, 
 sheep, marbles, knives, air, Peter, Stephen, David. 
 
 Model. Henry is a scholar. Lemons are fruit. 
 
 Let the pupil select the subjects and predicates of each 
 sentence from a paragraph in his reading lesson, and tell 
 whether action, quality, or species, is predicated. 
 
 Study Lesson XI., and then analyze the following propo- 
 sitions, and tell which subjects are proper, which are com- 
 mon, and which are collective nouns : — 
 
 Alexander conquered. Zeno was a philosopher. Gray 
 was a poet. Orders were issued. Snow falls. Temper- 
 ance is a virtue. Waves dash. Darkness prevails. The 
 
 *The pupil should write these and similar examples upon a slate 01 
 paper, drawing a line under the illustrative word, and placing a period ( . ) 
 at the end of each proposition. The first word in each sentence should 
 commence with a capital. The exercises, after being corrected, majr b4 
 •opied into a writing book. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 91 
 
 army marched. The school was dismissed. The council 
 was divided. Wrestling is dangerous. Lying is wicked. 
 Charles reads. Age overtakes. Poets sing. Winds blow 
 
 Write subjects to the following predicates : — 
 
 Proper Nouns. Is able ; was prevented ; believes ; sings : 
 dances ; plays ; is a merchant ; is a teacher ; is delighted ; 
 must come ; is honorable ; is faithful. 
 
 Model. Samuel is able. 
 
 Common Nouns. Run ; is content ; is laudable ; is 
 pleasant ; is consumed ; can live ; write ; are trees ; . are 
 birds ; are fishes ; is desirable ; is contemptible. 
 
 Model. Horses run. 
 
 Collective Nouns. Was divided; was convened; were 
 pleased ; was defeated ; was dismissed. 
 
 Model. The school was divided. 
 
 What is a proposition ? What is the subject ? What is the pred- 
 icate ? What part of speech is the subject commonly ? Of how 
 many parts does the predicate consist ? What is the copula ? 
 ( Copula means link; it links or joins the attribute to the subject.) 
 Are the attribute and copula ever united ? What part of speech is 
 the predicate then ? What are the essential parts of a sentence ? 
 
 LESSON XXIX. 
 
 THE SUBJECT MODIFIED BY INFLECTION. 
 
 The subject, besides representing that of which 
 something is affirmed, may also indicate, by its 
 form or by some change in its form, certain ac ti* 
 dental properties. 
 
92 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 These accidental pruvrties of the noun or proawBf) rrs number , 
 jwson, gender, case, and we usually indicated by gone change in 
 the word itself, called inflexion. 
 
 EXEP.OISS. 
 
 Study Lesson XIII., and then analyze the following ex- 
 amples, giving the number and class of each roun: — 
 
 Columbus sailed. Stars shine. Jarres decreed. Corn- 
 wallis surrendered. Candia is an istetd. Socrates was 
 poisoned. Lions roar. Grapes faR Trees decay. 
 Churches stand. Foxes are cunning. Weeds overrun. 
 . Benjamin was seen. Silver shines. Pencils are used 
 Washington was president. Kings are rulers. Eggs are 
 broken. Vinegar is sour. 
 
 ' \ 'rite predicates to the plurals of the following nouns : — 
 
 Star, son, pipe, monarch, church, hero, fife, ox, cargo, 
 ship, man, child, lily, wolf, wife, folio, muff, negro, sheep, 
 mystery, vermin, lady, turkey, chief, hoof, mouse, goose, fly, 
 box, day, duty, canto, grotto, stratum, axis. 
 
 Model. Stars shine. Sons obey. 
 
 Study Lesson XIV., and then analyze the following 
 propositions, giving the gender of each subject : — 
 
 Lions crouch. Alfred reigned. Susan draws. Leave 
 fall. Wine intoxicates. Planets shine. Clouds disappear 
 She-goats defend. The poetess sings. Cows graze. Cock 
 sparrows chirp. Weeds grow. Sugar melts. Parent* 
 protect. Teachers instruct. The heroine was defeated. 
 
 Write subjects to the following predicates : — 
 
 Masculine Gender. Conquered ; is wise ; was detested , 
 •is a blacksmith ; is discreet ; are confiding ; are discharged ; 
 is lame are emigrating; is benevolent; is grateful; will 
 devour; gnaw; will fight; complain; eat. 
 
 Feminine Gender. Is brooding ; lowed ; is playing , 
 sings ; is cheerful ; rode ; is a teacher ; is practising ; cau 
 dance ; was injured ; are anxious ; are faithful ; are 
 chirping; are attentive. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 93 
 
 Neuter Gender. Roll ; grow ; is solid , is deceptive 
 blows ; shines ; is falling ; is a vegetable. 
 
 Models. Alexander conquered. The ht,* is blooding 
 Stones roll. 
 
 Study Lesson XV., and then analyze the following 
 propositions, and give the person of each subject : — 
 
 I am well. You sit. We have come. He is delirious. 
 Thou art the man. Wisdom is profitable. Paul preached. 
 She is writing. It is true. They labor. Ye resist. Boys 
 play. Larks sing. Insects buzz. 
 
 Write subjects in the first, second, and third persons 
 respectively to each of the following predicates, making such 
 changes in them as may be necessary : — 
 
 Is late ; am exhausted ; is plundering ; is a pupil ; might 
 be educated ; is affable ; art content ; play ; sing ; lead ; is 
 a mathematician ; will be satisfied ; can find ; did defend ; 
 does reply. . 
 
 Model. We are late. Thou art late. He is late. 
 The case of the subject denotes its' relation to the predicate, and 
 is always nominative ; hence the following rule : — 
 
 Rule I. A noun or pronoun used as the subject 
 of a proposition must be in the nominative case. 
 
 Note 1. An infinitive or substantive clause may be the subject. 
 
 Note 2. In an abridged proposition,* the subject may remain 
 unchanged, may be changed, or may be wholly dropped. 
 
 ( 1.) It remains unchanged, when it denotes a different person or 
 thing from that of the principal clause, and (though logically it is 
 still the subject) is said to be in the nominative case absolute with 
 the participle of the predicate ; as, " When shame is losi, all virtue 
 is lost ; " " Shame being lost, all virtue is lost." ^ 
 
 (2.) It is changed to the possessive case, when the abridged pred- 
 
 * A subordinate proposition is said to be abridged when one or both of ltd 
 principal parts (subject or predicate) undergo a change which destroys &» 
 assertion, leaving it to be incorporated as a part of the principal clause ; ao, 
 " The tempest vjhich was raging ivith unwonted fury, drove them to ^the 
 nearest shelter ; " l * The tempest raging vAth unwonted fury, &«." 
 
94 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 icate, as a noun, becomes the object of its possession ; as, " I wat 
 not aware that he was going ; " ** I was not aware of his going. 1 
 
 ( S.) It is changed to the objective case, when it follows a transi 
 tive verb and is followed by the infinitive of the predicate, ox 
 -.(when the infinitive is omitted) by the attribute of the predicate ; 
 as, " We supposed that he ivas writing, was honest, or was the com 
 mander;" "We supposed him to be writing, to be honest, or to be 
 the commander ; " or, (omitting the infinitive,) " We supposed him 
 writing, supposed him honest, supposed him the commander." 
 
 (4.) It is dropped, when it represents the subject or object of 
 the principal clause, or, in general, when it represents the noun 
 which the subordinate clause limits ; as, " I wish that I might go ; n 
 "I wish to go;" " Reproof which is given in public, hardens the 
 heart ; " " Reproof given in public hardens the heart." 
 
 Models for Analysis and Parsing. 
 
 Parsing consists in naming a part of speech, giving its modifica- 
 tions, relation, agreement, or dependence, and the rule for its con- 
 struction. Analysis consists in pointing out the words or groups of 
 words which constitute the elements of a sentence. Analysis 
 should precede parsing. 
 
 George writes. 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 proposition. 
 George . . is the subject, because it is that of which the action 
 
 " writes " is affirmed. 
 Writes . . is the predicate, because it is the action affirmed of 
 
 u George." 
 George . . is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number 
 masculine gender, nominative case, and is the subject 
 of the proposition, " George writes ; " according to 
 Rule I., "A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a 
 proposition must be in the nominative case. 
 
 * He is active. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but ona 
 proposition. 
 Bs . . . is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular 
 number, masculine gender, nominative case, and is the 
 subject of the proposition, " He is active ; " according 
 to Rule I. 
 ft 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 95 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following propositions, and parse the sub- 
 jects: — 
 
 I am prepared. Jesus wept. Milo lifted. Monej 
 tempted. Rain descended. Abraham was faithful. Job 
 was patient. Comets appear. Planets revolve. Solomon 
 prayed. They will quarrel. He is ruined. David was 
 king. We must study. England was invaded. William 
 conquered. Harold was defeated. Exercise strengthens 
 
 Stealing is base. Thou art seated. She is coming. 
 It rains. It snows. It lightens. You can sing. He is 
 detestable. Fishes swim. 
 
 Write subjects to the following predicates : — 
 
 Is a monster ; are coming ; is burning ; neigh ; -art wise , 
 were handled ; is numbered ; is a giant ; are reptiles ; are 
 vegetables ; is a beverage ; is impossible ; will be defeated ; 
 paints ; draws ; is a conductor ; dances. 
 
 Write ten entire sentences of your own, having only 
 a subject and predicate ; select also the subjects and predi- 
 cates from ten sentences in your Reading Lesson. 
 
 What may the subject indicate besides showing that of which 
 something is affirmed ? What are the accidental properties of the 
 subject ? How are they indicated V Give Rule I 
 
 LESSON XXX. 
 THE PREDICATE MODIFIED BY INFLECTION. 
 
 The predicate, besides representing what is 
 affirmed, may also, like the subject, indicate by its 
 form, or by some change in its form, certain acci- 
 dental properties. 
 
96 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 These accidental properties may belong either to the copula or 
 attribute, or to both. When the two parts of the predicate are dis- 
 tinct, the attribute may be (1) a noun or pronoun, having the same 
 properties as the subject, viz., number, person, gender, case ; (2) an 
 adjective, having comparison only; (3) a participle, in which ca^e 
 it is taken with the copula as one word, and considered as a form 
 of the verb. The copula, or any verb may indicate person, number, 
 mode, and tense. 
 
 When the attribute is a noun or pronoun, it is called the predi 
 cate-nominative, and is parsed by the following rule : — 
 
 Rule II. A noun or pronoun used with the 
 copula to form the predicate, must be in the nomi- 
 native case. 
 
 Note IT The predicate-nominative always denotes the same 
 person or thing as the subject, and must agree with it in case. 
 When the predicate-nominative denotes a person, it usually agrees 
 with the subject in gender, number, and case. 
 
 Note 2. By a peculiar idiom of the English language, the 
 neuter pronoun it, as subject, may represent a noun or pronoun as 
 predicate of any number, person, or gender ; as, " It is I ; " " It is 
 they ; " " It is James ; " " It is she." 
 
 Note 8. This rule applies when copulative verbs are used ; as, 
 1 He is becoming an artist. 
 
 Note 4. An infinitive or substantive clause may be used as the 
 predicate-nominative; as, "The house is to be searched ; " "My 
 impression is, that he will come." 
 
 Note 5. In an abridged proposition, (see note at the bottom of 
 p. 93,) the predicate-nominative may remain unchanged, may be 
 changed, but can never be dropped, (see note 2, Rule I.) 
 
 (1.) It remains unchanged in the nominative, when the subject 
 remains in the nominative ; as, " As a youth was their leader, 
 what could they do?" "A youth being their leader, what 
 could they do ? " 
 
 (2.) It remains unchanged in the nominative, relating logically 
 (not grammatically) to the omitted subject, when in connection 
 with the infinitive, or participle of the copula, it forms a verbal 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 97 
 
 noon, as " That one should be a thief, is strange;" * Being a 
 thief, or to be a thief, is strange ; " "I was not aware that it was 
 he;" "I was not aware of its being he." 
 
 (3.) It is changed to the objective when the subject is changed 
 to the objective; or when the noun which the omitted subject 
 would represent, (see Note 2, (4) Rule I.,) is in the objective ; as, 
 "I believed that it was he;" "I believed it to be him." "We 
 found a plant which is called the lilac;" "We found a plant 
 called the lilac." 
 
 Models for Parsing the Predicate-Nominative. 
 
 Gold is a metal. 
 
 Metal is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
 neuter gender, nominative case, and with "is" forms the 
 predicate of the proposition, " Gold is a metal;" according 
 to Rule II. : A noun or pronoun used with the copula, to 
 form the predicate, must be in the nominative case. 
 
 He is called a hero. 
 
 Hero is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
 masculine gender, nominative case, and, with "is called," 
 forms the predicate of the proposition, "He is called a 
 hero;" according to Rule II.: "A noun or pronoun, used 
 with the copula to form the predicate, must be in the nomi- 
 native case." 
 Note. Observe that this proposition has two attributes, called 
 
 and hero, both of which, with is. constitute the predicate. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following propositions, parting the subject* 
 and attributes: — 
 
 Demosthenes was an orator. I am he. It is I. It is 
 Abraham. Horses are animals. He was considered a 
 genius. She is a poetess. Madison was elected president. 
 We are pupils. He is deemed a workman. They have 
 become teachers. Borneo is an island. Algebra is a 
 
 9 o 
 
98 FIRST LESSORS 
 
 science. Air is a fluid. Water is a liquid. Oxygen is a 
 gas. 
 
 Write a subject and copula to each of the following nouns 
 and pronouns taken as attributes: — 
 
 You, soldier, treatise, I, she, king, trees, vegetables, 
 Andrew, Benjamin, animals, virtue, book, they, we, serpent, 
 fish, insect, reptile, flower, plant, mineral, bay, harbor, 
 planet, comet 
 
 Model. It is you. He was a soldier. 
 
 When the attribute of the predicate is an adjective, it may be 
 varied to indicate comparison ; it is called the predicate-adjective 
 wad should be parsed by the following rule : — 
 
 Rule III. An adjective used with the copula 
 to form the predicate, belongs to the subject. 
 
 Note 1. In other languages, the relation of the adjective to the 
 subject is indicated by an agreement in number, gender, and case. 
 
 Note 2. Adjectives may thus belong to a substantive phrase or 
 clause; as, " To steal is base ; " " That the sun will be eclipsed is 
 evident." 
 
 Note 3. Sometimes an adverb, or even a preposition, is joined 
 to the copula, to form the predicate; as, "Thy glorious day is 
 o'er; " w The boy is cheerful, but his brother is not so." 
 
 Note 5. In an abridged proposition, the predicate-adjective, 
 when taken in connection with the infinitive or participle of the 
 copula K seems to be used independently, yet it relates logically, like 
 the predicate-nominative, (see Note 5, (2) Rule II.,) to the omitted 
 subject; as, u TJiat one should'be idle is criminal ; " " To be idlb 
 is criminal ; " " He was guilty of being inactive. 
 
 Note 6. It will be observed that, in abridged propositions 
 three cases arise, which, grammatically, may be called independ 
 ent. The first relates to the subject-nominative, (note 2, (1) Rul* 
 I.) — the second, to the predicate-nominative, (note 5, (1) Rule II.) 
 — the third, to the predicate-adjective, (note 5, Rule LTI.) Yet in 
 •ach, the logical relation is not changed. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 99 
 
 Models for Parsing the Predicate-Adjective. 
 
 He is benevolent. 
 
 Benevolent is an adjective, of the positive degree, (compared, 
 benevolent, more benevolent, most benevolent,) and forms 
 with "is" the predicate of the proposition, "He is 
 benevolent." It belongs to "Ae," according to Rule 
 III. : " An adjective used with the copula to form the 
 predicate, belongs to the subject." 
 
 Richard is older [than John.] * 
 
 Older ... is an adjective, of the comparative degree, (compared 
 old, older, oldest,) and forms with "is" the predicate of 
 the proposition, " Richard is older." It belongs to the 
 subject, according to Rule III. 
 
 Achilles was the bravest [of the Greeks.] 
 
 Bravest . . is an adjective, of the superlative degree, (compared 
 brave, braver, bravest,) and forms with "was" the 
 predicate of the proposition, "Achilles was," &c. It 
 belongs to " Achilles," according to Rule III. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Study Lesson XVII., and then analyze the following 
 examples, and parse the adjectives^ — 
 
 Washington was wise. The country is free. The furni- 
 ture is old. The child is weak. The wind is cold. The 
 ice is thin. The water is deep. The soil is rich. The 
 boards are rough. The general is brave. Edward is sick. 
 Life is short. The streets are wide. The dog is faithful. 
 George is industrious. The constable is active. Gold is 
 precious. Diamonds are combustible. The sun is brilliant 
 The days are long. 
 
 Write predicate-adjectives to complete the following : — 
 
 Jonas is. The moon is. The ocean is. Truth is. He 
 
 * The words in the brackets should be omitted in analyzing, ag the pupil 
 \a noi prepared to explain them. 
 
100 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 is. Washington was. Arnold was. Flowers are. I am. 
 Ice is. Hoses are. 
 
 Model. Jonas is sick. 
 
 Write a subject and copula to each of the following 
 adjectives used as attributes : — . 
 
 Handsome, powerful, awful, warm, mild, gentle, able, sad, 
 mournful, judicious, wise, discreet, unsuccessful, kind. 
 
 Model. The horses are handsome. 
 
 Write ten sentences of your own, using a predicate adjective. 
 
 When the attribute is a verb, it has the same accidental proper 
 ties as the copula, and should be parsed by the following rule : — 
 
 Rule IV. The verb must agree with its subject 
 in number and person. 
 
 Note 1. This rule applies to the copula when distinct from the 
 attribute, or to the verb when both are united; as, "Thou art 
 sleeping ; " u Thou sleepes^." 
 
 Note 2. Observe that the form art indicates the number and ' 
 person, precisely in the same way as does the termination est. 
 
 Note 3. To this rule there properly is no exception. There is, 
 however, an apparent exception in the case of collective nouns, 
 which, in the singular number, may take a verb in the plural. If, 
 in using such a noun, reference is had to the individuals forming 
 the collection, the verb should always be plural; otherwise it 
 should be singular. 
 
 Note 4. When the subject is compound apply Eule XII. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Study Lesson XVHT. and XIX., and then analyze the 
 following sentences, giving the number and person of each 
 terb : — 
 
 I write. He speaks. We say. They are riding. She 
 is painting. You intimate. Thou thinkest. Gibbon nar- 
 rated. Francis drives. Plants thrive. Trees grow. 
 Friends advise. Teachers direct. It rains. They run. 
 Stars shine. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 101 
 
 Write each of these sentences, separating the copula from 
 the attribute. 
 
 Model. I am writing. 
 
 Write subjects to the following verbs, taking care to use the 
 right number and person: — 
 
 Sleeps, consent, chatters, walkest, are studying, command, 
 preach, whistle, delays, abides, live, beseech, betray, con- 
 signest, disfigure, is contriving, was finishing, art spinning, 
 mayst stop, does deliberate, wilt stay. 
 
 Model. Susan sleeps. We consent 
 
 Correct the following sentences : — 
 
 James think. I readest. We speaks. You writes. 
 Henry recitest. She complain. They viewedst. Thou is 
 learning. We art ready. Some says. He lead. George 
 art weeping. 
 
 Model. James thinks. James think is incorrect, because 
 think does not agree with James in number, according to 
 * Rule IV. 
 
 Study Lesson XX. and then analyze the following propo- 
 sitions, giving the mode of each verb. Give also the number 
 and person according to Rule IV. 
 
 The scales were turned. Charles was abandoned. The 
 count was seized. We can dance. You may study. He 
 is, silent. Arthur was murdered. Stop. Stand still. Be 
 careful. Be attentive. James was anxious. Truth is 
 mighty. Wisdom exalts. Clouds overhang. Thunder 
 roars. The lightning is vivid. Be wise. Awake. He 
 may go. Study You must write. Be gone. Arnold 
 was a traitor. Esau was hated. It may rain. 
 
 Write predicates to the following subjects: — 
 
 Indicative mode. Besiegers, Swedes, French. Bonaparte,, 
 procession, ladies, enemy, skill, emperor, he, it government, 
 conventions, war. 
 
 Model. The besiegers were repulsed, 
 9* 
 
102 . FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Potential Mode. Fleet, column, congress, boys, sugar, 
 coys, books, slates, ink, virtue, temperance, education, duty, 
 mischief. 
 
 Model. The fleet may he overtaken. A column must 
 be erected. 
 
 Convert the following infinitives into the imperative mode : — 
 
 To write ; to study ; to play ; to sing ; to read ; to begin ; 
 to delay ; to be active ; to be true ; to labor ; to travel ; to 
 be acquitted ; to indicate ; to be happy ; to leave ; to wash 
 to strike ; to love. 
 
 Model. Write, or Write thou. 
 
 Note. The subject comes after the verb in the imperative mode, 
 and is usually omitted or said to be understood. 
 
 Change the modes in your written examples, — the indica- 
 tive to the potential, the potential to the indicative, and so on. 
 
 Model. The besiegers were repulsed. The besiegers 
 might be repulsed. Be ye repulsed. To be repulsed. 
 
 Analyze the following propositions, and give the tense of 
 each verb : — 
 
 The storm abates. James was disappointed. Reuben's 
 painted. Nelson conquered. We have come. Desist. 
 Tarry. They must have left. You had been left. I might 
 have sailed. We cannot stop. I may have forgotten. The 
 sun will be eclipsed. The moon will have set. Thou hadst 
 been sitting. 
 
 Tell the voice of the above verbs. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and tell whether the ve?b 
 is in the common, emphatic, or progressive form : — 
 
 The carriages move. The captain is commanding. Th 
 leaves do wither. The fruit must fall. The waves hav 
 been dashing. He will have stopped. He did stop. Thou 
 dost speak. 
 
 If possible, wt ite ten sentences, having the subject in each, a 
 noun in the first or second person. 
 
m GRAMMAR, 103 
 
 Change the forms of the verb in the exercise on p. 101. 
 
 Model. The scales were 'turned. The scales were 
 turning. The scales turned. The scales di d turn. 
 
 Take the list of infinitives on p. 102, write subjects to 
 each , and let all the predicates (that admit of it) be changed 
 to the passive voice. 
 
 Take the examples beginning, u The storm abates" p. 102, 
 <ind write each in four different tenses. 
 
 Model, The storm abated. The storm will abate. The 
 storm had abated. The storm will have abated. 
 
 Models for Parsing the Verb. 
 
 The boy is diligent. 
 
 h is an irregular intransitive verb, (principal parts, 
 
 be, was, been,) in the indicative mode, present 
 tense, third person, singular number, and agrees 
 with its subject, "boy ; " according to Eule IV. : 
 " The verb must agree," &c. 
 
 James should have come. 
 
 Should have come is an irregular intransitive verb, in the potential 
 mode, past perfect tense, third person, singular 
 number, and agrees with its subject, "James;" 
 according to Rule IV. 
 
 Depart. 
 
 Depart is a regular intransitive verb, in the imperative 
 
 mode, present tense, second person, singular num- 
 ber, and agrees with thou understood ; according 
 to Rule IV. 
 
 Children should obey their parents. 
 Sftoutd obey ... is a regular transitive verb, (principal parts obey y 
 obeyed, obeyed,) active voice, potential mode, past 
 tense, third person, plural number, and agrees 
 with its subject, "children;" according to Rule 
 IV. 
 
104 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Note. The relation of the transitive verb to its object will be 
 fully explained in a subsequent Lesson. 
 
 He is deceived. 
 
 Ft deceived is a regular passive verb, (transitive verb, passive 
 voice,) (principal parts, deceive, deceived, deceived,) in 
 the indicative mode, present tense, third person, sin 
 gular number, and agrees with its subject, "he; 1 ' 
 according to Rule IV. 
 Note. The uses of the subjunctive, infinitive, and the participles, 
 
 will be explained hereafter. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Write subjects to the following verbs : — 
 
 Teach, instruct, learn, speak, say, utter, weep, lament, 
 rejoice, bloom, laugh, move, bring, obey, try, bite, dance, 
 fight, praise, censure, adorn, wound, punish, devour, croak, 
 whistle, amuse, disturb, be committed. 
 
 Let the first twelve be in the indicative mode, two in each 
 tense. 
 
 MODEL, FOR TWO TENSES. 
 
 ( John teaches. ( He learned. 
 
 Fres ' I James instructs. Fast Tense > I We spoke. 
 
 Let the next twelve be in the potential mode, three in each, 
 tense. (See model^ above.) — Write the remainder in the 
 imperative mode. Give the infinitive and participles to ten 
 of the above verbs. 
 
 Analyze and parse the following sentences, applying the 
 four rules which are used in the construction of the subject 
 and predicate. (See the preceding models for analyzing 
 and parsing.) 
 
 John was a disciple. Jesus was betrayed. David is 
 called the psalmist. You can learn. He will be writing. 
 He had been defeated. Stop. Be active. Become a sol 
 dier. They should be industrious. He might have beea 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 105 
 
 captured. George may have returned. Do be still. 
 Henry will have been planting. I spoke. Do stay. 
 
 Note. If the preceding exercises should not be sufficient to 
 make the pupil perfectly familiar with the properties and construc- 
 tion of the subject and predicate, they should be multiplied at the 
 discretion of the teacher. It is all important that these two ele 
 ments of the sentence be perfectly understood before proceeding 
 farther. 
 
 What may the predicate judicate, besides showing what is 
 affirmed ? What is the first form of the attribute called ? Give 
 Rule II. What is the second form of the attribute called ? Give 
 Rule III. What is the third form of the attribute called ? Give 
 Rule IV. 
 
 LESSON XXXI. 
 
 CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 
 
 All sentences are either declarative, interrogative, 
 imperative, or exclamatory. 
 
 A declarative sentence is used to state a fact 
 or the possibility of a fact ; as, " I saw George ; " 
 " You can see George." % 
 
 It will be seen that the verb of a declarative sentence ma y be 
 either in the indicative or potential mode. 
 
 An interrogative sentence is used to ask a ques- 
 tion ; as, " Whom did you see ? " " Can I go ? " 
 
 It will be seen here that the interrogative sentence may inquire 
 for a fact or the possibility of a fact. 
 
 An imperative sentence is used to express a 
 command, an entreaty, an exhortation, or a prayer 
 as, " Let us go ; " " May the truth prevail," 
 
106 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 An exclamatory sentence is either a declarative, 
 interrogative, or imperative sentence, so uttered as 
 to express passion or emotion. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Tell which of the following sentences are declarative, 
 which interrogative, duldch imperative, and which 
 are exclamatory. 
 
 The heat is oppressive. How warm it is ! Will it rain ? 
 Listen. Does it thunder ? The clouds are black. Who 
 comes ? Are you writing ? Can we play ? Be careful. 
 Wait. Has he gone ? Write. Come ! Charge ! The 
 storm abates. The hills resound. 
 
 Convert the sentences in the exercise on p. 105 into inter- 
 rogative sentences. Change ( . ) to (?) 
 
 Model. Was John a disciple ? 
 
 Write five interrogative, five imperative, and jive exclama- 
 tory sentences. 
 
 How many classes of sentences are there ? Name them. What 
 is a declarative sentence ? What is an interrogative sentence ? 
 What is an imperative sentence ? What is an exclamatory sen 
 tence ? Give an example of each. 
 
 LESSON XXXII. 
 
 THE SUBJECT MODIFIED BY THE ADDITION OP 
 
 SINGLE WORDS. 
 
 Note. The pupil has seen that the subject and predicate may be 
 modified by changing their forms. He is now to see that they may 
 be still farther modified by additional words. These additions may 
 be single word? f phrases, or clauses. 
 
V v OF THE '* 
 
 (UNIVEESIT 
 
 IN GRAMMAR. \. /* y 107 
 
 •tp 
 
 The subject taken with the words wmSiriimit it, 
 is called the omiplex or logical subject ; when taken 
 apart from these words, it is called the grammatical 
 subject, or simply, the subject. 
 
 Thus, in " A large house was erected ; " "A large house " is the 
 complex subject, and "house " is the grammatical subject. 
 
 The subject maybe restricted in its application, — 
 
 (1.) Without affecting any of its properties ; as, 
 " two men ; "' " them men ; " — 
 
 (2.) By designating some property ; as, " good 
 men ; " — 
 
 (3.) By identifying it ; as, " Paul the apostle ; " 
 " Peter the hermit ;" — 
 
 ( 4.) By representing it as an object possessed; 
 as, David? s harp. 
 
 The first two limitations are effected by adjective 
 words; the second two, by nouns or pronouns. 
 
 Any word or group of words which limits the 
 subject or the noun in any relation, answering the 
 questions what? what hind? how many? of what? 
 or whose? is called an adjective element ; as, " In- 
 dustrious men;" "Men of Industry;" "Men 
 who are industrious." 
 
 All adjective words are divided into two classes, — limiting and 
 qualifying. When used as modifiers, they are parsed by the fol 
 lowing rule • — 
 
 Kule. V. An adjective or participle used as a 
 modifier, belongs to the noun or pronoun which it 
 limits. 
 
 
108 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 
 Tall oaks bend. 
 
 It is a simple sentence because it contains but 
 one proposition. 
 Oaks . ... is the subject, because it is that of which the 
 
 action " bend " is affirmed. 
 
 Bend is the predicate, because it is the action affirmed 
 
 oi "oaks." 
 laks (the subject) is limited by " tall," which shows what hind of 
 oaks, and is an adjective element. 
 
 Toll oaks is the complex subject. 
 
 Tall is a qualifying adjective, of the positive degree, 
 
 ^ (compared tall, taller, tallest,) and is used as a 
 
 modifier of the subject ; according to Rule V., 
 " An adjective or participle used as a modifier, 
 belongs to the noun or pronoun which it limits." 
 
 This truth is clear. 
 
 Note. Analyze as in the previous example. 
 
 This is a limiting adjective, (not compared,) and ia 
 
 a modifier of the subject; according to Rule V. 
 
 Note. Clear is also an adjective, but it is used as the predi 
 cate of the proposition, (not a modifier,) and is parsed by Rule III 
 
 Bengal tigers are ferocious. 
 
 Bengal is a limiting adjective, denoting place, (not 
 
 compared,) and is used as a modifier of the 
 subject, according to Rule Y. 
 
 Note 1. Adjectives which imply number, should agree in num 
 ber with the nouns to which they belong ; as, " all men; " "sev 
 eral men." When two numerals precede a noun, one singular and 
 the other plural, the plural should be placed next to the noun ; as, 
 M the first two lines," not " the two first lines." 
 
 Note 2. When objects are contrasted, that refers to the first 
 and this to the last mentioned ; as, " Wealth and poverty are both 
 temptations ; that tends to excite pride, this discontentment. 
 
 Note 3. In the use of the indefinite article, a should be placed 
 before the sound of a consonant, and an before that of a vowel 
 as, " a house ; " "a [y] union ; " an inch - " "on Aour," 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 109 
 
 Note 4. When the article, or any other merely limiting word, 
 stands before two connected adjectives, ( 1,) it should be repeated, 
 if they belong to different objects ; as, " a white and a red flag," 
 1. e., two flags ; ( 2,) it should be used but once, if they belong to 
 the same object; as, " this tall and beautiful tree," i. e., one tree. 
 
 Note 5. By a peculiar idiom, the is used with comparatives, to 
 denote proportionate equality ; as, " The more I see it, ike better I 
 Like it." 
 
 Note 6. The adjective is often used as a noun, the noun to 
 which it belongs being understood ; as, " The good are respected." 
 On the other hand the noun is often used as an adjective ; as, 
 " Gold beads." 
 
 Note 7. One adjective often limits the complex idea expressed 
 by another adjective and a noun ; as, " Two old horses." 
 
 Note 8. The predicate adjective or participle, following copula- 
 tive verbs, generally indicates the manner of the action, while, at 
 the same time, it denotes some property of the subject ; as, " The 
 boy was made sick." 
 
 Note 9. When two objects or sets of objects are compared, the 
 comparative degree is generally used ; as, " George is taller than 
 William, or is the taller of the two ; " " My brother and sister are 
 older than his brother and sister." 
 
 Note 10. When more than two objects are compared, the 
 superlative degree is used ; as, " Achilles was the bravest of the 
 Greeks." 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following examples, pointing out and parsing 
 the limiting and the qualifying adjectives : — 
 
 These books are torn. That man is lame. Industrious 
 men are rewarded. Each soldier was paid. Three bears 
 were killed. Many fishes were caught. Old boards were 
 burnt. This story was told. Any price will be paid. Can 
 three horses be purchased ? Do all birds sing ? What 
 monster is that ? Early rising is recommended. Limiting 
 adjectives can be distinguished. The rising sun is beau- 
 tiful. 
 
 10 
 
110 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Apply limiting adjectives to the subjects of the following 
 ser.te7ices : — 
 
 Horse neighs. Arts are improved. Citizens complain. 
 Business is completed. Soldier stood. Dog ran. Cloud 
 is black. Hen is dead. Duck swam. Storm did abate. 
 tVind blew. Rain fell. Men were captured. >Walk was 
 taken. Book is useful. Houses are built. Ride is pleasant 
 
 Model. That horse neighs. 
 
 Write twelve enure sentences, applying limiting adjectives 
 to the subjects. 
 
 Apply qualifying adjectives to the subjects of the following 
 propositions : — 
 
 Maxim is given. Scriptures teach. Men desire. Reproof 
 hardens. Habits should be avoided. Counsels were given. 
 Character shines. Cottage stood. 
 
 Write predicates to the following subjects, limiting each 
 subject by some qualifying adjective or participle : — 
 
 Lady, paper, lord, cousin, light, darkness, ambassador, 
 army, commissioner, tiger, traitor, tutor, pupil, window, 
 cellar, chamber, chancellor, monk, friar, countess. 
 
 Model. The good lady assisted. 
 
 Write subjects to the following predicates, find let each be 
 limited by a limiting and one or more qualifying adjectives : — 
 
 Was prepared ; was made ; was served up ; had scat- 
 tered ; is desirable ; were tamed ; is delightful ; had arrived ; 
 can jump ; might have slept ; did eat ; could fight ; was 
 avoided ; could have been stopped ; may be upset ; was 
 emptied ; sailed ; was prostrated. 
 
 Model. That sumptuous feast was prepared. 
 The subject may be limited by a noun or pronoun used to explain 
 it by designating its office, rank, character, or otherwise identifying 
 it; as, "Peter the hermit preached the first crusade." 
 
IN GRAMMAR. Ill 
 
 The limiting noun or pronoun must represent the same person or 
 thing as the limited noun. 
 
 A noun «r pronoun thus used is said to be in apposition with the 
 noun which it limits, and is to be parsed by the following rule : — 
 
 1 Rule VI. A noun or pronoun used to identify 
 another noun or pronoun, is put by apposition in the 
 same case ; as, " His brother Greorge was absent." 
 
 Note 1. When the limiting noun denotes a person, it generally 
 agrees with the limited, in number, gender, and case. 
 
 Note 2. The noun in apposition assumes the class, office, rank, 
 or identity of another noun, while the predicate nominative affirms 
 it ; as, " George the king; " " George was the king." 
 
 Note 3. A noun in the plural, may be represented, not by one, 
 but by two or more nouns which together are equivalent to it ; as, 
 " The victims, a brother and a sister." The reverse of this rule is 
 equally true ; as, " Intemperance, oppression, and fraud, vices of 
 the age." 
 
 Note 4. Two or more proper names, or a title and a proper 
 name, applied to one person, though in apposition, should be taken 
 as one complex noun ; as, " George Washington ; " " General 
 Gates." 
 
 Model for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 
 King Charles was beheaded. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 
 proposition. 
 
 King is the subject.* 
 
 Was beheaded is the predicate. 
 
 King is limited by " Charles," and is an adjective element, 
 
 used to identify the " king." " King Charles " is 
 
 the complex subject. 
 Charles .... is a proper noun, of the third person, singular 
 
 number, nominative case, and is used to identify 
 
 "king ;" according to Rule VI. "A noun or pro 
 
 noun," &c. 
 
 * The definitions may be omitted when the pupil becomes familiar with 
 
112 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, parsing the nouns in 
 apposition : — 
 
 The patriarch Abraham was accounted faithful. Paul, 
 the apostle, was a martyr. The emperor Nero was a cruel 
 tyrant. Milton, the poet, was blind. The disciple John was 
 beloved. The martyr Stephen was stoned. The great 
 navigator Columbus was maltreated. Henry, the scholar { 
 was crowned king. 
 
 Write twelve sentences limiting the subject by a noun in 
 apposition. 
 
 The subject may be limited by a noun or pronoun which repre- 
 sents it as an object of possession ; as, " Henry's book fell." 
 
 A noun or pronoun thus used to limit the subject is parsed by 
 the following rule : — 
 
 Eule VII. A noun or pronoun used to limit 
 another noun by denoting possession, must be in the 
 possessive case ; as, " Stephen's courage failed." 
 
 Note 1. When two or more nouns in the possessive case are 
 connected, — 1st, if the object possessed belongs to the two con 
 jointly, the sign of possession should be applied to the last only ; 
 as, "Little and Brown's store ; " — but, 2d, if different objects, having 
 the same name, are possessed, the sign of possession ('s) should 
 belong to them separately ; as, " Greenleaf's and Emerson's Arith 
 metic." 
 
 Note 2. Two or more nouns in apposition, whether used as one 
 complex noun or otherwise, have the sign of possession annexed to 
 the last only ; as, " General Washington's command ; " "John the 
 Baptist's head." 
 
 Note 3. When the noun in the possessive is limited by a 
 preposition and its object, the sign of possession follows the whole 
 expression ; as, " The duke of Wellington's sword." 
 
IN GRAMMAR. . 113 
 
 Model for Analysis and Parsing. 
 i 
 His hand trembles. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one propo 
 sition. 
 
 Hand . . is the subject. (Why ?) / 
 
 Trembles is the predicate. (Why ?) 
 
 His hand is the complex subject. (Why ?) 
 
 Hand . . is limited by " his," which denotes whose han , and is an 
 adjective element. 
 
 His .... is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, 
 possessive case, and is the modifier of " hand ; " accord- 
 ing to Rule VII. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, parsing the modifier of 
 the subject : — 
 
 The rook's nest was destroyed. The bird's beak was 
 broken. Our lesson is easy. My task is completed. Wil- 
 liam's farm is productive. Rufus's garden is watered. 
 
 Write twelve sentences limiting the subject by a noun 01 
 pronoun in the possessive case. 
 
 Analyze and parte the following miscellaneous ex- 
 amples : — 
 
 Three birds flew. The man awoke. Good food was 
 provided. Every soldier escaped. All men are mortal. 
 Twenty days have passed. Is your lesson easy ? Wis- 
 dom's ways are pleasant. The king's council might have 
 been able. Was John the Baptist beheaded ? The planet 
 Venus has risen. Sirius, the dog-star, is visible. Boston, 
 the capital, is populous. The goddess Discord was offended. 
 Beautiful plants were sold. Old iron is wanted. Becket, 
 the archbishop, was considered a martyr. 
 
 Write twenty sentences illustrating the four hinds of 
 modifiers. 
 
 10 * H 
 
Hi FIRST LESSONS 
 
 In hew many ways may the subject (or any noun) be restricted 
 in its application ? What is the complex or logical subject ? 
 What is the grammatical subject ? What is an adjective element ? 
 Give the rule for parsing the adjective and participle. In what 
 way may the subject be limited so as to identify it ? What is the 
 meaning of identify f In the expression " Arnold, the traitor," how 
 does traitor identify Arnold ? Why is a noun thus used called an 
 adjective element ? (Ans. Because it performs an office similar to 
 that of the adjective ; it describes or explains a noun.) Give Rule 
 VI. In what other way may a noun be modified by another noun ? 
 Give Rule VH. 
 
 LESSON XXXIII. 
 
 THE PREDICATE LIMITED BY THE ADDITION OP 
 SINGLE WORDS. 
 See Note at the beginning of Lesson XXXH. 
 
 The predicate, when taken in connection with the 
 words which limit it, is called the complex or logical 
 predicate ; when taken apart from these words, is 
 called the grammatical predicate, or simply the 
 predicate; as, "Horses run; 99 "Horses run 
 swiftly." 
 
 The Objective Element. Any word or group 
 of words used to complete the meaning of a transi- 
 tive verb or its participles, and answering the ques* 
 tion, What ? or Whom t is called the objective 
 element ; as, George desired (what) a book, — a 
 knife, — a sled, — to write, — to play, — that he 
 might see his friend. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 115 
 
 The object becomes the subject when the verb assumes the 
 passive form. 
 
 The noun or pronoun used as the object has the same modifica 
 tions of number, gender, and person, as the subject. 
 
 The following rule should be applied in parsing the object : — 
 
 Rule VIII. A noun or pronoun used as the 
 object of a transitive verb or its participles, must bo 
 in the objective case ; as, " We paid him." 
 
 Note 1. The following verbs make, appoint, elect, create, consti- 
 tute, render, name, style, call, esteem, think, consider, regard, reckon^ 
 and some others, not only take after them a direct object, but 
 predicate of it another object ; as, " They called his name John." 
 
 Note 2. As these verbs, unlike other transitive verbs, perform 
 the additional office of copula, they are sometimes called copulative 
 verbs. This latter office is retained when they are changed to tiie 
 passive voice ; the first object becomes the subject-nominative, and 
 the second, the predicate-nominative ; as, His name was called John. 
 
 Note 3. The following verbs, buy, sell, play, sing,fnd, get, lendi 
 draw, send, make, pass, write, pour, give, teach, leave, bring, tell, do, 
 present, throw, carry, ask, show, order, promise, refuse, deny, provide* 
 and some others, take after them, besides a direct object, an indirect 
 object, showing to or from whom the action tends ; as, " Give me a 
 book." 
 
 Note 4. The indirect object is generally said to be governed by 
 a preposition understood ; the preposition is always expressed when 
 the direct object is placed first ; as, Give a book to me. 
 
 Note 5. When any of the above verbs assume the passive form, 
 the direct object generally, (though not always,) becomes the sub 
 ject; as, "A book was given me." The indirect object some- 
 times becomes the subject; as, " He was asked his opinion; M "I 
 was taught Grammar." Opinion and Grammar are in the objec 
 tive case after a passive verb. 
 
 Note 6. Instead of a single word, an infinitive or substantive 
 clause may become one of the objects ; as, "I told him to go;" 
 ** He informed me that the boat Jwd sailed." 
 
116 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Model for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 
 Ccesar defeated Pompey. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but 
 
 one proposition. 
 
 Casar is the subject. 
 
 Defeated is the predicate. 
 
 Defeated is limited by " Pompey," which shows whom 
 
 Caesar defeated, and is an objective element. 
 Defeated Pompey is the complex predicate. 
 Pompey is a proper noun, of the third person, singular 
 
 number, masculine gender, objective case, and is 
 
 the object of " defeated ; " according to Rule VIII. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Analyze the following sentences, and parse the object : — 
 Brutus killed Csesar. Heat overcomes me. Did the 
 dog pursue a fox ? The lion ate a sheep. He views the 
 stars. We built a house. The ink soils the carpet. Jose- 
 phus wrote a history. Did William conquer England ? 
 Alfred defeated the Danes. Bring a book. Repeat the 
 lesson. Might he have been leading the army ? 
 Write subjects and objects to the following verbs : — ■ 
 Lead, praise, restrain, know, fear, see, love, admonish, 
 bring, correct, frighten, pursue, break, torment, perplex, 
 annoy, betray, sing, open, displace, equip, defend, punish, 
 leave, desire. 
 
 Change the verbs of your written sentences from the active 
 to the passive form. 
 
 Model. Abraham led Isaac. Isaac was led by Abraham, 
 The Adverbial Element. Any word or group 
 of words used to limit the meaning of a verb, adjec- 
 tive, or adverb, and answering the questions, Where ? 
 When f Why t or How f is called an adverbial 
 element , as, " The flower blossomed early" 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 117 
 
 Adverbs are divided into four general classes, — adverbs of place, 
 adverbs of time, adverbs of cause, adverbs of manner. They are 
 parsed by the following Rule : — 
 
 Rule IX. Adverbs are used to limit verbs, 
 prticiples, adjectives, and other adverbs. 
 
 Note 1. Two negatives occurring in the same sentence render 
 it affirmative ; as, " Nor did they not perceive their evil plight " = 
 " They did perceive their evil plight." Two negatives are often 
 elegantly used to express an affirmation, one being the prefix of a 
 derivative word ; as, " Nor was. he wwsuccessful ; " " Mine is not an 
 sm welcome task." 
 
 Note 2. Adverbs are sometimes used to limit the meaning of 
 a preposition ; as, " He held his hand exactly over the place." 
 
 Note 3. Adverbs sometimes modify, not any one word, but a 
 phrase or an entire sentence ; as, u We were absent almost a year ; " 
 " Verily, verily, I say unto you." • 
 
 Note 4. Any word, phrase, or clause, used to show the place, 
 time, cause, or manner, of an action is of the nature of an adverb. 
 
 Models for Analyzing and Parsings 
 
 Light moves rapidly. 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but on« 
 proposition. 
 
 Light is the subject, because it is that of which the action 
 
 "moves " is affirmed. 
 
 Moves is the predicate, because it is the action affirmed of 
 
 light. 
 
 Moves rapidly is the complex predicate, because it is the gram- 
 matical predicate, with all its limitations. 
 
 Moves .... is limited by "rapidly," which denotes how light 
 moves, and is ah adverbial element. 
 
 Rapidly ... is an adverb of manner, of the positive degree, (com 
 pared, rapidly, more rapidly, most rapidly,) and limits 
 " moves ; " according to Rule IX. : " Adverbs limit, " 
 &c. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and parse the adverbs: — 
 Human prudence should be rightly understood. The 
 
118 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 stage started early. Does Mary write beautifully? The 
 wind blows fiercely. We easily forget our own misdeeds. 
 We cannot view the sun steadily. One can easily imagine 
 himself a prince. The sun shines brightly. The water 
 flows yonder. Perhaps he will do it. He cannot ( do it. 
 Write carefully. Study attentively. Why do you talk ? 
 Where are the books ? When will they leave ? Who 
 comes there ? How did the old man bring it ? What 
 have you now found ? How strange it is ! Begone 
 instantly ! 
 
 Write fifteen sentences, and limit each predicate by an 
 adverb. 
 
 Model for all the Elements united. 
 
 Constant boasting always betrays incapacity. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it con- 
 tains but one proposition. 
 
 Boasting is the subject. (Why ?) 
 
 Betrays is the predicate. (Why ?) 
 
 The subject is limited by " constant," an adjective 
 
 element, denoting a continued habit. 
 Constant boasting . is the complex subject. (Why?) 
 
 Betrays is limited, first, by " incapacity," an 
 
 * objective element, denoting what is be- 
 trayed. 
 
 Betrays is further modified by " always," an ad 
 
 verbial element, denoting time absolute. 
 Always betrays incapacity, is the complex predicate. 
 
 Analyze the following examples, and parse each word. 
 Show which have five elements, and which have not. 
 
 The pupil performed the task correctly. The ambitious 
 often deceive themselves. The slothful seldom respect 
 themselves. No man should return an injury. Idleness 
 begets poverty. Animals r^n. Some animals run swiftly 
 
IN GEAMMAR. 119 
 
 The birds devour the cherries greedily. Virtue is often 
 neglected. Socrates the philosopher was condemned. 
 
 Write Jive sentences containing Jive elements ; — five, con- 
 taining Jour ; — five, containing three ; — and five other*, 
 containing only two. 
 
 What is the complex logical predicate ? What is the grammati 
 cal predicate ? What is the objective element ? What questions 
 does it answer with a transitive verb ? Give the Eule for the oh 
 ject. What is an adverbial element ? What may it answer V 
 Give the Eule for the adverb. 
 
 LESSON XXXIV. 
 INTERJECTIONS, AND THE CASE INDEPENDENT. 
 
 There are certain words used simply to express 
 the emotions of the speaker, which do not form any 
 part of a sentence ; as, oh ! alas ! ah ! such words 
 are called Interjections , because they are thrown in 
 between the parts of a sentence. 
 
 Interjections have no dependence upon other words, and there 
 fore need no further illustration. 
 
 A noun or pronoun used to denote the person or thing addressed, 
 is said to be in the nominative case independent. 
 
 The interjection and the nominative case independent may ho 
 parsed by the following Eule : — 
 
 Rule X. The nominative case independent, 
 and the interjection, have no grammatical relation 
 to the other parts of the sentence. 
 
 Note 1. A noun may be in the nominative case independent. 
 ( 1, ) by direct address ; as, " Friends, awake ; " — ( 2, ) by exclama 
 tion ; as, " solitude ! " — ( 3, ) by pleonasm ; as, " And Harry's 
 flesh, it fell away." 
 
120 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Note 2. When a noun is used absolutely with a participle, the 
 two are equivalent to a subordinate clause, and are, therefore, 
 grammatically related to the principal clause. See Note 2, (1,) 
 Rule I. 
 
 Model for Analysis and Parsing. 
 
 Oh ! father, I want that lily. 
 
 I . . . is the subject. (Why?) 
 
 Want . is the predicate. (Why ?) 
 
 Want . is limited by " that lily," denoting what is wanted. 
 
 Oh ! . is an interjection, having no dependence upon the other 
 
 parts of the sentence ; according to Rule X. 
 Father is a common noun, of the second person, singular number, 
 masculine gender, and nominative case independent ; 
 according to Rule X. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Analyze and parse the following sentences : — 
 " Oh ! Speak." « His reason, alas ! has left him." " Ah ! 
 pity the helpless." " Arise, O Lord ; O God, lift up thine 
 hand." 
 
 Write ten sentences, each containing a nominative case 
 independent, an interjection, or loth. Analyze and parse 
 according to the model. 
 
 What are interjections ? What does the nominative case inde 
 pendent denote ? Give Rule X. 
 
 LESSON XXXV. 
 
 COMPLEX AND COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 
 
 It has been seen that a sentence may contain five 
 distinct elements, — the subject, the predicate, the 
 adjective element, the objective element, and ths 
 adverbial element. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. % 121 
 
 The first two are called principal elements be- 
 cause no sentence can be formed without them. 
 
 The others are called subordinate elements, 
 because they are always directly or indirectly 
 dependent on the other two. 
 
 Whenever two elements are united, one of which 
 is subordinate to the other, and limits its meaning, 
 the two united form a complex element. 
 
 Thus, " Animals run " contains only the two principal elements ; 
 but in the sentence, " Large animals run," the subordinate element 
 11 large " renders the subject complex. So, in the sentence, u Large 
 run slowly," both the subject and predicate are complex. In the 
 same manner, each subordinate element may become complex. 
 
 Whenever two elements are united, which in no 
 way limit each other, they form a compound ele- 
 ment ; as " John and Jptmes attended school." 
 
 Either of the five elements of a sentence, may 
 become complex, compound, or both ; as, " Sarah 
 writes neatly ;" " Sarah writes and paints ; " 
 w Sarah writes neatly and paints correctly" 
 
 The parts of a compound element are said to be 
 coordinate, because they hold the same rank ; that 
 part of a complex element which limits the other 
 and depends upon it, is said to be subordinate to 
 it, because it takes an inferior rank in the sen- 
 tence. 
 
 The parts of a compound element or a compound sentence are 
 said to be similar, since they have the same rank ; the parts of a 
 complex element, or a complex sentence, are saM to be dissimilar, 
 since they do net have the same rank; 
 
 11 
 
122 FIRST LESSORS 
 
 The parts of a compound element are joined to 
 each other by a connective ; as, " He labored 
 faithfully and successfully." 
 
 The parts of a complex element are joined to each 
 other sometimes with, and sometimes without a con- 
 nective ; as, " He purchased a valuable farm ; " 
 " He purchased a farm which was valuable." 
 
 Those connectives which unite the parts of a 
 compound element are called coordinate; those 
 which unite the parts of a complex element are 
 called subordinate. 
 
 Coordinate connectives are always conjunctions, and are parsed 
 by the following Rule : — 
 
 Rule XI. Coordinate conjunctions are used to 
 connect similar elements. 
 
 Note 1. These conjunctions are called coordinate, because the 
 words, phrases, or clauses which they connect are coordinate. 
 
 Note 2. When the coordinate parts exceed two, the conjunc- 
 tion is usually placed between the last two only; as, " The flood 
 swept away trees, fences, houses, and barns." 
 
 Models for Analyzing and Parsing Compound 
 Elements. 
 
 Socrates and Plato were distinguished philosophers. 
 
 It is a sentence having a compound subject.* 
 Socrates and Plato form the compound subject, because they are 
 united by " and," and have a common predi- 
 cate, " were philosophers." 
 
 * A sentence having but one of its elements compound, is not properly a 
 Simple sentence, nor is it strictly a compound sentence. It may, not im- 
 properly, be called a partial compound, since one of its parts is compound. 
 All such sentences may be converted into complete compounds. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 123 
 
 The subject . is not limited. 
 
 The predicate is limited by " distinguished," an adjective element 
 
 of the first class, used to describe " philosophers." 
 And is a coordinate conjunction, and connects the two 
 
 simple subjects ; according to Rule XI. 
 
 You may buy books or slates. 
 
 It is a sentence having a compound objective ele- 
 ment. 
 
 You is the subject. 
 
 May buy ... is the predicate. 
 
 You is not limited. 
 
 May buy ... is limited by " books or slates," a compound objec 
 tive element, of the first class, showing what may be 
 bought. 
 
 Or is a coordinate conjunction, (alternative,) showing 
 
 that a choice is offered between " books " and 
 il slates," which are connected by it ; according to 
 Rule XI. 
 Note. With the materials already explained, a sentence may 
 
 be considerably extended. Let the pupil attend carefully to the 
 
 following 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and point out the complex 
 elements : — 
 
 His oldest brother's son was sick. Alfred the Great sub- 
 dued the Danish king. Peter the. hermit preached the first 
 crusade. William the Conqueror defeated Harold, the 
 Saxon king. Excess produces premature old age. Touch 
 it very lightly. Avarice often produces contrary effects. 
 Interest speaks all languages. It acts all parts. Guard well 
 your own heart. The shade protected the weary pilgrim. 
 Labor disgraces no man. Joseph, Jacob's favorite son, waa 
 sold. Moses received the ten commandments. 
 
 Write ten sentences of your own, making either elemerti 
 complex. 
 
124 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Study Lesson XXIV., and then analyze the following 
 sentences ■, parse the conjunctions and the verbs, and point out 
 the compound elements: — 
 
 The sun and moon stood still. Abraham, Isaac, and 
 Jacob, were Jewish patriarchs. Exercise ferments the 
 humors, throws off redundancies, and assists nature. The 
 plain and simple style recommends and heightens the sub- 
 lime. Education expands and elevates the mind. Religion 
 refines and purifies the affections. Many very worthy and 
 sensible people have certain odd tricks. 
 
 As a compound element may have a verb or pronoun agreeing 
 with it, the following rule should be observed : — 
 
 Rule XII. When a verb or pronoun relates to 
 two or more nouns connected by a coordinate con- 
 junction, — 
 
 (1.) If it agrees with them taken conjointly, it 
 must be in the plural number ; — 
 
 (2.) But, if it agrees with them taken sepa- 
 rately, it must be of the same number as that which 
 stands next to it ; — * 
 
 (3.) If it agrees with. one, and not the other, 
 it must be of the same number as that with which 
 it agrees. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Charles and his sister were absent. 
 ' Charles or liis sister was absent. 
 Neither Charles nor his sister was absent. 
 Charles or his sisters were absent. 
 Either his sisters or Charles himself was absent, 
 
 Not Charles, but his sister was absent. 
 Charles, and not his sister, was absent. 
 Charles, as well as his sister, was absent. 
 Not Charles, but his sisters were absent. 
 k Charles, and not his sisters, was absent. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 125 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Write predicates to the following compound subjects : — 
 
 Washington and Lafayette ; sun and moon ; my brother 
 and I ; Samuel or Peter ; silver or gold ; neither one nor 
 the other; not Adam, but Eve; snow, as well as rain; 
 William, or his sons ; Cain, and not Abel ; Jacob, or his * 
 children ; the members, or the president; not the children, 
 but the father ; George, and Joseph also ; every man and 
 woman ; each boy and girl. 
 
 Model. Washington and Lafayette were distinguished 
 generals. 
 
 Write compound predicates to the following subjects : — 
 
 Promises, murderer, emperor, picture, Bible, boys, chil- 
 dren, grammar, Arnold, Cicero, Mahomet, coal, religion, 
 virtue, diligence, behavior, kindness. 
 
 Model. Promises are often made and broken. 
 
 Write fifteen sentences of your own, limiting the subjects 
 of the first five by a compound adjective element, — the 
 predicates of the next five by a compound objective ele- 
 ment, — and the ptedicates of the last five by a compound 
 adverbial element. 
 
 Models. A large and beautiful horse was killed. The 
 flood swept away trees, fences, houses, and barns. Some 
 men sin frequently, deliberately, and presumptuously. 
 
 Write ten sentences, making any two elements in each 
 compound. 
 
 Model. George and David study grammar and arith- 
 metic. 
 
 Analyze and parse the following miscellaneous examples : — 
 
 We have learned our lessons. Joseph was sold. You 
 might have crossed the stream. He will sell some figs. 
 She should have been studying her lesson. The earl is 
 our guest. Be sober. Live contentedly. Break not your 
 promise. Be thou a scholar. Be firm. Do be quiet 
 
 11* 
 
126 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 The soldiers must have been drilled. The ship ploughs 
 the sea. The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent book. 
 Edward the Confessor abused his mother. Queen Chris- 
 tina resigned her crown. Edward the Black Prince woro 
 black armor. I am, dear sir, your affectionate friend, 
 My son, give me thy heart. The earth and the moon are 
 planets. The creation demonstrates God's power and 
 wisdom. Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, 
 follow a civil war. Avoid arrogance and servility. 
 
 The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegated 
 landscape, the boundless ocean, and the starry firmament, 
 are beautiful and magnificent objects. True religion gives 
 our behavior a native and unaffected ease. Plain, honest 
 truth wants no artificial coloring. Wise and good men are 
 frequently unsuccessful. True worth is modest and retir- 
 ing. Ulysses was a wise, eloquent, cautious and intrepid 
 hero. Good nature mends and beautifies all objects. The 
 liberal arts soften and harmonize the temper. A philoso- 
 pher should examine every thing coolly, impartially, accu- 
 rately, and rationally. I shall go myself ; or send some one. 
 He is not sick, but discouraged. She sings, as well as plays. 
 He has caught a pike or a perch. O, how cold it is ! His 
 fate, alas! was deplorable. Coming events cast their 
 shadows before. 
 
 How many elements may a sentence contain ? Which are prin 
 cipal ? Which subordinate ? How is a complex element formed ? 
 How is a compound element formed ? Wkat elements may be 
 complex or compound ? How are the parts of a compound ele- 
 ment joined ? How are the parts of a complex element joined " 
 What are coordinate connectives ? Give the rule for their usa. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 127 
 
 LESSON XXXYI. 
 
 THE SUBJECT MODIFIED BY THE ADDITION 
 OF PHRASES. 
 
 Note. In the previous additions to the subject or predicate, a 
 tingle word is made to show what hind, how many, whose, what, whom, 
 where, when, why, how, &c. But in this and the succeeding lesson a 
 class of additions is considered, in which an infinitive, or a prepo- 
 sition and its object, show what kind, &c. These additions are 
 called phrases. They perform the same office as, and may often be 
 changed to single words ; as, " A man of industry will prosper " = 
 * " An industrious man will prosper." These phrases, called ele- 
 ments of the second class, may be used as substantives, adjectives, or 
 adverbs. 
 
 The preposition is a connective used to join a 
 noun or pronoun to the word or phrase on which it 
 depends. The noun or pronoun is called the object 
 of the preposition. 
 
 The use of the preposition may be expressed by the following 
 rule : — t 
 
 Rule XIII. A preposition is used to show the 
 relation of its object to the preceding word on which 
 the object depends ; as, " George went into the 
 garden." 
 
 The following is the rule for the object : — 
 
 Rule XIV. A noun or pronoun used to com- 
 plete the relation of a preposition, must be in the 
 objective case ; as, " They gathered around him" 
 
 *In the subsequent parts of this work, it will often be necessary to 
 represent equivalent expressions. For this purpose the sign of equality 
 (•=) will be used. 
 
128 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Note 1. The object of the preposition may be either a word, 
 phrase, or clause; as, " He came in haste ; " " This is a book for 
 you to read ; " " Much depends npon who the commissioners are." 
 
 Note 2. The objective is used without a preposition, after like, 
 nigh, near, and worth. 
 
 Note 3. Before nouns denoting time, measure, distance, and 
 direction, the preposition is usually understood ; as, " We were ab- 
 sent five years ; " " The wall was a foot thick." 
 
 The infinitive is a peculiar form, participating 
 the properties of a noun and verb. 
 
 When used to modify other words, it should be parsed by the 
 following rule : — 
 
 Eulb XV. The infinitive depends upon the 
 word which it limits; as, " We went to see you." 
 
 Note 1. The to of the infinitive is omitted after the active voice 
 of bid, dare, let, make, hear, need, feel, see; as, "I heard him say 
 it." 
 
 Note 2. This rule applies to the infinitive only when it is a 
 subordinate element ; when it is a principal element, apply either 
 Rule I. or Kule II. 
 
 Note 3. The infinitive is often used after so, as, too, and than. 
 
 Of is the principal preposition used in the adjec- 
 tive phrase. 
 
 Other prepositions are sometimes used ; as, at, in, on, &c. 
 
 Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 Note. The pupil should bear in mind that, instead of a single 
 adjective, as in Lesson XXXIII., a phrase, consisting of an infini- 
 tive, or a preposition and its object is here used to limit the subject ; 
 as, " The dew of the morning has passed away." It is culled the 
 adjective phrase or adjective element of the second class. 
 
 The brother of Richard I. usurped the throne. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains 
 
 but one proposition. 
 
 Brother is the* subject. 
 
 Usurped is the predicate. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 129 
 
 The subject, brother \ is limited by the phrase M of Richard " an 
 adjective element of the second class, de- 
 noting the family relation of "brother," and 
 u Richard ; " it is equivalent to " Richard'r ." 
 "Of" is the connective, and "Richard" is 
 the object. 
 
 Of ... • is a preposition, and shows the relation of 
 
 " Richard " to " brother ; " according to Rule 
 
 xm. 
 
 Richard is a proper noun, of the third person, singular 
 
 number, masculine gender, objective ca.se 
 and completes the relation of the preposition 
 " of ; " according to Rule XIV. 
 
 His attempt to rescue Ms friend was fatal to himself. 
 Note. Analyze as in the last example. 
 
 Attempt, the subject, is limited by "to rescue," an adjective els 
 ment of the second class, used to designate 
 the attempt. 
 
 To rescue is a verb, (from rescue, rescued, rescued,) in 
 
 the infinitive mode, present tense, and de- 
 pends upon "attempts;" according to Rule 
 XV. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Study Lesson XXIII., and then analyze the following 
 examples, and parse the phrases : — 
 
 A man of straw was prostrated. The dew of the morn- 
 ing has passed away. The light of the moon assisted us. 
 The king of Morven struck his breast. The temple of 
 Solomon was destroyed. Time to come is called future. 
 A desire to see you has brought me here. The spirit of 
 Loda shrieked. The joy of his youth was great. 1*1 le 
 city of Mexico is beautifully situated. The hope of tha 
 hypocrite will fail. The man at the mast-head descried an 
 iceberg. His intention to resign has been publicly announced 
 The true spirit of heroism is generous. 
 I 
 
130 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Write sentences limiting the subjects by the following 
 phrases: — 
 
 Of morning; in the moon; of brass; of generosity; 
 of America ; of virtue ; of seeing ; of doing ; of wood ; 
 of Europe ; on board ; of the house ; of friends ; of home. 
 
 Model. The dawn of morning found Waverly on the 
 esplanade. 
 
 Change any twelve of the adjective elements in the preceding 
 examples into equivalent forms of the first class. 
 
 Model* The morning dew has passed away. 
 
 Write sentences of your own, limiting the subjects by the 
 following adjective elements ; then change them to the second 
 class. 
 
 Evening, virtuous, David's, Solomon's, generous, honor- 
 able, penniless, comfortless, coming, breathless, prosperous, 
 experienced, deformed, wise, country, morning. 
 
 Model. An evening walk is agreeable = A walk at 
 evening is agreeable. 
 
 What forms may be used instead of an adjective, to limit the 
 subject? How is the preposition used? What is the noun or 
 pronoun which follows it called? Give Rule XIII. Give Rule 
 XIV. What is said of the infinitive ? Give Rule XV. 
 
 1 
 
 LESSON XXXVII. 
 
 THE PREDICATE MODIFIED BY THE ADDITION OF 
 
 PHRASES. 
 See Note at the beginning of Lesson XXXVI. 
 
 Objective Element. Instead of a single word, 
 as in Lesson XXXIII., an infinitive may complete 
 the meaning of a transitive verb ; as, " He desired 
 (what) to write, to sing, to play " &c. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 181 
 
 The infinitive is used to complete the meaning of verbs which 
 do not take a substantive as an object ; as, " He seemed to revive. 1 * 
 In parsing the infinitive thus used, apply either Rule XV. or Rufe 
 VIII. Take the model in Lesson XXxIII. for analyzing. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following examples, and parse the infini- 
 tives : — 
 
 They began to sing. The boy learned to write. I did 
 not expect to find it. The children love to play. We hope 
 to see him. The ambassador desired to have an interview. 
 
 He seemed to sleep. We ought to know. The sun ap- 
 pears to rise. The boy was anxious to learn. The student 
 was ambitious to rise. 
 
 Write infinitives as objects to complete the meaning of the 
 following predicates : — 
 
 We wish. They know how. James cannot learn. We 
 did not intend. They will try. The boys hope. May we 
 not expect ? 
 
 Adverbial Element. Phrases, like adverbs, may 
 denote place, time, cause, and manner. 
 
 Model for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 
 We left on Tuesday. 
 
 It is a simple sentence because it contains bat one 
 
 proposition. 
 We . . . is the subject, and 
 Left ... is the predicate. 
 We . . . is not limited. 
 Left . . is limited by the phrase " on Tuesday," which denotes 
 
 the time of leaving, and is an adverbial element. 
 On ... is a preposition, and shows the relation of " Tuesday" to 
 
 " leave ; " according to Rule XIII. 
 Tuesday is a noun, &c, and completes the relation of "on; n 
 
 according to Rule XIV. 
 
132 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Place. Phrases denoting place, answer tho 
 questions, WJdther? Whence? Where? 
 
 Examples. "The water runs (whither?) to the ocean." The 
 wind conies (whence ?) from the South." " The snow is rneltirg 
 I where ?) in the valley." 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following, and parse the phrases: — 
 
 The kangaroo lives in New Holland. Burgoyne sur- 
 rendered at Saratoga. A treaty of peace was concluded 
 at Marseilles. Napoleon was banished to St. Helena. 
 The battle was fought at Vittoria. The church stands 
 beside the river. Mesopotamia was situated between two 
 rivers. The nuncio came from Rome. The Israelites 
 came out of Egypt. They went to, Canaan. We sat on 
 the sofa. The birds flew over the barn. The rabbits 
 burrowed under the tree. We sailed around the island. 
 
 Write sentences of your own, limiting the predicates by the 
 following phrases : — 
 
 Over the hill ; on the ground ; up the tree ; to New 
 York ; from Philadelphia ; through the air ; on the steps ; 
 toward the east ; beside the wall ; around the garden ; by 
 Long Island ; along the road ; athwart the sky. 
 
 Model. The horse ran over the hill. 
 
 Time. Phrases denoting time answer the ques- 
 tions, When? Sow long? How often? 
 
 Examples. "The boat will sail (when?) on Monday." 'It 
 will be absent (how long ?) four days." " The task was performed 
 (how often) four times." In the last two examples tne preposition 
 is understood. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Analyze the following, and parse the phrases : — 
 The steamer left on Friday. The cars will arrive at 
 twelve, Some birds remain throughout the year. My 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 133 
 
 cousin staid a week. The work must be completed before 
 Saturday. The stage will arrive towards morning. The 
 president staid till Monday. The boat left after twelve. 1 
 have been here since sunrise. The boat was repaired six 
 times. 
 
 Write ten sentences, each containing some phrase denoting 
 time. 
 
 Select fifteen sentences from your reading lesson, each 
 having a phrase denoting time. 
 
 Cause or Reason. Phrases denoting a cause or 
 reason, answer the questions, Why? For what? 
 as, " He was imprisoned (why ?) for debt" 
 
 The infinitive often answers the question Wliy f It then denotes 
 a motive ; as, " They went to see." 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 The poor man died of hunger. The woman fainted from 
 fright. The farmer was imprisoned for debt. The soldier 
 fights for glory. The party were travelling for pleasure. 
 The victim seemed, by his dress, to be a sailor. The chil- 
 dren went to see the animals. They remained to visit their 
 friends. Washington sent an officer to reconnoitre the 
 enemy's camp. We stopped to see the consul. 
 
 Manner. Phrases denoting manner, answer the 
 questions, How f or, How much? 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Analyze the following, and parse the phrases : — 
 The anchor clung to the rock with tenacity. The ele- 
 phant takes his food with his trunk. The dove flew with 
 rapidity. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. The 
 coachman rode by in haste. They have rushed through 
 like a hurricane. Th^y devoured the earth like an army of 
 
 12 
 
134 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 locusts. The Georgium Sidus was discovered by HerscheL 
 Lightning and electricity were identified by Franklin. 
 The man was culpable to a great degree. Jame3 walked 
 with his sister. Columbus crossed the Atlantic with ninety 
 men. The walls of Babylon were fifteen miles long. The 
 jacket is too large for the boy. The water is too cold for 
 bathing. The coat is two gay for an old man. 
 
 Write sentences limiting the predicates by the following 
 phrases denoting agency. Then change the verb to the active 
 voice : — 
 
 By Columbus; by Moses; by whales; by doves; by 
 Washington ; by Cromwell ; by Socrates ; by Judas ; by 
 Arnold ; by Paul ; by rabbits ; by insects ; by serpents ; by 
 bees ; by labor. 
 
 Model. America was discovered by Columbus = Co- 
 lumbus discovered America. 
 
 Write sentences limiting the predicates by the following 
 miscellaneous phrases : — 
 
 In haste; for a boy; with rapidity; like thunder; ten 
 miles ; six feet ; seven rods ; for me to do ; with William ; 
 with a sword. 
 
 Change the following adverbs into phrases, and employ 
 them in sentences of your own : — 
 
 Carefully, wisely, courageously, unblushingly, tenderly, 
 diligently, harmlessly, furiously, despondingly, thoughtfully, 
 incautiously, rapidly, boldly, timidly, foolishly, brightly^ 
 modestly, painfully, elegantly. 
 Model. He managed with care. 
 
 What may be used, instead of a single word, as the objec- 
 tive element ? What forms may be used as the adverbial 
 element ? By what questions may we know a phrase denot, 
 ing place ? Time ? Cause or reason ? Manner ? 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 135 
 
 LESSON XXXVIII. 
 COMPLEX AND COMPOUND PHRASES. 
 
 A phrase, used as an element of a sentence may, 
 as in case of the single word, become complex or 
 compound. 
 
 The phrase, in any of its uses, may be complex, (1,) by adding a 
 single word to the object ; as, " The appearance of dark clouds 
 alarmed us; " — (2,) by adding another phrase to the object; as, 
 " The king returned in the gleam of his arms." 
 
 Two phrases, like two single words, may be united by either of 
 the coordinate conjunctions ; as, " The islands of Cuba and [of] 
 Hayti belong to the West Indies." " The boy learned to read and 
 [to] write." " You may pass through the house and through the 
 garden.* 
 
 Model for Analyzing complex Elements. 
 
 The whole course of his life has been distinguished by 
 
 generous actions. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains 
 but one proposition. 
 
 Course is the subject, and 
 
 Has been distinguished is the predicate. 
 
 The subject, course, . is limited by " the " and " whole." It is 
 also limited by the phrase "of his life," a 
 complex adjective element, used to explain 
 the " course." " Life " is limited by " his," 
 which denotes whose life. 
 
 The predicate, has been distinguished, is limited by the phrase " by 
 generous actions " — showing how the course 
 of his life had been distinguished, and is a 
 complex adverbial element. "Actions" is 
 limited by "generous," showing what kind 
 of actions. 
 
 * The preposition is g°nerally omitted by ellipsis in the second phrase. 
 
130 nr.sT lessons 
 
 Note. A phrase may be joined to a single word used in any 
 relation. Thus, " He gave a word of caution." The phrase " of 
 caution" renders the object word complex. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and separate each complex 
 clement into its component parts, according to the model : — 
 
 The Spartan youth were accustomed to go barefoot. 
 Many a despicable wretch lies under a marble monument, 
 decorated with a flattering epitaph. Italy is a large penin- 
 sula, bounded on the north by the Alps. The king returned 
 in the gleam of his arms. The chiefs gathered round the 
 falling Carthon. His words reached the heart of Clessam- 
 mor. After the denial of the charge, he withdrew in dignified 
 displeasure. The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are 
 ended. Suddenly the sound of the signal-gun broke the 
 stillness of the night. The same is true of literary men. 
 
 Write sentences, limiting the subject of each by one of the 
 following adjectives or participles. Let each adjective or 
 participle be placed at the beginning of the sentence, and be 
 limited by some word or phrase. 
 
 Gliding, eager, feeding, anxious, desirous, floating, con- 
 scious, encircled, enriched, regardless, flying, searching, 
 waiting, opening, commencing, wading, poring, finding, 
 aware, awake, ambitious, robed, detained, amazed, indig- 
 nant, confused. 
 
 Model. Gliding along the edge of the horizon, a dis- 
 tant sail sometimes attracted our attention. Eager to attain 
 to the highest rank, he labored incessantly. 
 
 Write sentences introducing each of the following nouns or 
 infinitives as objects, and let each be limited by some word or 
 phrase : — 
 
 Laws, congress, constitution, county, work, discourse, fable 
 dialogue, catalogue, inventory, league, truce, country, laboi 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 137 
 
 to study ; to invite ; to leave ; to stay ; to sing •, to have 
 run. 
 
 Model. The Eomans examined the laws of Solon. 
 
 Use the following phrases as adverbial elements, and limit 
 each by some word or phrase: — 
 
 In honor; on returning; by searching* in the capital; 
 through the air; on opening; to solicit; to invite; over 
 hjjfs ; under the wall ; in search ; into the town ; for stealing ; 
 of his breaking ; of her being sick ; of his being a scholar. 
 
 Model. One hundred guns were fired in honor of the 
 victory gained by the Americans over the British. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences and point out the com- 
 pound phrases, showing also what words are omitted by 
 ellipsis : — 
 
 A stream of flame and smoke issued from the chimney. 
 The hearts of the brothers were not divided during the 
 peace and the troubles of this life. The obligation of re- 
 spect and love for parents never ceases. Hampden placed 
 himself at the head of his countrymen, and across the path 
 of tyranny. To be or not to be, is the question. Sarah 
 loves to sing and dance. They were stationed there to 
 defend the fort, and to awe the citizens. 
 
 Write sentences, introducing the following words as 
 objects after a preposition, and let the phrases thus formed 
 of the words between the semicolons, be united into compound 
 adjective or adverbial elements. 
 
 Robber, murderer ; truth, humanity ; zeal, energy ; Eng- 
 hnd, America; Europe, Asia; hope, fear; day, night. 
 
 Model. The name of the robber and murderer has been 
 ascertained. 
 
 May phrases become complex and compound? In what way 
 may a phrase become complex ? In what way comnound ? 
 
 12* 
 
138 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 LESSON XXXIX. 
 
 CLASSES OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 
 
 Interrogative sentences are of two kinds, — 
 direct and indirect. 
 
 A direct interrogative sentence refers to the whole 
 of the sentence which answers the question, andcs 
 always introduced by a verb of its auxiliaries ; as, 
 "Did you see John?" Yes, i. e., "I did see John." 
 
 ' Note. Direct interrogative sentences are answered by yes or 
 no, which are equivalent to a whole sentence. 
 
 An indirect interrogative sentence refers to some 
 part of the sentence which answers the question 
 and is always introduced by some interrogative 
 word ; as, " Who came ? " Ans. John, i. e., " John 
 came." 
 
 The interrogatives are, — (1,) pronouns; as, Who ? Which? 
 and What ? (2,) pronominal adjectives ; as, Which ? What ? 
 and Many preceded by How, How many ? — and (3,) adverbs, 
 (either words or phrases ;) as, (place,) Wliere? Whither? Whence? 
 (time,) When ? Row long ? How often ? (cause,) Why ? Wherefore ? 
 (manner,) How f How much ? Also, At what place ? On what day ? 
 For what reason ? In what manner ? &c, &c. 
 
 Models for Analysis. 
 
 Have you written ? 
 
 It is an interrogative sentence, because it asks a ques 
 tion ; simple, because it contains but one proposition; 
 direct, because it requires an affirmation or denial. 
 
 You is the subjec*.. 
 
 Have written is the predicate. 
 Note. The elements of an interrogative sentence are in all 
 
 respects like those of a declarative. i 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 139 
 
 Where does he live f Ans. In Boston. 
 
 It is an interrogative sentence, because it asks a 
 question ; simple, because it contains but one propo- 
 sition ; indirect, because it refers to a part of a 
 corresponding declarative sentence, " in Boston." 
 
 Be is the subject. 
 
 Does hve ... is the predicate. 
 
 The predicate is limited by " where," an adverbial element, 
 inquiring for place. 
 
 Where is an interrogative adverb, and belongs to " does 
 
 live ; " according to Rule IX. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Analyze the following interrog ative sentences ; tell which are 
 direct and which are indirect. Parse the interrogatives. 
 
 Are you here? Is your brother well? Have you 
 returned ? Is your master at home ? "Will you ride to town 
 to-day ? Do you think him so base ? Have you learned 
 the lesson ? May we not sit under this tree ? Must I leave 
 town to-morrow? Am I my brother's keeper? Shall I 
 send the letter to the office ? Did you kill the Nenuean 
 lion ? Who reported the doings of congress ? Whose hat 
 is this ? Whom did the president nominate ? Which book 
 did you take? What name have his parents given him? 
 How many soldiers were killed in the battle ? What kind 
 of people first inhabited England ? When shall you visit 
 the Springs ? How long did he stay ? How often does 
 George visit his mother ? Where is the promised fruit of 
 all his toil ? Whence comes this tumult ? Why do you 
 weave around you this thread of occupation ? How did you 
 come? In what way do you intend to go? To whom 
 shall I deliver the message ? At what time shall we send 
 the letter? 
 
 Convert the above questions into declarative sentences* 
 Place a period ( . ) at the end of each. 
 
 Model. You are here. Your brother is well. 
 
140 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Write sentences introduced by the following interrog- 
 atives : — 
 
 Why ? On what account ? Where ? When ? Whose h 
 Of whom ? On what ? Whither ? Whence ? In what 
 place ? How many ? Whom ? Which ? In considera- 
 tion of what ? On what condition ? How ? Wherein ? 
 By what ? Over whom ? On what ? Under what ? 
 Through what ? On whose account ? 
 
 TFh'te an answer to each. 
 
 How many kinds of interrogative sentences are there ? Name 
 them. What is a direct interrogative sentence ? An indirect ? 
 What are the principal interrogatives ? 
 
 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 LESSON XL. 
 
 THE SUBJECT MODIFIED BY THE ADDITION OF CLAUSES. 
 
 Note. The pupil has seen that, when one word or phrase is 
 joined subordinately, so as to limit another word or phrase, the 
 two united form a complex element. He is now to see that two 
 sentences may be joined so that one shall be subordinate to the 
 Dther and limit it, thus forming a complex sentence. 
 
 Instead of a single vjord or phrase, a subordinate 
 proposition may be used to limit the subject ; as, 
 " The statements which were made, are true." 
 
 The limiting proposition, whether joined to the 
 subject or predicate, is called subordinate, because 
 it depends upon another proposition, which, in refer 
 ence to it, is called principal. 
 
^ or the • "/ 
 
 ;imvEftsiT 
 
 The propositions which unite to form a sentence 
 are called clauses. 
 
 A complex sentence is formed by uniting a pririr 
 tipal and a subordinate clause. . 
 
 A complex sentence is formed by uniting two dissimilar simple 
 sentences, just as a complex element is formed by uniting two 
 dissimilar simple elements. 
 
 The parts which are essential to a subordinate 
 clause are, a connective, a subject, and a predicate. 
 
 The connective is called subordinate, because it 
 renders the proposition which follows it subordinate 
 to some part of the principal proposition with which 
 it is connected. 
 
 These connectives are parsed by the following rule : — 
 
 Rule XVI. Subordinate connectives are 'used 
 to join dissimilar elements. 
 
 Note 1. These connectives are of three kinds, — conjunctions, 
 conjunctive adverbs, and relative pronouns. 
 
 Note 2. In most cases, the subordinate connective has a corres 
 ponding word in the principal clause, called the correlative , as, 
 " He was so much injured that he could not walk." 
 
 Note 3. A subordinate connective always unites the clause 
 which it introduces to the word which the clause limits ; as, u ) 
 perceive that you need assistance." 
 
 Subordinate clauses are divided, according to 
 their nature and use, into substantive, adjective, and 
 adverbial. 
 
 A substantive clause is a substantive or an infinitive expanded 
 into a proposition ; as, " Stealing is base " = " To steal is base " »= 
 m That one should steal is base." 
 
142 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 An adjective clause is an adjective, participle, or adjective phrase, 
 expanded into a proposition ; as, " A generous man = a man of 
 generosity = a man who is generous, will be honored." 
 
 An adverbial clause is an adverb, or adverbial phrase, expanded 
 into a proposition ; as, "The ship sailed early — before sw7Wfcse = 
 before the sun rose." 
 
 Whenever a clause is used to limit a noun or pronoun it becomes • 
 an adjective element, and is hence called an adjective clause ; as, 
 " A man who is industrious, will gain respect." 
 
 Adjective clauses are introduced by relative pro- 
 nouns, which serve to connect them with a limited 
 noun or pronoun called the antecedent ; as, " The 
 evil that men do, lives after them." 
 
 The agreement of the relative is determined by the following 
 Rule : — 
 
 Rule XVII. The relative must agree with its 
 antecedent in person, number, and gender, but not 
 necessarily in case. 
 
 Note 1. This rule is equally true of the personal and interroga 
 tive, pronouns, though they do not always, like the relative, hava 
 an immediate antecedent. 
 
 Note 2. When the antecedent is compound, apply Rule XII. 
 
 Note 3. When the antecedent is a collective noun, the pronoun 
 should be in the plural number, if the antecedent refers to the indi 
 viduals composing the collection ; otherwise it should be in the 
 singular ; as, " The committee who were appointed last year sub- 
 mitted no report." If reference were made to the committee as a 
 body, who could not be used, but which or that must be substituted. 
 
 Note 4. Relative pronouns often relate, not to a word, but to a 
 preceding phrase or clause ; as, " The boy closed the blinds, which 
 darkened the roomy 
 
 Note 5. The case of the relative depends upon the construction 
 of the adjective clause; as, "A man who perseveres will be hon- 
 ored ; " a The gentleman whose aid was solicited has left the city ; " 
 " The book which I purchased is damaged ; " " The house in which 
 he lived has passed into other hands." 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 143 
 
 Models for Analysis. 
 
 A man who finds not satisfaction in himself, seeks for U 
 in vain elsewhere. 
 
 It is a complex sentence, because it con 
 tains two dissimilar clauses. 
 
 Man is the subject of the principal clause. 
 
 Seeks is the predicate. 
 
 The subject is limited by " a," also by the adjective 
 
 clause, " who finds not satisfaction in him 
 self," which describes " man." 
 
 The complex subject . is " A man who finds not satisfaction in 
 himself." 
 
 The predicate is limited by "for it," "in vain," and 
 
 " elsewhere." 
 
 The complex predicate is u seeks for it in vain elsewhere." 
 
 Wlio is the subject of the adjective clause. 
 
 Finds is the predicate. 
 
 The predicate is limited, first, by " not ; " secondly, by 
 
 " satisfaction ; " and thirdly, by " in him 
 self." 
 
 Wlio is a relative pronoun, of the third person, 
 
 singular number, masculine gender, accord- 
 ing to Rule XVII. ; is the subject of the 
 proposition, " who finds," &c, according to 
 Eule I., and connects this proposition with 
 "man," the subject of the principal clause, 
 according to Eule XVI. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following examples, and parse the relatiit 
 pronouns : — 
 
 The rewards which are promised, shall be given. Cannot 
 the man who is faithfully attached to religion be relied on 
 with confidence ? He whom I loved is dead. Will not those 
 who raise envy incur censure ? The globe on which we 
 live, is but a planet. Whatever violates nature cannot bo 
 innocent. Whoever forgets a benefit, is an enemy to 
 
144 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 society. Will not he whose desires are boundless, always 
 be restless ? The opinion that children may grow up as they 
 please, seems to prevail. The reason why he left his mother 
 in such peril, has never been satisfactorily given. 
 
 Write twenty sentences, limiting the subject of each by an 
 adjective clause. In Jive, let the relative be in the nominative 
 case ; in five, let it be in the possessive case ; in five, in the 
 objective case after a transitive verb; * and in five, let it be in 
 the objective after a preposition. Let ten of the sentences be 
 interrogative. (See note 5, Rule XVI.) 
 
 Convert the following simple sentences into complex sen- 
 tences, by expanding the Italicized adjective elements into 
 clauses : — 
 
 The pride of wealth is contemptible. The well-bred man 
 desires only to please. Reproof given in public hardens the 
 heart. Milton the poet was blind. The sun, vicegerent of 
 his power, shall rend the veil of parting night. A cottage 
 shaded with trees, is a pleasant object. The butterfly, child 
 of the summer, flutters in the sun. Caesar, the enslaver of 
 his country, was stabbed in the senate-house. The house 
 of my father stands near the road. My brother's dog was 
 killed. 
 
 Model. The pride which wealth begets is contemptible. 
 
 Change any twelve of the foregoing to interrogative sen* 
 tences. 
 
 Model. Is not the pride which wealth begets contempt- 
 ible? 
 
 Write complex sentences to the following compound subjects, 
 limiting each by an adjective clause, (See Rule XII.) 
 
 The boy or the girl. The sun and moon. James or 
 John. The fox and the geese. Not the servant, but the 
 
 * A word is said to he in the objective after a yerb, when it completes it* 
 meaning, even though it is placed before it. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 145 
 
 master. Susan, and not the sister. Neither the man nor 
 the woman. Those books or slates. This boy or his 
 parents. Some insect or reptile. Those trees or shrubs. 
 Model. The boy or the girl who painted this picture 
 deserves much praise. 
 
 What other forms besides a single word or phrase may be used 
 to limit the subject ? What is the limiting proposition called ? 
 What are the propositions which form a sentence called ? How is 
 a complex sentence formed ? How many parts are essential to a 
 subordinate clause ? What are they ? Why is the connective 
 called subordinate ? Give Rule XVI. How are subordinate 
 clauses divided? When is a clause called adjective? By what 
 are adjective clauses introduced ? Give Rule XVII. 
 
 LESSON XLI. 
 
 T&E PREDICATE MODIFIED BY THE ADDITION OF 
 CLAUSES. 
 
 The Objective Element. Instead of a tvord or 
 phrase, a clause may be used to complete the 
 meaning of a transitive verb ; as, " I perceive that 
 you have ordered a supply." 
 
 Objective clauses are substantive clauses in the 
 objective case. They may be introduced by that, 
 but that, whether, and the various interrogatives. 
 (See Lessons XXIV. and XXXIX.) 
 
 Substantive clauses in the objective, generally follow verbs 
 denoting, — 1st. Some act or state of the mind (as perception, 
 emotion, or will;) — 2d. A declaration, order, or statement; as, "I 
 wish that you would assist me ; " " The farmer declared that his 
 watch had .gained half an hour in the night." 
 
 18 k 
 
146 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Model for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 
 Do you know that you have wronged him ? 
 
 It is a complex sentence, because it is composed 
 of dissimilar clauses ; interrogative, because it 
 asks a question; direct, because it can be an- 
 swered by yes or no. 
 
 You is the subject of the principal clause. 
 
 Do know .... is the predicate. 
 
 The predicate . is limited by " that you have wronged him," an 
 objective element, denoting what is known. It is 
 used as a noun, third person, singular number, 
 neuter gender, and is the object of "do know;" 
 according to Kule VIII. " Do know that you 
 have wronged him," is the complex predicate. 
 
 You is the subject of the subordinate clause. 
 
 Have wronged . is the predicate. 
 
 The predicate . is limited by " him," a simple objective element, 
 showing whom. 
 
 That is a subordinate conjunction, and connects the 
 
 substantive clause, "you have wronged him," to 
 the predicate of the principal clause, "know," 
 according to Rule XVI. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following propositions according to the 
 model : — 
 
 I believed that all these objects existed within me. I 
 know not whether he will go. Will you tell me whom you 
 saw on the mall ? We knew whose place was vacated. I 
 knew not where I was. Will you tell me why you are sad ? 
 The teacher showed me wherein I had erred. My uncle 
 explained how the seasons are produced. Will you show 
 me why we invert the divisor ? "I always thought," said 
 he, u that philosophy served to make men happier." They 
 say that they have bought it. The truly great consider, 
 first, how they may gain the approbation of God. He 
 inquired, " who comes there ? " 
 
in Grammar. 147 
 
 Write objective clauses to complete the meaning of the 
 following predicates : — 
 
 The fox said. I wish. Washington ordered. You see. 
 They know. We hope. The general perceived. Some 
 suppose. Many people think. Columbus declared. The 
 president directed. We understand. Do you consider? 
 Can you show ? Have they feared ? 
 
 Model. " The fox said that the grapes were sour" 
 
 Let the following clauses be used as objects in sentences of 
 your own, and make the first six interrogative : — 
 
 Why vapor rises ; how the truth can be shown ; when the 
 boat is to sail ; where the book may be found ; on what the 
 rule depends ; that the ^arth turns on its axis ; whether we 
 shall go ; but that I shall do it ; whence it came ; how often 
 we should write compositions j in what place the goods are 
 concealed. 
 
 Model. " Will you tell why vapor rises t " 
 
 Expand the following nouns, with the words belonging to 
 them in Italics, into objective clauses : — 
 
 I forgot the time of the lecture. Socrates taught the 
 immortality of the soul. Do you believe the truth of these 
 reports'? Explain the cause of the tides. Show me the 
 mode of its operation. We anticipate a pleasant day. The 
 officer found the place of his concealment. Did you hear of 
 his illness ? Who told you of our success ? I wish to go. 
 He expects to be appointed. Will you tell us the object of 
 this meeting ? The heathen believe in a plurality of gods. 
 
 Model. I forgot when the lecture was to be given. 
 
 Adverbial Element. Clauses like single words 
 or phrases, may denote place, time, cause, or man 
 tier, and are hence called adverbial clauses. 
 
 Adverbial clauses are generally introduced by a 
 
148 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 class of words called conjunctive adverbs; as, 
 u The flowers will bloom, when spring comes.' ' 
 
 Model for Analysis. 
 
 When the wicked are multiplied, transgression increaseth. 
 It is a complex sentence. (Why ?) 
 
 Transgression . . is the subject of the principal clause. 
 
 Increaseth .... is the predicate. 
 
 The predicate . is limited by " when the wicked are multiplied," 
 an adverbial clause denoting time. (See Rule 
 IX.) The complex predicate is, "increaseth 
 when the wicked are multiplied." 
 
 Wicked is the subject of the subordinate clause. 
 
 Are multiptied . is the predicate. « 
 
 When is a subordinate connective, (conjunctive adverb 
 
 of time,) and joius the adverbial clause which 
 it introduces, to the predicate of the principal 
 clause, according to Rule XVI. It limits "are 
 multiplied " and " increaseth ; " according to 
 Rule IX. 
 
 Place. Clauses denoting place answer the ques- 
 tions, Whither? Whence? Where? 
 
 Clauses denoting place are introduced by the following conjunc- 
 tive adverbs; — where, whither, whence, wherever, whithersoever ; and 
 the phrases, as far as, as long as, farther than. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences : — 
 
 The soldiers stopped where night overtook them. Where 
 your treasure is, there will your heart be also. Whereso- 
 ever the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered together. 
 Where true religion has prevented one crime, false religions 
 have afforded a pretext for a thousand. Where all is mer- 
 cenary, nothing can be magnanimous. Whither I go, ye 
 cannot come. I travelled where disappointment smiles at 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 149 
 
 hope's career. Where there is no law, there is no trans- 
 gression. 
 
 Write clauses to show the place of the following events: — 
 
 We went. The money was concealed. The sun shines. 
 
 The flies will collect. Bees may be found. The plain 
 
 stretches. 
 
 Introduce the following adverbial clauses into appropriate 
 sentences of your own. 
 
 Wherever you stay ; where we stand ; as far as one 
 can see ; whither we go ; farther than the country is 
 inhabited. 
 
 Time. Clauses denoting time answer the ques- 
 tions, When t How long t How often t 
 
 The principal conjunctive adverbs denoting time are, when, 
 v)hile, whilst, as, before, after, ere, till, until, since, ichenever ; and the 
 phrases, as long as, as soon as, the moment, the instant, no sooner . . . 
 than. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and parse the connec- 
 tives : — 
 
 A dervise was journeying alone in the desert, when two 
 merchants suddenly met him. When the million applaud 
 you, seriously ask yourself what harm you have done. 
 When you have nothing to say, say nothing. Cromwell 
 followed little events, before he ventured to govern great 
 ones. The age of miracles is passed, while that of prejudi. e 
 remains. At length, the dial instituted a formal enquiry as 
 to the cause of the stagnation, when hands, wheels, weights, 
 with one voice, protested their innocence. As we were 
 walking together, we met a stranger. I have not visited the 
 city since we dissolved our partnership. As soon as we 
 came in sight, the birds were frightened from the tree. I 
 will remain until vou return. 
 13* l 
 
150 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Write appropriate clauses, denoting time, to each of the 
 following sentences : — 
 
 I saw the smouldering ruins. We heard a distant cry. 
 Will you answer my letter ? The child may attend school. 
 Migratory birds return to the north. You may play How 
 old were you ? We should aid our friends. 
 
 Write five complex interrogative sentences, and let 
 the dependent clause denote time. 
 
 Causal Clauses. Causal clauses may denote a 
 cause or reason, a condition, a purpose, or a con- 
 cession. They answer the questions, Why f On 
 what condition ? For what reason ? 
 
 The first of these are introduced by because, for, as, whereas, 
 since. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and point out the causal 
 clauses : — 
 
 A peace which consults the good of both parties, is the 
 firmest, because both parties are interested in its preserva- 
 tion. We hate some persons because we do not know them. 
 As retreat was now impossible, Colter turned the head of the 
 canoe. Ye receive me not, because ye know him not. 
 Since you have been intrusted with such treasures, you 
 ought to practice the utmost vigilance. 
 
 Write clauses which shall give a reason for the following 
 statements : — 
 
 The tides rise. The moon is eclipsed. We left the city. 
 We should acquire knowledge. We should form good 
 habits in youth. You should honor your parents. Let us 
 ghun the company of the vicious. Improve your time. 
 Cultivate agreeable manners. Love your enemies. We 
 should sympathize with the suffering. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 151 
 
 Model. The tides rise, because the moon attracts the 
 water. 
 
 Write statements for which the following causal clauses 
 shall give a reason. 
 
 Because the engines were out of order ; for it rained 
 incessantly ; since you will not come to me ; as the troops 
 were much fatigued ; because you preferred to walk. 
 
 A conditional clause expresses the condition 
 under which an action or event may take place. 
 The verb of the conditional clause is in the subjunc- 
 tive mode. 
 
 The connectives of conditional clauses are, if though, except, 
 provided that. The connective is sometimes understood ; as, 
 " Should you leave the city, will you write me?" 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following complex sentences, point out the con- 
 ditional clauses, and parse the connectives : — 
 
 If a tree loses its leaves before the fruit is ripe, the latter 
 becomes withered. Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise 
 perish. If you will read my story, you can judge for your- 
 self. If you would enjoy health, bathe often. I shall leave 
 to-morrow, unless my friend arrives. You may return, if 
 you please. Should it rain to-morrow, the lecture will be 
 postponed. Were patrons more disinterested, ingratitude 
 would be more rare. Had I acted from personal enmity, I 
 should justly be despised. 
 
 Write conditional clauses to limit the following sentences, 
 used as principal clauses : — 
 
 We shall go. You may attend school. The moon will 
 be eclipsed. The patient will recover. George will improve. 
 The ice will melt- The plants will not thrive The stream 
 
152 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 cannot be crossed. The labor must be performed. Remorse 
 will ensue. He can perform the task. Water will become 
 we. Fruit will not ripen. 
 
 Model. We shall go, if it is pleasant. 
 
 Apply a consequence to the following conditions : — 
 
 If you leave ; should he stay ; had I stopped ; were the 
 measure to be adopted ; could we ascend the ladder ; unless 
 relief come immediately ; if the day should be unpleasant 
 should the wind blow; except he yield to the proposal 
 provided that a sufficient number of men can be obtained. 
 
 Model. If you leave, no one can supply your place. 
 
 Clauses which denote a purpose or motive, ars 
 called final clauses. They are connected by that A 
 that not, and lest. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, point out the clauses 
 denoting a purpose, and parse the connectives : — 
 
 I have brought a passage that you may explain it. He 
 visited the springs, that he might improve his health. I 
 have been the more careful, that I might not be the instru- 
 ment of his ruin. He sent me a history of Rome, that I 
 might examine it. I opened the door that I might see 
 who was there. He went to the city, that he might consult 
 an attorney. 
 
 Write clauses denoting a purpose or motive to the 
 following : — 
 
 We should take exercise. Avoid trees in a thunder- 
 storm. Study. Improve your time. Shun bad com- 
 pany. Take heed. Reprove not a scorner. Answer 
 not a fool according to his folly. Oblige your friends. 
 He opened the window. He fled his country. 
 
 Change the above clauses denoting purpose to infinitives^ 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 158 
 
 Write sentence*? in wliicli the following infinitives shall 
 denote purpose, and then change them to clauses : — 
 
 To see his brother ; to hear the news *, to enjoy the sea- 
 breeze ; to write a letter ; to educate his children ; to take 
 lessons in music ; to catch a robber ; to sell his furniture , 
 to obtain a situation in the bank. 
 
 An adversative clause is used when something is 
 conceded as opposed to a result. 
 
 The principal connectives of adversative clauses are, though, 
 although, notwithstanding, however, while, and sometimes whatever, 
 and whoever. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and point out the adversa- 
 tive clause : — 
 
 Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. 
 Although the place was unfavorable, nevertheless Caesar 
 determined to attack the enemy. However careless he 
 might seem, his fortune depended upon the decision. He 
 would pull a mote out of his neighbor's eye, while he has a 
 beam in his own. 
 
 Expand the following Italicized phrases into adversative 
 
 With all his faults, I love him. He applied for a situa- 
 tion, without a recommendation. Notwithstanding the storm f 
 we commenced our journey. Despite of opposition, he made 
 his way to distinction. 
 
 Model. Though he has many faults, I love him. 
 
 Write a sentence having an adversative clause for each of 
 the connectives, though, although, notwithstanding, however 
 while. 
 
154 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Manner. Clauses denoting manner answer the 
 questions, How f or, How much ? and denote (1,) 
 a correspondence, (2,) a consequence, (3,) equality, 
 or inequality in magnitude. 
 
 Qyrrespondence is generally indicated by as, just as, so — as ; 
 Consequence, by so — that, such — that, ; equality \ by as — as ; inc 
 fuality, by than, more — than, less — than. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 Analyze the following sentences, and tell which denote COR 
 
 RESPONDENCE, which CONSEQUENCE, and which EQUALITY 
 VT INEQUALITY. 
 
 As a bird that wandereth from her nest, so is a man that 
 wandereth from his place. % As the door turneth upon its 
 hinges, so doth the slothful man upon his bed. Will you 
 read so that you can be heard ? Happiness is much more 
 equally distributed than some suppose. Is gravity always 
 as wise as it appears ? Experience is a surer guide than 
 imagination. Is it not better to be laughed at than ruined ? 
 Moses built the tabernacle, as he was commanded. Do as 
 your parents bid you. Can you paint the picture as she 
 does ? Our lesson is the same as that we had yesterday. 
 
 Write clauses denoting correspondence, to complete the 
 following : — 
 
 As a man thinketh. Will you be so good. The pupil ■ 
 wrote the copy just as. The boy sings as. The task is the 
 same as. Speak as. Make the mark just as. 
 
 Write clauses denoting consequence or effect to complete 
 the following : — 
 
 The day was so stormy. The sun is so bright. The 
 patient had gained so much strength. The hours seemed 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 155 
 
 «o long. They gave him so little money. We should 
 acquire knowledge so that. It is so cold. We have had 
 so much rain. 
 
 Write clauses denoting comparison of equality applied to 
 the following adjectives : — 
 
 Wise, great, stupid, long, broad, fierce, cool, strong, weak, 
 thin, bright, dark, faithful. 
 
 Model % Was Lycurgus as wise as Solon ? 
 
 Write clauses denoting comparison of inequality applied to 
 the same. 
 
 Model. Solon was wiser than Lycurgus = Lycurgus 
 was not so wise as Solon. 
 
 What form besides a word or phrase may be used to complete 
 the meaning of a transitive verb ? What are objective clauses ? 
 By what are they introduced? What is an adverbial clause ? 
 How are adverbial clauses introduced ? What questions do clauses 
 denoting place answer ? Repeat the words which introduce them. 
 What questions do clauses denoting time answer ? Repeat the 
 conjunctive adverbs denoting time. What may causal clauses 
 denote ? Repeat the principal connectives of the first class. What 
 is a conditional clause ? Give the connectives. What do final 
 clauses denote ? When is an adversative clause used ? Give the 
 connectives. What questions do clauses denoting manner answer ? 
 What do they denote ? Give the connectives. 
 
 LESSON XLII. 
 
 COMPLEX AND COMPOUND ELEMENTS CONTAINING 
 CLAUSES. 
 
 When a subordinate clause is joined to some 
 word or phrase by a subordinate connective, the two 
 
156 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 ♦ 
 
 inited form a complex element ; as, " I have brought 
 the booh which you sent for." 
 
 When two subordinate clauses are joined together 
 bj one of the coordinate conjunctions, they form a 
 compound element ; as, " I thought that the sub- 
 stance of the fruit had become part of my own, AND 
 that I was endowed with the power of transforming 
 bodies" 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and point out the complex 
 elements : — 
 
 Most of the palms bear fruit, which supplies the people 
 where they grow with the greatest part of their food. Wasps 
 construct very curious nests, in which they deposit their 
 eggs. The care which God takes of all his creatures is sin- 
 gularly shown in the modes in which the eggs of insects are 
 preserved from cold or wet. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and point out the com- 
 pound clauses : — 
 
 I soon perceived that I had the power of losing and of 
 recovering them, and that I could, at pleasure, destroy and 
 renew this beautiful part of my existence. That their poetry 
 is almost uniformly mournful, and that their views of nature 
 were dark and dreary, will be allowed by all who admit the 
 authenticity of Ossian. I neither knew what I was, where 
 I was, nor from whence I came. Why we are thus detained, 
 or why we receive no intelligence from home is mysterious. 
 
 Amongst that number was an old man, who had fallen an 
 early victim to adversity, and whose d,ays of imprisonment, 
 reckoned by the notches which he had cut on the door of 
 his gloomy cell, expressed the annual circuit of more than 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 157 
 
 filly suns. Bruyere declares, that we are come into the 
 world too late to produce any thing new ; that nature and 
 life are preoccupied ; and that description and sentiment 
 have been long since Exhausted. 
 
 When does a subordinate clause help form a complex element '/ 
 When do subordinate clauses form compound elements ? 
 
 LESSON XLIII. 
 
 PHRASES AND CLAUSES USED AS THE SUBJECT OR 
 
 PREDICATE. 
 
 Note. In the preceding lessons the subjects and predicates of 
 the exercises have been of the simplest form, while the additions to 
 each have been either words, phrases, or clauses. In this lesson 
 the pupil will see that the subject or the attribute of the predicate 
 may be a phrase or a clause. 
 
 The subject of a sentence may be either a 
 substantive phrase, or a substantive clause; as, 
 " To steal is base ; " " That one should steal, 13 
 base." 
 
 These sentences may take either of two forms. 
 The subject may be placed before the predicate, or 
 it may be first represented by the exjoletive " it," 
 and then placed after the predicate ; as, " To see 
 the sun is pleasant " = "It is pleasant to see the 
 sun;" " Sow it should be done is not clear" = 
 " It is not clear how it should be done" 
 
 Note. The "it" in the above examples should not be regarded 
 as the subject. The infinitive or clause is the subject after tlio 
 change, as much as before. The expletive introduces the sentence 
 in an agreeable manner. 
 
 14 
 
158 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 
 To steal is base. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but 
 
 one proposition. 
 7b steal is the subject, because it is that of which the 
 
 quality, "base," is affirmed. It is a principal 
 
 element of the second class. 
 h base is the predicate, because it is the quality 
 
 affirmed of "to steal." "Is" is the verb, and 
 
 " base " is the attribute. 
 To steal ... is a verb, (principal parts, steal, stole, stolen,) 
 
 in the infinitive mode, present tense, and is 
 
 used as a noun, (third person, singular number, 
 
 neuter gender, and nominative case,) in the 
 
 relation of subject ; according to Rule I. 
 
 Who was the author of Junius? s Letters, has never been 
 satisfactorily determined. 
 
 It is a complex sentence, because it contains a 
 principal and a subordinate clause. 
 
 Who was the author of Junius' s Letters, is the subject of the princi- 
 pal clause. 
 
 Has been determined is the predicate. 
 
 The predicate ... is limited by " satisfactorily," an adverbial 
 element of the first class, denoting manner. 
 
 Who was the author, &c, is a principal element of the third class. 
 It is used as a noun, third person, singular 
 number, neuter gender, nominative case, and 
 is the subject of the sentence; according to 
 Rule I. 
 
 Wlio is the subject of the subordinate clause, and 
 
 Was author .... is the predicate. 
 
 Avilwr .... is limited first by "the," and secondly by "of 
 
 Junius's Letters." 
 
 Who . . is an interrogative pronoun, used in a subordi- 
 nate clause. It has no antecedent. It is of 
 the third person, singular number, masculine 
 gender, nominative case, and is the subject of 
 "was;" according to R«ie IV. It connects 
 the two dissimilar clausal, by Rule XVI. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 159 
 
 Note. " Who was the author" may be considered us the gram- 
 matical subject of the complex sentence, and " Who was the author 
 of Junius' s Letters," the logical subject. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following propositions, and parse the infin- 
 itives : — 
 
 To bo good is to be happy. To err is human. To forgive 
 is divine. To obey is to enjoy. To swear is wicked. To 
 see the sun is pleasant. To acquire knowledge is necessary. 
 To repent is our duty. 
 
 It is easy to deceive children. It is wrong to excite false 
 hopes. It is pleasant to receive our friends. It is wrong 
 to hate our enemies. 
 
 Write predicates to the following infinitives used as sub- 
 jects : — 
 
 To be idle; to labor; to write; to cheat; to love our 
 enemies ; to disobey our parents. 
 
 Model. To be idle is criminal. 
 
 Write infinitives as subjects to the following predicates, the 
 sentence being introduced by " it " : — 
 
 It is easy. It is contemptible. It is enough. It is diffi- 
 cult. It is wrong. It pleased him. It encourages a child. 
 It is important. 
 
 Analyze the following complex sentences according to the 
 model : — 
 
 That the earth is a sphere, is easily proved. That no 
 man is justified by the law in the sight of God, is evident 
 Whether the truth will be made to appear, is uncertain. 
 Where the robber concealed his stolen treasures, has never 
 been ascertained. When letters were first used, is not cer- 
 tain Why he resigned his office, will soon be made known. 
 How he made his escape, is a mystery. Who gave the infor- 
 mation, has been ascertained. Will he do it? is the question. 
 
 Write the above sentences, and introduce each by " it." 
 
160 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Write substantive clauses to complete the following ; and 
 then change them so as to place the subject before the predi 
 cate, dispensing with " it " : - — 
 
 It is evident. It is uncertain. It appears. It has been 
 ascertained. It is mysterious. It is well known. It will be 
 6hown. It is true. It is probable. It was denied by none. 
 
 Model. It is evident that the bill will be defeated =' 
 That the bill will be defeated, is evident. 
 
 Expand the following substantives and infinitives, 
 with the words joined to them in Italics, into substantive 
 clauses used as subjects : — 
 
 To swear is impious. To err is human. The utility of 
 the telegraph is acknowledged. The name of the swimmer 
 is not known. The place of his concealment has not been 
 determined. The time of the boat's arrival was well known. 
 The cause of his delay is unknown. The immortality of the 
 soul is universally believed. The authenticity of the Scrip- 
 tures has been clearly proved. 
 
 Model. That one should swear, is impious. That the 
 telegraph is useful, is acknowledged. 
 
 The predicate of a proposition may be formed by 
 means of the copula and a substantive or adjective 
 phrase, or a substantive clause; as, "To obey is to 
 enjoy ; " " George was in fault; " " My desire is 
 that you may succeed" 
 
 Model for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 
 He is without fear. 
 
 Note. Analyze as above. 
 h icithout fear, the predicate, denotes a state of the subject. " Is '' 
 is the copula, and "without fear" is the attribute , 
 it is equivalent to fearless, and relates to the sub 
 ject ; according to Rule III. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 1G1 
 
 Without .... is a preposition, and shows the relation of <( fear " 
 to " he ; " according to Rule XIII. 
 
 / W is a common noun, &c, and object ve case, and is 
 
 used to complete the relation denoted by 4l with 
 out ; " according to Rule XIV. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 'Analyze the following propositions, and parse the prcdv* 
 cates : — 
 
 His nephew is to be educated. The captive is to be 
 released. George was in fault. The child was in ecstacy 
 The passage is to be found. He is at supper. The patient 
 is in distress. Our word is not to be broken. The trees 
 are in blossom. The prisoner is without friends. 
 
 Analyze the following complex sentences, and parse the 
 predicates : — 
 
 My desire is, that you may succeed. The question is, 
 How shall the treasury be replenished ? His pretence was, 
 that the storm of the preceding evening prevented his 
 attendance. Your belief is, that the enemy has crossed 
 the mountain. My determination is, that you shall attend 
 school in the country. 
 
 Write complex sentences to the following subjects, and let 
 the predicates be substantive clauses : — 
 
 Question, answer, recommendation, proposal, design, 
 words, orders, resolution. 
 
 What besides a single word may be used for the subject ? What 
 two forms may such sentences take ? What besides a single word 
 may unite with the copula to form the predicate ? 
 
162 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
 LESSON XLIV. 
 
 CLASSES OF COOKDINATE CLAUSES. 
 
 A compound sentence is formed by joining two 
 principal clauses. 
 
 The two clauses which unite to form a compound sentence are 
 Kmilar in rank ; hence they are called coordinate. 
 
 Coordinate clauses may be divided into three 
 classes, according to the connective used, — copu- 
 lative, adversative, and alternative, 
 
 A copulative clause is one that is so united to 
 another as to express an additional thought, and 
 thereby to give a greater extent to its meaning ; as, 
 u Give me a book and I will give you a slate." 
 
 An adversative coordinate clause is one which 
 stands opposed to, or contrasted with the preceding 
 clause ; as, " Vice stings us in our pleasures, but 
 virtue consoles us in our pains." 
 
 Alternative clauses are such as offer or deny a 
 choice between two statements ; as, " We must con 
 quer, OR our liberties are lost." 
 
 Two connectives are often used j when one is placed in the firs? 
 and the other in the added clause, the two are called correlatives ; 
 a3, * Not only am I instructed by this exercise, but I am also invigo 
 rated ; " but when both connectives are found in the added clause 
 the second one is called an associate connective. It gives BOntf 
 additional shade of meaning to the clause ; as, M Susan is learning 
 niU3ic and, besides, she attends to drawing." The associate conneo' 
 tive stands alone, when the principal conjunction is understood ; 
 fcs, "The storm has abated; therefore let us resume our journey " 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 163 
 
 Note. The connectives therefore, hence, consequent!*. , wherefore 
 then, are by some considered as connecting a distinct class called 
 causal coordinate clauses. They are, it is true, used in coordinate 
 clauses, but never, like and, or, nor, and but, connect the coordinate 
 parts of a clause, and in very many cases, when used, one of the 
 foregoing conjunctions precedes them. They have, hence, in this 
 as in the larger work, been reckoned among those connectives 
 which serve to give a specific shade of meaning to a coordinate 
 clause. 
 
 The principal coordinate conjunctions are (copulative) — and with 
 the correlatives, both — and; as well — as; not only — but, but also, but 
 likewise; — ^adversative) — but with the correlatives, indeed . . but ; 
 on the one hand . .on the other hand; now — then; — (alternative) — 
 or, nor, neither with the correlatives, either . . or; neither . . nor. 
 
 Note. In analyzing compound sentences, take each clause sep 
 arately and parse the conjunction according to Rule XI. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences and parse the conjunc- 
 tions : — 
 
 Copulative. I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the 
 lame. This part of knowledge has been growing, a id it will 
 continue to grow till the subject be exhausted. I conceived 
 a great regard for him, and I could not but mourn for the 
 loss he had sustained; The more sleek the prey, the greater 
 the temptation; and no wolf will leave a sheep, to dine 
 upon a porcupine. Not only am I instructed by this exer- 
 cise, but I am also invigorated. A hero on the day of battle 
 has sacrificed a meal, and shall we therefore pity him ? The 
 situation is not suited to his tastes ; the compensation, more- 
 over, is meagre. Green is the most refreshing color to the 
 eye \ hence Providence has made it the common dress of 
 nature. 
 
 Adversative. 1 strenuously opposed those measures, but 
 it was not in my power to prevent them. We submit to the 
 society of those that can inform us, but we seek the society 
 
164 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 of those whom we can inform. Vice stings us even in our 
 pleasures, but virtue consoles us even in our pains. They 
 have, indeed, honored them with their praise, but they have 
 disgraced them with their pity. Some men know but little 
 of their profession, but yet they often succeed in life better 
 than those whose attainmonts they can never reach. A 
 clownish air is but a small defect ; still it is enough to make 
 a man disagreeable. 
 
 Alternative. A jest is not an argument; nor is a loud 
 laugh a demonstration. I neither learned wisdom, nor have 
 I a knowledge of the holy. He either left the key in the 
 door, [or] else the robber had a false key. I have none ; 
 else would I give it. He is either sick or fatigued. 
 
 Add either copulative, adversative, or alternative clauses to 
 each of the following simple sentences : — 
 
 We must conquer. The debt must be paid. The child 
 will be relieved soon. He has returned. The lecture has 
 either been very long. He has not the strength to accom- 
 plish the work. We must retreat. 
 
 How may compound sentences be formed ? Into how many 
 classes may coordinate clauses be divided ? What is a copulative 
 clause ? What is an adversative clause ,? What is an alteijiativa 
 clause V 
 
 PROSODY. 
 LESSON XLV. 
 
 DIFFERENT KIXDS OF VERSE. 
 
 Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 
 A verse is a succession of accented and unaccented sylla- 
 bles, constituting a line of poetry. 
 
 Verse is of two lands, — rhyme and blank verse. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 165 
 
 [n rhyme, there is a correspondence in sound between 
 the last syllables of different lines. 
 
 Blank verse is without rhyme. 
 
 Accent is a stress of the voice placed upon a particular 
 syllable, to distinguish it from others. Every word consist- 
 ing of more than one syllable, must have one of its syllables 
 accented. 
 
 The quantity of a syllable is the time employed in uttering 
 it. All syllables are either long or short. 
 
 A long syllable is equal in quantity to two short ones. 
 
 A foot is a portion of verse containing two or more 
 syllables, combined according to accent. 
 
 The principal feet, in English, are the iambus, the trochee, 
 the anapcest, and the dactyle. 
 
 The iambus consists of a short and long syllable. 
 
 The trochee of a long and a short syllable. 
 
 The anapaest consists of two short syllables and one long 
 one. 
 
 The dactyle consists of one long and two short syllables. 
 
 Scanning consists in dividing a verse into the feet which 
 compose it. 
 
 IAMBIC VERSE. 
 
 1 Iambic of one foot : — 
 
 They go 
 To sow. 
 
 2 Iambic of hco feet : — 
 
 To me J the rose 
 No longer glows. 
 
 8. Iambic of three feet : — 
 
 No roy- | al pomp } adorns 
 
 This King of righteousness. 
 4* Iambic of four feet .- — 
 
 And cold- | er still | the winds | did blow 
 , And darker hours of night cam* oa. 
 
166 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 6. Iambu of fir* feet, or pentameter : — 
 
 On lift- | ed rocks, | the drag- | on's late | abodes, 
 The green reed trembles, and the bulrush nods. 
 
 6. Iambic of six feet, or hexameter : — 
 
 His heart f Is sad, | his hope | is gone, | his light | Is passed ; 
 He sits an 1 mourns in silent grief the lingering day. 
 
 7. Iambic of seven feet, or hepta meter : — 
 
 The lof- | ty hill, | the hum- ( ble lawn, | with count- | 
 less beau | ties shine. 
 The silent grove, the solemn shade, proclaim th} r power divine. 
 
 Iambic of five feet is called heroic verse ; that of six feet 
 is called Alexandrine. 
 
 Iambic of seven feet is commonly divided into two lines, 
 — the first containing four feet, the second three. This is 
 called common metre ; as, 
 
 The lofty hill, the humble lawn, 
 
 With countless beauties shine , 
 The silent grove, the solemn shade, 
 
 Proclaim thy power divine. 
 
 In long metre, each line has four iambic feet ; in short 
 metre, the first, second, and fourth lines contain three 
 iambic feet, the third four. 
 
 Each species of iambic verse may have one additional 
 short syllable. Thus, in the second species, — 
 Upon | a moun- | tain. 
 
 TROCHAIC VERSE 
 I. Trochaic of one foot : — 
 
 Changing, 
 Hanging. 
 
 2 Trochaic of two feet : — 
 
 Fancy ] viewing, 
 Joys ensuinr 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 167 
 
 8. Trochaic qf three feet : ~ 
 
 Go where | glory | waits thee. 
 
 But when fame elates thee. 
 4. Trochaic of four feet : — 
 
 Round a | holy | calm dlf- | fusing, 
 
 Love of peace and lonely musing. 
 6. Trochaic of five feet : — 
 
 All that | walk on j foot or | ride in | chariots, 
 All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 
 6. Trochaic of six feet : — 
 
 On a | mountain | stretched, be- J neath a j hoary | willow. 
 Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. . 
 
 In trochaic verse, the accent is placed upon the odd sylla- 
 bles ; in iambic, on the even. 
 Trocliaic verse may take an additional long syllable , as, 
 
 Idle | after | dinner, | in his j chair 
 Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 
 
 ANAPvESTIC VERSE. 
 
 1. Anapmstic of one foot : — 
 
 But In vain 
 They complain. 
 
 2. Anapaestic of two feet : — 
 
 Where the sun | loves to pause 
 With so fond a delay. 
 
 3. Anapaestic of three feet : — 
 
 From the cen- | tre, all round | to the sea, 
 I 'm lord of the fowl and the brute. 
 
 4. Anapmstic of four feet : — 
 
 At the" close | of the day, | when the ham- | let Is still, 
 And mortals the sweets of forgetfulness prove. 
 
 In anapaestic verse, the accent falls on every third syllable. 
 The first foot of an anapaestic verse may be an iambus ; as, 
 
 And mor- | tals the sweets | of forget- | ItilnSss prSvo 
 
168 jmtfeT LESSONS 
 
 DACTYLIC VERSE. 
 
 1. Dactylic of one foot : — 
 
 Cheerfully, 
 Fearfully. 
 
 2. Dactylic of two feet ; — 
 
 Free from anx | iStj^, 
 Care and satiety. 
 
 3. Dactylic of three feet : — 
 
 Wearing a- | way in his | youthfiilnesg, 
 Loveliness, beauty, and truthfulness. 
 
 4. Dactylic of four feet : — 
 
 Boys will an- | ticipate, | lavish, and | dissipate 
 All that your busy pate hoarded with care. 
 
 Few poems are perfectly regular in their feet. The 
 different kinds of feet are often mingled in the same verse. 
 Thus : — 
 
 I come, | I come ; | ye" have called | me long ; 
 
 I come | o'er the moun- | tains with light | and song. 
 
 Note. For exercises in scanning, let the pupil apply these rules 
 to different verses in his reading lessons. 
 
 LESSON XLVI. 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Punctuation is the art of dividing written composition 
 by means of points. * 
 
 The principal points are the comma ( , ), the semicolon (; ), 
 the colon ( : ), the dash ( — ), the parenthesis ( ), the period 
 ( . ), the interrogation point ( ? ), and the exclamation point 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 169 
 
 THE COMMA. 
 
 The comma is used to denote the shortest pause, and 
 commonly separates the elements of a simple or complex 
 sentence. 
 
 Note. The pupil should recollect that the elements of a sentence 
 tnay be either words, phrases, or clauses. The most general Rules 
 only, are here given ; for more particular Rules see " Analysis of 
 Sentences." 
 
 Rule I. When the elements of a sentence are simple, 
 and are arranged in the natural order, they should not be 
 separated ; but when any element is transposed, loosely 
 connected, or used parenthetically, it should be pointed off. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 "The path of virtue is the path of peace." 
 
 " Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make." 
 
 " Intrinsically, the other, is the most valuable." 
 
 " In general, his work is superior to mine." 
 
 " He lived, as he said, upon a vegetable diet." 
 
 Rule II. WJien an element is complex, and considera- 
 bly extended, it should be pointed off by the comma. 
 
 Note. This rule applies to the complex subject of a simple 
 sentence when long, or to the noun in apposition when considerably 
 extended ; as, " The intermixture of evil in human society, serves 
 to exercise the noblest virtues of the human soul ;" "Paul, the 
 apostle of the Gentiles." 
 
 Rule ILL WJjen an element is compound, the com- 
 ponent parts, if they exceed two, are separated by the 
 comma ; as, " Some men sin frequently, deliberately, and 
 presumptuously" 
 
 Note. If the component parts do not exceed two, they are 
 pointed off — (1,) when or denotes an alternative of words, (not 
 ideas); as, " The gulf, or bay is dangerous;" — (2,) when they 
 denote contrast ; as, " Though deep, yet clear ; " — (3,) when one 
 or both are complex ; as, *' ile left, and took his brother with him." 
 
170 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 THE COLON AND SEMICOLON. 
 
 The colon and semicolon are used chiefly to separate the 
 /tiembers of a compound sentence ; as, " Every thing grows 
 old : every thing passes away ; every thing disappears." 
 
 Note 1. The colon is now but little used, except before exam 
 pies following the expressions as follows, the following examples, in 
 these words, &c. ; as, u Perform the following exercises : " — "Ho 
 used these words : ' Mr. President,' &c." 
 
 Xote 2. When, in a complex sentence, several subordinate 
 clauses are united to each other, having a common dependence 
 upon the principal clause, they are separated by the semicolon ; as, 
 " Philosophers assert that Nature is unlimited in her operations ; 
 that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that knowledge 
 will always be progressive ; and that future generations will con 
 tinue to make discoveries." 
 
 THE DASH AND PARENTHESIS. 
 
 The dash is used where there is a significant pause, an 
 unexpected transition in the sentence, or where a sentence 
 is left unfinished ; as, "He sometimes council takes — and 
 sometimes snuff ; " " But I must first " 
 
 The dash is now frequently used instead of the parenthesis ; as, 
 " The colonists — such is human nature — desired to burn the town 
 in which they had been so wretched." 
 
 The parenthesis is used to enclose a part of a sentence 
 not necessary to the construction, but in some way explana- 
 tory of the meaning of the sentence ; as, " Consider (and 
 may the consideration sink deep into ycHir hearts) the fatal 
 consequences of a wicked life." 
 
 THE PERIOD. 
 
 The period is used at the close of a declarative or impera- 
 tive sentence ; as, " The work is done." " Obey your 
 parents." 
 
 The period is also used to denote an abbreviation : as. 
 "T 11; " "Dr." 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 171 
 
 INTERROGATION POINT. 
 
 An interrogation point is used at Ihe close of a question ; 
 as, " Who comes there ? " 
 
 EXCLAMATION POINT. 
 
 An exclamation point is used at the close of an exclama- 
 tory sentence ; as, " How unsearchable are his ways ! " 
 
 An exclamation point is often used within a sentence, after an 
 exclamatory expression or an interjection ; as, " 0, Jove supreme ! 
 whom men and gods revere ! " " Oh ! let soft pity touch the 
 mind ! " 
 
 RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 1. The first word of every entire sentence should begin 
 with a capital ; as, " Jesus wept." 
 
 2. Tities of honor and respect, and every proper name, 
 and every adjective derived from a proper name, should 
 begin with a capital ; as, His Highness, Boston, Bostonian. 
 
 3. Every appellation of the Deity should begin with a 
 tapital ; as, God, Jehovah, the Eternal. 
 
 4. The first word of every line in poetry should begin 
 n : th a capital. 
 
 5. The words / and should always be capitals. 
 
 6. Any important word may begin with a capital. 
 
 7. The principal words in the titles of books should begin 
 with capitals ; as, Pope's "Essay on Man." 
 
 8. The first word of a direct quotation, when the quota- 
 tion forms a complete sentence by itself, should begin with 
 a capital. 
 
172 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Explain the use of the points in the following examples : — 
 Yet, at thy call, the hardy tar pursued, 
 Pale, but intrepid ; sad, but unsubdued. 
 Yes ! Bunker Hill Monument is completed. Here it 
 stands, fortunate in the natural eminence on. which it is 
 erected ; majestic in its object and purpose. 
 
 Where art thou fled ? 
 
 In pride, in reasoning pride, our error lies ; 
 
 All quit their sphere, and rush into the skies. 
 
 Punctuate the following examples : — 
 
 Shakspeare Butler and Bacon have rendered it extremely 
 difficult for all who come after them to be sublime witty or 
 profound Of the professions it may be said that soldiers 
 are becoming too popular parsons too lazy physicians 
 too mercenary and lawyers too powerful Of method it 
 may be said if we make it our slave it is well but it is bad 
 if we are slaves to method Will a man rob God Who 
 came from the mountain King Agrippa believest thou the 
 prophets What black despair what horror fills his heart 
 
 Correct the following by inserting capitals where they be- 
 long : — 
 
 the first word of every entire sentence should begin with 
 a capital, the british nation were shocked by an attempl 
 to assassinate her majesty, the lord reigneth. 
 why, ye tenants of the lake 
 for me your watery haunt forsake, 
 i heard him say " o, the times, the times 
 i have read pope's essay on man. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 173 
 
 fain would i say " forgive my foul offence ! " 
 fain promise never more to disobey ; 
 but should my 'author health again dispense 
 again i might desert fair virtues way 
 
 LESSON XLVII. 
 RULES — EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
 
 ' SUBJECT. 
 
 Rule I. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a 
 proposition must be in the nominative case ; as, " Life is 
 short." 
 
 (For notes, see page 93.) 
 
 PREDICATE. 
 
 Rule II. A noun or pronoun used with the copula to 
 form the predicate, must be in the nominative case ; as, 
 " Cicero was an orator." 
 
 (For notes, see page 96.) 
 
 Rule III. An adjective used with the copula to form 
 the predicate, belongs to the subject ; as, " The stars are 
 bright." 
 
 (For notes, see page 98.) 
 
 Rule IV. The verb must agree with its subject in 
 number and person ; as, " I am here ; " " Thou sittest." 
 (For notes, see page 100.) 
 
 adjective element. 
 Rule V. An adjective or participle used as a modifier, 
 belongs to the noun or pronoun which it limits ; as, " Those 
 15* 
 
174 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 trees have fallen ; " " A path winding through the forest, in- 
 dicated their course." 
 ' (For notes, see page 108.) 
 
 Rule VI. A noun or pronoun used to identify another 
 noun or pronoun, is put by apposition in the same case ; as, 
 14 His brother George was absent." 
 
 (For notes, see page 111.) 
 
 Rule VII. A noun or pronoun used to limit another 
 noun by denoting possession, must be in the possessive case ; 
 as, " Stephen's courage failed." 
 
 (For notes, see page 112.) 
 
 OBJECTIVE ELEMENT. 
 
 Rule YLTI. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a 
 transitive verb or its participles, must be in the objective 
 case ; as, " We paid him" 
 
 (For notes, see page 115.) 
 
 ADVERBIAL ELEMENT. 
 
 Rule IX. Adverbs are used to limit verbs, participles, 
 adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, " The letter was written 
 hastily" 
 
 (For notes, see page 117.) 
 
 INTERJECTIONS AND THE CASE INDEPENDENT. 
 
 Rule X. The nominative case independent, and the 
 interjection, have no grammatical relation to the other parts 
 of the sentence ; as, " Sirs, be of good cheer ; " " O, death 
 where is thy sting ! " 
 
 (For notes, see page 119.) 
 
 connectives. 
 
 Note. — The following rules apply either to connectives or to 
 words in some way associated with connectives. 
 
CUFIVEESIT1 
 
 in grammar.V v /y, o3rl75 
 
 Rule XI. Coordinate conjunctions are used to connect 
 similar elements ; as, " Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, were 
 patriarchs." 
 s (For notes, see page 122.) 
 
 Rule XII. When a verb or pronoun relates to two or . 
 more nouns connected by a coordinate conjunction, — 
 
 (1.) If it agrees with them taken conjointly, it must be in 
 the plural number ; — 
 
 (2.) But, if it agrees with them taken separately, it must 
 be of the same number as that which stands next to it ; — 
 
 (3.) If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must be 
 of the same number as that with which it agrees. 
 
 Rule XIII. A preposition is used to show the relation 
 of its object to the preceding word on which the object de- 
 pends ; as, " George went into the garden." 
 
 The following is the rule for the object : — 
 
 Rule XIV. A noun or pronoun used to complete the 
 relation of a preposition, must be in the objective case ; as, 
 u They gathered around him." 
 
 (For notes, see page 128.) 
 
 Rule XV. The infinitive depends upon the word which 
 it limits ; as, " We went to see you." 
 (For notes, see page 128.) 
 
 Rule XVI. Subordinate connectives are used to join 
 dissimilar elements ; as, " They say that they have bought 
 it." 
 
 (For notes, see page 141.) 
 
 Rule XVTI. The , relative must agree with its antece- 
 dent in person, number, and gender, but not necessarily in 
 
176 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 case ; as, " The man who is well bred, desires only to 
 please." 
 
 (For notes, see page 142.) 
 
 ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 Note. — Though all, or nearly all the particular cases in 
 
 abridged propositions, (see note, bottom p. 93,) are provided for 
 
 in the notes under Bules I. II. and III., pp. 93, 96, and 98, it is 
 
 thought best to embody all the cases absolute in one general rule. 
 
 iluLE XV III. In an abridged proposition, the subject 
 or attribute, when dependent on no other word, is said to 
 be absolute ; the subject is in the nominative absolute, and 
 the attribute (also in the nominative when a noun or pro- 
 noun) refers logically to what would be the subject, were 
 the proposition complete ; as, " Shame being lost, all virtue 
 is lost ; " " To be a scholar requires industry and persever- 
 ance ; " " His being a foreigner prevented his election ; * 
 " To be good is to be happy ; " " Properly speaking, " yes " 
 and " no " are not adverbs." 
 
 EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
 
 Kule I. Me wants a pencil. Him and me attend schocL 
 Them are the books. Him and her are visiting in the country. 
 They and me recited Geography. 
 
 Model. — The following may serve as a general model to be 
 imitated in other examples. ' Me wants a pencil;" — " Me," 
 should be changed to /, because it is used as the subject of a prop 
 osition, and the subject of a proposition, by Rule I., should be in 
 the nominative (not objective) case. 
 
 Rule II. It is me. Thou art him. If I were her, I would 
 live in the country. I think it was them who called. I believe it 
 to be he. (See note 5. (3) p. 97.) I saw some persons whom I 
 took to be they. Whom do men say that I am ? Whom was it ? 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 177 
 
 I do not know whom it was. It was not me who saw whom it 
 was. I am sure it was not him and me who they called hypo 
 crites. 
 
 Note. — Rule III., is seldom violated. 
 
 Rule IV. We may commit errors by using, — 
 
 1. The wrong person and number. 
 
 You was absent yesterday. I livest in a brick house, but thou 
 lives in a wooden one. He love to read. There 's two pens on 
 the table. Here 's five apples. Neither of his brothers are well. 
 Each of them are away from home. Either of the books are good. 
 A variety of charming objects please me. Thou are older than 
 my sister are. 
 
 2. The wrong form. 
 
 My cousin has wrote me a letter. The water is all froze over. 
 I only done it once. I seen him strike his brother. The work- 
 man has began his task. I have broke my inkstand. The pastor 
 come to see us yesterday, but I had went away before he come. 
 The bird has forsook her nest and new away. You had n't ought 
 to use such language. 
 
 3. The wrong tense. 
 
 I see the boy yesterday. He come to my house, and I give 
 him a slate pencil. I expected to have seen you yesterday. 
 
 4. The wrong verb. 
 
 The sun sat at 7 o'clock. May I set with some one that has a 
 Geography ? George sot the pitcher on the table. The ship is 
 laying in the harbor. He has just laid down. They have lain 
 the clothes in the wrong place. 
 
 5. Improper contractions. 
 
 Ari't you tardy this morning? Wan't you at the concert 
 last evening ? Ha n't you left your gloves ? You can do it if 
 you *re a mind to. I ha n't seen him to day. May I go as soon 
 as I 'm done reciting ? 
 
 Rule V. (See note 1, page 108.) Those kind of people sel- 
 dom succeed. I dislike these sort of fruit. Bring me them (those) 
 tongs. Have you that shears ? The wall is four foot high. I 
 walked ten mile. 
 
1<8 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Rule VI. r am called a shepherd, him that guarc.s the flock9. 
 He visited his cousin, she that lives in the country. I saw the 
 minstrels, they who sing at concerts. 
 
 Kule VII. Johns coat is black. A mans manners frequently 
 influence his fortunes. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, 
 are natures gifts for mans advantage. I have studied Andrews' 
 and Stoddard's Grammar, (See Note 1.) I have been examining 
 Worcester and Webster's Dictionary. Will you obtain the presi 
 dent's of the society signature ? Miss B. has got her wrong seat 
 
 Rule VIII. They that help us, we should reward. Who did 
 you see on the Mall ? Will you let him and I sit together ? Who 
 should I find but my cousin ! I did not know who to send. Who 
 shall I send ? Who having not seen we love. 
 
 Rule IX. The boy learned his lesson bad.* My pen wo n't 
 write good. The lady sings beautiM. I han't got no com- 
 position wrote. Charles wo n't let me have no paper. No one 
 never saw him doing nothing, nowhere, that he had n't ought to 
 do. I wo n't never play with you no more. , 
 
 Rule X, needs no further illustrations. 
 
 Rule XL Note. — Elements are similar in three important 
 points, — (1.) In construction or rank, (2.) in their class, (3.) in 
 their nature. Thus, in " He watched carefully and attentively ; " 
 "carefully" and "attentively" are equally dependent upon 
 " watched ; " — hence they are of the same rank : — they are both 
 elements of the first class ; and as they are both adverbs, they 
 are of the same nature. 
 
 The work was executed with rapidity and promptly. It is a 
 region distinguished by many charming varieties of rural scenery, 
 and which may he termed the Arcadia of Scotland. 
 
 The fire destroyed tables, and chairs, and sofas, and books,an<? 
 clothing, and carpets. (See note.) 
 
 Role XII. Earth, air, fire, and water, is the four elements of 
 the ancient philosophers. Oil and water never blends. George 
 cr Joseph have left their books at home. Jacob or his son? was 
 in fault. The trees or the fruit are mine. The sun and moon 
 
 * Adverbs, not adjectives, are used to limit verbs, &c. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 179 
 
 which is the largest heavenly bodies shines, the one by day, and 
 the other by night. 
 
 Kule xni. 
 
 (1.) An improper omission of the preposition. 
 
 The house stands opposite the church. 
 
 He was worthy a better fate. The culprit was banishod the 
 country. He could have no abiding place this side the Atlantic. 
 
 ( 2 . ) The use of the wrong preposition. 
 
 I left my books to home. Of what does the error consist ? I 
 differ with you. The course of instruction is very different now 
 to what it was even ten years ago. She is free of pain. I have 
 not seen you in a long time. The book is well adapted for his 
 capacity. Some persons find a difficulty of fixing their attention. 
 The apples were divided among two. 
 
 Rule XIV. Between you and I, I do n't like this lesson at all. 
 Who did you go with last night ? I don't know who to speak to. 
 The boy came and sat behind James and I. 
 
 Rule XV. Note. — The to of the infinitive is sometimes im 
 
 Sroperly omitted after other verbs than those mentioned hr 
 k>te 1. 
 Permit me take your hat. Please excuse my son's absence.. 
 He was made feel their displeasure. Do not allow him eat un 
 ripe fruit. 
 
 Rule XVI. Note. — Elements may be dissimilar in the same- 
 respects as they are similar, (see note, p. 178 ;) as, " I suspected 
 that sleep had robbed me of some part of my being." The two 
 elements connected are suspected, and " sleep had robbed me, &c. ; "' 
 the first is a principal element, (pp. 120, 121,) of the first class, (i. e 
 a single word,) and, in its nature, a verb ; — the second is Sisubordi 
 nate element (p. 121,) of the third class, (i. e. a subordinate propo 
 sition) and, in its nature, a noun. The principal errors occur in* 
 using the wrong connective. 
 
 My mother said how she could not let me come to school yes 
 terday. I do not know but what I can do it. It will be according- 
 as how you do it. I doubt if I can be present to-morrow. He- 
 knew not whither * he should go. 
 
 * It is to be regretted that whither, which appropriately denote* 
 tendency to a place, should give place to where used to denote 
 motion or rest in a place. 
 
180 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Rule X7H. We may commit an error, — 
 
 (1.) By using the r?rong Relative. 
 
 I saw the boy which (see p. 38.) brought the basket. The 
 dogs whq chased the fox have all returned. 
 
 (2.) By putting it in the wrong person or number. 
 
 0, thou who is thy people's friend. One who are faithful, is 
 better than two who is unfaithful. 
 
 Rule XVIII. Me being young, they deceived me. .Them 
 having finished their business, we left. I am not sure of its being 
 him. Its being them caused all the difficulty. 
 
 PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES. 
 My composition is wrote, but it a n't wrote good. May I set 
 side some one who has got an inkstand ? My hat has fell out of 
 the window, may some one went down and get it. John Smith 
 has went and took his wrong seat. I do n't like those kind of 
 copies. I like to have fell down stairs. Are you ready ? Yes, 
 sir, we be. Every one should mind their own business. The 
 steamboat bursted her boiler. I had rather not answer that 
 question. Have you heard who they invited ? It was the beau 
 tifullest (see p. 49.) sight I ever see. 
 
 Correct the following sentences in all respects: — 
 When i first come to school, i laid down my books ; on the 
 desk where Charles sets ! We sot by the window one evening to 
 see the sun sit but a cloud was laying in the horizon so that we 
 give it up ? 
 
 My mother says how you may learn me grammar if you 're a 
 mind to, but she ca n't see no good it will do me she says I a n't 
 a goin' to be a minister nor a lawyer nor a doctor — 
 
 How many Rules for the subject of a proposition ? Repeat it. 
 How many Rules for the predicate ? Repeat them. How many 
 Rules for the adjective element ? Repeat them. How many 
 Rules for the objective element ? Repeat it. How many Rules 
 for the adverbial element ? Repeat it. Repeat the Rule for the 
 interjection and case independent. How many Rules for connec 
 tives and the words associated with them ? Repeat them. Re 
 yeat the Rules for abridged propositions. 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 
 
 181 
 
 LESSON XLVIII. 
 
 VARIOUS PECULIARITIES AND IDIOMS. 
 
 I. IN THE CLASSIFICATION OP WORDS. 
 Wi»at is (1.) An interrogative pronoun; as," Wliat do you 
 
 see ? " 
 (2.) A compound relative; as, " He received what he 
 
 wanted." 
 (3.) An interjection ; as, " What ! Have you come ?" 
 (4.) A limiting adjective; as, "He gave me what 
 
 books I needed." 
 That is (1.) A subordinate conjunction ; as, " I know that he is 
 
 faithful." 
 (2.) A relative pronoun ; as, " An idler is a watch thai 
 
 (which) wants both hands." 
 (3.) A limiting adjective ; as, " That book is soiled." 
 As is (1.) Part of a compound preposition; as, "As to that, 
 
 said the pendulum." 
 (2.) A subordinate connective, when it denotes, 
 
 (a) Manner ; as, " Speak as you think." 
 
 (b) Comparison of equality; as, "He is as large as 
 his brother." 
 
 (c) Time ; as, " I arrived as (when) he was taking 
 his leave." 
 
 (d) Cause or reason ; as, "As (since) a youth was 
 their leader, what could they do ? " 
 
 (e) Correspondence ; as, " As the door turneth on 
 its hinges, so doth the slothful man upon his 
 bed." 
 
 Note. —Besides the above uses, it takes the place of the rela- 
 tive pronoun (though never properly a relative) after such, same 
 and many ; as, " Such as I have, give I unto thee." 
 
 (3.) A mere index of apposition, or of a peculiar rela 
 tion of some property to its object ; as, " The 
 moon as satellite attends;" "They regarded 
 him as innocent." 
 16 
 
182 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 But is (1.) A coordinate conjunction; as, u He is not sick, but 
 faint." 
 (2.) A preposition; as, "They gave him all but (ex- 
 cept) one." 
 (3.) An adverb ; as, " We saw him but (only) twice." 
 Much is (1) A noun; as, "Where much is given, much is 
 required." 
 (2.) An adjective ; as, " Much ado is made." 
 (3.) An adverb; as, " I was much pleased with the 
 visit." 
 For is (1.) A subordinate connective ; as, " The battle ceased 
 along the plain, for the bard had sung the song 
 of peace." 
 (2.) A preposition ; as, " The soldier fought for glory." 
 Note. — The same is true of after, before, since, till, until, &c. 
 When is (1.) An interrogative adverb; as, " When did you 
 arrive ? " 
 (2.) A subordinate connective ; as, " When sinners en- 
 tice thee, consent thou not." 
 
 Note. — The same is true of all the interrogatives ; as, where, 
 why, how, &c, &c. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Parse the following words : — 
 
 What ! Have you but one book for me ? I knew that that was 
 the tree that was girdled. As you have what you will need for 
 the present, I shall give much of what remains to your sister as a 
 reward. All but three of these rivers are navigable ; but you 
 must recollect I shall tell you this but once ; for it is unpleasant 
 to repeat. 
 
 IT. IN THE FORM, CONSTRUCTION, AND APPLICATION 
 
 OF WORDS. 
 
 These peculiarities are called figures. A figure is a deviation 
 from the ordinary form, construction, and application of a word, 
 Hence figures are divided into those of Etymology, Syntax y <*n<i 
 Rhetoric. 
 
liST GRAMMAR. 183 
 
 FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 A figure of Etymology is a deviation from the ordinary 
 form of a word. 
 
 Figures of Etymology consist either in a defect, an excess, or a 
 change, in some of the elements of a word. 
 
 Aphceresis cuts off a letter or syllable from the beginning 
 of a word ; as, 'gainst, 'gan, for against, began. 
 
 Syncope removes a letter or syllable from the middle of a 
 word ; as, o'er, e'er, lov'd, for over, ever, loved. 
 
 Apocope cuts off a letter or syllable from the end of a 
 word ; as, th', iho', for the, though. 
 
 Prosthesis adds a letter or syllable to the beginning of a 
 word ; as, adown, enchain, for down, chain. 
 
 Epenthesis adds a letter or syllable to the middle of a 
 word ; as, preventative, retractation, for preventive, retrac- 
 tion. This figure seldom occurs in English. 
 
 Paragoge adds a letter or syllable to the end of a word ; 
 as, withoutew, bounden, for without, bound. 
 
 Synceresis contracts two syllables into one ; as, thou 7 rt, 
 V &, for thou art, it is. 
 
 Diceresis separates two vowels which otherwise might 
 form a diphthong ; as, coordinate, zoology. 
 
 Tmesis separates a compound word by inserting a word 
 between its parts ; as, to us ward, for toward us. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Point out the figures %n the following examples : — 
 " Around ''gan Marmion wildly stare." 
 
 " The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men." 
 
184 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 " Did ye not hear it ? No : H was but the wind.' 
 
 " ■ Tis mine to teach titf inactive hand to reap 
 Kind nature's bounties, o'er the globe diffused.* 
 
 Oh! What's the matter ? Wliat 's the matter ? 
 What is H that ails young Harry Gill ? 
 
 A heart has throWd beneath that leathern breast. 
 And tears adown that dusky cheek have rolled. 
 
 He led, I wot, the softest way to death, 
 
 And taught wiihouten pain and strife to yield the breath. 
 
 Scan the following lines and correct the feet by using any of the 
 above figures : — 
 
 It is the sunset of life gives me mystical lore. 
 
 For we have sworn, by our countries assaulters, 
 By the virgins they have dragged from our altars. 
 
 And every tempest howling over his head 
 Benders the savage wilderness more wild. 
 
 FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 
 
 A figure of Syntax is a deviation from the ordinary con- 
 struction of a word. 
 
 Figures of Syntax, consist in a defect, an excess, or a change 
 in some of the elements of a sentence. 
 
 Ellipsis is the omission of a word, phrase, or clause, which 
 is necessary to complete the construction ; as, " We were 
 absent [during] one day." 
 
 It should be understood that the words omitted by this figure, 
 as truly belong to the sentence, grammatically considered, as those 
 which are expressed. They are omitted for rhetorical effect, that 
 is, to render the sentence more agreeable and forcible. 
 
 Ellipsis generally takes place ; — 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 185 
 
 1. In coordinate constructions, to avoid the repetition of 
 some common part ; as, — 
 
 " There are some who write, [and who] talk, [and who] think 
 so much about vice and [about] virtue, that they have no time to 
 practice either the one or the other." 
 
 2., In certain subordinate constructions, especially those 
 which denote comparison, for the same reason ; as, — 
 
 " Revenge is a stronger feeling than gratitude " [is ;] " Our 
 minds are as different as our faces" [are.] 
 
 3. In certain idiomatic constructions ; 
 
 (1.) In elements of the Jirst class; — The subject of imperative 
 sentences ; as, " Go " [thou,] w Awake " [ye ;] — The noun after 
 adjectives or after the possessive case ; as, " The violent [persons] 
 take it by force ; " " This book is mine, " i. e. my book. 
 
 (2.) In elements of the second class ; — The connective maybe 
 omitted. Examples. The to before the indirect object ; as, " He 
 gave [to] me a book ; " — The to of the infinitive after bid, dare, 
 lei, maJce, hear, need, feel, see. To or unto after like, near ; as, like 
 [to] his father, near [to] the house ; — During, over, for, in, or on, 
 before nouns, denoting time, the measure of distance, magnitude, or 
 excess ; as, " They left [on] Monday ; " " They travelled [through] 
 twenty miles." 
 
 The object may be omitted ; as, " The leaves were scattered 
 around " [us.] In such cases, the preposition is usually called an 
 adverb. 
 
 (3.) In elements of the third class ; — The connective may be 
 omitted, — In substantive clauses in the objective ; as, " My hoart 
 whispers [that] God is nigh;" — In adjective clauses when the 
 relative is in the objective ; as, " The paper [which] we purchased 
 is damaged ; " " The house [which] we went to, stands on a hill." 
 
 The subject and copula in expressions like " If [it is] possible, 
 if necessary, if convenient, when agreeable, while absent, &c. 
 
 The whole clause between as and if, as and though; as, "He 
 geemed as [he would seem] if [he were] deranged." 
 
 4. In exclamatory sentences, in responsives, in inscriptions, 
 16* 
 
186 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 and titles; as, [It is] Strange f "Whom did you see?" 
 [I saw] George. [This is] The New Testament. 
 
 Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words ; as, " I know 
 Viee who thou art." 
 
 Pleonasm is the opposite of Ellipsis and may be said, in gen , 
 oral, to take place where ellipsis should, but does not take place. 
 
 Pleonasm takes place, 
 
 (1.) When the same idea is repeated in the same or in different 
 words ; as, " Verily, verily, I say unto you ; " " All ye inhabitants 
 of the world, and dwellers on the earth.'''' 
 
 (2.) When a noun is introduced into a sentence and then im 
 mediately represented in the same relation by a pronoun ; as, 
 " Now Harry he had long suspected." 
 
 (3.) When a noun or any other word is repeated in the same 
 relation for the purpose of modifying it ; as, " That great God 
 whom you see me daily worship ; — * — * — that GWwho cre- 
 ated the heavens and the earth ; * — * — this God who has 
 
 done all these great things — * — * — this great God, the creator 
 of worlds, of angels, and men, is your Father and Friend." 
 
 Enallage is a change of one part of speech for another, 
 or some modification of a word for another ; as, " They fall 
 successive [ly] and successive [ly] rise." So when a single 
 individual says, " We have done so and so," he uses the plu- 
 ral number for the singular. 
 
 Hyperbaton is the transposition of words ; as, " "While its 
 song rolls the woods along." 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Supply the words omitted by ellipsis in the following : — 
 
 Cassius. 1 am a soldier, I, 
 
 Older in practice, abler than yourself 
 To make conditions. 
 Brutus. Go to ! you 're not, Cassius. 
 Cas. I am. 
 
 Bru. I say you are not. ^ 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 187 
 
 Write or repeat the following, leaving out all words which may be 
 omitted : — 
 
 If it is possible, I will come. What would be the consequence 
 though we tarry ? 
 
 Tell what figures occur in the following examples : — 
 
 Anxiously did we watch every movement. Bark burned the 
 
 candle. For Renard close attended at his heels. Sometimes with 
 
 early morn, he mounted gay. Seven circling planets we behold. 
 
 He speaks as if he were sick. Say, burst they borrowed from her 
 
 father's wounds, these drops f 
 
 FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 
 
 A figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordinary 
 application of a word ; it is commonly called a trope. 
 
 Metaphor gives to an object the appropriate name of 
 another object, on account of a resemblance between them ; 
 as, " Man ! Thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear." 
 
 Simile is a formal comparison, introduced by like, as, or 
 so ; as, " He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of 
 water." 
 
 An Allegory is a continued metaphor, forming a kind of 
 parable or fable. For examples, see Pilgrim's Progress. 
 See also the eightieth Psalm. 
 
 Personification attributes to inanimate objects some of 
 the qualities of living beings ; as, " The sky saddens with 
 the gathered storm." 
 
 Metonomy is a change of name ; as, " You will address 
 the chair, i. e., the president." 
 
 Vision represents imaginary objects as real and present 
 to the senses ; as, 
 
 " See lofty Lebanon his head advance, 
 
 See nodding forests on the mountains dance." 
 
188 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 Synecdoche is the use of a part for the whole, or the whole 
 for a part ; as, A sail for a skip, a roof for a house, the head 
 for the person. 
 
 Irony is the use of a word for its opposite ; as, " He was 
 as virtuous as Nero," i. e. as vile as Nero. 
 
 Antithesis is the placing of contrary or opposite objects in 
 contrast ; as, " Immortal though no more, though fallen 
 great** 
 
 Hyperbole magnifies or diminishes an object beyond the 
 truth ; as, " Rivers of water run down mine eyes, because 
 they keep not thy law." 
 
 Exclamation is used to express some strong emotion of 
 the mind ; as, " O, the depth of the riches both of the wis- 
 dom and the knowledge of God ! " 
 
 Interrogation is used to express a strong affirmation under 
 the form of a question ; as, " Hath he said it ? and will he 
 not doit?" 
 
 Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject to address 
 some other person or thing ; as, " Death is swallowed up in 
 victory. O, death where is thy sting ? O, grave where is 
 thy victory ? " 
 
 Climax is a series of members in a sentence, each rising 
 in importance above the preceding. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 " What hope is there remaining of liberty, if whatever is their 
 pleasure, it is lawful for them to do ; if whatever it is lawful for 
 them to do, they are able to do ; if what they are able to do, they 
 dare to do ; if what they dare to do, they really execute ; and if 
 what they execute is no way offensive to you ? " 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 189 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Point out the figures in the following : — 
 
 " Yet at thy call the hardy tar pursued, 
 Pale, but intrepid ; sad, but unsubdued.'''' 
 
 He has at last assumed the sceptre. The power of appointment 
 is vested in the crown. The garrison was put to the sword. In 
 the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat thy bread. The sea saw it and 
 fled. Joseph is a fruitful bough. Devotion is a delicate and ten 
 der plant. A virtuous man, slandered by evil tongues, is like a 
 diamond obscured by smoke. I will be to her a wall of fire. 
 What ailed thee, 0, thou sea, that thou Jleddest f They are swifter 
 than eagles ; they are stronger than lions. Read I. Kings, xviii, 27, 
 and explain the figure. Canst thou by searching, find out God ? 
 Canst thou find out the Almighty unto perfection ? What a 
 piece of work is man ! how noble in reason ! how infinite in fac- 
 ulties ! in action, how like an angel ! in apprehension, how like a 
 God. 
 
 III. IN IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 Note. — The following specimens are intended to draw the at- 
 tention of the teacher to the various idiomatic peculiarities in the 
 constructions which follow certain words or forms of words, and 
 not to be a complete system which exhausts the subject. 
 
 1. The Relative tenses (sometimes the progressive form 
 of the Absolute tenses) are generally followed by some 
 phrase or clause used to specify the time to which they 
 relate ; as, " I had finished my letter before you came" 
 
 2. The comparative degree is followed : — 
 
 (1.) By an adverbial clause introduced by than, when 
 both the compared objects are distinctly named ; as, " The 
 ash is taller than the oak " [is.] 
 
 (2.) By a phrase (preposition of) when one of the com- 
 pared objects is distinctly named and the other is involved 
 in a general term which includes both ; as, " The ash is the 
 taller of the two trees." 
 
190 FIRST LESSONS 
 
 3. The superlative degree is followed by a phrase (prep. 
 of,) and shows a comparison between a single object dis- 
 tinctly named, and all other objects with which it is com- 
 pared ; as, " Achilles was the bravest of the Greeks." 
 
 4. Many adjectives, as able, unable, — necessary, un- 
 necessary, — desirable, undesirable, — agreeable, disagree- 
 able, &c, &c, are followed by an infinitive or a preposition 
 and its object, when in the positive degree. Wnen in the 
 comparative or superlative, they are also followed by the 
 construction required by the above rules, (3 and 4, above;) 
 as, " George was unwilling to write ;" u George was more 
 unwilling to write, than his sister." 
 
 5. The verb " to be " when used to predicate existence 
 (and not as a copula) is generally preceded by the exple- 
 tive " there " and followed by its subject ; as, " There was 
 light." When such a proposition is abridged the expletive 
 remains ; as, " God said let there be light ;" " There being 
 no provisions, we were compelled to leave ; " "I am not 
 sure of there being a supply." 
 
 6. The verbs tell, teach, say, wish, declare, order, and, in 
 general, those which denote some state or act of the mind, 
 or some declaration or statement are generally followed, 
 
 (1.) By a substantive clause ; as, " I say, that he ivas 
 angry." 
 
 (2.) By a personal object and an infinitive, which together 
 are equivalent to a substantive clause abridged, having its 
 subject retained according to Rule I., Note 2, (3,) p. 94. 
 
 IY. IN THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 All sentences containing more than one proposition are 
 either loose or compact 
 
IN GRAMMAR. 191 
 
 A loose sentence is one in which the parts are related in 
 thought, but not in construction ; as, " Three days they 
 mourned over Carthon : on the fourth, his father died." 
 
 A compact sentence is one in which the parts are closely 
 united both in thought and construction ; as, " Though he 
 Btay me, yet will I trust in him." 
 
 A sentence is said to oe transformed, when its structure 
 is changed without materially altering its meaning. 
 
 Transformation takes place, — 
 
 1. When a compound sentence is changed to a complex. 
 This is done by sinking one of the coordinate clauses to a 
 subordinate rank ; as, " Be obliging to others, and you will 
 secure their friendship," = If you are obliging to others, you 
 will secure their friendship. 
 
 2. When a complex sentence is changed to a compound. 
 This is done by raising a subordinate clause to a principal 
 one ; as, " You should honor your parents, becausedhey have 
 watched over your infancy," ==" Your parents have watched 
 over your infancy, and, therefore, you should honor them." 
 
 3. When a complex sentence is changed to a simple. This 
 is done by abridging its subordinate clause ; as, " The man 
 who is well bred desires only that he may please," = " The 
 well-bred man desires only that he may please," = The well 
 bred man desires only to please. 
 
 4. When a simple sentence is changed to a complex. 
 This is done by expanding one of its elements into a propo- 
 sition ; as, " Socrates taught the immortality of the soul" -•>* 
 " Socrates taught that the soul is immortal" (See exercises, 
 pp. 144, 147.) 
 
 Note. — It will be seen, at once, that a compound sentence mny 
 first be reduced to a complex, by Rule 1., and then to a sirr pie, by 
 
192 FIRST LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Rule 3. So also a simple sentence may be first changed to a com- 
 plex, by Rule 4, and then to a compound, by Rule 2. The teacher 
 should frequently exercise his pupils in all the various transforma- 
 tions, especially in those of abridging and restoring subordinate 
 clauses. Good" examples occur in almost every sentence of their 
 ordinary reading lessons. 
 
 How many parts of speech may what be ? That ? As? But t 
 Much f For, after, before, since, till, until, ere, notwithstanding ? 
 When, why, how, &c. ? What is a figure ? How are they divided ? 
 What is a figure of etymology ? In what do they consist ? What 
 is Aphseresis ? Syncope ? Apocope ? Prosthesis ? Epenthe- 
 sis ? Paragoge ? Diaeresis ? Tmesis ? What is a figure of Syn- 
 tax ? In what do they consist ? What is Ellipsis ? In what con 
 structions does it take place ? What is Pleonasm ? When does 
 it take place ? What is Enallage ? What is Hyperbaton ? What 
 is a figure of Rhetoric ? What is it commonly called ? What 
 is a Metaphor ? A Simile ? An Allegory ? Personification ? 
 Metonomy ? Vision ? Synecdoche ? Irony ? Antithesis ? Hy- 
 perbole ? Exclamation ? Interrogation ? Apostrophe ? Climax ? 
 What constructions follow the Relative tenses ? The Comparative 
 degree ? • The Superlative degree ? The Adjectives able, una- 
 ble, Sec. ? There ? The verbs tell, teach, &c. ? How are sentences 
 divided ? What is a loose sentence ? A compact ? When is a 
 sentence said to be transformed ? When does transformation take 
 place ? 
 
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 GREEN'S ANALYSIS; A Treatise on the Structure of the English 
 
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 into the'Seuools of Boston, Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and 
 
 FROST'S UNITED STATES.— History of the United States ; for 
 
 j the use of Schools and A', ; ] ,. Illustrated with forty Engravings. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, FOR THE USE OF 
 .COMMON SCHOOLS. — By John Frost, Author of History of the 
 
 Is ond Academies : c . < ;;n the Author's larger 
 
 | FROST'S AMERICAN SPEAKER— The A mericaq,. Speaker. 
 
 >cution. ahran extensi^HBRction of Specimens oT 
 
 -.Eloquence. Embellished with i .<•■■■ PortffpB" of distinguished Ante- 
 
 ■ ' ■ . 
 
 | PINNOCK'S ENGLAND.— Pinnock's improved edition of ft&Goldsmith's 
 
 England, from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the - lilalffated with^3t 
 
 : PINNOCK'S GREECE.— Pinnock's im proved -edition of Dr. Goldsmith'! 
 r Examination at the, end of each Section : with 3u En- 
 
 PINNOCK'S RG3IE.— Pinnocks . iproved edition of Dr. Goldsmith's rfte- 
 
 . Secti on ; with 30 Ensravings, 
 
 f\XOCK»S FRANCE. 
 
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 BOOKSELLERS A ; N£ PUBLISHERS, 
 
 253 MARKET STREET,- PHILADELPHIA, * 
 
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 ■supply of School Bo'okiy of i\ \ md of others, 
 
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