r 
 
 A STUDY 
 
 IN
 
 A STUDY 
 
 MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 
 
 THE CORPORATION OF BERLIN 
 
 BY 
 
 JAMES POLLARD, C.A. 
 
 CHAIRMAN OF THE EDINBURGH PUBLIC HEALTH COMMITTEE, AND SECRETARY 
 OF THE EDINBURGH CHAMBER OF COMMERCE 
 
 WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS 
 
 EDINBUEGH AND LONDON 
 
 MDCCCXCIII 
 
 All Rights reserved
 
 TO 
 
 i. a.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THIS small book has in substance already ap- 
 peared in a series of articles contributed to the 
 ' Scotsman,' entitled the " Municipality of Berlin." 
 It has been represented to me that the informa- 
 tion given is fitted to be useful to persons who, 
 like myself, are engaged or interested in different 
 branches of Local Government. In the hope that 
 it may be so, I have yielded to the suggestion 
 of friends to cast the articles into the present 
 handy form. 
 
 In all branches of civic administration I have 
 found the Berlin Corporation eager to learn from 
 other towns on the Continent and in Great 
 Britain, and to adopt whatever improvements 
 they can apply to their own affairs. In many
 
 Vlll PKEFACE. 
 
 respects I humbly think we in this country 
 may in turn learn much from them, and I 
 hope we shall be ready to follow their good 
 example. 
 
 In the following pages I have sought, with as 
 little comment as possible, simply to record the 
 actual condition of things as I found them, leav- 
 ing those concerned to judge for themselves how 
 far the facts suggest instruction which might be 
 bettered here. 
 
 The figures given are taken chiefly from the 
 municipal estimates for the current year ending 
 31st March 1893. 
 
 I beg to acknowledge my indebtedness to 
 the 'Scotsman' for permission to republish the 
 articles, and to Dr James Stalker of Glasgow, 
 and Mr Charles Lowe, late ' Times ' correspondent 
 in Berlin, for friendly assistance in revising the 
 proof-sheets. 
 
 JAMES POLLARD. 
 
 EDINBURGH, November 1892.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 I. MUNICIPAL DEPARTMENTS^ .... 3 
 
 II. WATER AND GAS, 17 
 
 III. SANITATION DRAINAGE STREET-CLEANING, . 33 
 
 IV. DOMESTIC SANITATION MEAT INSPECTION, . 51 
 V. PUBLIC HOSPITALS CONVALESCENT HOMES, . 69 
 
 VI. ADMINISTRATION FOR RELIEF OF THE POOR, 87 
 VII. EDUCATION AND THE COMMON SCHOOLS, . 105 
 VIII. PUBLIC WORKS FREE LIBRARY FIRE-BRI- 
 GADE, 125 
 
 IX. POLICE TREASURY POWERS OF CORPORA- 
 TION, 145 
 
 INDEX, . . 161
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 MUNICIPAL DEPARTMENTS. 
 
 Rapid development of Berlin Its present importance Consti- 
 tution of the Corporation Offices of Obcr Bur germeister, 
 Bur germeister, Magistrate, and Toivn Councillor Functions 
 of the Magistracy and Town Council Paid and unpaid 
 magistrates Administrative departments and committees 
 Corporation supervision in all institutions affecting public 
 wcllbeing City finance Annual charges Local rates 
 Methods of raising rates Annual departmental reports 
 Berlin municipal Brown-book. 
 
 THE chief city of the German empire is now 
 within easy reach of any part of Great Bri- 
 tain. By the Queenborough - Flushing route, 
 the traveller covers the distance from London 
 in twenty - four hours, while from Edinburgh 
 or Dublin he may do so within thirty - six 
 hours. He may, this morning, be filling his 
 mind with the historic associations of Holyrood
 
 4 CAPITAL OF THE HOHENZOLLERNS. 
 
 or College Green, and to-morrow night be stroll- 
 ing by Frederick the Great's statue in Unter 
 den Linden. And, however uninviting Berlin 
 may have been twenty years ago, before the 
 extraordinary development which, in all depart- 
 ments of its civic administration, it has made 
 within that period, it may be safely said that 
 there is now no city in Europe which presents 
 so many interesting features to the student of 
 municipal government. It has not, indeed, the 
 historic interest of the old free towns of Ham- 
 burg, Bremen, Liibeck, or Frankfort; still less 
 can it in this respect compare with the more 
 ancient cities beyond the Rhine and the Alps. 
 Long before it played any part in the life of 
 the German people, small towns like Wittenberg, 
 Erfurt, and Eisenach were shaping the destinies 
 of the nation. But Berlin had the distinction 
 of being made the capital of the Hohenzollerns ; 
 and it has followed their fortunes and shared 
 their fame. Through many vicissitudes the little 
 double town of Berlin-Kolln struggled to establish 
 itself on the sluggish Spree. Its far - sighted 
 traders saw that, though their town was placed in
 
 RAPID GROWTH. 
 
 the midst of an arid plain, their river afforded 
 them a highway to the fruitful valleys of the 
 Elbe and the Oder, and would enable them to 
 join the commerce of Poland and Eastern Europe 
 with that of the Baltic and the Northern Sea. 
 At the close of the Thirty Years' War the town 
 did not number more than 6000 inhabitants, but 
 from that time it grew in size and importance. 
 It was, however, only in the time of Frederick 
 the Great that Berlin became one of the foremost 
 capitals of Europe. At the death of Frederick, 
 in 1786, the population of the city was 145,000, 
 while at the beginning of the present century it 
 was 172,000. Since 1800 its growth has been 
 marvellously rapid. At the present time the 
 population is no less than 1,635,000. Berlin has 
 become the greatest manufacturing and indus- 
 trial centre on the Continent. The trade carried 
 on its river and canals is greater even than the 
 trade of the Ehine, and its money and grain 
 markets are among the greatest in Europe. No 
 city in the eastern hemisphere has within so 
 short a period shown such wonderful expansion ; 
 it is only among the cities of the New World that
 
 IMPROVEMENT AND REFORM. 
 
 a parallel can be found. At the present moment 
 a project is under serious consideration, and it 
 appears to meet with favour, to extend the boun- 
 daries of the city to a radius of nearly ten miles 
 from the present centre, the point at which 
 the Friedrich Strasse intersects the Unter den 
 Linden. If this were done, the population would 
 number three millions, and Berlin would stand 
 second only to London among the capitals of the 
 world. As things are, the population is increas- 
 ing at the rate of nearly forty thousand a-year. 
 
 Since the war with France the whole municipal 
 organisation has undergone such a revision as the 
 enormous growth of the city called for. With 
 admirable thoroughness the work of improvement 
 and reform has been carried on in every depart- 
 ment. It is the object of the present study to 
 show to what attainments these reforms have 
 reached. It may be hoped that, if the narrative 
 affords some examples that may be worthy of 
 imitation by municipalities in this country, town 
 councillors and others concerned in various 
 branches of local government may not be above 
 learning what may prove useful in their own
 
 OFFICE OF CHIEF MAGISTRATE. 
 
 administration, even though the examples are 
 taken from Germany. 
 
 The Corporation of Berlin (Berliner Oemeinde 
 Verwaltung} is presided over by a chief mayor 
 (Ober Burgermeister') and a mayor (Burgermeister), 
 like the Chairman and Deputy- Chairman of the 
 London County Council. Both are paid offices, the 
 first carrying a salary of 1500, and the second 
 900 per annum. The choice lies in both cases 
 with the Town Council, who are not limited 
 to members of their own body, nor even to 
 citizens of Berlin. Eecently the office of Ober 
 Bin-germeister became vacant through the death 
 of Herr von Forckenbeck, and one of the 
 candidates spoken of for the vacancy was the 
 Biirgermeister of Danzig, whose success as an 
 administrator is widely known in Germany. The 
 choice of the Town Council (Stadtverordneter 
 Versammlung) for both offices is, however, sub- 
 ject to the approval of the Emperor as King of 
 Prussia, who may, without reason assigned, veto 
 the election of any one who is not after his 
 own mind. But the royal veto is exercised in
 
 TOWN COUNCIL. 
 
 a generous manner, for Herr Zelle, who has just 
 been appointed, is a Liberal. There is a Magis- 
 tracy (Magistral) of thirty members chosen by 
 the Town Council, but each magistrate must be 
 approved by the Chief President (Oler-Prasident) 
 or Civil Governor of the province of Branden- 
 burg, who has his official residence in the city. 
 The magistrates do not sit as members of coun- 
 cil, but in a chamber of their own ; and they 
 alone have the power to initiate civic legis- 
 lation, to elaborate its details, and finally to 
 pass laws for the government of the city. 
 The Town Council consists of 126 members 
 (Stadtverordneten), elected from various districts 
 or wards of the city by manhood suffrage, in 
 the same manner as representatives are chosen 
 for the Prussian Parliament. The Town Coun- 
 cil has no legislative functions, but may make 
 representations to the Magistracy on matters 
 which seem to call for legislation ; the latter 
 body, if it approve, proceeds in the manner de- 
 scribed with whatever measures may be needful 
 to carry out the desired object. Of the thirty 
 magistrates, fifteen are expected to devote their
 
 THE MAGISTRACY. 
 
 whole time to the service of the town, arid 
 are paid salaries ranging from 7000 to 15,000 
 marks, or about 350 to 750 per annum. In 
 one or two special cases the salary may reach 
 900. The unpaid magistrates have the same 
 official status as those who are paid ; but in the 
 case of the latter it is imperative, whatever other 
 qualifications they may possess, that they shall 
 be well versed in the law of the land and possess 
 a full knowledge of municipal law. The members 
 of the Magistracy are for the most part men who 
 have served for some time as town councillors, 
 and who have shown special aptitude for admin- 
 istrative work. Although the Magistracy and the 
 Town Council in their corporate capacity act inde- 
 pendently, and are somewhat in the relative posi- 
 tions of an upper and lower house, yet in the 
 general work of administration, which, as with 
 us, is carried on by committees, their members 
 mingle and have equal votes. There are com- 
 mittees for the various departments : committees 
 for buildings, streets, and roadways, for lighting, 
 cleaning, and water-supply ; there are sanitation, 
 drainage, and hospital committees ; parks and
 
 10 RANGE OF COKPORATION CONTROL. 
 
 markets committees ; committees for the common 
 schools, the care of the poor, the regulation of the 
 police, and the control of finance. The chairmen 
 (Vorsitzenden) of these committees are usually 
 magistrates, and the more important committees 
 have one of the paid magistrates for chairman. 
 It is not only the work of the general manage- 
 ment of the city which falls under the charge of 
 the Berlin Corporation, but matters which with 
 us fall under separate administration. For ex- 
 ample, the care of the poor, the management of 
 the common schools, the administration of the 
 public hospitals, as well as the water-supply, 
 and, to a large extent, the gas -supply of the 
 city, which in this country are usually under 
 the control of separate boards and trusts, are, 
 in Berlin, all under direct municipal supervision. 
 It must be said that, though such an arrangement 
 seems to centralise large powers in the municipal 
 body, it has very great economic advantages, as 
 we may see by-and-by. It is sufficient, mean- 
 while, to say that, wherever the Corporation take 
 responsibility, they insist upon obtaining the 
 principal direction of affairs. In all such cases
 
 MUNICIPAL EXPENDITURE. 1 1 
 
 the whole income and expenditure are treated as 
 part of the income and expenditure of the Cor- 
 poration, and are dealt with in the annual ac- 
 counts of the city. It is thus possible to obtain 
 a clear view of the whole cost to the inhabi- 
 tants of all the public departments of the city, 
 whether these are maintained directly out of the 
 taxes levied, or, as in the case of gas, water, and 
 other matters, paid for according to individual 
 requirements. 
 
 Berlin has a public debt of about 12| millions 
 sterling. Less than a million of this sum is old 
 debt bearing interest at 4^ per cent.; the whole 
 of the other 11| millions bears 3| per cent, 
 which is the annual rate at which the city of 
 Berlin can now easily borrow money. The Cor- 
 poration expend annually for all the purposes 
 under their control about 80 million marks, or, 
 in round figures, about 4 millions sterling. This 
 expenditure, though apparently large, is in real- 
 ity considerably less per head of the population 
 than is the expenditure in a city like Edinburgh, 
 and very much less than in most of our large 
 towns, if to our ordinary burgh rates we add
 
 12 TAXATION OF BERLIN. 
 
 all that is expended under our poor and school 
 boards, and in connection with our public hospi- 
 tals. For ordinary municipal purposes, such as 
 are covered, for example, by the Edinburgh burgh 
 and police rate, now standing at 2s. Id. per 1 of 
 the assessed rental, the Berliners pay almost ex- 
 actly the same amount in proportion. But their 
 method of raising their assessments differs from 
 ours in two ways. In the first place, while 
 they raise part of their rates from the rent-roll 
 of the dwellings, no man is assessed upon his 
 rental who pays a lower rent than 200 marks, 
 or, say, 10 per annum. Ratepayers pay on a 
 graduated scale, beginning at 2 per cent, on 200 
 marks, and rising to 6| per cent. when the rent 
 exceeds 1000 marks a-year. In the second place, 
 part of the municipal rates is raised by means of 
 a graduated income-tax, beginning with incomes 
 of 660 marks, or 33, per annum. By these two 
 methods the whole sums required for ordinary 
 municipal purposes are levied. But the munici- 
 pal accounts embrace all other sources of revenue 
 the rents paid by tramway companies for the 
 use of streets, the surplus profits from the gas
 
 DEPARTMENTAL REPORTS. 13 
 
 and water establishments, the revenues from ir- 
 rigation fields used by the town for utilisation 
 of sewage, income from markets and slaughter- 
 houses, and so forth. 
 
 Each department of the town's service forms 
 the subject of a separate annual report. In this 
 report the whole details of the establishment to 
 which it refers are fully described ; attention is 
 called to any new work begun or any develop- 
 ment in existing branches of work during the 
 year. Newly sanctioned proposals are set forth, 
 and reasons are given for all extra expenses 
 which have been incurred. All the reports of 
 the different departments are bound into one 
 volume, and issued by the Magistracy with a 
 general report prefixed. In the magisterial 
 report one may see at a glance the general 
 progress of the city and the special matters of 
 municipal interest which may have occurred 
 during the year; while for details one may 
 turn to the reports of the separate establish- 
 ments. In clearness and fulness of statement 
 it would seem hardly possible to excel the 
 magisterial Brown - book of Berlin ( Verwal-
 
 14 BROWN-BOOK. 
 
 tungs - Bericht des Magistrate zu Berlin}. The 
 most exacting ratepayer may there satisfy him- 
 self regarding the expenditure of every fraction 
 of the rates, and he may judge of the reasons 
 assigned for every fresh item of expenditure. 
 Nor need the dullest town councillor be at a loss 
 for material to enable him to explain to his con- 
 stituents why this and that piece of work has 
 been undertaken, what it has cost, and what are 
 the benefits which it is expected to yield. The 
 statements of accounts, which, of course, are after 
 the German decimal system, are models of per- 
 spicacity and orderliness. 
 
 To appreciate fully, however, the methods of 
 civic government now in practice, they must be 
 seen in operation. There is no more profitable 
 way in which a person interested in such matters 
 can spend a holiday in Berlin than by making 
 use of the facilities which are courteously placed 
 at his disposal by the heads of departments there.
 
 WATER AND GAS
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 WATER AND GAS. 
 
 Public debt of Berlin Redemption of debt Water-supply 
 Under public company Taken over by Corporation Sale of 
 water by meter How introduced Mr Gill's experiments 
 Success of the Siemens meter Final adoption of meter 
 system Tenement dwellings convenient for its use Favour- 
 able results of introduction Statistics of water-supply Pre- 
 vailing cleanliness Meter system in other German towns 
 Lighting of Berlin Gas-supply by Corporation Lighting of 
 streets Petroleum light in parks Statistics of gas supply 
 Electric light. 
 
 WHEN it is stated that the annual expenditure of 
 the city is about four millions sterling, it is to be 
 kept in view that this expenditure includes all 
 that is raised for the support of the common 
 schools, the public hospitals, and the care of the 
 poor. On the other hand, as has been said, the 
 city receives whatever profits are made on the 
 water-supply, on the gas-works under the man- 
 B
 
 18 PUBLIC DEBT OF BERLIN. 
 
 agement of the Corporation, and from sundry 
 other sources. In the 12^ millions of the city's 
 debt are included the capital amounts standing 
 against the various establishments namely, 
 against gas-works, water-works, drainage-works, 
 cattle - market, slaughter - house, and general 
 markets, and against school and other institution 
 buildings. Nearly the whole of this debt has 
 been incurred in connection with operations sanc- 
 tioned within the past twenty years. The ten- 
 dency for the present is towards an increase of 
 the total, through further improvements that are 
 going forward in different departments ; but at 
 the same time, an annual sum of about 280,000 
 is being set aside out of the municipal revenue 
 for the redemption of debt. No doubt a larger 
 sum will be used in this way in proportion as any 
 increase is made to capital expenditure. It may 
 therefore be said that the total present debt of 
 the city is in the way of being wiped off in course 
 of thirty years ; and for a city like Berlin, grow- 
 ing in wealth as in many other things, this cannot 
 be regarded as a very unwieldy burden. Indeed, 
 all things considered, Berlin stands, in respect
 
 COKPOKATION WATER-SUPPLY. 19 
 
 of its total financial obligations, more favourably 
 than Edinburgh, which is by no means one of the 
 most heavily burdened municipalities. 
 
 In the matter of its water-supply, the German 
 capital affords many instructive points. Like 
 Edinburgh it was served, till recent years, by a 
 public company. It was not till 1873 that the 
 Corporation took the works under their own 
 control, and great public advantage has followed 
 from the change. The supply is brought from 
 two large lakes the Tegel to the north-west, and 
 the Miiggel to the south-east of the city ; the one 
 fed by a tributary of the Spree, and the other by 
 the Spree itself, about nine miles before it reaches 
 the city. It is obvious that, gathered in an ex- 
 tensive plain, this water must necessarily undergo 
 a complete process of filtration before it can be 
 regarded as fit for domestic use. Accordingly, the 
 water -works (Stddtische Wasserwerke) embrace 
 enormous structures for this purpose, and these 
 have been greatly extended and improved since 
 the water-supply was taken over by the city. 
 As delivered for consumption, the water is of 
 good, wholesome quality, while the sources arc
 
 20 OLD WATER COMPANY. 
 
 regarded as amply sufficient for the wants of 
 the city, even if it continue to grow as rapidly 
 for the next two or three generations. An 
 increased demand will, no doubt, require addi- 
 tional works and filtering stations, but it will 
 not for very many years compel the Corpora- 
 tion to seek new sources of supply. The most 
 noteworthy feature of the subject is that in 
 Berlin the water is now sold to the inhabitants 
 by meter just as gas is sold ; and experience has 
 shown that this system has proved a great public 
 benefit. It may, therefore, not be without interest 
 to observe how the meter system has come to be 
 introduced, as well as to note the results which 
 have been obtained. 
 
 The company which formerly supplied Berlin 
 had a concession under which it was entitled to 
 charge an assessment of 4 per cent.on the rental 
 in name of water-rate, and it was obliged to 
 maintain an unlimited supply. Its works, how- 
 ever, were constructed only with a view to a 
 moderate growth of the city, and in 1865 it 
 began to find that the demand was growing 
 largely in excess of the supply. It was evident,
 
 WATER-METER SYSTEM. 21 
 
 however, that great waste was going on, and 
 that if this could be properly checked, it would 
 still be possible with the existing works to 
 meet the wants even of a greater number of 
 consumers. To prevent waste was, however, 
 found to be practically impossible unless some 
 self - checking method of distribution could be 
 devised. In such circumstances it occurred to 
 Mr Henry Gill, the manager and engineer of 
 the company an Englishman, who had been at 
 the head of the water department since 1856, 
 and who, to the great satisfaction of the munici- 
 pality, has held the same position down to 
 the present date to suggest the introduction 
 of a meter system. No doubt the increased 
 demand could have been adequately met by 
 the erection of new works to make enlarged 
 use of the sources of water at command. But 
 this would have meant ruin to the company. 
 What was required by the necessities of the 
 case was, not more water, but a proper and 
 reasonable use of that which was available. 
 The history of the company, as Mr Gill himself 
 puts it, was, like the history of water companies
 
 22 PREVENTION OF WATER WASTE. 
 
 in general, the record of an incessant struggle to 
 diminish or prevent waste. The powers which 
 they possessed of house inspection, of prescribing 
 the nature and construction of apparatus for the 
 conveyance and delivery of water, and of even 
 exacting fines for non-compliance with fixed 
 regulations, were all found to be wholly inade- 
 quate to prevent the waste which was constantly 
 caused by ignorance and neglect. It was felt 
 that improvement could only be effected by a 
 change in the method of assessing the charges for 
 the water which passed through the service-pipes 
 of the consumers. So long as the rate bore no 
 relation to the quantity of water consumed, and 
 did not depend either on the number of rooms or 
 on the number of water-taps or other appliances, 
 the experience was that there was no inducement 
 to the householder either to use the water econom- 
 ically, or to keep his apparatus in proper repair. 
 In this way the company or the corporation 
 charged with the water-supply always suffers, 
 but in the long-run the loss, whatever it may be, 
 falls on the community. Mr Gill began by pro- 
 posing a tentative change. Meters were already
 
 SUCCESS OF METER SYSTEM. 23 
 
 in use for a few large consumers. It was pro- 
 posed to select blocks of buildings with the 
 heaviest rentals, and to undertake to serve these 
 with a water-supply adequate to all reasonable 
 requirements, upon a scale somewhat lower than 
 the rate at which the company was entitled to 
 assess under the old system, but to pass the 
 supply through meters upon condition that an 
 extra charge should be made for any excess 
 beyond the supply agreed to. The experiment 
 proved successful. People did not use less water 
 for necessary purposes, for the minimum supply 
 was sufficient in that respect, but to save their 
 pockets they guarded against waste. Gradually 
 the Siemens meter, which was the one selected 
 by the company, was improved, and the system 
 was slowly extended, until its economical ad- 
 vantages to consumers and the department 
 became more widely appreciated. Finally, in 
 1878, on the recommendation of Mr Gill, the 
 Corporation which had meanwhile bought up 
 the company made the system general through- 
 out the city. Almost all Berlin lives in flats ; 
 self-contained houses being exceptional. Each
 
 24 COST OF WATER-SUPPLY. 
 
 house or tenement has an average of four floors, 
 each floor containing two or it may be three 
 separate dwellings. The average number of in- 
 habitants occupying a tenement is about seventy. 
 The meter is situated on the ground floor within 
 the passage leading from the street, and is so 
 placed that it may be readily examined, and yet 
 not easily injured. It is the property of the 
 department, while the apparatus within the house 
 belongs to the proprietor. An annual charge, 
 now reduced to about 6s., is made for the 
 meter. The department holds the proprietor 
 responsible for payment of the whole consump- 
 tion registered by the meter, and he therefore 
 is vigilant to prevent waste through neglect or 
 deterioration of apparatus. The tenant has 
 nothing directly to do with the rate; the land- 
 lord keeps it in view in fixing the rent. As 
 all dwellings are treated in this manner, tenants 
 insist on having complete water, water-closet, 
 and, frequently, bath accommodation. Each 
 house being supplied direct from the main, 
 which affords a constant supply, cisterns are 
 not required. This is a great aid to the sanitary
 
 AMOUNT OF WATER-SUPPLY. 25 
 
 condition of the dwellings. Water-closets are 
 now so general in private dwellings that over head 
 there is one for every nine persons ; while there is 
 one bath for every eighty of the population. Be- 
 sides, Berlin is liberally supplied with large public 
 bathing-places and other sanitary conveniences. 
 
 The present works are capable of delivering 
 daily into the city about 150,000 cubic metres, 
 or over 33,000,000 gallons, equal to 20 gallons 
 per head of the population, or one-half of the 
 Edinburgh supply. The actual consumption is, 
 however, only 15 gallons per head. About 3 per 
 cent, of the supply is used for public sanitary 
 purposes. It is to be noted that while the 
 supply per head appears to be comparatively 
 small, the system of serving an average of seventy 
 persons by one meter contributes towards keep- 
 ing the supply at what is actually necessary, and 
 secures that what one inhabitant may not require 
 in one day his neighbour obtains, and vice versa. 
 And it must be said that in the poorer quarters 
 of the town the Berliners appear to make a far 
 more effective use of water in the cleanliness of 
 their persons and dwellings than even Edinburgh
 
 26 PROFITS OF WATER-SUPPLY. 
 
 can boast. If a more liberal supply should be 
 found to be necessary for the city, the Corpora- 
 tion are quite able to afford additional works. 
 For while the present actual cost of water is only 
 about 4s. per head of the population (in Edin- 
 burgh it is 4s. 10d.), they make, after meeting 
 all expenses of maintenance, management, and 
 contribution to redemption of debt, an annual 
 profit of no less than 108,000, or 34 per cent, of 
 their total revenue, while in Edinburgh a sur- 
 plus of not quite 3 per cent.is obtained. If the 
 Berliners were now paying 4 per cent, on their 
 rental, which they did under their water com- 
 pany for a far less satisfactory supply, their 
 water-rate would amount to 6s. 8d. per head 
 of the population, against the 4s. which they 
 actually pay. They have thus, in the matter of 
 rate, through the water-supply having been 
 taken over by the Corporation, had a favourable 
 experience almost exactly corresponding to that 
 of Edinburgh, while their annual profit by the 
 undertaking is ten times greater. 
 
 It used to be said that it was only in a place 
 like Berlin, where tenement dwellings are so
 
 CORPORATION GAS-SUPPLY. 27 
 
 universally used, that the meter system of water- 
 supply could be successfully worked. Experience 
 has shown, however, that it can be successfully 
 used in other circumstances, for it has already been 
 adopted by many of the principal towns in Ger- 
 many, while it is about to be introduced by others. 
 Although gas-lighting was introduced in Lon- 
 don in 1814, Berlin continued the use of oil- 
 lamps for public and domestic lighting till 1827. 
 In that year a strong English company, which 
 had already established gas undertakings in other 
 German towns, obtained a twenty-one years' con- 
 cession for the gas-supply of Berlin. The Cor- 
 poration became so satisfied, towards the end of 
 the period, that the growth of the city and the 
 large profits of the company warranted them in 
 starting a gas establishment of their own, that they 
 declined to continue the monopoly. In 1847 they 
 erected gas-works (Stadtische Gasanstalten) under 
 their own administration. Not to be beaten, the 
 company, which was allowed to continue its busi- 
 ness as an independent concern, instantly reduced 
 its price from 10 marks per 1000 English cubic 
 feet to 5 marks, and the latter became the price
 
 28 COST OF GAS-SUPPLY. 
 
 of the town supply as well. It is unnecessary to 
 relate the competitive struggle between the town 
 and the company. The increase of the population 
 provided ample scope for both, and both are still 
 in friendly rivalry. The municipal undertaking 
 has developed to four times its original size, 
 and now possesses four large works in different 
 quarters of the city. In 1865 the use of 
 English coal in gas manufacture was discon- 
 tinued, and the coal now used is brought from 
 the mines of Upper and Lower Silesia and 
 of Westphalia, at a cost of about 18s. per 
 English ton. By the introduction of the new 
 method of treating coal-gas with oxygen, the 
 quality of the gas has been much improved, and 
 it yields a light 22 candles strong. Ordinary 
 consumers pay at present about 4s. 8d. per 1000 
 English cubic feet, but this price includes the 
 cost of public lighting, which is borne by the gas 
 department. No city in Europe, excepting Paris 
 perhaps, is so well lighted at night as Berlin. The 
 authorities believe that with abundance of light 
 crime is diminished and more easily detected. As 
 the gas consumed in public lighting is supplied
 
 PROFITS OP GAS-SUPPLY. 29 
 
 by the department, the cost is laid on the price 
 charged to general consumers. At the present 
 time it represents about 8d. per 1000 feet of the 
 selling price, so that the net price per 1000 feet is 
 only 4s. for private consumption. When exten- 
 sions are required to keep pace with the increase 
 of the city, the municipal treasury bears the first 
 cost ; but all expenses of maintenance and de- 
 preciation, as well as reduction of debt, are borne 
 by the department, which, nevertheless, usually 
 ends its year with a good surplus. Last year the 
 surplus, after meeting all charges, was 250,000, 
 which was passed to the city treasury for general 
 municipal purposes. The output by the city is 
 at present 3800 million cubic feet, while the gas 
 used is within 6.01 per cent^of that quantity 
 a comparatively low percentage of shortcoming. 
 A somewhat novel practice is carried on by the 
 department in insuring consumers against loss 
 by gas explosion ; and in this way a revenue is 
 obtained out of which provision is made for the 
 widows of gas employees who have died in the 
 service of the town. To avoid damage to trees 
 and shrubs by the cutting up of the ground, no
 
 30 ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 gas-pipes are laid in the public gardens, which 
 are lit at night by a system of petroleum lamps, 
 and occasionally by electricity. 
 
 With a demand for gas requiring an annual 
 increase of 5 per cent, on the output an increase 
 exceeding that of the population the administra- 
 tion regard with complacency the development 
 of the electric light, which is still very far from 
 coming into serious competition with their com- 
 modity. So far back as 1883, however, the city 
 granted permission to a public company to lay 
 down an installation of electric light, and the 
 business of the company has shown considerable 
 development. Several of the principal streets, 
 squares, and public buildings are now illuminated 
 by this means; but it is so expensive as to be 
 far beyond the reach of the general consumer. 
 The Corporation, however, keep a sharp eye on 
 its progress ; they have taken care not to give 
 the company exclusive rights, and they may be 
 trusted not to hesitate to take the business 
 entirely into their own hands whenever it ap- 
 pears to be for the public advantage that this 
 should be done.
 
 SANITATION, DRAINAGE, AND 
 STREET -CLEANING
 
 CHAPTEK III. 
 
 SANITATION, DRAINAGE, AND STREET-CLEANING. 
 
 Insanitary state of Berlin before 1872 -Virchow His public 
 services to Berlin His zeal for sanitary reform Corpora- 
 tion resolved on thorough measures "Radial" system of 
 drainage Gathering -tanks Pumping -stations Utilisation 
 of sewage Sewage-fields Three classes of fields Cost of 
 works Residts Cleansing of streets Removed of street and 
 house refuse Watering of streets Public lavatories The 
 cleansing staff Clean scavengers. 
 
 IN 1871, just after the war with France, with a 
 population already exceeding 800,000, the sani- 
 tary condition of Berlin was, with the exception 
 perhaps of the city of Koln, the worst of any 
 city in Germany. Not only was there no 
 proper system of drainage, but the dwellings 
 of the poor were most unhealthy. Until that 
 time, and, indeed, down to recent years, the 
 houses of the poor were either in the basement 
 c
 
 34 FOKMER INSA.NITAEY STATE OF BERLIN. 
 
 floors of the tenements, in the cellars, or in the 
 top floors, to which access was obtained by separ- 
 ate staircases from those used by the well-to-do, 
 who occupied the better floors. Three -storey 
 tenements were then common, while now, even 
 in the wealthy quarters of the town, tenements 
 are often five storeys in height. There were 
 then as many as 4565 dwellings in which there 
 was no fireplace, and there were 95,000 which 
 had only one room with a fireplace. Beckoning 
 four persons to a family, there were thus almost 
 half the inhabitants living under such comfort- 
 less and unhealthy conditions. This was the 
 state of matters only twenty-one years ago. The 
 mortality of the city was in consequence ex- 
 tremely high. 
 
 For the beneficent changes that have been 
 brought about in the sanitation of the city 
 no man is so much entitled to public gratitude 
 as Professor Virchow. He is one of the most 
 industrious of the world's workers. He is cele- 
 brated all the world over as the most eminent 
 pathologist of his age ; but for five-and-twenty 
 years of the busiest portion of his life he has
 
 VIRCHOW'S DEMONSTRATIONS. 35 
 
 found time to discharge the duties of a member 
 both of the Landtag and Keichstag, and of the 
 humbler office of town councillor as well. It is 
 in the latter capacity that he has rendered such 
 splendid services to Berlin. In 1872 Virchow 
 presented a report to the Town Council, in which 
 he showed the urgent need there was to grapple 
 with the whole question of sanitary improve- 
 ment. He demonstrated that, dividing the pre- 
 ceding fifteen years into three periods of five 
 years each, the mortality of the city was advanc- 
 ing in the ratio of 5, 7, 9, so that in a fourth 
 period it would have more than doubled on the 
 first. He also showed that over the same periods 
 the mortality of children under one year was in 
 the ratio of 5, 7, 11, so that it had actually 
 doubled within fifteen years. Of the 27,800 
 deaths which occurred in 1872, no fewer than 
 11,136 were of children under one year. This 
 was clearly a state of things which called clam- 
 antly for remedial measures of the most thorough 
 kind. The Corporation wisely resolved upon no 
 half measures. They determined to act with 
 energy, and to abolish the evil root and branch.
 
 36 DRAINAGE OF BERLIN. 
 
 They appointed a commission to visit the principal 
 cities of France and Great Britain, to collect 
 information on the most effective methods of 
 drainage and the disposal of city refuse. The 
 result was that in 1873 works were commenced 
 which transformed the city in a few years from 
 one of the most unhealthy to one of the safest 
 on the Continent. Not only was the increasing 
 mortality checked, but it has been reduced from 
 over 30 to about 20 per 1000, and the tendency 
 is towards further diminution. 
 
 The level nature of the site on which Berlin is 
 built presented great difficulties to the introduc- 
 tion of a perfect system of drainage (Kanalisa- 
 tiori), but these difficulties have been admirably 
 overcome. The city was divided into five great 
 drainage districts. These have since been sub- 
 divided, and there are now twelve in all. A 
 point was chosen at the lowest level in each 
 district as that to which the main drain-channels 
 should converge. These are fed from smaller 
 drains, and these again from soil-pipes leading 
 from the dwellings, so that a perfect vein- 
 system overspreads the whole district and finds
 
 UTILISATION OF SEWAGE. 37 
 
 its centre in enormous gathering - tanks of 40 
 feet diameter, placed at the lowest level. The 
 main sewers are built of brick, the smaller 
 pipes are of tile -ware. The cellar dwellings 
 lying too low for drainage purposes were no 
 longer allowed to be used as habitations, while 
 the improved water - supply, already described, 
 greatly aided the general work. It was not 
 enough, however, to gather the liquid sewage 
 into one centre; it had to be disposed of as 
 quickly as it was gathered. Accordingly, at each 
 of the gathering-points there is a great pumping- 
 station, with engines some of them capable of 
 working up to 176 horse-power by means of 
 which the sewage is forced through immense 
 pipes to sewage-fields. These fields (Rieselfdder) 
 are the property of the Corporation, and are 
 situated at from six to ten miles outside the 
 city, where the sewage is used for irrigating 
 purposes with the most satisfactory results. 
 
 These sewage-fields are a most noteworthy 
 feature in the sanitary arrangements of the 
 city. They comprise nearly a dozen separate 
 properties, which were formerly barren heaths,
 
 38 DRAINAGE PUMPING-STATIONS. 
 
 and which have all been bought by the Cor- 
 poration within the last eighteen years for the 
 special purpose of utilising the town sewage. 
 In the aggregate they cover an area of nearly 
 twenty-two square miles. The sewage is pumped 
 to the highest point upon each estate about 
 68 feet above the level at the pumping- stations 
 where it is discharged into a large tank, cor- 
 responding to that from which it has come. 
 From this point it is spread over the whole 
 estate, according to the requirements of different 
 parts, the distribution being effectively regulated 
 by an elaborate system of sluices and water- 
 courses. 
 
 At the pumping - stations in the city there 
 are self-acting registers, which record the quan- 
 tity of water passing through the gathering- 
 tank. Headings of the register are taken four 
 times daily. A heavy rainfall flushing the drains 
 necessitates, of course, a more rapid evacuation 
 of the tanks, and this is simply and readily 
 accomplished by increasing the forcing power of 
 the engines. Before passing into the tank, the 
 water is led through iron nettings with one-inch
 
 SEWAGE-FIELDS. 39 
 
 apertures, and all solid matter wood, paper, 
 straw, and such things is gathered apart, to be 
 carted away to canal barges. By these it is con- 
 veyed, with ashes, house-refuse, and street-sweep- 
 ings, to be used on farm-land at a distance from 
 the city. At the receiving-tank on each estate 
 there is also a self-acting register; and by a 
 simple arrangement the inspector of the estate 
 may tell at any hour of the day or night at 
 what point the water stands. During the day 
 a flag, and during the night a bright lantern, 
 rises or falls on a flag-staff as the volume of 
 water in the tank is greater or less; thus the 
 risk of overflow is obviated, and the inspector 
 sitting in his office, it may be a couple of miles 
 away, is able to order and regulate the outflow 
 at will. 
 
 The sewage - fields are divided into three 
 kinds : first, those which have grown richest in 
 soil are used as fruit -orchards, and let out to 
 market-gardeners, who supply the fruit-markets 
 of Berlin ; second, those which are rich enough 
 to bear turnips, potatoes, and grain crops are 
 partly let out to tenants, and partly managed by
 
 40 COST OF DRAINAGE. 
 
 the Corporation ; and third, those still growing 
 grass are wholly in the hands of the Corporation, 
 who sell the grass to cow-feeders and others. 
 As many as five crops of grass are obtained in a 
 season from the last-mentioned fields. One of 
 the estates which has been longest in use now 
 yields a profit of about 3 per cent, on the cost 
 of the land and irrigation works, after payment 
 of all working expenses, renewals, and upkeep. 
 The others promise to show results at least as 
 satisfactory in course of time. According to the 
 last published accounts, the gross yearly cost for 
 the maintenance of the drainage system, includ- 
 ing the interest upon and part payment for 
 redemption of capital, was 13,210,567 marks. 
 The ordinary working and upkeep of the 
 machinery cost 662,069, working and main- 
 tenance of the fields 1,788,765, and general 
 maintenance of drains and fittings 218,942 
 marks. By far the greater part of the expendi- 
 ture is at present spent in extending the Radial 
 system (as the city drainage system is called) in 
 new streets, and the purchase and laying out 
 of new fields. The ordinary receipts from the
 
 PRODUCE OF SEWAGE-FIELDS. 41 
 
 letting and sale of produce from the sewage- 
 fields were last year 1,961,746 marks. The total 
 debt incurred by the city on these works and 
 fields amounts to 78,640,000 marks; but the 
 fields themselves are yearly increasing in value, 
 and must represent a very large asset against the 
 original cost. It may be mentioned that the 
 town is doing a considerable trade in cow-feeding 
 and cattle -raising on these estates. The net 
 annual cost to the city in this department, in- 
 cluding interest and reduction of debt, is stated 
 at little over 5,500,000 marks, or, say, 276,000 ; 
 while the net cost of street cleaning and lighting 
 is stated at 2,486,000 marks, or 124,300. The 
 net total cost of drainage, cleaning, and lighting 
 is therefore 400,000, which, in proportion to the 
 population, corresponds favourably with most 
 large towns in this country. 
 
 The cleaning and watering of the streets 
 (Strasscnreinigungswesen) is now carried out in 
 the same systematic and efficient manner that 
 characterises all the municipal departments. Up- 
 wards of thirty miles of street are laid down 
 in asphalt, which greatly facilitates the cleaning.
 
 42 UTILISATION OF STREET-REFUSE. 
 
 For the purposes of this department the city is 
 laid out in twenty-three separate districts. One 
 director is over all, while each district has a 
 separate overseer, and is subdivided into minor 
 districts, with a foreman over each. The depart- 
 ment employs 662 men, whose wages average 21 
 marks per week, and 120 lads from fourteen to 
 seventeen years of age, with a weekly wage of 
 from 9 to 16 marks. The carting of house and 
 street refuse is done by contractors, who convey 
 the material to canal-boats on the Spree for the 
 purpose of being conveyed to farms, where it is 
 sold for what it may bring. For the right of 
 using a one-horse cart the contractors pay from 
 one to one and a half mark, for a two-horse 
 cart two marks ; and this is the whole revenue 
 the town derives from this source. These carts 
 are made light but strong. There are no refuse- 
 destructors in Berlin. The soil of the surround- 
 ing country is so poor that the city refuse is 
 a welcome aid to its cultivation. 
 
 The street-sweepers work in relays there is a 
 day and night shift of twelve hours each, with 
 intervals for meals. In summer, especially
 
 STREET-CLEANING. 43 
 
 during the period of extra street-watering, the 
 day shift frequently works one hour and a half 
 longer. The street-sweepings are collected into 
 shoots or gullies, which are placed along the 
 streets at intervals of 65 yards. Into these 
 gullies the water - courses also run, the water 
 passing into the drains by connecting pipes, the 
 solid matter sinking to the bottom, from which 
 it is emptied at night, and carted away by the 
 contractors. The ventilation of the drains is 
 effected by traps, also placed at regular intervals 
 of about 80 yards along the roadway. These 
 traps serve as man-holes for the proper inspec- 
 tion of the drains. Large use is made of disin- 
 fectants, which, particularly in warm weather, are 
 liberally poured into the gullies and drains. The 
 street-sweeping is almost entirely performed at 
 night. Brushing and scraping machines drawn 
 by horses turn out half an hour before midnight, 
 and carry on their operations till about six in 
 the morning. It is at night, too, that ashes and 
 house -refuse, as well as the emptyings of the 
 street gullies, are carried off by the contractors' 
 carts. In very frosty weather the sweeping is
 
 44 WATERING OF STREETS. 
 
 delayed till the early hours of morning. Each 
 district has a separate depot, where the men 
 meet, and the cleaning implements are deposited. 
 During the day there is a constant staff of 80 
 men in fine weather, and 100 in dirty weather, 
 employed in the streets to see to the condition 
 of the water-channels more especially during 
 heavy rains to prevent stoppage in the drain 
 inlets and gullies, to scatter sand on the asphalted 
 roadways during frost, and to supervise the public 
 conveniences. 
 
 At suitable places in the leading thorough- 
 fares there are public lavatories, some for males, 
 others for females. Each is in charge of an attend- 
 ant. In most of them one may not only wash and 
 brush up, but have one's boots polished. Such 
 establishments, it is needless to say, are obvious 
 desiderata in any properly managed town. In 
 Berlin they are kept scrupulously clean. 
 
 For the purpose of street -watering, hydrants 
 are placed at convenient points throughout the 
 city. As a rule, this operation is only in use 
 from May till September, the other months of the 
 year being wet enough in Berlin. The streets
 
 IMMUNITY FEOM CHOLERA. 45 
 
 are watered twice or thrice a-day, and in the 
 crowded thoroughfares even more frequently. 
 Each water-cart contains about 250 gallons, and 
 the water department is allowed about 4d. per 
 1000 gallons for water used on the streets. It 
 is a special duty of the cleaning staff to prevent 
 the hydrants getting frozen in winter. If cholera 
 should reach Berlin during the present epidemic, 
 it will be interesting to compare the effect with 
 visitations of the scourge before the improve- 
 ments now described were introduced. 1 To fully 
 appreciate the extent and completeness of the 
 change, one must have visited Berlin before and 
 after the introduction. Those who know the 
 city merely as it was in 1872 have only recollec- 
 tions of nauseous smells in the streets, and abom- 
 inable odours and wofully 'defective drainage in 
 the houses, and even in the principal hotels. 
 Now all is changed. The most ordinary hotels 
 
 1 This passage was written before the recent outbreak of 
 cholera at Hamburg. The almost complete immunity of 
 Berlin, notwithstanding the close proximity of the scourge, 
 is a striking object-lesson on the value of a thorough system 
 of sanitation under wise direction. What would not Hamburg 
 give now to have sooner pursued the same policy as Berlin !
 
 46 STBEET-SWEEPEES. 
 
 are amply supplied with baths and water-closets 
 of the most recent construction, and the general 
 atmosphere is so sweet that no visitor can have 
 the old dread of carrying off the seeds of typhoid 
 or even typhus as a souvenir. 
 
 In connection with this part of municipal work, 
 there is a simple and yet very suggestive matter 
 which strikes the visitor to Berlin who is com- 
 paring notes with the state of things at home. 
 It is that the scavengers are all clad in overalls 
 and wide leggings of coarse hempen stuff, which 
 gives them an appearance of tidiness and pre- 
 serves their ordinary clothes from pollution. 
 With an official cap on his head, a belt round his 
 waist, giving his plain large tunic a somewhat 
 smart appearance, the Berlin scavenger feels that 
 he is a public servant, and that though his occupa- 
 tion may be menial, yet his health and comfort 
 are of some concern to his masters. The munici- 
 pality take no credit for philanthropy in providing 
 these overalls. On economical grounds, which are 
 the only grounds on which any expenditure of 
 this sort is justified, the Corporation do what they 
 can to make their own servants an example to
 
 CLEAN SCAVENGERS. 47 
 
 the community in respect of clean habits. Could 
 anything be more consonant with common-sense ? 
 There can be no doubt that our street-sweepers 
 and dustmen daily carry to their homes quantities 
 of dirt and filth which are caught by their clothes 
 in the performance of their unpleasant work. 
 These clothes they wear, day in day out, often 
 for weeks without being washed. The dirt that 
 is carried home is itself a source of mischief. 
 Dirt makes dirt, and nowhere is it more likely 
 to do so than in such homes as those of our 
 poorer labourers. The Berlin scavenger divests 
 himself of his canvas overalls whenever he 
 reaches home he may for the matter of that 
 leave them behind the door his ordinary clothes 
 are not soiled and smeared with the dirt of his 
 labour. He washes his hands, face, and neck, and 
 is at once in a condition to enjoy his fireside 
 which he does not tarnish or to take his wife 
 and children out to some neighbouring park or 
 garden to regale them and himself in the fresh 
 air.
 
 DOMESTIC SANITATION-MEAT 
 INSPECTION
 
 CHAPTEK IV. 
 
 DOMESTIC SANITATION MEAT INSPECTION. 
 
 Dwellings of the poor Municipal energy No slums in Berlin 
 Filthy dwellings not permitted Treatment of dirty inhabi- 
 tants Shelters for the houseless Persistent offenders against 
 sanitation punished Concurrence of inhabitants Disinfec- 
 tion establishment City cattle-market City slaughter-house 
 Regulations for reception of cattle and dead meat Meat 
 inspection Cattle-market, slaughtering, and inspection in 
 one establishment Inspecting staff Veterinary surgeons 
 Female microscopists Official guarantee for sound meat. 
 
 CONCERN for the public health (Oeffentliche Ge- 
 sundheit) may now be said to dominate the mind 
 of the Corporation ; for, though a genuine and 
 exemplary thoroughness characterises every part 
 of their work, there is no department in which 
 such salutary reforms have been effected as in 
 that charged with the care of the health of the 
 inhabitants. Whatever other reforms in ad-
 
 52 NO SLUMS IN BERLIN. 
 
 ministration may be minimised or postponed, any 
 proposal that makes for the better sanitary con- 
 dition of the people is sure to receive favourable 
 consideration in the municipal council, and, if 
 found practicable, is approved and carried out 
 with a completeness which is only limited by a 
 reasonable regard to economy. Mention has been 
 made of the clearing out of the cellar dwellings, 
 but this will hardly prepare those who know 
 something of the squalor and misery prevailing 
 in the slums of London, Liverpool, Glasgow, and 
 in the lower quarters of our " own romantic 
 town," to learn that there are no slums in Ber- 
 lin. Yet this is the simple fact. Poverty there 
 is; misery and suffering of the innocent by the 
 ill-doing of others are common enough, as they 
 are wherever frail human beings are gathered 
 together; but filth, which is so usually the con- 
 comitant of poverty and crime, has no local 
 habitation. For the past twenty years the Cor- 
 poration have waged constant and successful war 
 against dirt and material pollution among people 
 and dwellings in any form in which these evils 
 menace the general health of the community.
 
 EJECTMENT OF FILTHY TENANTS. 53 
 
 Every house proprietor is bound, when he 
 finds his tenants keeping their dwellings in a 
 filthy state, to warn them to cleanse them 
 forthwith. If they do not, they are turned out 
 without further ceremony. Should the land- 
 lord neglect or fail to perform his duty in this 
 respect, a complaint made by the neighbours 
 a halfpenny post-card addressed to the proper 
 quarter will ensure a visit from an officer of 
 the Sanitary Department. This officer will, if 
 he finds the house filthy, order out the inhabi- 
 tants, and cleanse it at the landlord's expense. 
 "But do you not think you interfere too much 
 with the liberty of the subject ? " was the 
 natural question. " Liberty of the subject ? 
 mem Herr," retorted Stadtrath Meubrink, to 
 whom my best acknowledgments for most court- 
 eous attention are due ; " Liberty of the subject ? 
 May I ask whether your theory of government- 
 is not the greatest happiness of the greatest 
 number ? " The reply was in the affirmative. 
 " And have you not power to remove people from 
 their houses when these become dangerous to the 
 health of their neighbours ? " " We have, when
 
 54 LIBERTY OF THE SUBJECT. 
 
 infectious disease breaks out among them." " Ah, 
 but we anticipate you. We know that this dirt 
 will gender and foster fever. We don't care to 
 wait till fever breaks out. It may come in spite 
 of us, through water or milk or otherwise ; but 
 we regard all fevers as preventable diseases, and 
 we feel bound in the interest of the community 
 to prevent them where we can. We too respect 
 the liberty of the subject ; but we deny the 
 liberty of the subject to make himself or his 
 home a source of danger to the health and life 
 of his neighbours. We are just a little in 
 advance of you in this matter." 
 
 There was no rational answer to this retort. 
 There might have been, if it had been the case 
 in Berlin that people, when thus turned out of 
 house and home, were left to drift about the city 
 in shelterless misery. But this is not so. It is 
 far from the Berlin Corporation's idea of public 
 economy that it should be so. Whenever these 
 people are turned out they are usually, of 
 course, among the very poorest the house is 
 cleansed and purified, and the inmates are taken 
 to Shelters (Stadtische Obdacher) situated in differ-
 
 SHELTERS FOR THE HOUSELESS. 55 
 
 ent quarters of the city, and under the charge of 
 the Poor Department. In these shelters they and 
 their clothes are scrubbed and made clean. The 
 workers among them are allowed to go out to 
 their daily avocations, and daily they are made 
 to cleanse themselves. Food is provided for them 
 and their families at moderate cost, which is paid 
 out of their earnings. If they are out of employ- 
 ment, they are put to some simple work within 
 the shelter, and are paid for the work they per- 
 form. Persistent disregard of the rules of the 
 shelter is treated as a police offence. After a 
 few weeks' residence the people find themselves 
 actually in some degree out of sympathy with 
 uncleanly habits. They are then allowed once 
 more to betake themselves to a home of their 
 own, all the better for the lessons they have 
 learned. This treatment is repeated where need- 
 ful. But, when people remain incorrigibly dirty, 
 their offence becomes a matter for the interfer- 
 ence of the criminal authorities (Polizei Beliorde). 
 They are then drafted off to the sewage -fields 
 or some other department of public work, where 
 their earnings are used, in the first instance, to
 
 56 POPULAR APPROVAL OF CLEANLINESS. 
 
 defray the cost of their own keep, the balance 
 being applied in the next place to the mainten- 
 ance of their families, who pass under the care 
 of the authorities. 
 
 And this is all done with the assent and 
 approval of the general population. German 
 Socialism has its home and centre in the capital. 
 Berlin is also the centre of German industry. 
 Its population is for the most part a work- 
 ing-class population. The official, the wealthy, 
 the artistic, the military, and the shopkeeping 
 classes form in all but a small percentage 
 of the whole. Yet, though in their meetings 
 Socialists, and working men who are not Social- 
 ists, air their ideas and grievances, and declaim 
 against the wealthy and the bourgeoisie, they 
 have no quarrel with the treatment of those 
 whose habits make them obnoxious to the public 
 health. You may go through the quarters of the 
 city where the very poorest live you shall see 
 many signs of poverty, scanty furnishings in the 
 houses, poorly clad men and women, children 
 running barefoot and bareheaded yet they are 
 clean, and for the most part even tidy. You
 
 DISINFECTION OF HOUSEHOLD GOODS. 57 
 
 shall see all this, but you shall find nothing cor- 
 responding to the filth and squalid wretchedness 
 which meet you any hour of the day or night in 
 the uncomely parts of our own city. 
 
 In 1886 the Corporation took another step in 
 the interest of the public health by the erection 
 of the first disinfection establishment (Desinfec- 
 tionsanstalt) in Berlin. In every case where fever 
 or infectious disease of any kind has been in a 
 dwelling, the bed occupied by the patient, the 
 clothing, linen, hangings, carpets, and other 
 paraphernalia in any way likely to harbour 
 germs of disease, are placed on a conveyance pro- 
 vided for the purpose, and carried off to this 
 establishment. The waggon with its load is 
 wheeled bodily into one of the apartments pro- 
 vided. The apartment is closed in, steam is 
 passed through coil -pipes which encircle the 
 room, till a temperature of 100 Celsius, or the 
 boiling-point of water, is reached. For a period 
 of thirty - five minutes the load is subjected 
 to this heat, so that every germ is destroyed. 
 Steam is then turned off, the apartment is re- 
 opened, and after the articles are cooled and
 
 58 THE DISINFECTION ESTABLISHMENT. 
 
 ventilated they are sent home again purified and 
 without damage. A small charge three -half- 
 pence per cubic metre is made on all goods 
 disinfected in this manner. The establishment, 
 which is centrally situated, occupies an area 
 having a frontage of 142 and a depth of 120 
 feet. It is strongly built of brick and stone, 
 while the rooms for the reception of articles to be 
 disinfected are lined with iron, and can be her- 
 metically closed. Infected goods are brought in 
 by a gateway at one side of the building, and 
 placed in a courtyard on what may be called the 
 infected side, and in their turn are passed through 
 the process of disinfection. Drawn out into a 
 courtyard on the disinfected side, the purified 
 articles are despatched by a separate gateway. 
 All classes of the population are bound, in case of 
 infectious disease visiting their homes, to use this 
 means of purification. It has proved so beneficial 
 and so acceptable to the community that it is now 
 regarded as an indispensable adjunct to the admin- 
 istration of the Public Health Department. 
 
 The excitement which arose in Edinburgh last 
 January on the question of diseased meat must
 
 COMMUNAL SLAUGHTER-HOUSES. 59 
 
 still be fresh in the recollection of the citizens. 
 Remembering the proposals then made in various 
 quarters for transferring our slaughter-houses out- 
 side the city, establishing clearance -houses for 
 dead meat, and the institution of a more efficient 
 system of inspection, one turned with interest to 
 inquire into the Berlin methods of dealing with 
 the meat question. Here, again, the same char- 
 acteristic energy was found going to the root of 
 the matter and producing results which might 
 stir the envy of even the best-governed munici- 
 palities in Britain. In 1864, Professor Virchow, 
 moved by an alarming outbreak of trichinosis, 
 warned the Corporation that the time had come 
 for the erection of a communal slaughter-house 
 and cattle-market, in which an efficient inspec- 
 tion could be maintained. Political troubles and 
 the wars of 1866 and 1870 prevented the carry- 
 ing out of these recommendations, with which 
 the Town Council fully sympathised. Objections 
 raised by the cattle trade and butchers, and even 
 by sections of the public, had also to be over- 
 come. But in the main public feeling, not only 
 in Berlin but in other large towns in Germany,
 
 60 COMMUNAL CATTLE-MARKET. 
 
 ran strongly in favour of the local authorities 
 taking up the whole question of the killing and 
 sale of meat intended for human food. In 1878 
 it was decided to erect a combined cattle-market 
 and slaughter-house for the whole city. The 
 site chosen was to the north-east of the town, 
 convenient to the city railway, by which it could 
 be brought into communication with all parts 
 of the metropolis. As the city railway also 
 communicates with the main lines, the trans- 
 mission of cattle and of dead meat to and from 
 the site could be accomplished with facility. 
 In 1881 the undertaking was completed and 
 opened for public use. An idea of the extent of 
 the area occupied may be obtained when it is 
 stated that fully 27 acres are covered by build- 
 ings. The watering of the vast establishment is 
 accomplished by about sixteen miles of piping, 
 while 3000 gas-jets are used for its illumination by 
 night. The ground is covered with cement, which 
 is easily and rapidly cleaned; and the fullest 
 attention has been given to the perfect drainage 
 of the place. All cattle to be offered for sale in 
 the city of Berlin must be brought hither, and
 
 EXTENT OF CATTLE-MARKET. 61 
 
 the slaughtering of cattle anywhere else within 
 the municipal boundary is absolutely forbidden. 
 For the reception of oxen, sheep, swine, and 
 calves, different sheds are provided. Strict atten- 
 tion is given to the foddering and cleaning of the 
 animals, and to the free ventilation of the stalls. 
 On market-days all beasts sold for slaughter 
 are transferred from the stalls of the dealers to 
 the butchers' stalls, which are contiguous to the 
 shambles. There is an immense open market for 
 cattle, in which as many as 3800 animals at a 
 time can be dealt with. In the open market for 
 sheep and swine there is room enough to handle 
 at one time 2500 and 8000 head respectively ; 
 whilst the trade in calves, which are bought 
 and sold in large numbers, has likewise ample 
 space assigned to it. 
 
 In the slaughtering department, what impresses 
 the visitor most is the scrupulous cleanliness of 
 the shambles not in immediate use, and the care 
 that is taken to handle and dress the slaughtered 
 meat with the utmost promptitude and despatch. 
 This is the more necessary in the case of meat 
 destined for the country and for other cities ; for
 
 62 NUMBERS OF CATTLE HANDLED. 
 
 it should be remembered that meat is slaughtered 
 in Berlin for consumption in distant towns, and 
 even in Paris itself. For the benefit of the large 
 Jewish population, special arrangements are made 
 for the slaughtering of animals according to Jew- 
 ish rites. The apartments in which the manu- 
 facture of albumen, condensing of blood, dressing 
 of tripe, and cleansing of skins are carried on, 
 are models of cleanliness and good order. In 
 the slaughter-house proper, over and above the 
 accommodation already mentioned, three cattle- 
 stalls accommodate 1300 head; there are four 
 swine-stalls holding 3400, and stalls accommo- 
 dating 2000 sheep and as many calves. The 
 ordinary staff of the establishment is quite able 
 to overtake the slaughtering and dressing of all 
 these animals in one day. The total cost of the 
 combined establishment reached almost half a 
 million sterling, of which 300,000 may be set 
 down to the cattle-market, and 200,000 to the 
 slaughter-house. As many as 1,100,000 head are 
 slaughtered annually. After liberal grants to- 
 wards redemption of capital and all charges for 
 maintenance, the establishment yields an annual
 
 FEMALE MICROSCOPISTS. 63 
 
 revenue equal to fully four per cent on the 
 original cost. 
 
 Not only are the cattle -market and slaughter- 
 houses combined in this central institution, 
 but here also is set up what is probably the 
 most efficient system of meat inspection in 
 the world. All dead meat slaughtered in the 
 country or abroad, and intended for Berlin con- 
 sumption, must be brought here for inspection 
 before being offered for sale as human food. No 
 butcher in Berlin may offer meat for human 
 consumption which does not bear the official 
 stamp of the inspecting department of the cen- 
 tral market. Under the chief inspector of meat, 
 who is a veterinary surgeon of high qualification, 
 there are at present no fewer than twenty -two 
 surgeons and assistant-surgeons, with a large staff 
 of special inspectors, microscopists, and stampers. 
 Belonging to the staff there are forty-five women 
 trained to the use of the microscope. Their 
 business is to examine and report upon specimens 
 of tissue or blood brought from the inspection 
 houses, where the surgeons are engaged examining 
 carcasses slaughtered 011 the premises or brought
 
 64 COMPLETENESS OF MEAT INSPECTION. 
 
 from a distance. On completing their reports, 
 the microscopists pass them on to the surgeon 
 in charge of their room, and he in turn reports 
 to his chief, who condemns whatever meat is 
 proved to be unsound. These women work but 
 five hours a - day, as the constant use of the 
 microscope severely strains the eyes. They have 
 each a salary of about 75 per annum. So 
 thorough is the inspection and the thoroughness 
 is secured by the number and competency of the 
 staff that it is all but impossible for a diseased 
 carcass to pass out of the market. The result is 
 that one may enter any butcher's shop in Berlin 
 and be sure that all the fresh meat there offered 
 for sale has undergone a strict scientific test, and 
 has been officially declared fit for human food. 
 It should be kept in mind that the whole cost 
 of inspection is part of the general expenses 
 of the market, and has been defrayed before 
 the profits above shown are brought out. All 
 meat that has been condemned as unsound is 
 not necessarily destroyed. Carcasses of animals 
 which have suffered from tubercle, trichinosis, 
 anthrax, and other dangerous diseases are, of
 
 ROHRBECK'S MEAT-DISINFECTOR. 65 
 
 course, destroyed. But carcasses showing only 
 local unsoundness, and carcasses known in this 
 country as "braxy," are treated by what is 
 known as Eohrbeck's process of disinfection, and 
 are then found perfectly safe for human food, 
 and as nourishing as ordinarily healthy meat. 
 This class of meat is permitted to be sold in 
 shops set apart for the purpose. It is ticketed, 
 so that purchasers know what they are buying. 
 As it is much cheaper than other meat, it is 
 largely used by the poorer classes. In warm 
 weather special arrangements are made for keep- 
 ing all the meat at a low temperature till it is 
 delivered to the shops for sale, and the utmost 
 speed is shown in passing the carcass through 
 the necessary processes, including that of inspec- 
 tion. Thus complaints about meat getting de- 
 teriorated through delay and handling are seldom 
 heard. The whole cattle and butcher trades of 
 Berlin appear to be so satisfied with the work- 
 ing of the present system that they would on 
 no account return to the old state of things.
 
 PUBLIC HOSPITALS-CONVALESCENT 
 HOMES
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 PUBLIC HOSPITALS AND CONVALESCENT HOMES. 
 
 Municipal control of public hospitals Private hospitals 
 Treatment of infectious disease The Moabit Hospital Its 
 structure and administration Its drainage Friedrichshain 
 Hospital Urban Hospital Pavilion system General equip- 
 ment Paying patients Cost of maintenance in different 
 hospitals Detailed accounts and statistics Nursing 
 Victoria Training Institution Convalescent homes How 
 justified Lymph Institute of Berlin Public baths. 
 
 IN connection with the subject of public health, 
 the municipal hospital system of Berlin is worthy 
 of special study. Among Continental medical 
 schools, Berlin ranks with Paris and Vienna; 
 while some of her physicians and surgeons 
 Virchow, Waldeyer, Martin, Koch, and Von 
 Bergmann stand pre-eminent among the most 
 famous doctors of the present day. The relation 
 of the city hospitals to the Medical School of
 
 70 MANAGEMENT OF PUBLIC HOSPITALS. 
 
 Berlin is now one of great practical importance ; 
 but for the present purpose these valuable institu- 
 tions can only be considered in their more public 
 and general relation to the municipality. 
 
 It has already been remarked that in all estab- 
 lishments in whose administration the Corporation 
 take part, the same efficient and vigorous manage- 
 ment which obtains in the purely civic depart- 
 ments is found to prevail. Whenever the town 
 takes up their administration, then they are 
 managed as municipal concerns their income is 
 municipal income, their expenditure is municipal 
 expenditure their whole affairs are published 
 in the municipal reports, and are as open to 
 public scrutiny as the cleaning or lighting of the 
 thoroughfares. It is so with the administration 
 of the public schools, orphan homes, asylums, and 
 workhouses. It is so with the public infirmaries. 
 As in other cities, there are in Berlin many 
 institutions for the relief of the sick and infirm, 
 which have been founded, some of them centuries 
 ago, by private benefaction, and which are main- 
 tained partly by the charity of individuals and 
 partly by payments made by the inmates them-
 
 THE MOABIT HOSPITAL. 71 
 
 selves. In Berlin, also, some eminent doctors keep 
 hospitals for the treatment of cases falling under 
 their own specialty, and for clinical instruction 
 to their own students. The town is not asked 
 to bear any part of the cost of such institutions, 
 and it takes nothing to do with their management. 
 But the principal infirmaries are under the direct 
 control of the Corporation. The largest hospital 
 in the city, the Charite, was the great public 
 infirmary of Berlin prior to 1872. It used to be 
 conducted on the lines which Edinburgh medical 
 students of the last generation will remember 
 in connection with the old Royal Infirmary. 
 It received all classes of ailments infectious, 
 contagious, and ordinary ; and not infrequently, 
 within comparatively recent times, there have 
 occurred within its walls outbreaks of secondary 
 infection which greatly bewildered the medical 
 staff, but which admit of very simple explanation 
 with our present-day knowledge. 
 
 In the matter of the treatment of infectious 
 disease, Berlin was indeed no better off twenty 
 years ago than some towns nearer home ; albeit 
 when infectious disease did break out, its low
 
 72 FORMER EPIDEMICS IN BERLIN. 
 
 sanitary condition afforded a too congenial soil for 
 the spread of the invasion. Cholera and small- 
 pox always found a happy hunting-ground in 
 Berlin, until what may be called its municipal 
 renascence in 1872. Invasions of these diseases 
 had been met by the erection of wooden sheds in 
 open spaces, with such temporary devices for dis- 
 infection and purification as the circumstances 
 might suggest. The spaces were cleared, and 
 the whole debris of the erections was consumed 
 so soon as the calamity was over. One large 
 space had always been reserved by the Corpora- 
 tion in the Moabit district from the time of the 
 cholera epidemic in 1832 ; and here, as occasion 
 arose, the largest receptacles were erected for the 
 reception of sufferers from different plagues. 
 During the war of 1870-71, when large numbers 
 of French prisoners were interned in the city, 
 smallpox broke out among them with great vir- 
 ulence. Erections were again run up at Moabit, 
 and after a prolonged struggle the disease was 
 finally subdued. By this time, however, the la- 
 bours and exhortations of Virchow and others 
 were wanning over members of the Corporation
 
 STRUCTURE OF MOABIT HOSPITAL. 73 
 
 to a true sense of what the public health required. 
 Virchow, from his place in the Town Council, did 
 not fail to press home the lessons taught by re- 
 peated visitations of disease which proper sanitary 
 precautions might have prevented or largely miti- 
 gated. The Corporation resolved that the old 
 methods of meeting such outbreaks must be aban- 
 doned, and that buildings should be erected and 
 kept in a state of permanent preparation for the 
 reception and treatment of epidemic victims. 
 This resolution was no sooner passed than the 
 erection of a set of sixteen wards on the site of 
 the old barracks at Moabit was put in hand. 
 These were built in framework of wood and 
 brick. In three months the sixteen, with all fur- 
 nishings and proper adjuncts, were completed at 
 a cost of 30,000. Subsequent extensions have 
 taken place, and the Moabit Hospital is now one 
 of the largest and best appointed in Germany. 
 It comprises in all thirty wards, ranged on two 
 sides of an extended parallelogram. They are 
 separated from each other by a space of 56 
 feet, while there is an intervening grass-covered 
 space of 200 feet width between the sides of the
 
 74 ACCOMMODATION IN MO ABIT HOSPITAL. 
 
 parallelogram. There are thirty beds in each 
 ward, so that the hospital can accommodate at 
 least 900 patients. The administration buildings, 
 as well as the kitchen, laundry, and other offices, 
 stand in separate structures. Each ward is en- 
 tered by a corridor, on either side of which are 
 lavatory and bathing accommodation, a tea kit-, 
 chen for the preparation of small refections, and 
 day-rooms for the nurses. The walls are of strong 
 framework and oil-painted within, so that they 
 can be easily washed. The outside is covered with 
 fireproof felting. The walls stand fully 10 feet 
 high, the roof and ceiling are sloped, and the 
 height from the centre of the floor to the ceiling 
 ventilators is 15 feet. Abundance of light is 
 afforded by means of twenty-eight windows in 
 each ward, or nearly a window to each bed. The 
 roof is so fitted with a system of ventilating valves 
 that a constant supply of pure air is preserved in 
 the apartment ; and there is an even temperature 
 maintained by a complete heating apparatus. In 
 this hospital, as in the Friedrichshain and the 
 recently erected Urban, there is a disinfection 
 house, which is used not only for articles belonging
 
 TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE. 75 
 
 to the hospital, but also for the clothes and other 
 property of the patients. In each hospital also 
 there are special observation wards, completely 
 isolated, where doubtful cases are placed until 
 the true nature of the illness is ascertained. Al- 
 though at first intended only for infectious ail- 
 ments, the Moabit has come to be used as a 
 general hospital. Indeed there is no hospital 
 exclusively devoted to febrile disease. It is, 
 however, still to the Moabit that the greater 
 number of infectious cases are taken, and such 
 diseases as cholera and smallpox would be ex- 
 clusively treated there, unless an epidemic of un- 
 usual severity rendered additional erections nec- 
 essary. 1 It has a separate drainage system of 
 its own, which is well served with strong disin- 
 fectants. The system connects with the main 
 sewage system at a distant point. This separate 
 drainage accounts for the large water consump- 
 tion at the Moabit. For the use of patients and 
 for cooking purposes, the water daily supplied 
 is about twenty-four gallons per head ; but when 
 
 1 The Moabit was kept in constant readiness for cases of 
 cholera during the recent visitation.
 
 76 COST PER BED AT MO ABIT HOSPITAL. 
 
 the supply for flushing the drains, feeding the 
 heating apparatus, and watering the grass plots 
 and flower-beds is taken into account, the daily 
 consumpt averages six times that quantity, or 
 nearly 150 gallons per head. The Moabit Hos- 
 pital has been described here mainly because it 
 affords a fair example of how a perfectly satis- 
 factory establishment may be constructed at a 
 moderate cost, with the fullest regard to modern 
 sanitary requirements, provided it is not thought 
 necessary to use stone and lime. These frame- 
 work sick-rooms appear thoroughly sound, and 
 seem likely to last for an indefinite time. Yet 
 the entire hospital, with all its equipment of 
 offices, kitchens, engine-room, and heating ap- 
 paratus, represents a cost of but little over 100 
 per bed. 
 
 Other two public hospitals, the Friedrichshain 
 and Urban, deserve mention. Both were origin- 
 ated by bequests left to the charge of the Cor- 
 poration by benevolent persons. The bequests 
 were only intended as the nucleus of the total 
 fund required, but looking to the extension of the 
 city, the Corporation in each case adopted the
 
 FRIEDEICHSHAIN AND URBAN HOSPITALS. 77 
 
 donor's suggestion, and provided the remainder of 
 the funds out of the town treasury. Friedrichs- 
 hain was opened in 1874, the Urban only in 
 1890. In both of these hospitals the pavilion 
 system has been adopted, each pavilion having 
 two wards, one on the ground-floor and one above. 
 Unlike the Moabit, they are substantially built in 
 variegated brick and stone work, and have a solid 
 and even stately appearance. Every improve- 
 ment which modern knowledge and experience 
 could suggest has been introduced in these hospi- 
 tals. In the Urban there is a complete instal- 
 lation of the electric light. Each pavilion is 
 devoted to a separate class of ailment, and is so 
 independent of its neighbours that the risk of 
 mischief from secondary infection is reduced to a 
 minimum. An underground passage connects the 
 pavilion with the engine-room and other service 
 establishments, and also, it must be added, with 
 the dissecting rooms and the mortuary. Adjoin- 
 ing the mortuary in each hospital there is a taste- 
 fully arranged little chapel entering directly from 
 outside the premises, where friends of deceased 
 patients may attend funeral services, and pass out
 
 78 COST OF URBAN HOSPITAL. 
 
 again without requiring to go through the building 
 or grounds. Any one who would see the perfec- 
 tion of hospital equipment, in which the most 
 scientific ideas of modern requirements are gener- 
 ously and faithfully applied, should see the Urban 
 in Berlin. It contains accommodation for 600 
 patients, and the whole establishment, with its 
 furnishings and plenishings complete, was opened 
 at a cost of only 245 per bed. 
 
 It may be interesting to note the cost of 
 patients in the leading hospitals, keeping in 
 mind that the treatment in all accords with 
 the best sanctions of medical skill, and that 
 the food is at least as good as a well-to-do 
 working man would be thoroughly pleased with. 
 In the Charite, the daily cost is one and a half 
 mark per head, or 27, 10s. a-year; in the 
 Moabit it is 2.7858, or 50, 10s. a-year; in the 
 Friedrichshain 3.076, or 56 a-year ; and in the 
 Urban 3.975, or 72 a-year. If patients can 
 afford it out of their own means, or through 
 friendly or sick societies with which they may 
 be connected, they are expected to pay some- 
 thing towards their maintenance ; and it is not
 
 THE CHARITY HOSPITAL. 79 
 
 uncommon to find patients cheerfully paying 
 the whole cost of their board and lodging. In 
 the Friedrichshain and Urban there are small 
 private wards, in which patients who can afford 
 a higher than the ordinary rate of board may 
 be accommodated. To the Charite are sent the 
 greater proportion of patients who contribute 
 nothing to their own maintenance, and for these 
 the town pays to the hospital funds at the rate 
 of 12s. 3d. per week for adults, and 8s. 9d. for 
 children under 12. Including the Charite, the 
 principal public hospitals provide accommoda- 
 tion for over 3000 invalids. All receipts from 
 patients are duly credited to the respective 
 hospital accounts, and go to diminish the annual 
 expenditure, the balance of which is carried to 
 the debit of the city accounts. In none of the 
 hospitals is there any sign of stint or parsimony ; 
 but nothing is allowed to go to waste. In the 
 accounts of the Urban you shall find even the 
 proceeds of old shoes duly accounted for under 
 the head of miscellaneous receipts. Next to 
 seeing the hospital itself, the best thing one 
 interested in the subject can do is to study
 
 80 PUBLIC HOSPITAL REPORTS. 
 
 the elaborate reports issued yearly in the muni- 
 cipal Brown-book. In these reports one finds 
 most instructive details of the whole work in 
 each of the public hospitals. Not only are 
 the capital and revenue accounts set forth 
 with clearness and amplitude, but the cases 
 are classified according to the ailments treated. 
 Where surgical interference has become neces- 
 sary, the kind of operation performed in each 
 case is specified, and all results, whether of 
 medical or surgical treatment, are carefully 
 tabulated. These reports will, in course of a 
 few years, prove invaluable to medical registrars 
 and statisticians throughout the world. Perhaps 
 it is worth noting, as a word to the wise, that, 
 while the positions of house physicians and 
 surgeons in these hospitals are coveted by the 
 best students, the Corporation assign a salary 
 of from 50 to 75 per annum, besides free 
 board and lodging, to such appointments. The 
 principal medical officers who may also be 
 private consultants receive 300 to 350 per 
 annum. After deducting the income from pa- 
 tients and interest on foundation bequests, the
 
 DAILY COST OF PATIENTS. 81 
 
 net daily cost to the city per patient is, in the 
 Moabit Hospital, 2.0613 marks, or 38, 4s. per 
 annum; in the Friedrichshain 2.005, or 36, 
 10s. per annum ; and in the Urban 3.155, or 
 57, 10s. per annum. The total net expendi- 
 ture in connection with the three hospitals is 
 estimated for the current year at nearly 60,000, 
 and this will be wholly borne by the ratepayers 
 of Berlin. 
 
 The art of nursing has been developed quite as 
 successfully in Berlin as among ourselves. In 
 all the principal hospitals trained nurses are 
 employed. Many of them are ladies who have 
 devoted themselves to this work from motives of 
 benevolence ; all are women of good education, 
 who have taken, or are about to take, certificates 
 in prescribed courses of training. A staff nurse 
 usually has charge of from twenty to thirty-five 
 patients, and she is supported by one, or, more 
 frequently, two assistants. In some of the hos- 
 pitals duly qualified male nurses are employed, 
 but they are a small minority. In the leading 
 hospitals the Friedrichshain and the Urban 
 special training schools for nurses have been 
 F
 
 82 NURSES TRAINING-SCHOOLS. 
 
 established, and the fees paid by the probationers 
 form part of the hospital revenue. These schools 
 are carried on in connection with the Victoria 
 Training Institution for Nurses, which was started 
 under the auspices of the Empress Frederick 
 when she was Imperial Crown Princess, and 
 which bears her name. From this institution 
 nurses are now sent all over Germany. 
 
 Any description of the hospital system of 
 Berlin must be inadequate without a single refer- 
 ence to the treatment of convalescent patients. 
 Upon the principle that what is worth doing is 
 worth doing well, the Corporation resolved that 
 the cure of patients under their care should be 
 complete. It was found that large numbers of 
 patients passing through the hospitals were obliged 
 to return to work before their strength was com- 
 pletely restored, and that in consequence many 
 broke down and became a burden on the Com- 
 mission for the Poor that is, they became charge- 
 able to the rates. Accordingly, convalescent 
 homes have been established on the various 
 drainage estates belonging to the city, where 
 patients, unable to procure for themselves needful
 
 CONVALESCENT HOMES. 83 
 
 rest and nourishment after a time of severe ill- 
 ness, are maintained for two or three weeks 
 before being allowed to resume work. Members 
 of the Corporation, in showing visitors over these 
 homes, are careful to explain that they are kept 
 up not from feelings of charity, but from the 
 purest economical considerations. They justify 
 the cost of the homes on the ground that it is, 
 in the long-run, less of a burden on the com- 
 munity than would be the cost of maintaining 
 many of those patients and their families if, for 
 want of proper treatment during convalescence, 
 they were to become so enfeebled as to be unable 
 to provide for themselves and those dependent 
 on them. 
 
 Under the Public Health Department there 
 is an establishment within the slaughter-houses 
 for the collection and preparation of lymph for 
 vaccination purposes. Sound healthy calves are 
 inoculated, and pure lymph is collected from 
 them. The fluid is then carefully treated under 
 strict scientific supervision. It is put up in 
 small phials, hermetically sealed, and distributed 
 for medical use all over the empire. So famous,
 
 84 LYMPH INSTITUTE PUBLIC BATHS. 
 
 indeed, has the Berlin lymph become, that large 
 quantities are now exported to Great Britain and 
 America, where medical men prefer it to any 
 other kind. 
 
 Zealous regard for the public health is also 
 shown in the number of municipal bathing-places 
 which now exist. There are at the present time no 
 fewer than twelve public bathing-establishments, 
 with swimming-baths attached, in different parts 
 of the city, and three others on a much enlarged 
 scale have been projected. They are largely 
 patronised by the working-class population, male 
 and female, and are becoming more popular every 
 year. Very moderate charges are made for 
 admission ; and every inducement is given, by 
 way of swimming fttes and competitions, to en- 
 courage the public to take full advantage of this 
 means of healthful and cleanly recreation.
 
 ADMINISTRATION FOE RELIEF OF 
 THE POOR
 
 CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION FOR RELIEF OF THE POOR. 
 
 Old methods of relief Scheme of the Great Elector Public 
 obligation for the poor recognised in 1820 Single Poor 
 Board for Berlin District committees Unpaid inspection 
 Outdoor relief Discrimination in relief District 
 physicians and surgeons Workhouses Incorrigible poor 
 Habitual offenders Night refuges and shelters Care of 
 poor children Old married couples Orphan poor Orphan 
 depot Boarding out Education of out-boarders Sick 
 poor Dalldorf Institution for Imbeciles Union for Pre- 
 vention of Pauperisation Its methods and success Com- 
 parative cost of Berlin poor administration. 
 
 DOWN to the time of the Great Elector no serious 
 effort had ever been made to systematise the 
 treatment of the poor. But that Prince, while 
 occupied in extending the power and influence 
 of Prussia abroad, had a keen desire for reform 
 at home. Offended by the prevalence of street- 
 begging in Berlin, he called upon the town author-
 
 LICENSED BEGGAKS. 
 
 ities to prepare for his consideration a scheme by 
 which some provision should be made for the help- 
 less and deserving poor. But the town authorities 
 of those days were quite unequal to such a task. 
 They could offer no other counsel than that the 
 beggars should be allowed to seek alms from door 
 to door instead of on the public streets, and that 
 only those should be permitted to beg who were 
 certified by the authorities, the sign of which 
 should be a pewter badge worn on the coat. 
 They were to wander from door to door like 
 so many Edie Ochiltrees, with right to refer to 
 their pewter badges in token of their licence. 
 " It is little we can do, your Electoral Highness, 
 having neither the means nor the nervus rerum 
 gerundarum wherewith to help the poor and 
 abolish public begging. We see many needy 
 people reduced in the world who are in far 
 greater want than those who will come for 
 badges, but who, on account of their former 
 circumstances, are ashamed to beg. They prefer 
 to die ; and as for us, we hardly know how to 
 provide coffins to bury them. It were, indeed, a 
 great boon to have some sort of weekly pittance
 
 ELECTORAL COMMISSION FOR THE POOR. 89 
 
 secured to such people, but we can't find it. 
 Would not your Electoral Highness graciously 
 open the electoral purse somewhat and assist in 
 the business ? " Whether the municipal worthies 
 of that day occupied themselves too much with 
 politics or with personal squabbles, they proved 
 themselves, in the opinion of his Highness, quite 
 incompetent to deal with questions affecting the 
 poor. The result of much feeble reporting and 
 discussion was that Frederick took the whole 
 affair into his own hands, and established an 
 Electoral Commission (Kiirfiirstlic/ie Kommission 
 wegen des Armenwesens), which afterwards became 
 a Eoyal Direction of the Poor in Berlin. The 
 funds at the disposal of the Direction were raised 
 partly by an annual grant from the royal purse, 
 and partly by contributions from the benevolent, 
 and from church - door collections, for which 
 special appeals were made in the royal name 
 from time to time. This form of paternal ad- 
 ministration continued down to 1820, when the 
 public obligation to provide for the poor came to 
 be more fully recognised, and the charge of the 
 poor who received outdoor relief, and of the
 
 90 CONSTITUTION OF COMMISSION FOR THE POOR. 
 
 almshouses, which, mainly through private char- 
 ity, had been founded under the Direction, passed 
 into the hands of the Corporation. The great 
 increase of the city since 1820 has made it 
 imperative that the poor department, like all 
 other parts of the municipal administration, 
 should receive more adequate handling. In 
 1853 it was resolved by the Corporation to 
 deal with the whole question in a manner com- 
 mensurate with the largely increased necessities 
 of the case. The resolution took many years, 
 however, to develop ; and indeed it was not till 
 1886 that the now admirably organised system 
 received its finishing touches. 
 
 There is only one administration for the poor 
 in Berlin (die Stadtische Armenpflege). It em- 
 braces the care of the homeless poor, the relief 
 of the necessitous who have homes of their 
 own, the care of orphans, the treatment of in- 
 curables, of imbeciles, and of the insane. It 
 also extends to the assistance of persons in 
 temporary distress by means of redeemable 
 grants, to night asylums for the houseless, and 
 to the correction of habitual offenders and per-
 
 VISITATION OF THE POOR. 91 
 
 sons under the supervision of the police. Besides 
 the Town Council, the department embraces no 
 fewer than 2259 burghers, chosen from the muni- 
 cipal divisions of the city with special reference 
 to their knowledge of their own localities. For 
 the purpose of the relief of the poor the city 
 is divided into 234 separate districts. In each 
 district there is a committee of from four to 
 twelve members, whose chairman is usually the 
 councillor of the ward in which the district is 
 situated. These committees make careful in- 
 quiry into each case as it comes before them 
 for relief, and by frequent visits among the 
 poor as in the case of our own Destitute Sick 
 Society the members satisfy themselves how 
 far relief should be granted, continued, or with- 
 drawn. Such visits are riot left to paid officials 
 of the department, and in this way there is an 
 agreeable absence of the bumbledom that often 
 discredits our poor administration at home. The 
 department also provides about seventy - five 
 physicians and surgeons, who visit the poor in 
 their own homes, and to whom an annual allow- 
 ance of from 60 to 90 is paid. Careful dis-
 
 92 OUTDOOR 11ELIEF OF POOH. 
 
 crimination is made between the innocently poor 
 and those whose poverty is the direct consequence 
 of their own misdeeds. Of 19,610 adults who re- 
 ceived outdoor relief in 1891, more than 56 per 
 cent, were over 65 years of age, more than 30 
 per cent, suffered from chronic ailments or were 
 incurable, and over 12 per cent, were able to 
 earn only part of the necessaries of life. In 
 the same year there were 8024 children receiving 
 outdoor relief, besides 5156 poor orphans main- 
 tained in the orphan homes or boarded out in 
 families. Among the total of 27,634 persons 
 receiving outdoor relief, there was distributed, 
 including extra assistance in particular cases, 
 the sum of 3,736,692 marks, equal to about 
 180,000 sterling. Of the adults receiving relief 
 nearly three-fourths were women. 
 
 While the greater part of the funds raised 
 from the rates for the relief of the poor is dis- 
 tributed in outdoor relief under the direction 
 of the district committees, there are almshouses 
 for the reception of the poor who are no longer 
 able to keep a house over their head, and there 
 are workhouses for those who cannot be trusted
 
 ALMSHOUSES WOEKHOUSES. 93 
 
 with money grants. No person receives outdoor 
 relief who does not bear a respectable charac- 
 ter. At Rummelsburg, one of the. large sewage 
 estates, the principal workhouse has been estab- 
 lished. It contains about 1800 inmates, of whom 
 1430 are poor through their own fault, and 
 almost all are police offenders. The remainder 
 are subjects of chronic illness, in most cases 
 the result of their own vicious habits of life. 
 The latter class live apart in the hospital section 
 of the establishment, where they receive medical 
 treatment. The two classes are named respec- 
 tively the Korrigenden and the Hospitaliten 
 that is to say, the first class consists of persons 
 who have either actually been, or were in danger 
 of becoming, the subjects of police correction 
 the latter are invalids, for the most part worn 
 out and helpless. In so far as they are able- 
 bodied, the first class are put to work on the 
 fields in the neighbourhood of the workhouse, 
 and are treated as if they might yet become 
 respectable members of society. They are kept 
 to steady employment, get sound plain food, 
 are obliged to lead a regular life, and when it
 
 94 HABITUAL OFFENDERS. 
 
 appears that they are safe to be trusted once 
 more to maintain themselves in an honourable 
 way, they are permitted to return to whatever 
 decent employment they can obtain. Many 
 men and not a few women are thus detained 
 in the workhouse for years, not because they 
 cannot work, but because they have not moral 
 stamina enough to prevent them from becoming 
 pests to the community if they were at large. 
 In short, at Rummelsburg you shall see fully 
 at work the Berliners' method of treating their 
 police-court criminals, their habitual drunkards, 
 wife-beaters, and street-brawlers. Such persons 
 are not allowed to go at large after enduring 
 the short term of imprisonment which is the 
 immediate punishment of their offences. They 
 are looked upon as hinderers of decent industry, 
 and as likely to make other people like them- 
 selves if they are left at liberty. If permitted 
 to drift about they would only be a source of mis- 
 chief and would sorn on the community. The 
 community simply refuses to be sorned upon by 
 them, and packs them off to Rummelsburg, where 
 they may have a chance of mending their ways,
 
 NIGHT ASYLUMS. 95 
 
 and where they are meanwhile compelled to 
 do at least some work for the bread they eat. 
 All such persons are subject to a longer or 
 shorter period of police supervision ; and it is, 
 after all, a merciful arrangement that during 
 that period they should be under such refor- 
 matory treatment as may perchance result in 
 their ultimate restoration to respectable life. 
 
 Under the poor administration there are also 
 night asylums for wanderers, as well as the shel- 
 ters for the homeless, of which mention has been 
 previously made. The only remark that is re- 
 quired about them is that full inquiry is made 
 into the circumstances of each case, and, as far 
 as possible, assistance and further shelter are 
 afforded to those who are found able and anx- 
 ious to work. 
 
 If the municipality is strict and rigid W 7 ith its 
 vicious poor, it is tender in its treatment of the 
 respectable aged and of orphans. With us the 
 principle of poor administration is to make all 
 relief from the rates as disagreeable as possible 
 to those who receive it, whether their poverty 
 is due to their own fault or not. It is not so in
 
 96 RESPECTABLE AGED POOR, 
 
 Berlin. In the case of old married couples, for 
 example, there is a benevolent provision by which, 
 if it can be shown that they have led honourable 
 lives, and are not responsible for their own mis- 
 fortunes, they are not separated from each other 
 on being received into the almshouses. The late 
 Emperor William celebrated his golden wedding 
 in 1879 by founding a Home for the reception of 
 such couples, and named it after himself and the 
 Empress Augusta (Die Alterversorgungsanstalt der 
 Kaiser Wilhelm und Augusta- Stiftung). 
 
 In their care of the orphan poor the adminis- 
 tration do not visit the iniquities of the fathers 
 upon the children. In the centre of the city 
 there is an Orphan Depot ( Waisen- Depot) where 
 children are received and housed for a time until 
 full inquiry can be made into their antecedents, 
 state of health, mental abilities, and natural dis- 
 position. Thereafter they are either transferred 
 to the Orphan House at Eummelsburg, or are 
 boarded out. There are over 5000 orphans 
 under the charge of the municipality, and of 
 these more than four-fifths are boarded out in 
 families which have been carefully selected by
 
 ORPHAN POOR. 97 
 
 the district committees. The children are sent 
 to the common schools of the town, where they 
 mingle with the children of ordinary citizens, and 
 as far as possible any stigma attaching to the 
 fact that they are maintained at the public cost 
 is sought to be removed. After leaving school 
 they are put to various occupations the boys 
 to handicrafts and the girls for the most part 
 to domestic service. Their future career is 
 carefully watched until they grow up to ma- 
 turity. If it be true that only two per cent of 
 the Berliners go to church, it must be granted 
 that they give much attention to the moral and 
 religious training of these poor children. All 
 of them, before they pass out of the care of the 
 department, are, if they are Protestants, con- 
 firmed in the Eeformed Church, and if they 
 are Catholics, are sent for confirmation by a 
 Catholic bishop. It is claimed by the adminis- 
 tration, from the reports which they annually 
 receive of the conduct of the children after they 
 have begun life for themselves, that these orphans 
 turn out, on the whole, better than other children, 
 and that of the girls 98 per cent, do well. The 
 G
 
 98 TREATMENT OF SICK POOR. 
 
 city charges itself also with the cost of the hos- 
 pital treatment of all the sick, incurable, and 
 insane who are unable to pay for themselves, 
 even though they may not otherwise be indebted 
 to public charity. The Charite Hospital re- 
 ceives the greater number of the administration's 
 patients, but other hospitals are used in the case 
 of sufferers from special disorders, such as dis- 
 eases of the skin, eye, throat, and so forth. By 
 a royal grant, the town is entitled to place in 
 the Charite every year, free of charge, as many 
 patients as would together represent 100,000 
 hospital days of a single patient. For the re- 
 mainder, in the Charite and in the other hospi- 
 tals, the usual charge against the Poor Adminis- 
 tration for adult patients is 1.75 mark, and for 
 children under twelve years of age, 1.25 mark 
 per day. For insane patients the administration 
 pay as much as 3 marks per day. 
 
 The excellent institution for imbeciles and 
 idiots belonging to the city at Dalldorf, where 
 over 1200 men, women, and children are main- 
 tained, is worthy of particular description ; but it 
 must suffice here to mention that in the complete-
 
 UNION FOE PREVENTION OF PAUPERISATION. 99 
 
 ness of its appointments and sanitary arrange- 
 ments, as well as in its architectural appearance, 
 it is equal to any of the recently constructed 
 public institutions ; and that the cost to the town, 
 including all the working expenses of the estab- 
 lishment, is under 2 marks per patient per day. 
 
 One important form of relief has been for some 
 years in existence which is worthy of special 
 notice. It was recognised that many excellent 
 people occasionally fall into distress through in- 
 nocent misfortune, who yet, for obvious reasons, 
 are not suitable objects for relief from the rates, 
 but rather deserve, if possible, to be saved from 
 accepting such a form of charity. Accordingly, 
 in the year 1869, there was established a Union 
 for the Prevention of Pauperisation ( Verein gegen 
 Vercvrmung), having for its object the relief of 
 industrious persons in temporary distress. The 
 idea took hold of the public mind, and the funds 
 of the Union have been augmented from year to 
 year by large gifts and bequests, until now they 
 amount to a capital sum of about 700,000. 
 From the yearly revenue of the Union, assistance 
 in various forms, sometimes to the amount of 30
 
 100 OPERATIONS OF UNION FUND. 
 
 in a year, is afforded to persons who are found 
 eligible. During a period of sixteen years there 
 have been given out of this fund donations to 
 the extent of 888,020 marks, distributed among 
 56,188 persons. There have also been given 
 among 15,288 persons, by way of loans, repayable 
 on their circumstances improving, sums amount- 
 ing to 851,875 marks. Of the latter amount, 
 568,811 marks have been repaid to the fund a 
 pleasing testimony to the worthiness of those who 
 were aided. Moreover, as many as 3258 sewing- 
 machines have, during the same period, been gift- 
 ed or loaned to needle- women. In dealing with 
 persons receiving assistance in this way, great care 
 is taken to avoid impairing their self-respect, 
 and to encourage them to renewed industry in 
 order to regain a position of independence. This 
 fund is rapidly gaining the confidence of those 
 who wish to help people who are willing to help 
 themselves. During the past five years it has 
 been enriched, through legacies and donations, to 
 the extent of a million of marks per annum. It 
 has been said on good authority that the magis- 
 trates of Edinburgh need never want the means
 
 COST OF POOR ADMINISTRATION. 101 
 
 of giving judicious aid to victims of innocent 
 distress, so willing are many to give to such an 
 object if only the proper means could be devised 
 for rendering assistance to the right people. It 
 will be worth while, if an attempt should be 
 made to organise such a form of benefaction in 
 Edinburgh or elsewhere, to inquire fully into the 
 details of the administration of the Berlin Union 
 against Pauperisation. 
 
 A competent authority has stated that in 
 Edinburgh there is expended annually in public 
 charity, including poor-rates and hospital sub- 
 scriptions, as much as 250,000. This would 
 mean that Berlin, giving to these objects in the 
 same proportion, should expend annually not less 
 than a million and a half. In point of fact, how- 
 ever, the estimates for the current year show that 
 Berlin will spend upon all the objects which have 
 been described in this chapter, with the exception 
 of the Union Fund, and upon the city hospitals 
 and convalescent homes, not more than 542,000, 
 or about one-third in proportion to our expendi- 
 ture ; and it is doubtful whether any town in Brit- 
 ain is able to show as good value for its money.
 
 EDUCATION AND THE COMMON SCHOOLS
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 EDUCATION AND THE COMMON SCHOOLS. 
 
 Civic control of all schools School Deputation Management 
 of the common schools School Commission Inspectors 
 Statistics of school - going population Classes in common 
 schools School age Subjects taught Examinations School 
 hours Holidays Music and gymnastics Manners Treat- 
 ment of irregular attendance Religious instruction Pun- 
 ishments Natural history excursions Museum instruction 
 Continuation schools Trade schools Schools for the Uind 
 and deaf mutes Annual cost of department. 
 
 THE administration of the town schools, common 
 and upper, is vested in a deputation (Stadtische 
 Schul- Deputation), which has its headquarters in 
 the council chambers, and is composed of magis- 
 trates, town councillors, and representatives of 
 the school commissioners, about thirty mem- 
 bers in all. This body has authority over the 
 public schools and furnishings, resolves as to 
 the erection of new schools, appoints teachers,
 
 106 SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 deals with reports of the inspectors, and through 
 the school commissioners (Schul - Deputirten) 
 maintains regular visitation of the schools and 
 inquiry into cases of discipline. It also has the 
 oversight of private schools and private teachers. 
 For the purpose of educational inspection the 
 schools are grouped within sixteen districts, with 
 a member of the deputation as superintendent of 
 each. There are eight qualified professional in- 
 spectors of schools (Schul - Inspectoral) for the 
 whole city, and each is charged with the regular 
 educational inspection of all the schools in two 
 of the districts, having the superintendent of 
 the district as his immediate municipal superior. 
 Each school, on the other hand, is under the 
 charge of a committee (Schul- Commission), con- 
 sisting chiefly of citizens who have been chosen 
 by the electors as deputies (Burger -Deputirten) to 
 act as members of the general school administra- 
 tion. At present there are 150 school com- 
 mittees, with from ten to twelve members each. 
 In some instances one committee may have charge 
 of two or even three schools. The school is 
 administered by the teaching staff, the visiting
 
 GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOLS. 107 
 
 committee, the inspectors, and, over all, the 
 School Deputation. Excluding the University, 
 there are 385 separate educational establishments 
 including common, higher, and private schools, 
 and of these there are close on 190 common 
 schools (Gemeinde-Schuleri) corresponding to our 
 board schools. Beyond making sure that the 
 teachers are duly qualified, and that pupils 
 passing from them into the universities are 
 fully prepared, the municipality takes no con- 
 trol of the private schools, which number about 
 eighty in all. 
 
 With the late Matthew Arnold's book on the 
 Higher Schools and Universities of Germany 
 open to all readers, it would be superfluous to 
 enter here upon any description of the munici- 
 pal higher schools of Berlin. These correspond 
 in their scope and culture with those throughout 
 Germany, whose work and management are pre- 
 scribed by State regulations. In the higher 
 schools for girls (ffohere Mcidchen-Schuleri) pupils 
 are taught all the branches of a refined education. 
 In the higher burger schools and the upper 
 modern schools (Hohere Burger-Schulcn and Obere
 
 108 SCHOOL-GOING POPULATION. 
 
 Real-Sclmlen), boys are educated with a view to 
 their fitness for general business and the higher 
 departments of commercial life. In the gym- 
 nasial schools (G-ymnasien), boys intended for a 
 professional career are prepared for the univer- 
 sities, which are usually entered at the age of eigh- 
 teen. But our chief concern at present is with 
 the common schools. Of 228,000 pupils attend- 
 ing school this year, 175,000 are at the common 
 schools, 33,000 at the higher schools, and 20,000 
 at private schools. The last mentioned schools 
 are attended for the most part by children of 
 the richest classes, and by children from other 
 countries. 
 
 Fourteen per cent, of the population of Berlin 
 are at school. This is about two per cent, more 
 than in Edinburgh, which is probably the most 
 school-going city in the United Kingdom. Edu- 
 cation is compulsory. In the common schools 
 it is free. In the higher schools the annual 
 fees are from 80 to 100 marks, or 4 to 5 
 per pupil ; and the third of every three mem- 
 bers of a family attending school at the same 
 time is usually a free pupil. Every child must
 
 CLASSES IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS. 109 
 
 begin to attend school at the age of six, and 
 must continue till it reaches fourteen. By a 
 recent change in the law, the practice of children 
 within school age commencing work in factories, 
 and giving three hours' daily attendance at school, 
 has been disallowed. All, therefore, that a child 
 is capable of learning in the subjects taught in 
 the common schools up to the age of fourteen is 
 now ensured to it before the labour for existence 
 begins. 
 
 Each common school is divided into six classes, 
 and each class has two divisions a lower and a 
 higher. Entering at the age of six, a child com- 
 mences with the lower division of the sixth class, 
 where the first half of the school year is spent. 
 The upper division is passed through in the 
 second half of the year. Before a child is allowed 
 to pass into a higher class, or into the higher 
 division of a class, it must be certified to be fit to 
 do so. It may thus happen that a dull or stupid 
 child will get no further than the third or fourth 
 class by the time it reaches the age of fourteen, 
 and is permitted to leave school to begin work. 
 On the other hand, a child of good parts, which
 
 110 SUBJECTS TAUGHT. 
 
 requires to spend only one year in each of 
 the four lower classes, may spend two years in 
 each of the two upper classes, and so obtain a 
 thoroughly competent hold of the higher branches 
 there taught. These six classes range from 
 number six to number one. In the sixth class 
 the child learns the elements of reading, and 
 makes a simple beginning in writing, arithmetic, 
 singing, drawing, and Bible knowledge. To these 
 are added gymnastics in the fifth class. In the 
 fourth class a beginning is made with geometry, 
 physics, and natural history. In the third class 
 the same subjects are developed, with the addition 
 of Latin and ancient history. The second class 
 finds the pupil busy with botany, French, miner- 
 alogy, and the history of the middle ages ; while 
 in the first class, English, modern history, the 
 literature of his own country, algebra, physiology, 
 and shorthand occupy his energies. Examinations 
 are conducted with strict regard to the ground 
 the pupil has been taken over in each subject; he 
 therefore presents himself to the examiner with- 
 out the labour and excitement of tumultuous 
 cramming. Indeed cramming is relentlessly sup-
 
 SCHOOL-HOURS. Ill 
 
 pressed in Germany. Examinations take place 
 twice a-year, at Easter and in October. At these 
 examinations children are certified as ripe (reif) 
 for advancement to higher grades, or as unripe 
 (unreij), when they must remain where they are. 
 School begins at seven in the morning in sum- 
 mer and eight in winter; and it continues till 
 eleven, with half an hour's interval from nine till 
 half-past nine o'clock for breakfast and play. At 
 eleven o'clock the scholars go home to dinner. 
 They return at one and remain till four, when 
 school is done for the day. But they take tasks 
 home that occupy them several hours in the even- 
 ing. The actual time devoted to lessons in school 
 is six and a half hours per day. On Wednesdays 
 and Saturdays there is no afternoon school, and 
 the free hours are given chiefly to gymnastic ex- 
 ercises, which are diligently cultivated, and. in the 
 upper classes, to botanising excursions or visits to 
 industrial and other museums. The total number 
 of hours per week devoted to lessons within school 
 is thirty- three; the time given to gymnastics, 
 botanising, and visiting museums, though more 
 exhilarating, is also spent under the eye of the
 
 112 SCHOOL HOLIDAYS. 
 
 teacher, while the hours required for exercises at 
 home make a heavy drain upon the scholar's 
 strength. Only hardy children are found able to 
 stand it all, and matters have become so grave 
 that proposals are now under consideration by 
 which the burden may be made less, and more 
 time given for play and unrestrained relaxation. 
 It is felt that these boons can be gained without 
 really impairing the value or efficiency of the 
 school- work, and it is already evident they will be 
 speedily introduced. The school year begins at 
 Easter. At Whitsuntide there is a week's holi- 
 day; in summer July or August four weeks; 
 in October one week, at Christmas two weeks, 
 and at Easter two weeks. The holidays thus ex- 
 tend to ten weeks in the year. In warm weather, 
 when the thermometer any day shows 77 degs. 
 Fahr. in the shade at 10 A.M., all the schools cease 
 work at eleven o'clock for that day. 
 
 In the principal parks spaces are set apart, and 
 gymnastic apparatus of all sorts provided for 
 the use of the common school children under 
 the guidance of their teachers. The prominence 
 given to gymnastics and music especially choral
 
 MUSIC AND MANNERS. 113 
 
 and part singing relieves to some extent, it must 
 be admitted, the too arduous nature of the school- 
 work. The one develops a healthy body, the 
 other clears and invigorates the mind. Music 
 and song are zealously cultivated. Every Ger- 
 man boy or girl who has left school can read 
 music so as to be able to sing almost at sight. 
 German soldiers enliven long marches in field 
 manoeuvres by singing in chorus. During the 
 Franco - Prussian war they often marched into 
 action singing the melodies and hymns of the 
 Fatherland j 1 and when, as occasionally happens in 
 Berlin, beer-drinking boozers are staggering home 
 from a late carouse, they do not make night hide- 
 ous with yells, but help each other along to the 
 tune of some catch or glee. 
 
 Careful attention is always given to the manners 
 of the children. Every boy takes off his cap 
 to his teacher, and the rules of politeness are 
 strictly insisted upon. The result is that even 
 among the humblest labouring classes courtesy 
 
 1 We know something of this ourselves ; for I believe it is a 
 well-authenticated fact that some of the Scottish regiments 
 went under fire at Waterloo singing " Scots wha hae." 
 
 H
 
 114 RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 
 
 and civility are observed, and a stranger moving 
 among the people is sensible of an addition to the 
 amenities of life in observing the politeness of 
 their behaviour. 
 
 Absence from school is severely dealt with. It 
 is the duty of the school committee to order 
 inquiry into every case of absence or of frequent 
 lateness. If the child has left home and loi- 
 tered, it has to suffer punishment ; but if the pa- 
 rents are to blame in not getting the child ready 
 in time, or are wilfully keeping it from school, 
 they are fined after a second warning. Due 
 allowance is always made when the parents can 
 show good cause for the absence of the child. 
 
 During the whole of the school years two 
 hours a - week are devoted to religious instruc- 
 tion ; and for convenience in this respect several 
 schools receive only Catholic children who are 
 taught by teachers of their own faith. In thirty- 
 five of the common schools provision is made for 
 the religious instruction of Jewish children, by 
 teachers of their own persuasion. It is part of 
 the administrative regulations that all the chil- 
 dren attending the common schools except Jew-
 
 SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 115 
 
 ish children shall become connected with the 
 Christian Church before the completion of their 
 school years that is, before the age of fourteen. 
 Catholic and Protestant children are prepared for 
 confirmation by their respective clergy; and it 
 is the duty of the school authorities to see that 
 every child has been confirmed before the leaving 
 certificate is granted. 
 
 Faithful record is kept of each child's be- 
 haviour, as well as of its progress in knowledge ; 
 and the records are regularly inspected by the 
 school committee. When bad behaviour is per- 
 sistent the parents are called before the com- 
 mittee and invited to co-operate in the moral 
 improvement of the child. If the parents are 
 vicious, and themselves the cause of the child's 
 bad character, they may not only be deprived of 
 the care of the child, but may be treated as in- 
 corrigible, and sent to the correction establish- 
 ments. Punishments in the schools are of three 
 degrees light, middling, and hard (IcicJit, mittd, 
 und schwer). The instrument used is a cane. 
 The first degree includes one or two strokes on 
 the hand, the second up to four strokes, the
 
 116 NATUEAL HISTOEY RAMBLES. 
 
 third extends beyond four strokes, and includes 
 punishments of posterior application. On the 
 whole, corporal punishment is not more severe 
 than in our own board schools, where there is 
 now almost no ground for complaint. Punish- 
 ment is never inflicted in such a manner as to 
 degrade the child. It is characteristic of the 
 schools of Berlin, as of German schools in gene- 
 ral, that the aim always is to cultivate the self- 
 respect of the pupils. Instead of corporal pun- 
 ishment, extra tasks are sometimes imposed, and 
 the pupil is kept in school after hours ; but this 
 form of correction is becoming more rare. 
 
 Agreeable features of the school-work are the 
 weekly or bi-weekly botanical and natural his- 
 tory excursions which pupils in the upper forms 
 make with the teachers. Afternoon rambles 
 among the woods surrounding the city, or in the 
 Botanical or Zoological Gardens, where objects of 
 interest are pointed out and described by the 
 teachers, are among the most educative influ- 
 ences which the schools provide. In winter, 
 when the fields and gardens afford no attractions, 
 the Museums of Art and Industry present their
 
 SCHOOL MUSEUM. 117 
 
 treasures. It is one of the pleasantest sights 
 to see groups of boys or girls gathered round 
 their teacher, eagerly listening to his simple 
 prelections on one specimen after another, as 
 he conducts his band of little students over the 
 collection. "Who that has observed the numbers 
 of poor children of a Saturday afternoon wan- 
 dering aimlessly among the treasures in our 
 Museums of Science and Art but has longed 
 for some friendly guide to explain the objects 
 that lie under the meaningless gaze of the little 
 folk? 
 
 In Berlin there is a general School Museum 
 for the benefit of teachers, where they may them- 
 selves get wider acquaintance, through books, 
 apparatus, and specimens, with whatever branch 
 of applied art they may wish to study, and so fit 
 themselves to accompany the scholars with in- 
 telligence and interest on their museum explora- 
 tions. In our large cities we have all the means 
 for this kind of work, but we are slow to use 
 them. We seem content for the present merely 
 to possess some of the finest collections of in- 
 dustrial art specimens, without concerning our-
 
 118 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. 
 
 selves to do anything to explain them to the 
 crowds of young people who can only stare at 
 them in vacant wonderment. We do not even 
 attempt to place on the specimens an adequate 
 printed description which might help to explain 
 them. 
 
 Continuation schools are conducted for the 
 benefit of lads and girls who have begun work 
 on their own account. These schools not only 
 afford the means of making up for lost time to 
 young people who, through sickness or natural 
 defect, have not been able to reach the highest 
 class during their school years in the common 
 schools, but they encourage the youths of better 
 parts to keep up the habit of study, and so be- 
 come more useful members of society. In these 
 schools, which are open for part of the summer 
 evenings as well as in winter, pupils are carried 
 forward in the study of languages, chiefly French 
 and English, in book-keeping, shorthand, draw- 
 ing, and modelling. The number attending such 
 schools is now nearly 8000. 
 
 But the Corporation maintain for the benefit 
 of young workpeople another sort of school, of
 
 TRADE SCHOOLS. 119 
 
 which we know too little in this country. These 
 are trade schools (Gewerbe - Schuleri), in which 
 young artisans are instructed in the technicalities 
 of the trade they have chosen, the use of their 
 tools, and something of the science of their call- 
 ing. 1 A house-painter will learn drawing and the 
 elements of design, and obtain a knowledge of the 
 chemical qualities of various colouring matters ; 
 a joiner will be instructed in the strength and 
 properties of raw material and the application 
 of different kinds of tools; even the barber is 
 conducted through the higher walks of his art 
 in the artificial uses of hair. Trade schools 
 for saddlers, smiths, wheelmakers, shoemakers, 
 glaziers, masons, and others, are open to young 
 tradesmen, who, for a small fee of from two to 
 four marks per session, may acquire much know- 
 ledge that cannot fail to make them better work- 
 men, and that may also prove the foundation of 
 future promotion. This branch of educational 
 work was only started about ten years ago, but 
 it has proved exceedingly useful. Its adoption 
 
 1 In Edinburgh the Heriot-Watt Evening Schools do similar 
 work.
 
 120 SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND. 
 
 is becoming general throughout the country, 
 and other trades are being added to those which 
 have already been embraced in the scheme. It is 
 evident, as one studies the common aspects of 
 German education, that it will be not merely a 
 cheaper out-turn of German work with which we 
 shall have to maintain competition in the future. 
 Unless we give fuller attention to the technical 
 instruction of our young working people, we shall 
 be beaten where we have hitherto held the field, 
 in the region of efficient workmanship. 
 
 Finally, the Corporation concern themselves 
 with the education of the blind and of deaf-mute 
 children or, as they are pathetically named, 
 children of four senses (viersinnige) within the 
 municipality. Except for very special reasons 
 the city, while ready to give all needed assist- 
 ance, will not take blind children from the care of 
 their parents. It is felt that to keep blind chil- 
 dren exclusively in the company of the blind 
 is detrimental to their proper development, and 
 that the more they mingle among seeing people, 
 their mental faculties become keener and their 
 interest in life fuller. But it is recognised that
 
 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR BLIND. 121 
 
 for the elements of education a special training 
 is necessary, and accordingly a central school 
 is maintained for the blind, where children are 
 taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and music. 
 Owing to the size of Berlin, the bringing of the 
 children to school presents a somewhat serious 
 problem. It is, however, solved partly by a 
 system of tram car passes, and partly by calling in 
 the aid of the little orphan girls who are boarded 
 by the Poor Administration in different parts of 
 the city. These little women, on their way to 
 the ordinary schools, call for the blind children 
 in their neighbourhood, and conduct them to the 
 institution and back surely a kindly and human- 
 ising bit of service. 
 
 In connection with the school for the blind, 
 there is a continuation school, where instruction 
 in literature and in the theory and practice of 
 music is given, and where boys are taught 
 wicker-work, brush-making, and other arts, and 
 the girls knitting and embroidery, with a view 
 to their earning an independent living. In its 
 whole treatment of the blind, the town aims at 
 developing an independent spirit and the feeling
 
 122 SCHOOL FOR DEAF-MUTES. 
 
 that their want of sight should not exclude them 
 in any great degree from the pleasures of life, 
 while it need not inevitably increase its sadness. 
 
 The Corporation also maintain a separate insti- 
 tution for deaf-mutes. Here the children receive 
 the same course of instruction as is followed in 
 the common schools. It is to be noted that com- 
 munication with the pupils is made exclusively 
 by articulate speech the children using the eye 
 instead of the ear while attending to the teacher. 
 
 For the maintenance of its whole school 
 establishments, higher schools, common schools, 
 continuation schools, and the others now 
 described, Berlin is this year expending over 
 680,000. About 100,000 is derived from fees 
 paid by the higher scholars and from sundry 
 other sources of revenue. In the common schools 
 the annual cost is nearly 53s. per scholar. In 
 the higher schools, after deduction of fees, it is 
 60s. per scholar. Over all, the scholars attending 
 the municipal schools of all kinds cost the city 
 annually about 54s. per head.
 
 PUBLIC WORKS-FREE LIBRARY- 
 FIRE-BRIGADE
 
 CHAPTEE VIII. 
 
 PUBLIC WORKS, FREE LIBRARY, FIRE-BRIGADE. 
 
 The Buildings Committee Ilobrecht's work Functions of Com- 
 mittee Frequent breaking'- up of streets How avoided 
 Public markets Leaders of municipal improvement Cen- 
 tral market District markets Parks and gardens The 
 Thicrgarten School of forestry Flowers for hospitals 
 Botanical specimens for schools Public library Branch 
 libraries Classes of readers Fire-brigade Its discipline 
 Its effectiveness Samaritan Society. 
 
 ONE of the most important committees of the 
 Corporation, and one which during the past 
 twenty years has discharged most laborious 
 duties, is that which is intrusted with the con- 
 struction and oversight of the streets and public 
 buildings (Bau-Verwaltuny}. It is composed of 
 twenty - three members, partly councillors and 
 partly magistrates, and it is presided over by 
 one of the paid magistrates. It has been well
 
 126 SPACIOUS THOROUGHFARES. 
 
 for Berlin during the period of the rapid in- 
 crease of its population that the entire busi- 
 ness of supervising the laying out and con- 
 struction of new streets has been committed to 
 the care of one administration, and not to a 
 number of vestries or district boards. The city 
 is remarkable for the spaciousness of its streets, 
 by which abundance of light and air is secured 
 to the dwellings. Its roadways and footpaths 
 are of superior make, and with its thirty miles 
 of asphalted streets, it will compare favourably, 
 in respect of its thoroughfares, with any European 
 city. It is to Stadtrath Hobrecht, who for many 
 years directed this department, that Berlin is 
 chiefly indebted not only for the excellence of its 
 streets, but for the splendid engineering of its 
 drainage system, and for its consequent superi- 
 ority as a place of residence. Herr Hobrecht, 
 the Hausmann of Berlin, is the son of a Scottish 
 mother, a Johnstone of Annandale, who belonged 
 to Ecclefechan, Caiiyle's native place, in Dum- 
 friesshire ; and he boasts that whatever energy he 
 has been able to throw into his work he owes to 
 his Scottish origin. The work of the department
 
 STREET REPAIRS. 127 
 
 is divided into two classes the buildings of muni- 
 cipal establishments (HocTibau) and the structure 
 of streets and thoroughfares (Tiefbau). The build- 
 ing and structural maintenance of the public 
 schools, hospitals, and other municipal institu- 
 tions fall under the first class. The making and 
 upkeep of the roadways, footpaths, bridges, and 
 water-courses fall under the second. From their 
 very nature, and from the constantly increasing 
 numbers of the population, the labours of this 
 department are onerous and incessant. Yet the 
 whole work is carried on with admirable order 
 and precision. It is extremely rare in Berlin to 
 find the traffic of a whole thoroughfare blocked 
 through the street undergoing repair. The streets 
 are so wide that one side can generally be used 
 while the other is being renewed. Moreover, 
 the department takes care that whatever repairs 
 may be necessary to drains, water-pipes, gas- 
 pipes, or electric wires, shall be done at the same 
 time that the street is under ordinary repair. 
 Frequent breaking-up of streets is thus pre- 
 vented, and economy is secured. The small per- 
 centage of loss of gas and water by leakage
 
 128 CONTROL OF STREET STRUCTURES. 
 
 proves that the workmanship of the mains is of 
 good quality, and that the opportunities for re- 
 pairs while the street is broken for ordinary 
 purposes are sufficient. No department of the 
 service of the town more completely shows how 
 the centralising of authority and responsibility 
 can be made effective without interference with 
 the proper work of other departments. Many 
 departments have to make use of the streets in 
 carrying on their own work, but on no account 
 may any of them break ground without the 
 previous sanction of the Streets and Buildings 
 Committee. When the drainage, water, or other 
 administrations apply for leave to open any 
 street or footway, the Streets Committee notify 
 the other departments which use the streets to 
 ascertain whether in the vicinity of the proposed 
 opening any other repairs are necessary, in order 
 that all requisite work may be done at one dis- 
 turbance of the traffic. Whatever street repairs 
 or alterations are done by one department or an- 
 other must be executed at the sight and to the 
 satisfaction of the Streets Committee, who see to 
 the proper laying and fitting of sewage, water, or
 
 PUBLIC MARKETS. 129 
 
 other conduits, and to the proper finishing of 
 tramway lines. The result is that the streets 
 of the city are kept in excellent order, that the 
 interruption of traffic through repairs is reduced 
 to a minimum, and that the general management 
 and control of the thoroughfares afford an excel- 
 lent example to other towns on the Continent and 
 in this country. 
 
 The Public Markets (Markt Hallen) of Berlin 
 form a leading feature in the municipal economy. 
 It has long been the aim of the civic authorities 
 to bring the necessaries of life within reach of the 
 inhabitants at the lowest possible prices. For 
 this purpose the town has always given facilities, 
 by the maintenance of a municipal market-place, 
 for bringing producers and consumers into im- 
 mediate contact. Till the present century was 
 well advanced one central market sufficed for 
 the community ; but before 1850 the growth of 
 the town rendered further extension of market 
 accommodation an absolute necessity. The lum- 
 bering waggons from the farms near the city 
 were no longer able to carry sufficient supplies 
 for the wants of a population which had quad- 
 I
 
 130 NEW MARKETS DEMANDED. 
 
 rupled in fifty years. Kailways were begin- 
 ning to accomplish what the farmers' carts were 
 failing to perform. But the old market-place 
 had become wholly inadequate to accommodate 
 the supplies required by the rapidly growing 
 city. During the third quarter of the century, 
 though new extensions were projected, nothing 
 was accomplished to meet the constantly in- 
 creasing demands of the ever-growing popu- 
 lation. Small middlemen sprang up in every 
 quarter and made large profits in retailing pro- 
 visions. Food was consequently dear, and the 
 poorer classes found it hard to maintain a toler- 
 able existence. But in the rejuvenation which 
 came after the war of 1870-71, when the Cor- 
 poration fairly set out on its campaign of recon- 
 struction and renovation, the question of new 
 market-places began to receive thorough handling. 
 In this, as in other departments, the city was 
 fortunate in possessing one member of the 
 Corporation able to grapple with the work and 
 carry it to a successful issue. If Virchow was 
 the champion of public health, if Hobrecht 
 brought energy and constructive skill to the
 
 DISTRICT MARKETS. 131 
 
 department of streets and buildings, if Meubrink 
 became the pioneer in the vast system of drainage 
 and the redemption of waste land by sewage 
 irrigation, to Stadtrath Blankenstein belongs the 
 honour of having introduced a system of public 
 market-places so well furnished and complete 
 in their accommodation as to be adequate for 
 the requirements of the city for many years to 
 come. Great difficulties had to be surmounted 
 in order to acquire convenient sites for the 
 markets, and strenuous opposition was offered 
 to Blankenstein's schemes by the small retailers 
 who had been making large profits out of the 
 necessities of the people. In due time, how- 
 ever, these difficulties were overcome, and the 
 Berlin markets are now unique in their kind. 
 
 Besides the Central Market in the Alexandra 
 Platz there are eleven large market-places in as 
 many districts of the city, so that every inhabitant 
 is within easy reach of abundance of fresh food 
 at the most moderate prices of the day. Butcher- 
 meat, fish, fruit, vegetables, flowers, and small 
 household utensils are the principal commodities. 
 Stalls are let out to farmers and other merchants
 
 132 REGULATION OF MARKETS. 
 
 who bring their produce direct from the country. 
 The markets are all under cover and form im- 
 mense well -ventilated halls, possessing for the 
 most part abundant daylight, and being well 
 lighted by gas at night. All market goods which 
 enter the town by rail and only a small part 
 is now brought in by country waggons are set 
 down at the Central Market which adjoins the 
 Alexandra Station. Supplies are thence carted 
 off to the district markets. All the markets are 
 open every week-day from eight in the morning 
 till eight in the evening, and admission is free to 
 all purchasers. As they were erected so they are 
 upheld and managed at the cost of the Corpora- 
 tion. But the revenue from the shops and stalls 
 is not only sufficient for the annual charges, 
 including interest on capital outlay, but yields 
 a fair sum towards reduction of debt. Strict 
 supervision is maintained by the Markets Com- 
 mittee, assisted by the police. Unwholesome 
 food is promptly seized, cleanliness is rigidly 
 enforced, and all refuse is cleared away at least 
 once a-day. 
 
 What Berlin lacks of natural beauty from
 
 PRINCIPAL PARKS. 133 
 
 lying flat in a sandy plain, she lias to a won- 
 derful degree made up by her magnificent parks 
 and gardens. These are under the care of a 
 committee of the Corporation (Verwaltung der 
 stddtischen Park Garten und Baum - Anlagen). 
 The principal park is the famous Thiergarten, 
 stretching for two miles with a breadth of nearly 
 a mile, and lying between the west of the city 
 and the neighbouring imperial residence of Char- 
 lottenburg. It is the chief playground of the 
 Berliners, and combines forest, meadow, lawn, 
 and garden attractions. Here also are skating 
 and boating ponds, and horse rides for the spor- 
 tive, carriage drives for the invalid and indolent, 
 and botanic and zoological gardens for the scien- 
 tific. In other outskirts of the city there are also 
 splendid parks, the Humboldthain, the Fried- 
 richshain, and the new park at Treptow. Smaller 
 parks and gardens adorn the city in various 
 places; many of the principal streets are lined 
 with trees there are no fewer than 45,000 
 trees under the care of the Parks Committee 
 and the principal street of Berlin takes its 
 well-known name from the rows of lime-trees
 
 134 PARK AND GARDEN ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 which beautify it from end to end. Berlin vies 
 with Edinburgh in the garden plots which give 
 a charm to her squares and public places, and 
 bring glimpses of rural loveliness into the heart 
 of the town. The inhabitants take pride in pre- 
 serving those beauty spots from harm, nor do 
 they grudge the cost of maintaining them in 
 constant freshness. An annual sum of about 
 30,000 is expended by the Parks and Gardens 
 Administration, which is, after all, less in pro- 
 portion to the population than is expended in 
 Edinburgh, while it includes the upkeep of 
 many gardens which in our principal streets and 
 squares would be maintained by private con- 
 tributions. It may be noted that the Admin- 
 istration follow a peculiar method in parcelling 
 out work. They do not pay their workmen 
 individually, but give off the work in portions 
 to foremen, who undertake to perform each por- 
 tion for a given sum. The foremen in turn hire 
 gardeners and labourers to do the work at a 
 fixed wage. Part of the work of the Committee 
 is the maintenance of a School of Forestry and 
 Horticulture. The hospitals and almshouses of
 
 PUBLIC LIBEAEY. 135 
 
 the city are regularly supplied with flowers from 
 the public gardens. It is also the duty of the 
 Administration to furnish all the public schools 
 with botanical specimens for purposes of demon- 
 stration in the class-rooms. Twice a-week each 
 of the common schools receives from 100 to 
 150 specimens of each of four different kinds 
 of plants, and every higher school receives as 
 many specimens in each of eight different kinds. 
 For the information of the teachers, the families, 
 classes, and orders of the plants to be sent to 
 the schools are set forth in a weekly municipal 
 print. 
 
 The Corporation possess a public library ; 
 but for the present it can at best be described 
 as only an admirable skeleton of a library. 
 There is no central institution, but there are 
 twenty-six district libraries with from 2000 to 
 8000 volumes in each. In each establishment 
 there are a news-room, a reading-room for visi- 
 tors using works of reference, and a lending de- 
 partment. The use of the libraries is free to 
 the citizens. The library is maintained out of 
 the common good of the town ; but, when it is
 
 136 GERMAN NOVELS. 
 
 mentioned that little over 1000 per annum is 
 expended on new books and rebindings, it will 
 be seen that the undertaking is run on very 
 thrifty principles. The total number of citizens 
 using the books lent out does not yet exceed 
 15,000 per annum. A stand of about 110,000 
 volumes constitutes the whole establishment ; 
 but the works are of a more serious nature 
 than those of most public libraries. The three- 
 volume novel is hardly known in Berlin. What 
 works of fiction there are consist chiefly of novels 
 of an expository kind (Tendenz Romane). Your 
 German reader of fiction prefers his novel to ex- 
 pound some philosophical or social idea worked 
 out to a severely logical issue. No Scott or 
 Dickens or Thackeray, no Hugo or Dumas, has 
 yet arisen among the Germans. Wit, humour, 
 and satire are exotics in German literature. 
 Very ordinary fuu goes a long way with the 
 German reader ; a book like Stinde's ' Buchholz 
 Family/ for example, which contains rather 
 more than ordinary fun, is sufficient to keep 
 Berlin in laughter for a year. Thus, while half 
 the library consists of works in general national
 
 LITERAEY CLUBS. 137 
 
 literature, including of course the master-works 
 of German poets and philosophers, it con- 
 tains comparatively few works of a lighter sort. 
 This should be kept in mind when we are 
 comparing Berlin with places where the largest 
 number of readers are those who make novels 
 their chief mental relaxation. At the same time, 
 Germany is better provided than any other nation 
 with excellent translations of the best literature 
 of foreign countries. For a few pence one may 
 purchase a good translation of almost any of the 
 best books of foreign authors. One may get any 
 of George Eliot's novels for a shilling or little 
 more ; Ibsen's ' Peer Gynt,' which has recently 
 made a sensation in an English version published 
 at six shillings, has been current in Berlin for 
 over ten years in a vigorous German rendering 
 at the price of fourpence. Reading clubs for the 
 study of the works of Shakespeare, Scott, Tenny- 
 son, Carlyle, George Eliot, Dickens, and Thackeray 
 are common in Berlin, as they are also in other 
 parts of the empire. The library is largely in- 
 debted to authors and publishers for additions 
 to its stock. Careful note is kept of the different
 
 138 READERS AT PUBLIC LIBRARY. 
 
 classes of readers, and of the departments of litera- 
 ture which they patronise. Women make a fourth 
 part of the readers, and they read most in general 
 literature. Students form another fourth, and 
 they, more than any other class, read foreign and 
 scientific books. Artisans, merchants, teachers, 
 officials, and soldiers come next in order. There 
 are no juvenile readers, or at least there is no 
 department of the library specially assigned to 
 them. The use of the library is eminently 
 practical. It is far less a means of amusement 
 and relaxation than of general culture and equip- 
 ment for the business of life. Artisans and 
 merchants use most of the technical works. 
 Soldiers read books of travel, history, biography, 
 but no theology; officials and teachers read the 
 classics, foreign literature, economics, philosophy, 
 and science. Bj.it the library is not yet a great 
 popular resort. The framework is there, and it 
 is, no doubt, destined to grow into one of the 
 most beneficent institutions of Berlin. Mean- 
 while the Corporation do not venture to impose 
 a Free Library rate upon the taxpayers. They 
 are waiting for their Carnegie. With a gift of
 
 FIRE-BKIGADE. 139 
 
 50,000 with such frugal methods as theirs, 
 what would they not accomplish ! 
 
 The municipal Fire-brigade is a sort of military 
 institution, and the method of stopping confla- 
 grations is reduced to a science. The brigade 
 consists of nearly 900 men, with 120 horses, 
 under the command of a firemaster - in - chief. 
 It is divided into five companies, each consisting 
 of about 180 men and 24 horses, and commanded 
 by inspectors with the rank of commissioned offi- 
 cers. The men are classified into firemen proper 
 and hosemen (Feuermanner und Spritzenmanner). 
 There is a sergeant or foreman to every ten 
 or twelve men. When a fire breaks out, one 
 of the companies is instantly despatched to the 
 spot, the police clear the ground and keep the 
 public at a distance, the hosemen attach their 
 pipes to the street hydrants, and line up along 
 the hose lengths, delivering volumns of water 
 at the fire with the precision of clockwork ; 
 the firemen stand attention, accoutrements in 
 hand, ready at the word of command to spring 
 in detachments into any part of the burning 
 building to which they may be ordered. They
 
 140 FIEE-BRIGADE STATISTICS. 
 
 are perfectly drilled and know their work ; no 
 shouting is heard save the quick, short orders 
 of the officers. Prompt, alert movement and 
 absolute order prevail, and usually the fire is 
 subdued in a marvellously short time. Great 
 fires are of comparatively rare occurrence in 
 Berlin. This no doubt is mainly owing to 
 the width of the streets and the consequent 
 ease with which a fire can be reached, as well 
 as to the efficient condition of the fire-brigade. 
 Each of the five companies has a station of its 
 own one of these being also the brigade head- 
 quarters. Besides these principal stations, there 
 are nine or ten sub-stations throughout the city, 
 with telegraphic communication connecting the 
 whole. The city is also provided with a com- 
 plete system of fire-alarums, by which the central 
 station is apprised of the locality of a fire the 
 instant it is discovered. The minuteness with 
 which the statistics of the department are re- 
 corded is amusing, but it is characteristic of the 
 German passion for detail. Fires are described 
 in three classes great, middling, and small ; the 
 locality of the fire, the nature of the property
 
 FIRE BENEVOLENT FUNDS. 141 
 
 involved, and the initial cause of the fire are 
 not only fully set forth, but the most trifling 
 accidents, even to the hurt of a finger or a slight 
 abrasion on a horse's knee, and the subsequent 
 treatment of the wound, are sedulously written 
 down in the annual report. In connection with 
 the department there is a Samaritan Society, 
 whose special care is to give immediate attention 
 to any one injured. There is also a Benevolent 
 Fund, supported by insurance companies and 
 persons whose property is saved by the brigade, 
 for the benefit of widows and orphans of firemen 
 and of members of the brigade who have been 
 incapacitated by accident or old age.
 
 POLICE-TREASURY-GENERAL POWERS 
 OF CORPORATION
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 POLICE TEE ASUKY POWERS OF CORPORATION. 
 
 Regular police force maintained by State ; Night watchmen 
 maintained by town; Police regulations Advertising 
 Public clocks Licensed houses Drinking habits Absence 
 of drunkenness Public conveyances Tramcars Treasury 
 department Finance Committee an advisory board In- 
 fluence on spending Committees City accounts Manner of 
 spending public money Liberality combined with frugal- 
 ity Self-government in German towns Powers of Corpo- 
 ration Limitations State authorities to sanction special 
 works A rbitration courts Inexpensive procedure No 
 costly private bills. 
 
 THE police watching of the city is in two depart- 
 ments the day watch and the night watch. The 
 regular police, whose duty is to preserve the 
 public peace, detect crime, and secure the ap- 
 prehension of criminals, is solely under the con- 
 trol of the State. But the Corporation maintain 
 a force of night watchmen, whose duty is mainly 
 K
 
 146 REGULAR POLICE AND NIGHT WATCHMEN. 
 
 to protect the property of the lieges. There is 
 an old standing controversy between the town 
 and the State as to the right of the former to 
 control the whole police, but the State has stren- 
 uously adhered to the policy of keeping the full 
 control of the regular police, which is an armed 
 force, in its own hands, and of maintaining it 
 solely out of the national revenues to which the 
 citizens only contribute as Imperial taxpayers. 
 On the other hand, the State bears no part of 
 the cost of the night watchmen, who are main- 
 tained out of the local rates. It is the duty of 
 the regular police to enforce all laws passed by 
 the Corporation for the regulation of street traffic, 
 the proper management of licensed places and the 
 prevention of nuisances, and to bring to justice 
 offenders against the public weal. In one par- 
 ticular a stranger observes a pleasing differ- 
 ence between the police regulations of Berlin 
 and those other large towns namely, in the 
 entire absence of glaring advertisements and of- 
 fensive sky-signs. In all the leading thorough- 
 fares handsome clock pillars have recently been 
 erected, which not merely serve to show the
 
 LICENSED HOUSES. 147 
 
 time of day, the weather forecasts and sidereal 
 movements, but are extensively used as adver- 
 tising mediums. By the clock arrangements, 
 sets of tastefully displayed advertisements of 
 all kinds are kept in constant motion, and 
 passers-by may there read by day or by night 
 for the pillars are lighted by night all they care 
 to know about where they may buy the best 
 wares, what entertainments are going on in the 
 playhouses, and what sort of mustard, starch, or 
 soap offers best value for their money. 
 
 All refreshment-houses are licensed, and pro- 
 prietors are bound to keep strict order on their 
 premises. Public-houses where alcoholic liquors 
 are consumed usually supply cooked food likewise. 
 A place where liquor alone is consumed is hardly 
 to be found. The premises are generally large 
 and open, and the box system is not tolerated. 
 Drinking, it must be confessed, is general and 
 deep, but drunkenness is not common. The 
 proprietor of any house where a man had been 
 allowed to make himself drunk would be warned 
 by the police ; a second offence would cost him 
 his licence. With its teeming working-class
 
 148 GENERAL SOBRIETY. 
 
 population, Berlin is an example of sobriety to 
 many cities in Britain. On festival days, or on 
 occasions of large excursions to the country, noth- 
 ing of the gross excess which marks such events 
 among us is to be seen among the Berliners. 
 There is a strong public opinion among the 
 working-classes against drunkenness. Holidays 
 are times of genuine enjoyment, and the luckless 
 fellow who, through over-indulgence, has to be 
 assisted home, forfeits the good opinion of his 
 neighbours for a long time. The people are 
 satisfied with light drinks which they can use 
 in large quantities without intoxication. It is 
 a consequence partly of education, partly, per- 
 haps, of military discipline, but chiefly of the 
 aversion to what is useless, which is a dominant 
 quality of the modern German mind, that the 
 people are so self-controlled. A man or a thing 
 that is of no use to the community in Berlin is 
 soon discarded. 
 
 Public conveyances are, of course, under police 
 inspection ; but cabs, omnibuses, and tramcars are 
 all in the hands of private persons or companies. 
 Berlin has an excellent tramway service, which,
 
 PUBLIC CONVEYANCES. 149 
 
 with the city railway, affords rapid and cheap 
 conveyance to all parts. The tramway com- 
 panies pay rent for the use of the streets, and 
 their fares must be approved by the police de- 
 partment. When they require to repair their 
 lines they must obtain the sanction of the 
 Streets Committee, so that any other repairs 
 falling to be done by the city may be executed 
 at the same time. Passengers may not stop 
 a tramcar at any point they please, but must 
 mount or alight at appointed halting - places, 
 which are marked at every few hundred yards 
 along the thoroughfares. This arrangement im- 
 plies care for the horses as well as for the avoid- 
 ance of accidents. 
 
 The Treasury Department of Berlin is presided 
 over by a Finance Committee (Finanz- Deputa- 
 tion), consisting of seventeen members, six of 
 whom are magistrates. The treasurer, or cham- 
 berlain (Kdmmerer), as he is called, is chairman 
 of the committee. He is one of the paid magis- 
 trates, and holds office for a period of twelve 
 years. He is head not only of the Finance 
 Committee but of the whole permanent official
 
 150 FINANCE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 staff. The work of the committee is to advise 
 the magistracy and council in all matters affect- 
 ing ways and means, the raising of new rates 
 and the treatment of the municipal debt. The 
 committee may claim the right to be heard by 
 the magistracy on all new schemes involving 
 more than ordinary expenditure. They are ex- 
 pected to show how far existing revenue is avail- 
 able for new proposals, and whether it is advis- 
 able to levy further rates or to allow certain 
 items of proposed expenditure to stand over. The 
 committee are, however, only advisory. The 
 council, through the magistracy, accept full 
 responsibility for voting municipal moneys, and 
 it is not in the power of the Finance Committee 
 to refuse supplies or to veto any outlay sanc- 
 tioned by the council. Yet the surveillance 
 exercised by the committee is of the healthiest 
 kind. Whatever warnings they may address to 
 the council, whatever representations regarding 
 the laying out of money they may make either 
 on grounds of economy or public policy, are 
 received with respect. In the bureau of the 
 permanent staff accounts are kept with such
 
 MUNICIPAL ESTIMATES. 151 
 
 clearness and order that the committee can see 
 from -month to montli how revenue and expen- 
 diture are coinciding with the estimates. They 
 are thus able to give authoritative advice to the 
 spending committees when occasion appears to 
 call for it. The financial year commences on 
 31st March. The estimates made up by the 
 various committees are ready for sanction by 
 the council early in April ; those for the current 
 year are dated 8th April. The Berlin authorities 
 do not like deficits, and, if the estimates err, it is 
 on the side of fulness. In the preparation of them 
 large use is made of the experience of past years. 
 The spending committees have a wholesome habit 
 of looking ahead and anticipating improve- 
 ments likely to become necessary within a year 
 or two. New projects form the subject of much 
 deliberation before they are allowed to become a 
 burden on the Treasury. Schemes put forward 
 by different committees involving large outlay 
 are considered in their relative importance, the 
 more urgent always being preferred. The Fin- 
 ance Committee render great assistance to the 
 council, not in dealing with the merits of such
 
 152 BOOK-KEEPING IN TREASURY OFFICE. 
 
 schemes for upon the merits the council itself 
 decides but, as has been indicated, in showing 
 to what extent such schemes may cause an in- 
 crease upon the rates, and whether the occasion 
 is favourable for an additional burden being 
 laid upon the ratepayers. The book-keeping in 
 the office department of the City Treasury is 
 carried on in great detail and with praiseworthy 
 simplicity. A sub-department, with a separate 
 set of books, is assigned to each committee which 
 has any charge of income or expenditure. The 
 results shown by the different sets of books are 
 carried to a principal set under the care of the 
 upper officials. It is from the latter that a clear 
 vidimus of the whole accounting can be promptly 
 obtained. 
 
 It was observed at the outset that Berlin is 
 not more heavily taxed for local purposes than 
 Edinburgh, which bears a much lower burgh 
 assessment than most of the large towns in 
 Britain. But the remark deserves to be em- 
 phasised now that something has been learned 
 about the return which Berlin is able to obtain 
 for its taxation. No doubt the salaries of the
 
 FRUGALITY AND LIBERALITY. 153 
 
 higher officials are considerably less than with 
 us. Skilled and educated labour is more 
 abundant and consequently cheaper there than 
 in Great Britain. It would be difficult to find 
 an official drawing a salary of 100 a-year who 
 had not passed a special examination previous to 
 his appointment. Even the most ordinary offi- 
 cials are able to draw up intelligent and well- 
 expressed reports on any part of their work. On 
 the other hand, common labour is comparatively 
 well paid by the Corporation, and it may be 
 remembered that street-cleaners are almost as 
 well paid in Berlin as they are here. The Cor- 
 poration do not, however, imagine that to 
 leave a department short of hands, or to get 
 a piece of work done cheaply, is a sure saving 
 of money. During the past twenty years they 
 have emphatically shown that they regard 
 generous expenditure on public works which 
 make for the comfort and health of the com- 
 munity as justified by sound economy. But 
 they take care to see their work done without 
 waste or loss. All their departments are \vell 
 manned, all their work is substantially and thor-
 
 154 MAGISTERIAL SUPERVISION. 
 
 oughly done. Once an expenditure of money is 
 proved to be needful, it is given without grudg- 
 ing ; the Corporation never mistake niggardliness 
 for economy. But a healthy frugality pervades 
 the whole administration. No individual looking 
 after his own affairs could be more vigilant to 
 see that he gets the honest worth of his outlay 
 than are the Corporation of Berlin, with their 
 admirable system of departmental responsibility 
 and their no less admirable method of concen- 
 trated magisterial supervision and control. There 
 are few municipalities on whose scroll the famous 
 Ciceronian maxim could be more appropriately 
 inscribed Magnum vectiyal est parsimonia. 
 
 In bringing our observations to a close it 
 only remains to point out the powers which 
 belong to the Corporation, and under which 
 they are able to carry out measures for the pub- 
 lic wellbeing. Berlin, like all Prussian cities, 
 has for many years enjoyed, within certain lim- 
 itations, the right of self-government. In 1808 
 a law was passed which extended to all the 
 towns of the old provinces of Prussia, and which
 
 SELF-GOVERNMENT IN LARGE TOWNS. 155 
 
 settled once for all that those departments of 
 public municipal affairs which had been previously 
 managed by the State, should in future be worked 
 by the town administrations. In other words, 
 the supreme Government made over a part of 
 its powers to the local government in the towns, 
 to be exercised within the limits of the towns. 
 It, however, reserved to itself the right of super- 
 vision over the local authorities. This right it 
 exercises by making certain administrative acts 
 of the towns dependent on State approval. The 
 law of 1808 and subsequent extensions of that 
 law have decreed which department of the 
 State authority shall grant approval in particu- 
 lar cases. This authority, it is to be noted, can 
 never be the Imperial Eeichstag, for the Reichs- 
 tag bears no direct official relationship to the 
 towns of the confederation. Nor is it even the 
 Prussian Parliament, for it is a constitutional 
 principle in Prussia that the Parliament is not 
 a ruling authority, but in reality only a factor 
 in the promulgation of laws. The supervision 
 rests solely with different State officers. In the 
 smaller towns it is the Landrath, an official in
 
 156 LIMITATION OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 
 
 some degree like the Sheriff-Substitute in Scot- 
 land, or the County Court Judge in England. 
 In larger towns it is the President of the district, 
 a functionary whose status corresponds to that 
 of our Sheriffs -Principal or County Kecorders. 
 In Berlin, as an exceptional case, it is the Over- 
 President or Lord Lieutenant of the Province of 
 Brandenburg. In rare cases supervision is exer- 
 cised by the Minister of the Interior, or Home 
 Secretary. In only a few fast -disappearing in- 
 stances, as, for example, in the choice of Burger- 
 meister or Ober-Biirgermeister, is the approval 
 of the Emperor-King himself, as head of the 
 Prussian State, required. The public law has, 
 however, so well denned the province of local 
 government, that cases in which State interfer- 
 ence is necessary do not often occur. Especi- 
 ally is this so in the larger towns, where State 
 sanction is practically confined to such matters 
 as the issue of loans on the security of muni- 
 cipal rates. Upon a clear and fair representa- 
 tion of the case State sanction is never refused, 
 except for strong reasons of public policy ; and 
 little or no expense is incurred in obtaining
 
 POLICE AS GUILD COURTS. 157 
 
 it. It is not required in matters purely affect- 
 ing the proper administration of the town, such 
 as drainage schemes, water-works, bridge-build- 
 ing, street extension within the boundaries, gas- 
 works, or the erection of public buildings. The 
 State has indeed set up an authority of its 
 own within the largest towns including Berlin 
 that, namely, of the police, the chief officials 
 of which are in their way officers of State. The 
 police department of Berlin is concerned not 
 merely with the protection of life and pro- 
 perty within the town, but a section of it is 
 charged with the fulfilment of functions which 
 in Scotland we are familiar with as exercised 
 by Guild Courts. That is to say, it rests with 
 this department to examine all plans for new 
 buildings. The appointment of the officials of 
 this section of the Police Department (Polizei 
 Verwaltung) rests with the Minister of the In- 
 terior. Not only do buildings proposed to be 
 erected by the town come under the cognis- 
 ance of this authority, but all buildings, of what- 
 soever kind, proposed to be erected for public 
 or private purposes. If, therefore, the Corpora-
 
 158 POWERS OF CORPOKATION. 
 
 tion wish to erect an asylum, school, or hospital, 
 they must, like ordinary private persons, sub- 
 mit their plans to the Police Department, and 
 obtain sanction before proceeding with the work. 
 This can only be refused for architectural 
 or sanitary reasons. In the three residence 
 towns of Berlin, Potsdam, and Charlottenburg, 
 there has been reserved to the Emperor-King 
 the right of vetoing lines of street building and 
 tramcar lines. As already remarked, the Corpor- 
 ation possess no tramcar system of their own, but 
 let out the streets to private companies, which 
 must obtain not only the right to use the streets, 
 which are town property, but also the approval 
 of the police authority, which is given only after 
 the royal approval has been signified. 
 
 It is settled public law in Prussia and it must 
 be owned that the law is distinctly utilitarian in 
 its conception that owners of property hold it 
 subject to the right of the State or the munici- 
 pality to take it compulsorily, on due compensa- 
 tion, for any purpose in the public interest. If, 
 then, the Corporation resolve to carry out some 
 improvement to cut a new street, erect a new
 
 PROPERTY ARBITRATION COURTS. 159 
 
 institution, or make an extension of the drainage 
 system proprietors cannot refuse to sell their 
 property if it be required for such purposes. The 
 town, having obtained the necessary sanction from 
 one or other of the authorities described, has a 
 fixed period within which to exercise this right ; 
 or it may, for reasons of its own, renounce its 
 right, or make no use of it. But the owner 
 is always bound, and if the town require his 
 property, he and the town must go before ar- 
 bitration authorities (not law courts), who have 
 experts to guide them, and who fix the full 
 value to be paid for the property proposed to 
 be taken. Both parties, the town and the 
 owner, have the right to dispute the decisions 
 of the arbitrators by a suit in the proper courts, 
 but it is not often that these decisions are over- 
 turned. The full value of the property being 
 duly ascertained and fixed, it must be instantly 
 paid in hard cash. More than the full value is 
 not paid. There is no solatium over and above 
 full value. In this manner the whole of the 
 vast expense with which we are so familiar in 
 this country, incurred by corporations in promot-
 
 160 INEXPENSIVE PROCEDURE. 
 
 ing private bills in Parliament for carrying out 
 measures of local improvement of the most ob- 
 vious necessity, is wholly obviated. It is as 
 if we had here in operation a public law, dis- 
 pensing altogether with the irritating and ex- 
 pensive parliamentary proceedings at present in 
 vogue, and leaving corporations and individuals 
 precisely where they are after a Corporation Im- 
 provement Bill has been passed into law, with the 
 Lands Clauses Act and other public statutes to 
 guide parties to a settlement of whatever differ- 
 ence may be between them. This, assuredly, 
 though the last, is not the least important lesson 
 which we at home may learn from the munici- 
 pality of Berlin.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Accounts, municipal 
 
 Range of, . . . .10 
 Orderliness and clearness, 14 
 Advertisements, how regu- 
 lated, . . . .147 
 Annual expenditure, . . 11 
 Arbitration tribunals, . . 158 
 Authorities of State, when 
 required, . . . 156, 157 
 
 Bathing establishments, . 84 
 Baths in private dwellings, . 25 
 Benevolent fund (fire), . . 141 
 Berlin 
 
 Annual Civil expenditure, 16, 17 
 Capital of Hohenzollerns, . 2 
 Historic interest less than 
 
 other German towns, . 2 
 Medical school, . . .69 
 Present importance, . . 3 
 Proposed enlargement of 
 
 boundaries, ... 6 
 Rapid growth, ... 5 
 Within easy reach of Great 
 
 Britain, .... 1 
 Blankenstein magistrate- 
 His services to market de- 
 partment, . . . 129 
 Blind, school for, . . 120, 121 
 ii continuation school 
 
 for, . . . .121 
 Book-keeping at Treasury, . 152 
 Botanising excursions, . . 116 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Botanical gardens, . 134, 135 
 it specimens for schools, 135 
 
 Brown-book, magisterial, 13, 80 
 
 Blirgermeister 
 A paid official, ... 7 
 How chosen, ... 7 
 
 Canals, connecting Spree and 
 
 Oder, .... 5 
 Cattle-market, . . 60, 61 
 Cellar dwellings, . . 34, 37 
 Chairmen of Committees, . 9 
 Charite Hospital, . . .71 
 Cholera visitation, . . 45 
 Cisterns, not required, . . 24 
 City Railway, . . 60, 149 
 Cleanliness of inhabitants, . 46 
 Clock pillars, . . .147 
 Coals for gas-supply, . . 28 
 Company, gas, . . .27 
 old water, . 19, 20 
 Continuation schools, . . 118 
 Convalescent homes . . 82 
 How justified, ... 83 
 Conveyances, regulation of 
 
 public, .... 148 
 Corporation 
 
 Constitution of, . . 7 
 
 Control exercised by, 10, 70 
 
 Powers of, . . . 155, 158 
 
 Cramming avoided, . . 110 
 
 Dalldorf Institution for idiots, 98
 
 162 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Deaf-mutes, school for, . 122 
 Debt of city ... 11 
 
 How incurred, . . .18 
 
 Reduction of, . . 18 
 
 Departmental reports, annual, 13 
 
 ii responsibility, 154 
 
 Destructors, absence of, . 42 
 
 Dirty inhabitants, treatment 
 
 of, . . . . 53, 54 
 Disinfectants, use of, . . 43 
 Disinfection establishment, 87, 88 
 Drainage districts, . . 36 
 Drunkenness, rarity of, . 148 
 it public opinion 
 
 against, .... 148 
 Dwellings of the poor in 
 
 former years, . . .34 
 
 Edinburgh municipal rates, . 11 
 
 ii poor-rates, . . 101 
 
 ii water-rate, . . 26 
 
 Education, free, . . . 108 
 
 ii compulsory, . 108 
 
 Election, great, and relief of 
 
 poor, . . 87, 88, 89 
 Electric light, ... 30 
 Emperor-King 
 
 May disapprove election of 
 Ober-Biirgermeister or Btir- 
 germeister, ... 7 
 May veto lines of street, . 158 
 Estimates, municipal, . . 151 
 
 Filthy dwellings, not toler- 
 ated, 53 
 
 Finance Committee 
 An advisory board, . . 140 
 Their functions, . 141, 142 
 
 Finance department 
 Sections for different com- 
 mittees, .... 152 
 
 Fire-brigade, . . 139, 140 
 
 Forestry, school of, . . 134 
 
 Friedrichshain Hospital, . 76 
 Park, . . 133 
 
 Frugality of Corporation, 153, 154 
 
 Gas, waste by leakage, . . 29 
 
 Gas-supply, by Company, . 27 
 ii by Corporation, 28 
 
 cost of, . . 28 
 
 it profits on, . . 29 
 
 Gill, Mr Henry, manager and 
 engineer of water depart- 
 ment, . . . .21 
 Gymnasial schools, . . 108 
 Gymnastics, .... 112 
 
 Habitual offenders, . 93, 94 
 Health of city, present, . 36 
 Hobrecht, Stadtbaurath 
 His Scottish descent, . 126 
 Value of his service, . 126, 130 
 Holidays, school, . . .112 
 Hospital reports, . . .80 
 Hospitaliten, the . . .93 
 Hospitals, public, . . 70 
 Houseless poor, shelters for, 90, 95 
 Humboldthain, . . .133 
 
 Imbecile institution at Dall- 
 dorf, 98 
 
 Immunity from recent cholera 
 epidemic, . . . .45 
 
 Income, taxation on, . . 12 
 
 Infectious diseases, treatment 
 of, . . . . 71,72 
 
 Insanitary state of Berlin in 
 1872, 35 
 
 Inspectors of schools, . . 106 
 
 Insurance against gas ex- 
 plosions, . . . .29 
 
 Jewish scholars, . . .114 
 Jews, special treatment of 
 meat for, . . . .62 
 
 Canalisation, 
 Korrigenden, the, 
 
 . 36 
 
 55, 93 
 
 Lavatories for males, . . 44 
 
 M for females, . . 44 
 
 Leakage of water and gas, . 127 
 
 Library, public, . . . 135 
 
 books in, . . 136 
 
 ii in districts, . . 135
 
 INDEX. 
 
 163 
 
 Licensed houses, . 
 Literary club, 
 Lighting of city, . 
 Lunatics, cost of, . 
 Lymph Institute, . 
 
 . 147 
 . 137 
 27,28 
 98 99 
 . '83 
 
 Magisterial report, . . 13 
 n supervision, . 10 
 Magistrates 
 
 How chosen, ... 8 
 Half paid, half unpaid, . 8 
 Number of, . . .8 
 Functions of, . . .9 
 Manholes for drain inspec- 
 tion, 43 
 
 Manners of school children, . 113 
 
 Markets, public, 129, 130, 131 
 
 11 district, . . .131 
 
 ii regulation of, . 132 
 
 Meat inspection, . 62, 63, 64, 65 
 
 Medical officers in hospitals, 
 
 how paid, 80 
 M M for relief of 
 
 poor, . 91 
 Meubriuk, Magistrate 
 His service to drainage 
 
 system, ... 5, 129 
 
 On liberty of the subject, . 53 
 
 Microscopists, . . 63, 64 
 
 Moabit Hospital, . 72, 73, 74, 75 
 
 Mortality, former . . .35 
 
 n present, . . 36 
 
 Miiggel Lake, . . .19 
 
 Museum for teachers, . . 117 
 
 Museums, instruction in, . 116 
 
 Music, carefully cultivated, 
 
 112, 113 
 
 Natural history excursion, . 116 
 Night shelters for houseless, 95 
 M watchmen, . . . 146 
 Nurses, male, . . .81 
 Nursing staff in hospitals, . 81 
 
 Ober-Biirgermeister 
 A paid official, ... 7 
 How chosen, ... 7 
 
 Orphan depot, . . 96, 97 
 
 Orphan houses, 
 Outdoor relief, 
 
 . 96 
 91. 92 
 
 Paid magistrates, ... 8 
 
 Parks, 133 
 
 Patients, cost of hospital, 78, 79 
 Pauperisation, Union for Pre- 
 vention of, . 99, 100, 101 
 Police, maintained by State, 
 
 145, 146 
 
 Poor administration, . . 90 
 cost of, ... 92 
 aged, . . . .95 
 children, . . .96 
 ii boarding out of, 97 
 n education of, . 97 
 discrimination in relief of, 92 
 District Committees, . 91 
 medical relief, . 96, 98 
 visitation of, . . 91 
 Population, growth of, . . 5 
 Poverty, signs of, . . . 56 
 Private schools, . . 107, 108 
 Profits on gas, . . .29 
 M water, . . 12, 26 
 Property for municipal pur- 
 poses, how acquired, . 159 
 Public debt, ... 11, 18 
 n health, Corporation's 
 
 zeal for, . . .51 
 
 schools, . . 107, 108 
 
 Pumping-stations, . . 37 
 
 Radial system of drainage, 
 n cost of, 
 Rates, local, 
 Registers at sewage tanks, 
 Religious instruction, . 
 Rental, taxation on, 
 -Riese/f elder, . 
 Rohrbeck's meat - disinfec 
 tor, .... 6 
 
 40 
 41 
 12 
 8, 39 
 114 
 12 
 37 
 
 4, 65 
 
 Sanitary condition, former, 
 
 33, 34, 35 
 
 M ii present, 36, 45 
 
 Scavengers, . . .46, 47 
 School administration, . 105, 106
 
 164 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 School, age of compulsory at- 
 tendance, . .109 
 attendance, . Ill, 114 
 classes, . . 109, 110 
 committees, . .106 
 inspectors, . . 106 
 punishments, . 115, 116 
 Schools, common, . 107, 109 
 cost of, . . .122 
 fees in higher, 108, 122 
 higher for boys, . 107 
 higher for girls, . 107 
 modern for boys, . 108 
 Self-government in Berlin, . 155 
 Sewage, fields for utilisation 
 
 of, 37 
 
 Sewage-fields, cost of, . . 41 
 
 i, H three kinds, . 39 
 
 ,, M profits from, . 40 
 
 Shelters for the houseless, . 54 
 
 Siemens' meters, . . .23 
 
 Slaughter-houses . . 61, 62 
 
 Slums, absence of, . . - 52 
 
 Sobriety, general, . . . 148 
 
 it causes of, . . 148 
 
 Socialism, centre of, . . 56 
 
 Spree connecting Elbe and 
 
 Oder, .... 3 
 
 Squalor, absence of, . . 57 
 
 State supervision, . . 154, 155 
 
 Street-cleaning, . . .41 
 
 it refuse, how dealt with, 42,43 
 
 M repairs, . . .127 
 
 M ii regulation of, 128 
 
 Streets, asphalted, . . 41 
 
 ii committee, . . 125 
 
 Tanks for collection of drain- 
 age, 36 
 
 Taxation, . . . .12 
 
 Tegel Lake, . . . .19 
 
 Thiergarten, . . . .133 
 
 Town Council 
 
 Committees of, . . .7 
 
 Functions of, . . .8 
 
 How elected, ... 8 
 
 Number of members, . 8 
 
 Trade, extent of, . . .3 
 
 schools, . . 118, 119 
 
 Tramways, . . . .12 
 
 Traps in street drains, . . 43 
 
 Treasurer of city, . . . 149 
 
 Treasury bureau, . . . 150 
 
 Trees in Berlin, . . .133 
 
 Treptow Park, . . .133 
 
 Urban Hospital, . . 77, 78 
 
 Union for Prevention of 
 
 Pauperisation, . . 99, 101 
 
 Unter den Linden, . . 4 
 
 Ventilation of drains, . . 43 
 Veterinary staff for meat 
 
 inspection, . . .63 
 Victoria Training Institution 
 
 for Nurses, . . .82 
 Virchow 
 
 His service to Berlin, . 34 
 Pleads for improved sani- 
 tation, . . . 35, 58 
 Report to Town Council in 
 
 1872, .... 35 
 Visitation of poor, . . 91 
 
 Waste - laud reclaimed by 
 
 sewage, . . . .37 
 Watering of streets, . . 45 
 Water apparatus, . . 23, 24 
 channels, . . .43 
 closets, general in pri- 
 vate dwellings, . 25 
 engineer, . . .21 
 meters, . . 21, 22 
 profits on supply of, 12, 26 
 supply per head, . 25 
 waste of, . . . 22 
 works, . . .19 
 Water-supply by old com- 
 pany, ... 19, 20 
 
 M taken over by 
 
 Corporation, . . .19 
 Working-class population, . 56 
 
 Zelle, Ober-Biirgermeister, . 8
 
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 22 List of Books Published by 
 
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 William Blackwood and Sons. 23 
 
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 24 List of Books Published by 
 
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 William Blackwood and Sons. 25 
 
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 26 List of Books PublisJied by 
 
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 William Biackivood and Sons. 27 
 
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 28 List of Books Published by 
 
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 William Black wood and Sons. 29 
 
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