--C*, THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES THE DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA; , OR, A BICTIONA1RY OF FACTS., A N D USEFUL KNOWLEDGE: COMPREHENDI Nt A CONCISE VIEW OF THE LATEST DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, AND IMPROVEMENTS, CHIEFLY APPLICABLE TO RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMYj TOGETHER WITH DESCRIPTIONS OFTHE MOST INTERESTING OBJECTS OF NATURE AND ARTj THE HISTORY OF MEN AND ANIMALS, IN A STATE OF HEALTH OR DISEASE ; AND PRACTICAL HINTS RESPECTING THE ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, BOTH FAMILIAR AND COMMERCIAL. Illustrated with numerous Engravings and Cuts. IN FOUR VOLUMES, VOLUME FIRST. BY A. F. M. WILLICH, M. D. - AUTHOR OF THE LECTURES ON DIET AND REGIMEN, &C. &C. LONDON: PRINTED FOR MURRAY AND HIGHLEY, 32, FLEET-STREET; VERNOR AND HOOD, POULTRY; G. KEARSLEY, FLEET-STREET; H. D. S YMONt>S, AND THOMAS HURST; PATERNOSTER-ROW ; AND THE AUTHOR. M.DCCCII. 1'rinted by B. M'MiiUn, Bow-Street, Coven i- Garden. TO THE KING SIR, ANIMATED by the gracious approba- tion, with which YOUR MAJESTY was pleased to receive the outline of the present Work, the Editor was encouraged to solicit the Royal Sanction, and to avail himself of every resource, both native and foreign ; with a view to render the Domestic Ency- clopedia worthy of the attention, and patronage, it now claims from a beneficent Sovereign; If the numerous useful Facts, contained in these \ volumes, have been carefully selected ; if the vari- ous objects of Rural and Domestic EcOnclrny have been elucidated with new and interesting discove- ries ; if the Familiar and Commercial Arts have also been attended to, with sufficient precision ; and, if the Natural History of Man, Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, has been concisely stated, together VOL. i. a with 57G414 HQKS ECONOMICS IV DEDICATION. with the economical purposes to which these objecls are individually subservient the Editor will not regret such deficiencies as may be discovered in the physiological articles occurring in this Work ; be- cause he could not, consistently, extend it beyond the prescribed limits. May YOUR MAJESTY, therefore, continue un- der the tutelary auspices of Providence so favoura- bly situated, in your public and domestic concerns, as to bestow occasionally a few moments of leisure on the perusal of those essential topics, on which the prosperity and happiness of your brave and loyal subjects principally depend : Such is the unfeigned wish and prayer of YOUR MAJESTY'S most dutiful and most humble servant, A. F. M. WILLICEL James-Street, Covent-Gardcrt, May I, 1802. PREFACE. AS the nature and practical tendency of the DOMES- TIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA have, in some measure, been antici- pated, partly in the prefixed Title-page, and partly in the foregoing Dedication, a few remarks on the origin and com- position of this Work, will suffice to convince the indulgent Reader, that it has not been undertaken with a view merely to increase the number of voluminous works already extant, and of a similar complexion. It has been -generally supposed, that the rapid succession of Cyclopaedias, and Encyclopaedias, which have appeared within the last twenty years, and which often are more dis- tinguished by their alluring title-pages than by their intrin- sic merit, affords so many proofs of the progress of Science and Literature, as well as of the increasing spirit of inquiry. This conjecture, however, is extremely doubtful, if not to- tally unfounded. When it is considered, that the Editors of these bulky Compilations have directed their chief attention to the quan- tity of materials, rather than to a critical selection of faffs, that, with a few exceptions, such works have been con- dueled by persons better qualified, to superintend a print- ing-office, or a bookseller's shop, than to arrange or explain the immense circle of the Sciences ; and that the auri sacra fames has almost uniformly been the principal object of these Speculators, it will then be readily allowed, that their pro- ductions afford only negative advantages to the social world. Farther, the plurality of Readers have conceived an opi- nion, that, by the possession of an Encyclopedia, or what is a 2 pre- VI PREFACE, pre-eminently termed, " A Dictionary of the Arts and Sci- ences," their library, however deficient, at length becomes complete. But those who are only in a slight degree acquainted with the gradual, though daily, advancement both of the ab- struse and practical Sciences, will not be disposed to harbour a notion alike contracted, and fraught with consequences highly detrimental to the acquisition of knowledge. Nay, it may with equal truth be asserted, that the earlier impressions of books, which have progressively received additions and improvements, will answer the purpose as well as the latest publications ; because they are comparatively cheaper, and fill a similar space on the shelves. Such arguments may sa- tisfy the Antiquarian Collector, but they are inconsistent with the conviction of intelligent minds. On the other hand, it cannot be denied, that many at- tempts have been made to supply the Public with works professedly commenced on a more economical plan; by abridging the labours of others. \Yithout presuming to de- cide on their merits, we shall quote a passage occurring in the Preface to the illustrious JOHNSON'S Dictionary, when he compressed his bulky folios, or quartos, into an octavo form : -** For these purposes (says that energetic writer), many dictionaries have been written by different authors, and with different degrees of skill ; but none of them have yet fallen into my hands, by which even the lowest expec- tations could be satisfied. Some of their authors wanted in- dustry, and others literature : some knew not their own de- fects, and others were too idle to supply them." In regard to the composition, and arrangement, of the DO- MESTIC ENCYCLOPEDIA, many circumstances might be pleaded, by way of apology, for occasional inaccuracies and omis- PREFACE. Vil omissions j but, in a Work, consisting chiefly of practical in- formation, and containing, perhaps, a greater number of useful fafts than have ever appeared in the compass of four moderate volumes, it is to be hoped, the discreet Reader will naturally be inclined to qualify his striclures, by a large share of candour and impartiality. Conformably to his original plan, the Editor has spared no pains, trouble, or expencc, to render this Economical Dictionary as complete as the pre- sent advancement of Agriculture, Gardening, of the Fami- liar Arts and Manufactures, as well as the imperfect state of Medical Science, would respectively admit. Many subjects, indeed, might have been extended to greater length, and others considerably abridged, had these volumes been pecu- liarly calculated for the use of either town or country- readers. Such, however, was not his design ; as the Work now submitted to the Public, includes almost every object, more or less connected with Rural, Domestic, and Animal Economy. Hence, the inquisitive Reader will find nume- rous experiments related, many hundreds of which have not hitherto been published in the English language. Thus, the Editor has availed himself of such resources as have en- abled him to elicite substitutes for the most essential as well as the most expensive articles of consumption, or conveni- ence ; for instance, those of Bread, Beer, Spirits, Wine, &c. To facilitate the mode of consulting this Work, a Table of Contents, and an Index to the corresponding Synonyms, or inversions of terms, have been prefixed to each volume; though a few provincial or vernacular names, which are now obsolete, have purposely been omitted, in order to avoid unnecessary repetition : for such references as have acci- dentally been overlooked in the body of the alphabet, where no explanation should appear on the subject, the Reader is a 3 request- FREFACE. d to resoil to the Supplement, commencing p, 3 8 7 of 'the Fourth Volume. Ir W ill not, however, be cxpeded that the Editor should be responsible for the accuracy of the result of those Ex- periments, which he has faithfully reported on the authority of others, whose names have been quoted on almost every occasion ; but, in various instances where no vouchers have , adduced, the fads are either self-evident, or the ac- count of the subjcd is given with a degree of diffidence, to induce attentive readers to farther investigation. Although the Editor has, in the commencement of this arduous task, inserted the Latin names of subjects in alpha- betical order, and referred thence to the appropriate English terms ; yet, as such troublesome method promised no real advantage, he was induced to relinquish it, and to subjoin to the Fourth Volume a complete Index lo the Latin Names of Plants, Animals, Minerals, Diseases, and other subjefts occurring throughout this IVork. Lastly, as numerous useful and valuable suggestions, connected with particular subjects, are scattered in different parts of this Alphabetical Manual, it has been deemed ex- pedient to conclude with a General Index of Reference^ both for Economical and Medical purposes; which is accordingly subjoined to the Fourth Volume : thus, the Reader will be enabled to find, at one view, whatever relates to the article under consideration ; an advantage which few works of a similar nature afford, and which cannot fail to be attended with good effeds. " Jte tabulis & plciurls domvm tuam circvmda, sed tempercmtiam ipsam depingt. Illud en'im allenum est, et oculorum modo jucunda tio : hoc vcro indi-lil-ili$ f aternusque domui ornatus existit." CON- CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. ABDOMEN, Ablution, ABORTION, Abraum, Abridgment, Abscess, Abstinence, Acacia, Acids, Acorns, Acre, Acute Diseases, Adder, Adulteration, Advertisement, ./Ether, Affliction, Agaric, Age, Agitation, Agony, AGRICULTURE, Agrimony, Common, Agrimony, Hemp, Ague, AIR, Air- Bath, Air-jacket, Alabaster, Alarum, ALBUMEN, Alchemy, Alcohol, Alder- Tree, Ale, Ale-House, AUMEKT, . PACK PAGE I Alkalies, . ' 29 - 3 Alkanet, 30 4 AJLHeal, 31 6 Allspice, ib. ib. Almanack, 32 7 Almond, *, 8 Alms, - 33 9 Alms-HouscSj . A. 10 ALOE, ib. ii Alum, 36 12 Amber, 37 ib. Ambergrise, 38 ib. Ambury, 39 13 AMMONIA, ib. ib. AMMONIAC, 4* ib. Amphibious Animals, ib. H Amputation, 43 ib. Amusements, 44 i 5 Ancient Languages, 45 ib. Ancient Learning, 46 16 Ancient Times, 47 tf. Anemometer, ib. ig Anemone, ib. ANEMOSCOPE (with a Cut), 49 2O Aneurism, 51 21 Angelica, 23 Anger, . 53 2 4 Angling, ib. Animal, ib. 25 Animalcule, 56 * Animal Flower, 57 26 Animal Kingdom, ib. ib. Animal Lite, 58 27 Animal Magnetism, 59 & Animal Motion, 60 28 Animal Economy, 61 ifc Animal Spirits, . ib. a 4 AKJ. CONTENTS^ ANIMATION, FACB 61 Articulation *i?6 Anise, 64 Artificer, 117 Annealing, 65 Artist, ni ANNUITY, Ib. Arvenusly (with a Cut), . ib. ANODYNE, 68 Asafcetida, 119 Ant, 7 1 Asarabacca, 120 Ant-Hills, 73 Ascarides, 121 'ANTIDOTES, 74 Ash, I2Z Antimony, 76 Ashes, 124 Antipathy, 77 Asparagus, . I2 7 Antiquities, 78 Asphodel, T I2 9 Antiscorbutics, 79 Ass, 130 Antiseptics, ib. Assembly, I3t Anxiety, So Assimilation, ib. Ape, ib. ASTHMA, ib. Aperients, 81 Astringents, 134 Aphorism, ib. Astrology, '35 APOPLEXY, 82 Astronomy, 136 Apothecary, 83 Athletic Habit, 138 APPETITE, 84 Atmosphere, ib. APPLE-TREE, 86 Attenuants, 139 Application, 90 Auftion, 140 Apprenticeship, ib. Autumn, ib. Apricot- Tree, 9 1 Avarice, 141 AQUA FORTIS, 93 Avens, AQUA REG i A, 94 Avoirdupois, 43 AQUA VITJE, ib. Arable Lands, ib. Bachelor, 144 Arbour, 96 Bacon, Arcanum, ib. Badger, 147 Archery, ib. Bag, in commerce, ib. ARCHITECTURE, 97 , in farriery, ib. Argument, IOO Bagnio, ib. Arithmetic, IOI Baiting, 148 Aromatic, 102 Baker, ib. Arqucbusade-Water, 103 BAKING, 149 Arrack, ib. Balance, 151 Arrangement, I0 4 Baldness, ib. \rrow, Ball, 1 cz Arrow. Grass, it. Balls, ' . ib. Arrow.Head, 105 Horse Balls, ib. Arrow-Root, ib. Portable Balls, *i3 ARSENIC, - 1 06 Balm, common, ib. Art, JI2 Balsam, 154 Artery, 114 Balsamics, ib. Artichoke, Balsamine, ib. Artkhckr, the Jerusalem/ J!6 Bamboe Habit, ib. Bandage, Bandage, Bandy -legs, Bane-berries, Bank, Bank-fence, Banks of Rivers, Banks of the Sea, Bankrupt, Barbel, Barbies, or Barbs, BARILLA, Baring of Trees, Bark, BARLEY, Barn, . Barn-floors, BAROMETER, Barrel, Barrenness, Barter, Basal tes, Basilicon Ointment, Basket, Basket-salt, Bat, BATH, Bathing, in general, Baths, Dry, Baths, Medicated, BATH-WATERS, Bay-salt, Bay.tree, BEAN, Bean, the Kidney, Bear, Beard, Beauty, - Beaver, Bed, Bed -room, Bed. stead, Bed. time, BEE, BEE-HIVES, Bees -wax, Beech- tree, Becch.nut, PACK Beech-mast Oil, PACK ib. Beef, ib. 156 Beef- tea, 236 ib. Beer, 237 '57 Beestings, 242 158 Beet, ib. '59 Beetle> - * 24f 1 60 Beggars, 24* 161 Belles Lettres, 246 tf. Bell-flower, 247 162 Bellows, 248 264 Belly-ach, ib. **. Bene.seed, 249 1 66 Bent-grass, ib. 172 Benzoine, ib. '74 Berberries, 251 176 Bere, 252 lS2 Bergamot, * ib. ib. Berne-machine, 253 ib. Betony Wood, 254 I&3 Bezoar, - - ib. ib. Biennial Plants, 2j>? J8 4 Bilberry, ib. tf. Bile, 2 5 6 tf. Bill, in Husbandry, 257 I8 5 ib. 194 ib. ib. Bank ib. '95 2$8 196 ib. 199 nf TVTnrfilifV ib. ib. ib. 202 Bind-weed, 2 5 8 205 Biography, 259 206 Birch-tree, . ib. 207 Bird, 261 208 Bird-lime, 263 209 Bird-chexry, 266 210 Birds -foot, Common, ib. 211 Birthwort, Slender, ib. 212 Biscuit, ib. 213 Bismuth, . 268 214 Bistort, ib. 216 Bite of a Mad Dog, 269 23O Bitter, 272 232 Bitumens, 273 233 Black, 274 Black. Sll N T S. PACE r - , t Black -bird, 275 Boiling, 3<$ Black Cattle, ib. BoJes, ib. Black Cai>ker, 276 Bombast, ib. Black Fly, ' ib. BONES, - ib. Black Land, ib. Bone-spavin, 308 Black Leather, 277 BOOK, 309 Black Lgs, ib. BOOK.KESPING, 3'i Black Tin, ib. Boorcole, 314 Black Wadd, ib. Boot, ib. Blackberry, ib. Bor.ige, - 315 Blacking, ib. Rorax, ib. Bladder, 2 7 8 BOTANY, ib. Bladder-nut Tree, 279 Bottle, 317 Blain, ib. Bottling, ib. Blanching, d. B<>tts, - 3'8 Blanket, ib. ;Bounty, 319 Blast, n. Bon-, /*. BLEACHING, 280 BOWELS, ib. Bleeding, 283 Box, 321 Blend-water, 284 Box -tree, /*. Blight, ib. Boxing, 322 Blindness, (with a Cut), 285 Braces,- 323 .Bl'ndworm, 28^ Brain, ib. Blister, - ib. Brake, 324 3iite, 290 Bramble, 3^5 Blood, ib. Bran, ib. Biood- hound, 292 B:andy, ib. Blood- shot Eyes, ib. Brass, 326 Blood-spavin, ib. Brawn, 327 .Blood- stone, 2 93 BREAD, ib. Elood-ktting, ib. Bread-fruit Tree, 333 Blood-vessels, . 295 Bream, 334 Blood- wort, ib. Breast, ib. Blossorn, ib. Breath, 335 Blow -pipe, ib. Breathing, 336 Blowing, 296 Breeches, 337 Blubber, ib. Breeding of Cattle, ib. Blue, . ib. of Fih, 338 Blue Bottle, ib. f^nnrl ib. Blueing, ib. BREWING, 339 Board, ib. Briar, 347 Boat, - - 298 BRICK, //. Bobbing, 301 Bridge, 353 Body, ib. Brine, 356 |og, 302 Bristol Hotwell, 357 Bohea, ib. Broad-cast Husbandry 359 Boilers, ib. Broccoli, 360 Erome. -Brome-grass, Bronze, Brook, Brook-lime, Broom, BROTH, Bruises, Brush, Brute, Bryony, the White, , the Black, Buck-bean, .Buck-thorn, Buck-thorn, the Sea, BUCK- WHEAT, Buckram, Bud, BUG, Bugle, BUILDING, Bulb, Bui finch, Bull, ' Bullrush, Burdens, Burdock, or Clot-burr, Burdock, the Lesser, Burgoo, Burial, Burnct, Burning, Burns, Burnt Grain, Burying-ground, Bush-vetch, Bushel, Bustard, Butcher, BUTTER, Butter-burr, Butter-cup, Butterfly, Butterwort, Buxton Waters, Buzzard, CABBAGE, N T E N T S. xiii PAGE PACK 36l Cabbage, the Anjou, 362 Cabbage-palm, if. 3 6 3 Cage, 4*9 ib. Cajeput, ib. ib. Cake, ib. 364 Calamine, ib. 366 Caiamint, 420 36; Calandre, ib. 3^ Calcareous Matter, ib. 37 Calcination, 421 37 1 Calcularv, 422 ib. Calender, - ib. 37 2 CALF, ib. 373 CaJico, 424 374 Calkins, ib. 377 Calx, 4 2 5 378 Gambler, ib. 379 Cambric, ib. ib. Camphor, ib. 3*50 Canada Balsam, 426 385 Canal, ib. 387 Canary Bird, 427 ib. Canary Grass, ib. 39 CANCER, 428 ib. Candle, 430 39 1 Canker, 432 ib. Canker- worm, 433 ib. Caoutchouc, ib. ib. Caper, 434 393 Caraway, 435 39 6 Cardamom, L IP. 397 Carline, ib. 398 Carmine, 436 ib. Carnivorous Animals, ib. 399 Carp, 437 400 Carpet, 43S io. Carriage, ib. 401 Carrot, 439 402 CART (with a Cut), 440 409 Cartilage, 445 ib. Case-hardening, ib. ib. Cassava, 446 410 Cassia, 448 411 Castor-oil, ib. 412 Cat, 449 413 Cat-salt, 450 CATARRH, CONTENTS. CATARRH, PAGE - 45 Charlock, 495 Catchwecd, 454 Charr, - . 496 Catechu, it. CHEESE, CATERPILLAR, 455 Cheese-rennet, 502 Catmint, 457 Cheltenham Water, 503 Cats-tail, 458 CHEMISTRY, 504 CATTLE (with a Cut), ib. Cherry, 509 Candex, 467 Chervil, 5 11 Cauliflower, 468 Chesnut, ib. Caustics, 469 Chest, 5 J 3 Cautery, 470 Chewing, , ib. Cavadilla, 47i Chick, or Chicken, 5 J 4 Caviar, ib. Chickweed, A Cayenne Pepper, 472 Chilblain, 5 J 5 Cedar, - 473 Child, A Ceiling, ib. Chimney, 516 Celery, - ib. Chincough, Cellars, 475 Chocolate, ib. CEMENT, ib. Christopher, the Herb, 521 Cephalic, 481 Chronical Diseases, ib. CHAFER, ib. \ Chrysalis, ? 2 3 Chaff, 486 Chub, 524 Chain, . ib. Churn (with a Plate), ib. Chair, - 487 Churning, 526 Chaldron, 488 Chyle, A Chalk, ib. Cicely, 527 Chalybeate. 489 Cinnabar, Chamber, ' 49 Cinnamon, ib. Chamomile, ib. Cinquefoil, 528 CHARCOAL^ 491 Cisterns, Charity, . 494 INDEX To the Corresponding Synonyms, or Inversions of Terms t occurring in the First Volume. Abele-tree ; see Poplar, the White. Acctite of Copper ; see Ver- eligrease. Agio ; see Bank. Argentine, the Common ; see Thistle, the Cotton. Agriculture ; see Husbandry. Ale-hoof ; see Ground-Ivy. Almond-leaved Willow ; see Willow. Alpine Bistort ; see Bistort, the Small. Apoplexy, in Farriery ; see Staggers. Apple-Quince ; see Quince. -Rose ; see Rose. -tree, Coccus ; see Coccus. Arbutus, the Black-berried Al- pine ; see Strawberry-tree. Arcell ; s>fc Liverwort, the Dark-coloured. Archangel, the Red ; see Dead- nettle. Archangel, the White ; see Dead-nettle. Argol ; see Orchal. Arrow-grass ; see Barilla. Ash- weed ; see Goutweed. Asp ; see Poplar. Asthma, in Farriery ; see Cough, Balass ; see Ruby. Balm of Gilead ; see Gilead. Balsam of Copaiba ; see Co- paiba. Balsarhine-sage ; see Sage. Bank -cresses ; see Mustard, the Common Hedge. Banstickle ; see Stickleback, the Common. Barley-big ; see Eere. Bastard-cress ; see Mithridate- mustard. Bastard Saffron ; ^^ i /u, 94, ... .. 1 1 5 1 > i 130, 136, _ _ 1 07 ' 9 , i . ... , i /\ 1 J 3 1 , 1 Af) l6l, 162, 178, .. or)9 1 * J _____ '? ^6, "" 1 nqf^ A , ...... 9 TO J *&yt 9*17 Q */> 290, 293, 303, 321, 332, "^ 1 ~ OOO y 337, 370, ; 377, - 387, 427, 494, 509, ri ^ - I ^ _____ J l 1, 1 . ^f *"" *~ A, " THE DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA. ABD A BDOMEN, or the lower belly, *. is one of the most important regions of the human body, not only on account of its various contents, but also from its exposed situation. Although, to give a strictly ana- tomical description of the different parts composing the admirable fa- bric of the animal frame, is not con- sistent with the plan of this work, yet, where the welfare and safety of the body are essentially concerned, we propose to add a distinct expla- nation of the organs liable to injury, and, occasionally, to point out their proper management in a healthy state, together with a few hints for treating complaints, the- source of which is frequently not suspefted. The abdomen extends, longitudi- nally, from that cavity, or hollow, which is usually called the pit of the stomach, to the lower part of the trunk : it is defended, in front, by the abdominal muscles ; behind, by the vertebrae of the back ; and, on both sides, by the false ribs. Instead of perplexing the reader with a minute account of the three regions, into wliich the lower belly is divided by anatomists, namely, the upper, or epigastric ; the mid- dle, or umlilical ; and the lower, KQ, I. VOL. I. ABD or hypogtistric region ; we shall ra- ther proceed to examine their dif- ferent contents. In the first place, it deserves to be remarked, that the whole intes- tinal canal forms one continued tube, of greater or less capacity, beginning with the stomach, and terminating at the anus. This canal is, gene- rally, six times the length of the whole human subjed, in proportion to the person's stature, and is by Nature divided into two distinct parts ; namely, the anterior, or up- permost, that is next to the sto- mach, comprizing what are called the thin, or small intestines, which fill the middle, or fore parts, of the belly ; and the posterior, or lower- most, where we find the large intes- tines occupying the sides, and botl) the upper and lower parts of that cavity. The former are again di- vided into the duodenum, or twelve- inch gut ; the jejunum, or empty gut, and the ileum, or crooked gut j and the latter, or larger portion, into the caecum, or blind gut ; the colon, or hollow gut, being the largest of all the intestines ; and the rec~lum, or the straight excretory gut, which terminates in the anus. On opening the abdomen, we ob- ierve 2] ABD Serve its viscera and intestines in the following situation : after having re- moved the skin and die muscles, we discover the peritoneum, or a membrane which envelopes all the viscera of die lower belly. This being divided, die omentum, or cawj, appears floating on the sur- face of die intestines, which are likewise seen in a moist and loose state, making numerous windings through die whole cavity. The vi- scera next present themselves in this order : on die uppermost part of die belly, namely, under the midriff, towards die middle, but rather inclining to die right side, lies the liver, and near its concave surface is die gall-bladder; some- what to die left is the stomach, and laterally, contiguous to it, the spleen. The kidneys are placed about the middle of die lumbar region, or the loins, while die urinary bladder, and the parts of generation, are si- 'tuated in die lower division of the belly ; in that bony cavity which is denominated die pelvis, or bason, and the sides of which form what are commonly called die hips. The situadon of these parts, however, in a natural state, fre- quently undergoes considerable va- riations, especially that of the liver, the stomach, and die spleen : and these deviations, being produced by various causes, as by a different posture of die whole body ; disten- tion of the stomach with an unusual quantity of food, either in a solid or liquid form j or, lasdy, during preg- nancy ; hence it may be understood that, with every preternatural change of their respedtive positions, there may arise ruptures, spasmodic con- tractions, callosities, accumulations of water, called dropsy, and many similar complaints. To prevent such disastrous consequences, we cannot ABD too strongly inculcate the necessity of observing strict' temperance, par- ticularly with respect to food, drink, and exercise. This proposition may be rendered more evident, by ap- pealing to the experience of those Europeans, who have long resided in warm climates, and prudently restrained their sensual appetites j in consequence of which, they have seldom been attacked with diseases of the liver ; an organ which cannot fail to become a prey to an irregular mode of living. The intestines have certain gene- ral characters, though each of them manifests its peculiarities. In the former respect, we find that they are all connected with the vertebrae, by means of the mesentery ; that each of them consists of different membranes, the innermost coat of which terminates in the intestinal canal itself, and forms semi-lunar valves, inclining towards each other, contracting the tube of that passage, and often appearing in several parts more numerous and conspicuous than in others. Each gut is, far- ther, provided with small glands, for the secretion of a viscid humour, and many small vessels for die ab- sorption of certain fluids. Lastly, ail intestines possess, in common, a certain creeping, called the peris- taltic, or vermicular motion ; which k occasioned by the contraction of their muscular fibres, operating in a spiral direction, or obliquely from the upper towards the lower parts ; and they are thus liable to alternate contortions in their respective situ- ations. This curious phenomenon may be clearly perceived for some time after death, and especially in an animal recently opened. By inverting this motion of the stomach and bowels, an effect which may be produced by certain stimu- lating ABD medicines, for instance, ipeca- cuanha, as well as by a local irrita- tion of the fauces, it will be easily understood, that either nausea or vo- miting will be the natural conse- quence, according to the different degrees of the stimulus applied. The viscera of the abdomen are, in common with other parts of the body, liable to a variety of disorders ; the most formidable of which, are those arising from inflammation. An inflammation of the liver, hi- therto supposed by the generality of physicians to be a very rare disease, has by a late French writer, M. FER- REIN, been affirmed to be of all dis- eases the most frequent, and least understood. It often occasions other lasting and dangerous diseases ; and, even when removed, unless proper precautions be observed, is liable to return. See the article LIVER. The usual symptoms of inflam- mations of the lower belly are, pain attended with lever ; but these are - by no means a necessary conse- quence; as in this, and other dis- eases of the Animal Economy, a slight degree of inflammation may prevail, unaccompanied either by febrile symptoms, or considerable pain. The mode of discovering the existence of inflammation is, to press with the tip of the finger on the seat oi the complaint ; and, if the viscera be inflamed, the pain will be increas- ed in such manner, as when we touch a braised or tender part. For the treatment of this dangerous af- fection, we must refer the reader to the article INFLAMMATION. In order to protect the tender parts we have now described, from exter- nal injury, every judicious person will admit the necessity of adopting such a dress, as is best calculated to answer this useful purpose. Hence, no whalebone, or other stays tightly ABL [ 5 laced, should be worn by women, nor high and straight waistbands be suffered to impede the free action of the bowels, either in boys or men. It is indeed unreasonable to expect, that the present generation can enjoy the ease and comforts of their less fashionable, though more pru- dent, forefathers, so long as mankind continue to encourage those customs and habits, which almost every body deprecates, but which few have the resolution either to oppose or aban- don. Alies. See FIR-TREE, or Pirnts Alies, L. ABLUTION, in its literal sig- nification, implies washing, and is usually confined to purification by the aid of water ; but may also be applied to cleansing, or washing with any other pure liquid. It is a term well known in the religious world. As a practice, its antiquity is co-eval with the first institution of religious ceremonies. Ablutions were, on various occa- sions, enjoined by the Jewish Legis- lator. The Mahometans frequently have recourse to them in the cele- bration of those rites prescribed in the Alcoran; and they form no in- considerable part in the established religion of almost every nation. Egyptians, Grecians, Romans, Sy- rians, Cophts, Jews, Christians, &c. all admit them, as forming a part of their ceremonials ; by total or partial immersion of the body, by sprink- lings in baptism, and so forth. But, though used in some measure symbolically, or as emblems of that inward purity requisite to the dis- charge of duty, among the faithful disciples of religious institutions, yet the importance of ablutions is very considerable, whrn viewed in a phy- sical sense, as bc-irg instrumental to preserve health and beauty, and not B 2 only 4] ABO only to prevent, but in many cases to remove, disease. See tliis subject under the articles BATHING and WASHING. ABORTION, or miscarriage, is, in modern times, justly considered as a misfortune ; though die detest- able and unnatural vice of procuring it by art, was connived at by the ancient Romans ; whose disgraceful fall, as a nation, may in a great measure be attributed to their luxu- rious manners, and immoral habits. As the history of this subject is rather disgusting than instructive, we shall proceed to state matters of a more useful tendency : we may, however, previously observe, that those enemies of human nature, who attempt to procure artificial abortion, generally experience either the pu- nishment due to this outrage, by the fatal consequences which often de- stroy both mother and child, or not less frequently all the powers of art prove ineffectual, and the abandoned creature is tormented only with bit- ter remorse. Weakly and irritable, hysterical, passionate, and especially voluptuous women of a plethoric habit, are most liable to miscarriage ; though it may also happen from a general defective constitution, or rather from a mal- conformation of the sexual organs. The most frequent causes of abor- tion, however, are, the depressing passions, such as grief and fear; debility of the mother, especially if occasioned by grent loss of blood; violent exercise of. every kind, but particularly sudden stooping, and lifting weights ; all diseases which agitate the whole frame, as fevers, convulsive fits, and coughing; as well as falls and blows on the abdo- men ; an indolent and irregular mode of living, whether too high, or on too poor sustenance ; and sometimes even, offensive smells. The symptoms indicating abor- tion are, cold shiverings of short duration; nausea seldom accompa- nied with vomiting ; pain about the loins, but more frequently in the abdomen, below the navel, and in, the thighs ; depression and softness of die breasts ; palpitation of die limbs, and more especially of die heart ; sinking of die lower belly j and a discharge, of various appear- ance, from die uterus. One of die most general expedi- ents adopted to prevent a miscar- riage, has been periodical blood- letting, eidier from die arm or foot ; which, in plethoric constitutions, has sometimes been carried to such excess, as to be repeated every month, during pregnancy. This practice, however, so prevalent in France and Germany, is hazardous, and liable to many strong objections } for, as abortions most generally oc- cur in debilitated and nervous wo- men, such losses of die vital fluid cannot but be attended with detri- mental effects. According to die opinion of experienced practitioners, bleeding is advisable only in cases where particular circumstances con- cur to render such a diminution ne- cessary, and even tiieu, two small venaesections, from four to five ounces each, within die space of four or six days, are generally suffi- cient to obviate die most urgent symptoms. The most effectual method of preventing such accidents, consists in a regular mode of life previous to pregnancy, occasionally aided by bracing remedies, such as the cold bath, moderate exercise on horse- back or on foot, die use of mineral waters ; in short, all diose means which tend to counteract nervous and hysteric debility, or, in other words, which are proper for irritable habits. ABO habits. Yet the strictest observance of dietetic rules will not be attended with the desired effect, unless the person who is desirous of becoming a mother, have sufficient resolution to abstain from an immoderate in- dulgence in sensual pleasures. These, indeed, cannot be too much guarded against in a married state; as the contrary practice seldom fails to be attended with the most melancholy consequences. Hence we find, that, in certain families where temper- ance and prudence are strictly ob- served, a miscarriage is a rare event. There are, however, cases in which mothers are constitutionally liable to abortion, and where the combined efforts of art and nature cannot prevent a misfortune, which not only in a remarkable degree debilitates the constitution, but has also a tendency to return on a future occasion. The most critical periods at which abortion may oc- cur, are those of the third, fourth, and fifth months of pregnancy ; though it may happen sooner or later. If, therefore, a woman be affected with a violent shooting pain in the back, extending to die uterus, together \vith the symptoms already described, it will be neces- sary, either to bleed her, if she be of a full and vigorous habit, or to adopt such a treatment as may be best calculated to obviate the por- tending clanger. This consists in a very moderate, and chiefly liquid, nourishment, excluding whatever may rouse and irritate die system ; and a calm and composed state of body and mind ; so that to prevent a relapse of painful symptoms, she must sometimes keep her bed for several v, oeks or months together. Cataplasms applied to the pit of die stomach, and opiates, may occasion- ABO f5 ally become necessary ; but the lat- ter ought never to be resorted to, widiout proper medical advice ; for there can be no doubt, diat tamper- ing with laudanum, or similar me- dicines, has often been productive of irreparable mischief. According to the uniform experience of pro- fessional men, however, die last- mentioned remedy may with more safety, and greater advantage, be employed in die form of clysters. Thus, we may confidentiy say, diat an injection composed of six ounces, or a tea-cup full of cold chamomile- tea, and fifty drops of laudanum, every other night, or, according to circumstances, more or less fre- quently, has been attended with the happiest effects, especially if, in die intermediate days, when neces- sary, an emollient clyster were ad- ministered, widi a view to relieve costiveness. We cannot, at die same time, too seriously deprecate the custom of tampering with laxa- tives taken by die mouth ; a custom very prevalent among die vulgar, who are not aware of die injury tiiereby inflicted upon tiieir disor- dered constitutions. With respect to the concomitant affections of pregnancy, we must be very concise. The pain in die head, and tooth-ach, may, in general, be relieved by a cool regimen ; an emollient diet, chiefly consisting of mucilaginous and subacid vegeta- bles, such as fruit boiled in milk, artichokes, asparagus, parsnips, spi- nage, &c. aided by diluent drinks made of rice, barley, sago, die arrow-root, and similar vegetables ; keeping die legs and feet sufficiently warm, and occasionally soaking them in tepid water; shaving the head, and -washing it widi diluted vinegar. If these svmnfe means do not prove successful, bleiiding v/ith B 3 leeches 6] ABO ]s on the temples, or even ".Ir.r vein, will times become necessary, especially in plethoric and l,i!i>.,u females. Be- Fule these mm ^er applied to die neck behind the ears, or to the part most sensibly affettcd, is often ol great service; though, in urgent cases, ihis application should cover die whole head. In full and robust habits, issues are eminently useful, while the bowels should be regularly opened by die mildest pur- gatives. Son:cviim-s, however, the simple external application of a tl-w drops of eajeput, juniper,, or any other essential oil, o-;eiv;tcs like a charm, in removing tidier die tooth- aeh, or violent pains of the head. In all the complaints of pregnant women, arising from too prevailing an acidity, such as heart-burn, vo- miting, cough upon taking food, and diat feverish, resdess state, so common in the latter period of preg- nancy, Dr. JOHN SIMS directs two or three spoonfuls of die following mixture to be taken, either occa- sionally, or, when die symptoms are continual, after every meal : viz. one drachm of calcined magnesia, five ounces and a half of pure wa- ter, three drachms of the spirit of cinnamon, and one drachm of die water of pure ammonia. Magnesia has long been a celebrated remedy for these complaints ; but the most efficacious ingredient in the pre- scription, is the pure ammonia, as the effect will be nearly the same \vidi die omission of die magnesia, which, without die ammonia, is of inferior efficacy. This judicious physician farther remarks, that the vomiting, which occurs in car/'/ pregnancy, seldom arises from, or is connected with, acidity ; and that the remedy before specified is, in that case, not adapted to tiie pur- ABR pose. When such vomiting is mo- derate, and confined to the early part of the day, it appears to be use- ful ; but if it incessantly continue for many days together, accompa- nied wi'h great loss of strength, constant thirst, and an utter inabi- lity of retaining any thing on die ; h, in this slate. Dr. SIMS as- serts, that the most effectual remedy is die application of leeches to the pit of die stomach : and a constant attention to diet, that the patient may swallow nothing which has a tendency to irritate or stimulate die organs of digestion. He has also f; mnd it of the greatest service toallo w no other drink than ass's milk, and that by single spoonfuls only. The use of leeches, applied to die pit of the stomach, for the relief of vomit- ing, is by no means confined to the state of pregnancy ; but when this symptom occurs in fevers, or is produced in consequence of taking any acrid or indigestible substance, lie. has re i i;ni,?nced diat their application in diose cases is of equal utility. ABRAUM, in natural history, i> a term given by some writer- species of red clay found in the Isle of Wight, and used by our artizans to impart a fine red colour to nc \v mahogany wood. ABRIDGEMENT, is the art of compressing any .species of literary composition, so as to convey its full and complete tenor in a smaller compass than the original. The talent of abridging the la- bours of others, and of communi- cating much informal ion in few words, is an arl not only eminently useful in itself, but pro 1 great advantages. It enables the reader to take a concise and com- prehensive view of those subjects, which, in a more diffuse form, his leisure. ABR leisure or his inclination may not permit him to consult ; while it ex- ercises die mind of the writer in ha- bits of close reasoning and accurate investigation. The attention which, in works of a complicated or exten- sive nature, is often distracted by brilliancy of style or variety of ma- terials, is, by a short and faithful analysis, fixed to die merits of the subject, and to die trudi of its con- tents. The chief end of abridging is rather to convey ideas, than mul- tiply words, and to retrench super- fluous expressions. To offer any positive instructions for exercising this useful and valu- able talent, is almost unnecessary ; since taste, judgment, and critical discernment, are die safest guides. A few suggestions, however, may afford some illustration of die sub- ed. In attempting to give an analysis or' abridgement of any particular production, it will be requisite to read it with proper attention ; to examine the design of die author, and to discover the leading features and plan of die whole. Having pe- rused and digested the work, it will be proper to transcribe only such parts as tend to convey delinite ideas, or explain its immediate pur- pose ; omitting all such remarks as are either inconsistent witii, or in- applicable to, die subject. In works of a more abstruse and comprehensive nature, it will be preferable to convey, as far as pos- sible, die exact expressions of die author^ but in tiiose of a lighter description, such as works of ima- gination, public lectures, orations, essays, &c. it w^ill be sufficient to give an outline of the substance ; widiout directing die attention to the embellishments of style,, or die structure of periods. ABS [7 Abridgement is used also in a more circumscribed sense ; to sig- nify a short analysis of reference ; by which, from a few abstracted particulars, we recur to any subject which has been either neglected or forgotten ; and thus recall it to our recollection. This is particularly useful to those engaged in a variety of literary pursuits, as it preserves a free and unfettered application. Works of history, in which the leading fa6ts are merely detailed, are often happily abridged for the use of the student. See die article MEMORANDUM. ABSCESS is a soft, circumscribed tumor, containing matter, generally attended with fluctuation, and some-, times, though not always, with con- siderable pain. It is the consequence of some previous inflammation, and is often a critical effort of Nature to relieve the patient from superflu- ous or noxious humours, and to re- move an acute disease. The mode of treatment, to be adopted in the cure of an abscess, . will be to assist its complete suppu- ration, and promote a free discharge of matter ; for which purposes, all rare-dies that have a tendency to soften the skin, and . - per- spiration, are eminently useful. In However, and \ the suppir,- reds but :-.! it will sometimes be necessary to open it either by caustic applica- tions, or the lancet. Warm fomentations, and emol- lient cataplasms made either with bread and milk, or oatmeal, renew- ed several times a day, are the usual poultices for an abscess. In large -tumours, from which the discharge of matter Las been considerable, and especially in those of the lower < \- tremiiies, it will often be m.ct to have recourse to such inten B 4 medics 8] ABS medics as may strengthen and sup- port the system. Bark, wine, and, if considerable pain or irritation pre- vail, opiates judiciously administer- ed, will be highly beneficial. After an abscess has been opened, it will require to be kept clean, and drest, either with dry lint, or some mild digestive ointment, once or' twice a day, assisted by a compress and linen bandage. Dr. HARTUNG, an ingenious phy- sician at Erfurt, in. Germany, has lately proposed a plan for the treat- ment of abscesses} which, for its simplicity and novelty, is worthy of attention. In their incipient stage, he recommends the frequent appli- cation of compresses moistened with simple u'urm water, and after the suppuration has entirely ceased, the same fluid applied in a cold state, in order to strengthen the surrounding parts. Abscesses, which are formed on any of the more important organs of life, such as the brain, the lungs, liver, &c % are particularly to be dreaded ; as, by bursting, and dis- charging their contents into the con- tiguous cavities, they frequently oc- casion instantaneous death. From neglect, or mismanagement, ab- scesses sometimes terminate in mor- tification, or Gangrene ; which sub- je6t will be farther discussed under the head of INFLAMMATION. Absinthium vulgare. See Arte- inisiaAlshith'unTi, L. orMucwoRT. ABSTINENCE may be denned, the habit ot refraining from what is either useful, agreeable, or perni- cious ; and may be divided into ge- neral and particular. In the former sene, it ma}' signify a certain pri*- vation, whereby the senses are mor- tified, and die passions restrained. In the latter, it is confined to the exclusion of certain substances; at ABS stated times and seasons, in com- pliance either with the customs of particular countries, or witii reli- gious precepts. There is, also, an- other sense, in which the term absti- nence denotes the limitation of any usual indulgence, for die purpose of preserving health, and removing the consequences of excess. In the religious institutions of all countries, we find many regulations on fhis subject. The Mosaic Law forbids the eating of animals that were strangled, die use of swine's flesh, the exercise of daily labour on die Sabbath, &c. The Christian system more particularly enjoins die discipline of the passions, and an abstinence from those pleasures which have a tendency to degrade our nature. In England, particular days have been appointed, called vigils and fasts, in which flesh is prohibited, and fish enjoined : this, however, being more a political re- striction tiian a religious obligation, was first ena6ted in the reign of Queen ELIZABETH, widi a view to encourage our fisheries. The effects of abstinence in the preservation of health, and die cure of diseases, are, by many physici- ans, stated to be remarkable. Dr. E. MILLER, of New- York, in his Original Observations, relates that, in a distri6t of the United States, which is particularly obnoxious to epidemic diseases, the febrile attack is often obviated and diminished by a rigid abstinence from food ; and die celebrated SYDENHAM declares, that he has often cured the synocha, or inflammatory fever, and other fevers, byprescribing diluent drinks, and prohibiting every kind of ali- ment, even, to use their own words, " for two or three dui/s." The me- thod, in this respect, adopted by Dr. MILLER, was to commence hi* plan ABS plan of abstinence on the first sensa- tions of indisposition, and continue it on some occasions for 9 period of twenty-four, and even forty-eight, hours, until these feelings had sub- sided, the appetite was restored, and the calls of hunger become not only frequent, but even importunate. He concludes his interesting re- marks with an aphorism, " That in those particular states of the body, which denote the approach, and at the commencement, of acute diseases, the strict observance of a rigid and continued abstinence has been pro- ductive of the most beneficial ef- fects." The late celebrated author of the " Elementa Medecince," Dr. BROWN, has, in that work, parti- cularly enjoined it, as one of the means to be employed in the pre- vention and cure of sthenic, or in- flammatory .diseases ; and he de- clares that the cynanche tonsillaris, or inflammatory sore throat, and the catarrh, or common cold at- tended with hoarseness, may often be cured by abstinence alone. Men of genius, and persons who lead sedentary lives, are more espe- cially benefited by occasional ab- stinence ; as these, from the want of vigorous exercise, and their in- tense application, are generally the severest sufferers from diseases of repletion. In the observance of die rules of abstinence, due attention must always be paid to the age, strength, constitution, and habit of the patient. With regard to the total absti- nence of the sexes from sensual grati- fications, it should be observed in this place, that it may, though rarely, be attended with serious effects ; yet these seldom, if ever, take place in those who live regularly, and do .not encourage libidinous ideas ; - and A C A [ 9 that bodi males and females would undoubtedly derive greater benefit from total continence, till marriage, tiian by an indulgence in venery : in die former case, tiiey would not only in a great measure contribute to tiieir vigour of body and mind, but also to the prolongation of life. Of the brute animals, many are remarkable for their long abstinence from food, such as die serpent, the rattle- snake, tortoise, bear, dor- mouse, elephant, &c. Instances may also be found, of men who have been abstemious to a degree almost incredible ; and ex- perience has demonstrated tiiat, from habit and use, the power of abstinence may be either increased or diminished. Some persons will bear the attacks of hunger witiiout any visible marks of impatience, while in others, a mere temporary privation will occasion die most ur- gent and distressing symptoms. See die article FASTS. ACACIA, in botany, Egyptian thorn ; according to LINNJKDS, is a species of mimosa, growing in Egypt. It is also to be found in Nordi America, and is tiiere called the locust-tree. Its culture is not diffi- cult. It delights more in a dry, sandy, and elevated soil, but may be raised in any, either from seeds or slips. Its uses are various; as it is applied botii to domestic and medicinal purp. An inspissated juice of its fruit, of a dark colour and firm consist- ence, has been brought to us from Egypt : v, hen dissolved, it is used in any convenient liquor for reliev- ing spittings of blood, complaints of die eyes, and quinsies. The leaves of acacia are said to afford an agreeable nourishment to horses and horned catde. They maj 10] AC A -s given, either green or dry, alone or mixed, with hay or chop- ped straw. The flowers of the acacia are used by the Chinese in making that beau- tiful yellow with which they stain their silks and stuffs, and colour their paper, in the following man- ner : take half a pound of these flowers before they are fully blown, and roast them over a clear and gentle fire in a very clean copper pan, continually stirring them with a brisk motion ; when they begin to turn yellow, pour on a little wa- ter, and let it boil till it become thick, and acquire a deeper colour ; then strain the whole through a piece of coarse silk. To the liquor thus expressed, add half an ounce of alum, and one ounce of calcined and finely-powdered oyster-shells : when the whole is well mixed, it will be fit for use. The origin of the bezoar has been attributed to the seeds of this plant, which being browsed by certain ani- mals, have, by their great acidity and astringent qualities, caused a condensation of the juices of the stomach, and .produced this cele- brated concrete. The acacia, or locust-tree of North America, has been applied to various parts of ship-building : and several gentlemen in the State of New- York have, after repeated trials, found, that posts for rail- i" this tree, have -,-d tiie influence of the weather better than any other timber, the swamp c i not excepted. In England, the acacia tree is an exotic, and, on account of its being imported from a warmer climate, d to be of a tender and delicate nature, and has therefore propagated iu a luxurious soil. ACI Thus, as it grows remarkably fast, it not only becomes less firm and tenacious, but is very apt to split, and lose large branches : it may not, therefore, be so well adapted to the various purposes of building as those American trees, which arc of a slower growth, and cultivated in a poorer soil, where they have suf- ficient time to arrive at maturity. Acer cnmpcstre, L. See COM- MON MAPLE. Acer pseudo-platanus, L. See SY- CAMORE TREE. Aihillea mill.efolium, L. See MIL- FOIL, or COMMON YARROW. ACIDS are obtained from vege- table and mineral substances, either by fermentation or distillation. The vegetable acids, however, such as the juice of limes and le- mons, are frequently procured with- out the aid of art. They are of a saponaceous consistence, and there- fore, in a variety of affections, emi- nently adapted to the human consti- tution. With respect to their gene- ral effects, it may be said that they attenuate the fluids, remove obstruc- tions, stimulate the appetite, pro- mote digestion, quench thirst, and, in hot seasons, counteract the pu- trid tendency of the animal hu- mours : they afford an excellent remedy in pectoral, bilious, and in- flammatory diseases, but particu- larly in the true scurvy, as like- wise in all maladies of the kidneys ; and are the most effectual antidotes against the narcotic vegetable poi- sons. Thus, a most powerful dose of opium may be checked in its so- porific effects, if a proper quantity of the acid of lemons be taken with, or immediately after it. For in- stance, four grains of opium, or one hundred drops of laudanum, form a large, and sometimes .fatal, dose$ but ACI but if one ounce of pure lemon- juice, or twice that quantity of good vinegar, be added to every grain of opium, or to twenty-five drops of Jaudanum, we ran declare from ex- perience, that such a compound will produce a very different effect. In- stead of stupifying the head, and producing troublesome costiveness, it will not only relieve the bowels, but also occasion a degree of chear- fulness never attainable by the use of opium alone, or strong liquors, and afterwards induce a composed and refreshing sleep. Hence the use of acids, to persons who are ha- bitually obliged to take considerable doses of opiates, cannot be too strongly recommended. In the f:;r:n of clysters, the nu'ld vegetable acids, such as vinegar diluted with an equal quantity of cold water, are a safe and efre&ual remedy for cos- tive habits : and few persons will be inclined -to doubt their good ef- fects, when sprinkled about the floors and walls of rooms inhabited by patients labouring under putrid disorders, especially in the heat of summer. As a proper substitute for die acid of lemons, we refer to the article BARBERRIES. The mineral acids, however, are productive of very different t when applied in a diluted state to the human body, whether extern::!!}- or internally, they generally contract, and gently stimulate, the animal fibre ; but, in a concentrated form, violently stimulate, corrode, and destroy its texture. With respett to their comparative activity, the nitric acid, or aqua fortis, is the most volatile ; the vitriolic acid, the most diffusible ; and the marine acid, or spirit of salt, perhaps the most active and permanent in its ef- fects on the human system. Hence the last has lately been used byDr.K E i c H, AGO [n of Erlang, in Germany, widi unex- ampled success, in the cure of die true typhus, or putrid nervous fe- ver, after all other remedies had proved ineffectual. This bold prac- titioner did not hesitate to give die muriatic acid, diluted with the smallest possible quantity of water, to an extent almost exceeding be- lief ; though his cures appear to be sufficiently attested by the Royal College of Physicians at Berlin. The particulars of these extraordinary facts, we propose to lay before die public under die head of FEVER. ACORNS, or the seeds of the oak, diough not at present an ar- ticle of human subsistence, yet, if we may credit the testimony of an- cient writers, funned no small part of the diet of die ancient Germans and Britons ; and die desire to pos- sess what was then considered as a talle delicacy, was often a cause of hostilities between various nations. They have seldom been used for medicinal purposes. We have, how- ever, the testimony of several foreign practitioners in their favour, and espe.cially that of Dr. MARX. In de- scribing die valuable properties of aconi-coffee, he asserts that this preparation has often cured obstruc- tions arising from an accumulation of mucus in die viscera, and re- moved nervous complaints, when all other remedies have been tried in vain. The following is his me- thod of preparing the rmni-crifl'ee: Take sound and ripe acorns, peel off dieir shells or husks, divide the kernels, and, after gradually drying, roast diem in a close vessel, keeping them in continual motion. In this process, however, particular atten- tion should be paid, that they may not be burnt, or roasted to excess. Take of the powder, when ground like odier coffee, half an ounce, or about AGO about four small tea-spoon Tails every morning and evening ; using it ei- ther alone or mixed with one tea- spoon full of real coffee, and sweet- ening it with suc;.ir. This kind of coffee has, by the frugal hou=e-wife, been employed ns an article of domestic economy, but has not obtained general sanc- tion ; nor do we pledge ourselves for its medicinal efficacy ; though several foreign practitioners affirm that it is an excellent remedy in asthmatic, and other pectoral com- plaints. Acorns possess an astringent qua- lity, which may be extracted by steeping them in cold water, or boiling them. On expression, they also afford an oil, which may be ad- vantageously used in the burning of lamps. In the year 1750, an ingenious gentleman, Mr. ELLIS, invented a method of preserving acorns for a considerable time, and of retaining in them the power of vegetation, by encasing them in wax. In this man- ner, they may be transported to dis- tant climates, and preserved in a fresh state for several years ; so that they can be transplanted with hopes of success. Lastly, acorns afford a very pro- per and nutritious food for hogs, which are readily fattened by their use : and we are farther convinced, from their analogy to the horse- chesnut, thnr, by depriving them, of their husks, soaking them care- fully in several infusions of fresh water, then drying and reducing them to rlour, tiiey would, in times of scarcity, serve as a tolerable sub- stitute for bread-corn; for by this simple, though troublesome, pro- most of die astringent vege- tables lose their acrid and bitter taste. ACR Acorns Calamus, L. See SWEET FLAG. ACRE, a denomination used in the measurement of land : an acre consists of four square roods, each containing 40 perches, or poles. In different countries it varies, accord- in 4 to die length. of the pole, which is from \6\ to 28 feet. It is, also, divided into ten square chains, of twenty-two yards each, or 4S4O square yards. According to Dr. GREW, the number of acres in Eng- land amounts to 46,08O,OOO. Acfcen Spicata, L. See HERB CHRISTOPHER. Acton Water. See MINERAL WATERS. ACUTE DISEASES are such as are either attended with inflamma- tion, or other urgent symptoms, which bring on an early crisis, and render them dangerous in their con- sequence : hence they are opposed to chronic diseases, or those which, though of slower progress, may ne- vertheless terminate in dissolution. As the former are more in need of the immediate assistance of art, we shall state the most proper methods of treating them in their commence- ment, as well as the suitable diet and regimen to be observed in them, under the different heads of APO- PLEXY, ASTHMA (suffocative), CHO- LERA MORBUS, COLICS, CONVUL- SIONS, CRAMPS or SPASMS, EPI- LEPSY, FEVERS (inflammatory), FRACTURES, HYDROPHOBIA, IN- FLAMMATIONS, &rc. &c. ADDER, in zoology, a name for the viper. As this reptile is well known in most parts of England, a particular description of it is unne- cessary ; but as accidents frequently happen by its bite, we shall present our readers with a list of the most esteemed remedies to be resorted to on such occasions, together with seme some account of this animal, and the means of destroying it, under the article VIPER. Adder-stung is used in respect to catde, when stung by any kind of venomous reptiles, as adders, scor- pions, &:c. or when bit by a hedge- hog or shrew. For die cure of such bites, some persons use an ointment made of dragon's blood, with a little barley-meal and die whites of eggs. Adderwort. See GREAT BIS- TORT, or Poly gonitni Bistorta, L. Adonis Autumnalis, L. SeePHEA- SAXT'S EYE. Adoxa Muschatdlina, L. See TUBEROUS MOSCHATEL. ADULTERATION is die cor- ruption, or debasement by an im- proper mixture, of any substance that was originally in a pure state. This art, tiiough not unknown to the ancients, has in modern times been carried to a great extent; inso- much that we are sorry to observe, die rules and principles upon which so pernicious a practice is founded, are considered as qualifications es- sential to those persons who supply others as well witii die common ne- cessaries, as die luxuries, of life. We are, indeed, provided witii ex- cellent laws against adulterations ; but crafty and avaricious dealers take frequent opportunities, eidier of eluding die vigilance and severity of justice, or of concealing tiieir nefa- rious practices in so skilful a man- ner, as to render their detection ex- tremely difficult, and sometimes im- possible. We shall, tiierefore, con- sider it as our duty to point out those articles which are most liable to diis species of fraud. They may be found under die different heads of BEER, BREAD, COFFEE, HAIR- POWDER, HONEY, OIL, SNUFF, SPIRITS, TEA, TOBACCO, VINE- CAR^ WAS, WINE, c. &c. ADVERTISEMENT, generally, signifies any information given to those \vho are interested in a com- mon concern. It more particularly alludes to a short account of an af- fair inserted in a public newspaper. We should scarcely have noticed this article, had it not been with a view to caution the unwary, and animadvert upon die fraudulent practices to which the advertise- ments of the present day are fre- quently subservient ; for instance, those of money-lenders, servants'- orfice keepers, agents for place-men, adventurers, marriage-brokers, and other unprincipled individuals, who prey upon die credulity of die public. Hence we venture to suggest an opinion, that it would be more con- ducive to the interests of society, if die public prints were subjected to some regulations in diis respect ; and that no advertisement could be inserted, without being authenti- cated before a magistrate. By diis precaution, the editor and printer of a newspaper, who sometimes be- come the innocent accomplices of fraud or swindling, would be se- cured against die attempts of dio.se who frequently avail themselves of tin's mode of publication, to make it a vehicle for falsehood and depre- dation. Aegopodinm Podagraria, L. See GOUT-WEED, or HERB-GERARD. Aesailus HippocasttMttm, L. See HORSE-CHESXUT, and FLOUR. ./ETHER, a term formerly used to signify a tiiin subtle matter, finer than air, and completely filling die whole space of the firmament. Various opinions have been held respecting its precise nature : by some it is supposed to be a fluid of a peculiar kind, and confined to die regions above our atmosphere ; by ethers, a substance so subtle and peuc- penetrating, ns to be intimately dif- fused through the air, and to insinu- ate itself into the pores of all other bodies. I is existetji r, has denied by many, who assert he air, bv its tenuity and ex- pansir.n, i> fully sufficient for the I ioned puq "NVbare<. . nres may be formed concerning the nnture and ''tie fluid, there is every ren-on to brlirve in ihe ex- istence of a matter fl"?r thr-n the air itself. Si- ISAAC NKWTOX has observed, that heat com- municated through;' cannot take place without the inter- vention of some other medium. This, being subde enough to pene- trate even through die pores of glass, may readily be conceived to be ca- pable of pervading all other bodies, and diffusing itself through every part of space : and thus it conveys a complete idea of an aediereal fluid. /Ether is now principally consi- dered as a chemical composition. It is a combination of vitriolic acid and spirits of wine, and is used for a variety of medical purposes. The hcad-ach is said to have been often cured by rubbing it on the temples ; and Dr. CONYJ;KS declares, that a tca-yjioo;; iV.'n applied to the affected jaw, and repeated till the pain ceases, is a nc\er-lr':ling remedy for the . . i^o been used in cases of rheumatism, gout, and hooping-cough, with great success. In a paroxysm of sulfocative asth- ma, and all diose diseases where the organs of respiration are affect- ed, half a tea-spoon full of vitriolic fether in a table-spoon full of water, quickly swallowed and occasionally repeated, has often produced instant ie simple evaporation of diis volatile fluid, a spoonful of \vhu.;. i at a time iu a AFF shallow yessel contiguous to the pa- lias frequently been found of great service, and, alleviated the most distressing shortness of breath, A combination of spirit of sea- salt widi the flowers of zinc, pro- duces the marine rether. JEtkusa C'jiiapiant, L. See FOOL'S PARSLEY. AFFLICTION, as opposed to a state of joy and prosperity, cannot be called a disease, though when indulged to excess, it may be pro- ductive of many mental and bodily affections. For -whatever temL to excite anger, hatred, envy, &c. cannot fail to bring on disorders - from tense or rigid fibres ; as, 0:1 die contrary, fear, grief, and ive joy, engender those inn- ladies which are die consequence of relaxation. Hence we cannot be too much on our guard against die invasion of passions, which may be truly styled die greatest enemies of mankind. Lord BOLINGBROKE, in his Letters " on the study and use of history," gives the following pertinent advice : " Let us set all our past and our pre- sent afflictions at once before our . Let us resolve to overcome diem, instead of shrinking from the contest, or of wearing out the sense of them, by long and ignominious patience. Instead of palliating re- medies, let us use die incision-knife and die caustic ; probe die wound to the bottom, and work ai\ imme- diate and radical cure." Uninter- rupted misen% continues this stoic philosopher, has this good effect, that, as it continually torments, it \s the sufferer. slfler-Birth. See MIDWIFERY. AGARIC of the oak, or the ,:usQuercbms,Ij. is well known as a styptic, when applied to exter- nal wounds, M. ADOUILLET, an eminent AGE Eminent French surgeon, has em- ployed it, instead of ligatures, on the arteries, in cases of amputation, by applying small pieces of it to the mouths of these vessels, and after- wards covering the stump with lint. This species of agaric may be usefully employed for the purpose of dying silks of a black colour : to succeed in the experiment, it ought to be cut in small pieces, and boiled in a solution of copperas, over a gentle tire, till the dye be sufficiently strong. ' Another species of agaric, namely, the common puff-lall, has, by far- riers also, been used as a styptic : and, in an experiment made a horse, it completely stopped, in a few minutes, a hemorrhage from one of the largest arteries. The wound afterwards healed, without any farther discharge. We cannot, on this occasion, omit to remark, that persons living in retired situations, and particularly those employed in husbandry, as well as artizans working with sharp instruments, ought always to be pro- vided with some styptic, which, at a distance from medical aid, and in a moment of emergency, may some- times save an useful animal, and even the life of a fellow-creature, by its timely application. The efficacy of agaric, as a styptic for external wounds, has, however, been disputed by Mr. NEALE, a surgeon of the London Hospital, who published some observations on the subject, in the year 1757. He asserts, that he has seen it used on several occasions, and frequently employed it himself, without effect, nay, to the detriment of the patient. Agaricus Muscarius, L. See MUSKY MUSHROOM. AGE signifies any period of du- jation. It is indiscriminately used A G I I'S to express many objects and situa- tions, but is more frequently ap- plied to the tatter or advanced perif, or the dry windy dropsy. A small tube with a cock having a valve on its side, and so constructed as to turn quickly, is affixed to the common clystering machine. Upon , each successive introduction, the cock must be turned, in order to admit the air into the tube, and then quickly closed. Air which is rarefied, ascends. This is particularly exemplified in the periodical sea and land breezes of hot climates; where, in conse- quence of die reflection of the sun from the earth's unequal surface, the lower land-air becomes highly rarefied, and rises into the upper at- mosphere, while the sea-air, being cool and dense, rushes in to- supply its place. Upon this principle, M. VAN MARUM, a Dutch chemist, has discovered a method of purifying assembly-rooms by a tin tube of nine inches diameter, and ten ft rt length, to the lower surface of. which lamps are suspended, for the purpose of rarefying the. air, and urging it to ascend through the deling of the room. Dr. HALES has described the useful effects produced in French prisons, by long air-trunks fixed through the cielings of wards in gaols, to carry off the foul vapours which exhale from the prisoners : he declares that it lias not only pre- served many of their lives, but pre- vented them from communicating infectious distempers to persons as- sembled in the courts of judicature.. We AIR "We are happy to add, that this va- luable improvement has also been adopted in this country. An apparatus invented by Mr. SALMON, of Canterbury, for the- ex- pulsion of noxious air from wells, has been employed with consider- able success. Air-balloons are constructed upon similar principles ; they continue to ascend, so long as the inflammable gas with which they are filled be lighter than the atmosphere with which they are surrounded. Noxious and mephitic vapours, arising from wells and other sub- terraneous places, may be effectually corre6ted by simple ventilation, or the admission of such portions of vital air as will render the whole sufficiently respirable. To ascertain whether the air of a mine, well, cellar, or large cask, be safe, a lighted candle, suspended by a cord, ought to be conveyed to the bottom, before any person ven- ture to 'approach it. Should a slight explosion take place, or the light burn dimly, or even be extinguished, the air is certainly noxious ; but if the flame continue bright, no danger is to be apprehended. Another easy expedient of puri- fying foul air may be adopted, by pouring several vessels of boiling water into sxich receptacle.?, before any person be suffered to descend. A still better method of dispel- ling the deleterious air from deep wells or pits, is the following: take a leather tube of sufficient length to reach to the bottom of the shaft or cellar ; fix the nozle of a pair of large bellows to the top, and work them briskly for a few minutes : thus fresh air will be introduced, the flame of the candle, on trial, w.i not be extinguished, and we may descend without any danger. AIR Artisans who are employed over charcoal- fire, such as dyers, gilders, refiners of metals, &rc. are exposed to considerable danger from the vi- tiated state of the air : to avert the injury to \vhicli their lungs are thus exposed, it would be advisable to place near them a flat-bottomed vessel filled with lime-water, and to renew it every other day, or so often as a variegated film or pellicle appear floating on such water. This powerfully attracts and absorbs the pernicious exhalations produced from the burning of charcoal. Likewise, in the construction of chemical laboratories, smelting- mills, and similar offices, proper attention ought to be paid to their five and constant ventilation ; as the merallic fumes, and other noxious vapours which they generate, are highly detrimental to health. In chronic diseases, especially these of the lungs, a change of air is strongly recommended. It has sometimes, independently of any other circumstance, proved highly beneficial ; inasmuch as patiem.s have breathed more freely, even though removed to a damp and con- fined situation. The following places in the vici- nity of London, have been found in the spring season to be most conge- nial to consumptive persons, viz. Camberwell, Peckham, the lower parts of Clapham, the drier parts of Lambeth, Battersea, Fulham, Chel- sea, &c. As the more temperate season advances, the higher situa- tions, such as Paddington, Penton- ville, Hampstead, Highgate, &c. may then be resorted to with ad- vantage. Aim Cesjritosa, L. See TURFY HAIR GRASS. AIR-BATH, in its general ac- ceptation, implies a contrivance for C 4 the '4] A IR the reception refresh air. AH per- sons, but especially children, ought to resort, at least for a short time, eve rij Aay to this method of enjoying the salubrious influence of that uni- versal agent. To persons of a robust and vi- gorous habit, we cannot recommend a more bracing and pleasant reme- dy. In tl.is place, however, we snail give only an historical sketch of the simple air-bath, without ex- patiating on its nature and effects. Its benefits were first pointed out by the late illustrious FRANKLIN, who describes it with his peculiar simplicity, in the following words : " Every morning at day-break I get out of bed, and pass half an hour, or an hour, in my chamber, accord- ing to the season, in writing or reading, without any clothes ; and this sf cms rather pleasant than otherwise : and if I return to bed, as is sometimes the case, before I dress myself, I have an addition to my night's rest of one or two hours fcleep, sweeter than you can ima- gine." The late Lord MONBOBDO, aman of an amiable., though eccentric cha- racter, was so decided an advocate for the air-bath, that he accustomed himself to take violent exercise, when quite undressed, in the open air. In this practice he persevered till within a few years of hi death (which happened in May. 1 799) ; he also anointed his body, like the ancients, with aromatic oils, espe- cially in a moist and heavy atmos- phere. Whether by these singular expedients, or by a frugal and phi- losophic mode of life, he enjoyed that extraordinary degree of mental serenity and bodily energy, which prolonged his exihtence to the 90th year of age, we shall not pretend to decide. AIR AIR-JACKET, a dress made of leather, in which are contained se- veral bags or bladders, composed of the same materials, and communi- cating with each other. These arc filled with air blown through a lea- ther tube, having a brass stop-cock, accurately ground at its extremity. In order to confine this elastic fluid, the jacket must previously be wet- ted; and thus the person is sup- ported in the water without any ef- fort, by the aid of these bladders placed near the breast. Those who are proficients in the art of swim- ming, condemn such artificial as- sistance as cannot always be readily procured : in our opinion, the most proper and easy method of acquir- ing this useful talent, is that men- tioned by Dr. STRUVE, in his Ger- man treatise on the Physical Educa- tion of Children, lately published, with three Introductory Lectures by the Editor of this Encyclopaedia. See the article SWIMMIXG. Alx-la-Chapdle. See MINERAL WATERS. ALABASTER, is a species of stone, the basis of which is calcare- ous earth. Mixed with any acid, no effervescence takes place ; in this respect it differs from .marble, but in its chemical properties it re- sembles gypsum, selenite, and plas- ter of Paris. There are three species of alabaster: the white- shining ; the yellowish ; and the variegated, a mixture of yellow and red. The last indeed, violently ferments with aqua-fortis, and burns to a pale yellow. It was formerly brought from Egypt, but is now obtained in several parts of England. Mr, BOYLE, speaking of the first sort, says, that, if finely powdered, and set in a bason over the fire, it will, when hot, assume the appear- ance of a fluid, roiling in waves, yield- ALA yielding to the smallest touch, and emitting vapour. On the depar- ture of the heat, it loses these pro- perties, and again heroines a mere incoherent powder. So great is the transparency of this stone, that it has sometimes been employed for windows, and at Florence a church still receives its light through the medium of alabaster. It is found in the greatest abundance near Co- blentz, in Germany $ near Cluni, in France ; near Rome, in Italy 5 and in some places of Lorrain. Alabaster, or marble, may be cleaned by the following process : beat pumice stones to an impalpa- ble powder, and mix it tip with \ i. ".-juice : let it stand for two hours, then dip into it a sponge, and rub the marble or alabaster, wash it \vith a linen cloth and fresh water, and dry it with clean linen rags. ALARUM, a term employed to signify any instrument, or contri- vance, for the purpose of awaken- ing persons from sleep, at a certain hour, or of alarming them when exposed to danger. In the former sense, it is generally a part of clock- work, and deserves here no far- ther notice; but, in the latter, we strongly recommend the utility of alarums to every family, whether living iu towns, or in solitary situa- tions in the country. Many ingenious suggestions have been devised, for affording security to the industrious, against the au- dacious attempts of house-breakers : the most common of these are, hanging bells to die windows, or larger bells and rattles kept in readi- ness for giving early notice to the watchman absent from his duty, or to the peaceful neighbour whose aid is required. In the year 1/71, Mr. HENRY ALB' [2> invented a curious alarum, which was highly approved of by Sir JOHN FIELDING. All burglaries being perpetrated at night, this piece of mechanism deserves peculiar en- couragement. On being 11:; ed up by a bell-hanger, with wives f;i.-,h-n- cd to the. windows and doors, it will, upon the least attempt to break into the house, go off with a noise sufficient to awaken the family. As every dock-maker is acquainted wi'h the construction of this alarum, we think it unnecessary to give a particular description. ALBUMEN, properly signifies the white of ah egg, but has lately been used in chemistry, to denote likewise one of those elementary constituents of vegetable bodies, which, in its colour and properties, bears an exact resemblance to the animal substance known under this denomination. The white of eggs, if taken warm from the hen, especially in luke- warm milk, is uncommonly nou- rishing to the weak and infirm ; but, when boiled hard, its nutritive quality is in a great measure de- stroyed, and it then becomes veiy difficult of digestion. If the white of a fresh egg be ap- plied to burns, immediately aiur the accident, it generally prevents them from rising in blisters : it also tends to abate recent inflammation of the eyes, when spread upon suit, linen, and placed over the parts af- fected. Used as a lotion on the face, it preserves it from sun-burn- ing or freckles, in the heat of sum- mer. On the contrary, a very small portion of the white of an egg, if swallowed in a putrid state, is at- tended with dreadful effects ; such as nausea, horror, fainting, vomit- ing, diarrhoea, and gripes, accom- panied ALB panted by heat, thirst and fever, while it inflames, or violently sti- mulates the bile, and, not unlike the plague, promotes a speedy dissolu- tion of the humours. It is remarkable that, according to BOERHAAVE, the white of eggs was employed by the reputed PARA- CELSUS, as a menstruum of extraor- dinary properties ; and which greatly contributed to his fame. When boiled hard in the shell, and then suspended in the air by a thread, it dissolves and drops down into a flavourless liquor; which, though destitute of acrid, oily, or sapona- ceous ingredients, makes a more perfect solution of myrrh than either water, oil, spirits, or even lire itself can effect. In domestic economy, the white of eggs is usefully employed for clarifying ale, wine, &c. for which purpose it should be mixed with the liquor, and the whole boiled together: thus all the gross particles of the latter will subside, or be carried off with the former, which, by this process, is reduced to a concrete state, and is either precipitated, or combined with, the feculent ingredients of the liquid. The vegetable albumen is one of those primary constituents of plants, which may be separated by che- mical aid, without undergoing any change of their native or inherent qualities. It is found principally in cresses, scurvy-grass, hemlock, and most abundantly in the anti- scorbutic and narcotic plants, where it generally resides in the leaves, its existence may be easily disco- vered, by mixing the freshly ex- pressed juice of these plants with ?-pirits of wine, or by macerating them with hot water, nearly to the boiling point: iu both cases, the ALC albumen will be coagulated and separated from the other fluids in the form of cheesy matter. It is, perhaps, superfluous to observe, that this vegeto-animal production may in times of scarcity serve as a proper substitute for the white of eggs - } it being possessed of similar proper- ties. See the article EGGS. sllcali. See ALKALI. Alcea rosca, L. See HOLLY* HOCK and PAPER. AlchemiMa vulgaris,Ij. See COM- MON LADIES' MANTLE. ALCHEMY is die art of trans- muting metals into gold, or chang- ing the inferior, into more precious ores. It was formerly much culti- vated, and held in high estimation by fanatics, as well as by many learned but deluded men : in later times, however, it has been almost generally exploded, and is now pur- sued only by crafty impostors. The ruin which frequently at- tended this popular delusion, be- came so extensive, that alchemy has, at various times, been pro- scribed in several states. The Ro- mans banished such persons as pro- fessed it; and DIOCLT.SIAN and CAESAR ordered all books on this subject to be publicly burned. In England it hns, at no period, been much encouraged ; for the native good sense of our countrymen gene- rally prevailed, so that this xiseless art has, by the more enlightened, always been considered in its true colours. ALCOHOL, in chemistry, signi- fies spirit of wine, in a more nrdcnt and purified state, obtained by dis- tillation. Its specific gravity is to that of distilled water, as 315 to 1000. "When diluted, in the proportion of about twenty ounces to seventeen of w.ater/it is cnlled proof spirit, and- is used ALD used for tinctures, distilled cordi- als, 8cc. See die article, SPIRIT of WINE. ALDER-TREE, or the Betnla of LINNAEUS, is so well known by the name of common birch, as to re- quire no particular description. There are three species, 1 . the alba, or common ; 2. the nana, or dwarf; and 3. the Icnta, or Canada-birch : the^last of which grows to a height of upwards of sixty feet. The al- nus, or alder-tree, is, properly speak- ing, another species of the Canada- birch. When sufiered to grow in an open situation, it has an agree- able appearance. Whenever any soil be intended for pasture, the al- der should by no means be encou- raged, as it poisons the herbage, and renders the soil moist and rotten. The al'ca, or common birch, is easily propagated ; either from seeds or layers, and will flourish in most soils. While in the nursery, they should, in dry weather, be con- stantly weeded and watered. Ac- cording to HANBURY, the be.^t method of producing diem, and preserving their varieties, is by dis- tributing diem in layers. The wood of this tree was, in ancient times, used for ,tiie con- struction of boats, and at present, on account of its hardness, is em- ployed in the North of Europe for making carriages and wheels. In France, it is generally used for wooden shces ; and in England, for women's shoe-heels, travelling boxes, .Sec.; it also affords very good fuel. In Sweden it is employed lor cover- ing houses, and is very durable. On deeply wounding, or boring the trunk of this tree, in the beginning of spring, a sweetish juice exudes in large quantities ; and one branch alone will yield a gallon in a 'day. This juice is recommended iu scor- A T;E butie disorders, and other impuri- ties of die blood. Its most sensible effect is in promodng the urinary discharge. By proper fermentation, and with the addition of sugar, it makes a pleasant wine. The plant itself is astringent, but the bark of the black berry-bearing alder, is af- firmed to be die most certain purge for horned cattle. The leaves, when eaten by cows, are said greatly to increase their milk. ALE, a fermented liquor, extract- ed from malt by die process of brew- ing. It differs from beer, in having a less proportion of hops. This be- verage was first made in Egypt, and used as a substitute in diose climates which were unfavourable to the pro- duction of die grape. Among die Anglo-Saxons and Danes, it was a favourite drink, and they believed, that large and frequent potations of it constituted one of the chief enjoy- ments of diose who were admitted into the H::!l of Odin. There are various kinds of ale, particularly die pale and brown j the former, 'being brewed from malt slight lv roasited, is esteemed more glutinous and *vh,olesome tiian the latter, which is made from malt of a drier nature. It may be prepared in various ways, from wheat, rye, millet, oats, barley, &:c. Its con- sumption in this country was, about twenty years ago, computed at die value, of four millions sterling an- nually, including Great Britain and Ireland. See die articles, BEER, and BREWING. In cold countries, and to persons who take considerable exercise, ale may be of service, but in weak and hx habits, it is often attended widi disagreeable effects, such as indiges- tion, flatulency, &c. When drunk to excess, it has sometimes occasioned cholera mor tun f and severe colics. Various 84] AL'E Various methods of preserving this valuable liquor from turning sour on long voyages, have been proposed ; of which the following appears to be the most effectual : it was first pub- lished by Dr. STUBBS, in the 27th Number of the Philosophical Trans- actions. For its discovery we, are in- debted to an ale-seller at Deal ; and it was tried with success in a voyage to Jamaica "To every runlet of five gallons, after being placed in a -;isk w o R T, the Stnchi/s palustris, L. is an indigenous plant, growing on the sides of rivers and lakes, in low, moist grounds, and sometimes in corn fields. It is re- presented and described in CURTIS'S Flora Londinensis , pi. 8, p. 248. This plant has a fetid smell, and bitter taste. Formerly it was em- ployed in medicine as a vulnerary ; but at present we shall confine our account to its economical purposes. LINXJEUS, the illustrious author of the prevailing system of botany, informs us, in his account of escu- lent plants, that the creeping roots of the all-heal are sought after with avidity by hogs ; and that, from their farinaceous nature, they would well repay the trouble of collecting and converting them into flour, for the purpose of making bread. In the present distressing condition of the industrious poor, we feel it our duty to take particular notice of all such substitutes as would, if properly and timely resorted to, ia a great mea- sure tend to avert or relieve a nati- onal calamity. See BREAD. Al Hum. See GARLICK. ALLSPICE, Pimento, or Jamaica pepper. The berry, in its smell, resembles a mixture of cinnamon, nutmegs, and cloves, whence it has derived its name. It is milder than the East India pepper, and, when employed in whole grains, makes an useful ingredient in broth, and stewed dishes. In medicine, it forms the basis of a distilled water, a spi- rit and aa essential oil; in whicji different A L M forms it is efficaciously employed as an aromatic, for cold and phlegmatic habits. See the ar- ticle Sricfis. ALMANACK, a term derived .from two Arabic words, al and ma- iiack, a diary; and is, as its name im- ports, a table or register containing a calendar of days and months, the vising and setting of the sun, fheage of the moon, and the eclipses of these luminaries. It is also used to fore- tel the change of seasons, the state of the weather, the ebb and flow of the tide, &c. Almanacks are much esteemed by the superstitious Arabians, who never sow, reap, plant, travel, or, in short, undertake any enterprize, without consulting them. Since their introduction into Europe, about the middle of die fifteenth century, they have also been adopted in this country, where they generally are interspersed with a number of astro- logical rules and regulations. To these, have been added, various as- tronomical, meteorological, chrono- logical, political, and economical articles, but they are seldom selected with critical discernment, or adapt- ed to moral and physical improve- ment. A great number of such dia- ries are annually printed in Bri- tain ; and we unders'.and, that of the celebrated Moore* Alumna* k, notwithstanding all the superstitious notions perpetuated in this popular book, not less than 4()0,OCX) copies :-i'.v, every year, ushered into public notice. It is, therefore, sincerely to be wished, that such publications as are addressed immediately to the bulk of the people, may in future idered the vehicles of more i <>'- iiifonuniion. Hence we pre- sume to remark, that an annual publication, conducted upou the A LM plan of Poor Richard's Almanack, in Pennsylvania, wcukl he attended with great advantages, both to the husbandman and mechanic, in this country. The great FHANKLIX, who is said to have edited that popular work for many years, furnished it with various sentences and pro- verbs, principally relating to sub- jects of industry, domestic economy, and frugality. ALMOND, a tree, eminent both for its fruit, and for the ornament which it affords to a shrubbery. It is the original of the ancient genus t&nygdalus, and by the botanic cha- racters of the flowers, comprehends also the peach and nectarine. Bota- nists admit but of one real species of the common almond tree, which they term Amygdalus communis. . Not being indigenous, we shall omit its particular description, and pro- ceed to state the properties and effects of its fruit on the human body. Sweet almonds are supposed to afford but Hi tie nourishment, and are not easily digested, unles.s tho- roughly triturated. Six or eight of them peeled and eaten, sometime* give immediate relief in the heart- burn. In medicine, they are chiefly used for preparing cnuil-.ioj.-s, as they abound not only with an oil, but likewise with a mucilage in lor .incorporating oil and water. We have already observed that this fruit is difficult of digestion, on account of the oil it contains, which quickr* ly becomes acrid in the stomach; hence it is particularly improper for bilious constitutions. The various preparations of almonds are liable to similar objections : and it is there- fore absurd to give almond milk as a common diet-drink to febrile pa- tients j for, as i! consists entirely of oil) and insoluble parts, it nc* heats A LM lieats and vitiates the stomach, but at the same time occasions an ac- cumulation of bile. Almonds/ as weil as nuts, ought to be eaten only while fresh, ;ti;d without their skins. They should be well chcwcdj for every piece swallowed entire, is indigestible. The use of a little salt, however, renders them miscible with our fluids, as a saponaceous mass; but, if indulged in to excess, they are prcdufitive of alarming, and some- times fatal disorders. The expressed oil of bitter al- monds, is, in cases of poison, re- commended preferably to all others; but care must be taken not to use the chemical, instead of the natural oil, as the former is itself a poison. Bitter almonds are now generally disused. They have been found to destroy some kinds of animals } hence modern physicians prescribe them with more caution j they are, nevertheless, frequently employed,, for making orgeat and ether liquors, without producing any bad effect. ALMS, or charitable donations to the poor. In die early ages of Christianity, this term was em- ployed in a more general sense, and signified as well those dona- tions vvhich weie given for the sub- sistence of the ecclesiastical estab- lishments, as those which were ap- propriated to the repair of churches, end the relief of the indigent. slbiis-giving forms an essential part of ail nllyions. It is particu- larly enjoined by the Mahometans; and the Alcoran represents it as the only means of ensuring successful prayer. The Christian system con- stantly recommends the aclive prac- tice of benevolence, and the fre- quent distribution of alms. Hence Dean SWIFT very empha- tically remarks, that " the poor beggar has a just dejuaad. ot' 30 no. i. \CL. ;. ALM F: air-"? from the rich man; who is guilty of fraud, injustice, and op- pression, if he does not afford re- lief, according to his abilities." ALMS-HOUSES are asylums for the support, and maintenance of a certain number of poor, aged, or infirm pc "ag their lives. When these institutions are of a private nature, and limited in their extent, they are certainly benefi- cial to society; yet it may on the whole be doubted, whether such public establishments, especially as they are generally managed under the absolute controul of rapacious trustees, do not in a great measure tend to relax the springs of in- dustry, and encourage habits of indolence. For, by accustoming people rather to resort to eleemosy- nary sources, than exert their own strength and abilities, they cannot fail to degrade the moral feelings of human nature, and to destroy that independence which Consti- tutes its noblest support. See the articles CHAKITY and HOSPITALS, ALOE is a beautiful exotic plant, the flowers of which grow in um- bels on the tops of the stalks, are of an elegant red colour, and ap- pear in the months of August and September. It consists of ten spe- cies, all of which are propagated either by off-sets, or by planting the leaves. The proper earth for this vegetable, is one half of garden- mould, or fresh earth dug from a common; the other half consists of an equal proportion of white sand; and sifted lime-rubbish. This mixture should be made, at least, six or eight months previous to its use. The common aloe will live in a dry green-house in winter, and in summer may be placed under shelter, in the open air; bat should have very little water, and none on th.5 stem of ths plant: the other D specie.* 34] A L O ' -s require to be kept in nn airy green-house., in which the stove to make a fire in cold wea- ther. nnng the .Mahometans, and '.illy in Egypt, the aloe is held in h^h estimation, and even dedi- cated to religious offices. These HU.J< iviiiious people believe, that it prevents evil spirits from enter- in;; their houses: for this purpose, both Christians and Jews place it over their doors ; and whoever re- turns from a pilgrimage, exhibits it as an emblem of his having per- formed that holy journey. Its properties are various; and applied to numerovo purposes, both medicinal and domestic. The lc:u rs of the Guinea-aloe, as described by M. An A:,I sox, in his voyage to j;al, are employed in making very good ropes, not liable to rot in the water. Dr. SLOA.VE describes two sorts of aloe, one cf which is used for fishing lines, bow-strings, stock- . and hammocks : the other produce^ leaves capable of hu. In Mexico, there is a species of called the Maguei, which is applied 10 almost every y Itfe. Besides making < hedges and inclosures for -, its trunk serves as L. for the roofs of their houses, and its leaves' instead of tiles. From this plant, the nali paper, thread, needles and various articles of oVuhinor, and cordage ; n its copious juice, extract wine, honey, siu;ar and vinegar. Of the trr- .at of the le-v- .re an excellent dish. It -e employed by them in Several diseases, but especially in those _ Ju this country/ , .;-ci- pally known n? ?. medicine in the form of nn inspissated juice, v. consists of three sorts : 1. the J/;>e pnjitlicita, or Socotrine Aloe ; 2. the '.'ten, Earbadoes, or Common ; and 3. the Cafcallind, fetid or I-forsc Aloe. The first cf these is the purest, and is brought from, the island of Socotora, wrapt in skins. It is of a glossy surface, and in some degree pellucid, of a yellowish-red colour, with a pur- ple cast, and when reduced to powder, of a bright golden shade. In winter, it is hard and friable, but in summer pliable, and grows soft, when pressed between the fingers. Its taste is bitter, accom- panied with an aromatic flavour ; the smell is not unpleasant, and slightly resembles that of myrrh. Aloe is considered as a good opening medicine for persons < f a lax habit, and those : aach "loaded with phlegm ucus, and also for we because, while it carries off vi.-< id humours, it serves by its stimu- lating qualities to strengthen and brace the system. When; given irt small doses of a few grains, re- peated at intervals, it not only cleanses the alimentary canal, but 1 o promote the menstrual discharge in women : hence its use in the green sickness, and all fe- male obstructions. We must, how- ever, observe, that, though it be a good stomachic laxative, it ought to be employed with great 'precau- tion," being an acrid and heating meir therefore not proper a fe- iy. Its ccnti- . sometimes pn . and h;;bi;ual costivencss. "When gi\ en in substance, without any mixture;, it frequently adheres to the coats of the intestines, whcrs. it <,cc24;cns griping, and ur.euii- A L feess: for which reasons, and in order to destroy its viscid proper- ties, it should be previously com- bined with some saponaceous or resolvent medicine, such as a -mall quantity of alkaline salts, th cf an egg, Castile soap, or muci- laginous vegetable extracts. We have purposely given a more minute account of the medicinal eflefts of this plant, than the li- mits of our work will admit, on si- rnilar occasions: th:-; exception, however, has not been made with a view to encourage the sale of those aloetic preparations, so gene- rally knowu and vended, under the name of " Anderson's Pills;" which, like most patent and quack rredicines, have unquestionably contributed to increase the number tients among those credulous victims, v/ho are frequently obliged to seek relief in public dispensaries and hospitals. Convinced of the mischievous tendency thence re- sulihig to die community, we de- voutly hope thru the wisdom cf the legislature will, at length, be ef- *.''ctuaily directed to the suppres- sion of those destructive practices, the pretended success of which, we '.t blush to say, is excitingly related in our daily print., ! . Wit a respect to die economical purposes to which the aloe may be rendered subservient, we shalj-in this place relate only the principal. Jt is asserted by an anonymous writer, in ihe Gendeman's Mag. ii-r July 175-1, that a varnish made of the extract. of the hepatic rio?, turpentine, tallow, and while lead, or Spanish brown, vhen ap to the bottom 9df ships, is the most % clicttual means of preservmg them from t;:e sca-:ro}'m : tlie disf^overer rt;i:ji\3, that a plank covered wiih ltii iiiixture,, \vas sunk wilii a pro- A L O 1 3 per weight and ropes, togethei v.'ith another in an unprepared state, both in an equal depth of salt- v.al, worm abound- ed ; and, upon ruling them, after* they had i from five to eight months, the former was perfectly sound and untouched, while ihe latter was eaten to a ho- ney-comb. This hint \va.s adopted by a gentleman at Bermudas, who observed the inhabitants employ a few sliced leaves of the plants, from wh:/ ''r.vra-'-ted, in addition to the oil and tallow, which are boiled together, and used in careening their n^hing-boats. Another valuable property of the horse-aloe, beside its being an ex- it purgative for horses, is its bitter principle, which renders it atly useful in watery solu- tions, 1x5 1 only for preserving ten- ; from the depreciations of vermin and insects, but likewise For preventing putrefaction in cer- tain vegetable and animal bodies, such as dried plants, stulrcd birds, quadruped?. Scj. Pr< ' o\v- ever, should be taken, that solu- tions or mixtures made with aloe be not exposed to be swallowed by dogs, cats, or other domestic mals, as to 'l-ein the eonsequ would be fatal. nil species of this u-e^ul plant have also been employed for manufacturing a clr '. ling linen in its texture, ami frcscr of various quality. CLUSIUS made .sh!:ts of ii d, and F>OUT> GOIXG, in his travels thi: Spain, informs us, that the nai .. ; of that country niami-iacture th 'r bridles from the tihmeirs of dee-leaves. MKCASI, an iuJinn, produced from sinulai : different kinds of coarse and fine paper. D 2 Lastly, 36] A L f U Lastly, we find, in the " Experi- ments and Observations" published by POERNER, a creditable German writer, in 17/2, that a watery de- coction, made of the resinous gum of the aloe, without any farther addition, produces a beautiful dark cherry-brown colour on woollen- cloth, by simple immersion. This fact may be easily ascertained by dyers. Alopecurus pratensl-s, L. See MEADOW FOX-TAIL. Alopecurus agrestis, ' L. See SLENDER FOX-TAIL. Ahine media, L. See COMMON CHIMK. \VEED. Altyfea offidnalis, L. See MARSHMALLOW. ALUM is a concrete salt, tran- sparent, and of a very austere and astringent taste. It is in general a chemical preparation, being rarely found in a natural state, or freed from other ingredients. In Egypt, Sardinia, Spain, Bohemia, &c. it is said to be sometimes discovered in crystals. There are various kinds, but that \vhich is called the Pioman alum, is preferable to any other. This is usually to be found in small crystals, and of a reddish colour, probably >wiug to a small quantity of calx of Iron, which, however, does not in the least impair its qualities. The other kinds contain a proportion cither of vitriolated tartar, or sal ammoniac. In medicine, it has been consi- dered as an astringent, and is of great service in restraining hemorr- hages, and other immoderate se- cretions. It is likewise externally used in lotions and eye- waters : and one scruple of burnt alum has been found beneficial in removing violent colic-pains arising from fla- A L IT tulency, bile, or great relaxation of the bowels ; but in other cases it may prove hurtful. It is used for various purposes by dyers, to fix different colours upon cloth ; in the making of candles, to give them a gloss and firm con- sistence ; wood soaked in a solution of alum, does not readily take fire ; and paper impregnated with it, is the most proper for the preserva- tion of gunpowder, as it also ex- cludes the moisture of the air. Tanners employ it to restore the cohesion of those skins which have been almost entirely destroyed by lime ; and vintners in fining their wines, &c. Fishermen dry their cod-fish by means of it ; and it is asserted, that bakers generally use it as an ingredient in bread : the truth of this assertion, however, has been much questioned, and the sole reason ascribed for its use, is, that corrupt flour, being mixed with good, thus acquires a proper degree of cohesion, as the alu- minous particles equally pervade the whole mass, and render it of a due consistence. Although some writers have maintained, that this styptic salt " is entirely inno- cent, and now seldom used" in the process of making bread, yet we have but too much reason to be- lieve the contrary. The English translator of Tissot's excellent "Ad- vice to the People in general," &c. very pertinently remarks, that thii abuse of alum, and other pernicious materials, introduced by our bak- ers, may too justly be considered as one lamentable source of the nu- merous diseases of children. The Monthly Reviewer of that book, for July 170'5, adds, with equal justice, the following commentary: ' Hence obstructions in the bowel 5 A L U and viscera, feebleness, slow-fevers, .hectics, rickets, and other linger- ing and fatal diseases.' To discover such unlawful prac- tices, requires no chemical skill : on macerating a small piece of the crumb of new-baked bread in cold water, sufficient to dissolve it, the taste of the latter, if alum has been used by the baker, will acquire a sweetish astringency. Another me- ihod of detecting this adulteration, consists in thrusting a heated knife into a loaf, before it has grown cold ; and if it be free from that ingredient, scarce any alteration will be visible on the blade ; but, in the contrary case, its surface, after being allowed to cool, will appear slightly covered with an aluminous incrustation. This me- thod, we understand, is generally preferred in the experiments made by country-justices. It deserves, however, to be remarked, that a very small proportion of alum, such ns a few grains to a quartern-loaf, cannot be productive of any serious effects. In relaxed and scorbutic habits, or to those persons who are troubled" with flatulency, bilious colic, and jaundice, such medicated bread may be conducive to the re- covery of health ; while in others, of a plethoric constitution, and a rigid fibre, it cannot fail to aggra- vate their complaints. In short, such addition tu a common article of subsistence is, to say the least of it, highly improper, and ought not to be intrusted to the hands of a mechanic. One of the most important pur- poses, to which this concrete salt may be readily applied, is that of purifying and sweetening water that has become fetid and unrit for use. On long voyages, or at a distance from clear rivers and wells, A M B each gallon requires, according to its impurity, only from live to ten grains of calcined alum, and dou- ble or triple that proportion of pow- dered charcoal, in order to render the most offensive water perfectly sweet and pellucid : both ingredi- ents, however, ought to be pre- served in close vessels, or other- wise their efficacy will be consi- derably diminished. Alum has also been tried in the boiling of salt, to render it of a firm consistence, but the good which was supposed to be derived from it, is now solely attributed to the effects of the slow and gentle heat, so that in this process it has of late been discontinued. The manufacture of alum was first invented in die year l6'08, and greatly encouraged in England, by Lord SHEFFI ELD and other Gen tie- men of the county of York. King JAMES the 1st assumed a monopo- ly of that article, and prohibited its importation. Alyssum sativum,L. See GOLD OF PLEASURE. Amaranthus BEtum, L. , See SMALL RED ELITE. Aviaurosis. See GUTTA SE- RENA. AMBER fSuccinuw) is a hard, bituminous substance, possessing a subacid resinous taste, and a fra- grant aromatic smell. It is the pro- duction of many countries, but the best sort is that which is found in various parts of England, especial- ly in the clay and gravel-pits be- tween Tyburn and Kensington, as well as behind St. George's ho'pi- tal, near Hyde- Park Corner, where fine specimens of this concrete are occasionally discovered. Prussia possesses it in preat abundance, and the king derives from this article alone an aanual revenue of P 3 20,000 38] A M B 26,000 dollars ; on which account the late FREDERIC professed him- self to belong i ". ofamler- ers. Those parts of the earth which produce rii-. bitumen. ar> covered wi'h a .-oft slaty siotu abound with vitriol. Its mo i re- markable pro; 't at- tracts oth< as paper, hair, wool, &c. r.nd that it presents a I ance in tlie dark. In its native form, ind, it resemij s 'i as pear-,, peas, &c. ; but, when broken, leaves, insects, and other small objecls, frequently appear inclosed : hence it has been supposed, that amber wascriginnllyin ; or that from its exposure to the sun, it became softened, so as to be susceptible of those impressions. As these insects are never found in its centre, but alwa>> near its ce, the latter seems the more probable conjecture. .Animals of all kinds, are extremely fond of it, and pieces are frequently discover- ed in their excrements. Several centuries before the Christian rera, it was in high esteem as a medi- cine 5 and PLATO, ARISTOTLE, and other writers, have comm its virtues : among die Rom d as a gem, and i i of Nr.no, brou . where it was 1. the onable ladies, that substance; a , Inch is still prevalent : er in Westphalia, and other catholic countries, where it is converted into amulets, crosses, &c. :e, amber is at pre- sent but in little repute, though it is still given izjiuor alius, hy A M B affections, and in these which proceed from debii!" . .-- merly it was u^ed in a vaiiety of preparai-ions, but of late, an aro- matic balsam, a powder, and an :',:-il oil, are the only lorn which it is employed. Lastly, this bituminous matter . 1 i utcs the basis of several kind i ...1 for the coat- of various toys, for s raining vur- \y of carriages ; f.,r which last er, it is more pro- fitable to dissolve the gum copal. The following is a simple and effi- cacious recipe for making the am- Zvr JY< Melt the amber slowly in a cru- cible, till it b'ccornes black ; c. it to a fine powder, and boil it in iintseed oil, or in a mix- ture of this and the oil of turpen- tine. Sec YAKNISH. AMBERGilISE, or Grey Am- ber, is a solid, opake, bituminous, substance, of a greyi.-h or :^h co- lour, usually intermixed with yel- low and blackish veins. This con- crete is found J a the sea, or thrown on the shores, and is produced in the greatest quantity by the Indian Ocean. It ha; bcc n sometimes also ' . men in the bellies of whales, in 1 n.mps of various sizes, from h ce to one hundred pounds in lit. Keace it is supposed to be an anjma,! production. CLUSIUS, it it is au inuii- ..rt of the food collected by these ii !:, a::d . -; a similar concretion with tliat of the l-ez-iiar found in the stomach of other animals. "Y'/hen pure, it softens between the lingers} melts into an oil, in a moderate degree of heat, and. in a stronger one, proves highly volatile. Slightly warmed. A M B warmed, it emits -a fragrant -odour, arid when set on lire, smells like araher. It dissolves, though with iilty, in spirits of wine, and aial oils, but not in those which are expressed from vege- tables, nor in water. In Asia, and part of Africa, am- bergrise is not only used in medi- cine, and as an article of perfumery, but also applied to the purposes of cc'jkery, by adding it as a spice to several dishes. It is valued by the Turks as an aphrodisiac, and er- roneously supposed to promote vity. In this country, it was formerly esteemed a cordial, and to be of freat service in disorders of the ead, and nervous complaints ; but it n.ov." chiefly serves as an agree- perilune. and is certainly free from many of those inconvenien- cies which usually accompany of this description. Ambergrise may be considered as genuine, when it emits a fra- gran on thrusting a hot . and melts like fat, of an uniform consistence. AMBUliY, 3. tun: cur, or wart wliich is soft to the touch, and full of exlravasated blood. It is a disorder incident to horses, and may be cured by i::e foilc-. . ,d. Tie a itrongliair very tight round .the part ariected : ; ': has spontaneously fallen oil", which illy happens in about eigh: - sprinkle powdered verdigrise on the pla.ce, to prc\ent a return of die cui;pl;;lnt. V/Le:i. iVom its local situation, it cannot be tied, it may be either cut out with a knife, or burnt away with a sharp, hot iron; or, where this cannot be practised with safety, for instance, f# sinewy parts, it may be removed A- M A! (39 by n;^'ly::ig oil of vitriol, or cor- rosive sublimate to the tumour. During the cure, the animal nuut be kept quiet, and free from every exertion. AMMONIA signifies a salt, of which there are two sorts, the na- tive and the factitious. The for- mer, described by PLINY and. DIOSCORIDES, was generated from the urine of camels, in the inns, or caravanseras, where the pilgrims, returning from the Temple of Ju- piter Ammon, used to lodge ; whence it derived its name, latter is a chemical preparation, formed either of the acetous or muriatic acids, combined with vo- latile alkali. A salt nearly of the same kind is thrown oat by Mount Etna. The ancient sal ammoniac was said to possess the properties of cooling water, and disse gold. Great quantities of this concrete were formerly brought from Egypt, urigi^aily prepared by su , from the soot of present we are. principally supplied from our oua manura-xories, several of which 4ied in diiferent ports of Britain: but that in the vicinity of Edinburgh is one of the most ex- .~e. Although the cheapest arid most conve, iod of preparing it is not generally known, yet it is ."Lured to be chiefly formed of a combination of sea salt . It is . - crystallized ii'- ,1 cakes, aucl sometimes in conical loaves. The best sort is colourless, almost trans- parent, and free from visible impu- rities. The taste of this salt is very sharp and penetrating. It dissolves in rather less than thrice i of water ; and upon tvaix D 4 40] AMM part of the liquor concretes again into thin shining spicules, or plates, like feathers. In frosty weather, these are remarkably beautiful, and resemble trees, plants, &c. Sal ammoniac, when pure, pro- motes perspiration, and in some , increases the secretion of urine. A drachm of it, dissolved in water, if die patient be kept warm after taking it, generally proves sudorific. By moderate ex- ercise in the open air, it beneficial- ly operates on die kidneys 5 given in a large dose, it proves aperient ; and in a still larger, acts as an emetic. As a cooling and diaphoretic me- dicine, the sal ammoniac dissolved either in vinegar and water, or combined with small doses of the Peruvian bark, has often been at- tended with the best efFefts, when taken in fevers, and especially in intermittents, after the intestinal canal has been properly evacuated. Mr. C. LYNAM, a medial practi- tioner in the metropolis, has for- merly favoured the Editor of this work with an account of a cheap and expeditious manner of saturat- ing the common solution obtained by dissolving this salt, in vinegar, widi fixed air, or carbonic acid gas ; which is a valuable addition to that liquor. His mediod is in effect as follows: take one ounce of pure sal ammoniac, and one pint and a half of distilled vinegar ; put the latter in a decanter provided with a close glass-stopper; then intro- duce the salt, previously broken into lumps, but not too small ; as by plunging it too suddenly into the liquor, die extrication of the gas would be too quick, and a quantity of it be dissipated. Next, >pper of the bottle should be tied over with a piece of leather, and the whole be kit undisturbed. AMM It would farther be useful, to acM, en die top of die bottle, some weight cr pressure, by which means the combination of the carbonic acid gas with the water will be greatly facilitated. After having stood a few hours, the ammonia will be dissolved, and the carbonic acid absorbed by die liquor. By this simple process, the ace- tated water of ammonia becomes strongly impregnated with fixed air, while it is almost entirely de- prived of that disagreeable taste which is peculiar to this medicine, : prepared in the usual way. Mr. LYNAM speaks from expe- rience, of the superior qualities this preparation possesses as a febrifuge ; beside the very great advantage, diat it tends to keep die bowels open, even under -die immediate influence of opiates. It likewise, generally, agrees with weak and irritable stomachs, which can re- tain scarcely any other medicine. This salt has also been employed externally in lotions and embroca- tions, for scirrhous and odier indo- lent tumours; for removing Marts and odier excrescences, and in gar- ns, for inflammations of die tonsils. ^im mr.ti ;:i pura, or the caustic vegetable alkali, possesses uncom- mon alexitevic powers, in the cure of persons bitten by snakes, and o'her venomous animals. Sixty drops of it, sufticiendy diluted with water, make a moderate dose, which omht to be repeated according to die urgency of die symptoms. At the same rime, die wound should be washed widi a similar mixture. It is positively asserted, that such treatment has been attended with uniform success, when the patient was able to swallow the medi- cine, AMMO- [41 AMMONIAC is a concrete, gummy - resinous juice, usually brought from the East Indies in large masses composed of lumps or tears of a milky colour, but on exposure to the air, it quickly acquires a yellowish appearance. Hitherto we have no certain ac- count of the plant which affords this juice, but it has, and with some probability, been asserted, that it is a species of the ferula, from another species of which is also pro- duced the asa fcetida ; it is said to grow in Nubia, Abyssinia, and the interior parts of Egypt. This gum has a nauseous sweet- ish taste, succeeded by a sensation of bitter; and a smell somewhat resembling, but more grateful than, galbanum. When chewed, it sof- tens in the mouth, and beco.nes of a white colour. It may be parti- ally dissolved, in wa vine- gar, with which it assumes the ap- pearance of milk, but the resinous part, amounting to about one half, subsides when suffered to rest. A - similar composition, but much in- ferior in virtue, is frequently sold under the name of strained guni ammoniac. Those tears which are large, dry, and free from little stones, or other impurities, should be selected and prepared for in- ternal use 5 the coarser kind may be purified by solution and strain- ing, but unless this be carefully managed, it will lose a considera- ble portion of its fine and more volatile parts. In medicine, it is prescribed for removing obstructions of the abdo- minal viscera; in hysterical com- plaints occasioned by die deficiency of periodical evacuations, and in long and obstinate colics, proceed- ing from viscid matter lodged in the intestines. . A solution of it, in j-jnegar of squills, has proved of A M P considerable service in the l-.u chronic asthma of the aged and decrepit. The most < form for its exhibition, is that of pills; a scruple may be eivrn every night, or oftener. '< it is used for softening and ripenir dolent tumours ; and with a mix- ture of squill vinegar, forms a plais- ter which has sometimes been suc- cessfully recommended for H swellings. A solution of it, in penny-royal water, is usually kept in the shops, under the mune of ammoniac milk. AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS are so called, on account of their living partly on land, and partly in water. V\ e cannot, consistently with our plan, enter into a disquisition re- specling their nature ancl func- tions; and shall therefore content ourselves with observing, that in their structure, they are princi- pally distinguished from laud-ani- mals, by having reel cold blood, a::d I of lungs, eidier gills or ci icraily observed in snak- id fish, which c:: inhabit the water. Some ho\ve\er, \lvy have flu open between the right and left auricles of liie heart; and, in i: the arterial canal is also free. This is a distinguishing character of the phoccc, or such animals as enjoy their chief functions on land, for instance, otters, beavers, frogs, cro- codiles, some kind of rats, birds, &rc. While these remain under ter, where they may safely continue for several hoars, their respiration is interrupted; and die blood, not rinding a tree . h the pulmonary arteiy, rashes through the hole from the right to the left auricle, and partly through the ar- terial canal; having but a short course to the aorta, the Ian-- all the blood vessels, and thence circa- circulating to every part of the . 5 its way as soon as lirnal begins to respire. As in all land animals a large ' thf mass of blood c uch the K h would be stopped, if the- free access of air were excluded ; so we find in fish a great number of ii the which r- wetj lest the blood should, in like manner, be checked, and conse- < I lien a its pro. Hence, when the latter are removed from their natural dement, the I-ra.?ichicc very soon grow crisp and dry, the vessels become corrugated, rnd the blood finds no outlet : like- wise, when land-animals are im- mersed under water, or in any other manner deprived of respiration, the circulation ceases, and the animal inevitably dies. Inquisitive physiologists have ad- vanced, that wan may, by art, be rencV :, and enabled to live under water, as well as the beaver, or turtle ; because th- : iticr't lives v. ithout air, and the -, is continued by us of the oval hole : if, ;' important opening could the birth of the . useful fa.. '. siil'l remain. plausible; nnd we di : > declare, tliat country, such at- '.eans :or tlie aclvan- the thtoiy, i . r . port, ' ,;n instance of the wonderful r-owcr we po.-,-ess over raitiop, U cc AM? iirgecl, that expert divers feel n venience from remaining fur several minutes under water, at & considerable dep;h ; that indivir duals afFe&ed with asthma (among whom the \vriter of this articl, evidence) have by mere foive of habit obtained elTe&ual and per- manent relief in that distn complaint, by accustoming t .< from die commencement of it, to respire principally through the nostrils, whether in a w or sleeping state j and lastly, \\-..\t none of the interior organs p, a flexibility and power of expan- sion (unattended with loco-motion) equal to those of respiration. After this short digression, we shall proceed to state the inr.ans by which that desirable faculty of re- spiring under water, ma}- be acquir- ed by the human subject. It should previously be remark- ed, that the lungs of the embryo are compressed during its confine- ment, so that the pulmonary blood- vessels are impervious, and conse- quently the circulation must take place through the oval hole, and the arterial canal before - mentioned : hence the amphibious animal and the fcRtus in ulero are so far analo- gous in their nature ; and though this!: ;; tan early period of yet there arc ces, well ut'c'Med by anato- mists ' occasion- ally found net quite closed in human subjf. ::t an ad- vanced age. There is, hov. material difference bet them : the foetus never ha\ ing respired, is suirjciently nou.ri.-hed by the maternal blood circulating through its whole body, which pro- gressively grows, till its birth, with- out feeling the want of respiration during I!K i'ltd of preg- AMP nancy : qn l!ie cpatrary, terraque- ous iUiimals ii I , ; > . T birih, cannot ,-rt lite for \ ,h of time cause both the to would sed, or at least. constrict tja-m, as is the case in land animals, if they did not instinctively, soon after the birth of the cub, instruct it in the exercise of that vital func- tion. This is effected, by ire:;' carrying it into the water a prac- tice by which those passages ;;/c kept open during life, and the creatures enabled to procure that Jvindoffood which is designed for them by the ; ..1 care of Xalure. Thus we may easily conceive that, in infants, the oval hole, by proper expedients and persevering .exertions, might, without muck .^//, be preserved in an open state ; for insurace. by gradually accustoming young children, .soon after their birth, to suspend their breath once, or ofte: -, in- creasing the div. ment with eve ,i, so that the blood may at length be dir to circulate ii passage, \vhich, by sovcrrJ cautiously repeated, would no I remain sufficiently lubricated, and pever again be .aieraily find it ia ihe ciece.;.-,ec! bod'/. That these nrc rational, and, we may venture to add, well founded .conjectures, few will dispute; especially if it be considered that ordinary divers, without having been trained to this practice from early infancy, are capable of re- taining their breath, and continuing much longer underwater, than per- sons in whom that primitive organ pf respiration,, having never been A M ? exercised, ha-; become unfit to a-St as arj ings, while niiruerse-d u r. Kay, th; . Instances of persons who were in the full possession of the uncom- mon facuky ' : of others, we sh:;". a Sicilian, n;aned ihe /'.' v.'ho possessed it in SQ eminent a e., "that he lived rather the. manner of a ilsh tli^Ji a i i:i ccnseqaenee of i 01 his h, and by an as.-,5d-.ious ; tice, successfully acquired the ha- bit of living in water, and thus ef- . lete change of his physical u:~. V.'e shall (X include tlfis interest- s-count of the alimentary uses, an-dpropt I of amphibious niiin- In some coin --ecinllv in old France and Italy, the legs of frogs '\vre e '. : : dish; but, in Ei'iiaiu, we regale our friends with the more deiicioas tur- tle. Yetti. as w: H cla->s HI -j.l. and i he Y\Y>i Indian L- in particular, contain an ui, rtion of fat; ana ouglit, there- with n, but also witii a con:-: :i of salt, and acid : the for;-. of n- i '. into a sapona- is most easily .': to our fluids; the lat- ter, will) a vie#r to counteract liieir scent tendency, especially in - season- both, i:: facilitate their digestion in the Lu- mau stomach. AMPUTATION is a term in surgery, and signifies the cutihig orf a limb from the body. It is sometimes rendered nece when a part is io diseased as < to 44] A M P to br loss, or threatening .; moved. The cases in vv'hich this operation is usually performed, r.rc, severe, compound fractures of the bones, attended with splinters ; extensive 1.; tions, and contusions of wounds, Avith great loss of substance, and pouring forth a profuse discharge ; wide - spreading mortifications ; \vhite swellings of the joints ; can- cers, or other incurable ulcers ; exostosed, carious and distorted bones, &c. Amputation is one of the most important operations in surgery, and h;:s lately been brought to the highest perfeftion. Previous to the invention of the tcturniquet, and the method of securing the blood- vessels from hemorrhages, by liga- tures, it was rarely undertaken, and a great proportion of those who submitted to it, afterwards died. But in consequence of mo- dern improvements, there seldom happens more than one death in twenty or thirty cases. In per- forming this operation, some parti- cular cautions are necessary, viz. to make the incision at a proper place; to save a quantity of skin and cellular substance, sufficient: to cover the muscles and bone com- ''V, without being stretched; to prevent hemorrhages ; to secure the arteries carefully, without in- cluding the nerves, or any of the contiguous parts ; and to prevent the retraclion of the integuments. Where part of a limb is either car- ried olF, or much shattered, it will be necessary to amputate above the cd surface, to ensure a spee- iiid safer cure. Should mor- .ion have previously taken , every other remedy ought i' i be timely and vigorously em- ployed, till its progress be arrest- A M U ed : the first symptom of which will be, an inflamed circle sepa- rating the diseased from the sound parts : as soon as this has taken place, no time should be lost in resorting to the operation, lest the have been ex- rior to our mo-iera acquirements, and proposed to us ion. Tew auihii .-,. indocd, have been vear tlieir laurels dur- fe rave been gen- red, either to crown .-.vine Ground : u, in hi-; days, \vai . as a mere ballad nir S."AKS1'KARK is hireling. MIL- ; divine poem lay long nr : ig. (-j;?n'ix, L. is a native oi ' iff, th beginning of May : ii was tfter.o \itriHrl tr eardeas by the late, and justly celebiated*i M;n.- 7~j'<- In 4 8] A N E : ts recent :t::te, the r.ic^dc-.v-. .;ne is almost liavoi i hen chewed, is pungent, an-. the ' : ' ; ' in a slight degree by the d/icd leaves. Hence \ve may hide, that this plant possesses considerable medicinal virtues -. a .v;!);>o>ii!on amply confirmed, though often contested, by various practitioners of great respectability. :ists, however, have proved by experiment, that cue of its con- stituent pr.rts is camphor, which lias been obtained in the form of crystals. Hence it has been suc- cessfully employed in the cure of chronic 'affections of the eyes, espe- cially in gut to. fcr-ena, cataract, and opacity of the cornea. But, on ac- count of its singular efficacy, it has generally been used in external applications, as an excellent aperi- ent, detergent, and vulnerary me- d cine, with whose virtues the an- cients were well acquainted, though they accounted for such effects from superstitious notions. The juice of the anemone root, chewed in small quantities, stimu- lates the salival glands, and fre- quently affords sudden relief in ex- cruciating tooth-ach, if it proceed from air acrimony or superfluity of humours, in phlegmatic habits. When boiled in rich wine, and ap- plied as a cataplasm, it not only abates inveterate inflammations of the eyes, but also cleanses indolent and foul ulcers. Its leaves and stales, slowly simmered in ptisan, and occasionally eaten, are said un- commonly to increase the maternal milk. If credit be due to the an- cients, they also cure that frequent and destructive complaint of young it-males, called chlorosis ; and, when beaten up with a mixture of v.v.\ and turpentine, so as to A N E form - . tend to restore i\\f. cati-:}!- c doubt, hou lie numerous other vir- le, be founded MI rruih ; lieve exkTiiai ons. .of it, especially the 5, "bruised together with marsh- mallow root or other cooling ! may cure paralytic attacks in cormnn icemen i and even the leprosy; t.hnn or shews from what point of the compass the wind blows, consists of an index, moving round an up- right circular plate, like the dial of a clock ; on which, instead of the hours, the thirty-two points of the compass are represented. The in* dex which points to the divisions on the dial, is turned by a horizontal axis> having a trundle-head at its outward extremity. This trundle- head is moved by a cog-wheel, on a perpendicular axis ; at the top of which is fixed a vane, moving with the course of the wind, and impart- ing motion to the whole machine. The contrivance is extremely sim- ple, and requires in its construc- tion only, that the number of cogs in the wheel, and rounds in the trundle-head, be equal; because, when the vane moves entirely round, the index of the dial should also make a complete revolution. An anemoscope of this construc- tion is placed in one of the turrets cf Buckingham-house, the resi- dence of Her present Majesty. The anemoscope invented by Mr. PICKERING, and published in the Philosophical Transactions, No. 4/3, is a machine four feet and a quarter high, consisting of a broad and weighty pedestal, a pillar at- tached to it, and an iron axis, about half 50] A N E half an inch in diameter, fastened into the pillar. Upon this axis turns a wooden tube ; at the top of which is placed a vane, of the same materials, twenty-one inches long, consisting of a quadrant, graduated, and shod with an iron ring, notched to each degree ; and a counterpoise of wood on the other, as represenf- ed in the figure. Through the centre of the quadrant runs an iron pin ; upon which are fastened two small round pieces of wood, serving, as moveable radii to describe the degrees upon the qitadrant, and as handles to a velum or sail; the pane of which is one foot square, made of canvas stretched on four battens, and painted. On the up- per batten, next to the shod rim of the quadrant, is a small springy which catches at every notch, cor- responding to each degree, as the sail may be raised on die pressure of the wind, and thus its falling- back prevented, when the force of the wind decreases. At the bottom of the wooden tube is an iron in- dex, which moves rotm'd a circular piece of wood fastened to the top of the pillar, on the pedestal, where the thirty-two points of the compass are described. We have annexed a representation of this machine : a is the pedestal ; I, the pillar on which the iron axis is rifted ; c, the circle of wood representing the points of the compass ; e, the wood- en tube upon its axis ; f, die velum j g, the graduated quadrant ; h, the counterpoise of die vane. The sub- joined figure represents the velum', which may be taken off: a is the plane of the velum ; I, the spring ; cc, die wooden radii ; d,d, die holes through which passes the pin, in, -the centre of die quadrant, ANE This instrument serves lowing useful purposes ; the fol 1. Kav ANE ' 1. Having a circular motion round the iron axis, and being fur- nished with a vane at the top, and an index at the bottom, as soon as the artificial cardinal points de- scribed on the round piece of wood on the pillar are fixed to the cor- responding quarters of the heavens, it faithfully points out the quarter from which the wind blows. 2. Being furnished with a ve- lum, or sail, elevated by the wind, along the arch of the quadrant, to an height proportionate to the pow- er of the column of wind pressing against it, its relative force and its Comparative power, at any two times of examination, may be accu- rately taken. 3. By means of a spring fitted to the notches of the iron, with which the quadrant is shod, the velum is prevented from returning "upon the fall of the wind ; and the instrument, without the trouble of watching it, ascertains the force of the highest blast, since the last timr of examination. This machine maybe confidently depended upo;i, as the velum is hung so nicely, that it is susceptible of the most gentle breeze, and will nlso describe the force of the wind in a violent storm. There is, how- ever, reason to apprehend, that by" 'exposing the anemoscope to all winds, especially to irregular blasts and squalls, for a length of time, it may become inaccurate. The ob- server ou in th; operation for the Lare-lip, bv twisting :: thread round it. It was performed on the 15th of June, 17 (>3, and on the ipth of the fol- lowing month, the patient was dis- missed, perfectly well : the pulsa- ANG lion of that arm remaining nearly as strong as in the former. Anethum Fwniculum f L. Sec COMMON FENXEL. ANGELICA, is a plant of which there are seven species, though, only two of them may be ranked among the indigenous. 1. Angelica Archangclica, L. or the Garden Angelica, is a large umbelliferous plant, scarcely a na- tive of Britain ; for, according to the late Dr. "WITHEBING, the only- place where it grows without cul- ture is, Broadmoore, about seven, miles N. W. from Birmingham. An accurate botanical description, and delineation of it may be seen in Dr. WOODVILLE'S Medical Bo- tany ; vol. Lp. 138. pi. 50. The stalk of this magnificent plant, when properly cultivated in a moist soil, rises to the height of seven or eight feetj its flowers are of a greejai^h white colour, or some- times yellow. Every part of this useful vegeta- ble, the root, stalk, leaves, and seeds, partake of the aromatic pra- perties ; whence the Germans de-? nominate it angel-root, or breast- root, being one of the most spicy plants of European growth. It? resinous root, and the seeds, are chiefly esteemed in medicine, and the former, when fresh, affords by dlstillation a strongly fragrant spirit,, and an essential oil, in the pro- portion of a whole draehm, and upwards, from one pound. A tincture made of one ounce digest- ed in twelve ounces of proof spirits, yields, on evaporation, two dr-aehmr of a very pungent and spicy ex- tratf. This is generally preferred by the Medical College of Berlin ; a valuable member of which, tht late. Dr. GLEDITSH, gives the fol- lowing .account of its effects : Fiftecii ANG Fifteen grains of this extract, which are equal to one ounce, or two table-spoonfuls, of the tinc- ture, diluted with water, and taken three times or oftener in a day, prove a gently stimulating medi- cine, well calculated to strengthen the solids, and especially service- able for dispelling flatulency, re- Ynoving pectoral complaints, and affording effe&ual relief in hyste- rics. The oily-spirituous and re- sinous part of it, tends to resolve viscid humours, w;ile its gummy and balsamic constituents benefi- cially act on the fluids. Being very mild in its operation, the angelica deserves the preference to many other roots of this nature, and may therefore be usefully employed in flatulent colics, obstructions of the breast, and uterus, malignant fe- vers, and the true scurvy, in doses of two drachms in substance, con- veyed either in tea, or mild wine. Externally it may be applied to scorbutic gums ; and, when boile :>e, it is jash and precipiip'c, and blindly operate*, regan.lics oi' the present, or of fut un: eu: 1 -'. ;,,: nces 5 in the former, k anticipates the moment of revenge, ;u d meuitates retalia- tion. It is not alwr.ys, however, a selfish passion, since it is as fre- quently excited by injuries offered to others as to ourselves, and is the distinguishing charafteris- tie of a susceptible and vigorous mind. Indulged to excess, and excited by every petty p"ovocat ; .ivi, it be- comes habitual, and is sometimes productive of the most fatal effects. Independent of its moral conse- quences, excessive anger produces spasmodic contractions, and stagna- tions in the liver and its vessels ; and, by these means, renders them schirrous, often generating stones and gravel in the gall-bladder ;>nd biliary duels. When accompanied with afiliclion, it usually occasions paleness of the countenance, pair : :>n of the heart, faltering of the tongue, trembling of the limbs, and jaundice. When the hope of ige is the predominant feature in anger, it causes violent commo- tions of the whole system, strong pulsation of the arteries, and a ijuick circulation; the vital spirits flow rapidly and irregularly through the whole body ; tlje muscles are ('jiit rafted, and some of them ap- .pear almost palsied ; the cheeks pre flushed, the eyes sparkle with additional lustre, and the whole frame feels unusual animation, and H desire of motion. Arger is particularly injurious to A N G Jnf;ints, who, from tin -(risibility of their. frames, are extremely ccptible of this passion, and are ime.s so se\ en . 1 as to. die suddenly in convulsions, or to retain, e\er after, an imbecility of mind and body, arising from its ful impression. Person^ of an irritable habit are more fre- quently liable to its attacks ; hence it generally appears in individuals who are, troubled with ninnis. hysterical, and hypochondriac al complaints. Those of a hot and dry temperament, of strong black hair, and great muscular strength, are likf,v,'i:>e much exposed to its uce. \V e ought, as rational agents, to Iv ware of tn< . struetive emotions ; lor k is certain, that men and women, possessing an irascible temper, generally die of pulmonary consumptions; and young persons, especially fcmuu-s, should be informed, that indepen- dently of its moral tnrpituec, it de- forms the face, steals the rose from- the cheek of beauty, and not only tends to extinguish the moM. tender affections, but sometimes even pro- duces aversion. On its first approach, persons subject to the invasion of this tur- bulent passion, should, as much as possible, divert their attention from the cause, by an application to some other object. A prir,)..-.nsity to auger is increased by want of sleep. h'limulantfooJ. specs; wines, and such things as Lave a tendency to infiame the blood. Hence thcy ought to make use of diluent, aci- dulated, and gently aperient drink ; _and -in every respect observe the .most rigid temperance : they should allow themselves more sleep, em- ploy the hike-warm bath, and in- dulge in the eating of fruit, AN G , whey, vegetable aliment. See. S'-e GRIEF, PASSION S,REVENGE, TERROR. ANGLING, among sportsmen, is the art of fishing with a rod, to which are fitted a line, hook, and bait. Ti e Mca-'on for t'-is amuse- ment commences about die month of June, and the proper hours are, at the dawn of day, and about three o'clock in the afternoon ; at which tirnes die fish, in ponds and small rivers, are accustomed to feed. Easterly winds afford but little sport to the angler ; for those blowing from die soudi, are the most conducive to his purpose ; and a warm, but lowring day, is of all others the most propitious. A cloudy day following a bright moon-light night, is always an au- spicious omen; as the fi>h do not love to seek for food in the moon- shine, and are, therefore, always hungry the next morning. The observation of small fish, confined in a jar, eidier refusing or taking food, affords a good criterion of the most convenient season. Upon taking his stand, the an- gler should shelter himself under some tree or bush, or remain at least so far from die brink of the water, diat he may just discern his float ; as the fish are timorous, and easily frightened away. The rod must be preserved in a moderate state, neither too dry nor too moist, as in these cases it will be eidier brittle or rotten. Various baits are used ; such as worms, artificial flies, paste made of boiled cheese, beat up with powdered quick-lime, &rc. ; when these last are employed, it will be proper to cement diem \vith a little tow, and nib diem over with honey. The best me- thod of using die fly, is down the current of the stream ; and half a A N I [55 dozen trials will be sufficient to determine, whether the fish will take or refuse die bait. With re- spect to the habitations mc*t con- genial to particular kinds of fish, it deserves to be noticed, that L-ream are to be found in the deepest and most quiet places ; eels, under the banks of rivers ; perch and roach, in a pure, swift stream ; chid-, in deep, shaded holes ; and trout, in clear, rapid brooks. Situations abounding in weeds, or old stumps of trees, often harbour numbers of fish, which bite freely; but there is great hazard of breaking the line, or entangling the hook. The open- ings of sluices and mill-dams al- ways invite them up the current, to seek for the food which is con- veyed with the stream ; and an-, gling in these places is generally successful. See FISHING. ANIMAL, in natural history, signifies an organized, living body, capable of voluntary motion, and endowed with sensation. The most powerful instinct of animals is, that of self-preservation, and the propagation of die species : in order to promote the purpose for which they are created, both nature and art afford various, and fre- quently singular expedients. In this place, however, we cannot enter into the particulars, which will be treated of under die different heads of APPETITE, NOURISHMENT, SLEEP, &:c. The two last men- tioned sources usually supply those powers which have been wasted by hunger and thirst, motion, perspi- ration, &c. We observe, on many occasions, die most admirable con- trivances of the inferior creation, in- stinctively displayed ; for instance, in the hexagonal cells of bees, and the architectural habitations of the beaver. Mao, indeed;, is die only E 4 animal 5*1 animal which is possessed of no ar- tificial instinct, or motives of ac- tions performed by mechanical im- pulse ; but, to compensate tor this apparent deficiency, Providence has endowed him with reason, a fa- culty which elevates him far above all other created beings, and enables him to render himself master of the earth. With respect to the division of animals into different classes, we refer to the article ANIMAL KING- DOM. ANIMALCULE, in its gene- ral acceptation, ruerely signifies a little animal, but is usually applied to those living objefts, which are invisible to thp naked eye, and can be discoverable only by the assist- ance of glasses. By the invention of the micros- cope, we have become acquainted \vith a variety of animals, which, from their minuteness, would other- wise have escaped our observation ; and there is reason to beiieve that myriads of them exist, both in the atmosphere and on the earth, which elude the human eye, even when assisted by this instrument. They are of various kinds, and to be met with indifferent natural bodies. By the assistance of magnifying glasses, they may be seen in water, vinegar, beer, milk, &c. ; they are also found in corn, paste, flour, and other fa- rinaceous substances. In the year 1677> M- LEWEN- HCECK first discovered their exist- ence in the human semen, and that of the lower animals ; their num- ber is inconceivable. On, viewing with a microscope the milt or seed of a male cod-fish, he found tiieni in such swarms, and of so diminu- tive a size, that h'. 1 supposed 10,QOO of them, at least, capable of being contained in the bulk of a ?,rain of ANl srmdj whence he concludes, that the semen of this fish produces more animalcules than there are found living persons in the whole world. They appear to be very vigorous and tenacious of life, as they continue to move long after the animal, from which they are taken, is dead. They also have this peculiarity, that they are in constant motion, without intermis- sion, provided there be sufficient fluid, in which they may swim. Great numbers of animalculae, some of which are of an oval fi- gure, and others resemble eels, are to be found in the whitish matter that adheres between the human teeth ; but they haVe never hitherto been discovered, either in the blood, saliva, urine, bile, or chyle. Animalculae are generated by' putrefaction, and are supposed to produce many diseases, such as the plague, typhus, marsh miasma, &c. The small-pox, measles, and other cutaneous eruptions, are also by many conjectured to owe their origin to this source. The existence of animalculae in the semen, has by several authors been denied, and among others by Mr. NEEDHAM, who, in an inqui- ry into the generation or produc- tion of animals, observes that seeds macerated in water, first disunite into small, motionless, and appa- rently inert par tides, but that these afterwards possess power of mo- tion, and seem alive, though in rea- lity they are not so. He asserts, that there are no pre-existcnt germs formed for the production of animals, or vegetables, but that matter, organized in a peculiar manner, in its minute assemblages, produces them. In this opinion he is supported by M. BUFFO v, REAUMUR, MAUPLKTUIS, and other other French Naturalists. See GENERATION and MICROSCOPE. ANIMAL FLOWER (Actinia Sociata) from its supposed pro- perty of stinging, was formerly called Sea-Nettle, or Sea- Anemone, but by late English writers has re- ceived its present name. This sin- gular animal was found in some of the islands which were ceded to this country in the late treaty of peace with France. It is of a ten- tier, fleshy substance, which con- sists of many tubular bodies, gent- ly swelling towards the upper part, and terminating like a bulb,, or very small onion : its only orifice Is in the centre of the uppermost part, surrounded with rows of ten- tacles or claws which, when con- tracted, appear like circles of beads. This opening is capable of great extension, and it is amazing to see what large fish some of them can swallow, such as muscles, crabs, &c. When the animal has scratched out the fish, it throws back the shells through the same passage. From this aperture likewise, it pro- duces its young ones alive, already furnished with little claws, which they extend in search of food, as soon as they are fixed. At low water, they are found on the rocky coasts of Sussex and Cornwall, at- tached in the shallows to some solid substance, by a broad base, like a sucker. This base is worthy of notice the knobs observable on it, are formed into several parts, by its insinuating itself into the ine- qualities of rocks, or grasping pieces of shells, part of which fre- quently remain in it, covered with .the fleshy substance. By its as- sistance,' they are enabled to pre- serve themselves from the violence cf the waves, and withstand the fury of a storm. Animal flowers AN! very much resemble the exterior leaves of the anemone, and their limbs are not unlike its shag, or inner part. They are said to pos- sess, in an extraordinary degree, the power of re-produftion, so that to nv m at pleasure, no- thing more is necessary than to cut a single one into several pieces. ANIMAL FOOD. See FOOD. ANIMAL KINGDOM, an ex- pression which includes all orga- nized living bodies capable of sen- sation and voluntary moti<5n : and essentially differing from plants and minerals, which have neither organs of sense, nor the power of loco-motion. Another circumstance affords a criterion to distinguish animals from vegetables and fossils ; which, in many instances, so closely bor- der on each other, especially ths two former, (hat naturalists have frequently hesitated, to which of these kingdoms certain marine productions, for instance, the po- lypus, may with the greatest pro- priety be referred. See VEGETA- BLE and MINERAL KINGDOMS. The circumstance alluded to is the following : 1 . All bodies which grow from icithout, that is, derive their origin and increase in such manner as to approximate to themselves certain foreign and inert particles, and are incapable of motion, consequently inanimate, are 'called minerals or fossils. 2. Bodies having no aggregate form, but growing from within, being provided with curtain tubes or vessels adapted to the circulation of fluids, which afford them nou- rishment and promote their exten- sion, may be said to enjoy a pas- sive life, and are therefore termed or plants. 3. Living . 3. Living 1 creatures which like-. yUe grow from within, and are endowed not only with those ves- sels, but also with organs of sense,' the faculty of loco-motion, and the power of distinguishing one external ofjeftjrom another, yet do not en- joy the advantages of reason, a:e ;ly denominated animals. Hence arise the three divisions of natural bodies, consisting of the M AL/VliGfcTABLE, aild JMlXE- KAL KINGDOMS. ''hough naturalists, in general, have included man in the first of kingdoms, yet the propriety of this ci. n may justly be doubted. He possesses, indeed, vrgpns and faculties in common i the brute creation, yet no in- stance has been discovered, which fvinc.es that the inferior animals enjoy that noble and most import- ant uf all the gifts of Providence, On account of this distinguish- ing characteristic, we are irresisti- bly induced to separate man from rpe, the elephant, the lion, and rational animals, over which no other than the reasoning fa- culty could confer upon us the ex- clusive dominion. Trusting, there- fore, that naturalists will, without hesitation, agree with us in the necessity of rescuing the human race, however at present depraved, from the humiliating situation iu which it is placed among the infe- rior animals, we venture, with due ficftrence to their judgment, to exclude our species from the sub^ sequent division of the animal kingdom, which consists of six distinct classes. I. Mam.illary Animals are fur- nished with a heart of two ven- jtricles and two auricles ; have a jred^ warm blood, breathe through AN I lungs, produce living -young and suckle them with theii' milk. II. Birtis likewise have a 1. of four cavities, red, wa; iai;ce ; this speedily assumes a form, which, when it thickens into life, is nourished by the yolk, and laid in. die w'p'ir as in a bed provided for ics accommodation.; tons ii. con- tinues increasing, till it grows too large for its narrow bounds, when ii bursts the walls of its prison, and conios fori.li a perfect animal. ANIMAL MAG:\T.TIS,M, or the art of curing diseases by the magnet, was invented by a German philosopher, named Father HEHL, of Vienna, who first applied it to medicine : but the noted MESMEK, a physician of the same city, by adopting his principles, and after- warUs cariying them to a greater extent, has been generally consi- dered the author of this splendid, but fanciful system. The princi- ples of that delusive art, are de- scribed by him in die following manner : Animal magnetism is an universal fluid, constituting an ab- solute plenum, in nature, and die medium of all mutual influence, between terrestrial, animal, and celestial bodies. It is a most sub- tle fluid, capable of flux and re- flux, "and of receiving, propagat- ing, and continuing all kinds of motion. The human body has poles, and other properties, analo- gous to the magnet, and is sub- jected to its influence, by means of die nerves. The a6tion and virtue of animal magnetism may be trans- ferred from .one body to anodier, whether animate or inanimate. It b] A N I operates at a great distance, with- out die intervention of any sub- stance j is increased and reflected by mirrors ; communicated, pro- pagated, and augmented by sound ; and rmy be accumulated, con- centrated, and transported. By means of this fluid, some nervous disorders are cured immediately, and others mediately : its virtues, In short, extend to the universal be- nefit and preservation of mankind. From this extraordinary theory, MESMER fabricated a paper, in which he asserted that all diseases arise from one common source ; that they may be removed by one mode of cure ; and that this cure consists in the application of ani- mal magnetism. The folly and credulity of the times soon gained partizans to this new and plausible theory : it became at length so po- pular and fashionable in France, that the jealousy of the faculty was awakened, and an application was made to government. A com- mittee, consisting of physicians and members of the Royal Academy of Sciences, of which the late illustri- ous FRANKLIN was a principal member, was immediately appoint- ed, to inquire into its' merits, and to ascertain its effects. The con- sequence of this examination was such as mijiht have been anticipated by every rational mind. The. spell was quickly broken, and the whole disclosed to be an artful imposition on the weakness and credulity of mankind. It is now almost uni- versally exploded, and treated with merited ridicule and contempt. The practice, however, and sub- sequent detection of this wild, and vMonnry doctrine, have not been altogether useless ; rince to the philosopher, it has added one more to the numerous catalogue of the ANl errors and illusions of the human understanding ; and affords a me- morable instance of the power of imag nation. See ELECTRICITY - it- self seemed on the eve of depart- ing. Among those causes which prin- cipally tend to preserve and increase animation, are temperance, gentle exercise, nourishing diet, wine, moderate gratifications, and con- stant activity, both corporeal and mental. Various methods have, at differ- ent times, been recommended to restore animation when suspended, either from suffocation or drown- ing. In Spain, they first lay die body with its head downwards, near a fire, till it begins to i\ < 1 warm, and ejec~t water from the trachea, or windpipe ; they then foment the whole b roast, and .seat of the heart, with spirits of vine; brandy, or bread dipped in strong vines. By thc><-. means, if the vital principle be nm exun^t, the 1 circulation of the- blood is usually restored. Tho French Academy advise tobacco-smoke to be forci- bly inje6ted into the anus and lungs, after which a vein to bP opened iu the aim and loot : it r A N I d that, by this method, per- sons who had lain many hours under water, have been happily re- suscitated. In the Journal Historif/ue sur les matieres du tcms, for Dec. 1/58, A case is related by Dr. DU Mou- "LIN, who succeeded in recovering a young woman, after she had lain for several hours under water. All pulsation having ceased, he consi- dered it as a desperate case, and was induced to try a method he had frequently observed to be suc- cessful with flies and other insects, which, when drowned or apparent- ly dead, had been revived by half burying them in ashes or salt. He accordingly ordered a quantity of dry pot-ashes to be strewed, about three inches deep, on a bod : upon this layer his patient was placed, and another, about two inches in depth, was spread over her. The head was covered with a cap con- taining some of these ashes j and a stocking filled with the same ma- terial, was placed round her throat. Blankets were then laid on the bed ; and in half an hour her puLe began to beat ; after which she quickly recovered. If pot-ash can- not be readily procured, dry salt may be used as a substitute. In Russia, the common people are frequently deprived of sensa- tion, by pestilential vapours arising from the following cause. Per-ons of rank, in that country, have dcu- bJe windows to their houses in winter, but those of the poorer classes . are only single. During frosty weather, an incrustation is formed on the inside of those win- dows, from a condensation of the breath, perspiration, &c. of a number of persons living together in the same room. This mc-phitic ' erust is mixed with the noxious A N I [63 fume? of candles, and of the oven with \\hich the chamber is heated. When a thaw succeeds, and this "plate of ice is converu d into water, a deleterious principle is disen- gaged, which produces efFefts si- milar to tho.se arising fr<,m the 1 , fumes of charcoal. The method of recovering persons affected by this effluvia, is as follows : they are immediately carried out of doors, and placed on the snow, with no other covering but a shirt and linen drawers. Their temples, and the region of the stomach are then well rubbed with snow ; an! cold water and milk is poured down their throats. The friction is continued till the livid hue of the skin disappears', and the sur- face acquires its rlatunil colour. In cnses cf apparent death, from-, drowning, it is necessary to nib the breast and temples for a consi- derable time with salt, and all tb> other parts with warm cloths. Bladders filled with warm water, or bricks heated and wrapped i;i flannel, should be applied to soles of the feet, under the arm- pits, and between the thighs. The head should be covered with blan- kets, to preserve the lungs from too sudden an ingress of the air, on the renewal of respiration. .When symptoms of returnin-' mation appear, a few blood may be taken from the arm. Farther directions for the ma- nagement of bodies in that unfor- tunate .situation, we propn communicate under the article:-; of DKOWMNG, SUSFI.N-JO v by the cord, LIGHTNING, . As a proof of the success wliich has attended the exertions of medi- cal men in this country, who ; liberally co-operated with the b';- nevolcnt design of the Roya] Hu- mane AN i mane Society, under the immedi- ate patronage of our august Sove- reign, we shall adjourn this sub- ject, in the words of our wor- thy friend, the philanthropic Dr. HA WES, a gentleman whose inte- grity and disinterested activity de- serveequal commendation : "ANI- MATION (says this noble veteran), has been given to THOUSANDS since 1//4, the birth of our life- saving labours." ANISE, or Pimpaiella, in bo- trjur, is an annual, umbelliferous and aromatic plant, of which there are ten species, though scarcely .three of them are indigenous, name- Jy: 1. The Common Burnet Saxi- frage, or the Pimpinella Sanfraga, L. which grows on a dry, calcare- ous, gravelly soil, blossoms in July and August ; and is described in Dr. WITHERING' s Arrangement nf British Plants, p. 311, and Engl. Bot. T. 407. Every part of this useful plant has a fragrant smell and taste, and is subservient to many beneficial purposes. The white root of the burnet- saxifrage is of a very hot, pungent, bitterish taste, which may be en- tirely extracted in rectified spirits of wine, and affords a medicine of great efficacy in scorbutic and cu- taneous disorders in general, but especially for dropsical and asthma- tic complaints, in which it has been administered by the great BOKR- iiAAVE, with singular success. Al- though he directs it to be taken on- ly in ;> watery infusion, yet we tvould pr:.fer the tir.clure, as pos- sessing in a superior degree the me- dicinal virtues of the root. In short, (he physicians of Germany frequently prescribe it in cases where emollient, resolvent,, deter- AN -I geni, diuretic, and stomachic re- medies are indicated, as well as for removing tumors and obstructions in the glands. FREDERIC HOFFMAN asserts, that this vegetable is aia excellent medicine for promoting the men- ses ; while other writers recom- mend it in all cases where pituitous humours are supposed to prevail, such as catarthal coughs, hoarse- ness, and humid asthma, but par- ticularly in a symptomatic sore tin oat, called the mucous quinsy. There is a variety of the bur net- saxifrage growing wild in Branden- burgh, and denominated by ELS- HOLZ, a Prussian botanist, the Pimpinella cceruka, or the blue pimpinella ; as it differs from the former only, by yielding a blue colour in rectified spirit, a similar oil on distillation, and a fine blue juice on expressing the fresh root. For this reason, we have men- tioned it, as it may probably afford a proper substitute for indigo, which we are obliged to import at a con- siderable expence. The young leaves and shoots of* this species are very palatable, and are eaten as sallad : small bunches of them tied together, and suspend- ed in a cask of table-beer, or ale, impart to it an agreeable aromatic taste : and, it is affirmed, that they likewise tend to correct tart and spelled wines, which, by this sim- ple expedient, may be restored to their former briskness. As the herbs of this plant are acknowledged to be a very whole- some fodder for cows, to increase their milk, and to preserve them against epidemics, we presume to recommend its culture to the far- mer and grazier. 2. The Great Burnet-Saxifrage, or the Pinifinella magna, L.. de^ lights ' A N 'N Jjghts in shady places, on a calca- reous soil, also flowers in July and August; and is described by WI- THERING, p. 313, and Engl. Bot. T. 403. It is stated to possess properties similar to the former, though cat- tie refuse to browze upon it, on account of its hard stalks, which often attain the height of four feet. 3. The Dwarf Burnet-Saxifrage, or Plmpinella dioica, L. is rather a rare plant in this country ; it only grows on hilly pastures and calca- reous soils, for instance, on St. Vincent's Rock, near Bristol, and above Uphill, in Somersetshire. It bears flowers in May and June ; is described by WITHERING, p. 313; and delineated in GERARD'S Herbal, 1054. 3. Its properties are not sufficiently ascertained; but being a dwarfish plant, the two preceding species in every respect deserve the prefer- ence. ANNEALING, by artificers called nealiiig, is a part of the pro- cess of making, or finishing, glass ; and consists in placing bottles and other vessels, while hot, in a kind of oven or furnace, where they are suffered gradually to cool. The difference between unan- nealed, and annealed glass, is very remarkable. When a glass vessel that has not undergone this process, 3s broken, it often flies into a small powder, with a violence apparent- ly disproportionate to the stroke which it received. In general, it 5s in greater danger of being broken from a very slight blow, than from a more considerable one. Such vessel will often resist the effefts of a pistol bullet dropt into it from the height of two or three feet, yet a grain of sand falling into it, will break it into small fragments. This xo, i. VOL. i, ANN [65 sometimes takes place immediately on dropping the sand into it, but the vessel will frequently remain apparently sound, for several mi- nutes after ; when, without the least touch, it will suddenly fly to pieces. If the glass be very thin, this efFeft does not take place j and, on the contrary, it seems to possess all the properties of such as are annealed. Glass is one of those bodies which increase in bulk, on passing from a fluid tp a solid state. When it is allowed to crystallize regularly, the particles are so arranged, that it has a fibrous texture ; but, when a mass of melted glass is suddenly exposed to a cold temperature, the surface crystallizes, and forms a firm shell round the interior fluid parts, by which they become solid, and are prevented from expanding. By the process of annealing, the glass is preserved for some time in a state approaching to fluidity ; the heat increases the bulk of the crys- tallized part, and renders it so soft, that the internal fibres have an op- portunity of expanding and forming a regular crystallization. A similar process is now used for rendering kettles, and other ves- sels of cast iron, less brittle; which admits of the same explanation as that above stated. The greater number of metals diminish in bulk when they pass from a fluid to a solid state. Iron, on the contrary, expands. ANNUITY implies a sum of money payable yearly, half-yearly, or quarterly, to continue for a cer- tain number of years, for life, or for ever. An annuity is called an arrear, when it continues unpaid after it becomes due ; and is said to be in reversion, when the purchaser, 1" upon 66] ANN upon paying the price, does rtot immediately enter upon possession : the annuity not commencing till some lime after. The interest upon annuities may be computed either in the simple or compound manner. But the latter, being most equitable, rs ge- nerally preferred. In the first class, viz. in thoe which extend for a limitted period, the principal considerations are, the annuity, rate, and time being given, to find the amount, or sum of yearly payments, and interest. These are readily ascertained, by a series of algebraical calculations. In freehold estates, the principal circumstances to be attended to, are, 1 . The annuity, or yearly rent. 2. The price, or present value 5 and, 3. The rate of interest. A N K The value of life-annuities is de- termined by comparative observa- tions and calculations derived from, the bills of mortality. Several computations have b;en made for this purpose; the most esteemed; of v.-hich are those by Dr. HAL- T,::Y. Mr. SIMPSON, and M. De MoiVRE. Breslaw, the capital of Silesia, being a central place, and not much crowded, was fixed upon by Dr. H ALLEY, who had recourse to the bills of mortality, when he com- posed his table. He selected 10OO persons, all born in one year, and" observed, how many of these re- mained alive every year from their birth, to the extinction of the last j and, consequently, ascertained the: number which died in each year, as follows : Age Persons- living. Age. Persons living. Age. Persons living. Age. Persons living. l 1000 24 573 47 377 70 142 2 855 25 567 49 367 7i 131 3 798 26 560 40 357 72 120 4 760 27 553 50 346 73 ioo 5 732 28 546 51 335 74 99 6 710 29 539 52 324 75 88 7 6Q2 30 531 53 313 76 78 8 680 31 523 54 302 77 68 9 670 32, 515 55 202 78 58 10 661 33 507 50 282 79 49 11 653 34 499 57 272 so 41 12 646 35 4QO 58 262 SI ."'i 13 640 36 481 59 252 82 28 14 694 3/ 472 60 242 S3 23- 15 623 38 463 61 232 84 20 10 622 39 454 62 222 85 15 17 9T6 40 445 63 212 86 11 18 6lO 41 43(5 64 2O2 87 8 19 604 42 427 65 192 88 5 2O 598 43 417 66 182 89 3 21 502 44 407 67 172 90 1 22 586 45 397 68 162 91 O 23 579 46 337- G9 152 i As ANN ANN [67 As there is allowed to be a till none be left, in order to form a greater disparity between births and burials in the city of London, than in any other place, Mr. SIMP- SOX selects 12SO persons, all born in the same year, and records the number remaining alive each year, table particularly suited to this -po- pulous city. The following is Mr. SIMPSON'S table on the bills of mortality, at London : Age. Persons living. Age. Persons living. Age. Persons living. Age Persons living.-. O 1280 24 434 48 220 72 59 1 8/0 25 420 49 212 73 54 2 700 26 418 50 204 74 49 3 635 27 410 51 196 7-5 45 4 600 28 402 52 188 76 41 5 580 29 394 53 180 77 38 6 564 30 385 54 1/2 78 35 7 551 31 376 55 165 79 32 8 541 32 367 56 158 80 29 9 532 33 358 57 151 81 26 10 524 34 34p 58 144 82 23 11 517 35 340 59 137 S3 20 12 510 36 331 60 130 84 17 13 504 37 322 61 123 85 14 14 4p8 38 313 62 117 86 12 15 492 39 304 63 ill 87 10 16 486 4O 204 64 105 88 S 17 480 41 284 65 99 89 6 13 4/4 42 274 66 93 90 5 19 463 43 264 <57 87 91 4 20 462 44 255 68 81 92 3 21 455 45 246 69 75 93 2 22 448 46 237 70 69 94 1 23 441 4? 228 71 64 95 O But these tables, however perfect they may be in themselves, must be considered only as probable con- jetures, founded on the usual pe- riod of human life, which is esti- ma:ed as follows : 1 . The probability that a person of a given age may live a certain number of years, is measured by the proportion which the number cf persons living at the proposed age bears to the difference between the said number, and that of per- sons existing at the given ages. Thus, if it be required to knovr what chance a person 40 years of age may have to live seven years longer, the reader should refer to Dr. HALLEY'S table, andfrom445, the number of persons living at 40 years of age, subtract the number of persons living at 47 years of age, and the remainder, being 68, will be the number of those who have died during those seven years. The probability, that the person in ques- tion will live these seven years, is in the proportion of 377 to 68, or 2. uearl/ 68] ANN nearly as 5f to 1. By Mr. SIMP- SON'S table, the chance is some- what less than that of 4 to 1. If it be desirable to ascertain the year, which a person of a given age has an equal chance of attain- ing, the inquirer ought to find half the number of persons living at that given age, in the tables ; and the year required will appear in the column of ages. The premium of insurance upon lives may also, in some degree, be regulated by these tables, as fol- lows : The , chance which a person of 25 years has to live another year, is, by Dr. HALLEY'S table, as 80 to 1 ; but the chance that a per- son of 50 years has to live a year longer, is only 30 to 1 ; and con- sequently the premium for insur- ing the former ought to be the pre- mium for insuring the latter for one year, as 30 to 8O, or as 3 to 8. Life-annuities are commonly bought or sold at a certain number of years' purchase. The value of an annuity of one pound for an age of 50 years, at 3 per cent, interest, is about 111. 10s. or twelve and a half years' purchase. Among those who have written on this subject, none is more de- servedly celebrated than Dr. PRICE, the author of Observations on Re- versionary Payments, Annuities, &c. published in 1771 5 an d his curious remarks on this subject, inserted in the lxv th vol. of the Pkilos. Transactions, for 1/75, p. 424, are well worthy of perusal and attention. In our opinion, life annuities, when granted by individuals whose property is already involved, or who by such an expedient injure the just expectations of their rela- tives, ought not to be connived at A N O in a well-regulated State. Viewed in a commercial light, this speck-j of gambling, in a certain degree, resembles the furious rage for the hazard or pharo-table; to which all those adventurers and avaricious money - lenders generally resort, who are anxious to amass large sums of money, which, bv moderate legal interest, could not be reaii/ed. ANODYNE, is a term applied to medicines which have a ten- dency to assuage pain. This de- sirable purpose may be attained in three different ways : 1 . By pare- gorics, or such remedies as are calculated to ease pain ; 2. By sopo- rifics, which relie\ e the patient by causing artificial sleep ; and 3. Bv narcotics, or such as stupify, by their action on the nervous system. This division, though sanctioned by general authority, is very im- perfect ; and we shall attempt to explain the subject in a manner, perhaps, more consonant with ju^t principles of animal economy not from the result, but from the cause by which a proper application of anodynes induces certain changes in the human body. In order to give a distinct view of the subject, we. shall arrange them under three classes ; namely, I. Such remedies as tend either to remove the offending cause, or prevent the part affected from re- ceiving a sensible and painful im- pression, viz. in consequence of the amputation of a limb ; the drawing of a tooth ; the burning of parts either by the cautery, or by means of a red-hot iron ; the ap- plication of the tourniquet, a tight ligature, compresses, &rc. To this class also belong opiates, and other stupifying medicines, administered for the suspension of pain ; but which may be justly termed, " poi- A NO sous' of the sensitive faculty." However liberally others may ex- plain the effects of opium on the organs of the mind, we cannot avoid observing, that its operation on tbcsensorium commune is always attended with violence, and that so powerful a medicine ought not to be intrusted to the hands of those \\ ho are but little acquainted with its nature. Nay, we are of opinion, that even medical men cannot be too careful in its exhibition ; but far from wishing to deprecate the use of this invaluable drug, which cannot, in the present state of me- dical science, be excluded from the liit of medicinal substances, we shall here venture to suggest a few ideas respecting the propriety, and greater safety, of its external use. In very painful wounds, excru- ciating rhuematism, contractions, and paralytic affections arising from frequent spasms and strictures, the /a/ use of opium is both safe beneficial, especially if com- bined with antispasmodic and emol- lient remedies, such as camphor, lint-seed oil, marsh-mallows, &c. These alone are frequently suffi- cient to relieve distressing pain, \vithout the assistance of anodynes properly so called ; as the latter generally determine the circulation of blood towards the head, and oc- casion giddiness, stupor, and a re- laxation of the nerves. With the above additions, however, opium may be advantageously employed in the form of baths, fomentation:;, ointments, cataplasms, and parti- cularly in clysters. (See the arti- cle ABDOMEN, p. 5. laudanum.} When the pain is in the interior organs, and its seat cannot be prer t-isely ascertained, or when it arises from causes which neither the pa- tient nor physician can discover, A NO [69 we would prefer the following- anodyne liniment, a timely appli- cation of which has frequently pro- cured immediate relief: take one ounce of the dried leaves of the common henbane, or four ounces of the green plant, and half a pint of sweet olive oil, digest them near a fire for a few days, men express the leaves through a coarse piece of linen, filter the deception, and preserve it in a vessel closely stopped. This preparation, if ap- plied warm, or rubbed into painful parts, has, according to our own experience, proved of singular effi- cacy. II. Those remedies which are calculated to change, suppress, or evacuate the material cause of pain, and are therefore the most rational, though, unfortunately, not always within the reach of the medical practitioner. Thus, if the intesti- nal canal be obstructed, or the stomach clogged with acrid matter that cannot fail to produce violent colics, and other disorders, the prin- cipal aim will be to evacuate it by purgatives, or emetics, and thereby not only cure the complaint, but, at the same time, save the patient's life, which, by means of opiates, given either by the mouth or clys- ter, without such previous eva- cuations, would be exposed to im- minent danger. Hence we are in- duced to express our opinion de- cidedly in favour of those who, from a conviction of the great in>. portance of the trust reposed in them, seriously hesitate to employ anodynes, so long as there is a pos- sibility of dispensing with such pre- carious remedies. But, in cases where the morbid matter cannot be expelled, a skilful practitioner will endeavour, at least, to deprive it of its activity, or to neutralize it, F 3 while 70] ANO u-hi'e in the human body. In this manner, pains arising from acri- monious humours are relieved by drinking bland, diluent, and sac- charine liquors ; from intestinal worms (though resisting every ve- mifuge),by remedies which destroy them before they are carried oil by the feces ; from a pleurisy, by such means as resolve the stagnant fluids, and promote their circulation through the constricted capillary vessels ; from stones in the bladder, if they be too large for expulsion, by the use of lime-water, which tends to blunt their edges,&c. These illustrations, however, might be accompanied with a variety of prac- tical hints and precautions, if we did not intend to reserve such ob- servations, till we have occasion to treat of the different acute and pain- ful diseases, under their respective heads. III. The last class of anodynes comprehends all those which, by exciting impressions and repre- sentations of a different kind, either counteract or subdue the pain. These are generally resorted to, when neither the affected organs can be locally relieved, the mate- rial cause removed, nor the senses stupified by narcotics. Hence physicians r.re frequently obliged to employ such expedients as may suppress the partial affection, by exciting feelings of a different na- ture, and perhaps to a more intense degree than those occasioned by the original complaint. These re- medies, however, require equal ingenuity and precaution. Thus, for instance, violent head-ach, tooth- ach, pains of the breast, &c. may be alleviated by blisters, or cata- plasms made of onions, garlic, uxl--eed with vmeXEY-VET< A\ . .3, are medicines which prevent or cure the effects of deleterious sub if an-.. .ken into the stomach, or ex i email/ ap- plied to the human bo Jy. Of those poisons which generally prove mortal, when swallowed, the principal are, arsenic, corrosive sublimate, glass of antimony, ver- digrease, and lead. Mineral poi- sons apparently attack the solid parts of the stomach; and, by eroding its substance, occasion . Antimonials rather injure the nerves, and destroy by pro- ducing convulsions. Most vegeta- ble poisons seem to operate in this manner ; but fatal accidents more .frequently happen from the former. In the year 1777? ^1- NAVIKR advised larse quantities of miik to be administered to persons who had swallowed arsenic ; a metal, the vi- \ce of Winch is effectually countcra6ted by this liquid, us it a'lays the irritation (.f ih;- viscera, and prevent.! the: inflammation of the hue-tines. The patient is af- terwards direotC'l to take a dram of the liver of sulphur, in a pir-i of warm watrr : but \vhen thi- not be procured, he titute a gently alkaline lixivium, or soap- \vatcr, a solution of iron in vine- gar, or any other acid, or even a portion of ink, if nothing eke can be readily procured. The cure may be completed by the constant use of miik and warm suJplru. waters. See ARSENIC. The remedies most suited to ob- viate the effects of corrosive subli- rnate, are different preparations of the liver of sulphur, which tkconi- ANT poses or resolve:? the mercurial salt; and, by the addition of the alkali to the acid, forms an inoffensive neutral salt. Acids, therefore, even of the mildest kind, are fata!, if ap- plied to counteract, this poison, as they render it more active : thus, even lemonade, or treacle, are per- nicious, as they contribute to in- crea-e pain and danger. Common salt dissolved in water, readily pre- cipitates the mercury, and thereby greatly abates its virulence. This article be : ng always ready, it ought to be resorted to preferably to any other 5 especially as, when taken in a large quantity, it operates as an emetic, or carries oil the mercury by stool. Volatile and fixed alkaline salts and spirits, also precipitate mer- cury, such as spirits of hartshorn, or sal ammoniac, salt of tartar, wormwood, &rc. ;.but, as these can seldom be obtained on an emer- gency, the following articles may be substituted, viz. pot-ashes dis- solved in warm or cold water, but the lixivium should not be too strong. When pot- ashes are not at hand, warm water may be strained through ashes of bean- stalks, broom, straw, or any other that can be most readily burned. "White or black soap should be injected by way of clys- ter, and likewise dissolved in all the water that is drunk. Those poisons which may be called culinary, are perhaps the most destructive ; became they are generally the least suspected. No vessels therefore which contain copper in their composition, should be used in cookery, ;xe. In cases where the poison of vcrdigrease has been recently swallowed, eme- tics should first be given, and af- tri \varcu ANT tcrwards cold water gently alkalis- ed, ought to be drunk hi abund- ance. Though lead may not be consi- dered as corrosive poison, its ef- te6ts are nevertheless deleterious, and may be corrected by the re- medies already suggested, namely, by drinking large quantities of aci- dulated liquors, or solutions of the liver of sulphur, and completing the cure by gentle laxatives ; but, in the commencement of the com- plaint, drastic purgatives should be carefully avoided. The poisonous effects of mineral acids may be counteracted by the administration of calcined magne- sia. M. DESGRANGES relieved a soldier in the agonies of deaih, who had swallowed a glass of the sul- phuric acid, or oil of vitriol, by prescribing the following antidote, viz. a dram and a half of the car- bonate of magnesia (magnesia usta aerataj, dissolved in a tea-cupful of pure water. This dose pro- duced excessive vomiting. He re- peated the magnesia in the quanti- ty of half a dram every halt hour, giving at intervals a solution of gum-arabic and sugar till die cure was accomplished. To obviate the ill cffecls of opium, emetics should be given as speedily as possib e. If the first symptoms only appear, which are the same as those of intoxication, the following emetic will be of ser- vice, viz. Simple spearmint-water and oxymel of squills, of each one ounce, and half a scruple of ipeca- cuanha : frequent draughts of wa- ter-gruel should be given, to assist the operation. If the poison has been swallowed in a liquid state, which may be ascertained from the smell of the first discharge, four or ve vomitings may be sufficient; ANT [ 7 j but if in a solid form, two or three more must be procured, by giving fresh doses. Should the symptoms continue violent, it will be neces- sary to increase the quantity of the medicines, in proportion to the ur- gency of the case, and the strength of die patient. The principal ob- ject to be kept in view, according to Dr. SEAM AX, i.s, to produce such a degree of irritation, as may counteract die narcotic etrecis of tins deleterious drug. Hence it is very useful to stimulate the nos- trils with spirits of hartshorn, and to apply friction widi salt over the whole body. Lemon juice, a solution of white vitriol, and other acid substances, have long been considered as erfec- tual antidotes against opium ; but diey do not afford sufficient secu- rity. As we seriously advise all per- sons in diis unfortunate situation, immediately to avail themselves of medical assistance, it would be needless to expatiate farther on die subject : v e shall only observe, that there is a remedy at once sim- ple and effectual for ail kinds of poisons, to be found near every cot- tage, as weil as in the palaces of die great. This is pure water> which, when taken at an early pe- riod, and in sufficient quantity, has die beneficial tendency of diluting and neutralizing most of the poisons introduced into the stomach. With respect to those vege- table substances which sometimes, though rarely, require antidotes,we shall in this piacc mention die fol- lowing : 1. Camphor; 2. Arnica, or German Leopard's bane ; 3. Cocculiis Indus, or India berry ; 4. Gamboge; 5. Datura stramo- nium, or Thorn-apple ; 6. Vcra- tfum album, or White Hellebore ; and 76] ANT and 7- Mcvereum, or Spurg Olive. Against the violent operation of these medicinal drugs, Prot'f,v-or HUFELAND, of Jena, at, present physician to the KING of PRUSSIA, has from experience found, that die first is most effectually coun- teracted by taking internally pro- portionate doses of opium 5 the se- cond, by thex;opious use of vine- gar ; the third, by moderate por- tions of camphor ; the fourth, by swallowing alkaline solutions in water $ the fifth, by either vinegar, or the acid of lemons ; the sixth, by strong deceptions of coffee j and the seventh, by camphor. There are, however, many other vegetable, animal, and mineral sub- stances, sometimes taken by mis- take, or administered from malig- nant motives, and the fatal efrects of which may be obviated by a timely use of their respective anti- dotes. In order to conclude this article, within its due limits, we are obliged to refer the reader to the following heads, where he will find each subject discussed as it occurs in the order of the alphabet, viz. BALSAMINE SEEDS, CASSAVA, Co- I.O&UINTIDA,WATKK-CROWFOOT, "WILD CUCUMBER, BEARDEDDAU- NEL, Eu P HORB i UM, SPANISH FLIES, FOXGLOVE, GLASS, GYPSUM, HEL- LEBORE, HEMLOCK, HENBANE, LEAH, LEADWORT, LIME, LOB- STERS, PUTRID MKAT, METALLIC, POINTED SUBSTANCES, MUSCLES, -DEADLY NIGHTSHADE, Nur vo-nri- c.a, OYSTERS, MEADOW S'AFFRON, bALTPETRE, SCAM'.IONY, SoW- BREAD, STAVESACKE, WOLF'S- BANE, and POISONS in general. ANTIMONY is a heavy, brittle semi -metal, composed of long bright streaks, resembling needles, of a dark lead colour, and without taste or smell. It is found in Ger- ANT many, France, and also in Eng- land ; but that produced in this country is the least proper for me- dicinal u Tn Scotland, there is no genera! law to regulate their duration. The period varies, accord in sr to the estab- lished custom in different towns, and may frequently be shortened, by paying a small tine, which in many places is ^ also sufficient to purchase the freedom of any cor- pora don. In France, the duration of ap- prenticeship is different in various trades. Five years was the time ge- nerally reqxiired in Paris ; but, be- fore a person can be qualified to become a master, he was in many instances obliged to serve five years more as a journeyman, and daring this term he was called a companion. Apprenticeships were unknown to the ancients. The Roman law makes no mention of them ; nor is there any Greek or Latin word which expresses the idea now an- nexed to this appellation. Dr. ADAM SMITH considers long apprenticeships as altogether unne- cessary; because those arts which are superior to common trades, such as clock and watch-making; are not involved in so much mys- tery as to require a long course of instruction. Their first invention must, doubtless, have been the re- sult of deep reflection and close ap j plication ; but. since their princi- ples are well understood, the les- sons of a few weeks, perhaps, even of a few davs, might be sufficient for the purpose of complete ex- planation. Manual dexterity, it is true, cannot, even in common trades, be acquired without much practice and experience. On the other hand, a young man would be more attentive and diligent, if from the commencement of a new pur- suit, he were employed as a jour- neyman, and paid in proportion to the quantity of his labour. The rnaster.1 APR master, indeed, would not be so great a gainer, because a consider- able part of those wages which he now saves for seven years together, would necessarily fall to the share of the apprentice. In trades easily learnt, the latter would ultimately not derive any disproportionate ad- vantages ; for, as under such cir- cumstances, he must expect many competitors, his wages would con- sequently, though gradually, be reduced. All trades, crafts, and mysteries, would thus experience a reasonable check of extravagant prices j and thus all conspiracies, and combinations of journeymen and masters, would be effectually prevented. APRICOT-TREE, the Primus Armeniaca, L. is a species of the plum, or cherry-tree. Although LINNJEUS has reduced these dif- ferent trees to one genus, which he calls Prunus, yet we shall in this place enumerate only the varieties known under the name of apricot : 1. The male, or early apricot, which produces a small, round, reddish fruit; has more stone than pulp, ripens in July, and has but an indifferent flavour. As this tree blossoms early in spring, it is liable to be injured by night-frosts, against which it ought to be pro- tected, by placing contiguous to it phallow vessels rilled with water. 2. The white apricot is oblong, flat at both ends, and of a pale co- lour: its tree is not only less influ- enced by cold, than any other sort, but also bears fruit in greater Abundance. 3. The orange apricot acquires, \vhen ripe, a deep yellow colour, Is distinguished by a sweet kernel, but its iruit is more fit for preserv- ing, drying, and using it in pas- try, than for the dessert. APR [9* 4. The red apricot is of an oval size, its pulp likewise reddish and juicy, and the kernel sweet like a hazle-nut : the leaves of tliis tree are longer than those of any other variety. 5. The large, or Turkey apricot, exceeds in size and beauty all the other sorts, has a deep yellow pulp and sweet kernel, but is not pro- ductive. 6. The Breda apricot, a native of Africa, is one of the finest and most delicious : its fruit is large and round, externally of a deep yellow, and internally of a golden, colour. Its kernel is the largest of the kind; and if this fruit arrive at maturity in an airy situation, it deserves an unqualified preference. 7- The Brussels apricot is of a middle size, somewhat ovalj on its southern exposure red, with many dark spots, and greenish or deepyelSow on the opposite side Its fruit is firm, and of a delicious taste ; the skin is apt to burst be- fore the fruit is mature, and it sel- dom ripens until August or Sep- tember. Some amateurs even pre- fer it to the preceding species. Lastly: 8. The peach apricot is more spherical and larger than any other species ; while it possesses the sweetness of the apricot combined with the acidulated vinous taste of the peach. This tree, however, requires a temperate climate, and will not thrive in the open air of this country. Culture. All the varieties of apricot-trees have originally beeix raised from their stones : they were then propagated by bud* ding or grafting on any plum- stock. The soil most congenial t$ their nature, is a rich black mould ; for they will not prosper in a loamy, 92] APR sandy, gravelly, damp, or cold ground. As they are general'y placed near walls, an eastern aspect will be the most eligible and pro- per, because they are apt to grow mealy, from the strong and constant heat of the sun, in a southern direc- tion . In a luxuriant bottom, they may be planted at a distance of sixteen or twenty feet from each Other j but in an inferior soil, from twelve to fifteen. When trans- planted in the month of October, no other branches ought to be pruned off, except such as cannot be fixed to the wall. After the tree has been properly set in the ground, its branches should be loosely tied, and the surface of the soil surround- ing the stem covered with good ma- nure, partly to prevent injury from frost, and to afford more nourish- ment to the roots. Towards the end of February, or beginning of March, the branches must be un- tied, and, the top of the tree cut off, while the operator's foot should be placed close to its trunk, and only four or five eyes are to be left above the place where it ha.s been .grafted : taking care that the ob- lique side of the cut be turned to- wards the wall. During a dry spring, the roots may be occasionally watered, and covered with a little straw or grass plats, in order to protect them against night- frosts, and afford them additional moisture in summer. All the young shoots should be tied horizontally. About the end of September, the branches are again to be loosened, and pruned, so that two only may remain, one of a larger size, from eight to nine, and an inferior one, from five to six inches long. In the second summer, all the straight shoots ought to be removed, APR as in the first, while the new sprigs are transversely fastened close to the wall, so that the trunk of the tree remain free : the pruning, however, should not be attempted later than in the course of April. About Michaelmas, the young shoots are again to be dressed, as in thq preceding year j and the most vigorous left from eight to ten, but the weaker ones, only six or seven inches long. A similar treatment must be pur- sued in the third and following years. It deserves farther to be remarked, that apricots bear their buds and blossoms not only on the branches of the preceding year, but likewise on the young shoots and tops of these branches : hence the dressing of them, during summer, ought to be performed with addi- tional care. Uses. From the vinous and sac- charine nature of this fruit we may readily conclude, that it is pos- sessed of antiseptic, cooling, and nutritive properties ; yet, unless fully ripe, it is apt to ferment and turn acid in weak stomachs, espe- cially those of persons who are sub- ject to flatulency and eradiations : hence apricots ought to be eaten in moderation, with the addition of a little bread, and rather before, than after, meals. In short, they are more useful to bilious and ple- thoric, than to phlegmatic and hy- sterical individuals, or those trou- bled with hypochondriacal com- plaints. In France and Germany, the orange apricot is usefully preserved in a dry state, for the winter, when it forms a delicious ingredient in pyes, tarts, &c. The kernels of several species of apricots contain a sweet oil, on ac- count of which they were formerly, like AQJJ [93 like sweet almonds, used in emul- sions, and considered as vulnerary and anodyne : at present, however, their use is confined to external applications, in which the expressed oil of these kernels has sometimes been of service, fora contracted and chapped skin of the hands and lips, sore nipples, painful ears, and si- milar cases. AQUA FORTIS, the nitrous acid of a certain strength, and so called frcm its dissolving power j but, when in a concentrated and smoking state, it is denominated spirit of nitre. It is made by dis- tilling equal parts of crude nitre with calcined vitriol ; or by care- fully mixing one part of oil of vi- triol with nine of pure spirit of nitre. See ACIDS. As this powerful liquid is used for various purposes in the arts and manufactures, but chiefly by dyers, brass-founders, hatters, &c. great caution should be observed, both in preparing and employing it, be- cause it possesses a very caustic property, and its fumes are highly deleterious to the organs of respira- tion. Hence those artisans fre- quently become subject to convul- sive coughing and blood spitting, paralytic affections, trembling, pale- ness of countenance, loose teeth, the loss of smell and taste, and at length, pulmonary consumption. Jn order to prevent these fatal ef- fefts, we seriously advise them to make use of oily and bland nou- rishment, and externally to secure the mouth and nose, by tying a handkerchief round those parts, while they are exposed to the fumes of this volatile acid. But in casualties where a person has, by mistake, swallowed a por- tion of aqua-fortis, the follow ing treatment will be the most proper for averting the imminent danger of suffocation. Immediately after the accident, luke-warm water ought to be druak in the greatest possible quantity, even to the amount of several gallons, to weak- en the causticity of the poison. Next, a solution of half an ounce of salt of tartar, or clean pearl-ashes, in one pint of water, should be taken in about six or eight small draughts ; and as the effervescence thus occasioned in the stomach, greatly tends to weaken that organ, it will be necessary to make vise of more water, and other diluent, oily, or mucilaginous drinks. We are of opinion, that a soluti- on of borax, or tincal, in the propor- tion of three drams to a pint of wa- ter, forms a more effectual anti- dote than the vegetable alkali ; be- cause the former, by uniting with acids, causes no effervescence. There are instances of persons hav- ing completely obviated the ill ef- fects of this poison, simply by drinking small portions of sweet oil, frequently repeated, for three days successively. If, however, the sensation of .t burning pain in the stomach and bowels should not subside, after plentiful vomiting, large draughts of sweet cow's milk must be swal- lowed, with the addition of one dram, or sixty drops of liquid tar- tar, usually called oil of tartar, to each pint. But previously to the expulsion of the poison by vomit- ing, or the neutralizing of it with alkaline solutions, neither milk, oily, nor saponaceous draughts can be taken with advantage. Hence these ought to conclude the cure ;' during which the patient may fre- quently use gargarisms and clysters of the same liquids, which are di- rected to be taken internally. In- deed, 94] AQJJ deed, after the poisonous fluid has left the stomach, and entered the intestinal canal, the principal be- nefit will be derived from emollient and balsamic injections. AQUA REGIA is a compound of the nitrous and marine acids, in different proportions, according to the purpose for which it is required ; and usually made, by dissolving sal ammoniac, or common salt, in ni- trous acid. When the former is employed, the usual proportion is one of this salt to four of the acid ; but equal parts will be necessary to dissolve plalina. Aqua regia is used as a menstru- um for gold; it likewise dissolves all other metals, silver alone except- ed. The best kind for the above- mentioned purpose, is a prepara- tion of three parts of the pure ma- rine, with one of the nitrous, acid. One hundred grains of gold require for their solution, two hundred and forty-six of this mixture. Con- cerning the nature and cure of those casualties which may arise from an improvident use of this powerful solvent, we refer to the preceding article. AQUA VIT^ is usually under- stood to signify either brandy, or spirit of wine, prepared simply, or with aromatics. Some, however, make a distinction; appropriating the term brandy to what is dra wn from wine, or the grape ; and aqua vitae to that which is extracted from malt, &c. See BRANDY. Aquilegia. See COLUMBINE. Arabic. See GUM ARABIC. Aralis. See CRESS. ARABLE LANDS, in general, are those naturally fit for tillage, or which may, by proper means, be prepared for the production of grain. The just proportion between ara- bie and pasture lands, has in thi* country, of late years, been much exceeded in favour of the latter. It is asserted by competent judges, that though the prevailing rage for breeding cattle of the finest quality, and to the greatest extent, has doubtless benefited the grazier, and the lord of the manor, yet this prac- tice must certainly be attendedwith disadvantages to the community at large. We cannot, in this place, enter into a minute discussion of this important, subject; but it clear- ly appears, from the present prices of corn, when compared with those of animal food, that they bear no just proportion to each other. With respeft to the general me- thods of improving arable land, we are induced to avail ourselves of the excellent remarks of M. DUHA- MEL, who maintains that it is much more profitable to increase the fertility of land by tillage, than manure: 1. Because only a certain quantity of dung can be had ; the produce of twenty acres being scarcely sufficient to dung one; whereas the particles of the earth may be pulverized and divided at pleasure: 2. Plants reared in dung, do not possess the fine flavour of those produced by a natural soil : 3. The plough not only separates the particles in a manner exactly similar to the fermentation occa- sioned by dung, but also changes their situation, by turning up the earth, and thus exposing the whole, at different times, to the influence of the sun, air, and dews ; all which greatly conduce to render it fertile: 4. Dung breeds and harbours in- sefts, which afterwards feed upon and spoil the plants. To remedy this inconvenience, he recommends the following expedient : " Let a reservoir of quick-lime be kept in a very AR A fe very dry place. When you be- gin to make your dunghill, sprinkle each layer of dung with quick-lime, till the whole is finished. This lime kills most insects, perhaps en- riches the manure, and renders it more serviceable. It will likewise destroy the seeds of weeds, which are generally in dung, and hurt the wheat when they shoot up." Various methods of improving poor arable land, have been sug- gested by different writers. But as we consider old DUHAMEL'S plan of ploughing, and then pulve- rizing the soil properly by the har- row, the most effectual, where suf- ficient manure cannot be procured, we shall only relate two sugges- tions which deserve notice, chiefly on account of their originality. JOHN MORDANT, in his " Com- plete Steward," published in l/6l, advises a method of improving poor, warn-out land, as he terms it; which, not being an expensive one, may well deserve a trial : " A pound of turnip-seed sown, after harvest, upon an acre of light, sandy, or gravelly land, that is poor or worn out by over-plough- ing, and where manure is wanting (the crop of which being ploughed in, when grown high), will, in two months' time, die away and rot, and enrich the land, so as to prove as good a manuring as twenty loads of dung, or more, upon an acre." P. 457. Another, and equally eccentric, manner of recruiting worn-out land, is that proposed by Mr. 11 A N- DALL, in his " Semi- Virgilian Hus- bandry/' which appeared in 1704. "We likewise communicate it in the author's own words : " The loam, immediately after harvest, is to be .turned up; and. as we shall suppose jt will allow the ploughman to go AR A [95 very deep, this is a point to be ob- tained at any rate, for a worn-out soil. In order to eirect this, one plough is to go the usual depth, and another plough to follow at the same depth, and in .the same furrow, which will throw the mould over it, and bury- the stubble. In this case, the field will lie under the advantage of being turned up- side-down, as if it were double spitted, more than a foot deep, and the stubble will be sooner rotted. When this is done, the harrows must make the ground as fine as the bad condition of it, or the season, will permit." P. 12. We shall conclude this article with an useful hint, given by Mr. R. PRICE, of Knehvorth, Hens, to the Society for the Encourage- ment of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce ; respecting the damage done to arable land, by carrying off \h& small stones and flints from the surface, for the purpose of making turnpike-roads. This practice is highly detrimental to almost every kind of ploughed land, but parti- cularly to what are culled thin- stapled, or light soils. Mr. PEICS justly observes, that " stones are of surprizing and manifb.d uses ; for instance, they greatly assist die plough in working the land j they also prevent land of a binding quality from ruiining together, and hardening, like mortar in a wall ; they screen the tender blade from blasts and blights ; they not only prevent the crop, where the staple is thin, from being scorched up in summer, but also the exudations of the earth from evaporating; and by that means greatly promote ve- gciation." It is almost 'superfluous to add, that this reasoning is equally appli- cable to fields and gardens. See also 5 6] A P. B also the articles HUSBANDRY, LAN-PS, SOIL, and TILLAGE. Arachis hypogOfa, See EARTH or GROUND-NUT, and CHOCO- LATE. Aranea. See SPIDER, and BA- ROMETER. ARBOUR, in gardening, is a kind of shady bower, formerly in great esteem, but of late almost generally abandoned, on account of the damp and unwholesome shHter it affords. Arbours are principally con- structed of lattice-work, of wood or iron, and are frequently covered with elms, limes, and horn -beams, or with creepers, such as honey- suckles, jasmines, and passion- flowers ; either of which will an- swer the desired purpose ; though we by no means wish to counte- nance, their re-introduL : u'on. Arbutus. See STRAWBEKRY- TEEE. ARCANUM, strictly speaking, sigiiiius any tiling which is in- volved in mvstery ; but, in physic, it more usually denotes a remedy, the preparation of which is indus- triously concealed, either to en- hance its value, or increase its re- putation among the vulgar. See NOSTRUM, and SPECIFICS. Archangel, Yellow. See WEA- SKL-SXOUT. ARCHERY is the art, or exer- cise, of shooting with a bow and arrow. Among ancient nations, the bow was the principal instrument of war; and the skill of the archer of- ten decided the fate of battles and of empires. The English were particularly expert in the use of this instru- ment : and their ever ITU rnorable victories at the battles ui Cressy ARC and PoiebVs, were chiefly ascribe! to tlx-ir valiant archers. JAMES the First of Scotland, who had seen and admired the dexterity of English archers, and was him- self a skilful bowman, endeavoured to revive that exercise among his own subjeels, by whom it had been neglected ; but the untimely death of that excellent prince, pre- vented the effectual execution of this useful project. In the time of EDWARD the Third, there was an aft of parlia- ment, which obliged our English archers, evrn in times of peace, to ereft butts in every parish, and to shoot on Sund.iys and holidays. By this constant practice, the Eng- lish armies possessed an exclusive advantage over their enemi;-.-:. CHARLES the First ofEngland, from a treatise entitled " the Bow- man's Glory," also appears to have been an archer. In the eighth year of his reign, he issued a commis- sion to the Chancellor, Lord Mayor and Privy Council, to prevent the fields near London from being so inclosed, as "to interrupt the ne- cessary and profitable exercise of shooting." The use of the long-bow conti- nued in estimation for more than two centuries after the introduc- tion of gunpowder ; which was probably owing to the weight and unwieldiness of muskets. The distance to which an arrow may be shot from a long-bow, de- pends in a great degree on the strength and size of the archer, but in general is reckoned from eleven, to twelve score yards. Archers consider an arrow of from twenty to twenty-four drop weight, to be the best for flight, or hitting a mark at a considerable distance - t ARC distance ; and yew, tlie best mate- rial of which they can be made. The feathers of a goose are gene- rally preferred ; two out of three are commonly white, being taken from the gander ; the third is brown or grey ; and this difference of colour informs the archer when the arrow is properly placed. The long-bow is of die same height as the archer himself : and in Eng- land a peculiar method is practised, by drawing the arrow to the ear, and not towards the breast ; which is doubtless more advantageous than that adopted among other na- tions. The force with which an arrow strikes an object, at a moderate dis- tance, may be conceived, from the account given by King EDWARD VI. in his Journal, where he says, that one hundred archers cf his guard, discharged in his presence two arrows each ; that they shot at an inch-board, and many of them pierced it quite through, though the timber was well seasoned. It may perhaps be a subject \vorthy the consideration of go- x cvnment, whether the revival of archery, by uniting military disci- pline with manly exercise, might not become an additional means, both of preserving health, and pro- tecting us against foreign enemies. According to NEADE, an archer might shoot six arrows in the time of charging and discharging a musket; and an ounce of fire- work may also be discharged, upon an arrow, to the distance of 2-40 yards. The earliest histories of archer)', in England, are those by ASCHAM, v>ho wrote his Toxophilus in the reign of HENRY VIII.; MARK- HAM'S Art of Archery, which ap- peared in 1634 ; and WOOD'S Bowman's Glory, in l6S2 : but NO. i. VOL. i. ARC [97 the latest, and most complete work on the subject, is " An Essay on Archery ," describing the practice of that art, in all ages and nations ; by W. M. MOSELEY, Esq. 8vo, pp. 348. 7s. boards. Robson, ljg'2. In this classical treatise, the author considers bows, arrows, quivers, butts, targets, and cross-bows, un- der different heads ; and his ac- count is illustrated by plates. Ease and perspicuity ; richness without verbosity ; and elegance untainted with affectation, are the characters of this entertaining work. Archery continues to be prac- tised by the inhabitants of Geneva, and in many parts df Flanders. In Britain we have several societies of archers, the principal of which are the Woodmen of Arden, the Toxo- pholite, and die Royal Company of Archers of Scotland. See also> ARROW. ARCHITECTURE, a term which denotes the art of building in general, though chiefly applied to the construction of edifices ap-> propriated to the purposes of civil life, such as houses, churches, halls, bridges, &c. &c. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity. It is generally sup- posed, that the earliest materials employed in building, werebranches and twigs of trees, with which the primitive inhabitants of the earth constructed their huts, similar to the present wigwarns of the Indians. This conjecture, however, appears doubtful, for the natural shelter afforded by caverns in the sides of mountains, or rocks, would more readily suggest the idea of using stones and earth, as mate- rials for building houses. That the preference was given to stone- buildings, over any kind of tem- porary huts, or tents, is obvious H from, 98] ARC from the practice among the inha- bitants of America, where the hu- man race existed in its rudest state : these people were no sooner col- lected into great bodies, under the Emperors of Mexico and Peru, than stone buildings were imme- diately attempted. Hence the ori- gin of architecture should not be searched for in any single nation, but in every country, at a time when the natives began to relin- quish their savage way of life, and to adopt civilized manners. The origin of all regular build- ings, however, hath, by several authors, been generally, and very plausibly, deduced from the con- struction of the meanest huts. These were, at first, probably made of a conic figure, which is the sim- plest in structure, but being incon- venient on account of its inclined sides, both the figure and construc- tion of the huts were changed, by giving them a cubical form. At length, mankind insensibly improved in the art of building, and invented methods of rendering their habitations durable and hand- some, as well as convenient. They deprived the trunks of trees of their bark, and other inequalities of surface, raised them above the wet, or humid soil, by means of stones, and also covered each with a flat stone, or slate, to exclude the rain. The interstices between the ends of the joists, were closed with wax, clay, or similar substances : the position of the roof was likewise altered ; and, as on account of its level surface, it was unfit to carry ofF the abundant rain-water, they elevated it in the middle, by placing rafters on the joists, to support the earth and other materials of the covering. From this simple con- struction, the orders of architecture ARC undoubtedly took their origin j for, when the rude builder began to ere6l stately edifices of stone, he imitated those parts which, from necessity, had composed the pri- mitive huts. Thus, the upright trees, with stones at each end, were the origin of columns, bases, and capitals 5 and the beams, joists, rafters, &c. which formed the co- vering, gave rise to architraves, frizes, trigliphs, cornices, &c. Although the first buildings were rough and uncouth, because the artificers of those remote ages pos- sessed neither skill, experience, nor tools, yet, when by length of practice, certain rules had been established, and many new instru- ments invented, the art rapidly advanced towards perfection : a va- riety of style, or different methods of building, were discovered, which, by succeeding generations, have been held in the greatest esteem. The Egyptians, from the ear- liest ages of antiquity, have been considered as the inventors of arts ; and, among other contrivances, may be numbered that species of original architecture, in which the strength of the fabric was more regarded than either its elegance, or symmetry. We cannot, consistently with the plan of this work, enter into a detail of the rise and progress of architecture ; and shall, therefore, only observe, that the Greeks, whose sublime and penetrating genius prompted them to combine elegance with convenience, derived their first ideas of building from the Egyptians. But the mind of man being un- questionably influenced by the mode of government under which he lives ; and the Greeks, with their independence, having also lost their ascen- ARC ascendancy in works of genius, from that period the Romans must be considered as the encouragers of this noble art. The orders, as now executed by architects, are five, viz. 1. the Tuscan; 2. the Doric; 3. the Ionic ; 4. the Corinthian ; and 5. the Composite. The first, from its robust appearance, is used in works where strength and sim- plicity are die essential requisites ; the second is nearly similar to the Tuscan in strength, but is enli- vened by its peculiar ornaments ; the third is more delicate than ei- ther of the former ; but the fourth displays more beauty and ornament than the others, and is therefore frequently used for the internal de- corations of stately rooms ; the fifth order is nearly the same as the Co- rinthian. The style of building, as prac- tised throughout Europe in the early ages, was denominated Go- t/lie, Saxon, Norman, and Sara- cejiic. But what we commonly call Saxon, is in reality Reman ar- chiteGhtre, When the Romans invaded the Britons, they found no places cor- responding to our ideas of a city, or town, consisting of a great num- ber of contiguous houses, regular streets, lanes, &c. Dwellings, like those of the ancient Germans, were scattered over the country, and generally situated on the brink of a rivulet, for V e sake of water, or on the skirt of a wood or forest, for the purpose of hunting, and providing pasturage for their cattle. These inviting circumstances, be- in more conspicuous in some parts of the country than in others, the princes and chiefs selected the most agreeable spots for their re- udence. Thus arcue an ancient ARC [99 British town, so characteristically described by CJE.SA.S. and STEABO, as " a trat of woody country, sur- rounded by a mound and ditch," for the security of its inhabitants against the incursions of their enemies. As soon as the Romans began to form settlements and colonies in this island, a sudden and re- markable change took place in the style of architecture. For that wonderful, brave, and industrious people, speedily adorned every country which they conquered. They not only built a considerable number of solid, convenient, and magnificent edifices for their own accommodation, but also exhorted and instructed the Britons to fol- low their example. In short, this eminently useful art, was one of the principal means employed by AGKICOLA, to civilize the Britons, and reconcile them to the Roman yoke. Not long after this period, how- ever, architecture, and the arts connected with it, began sensibly to decline in Britain ; partly in consequence of the building of Constantinople) tvhich attracted the most famous architects to the East. But the almost total ruin and negleft of architecture in this island, may doubtless be attributed to the final departure of the Ro- mans. For the natives, and the descendants of Roman and British parents, having neither skill nor courage to defend their numerous towns, forts and cities, suffered them to be plundered and destroy- ed by their ferocious invaders, the Scots, Pifts, and Saxons : the last, mentioned, in particular, having no taste for the aits, committed the most wanton and extensive devas- tations. H2 In loo] ARC fn the 12fh century, a ture again revived, and experi- enced very great improvements, in consequence of the religious zeal of the clergy ; and, in the loth and l(5th centuries, the chaste style of the Greeks and Romans was again displayed in Britain. For, though the Italians for a long time maintained their superiority, fn this as well as in other arts, over all die European nations, yet as men of genius from distant parts constantly resorted to Italy for the purpose of improvement, since that period architects have arisen in our own country, equal to any that ever appeared on the classical ground of Italy. The latest and most ' splendid publication- on this subject, which is intended as a Supplement to that magnificent work, ' Vttntoius Bri- ttinmcus? and which contains the Studies of the most celebrated artists of the present day, is the following : " A Collet-lion nf Plans and Elera- tipv* of modern Bui /ding .y,public and private, erected in Great Britain, &c." It is engraved in aquatinta, from original drawings by G. R. RI- CHARDSON, architect. Seven num- bers, at 10s. 6'd. each, are already published, and the whole is to be completed in ten such numbers. . Another very useful work has lately appeared, under the title, ** Hints for Dwellings, &c." By D. LAING, archit ct and surveyor, 4to. 34 plates, l!.5s. Taylor, 180O. It consists of original designs for cottages, farm-houses, villas, &c. plain and ornamental : with plans ro each, uniting convenience and elegance with economy. The Monthly Reviewers say: " We recommend the present work, as one of the best of that kind, to the attention of those who wish to A RG amu s e themselves with brick and mortar." Beside these, we shall mention the following architectural works, which reflect credit on the artists of this country: " The Rudiments of Ancient Architecture, &c." royal 8vo. edit. 2d. price 6s. boards, published for Taylor, in 17Q4. " Sketches in Architecture ;" by J. SoANE,architect,&c.54foliop}ates, 2'. 12s. 6d. half bound, 1793." A Treatise on the decorative part nf Civil Architecture;" by Sir WM. CHAMBERS, c. edit. 3d. Imperial foKo, price 31. 3s. Cadell, i;yi. Architecture, being an useful and elegant art, is carried on in three different ways : first, for uti- lity : secondly, for ornament; and, thirdly, for the construction of such buildings as require the combined effea of both. Edifices intended solely for uti- lity, should in every part corre- spond with the design : hence any material deviation from that prin- ciple, for the sake of ornament, ought to be strictly avoided. Works erected with this inten- tion, are to be considered as a mean conducive to some end ; and the nearer they approach to the object in view, the more will such struc- tures gain the approbation of com- petent judges, though every grace- ful decoration may have been neg- lected. Buildings of such a nature only, are compatible with- our plan, and of these we shall give a more par- ticular account under the article BUILDING. ArEtiiLin. See BURDOCK. Areca. See FASELNUT, CATE- CHU, and CABBAGE-PALM. Arenaria. See SANDWORT. Argcmone. See PRICKLY POPPY. ARGUMENT, when applied to logic, .A R I loi-ic, signifies an inference drawn from premises, the truth of w.'iich is either indisputable, or highly pro- bable. In matters of literature, it denotes the abridgement, or heads, of a book, history, chapter, &c. Considered in the former sense, in which it solely relates to reason, and to die investigation of truth, it is, in its principles, of a simple and homogeneous nature ; and re- quires no particular explanation. For, pleasure being the chief end of poetry, and persuasion that of eloquence, the real constitution of things is often perverted, or dis- guised, and compelled to adapt iiself to the imagination and the passions ; but truth, being the ulti- mate object of argiimt-nt, stands in need of no dazzling colours, or die figurative language of rhetoric. It is not, however, unusual (both hi private life and in the senate) to draw from an argument, a con- clusion very different from what it really implies. Cunning and bold disputants frequently avail them- selves of ambiguous expressions, \vhich easily engender a confusion of ideas -, and thus die fallacy of then incongruous reasoning but too often escapes detection, as it remains involved in sophistical per- plexity. For a farmer considera- tion of this interesting subject, we refer our readers to the article of LOGIC, \vhere it will be more ap- plicable than under die present. Aristolochia. See BIRTHWOBT. ARITHMETIC, is a science which teaches die method of com- puting numbers, and explains their nature and peculiarities. At what time it was invented, is altogether unknown ; though die four first fundamental principles, viz. addi- tion, subtraction, multiplication, and division, have always, in a cer- A R I [101 tain degree, been practised by dif- ferent nations. Ihe Greeks were among the first wlio brought arithmetic to per- tcclion ; and they are supposed to have originally made use of pebbles in their calculations. The most complete mediod of numbering now used in this country, Mas in- troduced into Europe by die Ara- bians, when they were in possession' of Spain. These people, however, acknowledged that they derived their information from the In- dians. How the latter became ac- quainted with it, we are entirely ignorant. The earliest treatises extant upon the theory of arithme- tic, are, the /th, Sth, and pth books of EUCLID'S Elfwrnts, in which he treats of proportion ; of prime and composite numbers. NICOMA- CHUS, the Pythagorean, also wrote concerning the distinctions and di- visions of numbers into classes, as plain, solid, triangular, fxc. ; in which he explained some of the lead- ing peculiar! ties of die several kinds. As learning advanced in Europe,, the knowledge of numbers also in- creased, and the writers on this subject soon became numerous. RAM us was die first who, in his Treatise on Arithmetic, published in 158(3, used decimal periods, for reducing the square -and cube roots to fractions ; but the greatest improvement which die art of computation ever received, was from die invention of logarithms, the honour of which is due to JOHN NAPIER, Baron of Merchiston, La Scotland, who published his disco- very about die beginning of the Ijth century. Arithmetic may now be consir dered as having advanced to a de- gree of perfection which,, in former times, cuuld scarcely have been H 3 coft- 102] A R 1 conceived, and to be one of those few sciences which have left little room for farther improvement. It is, however, a serious and al- most general complaint, that few children, while at school, make any tolerable progress in arithmetic ; and that the generality, after hav- ing spent several years under the tuition of a master, are incapable of applying the few rules which they may have learned, to the use- ful purposes of life. A little re- flection will suffice to convince us, that not. much benefit is to be de- rived from the usual mode of in- struction. A few elementary prin- ciples are acquired by rote, and therefore quickly forgotten ; be- cause the most essential particu- lars, viz. the reasons on which these rules are founded, and their extensive use in the various con- cerns of society, are generally omitted. Teachers, as well as writers, cannot be wholly exempt- ed from the charge of having, in some degree, contributed to this evil ; for, by stating the rales with- out their corresponding reasons, they act upon mechanical princi- ples, and thus encourage the idea, that demonstrations in every in- stance are useless, and in some, im- possible. Every young arithmetician should remember, that before he forms any particular question or numeri- cal proposition, it is absolutely ne- ,iry to consider whether the terms be directly proportionate to each other ; for otherwise he will be liable to commit gross errors. Although in buying and selling, the price increases or decreases in the same relative proportion as the quantity of goods, yet in geome- try, natural philosophy, &c. those things which at first uight appear A RO to be in simple proportion to each other, may, on a mature investi- gation, prove the contrary. Pre- viously, therefore, to the solution of questions respecting these sciences, he should be made acquainted with those elementary principles on which they are founded. Another material error commit- ted in the inferior schools, is th^ admission of boys under the age of ten or twelve, often for the sake of early fees, though they are inca- pable of being instructed by rea- soning with them. Hence we are decidedly of opinion, that this is one of the negative, modern im- provements ; and that the earliest period of fixing the attention of youth on scientific objects, is, ac- cording to their individual capaci- ties, from the twelfth to the fif- teenth year of their age. Among the latest, and most in- structive works on this subject, we enumerate the following: " An Introduction to Arithmetic and Al- gebra " by T.MAXXING, two vo- lumes, 8vo. 10s. boards. Riving- tons, 1798. " Arithmetical Ques- tions, on a Neiv Plan ;" by W. BUTLER, 8vo. edit. 2d. 4s. boards. Dilly,l7y7. " ThtArithmeticieafs Guide ;^ by W. TAYLOR, 12mo. 2s. 6d. bound. Baldwin, 1788. Seealso,EDUCATioNandBLixn- NESS. Arnica montana, L. See GER- MAN LEOPARD'S BANE. AROMATIC, an epithet given to such substances as yield a strong fragrant smell, and impart a warm taste. In this class are included the various spices, such as nutmegs, cloves, cinnamon, mace, &G. Some of them have a sweet- ness mixed with their aromatic principle; such as the angelica root, anise seed, and fennel ; some are are astringent, as cinnamon ; others afford a strong mucilage, as the Cas- sia lignea ; and again, others a bit- terness, as orange and lemon peel. The aromatic ingredient is ex- tracted in different proportions from various substances, by rec- tified spirits of wine ; though it is sometimes obtained by mere infu- sion with water. Aromatics form an useful and agreeable ingredient in many ar- ticles of cookery, but especially in dishes prepared of watery and fla- tulent vegetables, of which they are the best correctors : they warm the stomach, and stimulate the whole system j raise the pulse, and quicken the circulation. In cold, languid habits, and a relaxed suite of the solids, they support the ani- mal spirits, or increase vital action, and promote the salutary secre- tions : but to hot, bilious tempera- ments, full habits, and inflamma- tory dispositions, they are certainly pernicious. ARQUEBUSADE WATER, a medicinal preparation, which has received this name, from its great efficacy in healing gun-shot wounds, though it is, at present, with more propriety, applied to braises, tu- mors arising from blows, and par- ticularly to suggillated parts con- taining coagulated blood. Various mixtures are used for this purpose, but according to our experience, the following deserves the preference, both on account of the easy manner of preparing it, and its superior virtues : " Take distilled vinegar and rectified spirit of wine, of each one pound and a half, double refined loaf-sugar, half a pound, and five ounces of com- mon oil of vitriol. This composi- t : on may be applied to the injured parts in a cold or lukewarm state, ARR and the compresses should be kept continually moist, for as soon as they become dry, the pain is liable to return. By its astringent pro- perty it contracts the skin j and the sugar which settles on it, not un- like a coating of glue, ought to be carefully washed off every other, or third day, with Goulard-water. No other remedy is equal to this, if it be properly and timely applied j but we think it necessary to add, that care must be taken, not to sprinkle or shed any of the mixture on clothes or linen, which would be burnt and destroyed b/ its cau- sticity. See BRUISES. ARRACK, Arac, or Rack, is a spirituous liquor imported from the East Indies, and used either as a cordial, or an ingredient in punch. It is obtained by distillation from rice, or sugar, fermented with the juice of cocoa-nuts. Goa and Ba- tavia are the chief places from which arrack is exported. At the former, there are three sorts, viz. the single, double, and treble dis- tilled. The double is but a weak spirit, in comparison with that obtained at the latter place ; but, on account of its peculiar flavour, it is preferred to all the others. The arrack now in general use contains but a sixth, and some- times only an eighth part of alco- hol, or pure spirit. A spirituous liquor of this name is also extracted by the Tartars of Tungusia, from mare's milk, which is first suffered to turn sour, and then distilled two or three times, between two close earthen pots, from which it runs through a small wooden pipe. It is possessed of the most intoxicat- ing qualities ; so that, according to Prof. PALLAS, men, women and children, frequently drink them-i selves into a semi-delirious trance, H 4 which 1041 which continues for forty - eight Various penalties are attached to the sale of arrack, without con- forming to the usual duties and regulations established by several acls of parliament, with which we shall not trouble our readers, but refer them to the statutes made concerning this article. Genuine arrack is said to, pos- sess balsamic, softening, and re- storative properties, and to be less liable to produce the usual incon- veniencies of other spirits. It is farther supposed to contain a fine subtile oil, so minute as to incor- porate readily wit'i water : hence it is generally preferred in those cases, where repeated debauches have abraded the internal sides of the vessels. Persons who are un- fortunately addicted to the use of ardent spirits, as well as those troubled with the gout or rheuma- tism, and who cannot comply with the rules of sobriety and temper- ance, may use arrack in preference to Hollands, or brandy. On ac- count of its strong empyreumatic oil, however, it is difficult of di- gestion, soon turns rancid, causes numerous obstru&iqns, and is con- sequently injurious to individuals of lax solids, and thick or sizy fluids. Happy, therefore, are those who can entirely banish spirituous liquors from their tables ; as, from their stimulating and pernicious qualities, they have destroyed in- calculable numbers of human be- ings perhaps exceeding in the aggregate, all the victims that ever fell under the combined scourges pf war, hunger, and pestilence. ARRANGEMENT, a term which denotes a distribution of the various component parts of any "c, in a certain order, or pro- AR R portion : and refers either to nr- st,ince, time, or place. In the firit instance, we may say, that the diversity observable in various co- lours Is owing to a peculiar arrange- ment of those parts which reflect the light ; in the second, that regu- larity and order in human transac- tions are the result of a methodi- cal distribution, or arrangement of time ; and to explain -the last, it may be said, that the different genera and species of plants and flowers are, by botanists, arranged under their respective classes, arid in their proper places. A happy arrangement of ideas, words, and sentences, forms one of die principal beauties of a speech, or dissertation. The reverse im- plies confusion, which is frequent- ly glossed over by a torrent of am- biguous and flowery expressions, so that it requires no small degree of critical acumen, to distinguish the philosophical speaker from the verbose orator. -See ARGUMENT. ARROW, is a missive weapon of defence, used by archers. Its form is slender, pointed, and barbed. Arrow -makers were denominated fletchers ; men of considerable im- portance in the state. Arrow-heads and quarrels were required to be well boched or bras- ed, and hardened at the points with steel j the finishing of which ap- pears to have been the business of the arrow-smith. A more particu- lar account of bows and arrows will be found under the title of ARCHERY. ARROW-GRASS, is a plant of which there are three species ; but two orJy are natives of Britain, namely, the Triglockin palustre, or Marsh, and the maritimum, or Sea Arrow-grass. The former is fre- quently rp,et with in marshy grounds* ARR grounds, and the latter near the sea coast, and in saline (rao's. As th'ey are eaten uuh a\iilitv by sheep, for which they serve as an excellent and wholesome food, we presume strongly to recommend their 'culture. An additional mo- tive for the propagation of the ar- row-grass, may be suggested to the farmer and breeder of sheep ; be- cause it thrives extremely well in moist and swampy places, where few other vegetables would grow. ARROW-HEAD, COMMON, the Sagittaria sagittifoiia, L. is one of those neglected plants, which, though growing wild in many parts of England, especially on the banks of rivers, are not con- verted to any useful purpose : it is represented in PI. 7. English Botany, p. 84. The root of the arrow-head is composed of numerous strong fibres, which strike into the mud ; the foot stalks of the leaves are of a length proportionate to the depth of the water in which they grow; they are thick, fungous, and some- times three feet high. Its sharp pointed leaves resemble the point of an arrow, and float upon the Water. At the lower extremity of the root, there is always, even in its wild state, a bulb which grows in the solid clay, beneath the muddy stratum. This esculent root is industrious- ly cultivated in China and Ame- rica, where it attains to the size of Several inches in diameter ; while, in this country, of which it is a native, we suffer it to undergo spontaneous dissolution. As it constitutes a considerable part of the Chinese diet, no reason can be alledged, why it should, not be re- sorted to in times of scarcity, y/hen a poor cottager, in some ARR [105 parts of the country, might in one day, with his family, collect a sufficient quantity of these nou- rishing and palatable roots, to serve them for a fortnight, as excellent substitutes for bread. With re- spect to the manner of dressing and preparing such vegetables, we shall give the necessary directions under the article BREAD. The arrow-head requires a low, cold, marshy situation, and a clayey soil, where scarcely any other plant would thrive. Here it grows luxuriantly, and produces an ob- long, thick, bulbous root, which, from its mealy nature, may be easily converted into starch, or flour. Even in its raw and un- prepared state, it affords a proper and wholesome food for horses, goats and hogs ; though cows do not relish it. There are two me- thods of propagating thi? benencial plant ; either by the wild-growing fibres of the root, or by the seed ; and we earnestly recommend its culture, from a conviction of its great utility. In the'present alarm- ing crisis, we also venture to sug- gest the propriety and expediency of inducing the industrious poor to collect this and similar plentiful roots, and after washing, macerat- ing them, and expressing their starch, to mix it with other ingre- dients, in the making of bread. If persuasion and reasoning do not av\Jl, small premiums or rewards might be offered, to accomplish sa desirable a purpose. ARROW-ROOT, Indian, or the Maranta, a plant of which there are three species, the arundinacea, galanga, and cowosa ; all of them are herbaceous, perennial exotics of the Indies, and kept in our hot- houses merely for curiosity. The first of these species is the true starch* 1 06] ARR starch-plant, and is likewise used by the Indians to extract the prison communicated by their arrows. Dr. WEIGHT, of Jamaica, ap- pears to be the- first who informed us that a decoction of the fresh roots makes an excellent ptisan in acute di.sfM.iCs. From an iiv. ous p.imphlrt published in 179-> by Mr. T. RYDHK, of Oxford- street, v.'f I rn, t'mt one of his West Indian patients employed it as an article of diet, and since tl;at period it has ht j <-n very gene- rally used in famil: The arrow-root powder unques- tionably yields a larger proportion pf nutritive mucilage than any Eu- ropean vegetable, if we except the Salcp-root : hence a single table- spoonful of either, makes a pint of strong and nourishing jelly, which affords a very proper food in acute diseases, as well as in all those complaints where animal food must be abstained from. It is there- fore to be regretted, that we cannot easily obtain this powder in a pure state, without paying the extrava- gant price of from five to ten shil- lings per pound ; for in those shops where it is offered to sale at an inferior price of two or three shillings the pound, we have found by experience, that it is consider- ably adulterated . Mr. RYDER, before mentioned, has justly recommended the cul- ture of this root to the West Indian Planters, and the new African Co- lonists, as an object of commerce, and the most eligible substitute for starch made of wheat : 1 . Be- it wonld save annually 66,000 quarters of that valuable grain, in Great Britain alone, where the average quantum of starch made in the years 1703, 1794, and 1795, amounted to 8 millions of pouuds ARS- weight, allowing one hundred and twenty pounds per quarter ; 2. As the wholesale price of the arrow- root was, in 1796, fifteen pence a pound, and as one pound of its starch is equal to two pound and a half prepared from wheat, its in- trinsic value would, by this com- putation, not exceed szor-pence per pound : whereas the average price of starch in England for seven years (from 1/89 to 1795) may be stated at Tzi/zt'-pence die pound. 3. As the arrow-root contains more soluble, gelatinous matter, occupying less space, being less enveloped in earthy particles, and affording a purer farina than any other plant, it may be reasonably inferred, that the starch obtained from it must be of the finest quality ; an opinion amply confirmed by three clear- starchers, who were, on this occa- sion, consulted by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manu- factures, and Commerce. ARSENIC, an heavy, opaque, crystalline substance, which, on fra&ure, resembles sal ammoniac in a concrete state. Most of the metallic ores contain it in greater or less proportion, especially tho.se of copper, tin, bismuth, and the fossil called col-alt, from which last it is extracted in Saxony, by a kind of sublimation. Its true nature is so little known, that che- mists have hesitated whether it ought to be ranked among the salts, or semi-metals ; because it may, by various processes, be made to assume either a saline or metal- lic state. Hence, it has by many been considered as a mineralizing substance, which only tends to combine metals, and to give th';m a more perfect form. Nay, there are others, who have doubted whe- ther it be a simple bo ly ; and we well ARS veil remember the assertion of an ingenious lecturer on chemistry and pharmacy in Edinburgh, who etili flatters himself with the hope of being able, at some future period, to demonstrate by experiment, ." that arsenic is the true basis of silver." This semi-metallic concrete is very usefully employed in various branches of the arts and manufac- tures ; it is frequently added ;; ingredient, to facilitate die fusion of glass, and to produce a certain degree of opacity. Painters use two arsenical preparations, namely, the orpiment and realgar. A very beautiful green pigment may be precipitated from blue vitriol, by a watery solution of white arsenic and vegetable alkali : this, when prepared either with water or oil, affords a permanent colour. It is highly probable that, if arsenic were added to the paint used for wood, it might form an ingredient which would not be liable to be preyed upon by worms. But the practice of painting the toys of children with arsenical pigments,, deserves severe censure ; as they are accustomed to put every thing into their mouth. In dyeing, it is likewise of great service. Combined with sulphur, it has the property of readily dis- solving indigo ; for which purpose it is used in the printing of calico, aud other cloth. On exposure to the air, however, the arsenic is precipitated from this solution, and may be farther employed in pencil colours. Some dyers are said to understand the art of imparting beautiful shades of colours to furs, by arsenical solutions. ARS' [107 In rural and domestic economy, this concrete is also frequently re- sorted to with great advantage, though not always with due pre- caution. Farmers dissolve it in lime-water, for steeping wheat, in order to prevent the smut ; and it is li .e\vise asserted, that the husband- men of Flanders and Germany use it for fertilizing the earth,by sprink- ling tiie soil with a solution of arsenic in dung- water. In medicine, it has long been known as the basis of the most celebrated cancer-pMvine ; the swallow, tuilding; the nightingale, , and so forth. There are various particular arts, as those of MEMORY, SWIMMING, DECIPHERING, &:c. of which we propose to treat in their respective places. Artew-isia alsinthium , L. See MTGWORT. ARTERY, or a pulsating blood- vessel, is a cylindrical canal, con- veying the blood immediately from the. heart to all the parts of the body. On examining the structure of the largest of these vessels, such as the aorta, and the pulmonary artery, it may be distinctly seen, that each is composed of three coats ; namely, 1. The external coat, which is of a cellular texture, loose on the outside, but growing progressively firmer towards the inner part ; 2. A fibrous spiral, or rather circular membrane, of a yellowish colour, and of which there are several strata, according to the size of the artery j 3. The innermost coat, or a thin, extreme- ly smooth and transparent mem- brane, keeping the blood in its canal, which otherwise, upon the dilatation of an artery, would easily separate the spiral fibres from each other. From the trunk of every artery there arise branches ; from these again extend ramifications of blood- vessels, which become progressively smaller, so that their distribution may be traced by the microscope, in more than twenty different divi- ART sions, nay, to an almost infinite number. The arteries, however, do not, as has been erroneously asserted by several anatomical writers, become narrower, and as- sume a conic form in their continu- ed progress : on the contrary, they i uniformly to remain ci/li>i- driral, insomuch that, in their ramitications, a smaller cylinder always arises from a larger one, and where the former proceeds from the latter, it generally pre- sents a slight swelling at this vas- cular joint, if this expression be admissible. The aggregate diame- ter of all the branches of one trunk is .somewhat larger than that of the trunk itself; an observation which also applies to the veins. On account of their thicker membranes, the arteries possess a greater degree of elasticity than the veins; though the latter are mure capable of resisting the me- chanical force of the blood, and are less liable to rupture. It far- ther deserves to be remar ! ed, that, with the increase of years, the coats of the arteries acquire firm- ness, while, those of the veins be- come weaker. This, in some mea- sure, accounts for the circumstance that persons, between the age of eighteen and thirty-five, are more liable to phthisical and other com- plaints, which depend chiefly on an increased action of the arterial system ; because, after that period, the arteries already possess suffi- cient vigour and firmness, to over- come the additional impetus of the circulation. Hence, too, we may comprehend why sthenic or in- flammatory diseases seldom occur at certain stages of life, when the whole system possesses that degree of re-atStion, which is necessary to maintain a due equilibrium be- tween ART tween the animal and vital func- tions, as well as to resist the. occa- sional impressions made on the body, by sudden vicissitudes of heat and cold, moist and dry air, &C. All the arteries derive their ori- gin from the ventricles of the heart; namely, the pulmonary ar- tery from the right, and the aorta from the left ; of which two the rest are branches. They terminate in veins, exhaling vessels, or anas- tomose with one another, that is, unite by inosculation. It is as- tertcd by physiologists, that the circulation of the blood, its heat, red colour, fluidity, assimilation of food, &c. the conversion of fixed into volatile salts, and the formance of the different secre- tions, such as bile, "urine, saliva, Arc. all must be attributed to the contractile power of the arteries and the heart. See ASSIMULATI- o.v, BILE, BLOOD, CHYLE, SA- LIVA, URINE, &c. It is farther worthy of notice, that an injury received by a very considerable vein,- is net nearly so dangerous as that of" a small artery, especially in the vicinity of the heart. (See BLEEDING, or He- morrhage); and that single arteries sometimes become ossified, or ac- quire a cartilaginous and bony con- tUu nee. In the larger ones, this phenomenon rareiy occurs : yet a very remarkable instance of an os- sification of the aorta is recorded by the celebrated Dr. ZIMMERMAN, the author of the classical treatises " On Solitude," and " On Nati- onal Pride" in his excellent work " On Experience in Physic ;" which deserves to be read and studied by every medical and philosophical inquirer. Such preternatural pro- duction of bone is attributed to an ART [,i S abundance of earthy particles, which are, perhaps, generated by a too liberal use of tart wines, veal, potatoes, cheese, and all food that is hard and difficult of digestion. Fortunately, however, this fatal conversion of membrane- ous substance takes place only at an advanced age ; but then it af- fords little or no hope of prolong- ing the patient's life. See HEART, PULSE, VEINS. Arthritis. See GOUT. ARTICHOKE, or the Cynara, L. though an exotic, is a plant well known and much cultivated in this country. There are four species, but only two are reared for use, viz. the scolyrmts, or gar- den artichoke, and the cardunailits, or carcloon, both of which are pro- pagated by slips, or suckers, aris- ing in spring, from the roots of the old plants. The slips should be taken from good plants in March, or the beginning of April, and set in an open quarter of the kitchen-garden, in rows at the distance of five feet from each other. By this process, artichokes may be produced in the autumn of die same vear. The size of their fruit will gradually diminish, alter the third or fourth year, though the roots continue sound for seve- ral seasons. The cardoon, which is a hardy plant, may be propagat- ed by seeds soAvn in March. As these plants are very large, they ought to be placed at the distance of several feet from each other ; and thus crops of spinach, endive, cabbage, or brocoli, may be raised between the rows. About Mi- chaelmas, the cardoons generally attain to a considerable size ; the leaves of each plant should then be tied, that they may be hoed, for the purpose of blanching j which 12 will ii6] ART tvill require six or eight weeks. Thus the plants will be tit for use in November or December, and continue the whole winter. Artichokes flourish best in a rich and moist soil ; but if it be too wet, the roots are apt to decay in severe frosts. They have been used with advantage in the making of soda; and the leaves of the scolymtis, prepared with bismuth, impart to wool a fine and perma- nent gold colour. ARTICHOKE, the Jerusalem, is a plant of the same genus as the sun-flower. It produces bulbs at its roots, has been long cultivated in gardens, as an esculent vegetable, and, except that it is watery and of a softer consistence, in many respects resembles the potatoe, but is not in such general esteem. This root, however, is much va- lued for feeding hogs and store- pigs. Mr. PETERS, the author of " Winter Riches,'" published in the year 1772, asserts, that from one acre of ground, he obtained be- tween seventy and eighty tons of this root. He is of opinion, that seven acres will yield three hun- dredand ninety-six tons, which will keep one hundred swine for six months, allowing each head fifty- eix pounds per day, at an advance of value from ten to fifteen shil- lings, especially if they be boiled with sweet hog- wash. When these roots are given to borses, they should be washed, cut, and ground in an apple-mill : the proportion given at each time is eight pounds, with two ounces of salt, and a bite of hay, thrice daily. Another celebrated cultivator found the produce of this root to be about four hundred and eighty bushels Winchester measure, per acre, without any dung. Its chief ART recommendations are, the certainty of a crop; its flourishing almost upon any soil ; not requiring ma nurc, and being proof against the severest frosts. The culture is th same as that of potatoes. ARTICULATION, in language, is the division of sounds into dis- tinct sylL consists in giv- ing every letter its lue proportion of sound, so that the hearer may perceive and determine their num- ber without .iiiliculty ; while he i enabled to ascertain the respective letters in every syllable. The late Mr. THOMAS SHERIDAN, however, has endeavoured to prove, in his " Course of Lectures on Elo- cution," published about the year 1/62, that the English language is by no means calculated to answer the purpose of reading aloud to others. This strong-headed gram- marian maintains, that as our writ* ten language has no viiil-le marks of articles, it is defective in the most important requisites to a just delivery of speech. A just delivery, we are told, con- gists in a distinct articulation ojf words pronounced in proper tones, suitably varied to the sense and emotions of the mind; with due observation of accent ; of emphasis, in its several gradations > of rests or pauses of the voice, in proper places, and well-measured degree* of time ; and the whole accompa- nied with expressive looks, and significant gestures. Of these es- sential characters, two only are at all regarded in the art of writing r namely, articulate sounds, or words, which are marked by letters ; and stops, or pauses of the voice, which are denoted by little figures or tittles. But with respect to the other ar- ticles, of tones, accent, emphasis, and gesture, there are no visible marks A RT fnarks to guide the reader : these, it must be allowed, arc the sources of all that is pleasurable or forcible in delivery; and contain in them all the powers of impressing the mind, captivating the fancy, rous- ing die passions, and delighting the car : and it must also be admitted, according to our author, that tee articles most essential to a good de- livery, have been entirely neglected in the graphic art. Of the numerous instances of imperfect, or vitiated articulation, according to Mr. SHERIDAN, there is not one in a thousand which arises from any natural defect or impediment. " To cure any imperfection in Speech, arising originally from too quick an utterance, the most effec- tual method will be (Mr. SHERI- DAN says), to set apart an hour every morning, to be employed in the practice of reading aloud, in a very slow manner. This should be done in the hearing of a friend, or some person whose office it should be to remind the reader, if at any time he should perceive him mend- ing his pace, and falling into his habit of a quick utterance. Let him sound all his syllables full, and have that point only in view, without re- ference to the sense of the words ; for, if he is attentive to that, he will unwarily fall into his old habit :" on which account, that he may not be under any temptation of that sort, Mr. SHRRIDAN would have him, for some time, read ihe words of a vocabulary, in the alphabetical or- der. In this way, he will soon find out what letters and syllables he is apt to sound too faintly, and slur over. Let liim make a list of tho^e words, and be sure to pro- no ( e them over distinctly, every morning, before he proceeds to ART [117 others. Let him accustom himself also, when alone, to speak his thoughts aloud, in the same slow manner, and with the same view. Otherwise, though he may get a habit of reading more slowly, he. will fall into his usual manner in discourse : and this habit of speak- ing aloud, when alone, will not only bring him to a more distinct utterance, but produce a facility of expression, in which silent thinkers are generally defective. See the articles LANGUAGE, READING, SPEECH. ARTIFICER is a person em- ployed in manufacturing any kind of goods or wares, such as those of iron, brass, wool, &c. Of this de- scription are smiths, braziers, and weavers. They are distinguished from artists, by exercising profes- sions which require an inferior de- gree of taste and genius; on which account they might more properly be called artisans. By the English laws, artificers in wool, iron, steel, brass, or other metal, leaving the kingdom, and departing to a foreign country, with- out license, are liable to be impri- soned for three months, and lined in a sum not exceeding one hun- dred pounds. Those who go abroad, and do not return on receiving no- tice from our Ambassadors, are disabled from holding land by de- scent or devise; from receiving any legacy, &rc. and are deemed aliens. A penalty is also inflicted on those who seduce artificers to quit their native soil. The author of an excellent trea- tise " On the Laws and Policy of England," published in 1765, on considering the effects which plenty and scarcity of provisions have on our manufacturers, justly observes, that we should endeavour to ren- 13 del ART der the expence of living cheaper than it is abroad, in order to reduce the price of labour, which will en- able us to offer our merchandizes at a cheaper rate, and consequent- ly obtain a preference at all the fo- reign markets : tor as plenty or scarcity will determine the price of provisions, so the price of provi- sions will in general regulate the price o/ labour ; and this again will influence the price of all commo- dities and productions. Hence he asserts, that it will avail but little, to impose penalties on those who raise the price of provisions, unless the same be also inflicted on such persons as combine tp raise the price of labour j that a general Li- lerty granted to produce our ne- cessary provisions, will procure us a general, plenty for sale ; that a general indulgence allowed to sale, will reduce them to a general cheapness 5 that a general cheapness will enable our poor to work in every occupation upon more mo- derate terms an expedient the most necessary in this country ; because, as Englishmen will not submit tp that coarse fare to which some of our neighbours are accus- tomed, a reduction of the price of provisions is the only method we can resort to, for an abatement in the price of labour. These remarks are peculiarly ap- plicable to the present times, when every description of artisans are combining to raise the price of their . labour ; tjie natural consequence of which is, that an almost entire stagnation has taken place in many of the principal trades exercised iu the metropolis. It is not our pro- vince to enter on an investigation . of the justness of those claims made by the different journeymen. In pome manufactures and trad.es., the AR V law has limited their demands ; in ouvrs, they are submitted to the decision of a court of justice ; but, as the latter is both an expensive and tedious experiment, on account of the difficulty of procuring the necessary information, the evil fre- quently remains without redress. Under the ancient regime of France, the magistrates had the power of deciding all disputes be- tween masters and journeymen, without the interference of a soli- citor or counsel : this measure, though apparently despotic, was at* tended with the best effects, inas- much as the public was not liable to be injured by the conspiracy of a few individuals. ARTIST is an appellation given to a person skilled in some particu- lar art, such as that of watch-mak- ing, engraving, &c. EVELYN informs us, that a pri^ vilege is granted to artists at Vi- cenza, similar to the benefit of clergy in England ; by virtue of which, criminals adjudged to death are pardoned, if they can prove themselves the most excellent and consummate workmen in any art. Artocarpns. See BREAD-TREE. Arum,. See WAKE ROBIN. Arundo. See REED. ARVENUSLY, or Pin us Cem- Ira, L. is a species of pine, which is principally found in Siberia, and on the Alpine mountains. Its branches resemble those of the pitch-tree, which is commonly call- ed spruce-fir. The leaves are of a striated form, about three inches in length, and the fruit about the size of a large hen's egg, contain- ing kernels covered with a brown skin, which, when peeled, are as large as a common pea, white and soft as a blanched almond, arid of jrn agreeable taste. The AS' A The arvenusly is applied to va- rious purposes of useful and do- mestic economy. Its planks afford excellent wain.scoting, flooring, and other materials for joiners ; are of & finer grain, more beautifully va- riegated, and of a more agreeable smell, than deal. 1'lte white wood lias a very pleasant fragrance ; and when made into shelves, is said to possess the remarkable property of keeping away moths and other in- fects. It also furnishes excellent fuel for stoves, ovens and kilns ; but is dangerous when used in grates, being liable to splinter, and throw out sparks to a considerable distance. From the resinous parts of this tree, is distilled a fragrant oil, resembling in ta>te and flavour that of juniper, and possessing the same properties. An expressed oil is also obtained from the fruit, which, on account of its balsamic nature, has been recommended in consumptive cases ; and the ker- nels are employed by the Swiss, ASA [119 as a" substitute for mushrooms, la ragouts, and sometimes fonn a part of their dessert*. The an enusly is of a healthy and vigorous nature, and will bear removing, \vhen young, even in dry and warm weather. It likewise grows in great abundance on the most mountainous and coldest parts . of the Brian^onnois, where the natives call it a/ttfes. It bears some resemblance to the Canada, or Weymoiuh pine. This tree is the more valuab'e, as its timber is tit for the choicest furniture; and from its enormous liiv-ht and size, when full grown, it would make excellent masts. As the culture of this remarkable tree in no respec-l diifer.i from the other .species of the PINK, we refer to that article. We have here subjoined a branch of the Arv enusly, of a reduced size, to distinguish it from other species t of the same genus, ASAFCETIDA, a gum-resin, so the root of which, on cutting it, called on account of its offensive exudes a mil y juice ; by evapora- tion, it acquires the consistence of wax, and a yellowish red colour. smell. It is. obtained from the Ferula asqfaetida, L. an umbelli- , . {I.TOUS plant, growing wild in Persia ; We have seen line specimens of I 4 120] ASA this plant in the Botanical Garden at Edinburgh ; and there is no doubt that it will bear the vicissitudes of our climate, in the open air ; and that it is strongly impregnated \vith its peculiar juice. Although this nauseous dnig pos- sesses a bitter and acrid taste, which is much stronger, when fresh, the Persians nevertheless use it as a spice with their food; so that our epicurean imitators do not deserve the credit of original choice. Besi ie its aperient and resolvent properties, asafoetida is one of the most valuable medicines in spasmo- dic, flatulent, hysteric and hypo- chondriacal complaints, especially when they arise from obstructions of the bowels. But, as it is of a heating nature, it increases the cir- culation of the fluids, and ought not, therefore, to be employed ei- ther in violent fevers, or in consti- "rtitions liable to hemorrhages. On the contrary, where spasms and constipations have contributed to weaken the powers of nature, and the functions are in a languid state, it generally affords effectual relief; as it promotes digestion; enlivens the animal spirits; and, by iucr^s- ing the peristaltic motion of th^ in- testines, tends to open them in per- sons of an advanced age. In the spasmodic, as well as in humoral asthma, unattended with fever, it is an excellent remedy ; for, in the former, it counterails the strictures of the respiratory organs ; and, in the latter, greatly facilitates expec- toration. The hooping-cough has been cured, and worms have fre- quently been expelled, by the con- joined administration of asafcetida, both by the mouth, and in the form of clysters. When given with the ASA last mentioned intention, it is verjf usefully combined with jalap j by the assistance of which, it possesses uncommon powers over the tape~ u'orm, especially in adults. Thus, according to C. J. MELLIK, an el- derly lady was relieved of a for* midable tape-worm, together with a considerable portion ot coa ulated and viscid matter, resembling a fishing-net, after making use of the following pills : Take asafoeti- da, half an ounce, powder of jalap two drachms j let them be mixed with any syrup, to a proper consist- ence for making sixty pills : two of these are to be taken every morn- ing and evening, at first ; but gra- dually increased to four or five, ac- cording to circumstances. ASARABACCA, in botany, the Asarum Europtrum, L. is an Eng- lish, though rare * plant, growing in the northern woody parts of this island. A good representation of i is given in Dr. WOODVILLK'S . Bot. PI. 6(5. It produces large bell-shaped flowers of a dusky purple colour, and blossoms in the beginning of May. As a medicine, the different properties of this plant render it an object of attention: hence LIN- s proposed it as a substitute for ipecacuanha ; and, according to Dr. CULLEN T , " the root, dried only so much as to be powdered, proves in a moderate dose a gentle eme- tic." But as the internal use of the asarabacca is precarious, the Lon- don College have justly rejected the root, and directed the lea res only to be employed as an errhin?, or sneezing powder, with the addir tion of one half of dried lavender- flowers. Thus carefully prepared, and snuffed in small doses of a few * It is extremely scarce. RAY observes, in his Latin History of British Plants, p. 207, thil he (baud it in some woods in Lancashire. grains, ASC grains, several successive evenings, Dr.WoooviLLE says, " it produces a pretty large watery discharge, which sometimes continues several days together ; and by which, head- ach, tooth-ach, opthalmia or in- flammation of the eyes, as well as some paralytic and soporific com- plaints, have been effectually re- lieved." That such is the effect of this powder, we have frequently observed from experience, though there is reason to doubt whether its action extends to palsy, as it more particularly afte&s the salival glands, which is obvious from the copious spitting it generally occa- sions, after being used for a few evenings. In farriery, the powdered root of this plant is given mixed with bran, to horses troubled with the farcy, or leprosy, in doses from one to two ounces ; as likewise for worms in either liorses or sheep. Dyers may also usefully employ the fresh leaves or roots of the asa- rabacca, for producing first an ap- ple-green, and by boiling them still Jonger, a light-brown colour, on wool prepared with bismuth. These experiments are related by DAM- BOURNE Y, whose work we first jquotcd, p. 19. Asarnm, See ASARABACCA. ASCARIDES, in zoology, be- long to the order of verities, and are divided into two species : 1. the vermiculqris, distinguished by a transverse mouth, and faint annular rugas, or folds. It is about a quar- ter of an inch in length, and is found in boggy places ; in the roots of decayed plants ; and very fre- quently in the reftum, or straight gnt, of children and horses. 2. The iumlricoides, which is equal in length with the luml-riats terrestris, jfr common earth- worm, but wants ASC [121 the protuberant ring towards the middle of the body, which is its only distinguishing mark. Its body- is cylindrical, subulated at each extremity; but its tail is somewhat triangular. This is the worm which is most commonly found in human intestines, and its usual seat is the re6tum. The symptoms are, an uneasiness and intolerable itching in the anus, which generally take place in the evening, and some- times prevent sleep. They are of- ten attended with so considerable a degree of heat, as to produce both an external and internal swel- ling in that intestine j which, if not quickly relieved, bring on a tenesmus, or a frequent inclination to go to stool, accompanied with a mucous dejection. There are also frequent griping pains, in the low- er part of the abdomen, a little- above the os puiis ; if these be acute, they are succeeded by a bloody mucous discharge, in which these worms are often found alive. Mucus, or slime, appears to be the proper nest of the ascarides : in this they live, are nourished, end preserved unhurt, though sur- rounded with many other fluids, the immediate contaft of which would to them prove fatal. Pu by lessening this viscous matter, never fail to relieve the patient j for those worms, which are not expelled by the increased vermicu- lar motion of the intestines, for want of a proper quantity, languish, and at last die j as may be seen in those which are taken out of their mucus and exposed to the open air. Such purges, therefore., as a6t briskly, and can be conveni- ently repeated, for instance, purg- ing waters, and jalap, especially for children, two grains of which may.be mixed with sugar, and takeu- 122] ASH fiaily, are the most effectual. When the tencsmus, or mucous stools, are urgent and distressing, a clys- ter (if warm milk and oil will af- ford immediate tdu I. The. most ireful puig< - , is cinnabar and rhu- barb, of each half a drachm, which, when taken, seldom fail to bring away a transparent mucus, con- taining many of those, worms alive. Various other remedies have been employed in the removal of this troublesome complaint, of which quicksilver, calomel, and powder of tin, are the principal. The in- habitants of Jamaica are said to use the CeoJ/ruca-incrniis, or cabbage bark, with singular success. Dr. DUGUID, a surgeon of that island, declares, that it is the most sale, and yet most powerful, A^ermifuge ever know r n, and that it frequently brings away as many worms by stools, as would fill a hat. He owns, however, that it sometimes produces violent effects, but these take, place only, when it is used in the form of a strong decoction, in- stead of small doses of the pow- der. Yet we cannot, on this oc- casion, omit to warn every affec- tionate parent, against tampering with such pou-cr/ul remedies as may prove destructive to their children ; nor to trust to the impu- dent assertions of daring advertisers pf vermififges". See Wo KM s . Ascites. See DROPSY. ^kclapias. See SWALLOW-WOET. ASH, or the rnuntnn, L. is a genus of which there are six species. Of these, the most useful is the common indigenous ash, or Frcui- ?ius excelsior, L. which is \veil known to every rural economist. A plantation of these trees, when properly managed, seldom fails to prove ol great advantage to the ASH owner ; for rhe underwood, is fit to be cut every eight or ten years, will produce a regular in- come, more than adequate to de- fray ihe. rent of the ground, and other charges j besides which, the trunk or stock preserved for tim- ber, will be wonh forty or fifty- shillings and upward:?, per tree. It flourishes be.st in groves, but grows well in the rich soil of opt n fields : it also boars transplanting and lop- ping. In th<' nuvh of Lanca.sh/ire, they lop the tops of tl-/:s'.: tr autumn to feed cattle, when the grass is on flu: decline. The ash-free delights i;i a rich, light soil } it attains its gr< . height and pcrfecliuii when at an age of from forty to fifty years.' Although it also grows in wet and loose grounds, yet, when reared iu these, its uood becomes Jess firm and durable. It prospers remarkably well on a white calcareous soil,. and is also frequently found in a thriving state near bruoks and ri- yulets. . The Society for the Encouragement of Arts, ,"\c. at London, considered the cultivation of the ash qf so much impprtanee, that, in the year 1779, tuc . v P ve a premium of twenty pounds, and in 1780 their gold medal, to Mr. DAY, of Frie.ndrtbi.iry, near Ro- chester, for an account of his .suc- cessful method of rearing if. The whole is detailed in the first vo- lume of their Transactions ; and we shall only observe, that Ivlr. DAY is enabled to plant one thousand for two shillings ; by his me- thod, fourteen acres, three, quarters, and thirteen rod, out of sixteen acres, three quarters, and twenty-, seven rod, are planted at die dist- ance of four feet, by two. To fill this extent of ground, there are required 80,682 plants : two acres and fourteen rod are planted at a distance of two feet, by eight inches, which takes up 66,4OO plants. The reason for planting twice as thick one way as the other, is, that in such manner they are much easier to till. He has ascertained by experience, that there is an essential difference be- tween wild ash and those which are trained : hence he advises all the crooked ones to be rejected, and particular attention to be paid in getting die ash-keys. There is another advantage attending his plan, that potatoes may be planted between the rows. The emulation excited by the above and similar premiums, pro- duced such effects as might be ex- pected to result from so extensive and honourable a patronage. In the year 1790, the gold medal of the Society was adjudged to LEWIS MAJENDIR, of Hediiigham Castle, Esq. and die silver medal to H. ,G. FAUSSET, of Heppington, near Canterbury, Esq. The first jnentioned gentleman planted on seven acies and twenty-one poles, .of a principally loamy soil, the sur- prizing number of nineteen thou- sand trees, of four and five years old, at intervals of four feet. In a subsequent paper, Mr. M. recom- mends the soil to be completely trenched, previous to planting. - }Vlr. FAUSSET intermixed willow with his ash, and planted them at the distance of three feet and a half, in the proportion of three willows to one ash ; so that, on the decay of die willowsjthe ash plants remain seven feet asunder. The follow- ing is a sketch of his mediod : die stars denote die ash, and die dots .the willow-plants, ASH I "3 * . ..*... * # **# The ash, when young, requires constant cultivation, for want of which it will be stinted in its growth, and often remain for twenty years together without making any progress ; it is brought forward much sooner, \vhen shel- tered by other plants. An improved method of plant- ing this tree, for hurdles, hoops, laths, fencing, and what is termed post and billet for collieries, is de- scribed by a correspondent in the fifth volume of the Papers publish- ed by die Bath Society. The leaves of the ash appear late and fall early : it is therefore unlit to be planted for protection or or- nament. Its timber ranks next in value to the oak ; and it ought, when sold, to be measured to a much smaller girth than eidier oak or elm. The wood of ash possesses the uncommon property of being al- most uniformly good, whedier of young or old trees. It is hard, tough, and much used in making the different implements of hus- bandry, but partk'uiariy for hop- poles. Its ashes afford very good pot-ash ; and the bark is employ- ed in tanning calf-skins. The seeds are acrid and bitter, and the leaves have been used for die adultera- tion of tea. Poor people formerly derived considerable advantage by collecting them ; but we under- stand diis practice has been prohi- bited, as it tends to diminish the revenue. We may, however, ven- ture to say, that die leaves of the ash are as wholesome as those of the I2 4 ] ASH the tea-tree: the latter, like most other evergreens, is of a doubtful, if not pernicious, quality, indepen- dently of the circumstance, that our teas- may also partake of the fraudulent practices of the Chinese, to which most of their goods are liable. In rural economy, it has been as- erted, that the leaves of the ash impart a bad taste to milk; and it is therefore seldom suftered to grow in dairy farms. Those leaves, however, are eaten with avidity by horses, sheep, and goats, for which animals they are considered as good fodder. The bark of the common ash is ttsed in dyeing. It is placed for some time in water, with a solu- tion of vitriol, by which the water acquires a black colour. The Mor- fachians boil the bark for the space of eight days, with the dross of iron, and, when the solution has grown cold, they use it for dyeing black. With cold water, the bark makes a lixivium of a variegated colour, which displays azure and greenish shades ; but. boiled water i* nut proper, as it renders the dye and brown. Warm water fe preferable, as this produces a Mceish lixivium, which imparts a tine blue colour to yarn, particu- larly if it has been previously dyed v. According to DAMBOUK- KKT, the fresh shavings of P. si?., 7ve to wool, prepared with bis- fej the true and perm. f colour. "ASHES, generally speaking, are Hw remains of bodies reduced by tiro. There are vegetable, animal, r.nd mineral ashes : but the first .fy!y are strictly entitled to that appellation. We understand, that the French have recently contrived a process of converting the ashes, or residuum of animal substances, decomposed by burning them, into glass, similar to that which is pro- duced in the manufacture of this article, when siliceous earth and wood-ashes are the principal ingre- dients. This curious conversion of human bodies into a transparent and most beautiful metal, is an in- genious imitation of the practice frequently adopted among the an- cients, with a view to preserve the^ sacred remains of their revered an- cestors, or of persons of great worth and merit. But, whether such expedients, if they ever should be- come general, be compatible with the refined feelings of relations and friends in other countries, we sub- mit to the determination of our sentimental readers. If we may be allowed to express our opinion on so delicate 1 a subject, the scheme now followed, in this respe6t, by the ambitious conquerors of, and in France, may be a very economi- cal one, for saving the expeuces of an ostentatious funeral ; and, as such, we have mentioned it in this work : but we doubt, whether there may be found many indivi- duals in this country, except those lew among the cmigrrcs, who in- cline, or deserve, to receive the honours of combustion. Mineral bodies, when reduced by lire, are properly called CALXES, of which we shall treat under that distinct head. There is a great variety of wood- ashes prepared from different vege- tables. We have already described the properties of ALKALIES (p. 29), and shall at present observe, that vegetable ashes contain a great quantity of Jtxed salt, blended with earthy particles; and that from these ashes are extracted the fixed alkaline salts, called POT- AifU ASH . ASH, PEARL-ASH, BARILLA, &c.; of the preparation, and properties of which, we propose to treat under their respective heads. Confining, therefore, our account to ashes, in their unchanged and crude state, \ve shall give the following descrip- tion of the different useful purposes to which they are subservient, in domestic and rural economy. About half a century ago, Dr. FKANCIS HOME, of Edinburgh, who may be considered as the ear- liest benefactor of the Scottish cot- ton manufactories, justly observed, in an ingenious treatise, entitled, Experinentt in Bleaching, that the proper application of alkaline leys, is~one of the most important and critical articles in the whole pro- cess of that art. This circumstance induced him to inquire, after the mathematical method of investi- gating truth, into the nature and composition of the several sorts of ashes used for this purpose. With due deference to the talents of his genius, that lias apparently been misled on this early occasion, we cannot but regret that Dr. HOME appears then to have been unac- quainted with a strift analytical and synthetical investigation of na- tural bodies ; a method which, we venture to say, might have enabled him to anticipate many of the sub- equent discoveries, made in che- mistry -by the French, Swedish arid British philosophers of the anti- phlogistic school. He is, however, justly entitled to the praise and gra- titude of his countrymen ; among whonr he greatly contributed to excite a spirit of research into me useful phenomena of natural bo- dies ; a spirit which has already proved highly beneficial to die ASH [125 community at large, and eminently conducive to the honour of that celebrated University, in which h to now the oldest professor *. la the treatise before alluded to, the author originally proposed Ilia use of o/7 ofriit-uil, instead of the acids formerly used for bleaching linen, such as butter-milk, sour milk, infusions of bran, or rye- meal, rc. kept for some days, till they acquired a proper degree of acidity. He proved by experi- ments, that the vitriolic acid is by no means injurious to the cloth ; is less expensive, more expeditious, and on all accounts equally, if not more, efficacious. Many and curious were the ex- periments which Dr. HOME then instituted, on the different ashes ; and from the result of wliich ho concluded, that pearl-ashes contain a pure alkaline salt, with a smaii proportion of vitriolateu tartar and absorbent earth. In the composi- tion of Russian and Swedish ashes, he discovered a considerable quan- tity of lime ; a discovery which amply evinced the wisdom of an Aft of the British Legislature,, which prohibited the use of lime in bleaching. For, though lime- water alone greatly contributes to \vhiten cloth, yet it is apt to render it much weaker ; but that alkaline salts added to lime, diminish its puU'er of weakening and corroding, in proportion to the quantity of these salts added to the time. This observation suggested to him a hint of supplying the Iviuscovjr ashes, at home, by a preparation which experience proved to answer all the intended purposes of those ashes. After repeated trials of dif- ferent proportions, the method of We believe he is ctar :: : .x s T Y years of age,. juakins 126] A SIT making this profitable substitute, roriM.sts in aiding one-fourth of pot-:->h di- i a little watr.r, to three quarts of quenched lime. Whether this process has been found generally successful, we have not been able to ascertain. In rural economy, asi,(x])a\c.. since the days of VIRGIL, been consider- ed as one of the best, and easiest, means of fertilizing land ; yet many objections have been started, by modern writers, against their use ; probably because they were indis- criminately emplo'.rd for ail kinds of soil, whether moist or dry. cold or warm, loose or clayey. Hence we need not be surprized that agriculturists have differed in opinion on this subject. Without detaining the reader with specula- tions concerning the manner in which a ,hes aft on die soil, in pro- moting its fertility, we shall briefly observe, on the authority of the best writers, supported by expe- rience : 3. That vegetable ashes, in ge- neral, are most erfeftual for ma- uiuMitr moist, Cukl. boggy, marshy, vr i-ncultiviited - '2. That ashes are no less fit for manure, after the sak is extracted from them, than, before ; and, if there b^ anv difference, it is in fa- Tour of the washed ashes. An anonymous Correspondent in the Gentl. Mag. for June, 1/()0, appears to have derived the first hint respecting the advantages of peat^aihes in dressing land, and a method of preparing coal-ashes for the same purpose, from die Dic- tionaire Economise, or die Family Dictionary, translated from the French by the late Prof. BRADLEY, of Cambridge, and published in 1/2.3. In (his curious work, which equally abounds with excellent and ASH frivolous remarks, we find thi f ; >*- lo\ving pa533ge : " Turf and peat ashes must needs be very rich, much after the same manner a* burning of land." perhaps it is in consequence of this suggestion, that \ve find in the Magazine before al- luded to, an account of too in- teresting a nature to withhold it from our readers. Peat-ashes, properly burnt, af- ford an excellent manure for both corn and grass-land ; but the most valuable are those obtained from the lowest stratum of the peat, where the fibres and roots of tho earih are- most decayed. This will yield a large quantity of very strong ashes, cf a colour, when recently burnt, resembling vermilion, and of a very saline and pungent taste. Great care and caution should be used in burning these ashes, and likewise in preserving them for fu- ture use. The method of burning them is similar to that of making, charcoal. After the peat is col- lected into a large heap, and co- vered so as not to flame out, it must be suffered to consume slowly, till the whole substance is reduced to ashes. Thus burnt, they are found excellent in sweetening sour meadow-land, destroying rushes, nnd other bad kinds of weeds, and produciiig in their place great quan- tities of excellent grass. In some parts of Berkshire and Lancashire, they are considered one of the best dressings for spring crops, A very great improvement may likewise be made, and at a moderate expence, with cual-ashes, which, when properly preserved, are a most useful article for manure. By putting one bushel of lime, in its hottest state, into every cart-load of these ashes, covering it up in the middle of the heap for about twelve ASH twelve hours, till the lime be en- tiivly fallen; then incorporating them well together, and by turn- ing the whole over two or three times, the cinders, or half-burnt parrs of die coals, which, instead of being useful, are noxious to the ground, will be reduced to as fine a powder as the lime itself. For this purpose, however, the coal- ashes should be carefully kept dry : and, thus prepared, they are the quickest breakers and improvers of moorish and benty land. Professor BRADLEY, in 1 is dic- tionary before mentioned, farther observes that soap-ashes are highly commended by Mr. PRATT, as be- ing, after the soap-boiler has ex- tracted them, eminently fructify- ing; and that the ashes of any kind of vegetables are profitable tor enriching barren grounds, as they promote the decomposition of moss and rushes, in a very great degree. The best season for lay- ing them, either for corn, pasture, or meadov is said to be in the beginning of winter, in order that they may the more easily be dis- solved by showers of rain. Having given this view of the subjett, from the collective expe- rience of British writers, we shall also communicate a few practical facls, derived from authentic Ger- man authors. According to their experience, pot-ask is most usefully employed for correcting a sandy and loamy soil ; the ashes obtained from the hardest woods, being the most be- neficial, and among these, the beech and oal: are generally pre- iVrred. A small addition of quick- lime to the pot-ash, tends consider- ably to increase its fertilizing pro- perty. The refuse ofsoap-loiler's ashes^ ASP [127 is likewise used in Germany with the best erl"et, when sprinkled, soon after sowing, either in spring or in autumn, as closelv as possi- ble, over fields of wheat, rye, spelt, lentils, pease, beans, bar- ley, lint-seed, hemp, millet, and similar grain. An acre of w or barley, requires however a much greater proportion of these a.-ues, than one sown with rye, or corn of an interior quality. They are far- ther emploved with great advan- tage, by scattering them on meadows in the early part of spring. See also COALS. ASPARAGUS, also called Spa- ragns, Swrage, or Sparrow-grass, is an esculent plant, which is rear- ed with great attention, and much esteemed on account of iis delicate flavour. There are ten species, but one only is cultivated for the table, viz. the common asparagus, which has an erett herbaceous stalk, and bristly leaves : the other species are sometimes kept in the gardens of the curious, but more lor the sake of variety, than on ac- count cf their utility. This useful plant is best propa- gated from the seeds, and its suc- cessful culture almost entirely de- pends on the proper quality of such seed. Hence, some of the most promising buds should be marked with a stick, and when the seed begins to ripen, and the stalks to wither, they ought to be cut, and the berries being rubbed off into a tub or other vessel, water should be poured upon them. After they have been stirred, the seeds will subside, and the floating husks may be poured oil' with the water. T;:e seeds must then be spread to dry, and thinly sown, in the beginning of February, on a bed of rich earth. They should be trod into the 128] ASP the ground, and the earth raked over diem. During summer, the bed should be kept clean of weeds, and about October, when the stalks appear widiered, a small quantity of rotten dung should be spread over die bed, about half an inch !n thickness. In the following spring, die plants will be in a pro- per state for transplanting; when the ground should be prepared for them, by trenching it, and dispos- ing a large quantity of rotten dung in die trenches, so that it may lie at least six inches below die sur- face ; after which, die \\ hole plot must be levelled, and ah 1 the loose *tones carefully picked out. The most eligible situation for such hot-beds, is a south-eastern aspeft, sheltered from die north ; and die jtoil should be neidier too moist, nor too firm, or hard. If die season be forward, and the soil dry, the asparagus should be transplanted in the beginning of March ; but, in a wet soil, it is preferable to wait till the beginning of April, at which time the plants begin to shoot. The roots should, at this season, be care- fully raised widi a narrow-pronged dung-fork, shaking from them the adhering earth, separating diem from each other, and laying their heads even, for die greater conve- nience in planting them; which hould be perforated in thefollowing manner : Lines are drawn across die bed, at a cii stance of one foot from ach other, after which they mu.^t be dug in die form of small trenches of six inches in depdi, into which the roots must be laid widi thdr buds upwards, so that, wliea the rarth is raked over them, they may be two inches under the surface. A space of two feet and a should be left between every four rows, for the purpose of aftb. ASP room to cut the stalks. At the* time of planting, onions may be sown on die ground ; after the lapse of a month, the asparagus will begin to shew its buds, when the former must be thinned, and the weeds carefully removed. Bj August the onions will be fit to b collected. In October, the shoots of die asparagus should be cut within two inches of the ground ; but, with respeft to this process, the following circumstance de- serves attention : as often as a stalk is cut, a new one springs up, and every plant running to seed depo- sits a new bud or eye, as it is call- ed by gardeners, beside the new shoots, which sprout die follow- ing spring. Hence, the cutting ought not to be too long continued, as this practice would prevent die new shoots from sprouting, and de- prive diose which are in bud, from acquiring sufficient strengdi. Young asparagus fit for table, may .be cut the second spring after planting ; but, as this early fruit is widi many a desideratum, the following directions, properly at- tended to, will enable them to pro- duce it at any time during die win- ter : Take some good roots of one year's growth, and plant diem in 9 rich, moist soil, about eight inches asunder ; the second and third years after planting, diey will be fit for removal to a hot-bed, which should be made rather of heating materials, especially tanner's waste and horse-dung, about three feet thick, and covered with a stra- tum of earth, six inches high. 'I he plants should then be laid against a rid^e made at one end A without trimming or cutting the fibres : between every row, make a small ridge of fine earth, and thus proceed until the whole ia planted ; AS IP planted ; next, let the bed be co- vered to the thickness of about two inches with earth, and encompassed with a straw-band. About a week after, the whole should be sheltered under frames and glasses, and three inches of additional earth laid on the beds ; the proper season for constructing which is from No- ' vember to March. Dr. DARWIN advises the loosen- ing, or turning over the earth, around and above the roots of this plant annually, for the purpose of admitting air into its cel:s or cavi- ties, to convert a part of the ma- nure, or carbonaceous soil, with which they have been supplied, into ammonia, or into carbonic acid, and thus to afford them both warmth and nutriment. The roots of this plant have a slightly bitter, mucilaginous taste, rather inclining to sweetness the fruit is of a nearly similar flavour ; but the young shoots are the most agreeable to the palate. Asparagus is allowed to promote the appetite ; and affords a deli- cious article of nourishment to the invalid and valetudinarian, who is riot troubled with flatulency : on the other hand, when eaten plenti- fully, it is attended with diuretic eftecls, and therefore a salutary food to those whose urinary pas- sages are liable to obstructions, and a defective secretion of that fluid. As a substitute for asparagus, the young buds of hops have been re- commended, as they may be more easily procured, and are both grate- ful and wholesome. ASPEN-TREE. See PoPLAfc. Asperugo. See BUGLOSS, CATCH- WEED, and MADWOHT; Aaperula. See WOO&KOOF. ASPHODEL, or KING'S SPEAR, xo. i, VOL. i. ASP [129 the Asphodehis, L. is an exotic plant, of which there are five spe- cies ; namely, four growing wild in the southern parts of Europe, and one only, the Narthednm ossifra- gum, or Lancashire Asphodel, a na- tive of Britain. It thrives in turfy marshes, and flowers in July and August. See WITHERING'S Ar- rangement, 339, and Engl. Bot. t. 535. The best method of propagating this ornament to a garden, is, by dividing the roots in August, be- fore they shoot their fresh green lenves ; they rhay likewise be raised from s^eds sown in August ; and at the same time in the succeeding year, the plants produced from these may be transplanted into beds, where they will blossom in the second year. They should not be planted in small borders, among tender flowers, as they require considerable nourishment. The Lancashire Asphodel is sup- posed to be very noxious to sheep ; for, when necessitated to feed on it, from a poverty of pasture, they will indeed improve in flesh at first, yet they afterwards die with symptoms of a diseased liver. Horned cattle, however, eat it without any bad effecl. There are wonderful tales re- lated of this plant by PAULI, BAR- THOLINI, and others: who call it Gram en ofsifra.gumfiom its suppos- ed property of changing the bones of such animals as swallow it, into car- tilage; and thus producing that sin- gular disease In cattle, which in the human frame is, by nosologists, termed mollifies ossium, or softness of the bones. For the various purposes of eco- nomy, however, we recommend the culture of two species of this plant ; namely, K i. The ASP 1. The Asphodflu-s, Intent, L. or ths common Yellow Asphodel, which, according to LEMERV and Vic AT, produces an esculent root, abounding in farinaceous particles, easily extracted in boiling water: this mealy decoftion, passed through a sieve, mixed with barley or rye- flour, and then baked, affords a palatable and most nourishing bread. Its stalks also, though na- turally acrid, may be deprived of that property by boiling, and con- verted to a similar use. Another writer on economy, Prof. BECK- MANN, of Gcttingen, informs us that, though this plant is a native of Sicily, it prospers, and abund- antly propagates, in the open air of Germany. Its roots, by which it is produced, consist of long yellow knobs, so disposed mat they all adhere to a larger one, serving as the basis of the whole. They are pulpy, mucilaginous, and balsamic ; and a species of bread may like- wise be prepared from their seeds. SKSTINI also remarks, in con- firmation of the preceding facts, that the shoe-makers, of Italy make of Uiis root an excellent paste, lor cementing the inner soles ; and that it is preferable to the usual paste of those artisans, who consume considerable quantities of whcaten and other flour. 2. The Asphod^lus ramosus, L. or Branching Asphodel, with naked ' stalks thiec feet high, and ensi- form, cuneated. smooth leaves. It is a native of Germany, in many parts of which it grows in common meadows : its flowers arc white, and of a stellated form. The pulpy root of this species was eaten by the anc'ur.ls, v. ith '.he addition of oil aid salt ; while its stalks, roast- ed uucler_ hot wood-a^ics, aiibrdcd ASS them, according to BE CH STEIN, a most delicious repast. Asplfirium tricho'inanoides. -Sec MAIDEN-HAIR. sl'plejiium scolopendrum. See HART'S-TONGUE. ASS, by naturalists, is classed as a species of horse, or Equus. The tame, or domestic Ass, is an animal remarkable for his meek- ness, patience, and tranquillity. He submits with firmness to chas- tisement, is temperate in his food, and contents himself with the dis- agreeable herbage which other ani- mals disdain to eat ; but is more delicate with regard to his drink, never using water, unless it be perfectly pure. This animal is esteemed for his attachment, and, though generally used with seve- rity and harshness, nay, often with cruelty, he is fond of his master, has a scent of him at a distance, and easily distinguishes him from other persons. Of all animals, the ass, perhaps, is capable of sup- porting the heaviest burthen, in proportion to his size : and, on account of his slow and regular pace, is particularly useful in jour- neying over uneven grounds, and mountainous countries. The finest breed of asses was formerly met with in Egypt, but, at present, those reared in Spain are preferable. In the latter coun- try, as well as in Italy, the inha- bitants eat the flesh of asses with avidity. Their milk is of so thin a consistence, that it neither affords butter nor cheese, but is extremely agreeable to the tender stomachs of consumptive persons, and very wholesome for young children, when drank while warm from the animal ; but it should be taken at least three or four times a day, half ASS half a pint at each time, and con- tinued for several weeks or months, if any real benefit be expected from this simple diet. The manner of preparing artifi- cial asses milk, not inferior in its properties to the natural, is as. follows: Take of eryngo-foot, or sea-holly, and pearl barley, each half an ounce, liquorice-root three ounces, water two pounds, or one quart ; boil it down over a gentle fire to one pint, then strain it, and add an equal quantity of new cow's milk. ASSEMBLY, in general, signi- fies a meeting of several persons in the same place, and for a common purpose. Without entering into a history of the assemblies that were customary among the ancients, or those held by the moderns, for de- liberating upon political, ecclesias- tical, or civil affairs, we shall, in this place, only observe, that all public meetings, when conducted with a spirit cf order and drcorum, are highly conducive to polish the manners of a people. This good effect is obvious from assemblies instituted in provincial towns, for the purpose of either amusement or ins tru -Scion, by which die rriai of young persons, in particular, acquire a certain grace and dig- nity, seldom to be met with among those who spend their lives in small country towns, or solitary man- sions. But, on the other hand, -it can- not, be denied, that the frequent Visiting of assemblies, theatres, &c, where a great number of -'persons, perhaps, afflicted with various hre- nic.-diseases, breathe ; and- vi date ' a common atmosphere, -rhus't be 'At- tended, with pernicious effects, even to the most healthy. Sec' -BALL 3 ASS ASSIMILATION, in animal eco- nomy, is that hidden natural pro- cess by which living beings are en- abled to convert such bodies as have a certain affinity to them, or at least after having undergone some preparation and change of tlieir properties, into their own substance and nature. Hence every culinary process is conducted on chemical principles analogous to those on which the digestion of food appears to depend in the human stomach. See CHYLE, DIGESTION, NUTRI- TION, SALIVA. Assurance. See INSURANCE. ASTHMA, is a spasmodic dis- ease of the organs of respiration, attended with cough, difficulty of breathing, wheezing, &c. There are two distinct species of this disorder, each of which re- quires a different treatment : 1 . When it is attended with an ac- cumulation and discharge of hu- mours from the lungs, in which case it is called humid asthma; and 2. When the patient is not troubled with coughing, or at least has no expectoration, which is termed dry astttma. Yet these complaints sel- dom affect persons in early life, and then chiefly the male sex. Asthma, in general, is distin- guished by paroxysms, preceded by a sense of tightness in the chest, and in general, occurs during the night. The patient cannot lie in an horizontal posture, without danger cf suffocation ; and, when seized, is imme'diately obliged to sit upright. After continuing for several hours in this state; he becomes easier; his breathing is less difficult and oppressed, the cough not so fre- quent, and an expectoration of, mu- cus taking pjace, the paroxysm $ until, the ne:;t night) but the s.v mob. .ic in a greater K/2 ' . or i 3 2] AST or less degree, during the day, ac- cording to the particular state of the atmosphere, and other circum- stances. The attack is sometimes induced by external heat, at others by cold} but in cither case, their ftuldc-n accession will sufficiently distinguish the asthma from symp- tomatic shortness of breath. There is a greater probability of curing it in youth, than at an advanced age. But, in the former case, it is often succeeded by a confirmed pulmo- nary consumption ; and, after a long continuation, generally ter- minates, either in dropsy of the breast, or an aneurism of the heart or arterial system. A tremulous respiration, paralysms of the arms, and a diminution of the urinary se- cretion, are unfavourable symp- toms. This is one of the chronic dis- eases, which may continue for a considerable number of years. Sir JOHN FLOYER, when he published his celebrated treatise on tliis sub- ject, had suffered under repeated paroxyms for almost thirty years. The usual treatment is, to bleed, during a fit, unless extreme weak- ness or old age should forbid the use of the lancet ; to inject a purg- ing clyster, containing a solution ef asafoetida ; and, if the violence of the symptoms do not speedily abate, to apply a blistering plaster to the neck or breast. Previously to a fit, emetics have been found useful, especially when the stomach was loaded with crudities. In the in- tervals, lac ammoniacum, vinegar of squills, asafcetida pills, and other stimulating and deobstruent medi- cines, are usefully employed. Sir JOHN declares, that a strong infu- sion of roasted coffee is the best remedy he ever experienced, to abate the paroxysms. The coffee AST must be of the best Moco, new?/ burnt, and made very strong 1 , im- mediately after grinding'. He or- ders an ounce to one dish, which is to be repeated after the short inter- val of a quarter or half an hour, and taken without rnilk of sugar. By the use of" this remedy, he lived many years tolerably easy, under his asthmatic complaint. Dr. FKR- CIVAL also asserts, that he has em- ployed it with great success. In a violent paroxysm of asthma, from the effects of which there is imminent danger of suffocation, ther administration of an emetic times advisable, as vomiting tends to produce immediate relief. This remedy, however, can only be re- sorted to with safety, under the following circumstances : 1 . That there be no symptoms of inflam- mation discoverable) 2. That the humid matter rn the pectoral organs be loose, and ready for expt-ctora- tion ; which may be ascertained by a free rattling of the throat; 3. When respiration itself is not extremely impeded 3 and4.When the patient's strength is not too much exhausted. On these conditions, an emetic may prove the only means of saving his life ; though it may also acce-' krate the fatal catastrophe, espe- cially if the breast be clogged with matter, and the patient possess not vigour and breath sufficient to sup- port the operation of an emetic. Hence a judicious practitioner will, in such cases, not hesitate to dire6t a brisk dose, in order most speedily to produce the desired effect, and to save the constitution from being unnecessarily exhausted. But this illustration also evinces the import- ance of every step in the practice of physic ; and that neither officious friends, nor mercenary pretenders, are the most proper persons, whose services AST services can be useful on such or similar occasions. We, therefore, think it our duty to corroborate this proposition still farther, by exhibit- ing a concise vie\v of those causes, from which that formidable disease may arise in different individuals. The principal of these are as follow : 1. Collections or congestions of blood in the lungs; from which there may not only arise die dry asthma, but likewise the SUFFOCA- TIVE CATARKH, which is, strictly, an acute disease, occasioned by au extravasation or effusion of blood into the cellular substance of the lungs, and of which we propose to treat in its proper place. 2. Congestions of serous and pi- tnitous humours, arising gradually, and producing, in general, the hu- mid asthma : but if this collection of humours takes place suddenly, as is the case in inflammations of the chest, they are then attended with the suffocative catarrh. 3. Spasms in hypochondriacal and hysteric persons ; which often lay the foundation of a dry, convul- sive asthma. 4. Worms in the first passages. 5. Stones in the gall bladder; aneurisms ; polypi, or concretions of grumous blood in the Jarge ves- sels. 6. Asthma may likewise be a symptom of dropsy of the chest. 7- Scrophulous, rheumatic, gouty, psoric, and scorbutic acrimony all may occasion the asthma, either in the lungs themselves, or by consept of parts. 8. Noxious vapours arising from the decomposition of lead, or arse- nic; which generally cause a con- vulsive asthma. p. The introduction of dust into the lungs, to which millers, masons, hatters, &c. are subject. AST 10. Tubercles in die lungs, from which arises the dry asthma. 11. The abuse of ardent spirits. 12. A weak digestion, attended with great flatulency. 13. Every thing tiiat oppresses the vessels, such as an expansion of the uterus, obesity or preter- natural fatness, aneurisms, fleshy and othtr tumors in die chest, a distended abdomen by dropsy, ob- stipations, &c, 14. General debility, by which respiration is frequently rendered difficult, without any odier parti- cular cause. Hois affection may be ascertained from die circum- stance, when the patient ascends a number of steps with greater faci- lity tiian he is able to descend, be- cause die latter requires a greater degree of muscular effort dian die former. What a variety of causes do we here behold many others being reserved, as too abstruse for non- prnfessional readers ; and who will be bold enough to pretend, that he has discovered a specific for the cure of asthma ? Beside the remedies already pointed out, as proper for die ge- neral treatment, we shall here briefly observe, that in the perio- dical asthma, infusions of bitter herbs, such as wormwood, lesser centaury, the blessed diistie, as well as gum ammoniac, vinegar and honey, acids in any form, nay, mixed with proportionate quanti- ties of laudanum, have beep used with the best success. The exer- cise of riding on horseback is in- dispensably necessary. Changes of weather are very sensibly felt by asthmatic persons, who, in ge- neral, cannot live with any ccmtort in die atmosphere of large cities, though some are to be found, who JL 3 feel i'34] AST feel thrimeives better in an air jvplete with gross effluvia ; and breathe with greater ease in a crowded room, where there is a fire and candles. A principal ad- vantage, however, will be derived in this obstinate disorder, from a light and frugal diet, consisting of such animal food only as may be '.i>ilv digested, and at the. same time, avoiding all flatulent and heating substances, as well as liquors ; for instance, wine, milk, turnips, cab- bages, &c. not exposing the body to the influence of hot air, strong smells, offensive vapours, and the like. As a most excellent diet- drink, we can, from experience, recommend the use of toast and water, in which a few grains of nitre, or sal ammoniac, might be dissolved ; or with the addition of a little pure vinegar.. And, if any alterative medicine should become necessary, after the proper evacua- tions, by either bleeding and blis- tering between the shoulders, or, according n circumstances, by gen- tle laxatives, and nauseating doses of ipecacuanha (SeeArPETiTE), we have found the following mixture Frequently of great advantage : Take oxymel of squills, and cinna- mon water, two ounces of each, and pure spring water four ounces ; two table-spoonfuls, each do.se, every three or four hours. Aslrairahis. Sec MILK VETCH. ASTRINGENTS are those me- dicinal substances which act upon the simple elementary fibres, by contracting them, and incr< the force of cohesion, so as to re- rr-.v" ih::t degree of bodily del- whir' , on their deficient pov/: raction. This want /of cohesion, being supposed to arise either from ari aqueous consistence, AST or a deficiency of animal jelly, in the interstices of the fibres, it ap- pears to follow, (hat. substances af- fording much nourishment, and containing matter for the supply and condensation of that medium between the solids and fluids, in the, greatest proport ; on, are likewise the most effectual astringents. In- deed, daily experience speaks in favour of this apparently well- founded conjecture. But as man- kind seem, from the earliest ages, to have been dis satisfied with those simple and congenial substances, which beneficent Nature granted them, even in the most inhospitable regions ; they have, by gradual steps, forsaken her path, and re- sorted to artificial means, which chance or credulity induced them to procure from distant climates. Thus strangely has man, in all civilized countries, suffered himself to be misled by prejudice 5 and, instead of investigating the true nature and uses of things at home, he went in quest of foreign auxi- liaries, and frequently sacrificed the very life he was anxious to pre- serve. In order to ascertain, with pre- cision, when astringent remedies may be employed with safety and advantage, we shall reduce the subject to distinct propositions. I. The cases in which it will become necessary to have recourse to astringents, are : 1 . A general, and local, debility, or relaxation of the fibres : the for- mer is relieved by the internal and external use of tonics ; but the lat- ter, chiefly by local applications, such as cold fomentations. 2. In a preternatural, and parti- cularly a putrid disposition of the fluids 3. The AST 3. In injuries of die vessels. On the contrary, II. The following circumstances and conditions prohibit the use of astringents : 1. A general rigidity of the frame, and tension of the solid parts. 2. Unusual heat of the body, unless it proceed from a general or partial debility, or a dissolution of the fluids. 3. Salutary and critical dis- charges, which take place by a spontaneous effort of nature. 4. The existence of some mor- bid matter in the body, the eva- cuation of which might thus be checked and prevented. Hence it is attended with peculiar disad- vantage and danger, to apply such remedies externally, as for in- stance, cold baths in rheumatic, gouty, erysipelatous and other affections, in which there is a na- tural disposition for expelling the morbific matter (or at least its resi- duum) by the pores of the skin. Thus the eating of astringent food would be pernicious, if the iirst passages be obstructed, or the per- son liable to habitual costivcncss ; though this riae is not without its exception, especially in putrid, bi- lious fevers, where astringents must frequently be combined wkh pur- gatives, to answer both intentions, and to support the sinking powers, without tiie loss of that time, which complete evacuation would neces- sarily require. In order to enumerate those astringent remedies which, by our own experience, and partly -by that of others, Live been found the most efficacious, either exter- nally or internally, we shall here alphabetically arrange them, and treat of their individual properties AST 1*35 and effects, under -.their respective heads, viz. ALUM ; BARK, theAx- GUSTURA, HORSE CHESNUT, PE- RUVIAN and WHITE WILLOW; BILE OF ANIMALS ; BUCK-BEAN or MARSH TREFOIL; CENTAURY THE LESSER; AVENS-ROOT; GEN- TIAN; WATER-HEMLOCK; IRON; MILFOIL ; MINERAL ACIDS and WATERS; OAK; PICHURIM-BEANSJ and simple WATER. ASTROLOGY, a conjeaural science, the professors of which pretend to judge of the effects and influence of the planets ; and to foretell future events; by the situa- tion and different aspects of the heavenly bodies. It is divided into two branches natural and judi- ciary. To the former belongs the prediction of natural effects, such as the changes of the weather, winds, earthquakes, &c. : the latter is that in which misguided and su- perstitious persons attempt to fore- tell future events. Judicial astrology is said to have been invented in Chaldea, and thence transmitted to the Egyp- tians, Greeks, and Romans. At Rome, the people were so infatu- ated with this fallacious science, that the astrologers, then called mathematicians, could never be suppressed, notwithstanding all the edicts of the Emperors to expel them from that city. This superstition has prevailed even in modern ages ; and, about a century ago, was in great re- pute in this country. Since that period, however, the minds of men Slaving become more enlightened, that art, which owed its origin to the practices of knaves, on the credulity of the ignorant, is now universally exploded by the intel- ligent part of society. There are, however,, still in the metropolis, K 4 several 136] AST several female impostors, who have acquired a degree of celebrity among their own sex, by the acci- dental fulfillment of some of their frivolous predictions. The origin of so absurd a pursuit, may be ascribed chiefly to an al- most general neglect of studying, in schools, those branches of na- tural science, which explain the phenomena taking place in the dif-r ferent kingdoms of nature ; and to that singular eagerness "\vhich is obvious, not only among all unci- vilized nations, but likewise among the lower classes of the most en- lightened people, for acquiring a knowledge of future events, while they negleCt their present welfare and safety. See DIVINATION ; NECROMANCY. ASTRONOMY is considered as the most sublime of all the sciences, and implies a knowledge of the heavenly bodies, with regard to their respective magnitude, moti- ons, distances, &c. ; and of the natural causes by which these phe- nomena are produced. It is not improbable, that ADAM and his immediate progeny, the antedilu- vians, possessed a slight knowledge of astronomy. On the building of the tower of Babel, NOAH is sup- posed to have retired with his chil- dren born after the flood, to the north-eastern part of Asia, where his descendants peopled the vast empire of Cijina j and this, in the opinion of Dr. LONG, accounts for the early cultivation of astronomy by the Chinese. Mr. BAILLY, \vlio has taken great pains to inves- tigate the progress of the Indians, is of opinion, that the first epoch of their astronomy commences with the conjunction of the sun and moon, which took pi ace 3 102 years before the Christian ?era. Even AST the Americans, and especially the Mexicans, were not altogether destitute of astronomical know- ledge. But the Chaldeans and Egyptians were the first nations that became, in this respe6t, con- spicuous in ancient history ; and it is doubtful, whether the Phaeni- cians acquired the rudiments of this science from the former, <>r the latter ; though we are indebted to their enterprizing merchants., who first applied it to the useful and important purposes of navigar tion. Its origin among the Greeks is unknown: HESIOD and HOM^R were the earliest writers who men- tion astronomical fa6ts ; but the science was afterwards, though not considerably, improvedby THALES, AxAXiMANDEK, PYTHAGORAS, ARCHIMEDES, and HIPPAF,CHUS, who made the first specification of the fixed stars ; and lastly, by PTOLEMY, whose erroneous sys-. tem is now exploded. Among the Arabs, who adopted the present arithmetical characters from the Indians, GEBER laid the foundation for our modern trigono- metry; which MENELAUS, the Greek, about the year go after Christ, had ineffectually attempted to establish, in his three excellent books on spherics, even after that doCtrine hfid been rendered more simple by the labours and improve- ments of PTOLEMY. The Emperor FREDERIC II. of Germany, who was a great patron of the sciences, in 1230, also reviv- ed the study of astronomy in Eu- rope. Thence arose JOHN HALI- FAX, CLAVIUS, ROGER B.ACON, VITELLIO, and the indefatigable PURBACH, who died in 1401, when only thirty-eight years of age : he was succeeded by his ce- lebrated. AST lebrated pupil, REGIOMONTANUS, or JOHN MILLER, of Montere- gio, who flourished at Nlirnbcrgin the latter part of the fifteenth, and by JOHN WERNER in the begin- ning of the sixteenth century ; till at length arose the justly celebrat- ed NICOLAUS COPERNICUS, the greatest luminary that ever appear- ed on the shores of the Baltic, and who is undoubtedly the principal reformer of astronomical science. After having studied physic at Rome, and returned to his native country, at present called West Prussia, he began, in the year 1507, to doubt the accuracy of all other systems, except that of PYTHAGO- RAS. Endowed with a compre- hensive and penetrating mind, a correct judgment, and inexhausti- ble powers of application, he could not fail to discover the truth of the hypothesis advanced by that sagacious Greek, " who placed the sun in the centre, and sup- posed all the planetary bodies, and the earth itself, to revolve around him." Since that period, astronomy has been progressively cultivated by different nations, especially the .Germans, Italians, French, and English, The principal characters, whose names will be transmitted to posterity, for (heir useful labours in the immense field of practical and theoretical astronomy, are near- ly the following : T y c H o -B R A H E , the Portuguese, who spent a great part of his time in useless efforts of opposing the immutable system of CopERNicys ; CLAIRULT, D'A- LEMBERT, LA CAILLE, and DE LALANDE, in France ; GALILEO, CASSINI, FONTANA, B.OSCOVICH, BIANCHINI, FRISI, MANFREDI, ZANOTTI, and others, in Italy ; KEPLER, UKSINUS, HEVELIUS, AST ['37 ROEMEK, thetWoEuLEKS,MEYEK, KA ESTNER, LAMBERT, GRISCHOW, MILLER, BURJA, HEHL, BODK, ROESLER, FISCHER, RECKARD, RiiDIGER, SCHEIBEL, OLBERS, and more especially V. ZACH, the leader of German astronomers, who now resides at the new observatory, nearGotha; WARGENTIN,BLIN- GENSTERN, MALLET, and ?LAN- MAN, in Sweden ; and WRIGHT, NAPIER, BRIGGS, HORROX, NEW- TON, FLAMSTEAD , HALLEY, POUND, HUYGENS,HOOK, BRAD- LEY, FERGUSON, GREGORY, IVlAS- K.ELYNE, and in a more eminent degree than any of his compatriots on the continent, the transcendent HERSCHEL, under the immediate patronage of his present MAJES- TY, who, since the days of the PTOLEMYS, affords the most illus- trious example of a truly philoso- phic monarch. Of the latest and most popular publications on this subject, we shall state only the following : A Com- pendious System of Astronomy, by MARGARET BRYAN, 4to. ll.7s.6d. boards ; Leigh and Soth.by, 1/07, The Study of Astronomy, adapted to the Capacities of Youth, by J. STEDMAN, 12mo. pp. 154 ; 2s. (5d. Dilly,] 796. Practical Astronomy, by A. EWING, 8vo. pp. 40O ; 5s, boards ; Longman, 1798- Lastly, a work of a more scientific charac- ter, is the Rev. S. VINCL'S Com- plete System of Astronomy, vol. 1. 4to. ll. 4s. boards ; "VVingruve, !797- The author excludes fa- miliar explanations, moral reflec- tions, and historical details ; but has carefully examined whatever relates to the subject, and bestow- ed the greatest attention on the correctness of the tabL-s ; a cir- cumstance of the first importance to a book of this nature. Atha* AT lit] :>ita. Lif-anon, L. MOUNTAIN SPK;XI;L. slihlt-lic A KT. See GYMNASTIC EXEHCISK. ATHLETIC JM. : >, a t which implies a strong constii of body. Among the anciejr signified a robust and corr> the at hit-ice endea- voured to acquire. The athletic habit is consivlered as the highest point i . yet such a state is and exposi .1 to :';;- wru n the body is no longer capable of improvement, the next change must be for the reverse : hence " its most healthy condition closely borders on disease ; and the seeds of distemper arc planted in the verv fuln iance of our fluids." A'i KRE,atermdemed from the Greek words rahour and sphere, whence it has been generally applied, to signify that surrounding mass of air which consists of aque- ous and other vapours, the electric magnetic fluids, &c. but the altitude or extent of which has never been accurately ascertained. Under the article AIR, p. 21, .dy mentioned the general properties of this surround- niediuni ; hence we shall here :ve, by way of supplement, that according to the discoveries of modern c . ,ugh s:i'.l op- posed by Dr. PRIESTLEY, the at- ;t a simple, but a compound b- air, or o, >:ic\is vapours of old wine- casks, and other vessels or recep- air, may be . ':;}, influence, vutuent p;irt'of the com: ; naturally exists in so > t v.-i ! l ATT and therefore deserves no particular account in 'his place, as we propose to treat of it under the article of BREWING. Atralitis. See Black BILE. Atriplex. SeeORACH and PURS- LANE. AtropaEelladona, L. See Deadly NIGHTSHADE. ATTENUAXTS, or attenuating medicines, in humoral pathology, are such as have a tendency to sub- tilize or resolve the humours into finer parts. And though this defi- nition may not satisfy the plurality of modern pathologies, who ac- count for almost every diseased ac^ tion taking-place in tbehumanbody, partly from the nervous influence which is still more obscure and partly from an accumulation or ex- haustion of excitability (or predis- position) 5 the former of which im- plies direfi debility, and produces stbenic diseases ; the latter origi- nates from indirect debility, and generates asthenic disorders, accord- ing to the plausible theory of the ingenious Dr. JOHN BROWN ; yet we shall attempt to lay down a few general propositions, respecting the sensible properties and effects of medicinal substances, when we ar- rive at the articles of HEALING- ART, and MEDICINES. Attenuating, or inciding reme- dies., have long been, and are still, considered of very extensive utility in physic. They produce such a variety of effe6ts, that it is neces- sary to be previously well acquaint- ed with their different kinds, in order to choose an;! administer them v/ith safety and advantage. At present, we shall content ourselves %vith stating the most simple and /efficacious remedies which have, generally speaking, by practical ATT ['39 physicist!.; been allowed to produce the following erle&s : I. Such as tend to cool and at- tenuate the fluids, when there pre- vails an inflammatory disposition in die system : namely, lemon-juice; common wood sorrel fOiaiis ac-.!'t- sella,'L.)\ crystals of tartar ; vine- gar; nitre 5 sal ammoniac; cucum- bers (Cuaimis sutivus, L.) ; less nettle (Urtica urens, L.) j common house-leek (Se-mpervivum teciorum, L.) ; and butter-milk. II. Those which possess the pro- perty of dissolving extravasarcd, stagnant, and coagulated blood : German leopard's bane (ArmuT. /i/ofifn/ia, L.) III. Attendants of pituitous stag- nations : whey ; sugar of milk j h'xed air ; Seltzer-water ; soap ; couch, or quick-grass (Tiiiicum re- pens, L.) IV. With a view to resolve pi- tuitous and tenacious obstructions in the breast : hedge mustard (Erys'nnum officinnie, L.) ; hyssop j liquorice- root ; seneka; bitter milk- wort (Poly gala amara, L.) ; ele- campane (Inulti Helenium,]^.)-. gum ammoniac ; myrrh ; galbanum. V. To subtilize incrassated and viscid lymph : antimony in vari- ous forms; sulphur; hemlock; foxglove ; wolf's-bane, or monk's hood, &c. but we seriously advise those readers, who do not pretend to professional knowledge, never to make use of these plants, or of antimony, sulphur, and other me- tallic preparations, without having previously availed themselves OA proper medicai advice. VI. To attenuate the stagnant and vitiated bilious matter in thr intestines : dandelion (Leontodon taraxacum, L.) ; wild sxiccory (Ci- ii intylus, L.) ; fumitory (l''u- maria I 4 0] AUC m aria nffidnalix, L.) ; soprwort (Snfii,:nii h. riftii in. L.); white hnre- hound (Miirritl-ium vu/gare, L.) ; solu'tle tartar (Kali tartarisatum, 1/ond.); honey; celandine (Chcli- dnniuin mnjns, L.) ; ivy-resin file- sum hedtirc helix, L.); cherry-lau- rel water (slf/aa Laurocerasi, L.); the two last-mentioned prepara- tions, however, cannot be ta' en with safrty in febrile and other states of the body, and ought there- fore to be prescribed by medical men. VII. Remedies tending to re- solve stagnant milk in women : The leaves of the alder-tree (he- tula Alnus, L.) and vitriolated tar- tar. VIII. Medicines for dissolving and expel in^ calculous concreti- ons : See STONE; GRAVEL ; Li- THONTRIPTJCS. Of all these medicinal substances, (excepting such as have already been described), we propose to give, in the sequel of the alphabet, a more particular and satisfactory account. AUCTION, a public sale for the disposal of household goods, books, plate, landed estates, &c. By this method of sale, die highest bidder is always die purchaser. The origin of sales by auction is very ancient; for among the Ro- mans it was performed by the public crier sub hasta, i. e. under a spear erected on diat occasion; and the goods purchased, were deli- vered by a magistrate. In die year 1777, die auctioneers resid- ing in London were subjected to a tax of 20s. per annum, and a duty oftkl. was paid for every 20s. arising by sale of furniture, fixtures, &c. and of 3d. in the pound by die sale of freehold or copy-hold estates. In 178/, the duty was increased to AUT 10d. in the pound on furniture, &c. and to 6d. in the pound on real property. As this method of selling goods app./ars to be rather founded on the principle of competition, than that of choice, it certainly deserves every encouragement in a com- mercial country : hence it were only to be wishc.l, that govern- ment might be enabled totally to sup- press those mock-auctioneers who infest several streets of the metro- polis, and use every artifice to en- tice and deceive the unwary, espe- cially the harmless visitors from the country. AUTUMN is computed the third season of the year ; and with respect to die animal body, is doubtless the most unhealthy. Hence TERTULLIAN calls it " the test of valetudinarians ;" but die ancient Germans, though acquaint- ed with the three other seasons, appear to have been uninfluenced by the severity of autumn ; as diey had no particular term to express it, unless we admit the word " harvest," in modern German, " Hcrlst," as equivalent to. what they at present call " Erndte," or the gathering in the fruits of the earth. The circumstances which render this season the least conducive to a healthy state of die body, are die following : 1 . Because die vege T table kingdom, with very few ex- ceptions, returns the salubrious leaves of trees and plants to dieir primitive, maternal earth, wh re they undergo spontaneous decomr position. This decay, or process of putrefa&ion, produces a remark- able change in dial surrounding medium which supports animal life, and die relative purity of which, determines die most im- poitanj; AUT portant function of the system, namely, that of respiration. 2. As, by the greater pressure and humi- dity of the atmosphere, the pores of the skin are so affeted that they become unable to perform their office of exhalation, with the same facility as in winter and summer, it follows that perspirable matter, or at least, its grosser particles, will in autumn be liable to remain on the surface, in a state inclining to putrefa&ion, and to be re-absorb- ed, to the great detriment of the human or animal body. Hence arise bilious and putrid fevers, with a long train of other com- plaints, according to the constitu- tion and particular circumstances of the individual. Parental Nature, however, has amply provided the means of obvi- ating such disastrous effecls. With tins intention, she has given us a great variety of sub-acid fruit, and acescent vegetables, which, at that season, attain to their perfection, and are eminently qualified to counteract the putrid disposition of the fluids. To assist her in this benevolent intention, we ought to choose an appropriate diet; and, at the same time, defend the surface of the body with a proper dress, which is warm, light, and sufficient- ly porous, in order to admit the evaporation of perspirable volatile humours. Notwithstanding all the objec- tions made by theorists, against the use of FLANNEL, worn next the skin, we venture to pronounce it the most beneficial covering ; pro- vided the conditions and excep- tions we shall state under that ar- ticle, be duly attended to. But to see the fashionable females of the metropolis, as well as in the country, at all seasons of the year, A V A [141 dr'essed in muslin, cotton, and other light stuffs, scarcely sufficient to proteft them against a sudden blast of wind such deviations from the rules of prudence, and real econo- my, may, indeed, deserve the lash of the Roman satyrist, who speaks of the bitter complaints of PKOSER- PINE, in chilly autumn, but they cannot be corre6ted by Reason, till the shrine of that whimsical idol ' Fashion,' be shaken, and its ground-work demolished, by a more dignified system of EDUCA- TION. See that article. AVARICE, is that restless and insatiable desire of accummulating riches, which is the surest indica- tion of a contra&ed and, generally, depraved mind. As the governing passions of the Irute creation are lust and hungei , the predominant desires of the hu- man species appear to be power and money : it has accordingly been asserted, that the origin from which all the misfortunes and ca- lamities of mankind have arisen, are ambition and ova-rice. When a person doats upon mo- ney, merely for the sake of pos- sessing it, without any regard to the good purposes of life, which it might serve; or to the new en- joyments that may be procured by it; without any regard to the be- nefit of his neighbour, or to any advantage accruing from it to him- self such a being may justly be called a miser of the first class. His greatest happiness, apparently, consists in the contemplation of money; an idol whom he even condescends to worship, \\lui removes him in triumph from one part of his dwelling to* ano- ther. The next, and second class of misers, comprehends those angu- lar 142] A V A lar persons who are eager to amass large sums of money, enjoy but a temporary pleasure ia its p* sion, and at the same time have' some particular object in view, the execution of which constitutes the of their wishes. If this ob- ject happen to be centered in a trifling and despicable pursuit, it must bs ascribed to a narrow and Rorbid education ; by which the foundation was laid for an incon- sistent and irrational turn of tem- per, for a servile attention to the lowest mercenary employments. Sometimes, however, to the ho- nour of mankind, such persons, while pn, almost crimi- nal frugality, speculate on the ns of benefiting their fellow- creatures. Of tlf.s description was GODINOT, a French clergyman at Rheirus, who refused to relieve ap- parent \vr - ; i'l, by the >3nt ef his vine- ya:d, had the good fortune to ac- quire large sums of money. His t'A\c him, and the populace ever) \vlic:re received him with contempt. Neverthe- less, h^ continued his usual sim- plicity of i:ie, and steadily adhered to the most rigid system of econo- my. jM^an-vvhiie, this good man had long felt the wants of the in- dustrious poor in that city, particu- larly in having no water but what they were obliged to purchase at a. considerable price. At length, he laid out his princely fortune in the buikliiig of an aqueduct, by which he rendered the poor more useful and Luting service than if he had distributed his whoie income in charity, <.. r L his door : and thus he pro\' / the true benefactor of society, whose name- deserves to be transmitted to pos- terity. A VE The third, and perhaps most culpable class of avaricious persons, literary misers, who in- cessantly apply themselves to. study, ;UK! eagerly seize upon every useful fact or discovery, without ever, in- tending to impart it to others. If. the acquisition and propagation of knowledge were dependentou these, personsjwho in many other res; resemble the monks of the dark ages, a speedy return of barbarism would be the necessary conse- quence. A similar idea, perhaps,, struck the didactic POPE, when lie thus concisely expressed himself in the following lines : . " Bt niggards of advice on no pretence ; " For the -want avarice is that or sense." Lastly, it deserves to be remark-* ed that avarice, in general, has a tendency to stifle every spark of sympathy and generosity in the human b'rea; L: to affect also the diiferent functions of the body, in a manner not unlike that we have described under the head ANXIE- TY ; and that even savage nations, for instance, the Canadians, bestov.- the greatest care on the susceptible minds of their children, to prevent the growth of that vile and corroi sive passion. '.-.'. See OATS. AVENS, or GEUM, L. a genus of plants comprehending eleven species, of which, however, only two are natives of Britain, viz. 1. COMMON AVENS ; theGeum iirlaniim, L. (also called great-* flowered Avens, or Herb Bennet); grows in woods, and about shady hedges ; produces yellov/ flowers from May to August, and is repre- sented by WITHERING, 477. Tho stalks of this mrim plant attain a height of two feet. In spring, its woody root possesses the aromatic flavour of cloves. In AVE In medicine, the root of the common avens has lately been em- ployed with singular efficacy in the cure of obstinate agues. A tinc- ture made of it, in the proportion of four ounces of the root, digested Math a quart of brandy, in a sand heat, and given to the quantity of half an ounce, or more, two, three or four times, has seldom 1" to cure inteftnittefits, where the Peruvian bark had proved ineffec- tual . Others give it with equal success in decoction, powder, or deituary, in doses from one scruple to a drachm or more, several times a day provided that the first pas- sages be previously evacuated by proper laxatives. This root has also afforded an excellent remedy in several chronic disorders, as a ge- neral strengtlicner and astringent : indeed, the experiments made by B u c H H A v K shew 1 , that its antisep- ti-.: power is superior to that of the best foreign bark. As an object cf rural and domes- tic economy, tbis plant deserves some attention. Sheep are ex- tremely fond of its herbage ; which may likewise, when young, be used for culinary purposes, and especially in the form of salad. If the common avens-root be collect- ed, split, and dried, a portion cf it secured in a bag, and hung in a cask of beer, it is affirmed (in the Transactions of the Swedish Aca- demy), that this simple expedient will prevent it from turning sour. On mis subject, we refer to the article BREWING. In the useful arts, this root has likewise b,een employed in the process of tanning leather. DAM- BO URNKY informs us, that the A VO ['43 stalks and kaves of the plant have ! with advantage for dye- ing wool of a permanent olh-e- Irttirn colour, when previously steeped iaa solution of bismuth. 2. WATSK Av::xs, Gcutn ri- vals, L. grows in the North of England, Scotland, "\Vales, &c. in meadows and groves of a humid soil ; its pale red flowers appear in 1 it cleli- . and by V, .,, 478. The herb and root of this species, though of .'.Iso been in medicine, as well as .'OIuDUPpIS is die name of th .a./pted for the larger or ( ^.iniodities, such as groceries, hops, cheese, wool, lead, &c. It is distinguished from Troij- hich was formerly used every purpose, and is still retained for weighing gold, silver, and jewels, for compound- ing medicines, for experiments in ;u philosophy, and for com- jjns with each other. The former contains six- teen, and die latter only twelve ) the pound. Bakc-rs, :ive in country places, manu- facture their bread by avoirdupois- weight, but those who carry on b"-::n-jss in corporation-towns, an; obliged to make, it by troy-weight. ' wearies purchase their drugs, if wholesale, by the former, but retail them out by the latter. Sss Wi-*! . i i MEASVL Ana-inn. See ANTIPATHY. A-saha procumleiis, L. S?e TRAILING ROSE-BAY. [144] B. BAG BAG BACHELOR, a word of doubt- ful origin ; though, in the political economy of nations, when a plu- rality of persons apparently glory in that appellation, its practice can- not fail to be attended with effects detrimental to the State, and fre- quently disgraceful to the individual. We do not, however, include in this description, the- Bachelors of Arts, those in the Livery Compa- nies, nor even the ancient Knight- Bachelors of England, whose title did not descend to posterity; but \ve more particularly allude to those unmarried men, who pretend to live in a state of stoic celibacy, and are, for the most part, generally, either avaricious misers, or unprin- cipled spendthrifts. That there are many exceptions to this odious cha- racter, cannot be denied; yet, in a maritime country, where a great proportion of active men devote themsehes to a seafaring life, there ought to b>? public disgrace attached hose, who cannot assign the most y.i'vuinthl reasons for their rhoic.i- of celibacy. KM?} the ancient Greeks were so fully persuaded of the pernicious influence of professed bachelors, on the population and morals of Countrymen, that, by the laws < ruous, they were branded v, >.h infamy, excluded from all of- ci\il nnd military, as well as from national games and public :.ic!:'s. Farther, such persons \\ ere com pi-lied to appear at certain i!s, where they were exposed to public derision, and led round the market-place : in this degraded situation, the fair sex conducted 'hem to the altars, and obliged them to make amende, by submitting to blows and lashes, at discretion. The women, not sa- tisfied with this specimen of passivu obedience, forced them to sing cer- tain songs teeming with satire, and deprecating a state of life which Nature had never designed. The Roman laws, also, were not more favourable to their toleration ; and the vigilant censors frequently imposed arbitrary fines on old ba- chelors . Aceordi ng to D i o x Y s i u s , the historian, there existed in Rome an ancient edict, by which all per- sons of full age were obliged to marry. But the most remarkable law enacted against them, was that made in the reign of the Emperor AUGUSTUS, by which they were rendered incapable of enjoying the benefit either of legacies or inherit- ance by will, unless from their near relations. This limitation, PLUTARCH justly obson'es, induced many bachelors to marry ; not so- much with the view of having heirs to their own estates, as to qualify themselves to inherit those of others. Thus it clearly appears that, from the early ages, the most civilized nations expressed a just abhorrence of a life which is mere calculated to promote the narrow grovelling views of the individual, who pre- fers it to the most sacred and ho- nourable station in society, than to' benefit that circle of the commu- nity, of which he is frequently a consuming, and worthless mem- ber. From a conviction, that the pin- ralitr ef bachelors are not condu- cive .are and interest of the State, the British Legis! already BAG already imposed a small -fine upon celibacy, by an additional duty on servants. But, as the annual payment of. so moderate a tax af- ft-vt? only the middle, and less" opu- lent, classes of society, we venture to .suggest a- remedy, perhaps more .aal, for cheeky :g this species of degeneracy. Let us suppose, a ; man of rank and fortune, devoting himself to every kind of dissipation, and squandering an Income that wouli maintain half a parish} \ve can see no reason why lie .should not, at a certain age, be compelled to assign his motives for in,t marrying. If these should be found unsatisfactory, there \vould "be no injustice done to such a cha- racter, by employing him in distant climates, either in a naval or mili- tary capacity, where he might con- tribute to the safety and protection of the .empire. BACON, the flesh of swine, .salted, dried, and, generally, smoked in a chimney. As the history and customs relative to this savoury dish, would furnish but little in- struction, we shall proceed to state the most approved methods of pre- paring it. both in England and on the Continent. Somersetshire- Bacon, the most esteemed in this country, may be made any time during the last three months of the year. When a hog is killed for bacon, the sides are laid in large wooden troughs, and sprinkled all over with lay tali : thus they are left fur twenty-four hours, to drain away the blood and . the superfluous juices. Alter this first preparation, they should be taken out, wiped very dry, and the draining* thrown away. Next, some fresh bay salt, well healed in a large iron frying-pan, is to be rubbed over the meat, until it has xu. ii. vot. I. BAG absorbed a sufficient quantity, and this friction repeated four si:> sivedays, while the meat is turned only ever,- other day. If hogs are killed, the flitches '. be kept in brine for three weeks, and, during that period, turned ten times, theii taken out, and thoroughly dried in the Usual man- ner 3 for, unless they be thus ma- naged, it is impossible to preserve them In a sweet state, nor will their flavour be equal to those pro- perly cured. As the preservation of the salt used in this process, when carried on to a great extent, may be all objet of economy, we shall state the following method of recovering the saline matter contained in these (trainings, or in any other t-ri?;c, whether from herrings, beef, or pork : it was communicated to us by a friend, who had seen it pnu en the Continent, where culinary salt is sold at a considerable price. He first added such a quantity of boiling water to the brine, or drain- ings, as was sufficient to dissolve all the particles of the salt. This solution he then placed in either an iron or earthen vessel, over a lire, which, by boiling, forced all the feculent and animal particles to th^ top, so th.it tl.ey were carefully removed by a perforated ladle. Af- ter the liquid had become clear, it was set aside for twenty-four hours, in a cool place, that the cole- matter might subside. Kut, as the combination it had formed with the boiled liquor was very tena- cious, he contrived two different ways of separating it : 1 . A solu- tion of alum in water, one pint to an ounce of t' at substance, was gradually dropt into the cold liquor, in die proportion of a table- spoon- ful of the former to every gallon L of 146] BAC of the latter; and the whole allowed to stand for several hours ; or, 2. It" time and circumstances would permit, he filtered the liquor by means of long fhnnel slips, cut longitudinally by the web, but pre- viously soaked in another strong and perfectly clear solution of salt: these slips were so immersed into the coloured fluid, that the pro- jecting external end readied ano- ther vessel, which had been placed much lower than' that containing the brine, or drainings. When these particulars were properly at- tended to, the absorbed liquor be- came almost colourless, and pel- . lucid. Having thus procured a clear .liquid solution, nothing more was required than to evaporate it to ^dryness, in order to re-produce the salt in its original granulated form. We have faithfully reported the process, wlrch may be imitated without difficulty, and at little or no expence. In our opinion, the second method of discharging the , colour is preferable ; as, by this, no alum will be required, which only contaminates the salt. Smoked Bacon, one of the most relished, but almost indigestible, dishes of the Germans, is prepared in a manner similar to that adopted in the curing of the celebrated Westphalia Hams. For the latter, however, animals that have been well fed, and allowed to roam at . pleasure in the extensive moor- lands of that province, are gene- rally selected. And if credit be due to the report lately spread in London, by a native of Westphalia, that those delicious hams, so much esteemed in this country, are the produce of ho^s which frequently die of obesity, and were sold for half price to the ill-reputed German ./ wh export BAC them to Hamburgh or Holland, wtf cannot, in justice to our friends, recommend them for their salu- brity. The manner of obtaining them is nearly as follows : after the hams have been properly salted, rubbed, and wiped with dry cloths, in order to absorb all the impure juices, the cavities of the joints, as well as the bones themselves, are carefully covered with a mixture consisting of two parts of the best salt, perfectly dried, and one part of black pepper, coarsely powder- ed. As soon as this operation is per- formed, the hams are, on the samA day, suspended in a chimney, where no other but wood fire is burnt, and which is usually increased dur- ing the first three days. The time of fumigation is regulated by the 'size of the meat, and generally ex- tends from three to six months. Although we have here giveri directions for preparing ham as well as bacon, we by no means wish to insinuate, that either of them affords a wholesome article ' of nutriment. Such delicacies should be eaten only by the robust, the laborious, and healthy, in great moderation, and seldom. Under these conditions, they may occasi- onally afford proper exercise to a sound stomach, when taken ?n smr.ll quantities, in the morning, or previous to a long journey iii cold and serene weather. On the contrary, in weak nnd languid ha- bits, those artificial preparations, not unlike all indurated animal fat, are most difficult of digestion, and therefore improper. As they easily turn rancid "in the stomach, or are perhaps already tainted by long suspension, persons a'ffli&ed V with hectic fevers, or liable to the \ heart-burn, ought entirely to ab- stain from their use. BAD BADGER, an animal resem- bling in its external chara&ers, both a dog and a hog : it is now seldom met with in England, though formerly it afforded great sport. The unequal length of its legs has introduced the expression ladger-leggsd. Its flesh has a taste similar to that of wild hogs, and is much esteemed in Italy, France, and Germany. Indeed, these carnivorous quadrupeds are v themselves so very fond of pork, that a piece of such meat, placed over their burrow, is the surest inducement to their appetite, and will in a few minutes entice them above ground. Besides affording a nutritive, but not easily digestible food, the skin of the badger makes excellent knapsacks, and covers for travel- ling-trunks, saddles, &c. because it is impervious to rain, and stands in need of no additional prepara- tion for rendering it water-proof; a process we shall describe under the article LEATHER. The hairs or bristles of this animal are used for painters' brushes ; and its pene- trating fat answers a variety of - useful purposes : for it is not only employed as an ingredient in injec- tions for relieving nephritic com- plaints, or such as arise from ob- structions in the urinary passages, but likewise externally, in rheuma- tic affections, especially those called Sciatica, and for the cure of sore and chapped nipples in young mo- thers. For paralytic dieases of the aged, it is asserted, that the hairy skin of this creature, when worn next the surface of the body, has been of eminent service, by stimu- lating the inert, cutaneous/and mus- cular vessels into a<5tion : and there can be no reasonable objection against giving this simple remedy a SAG [147 fair trial for a few weeks, wher medicines generally are ineffectual. The crafty horse-dealers also employ the badger's fat in a singu- lar manner, which involves a de- gree of fraud and cruelty. They pull out the hair in several places, and anoint the bare spots with this fat j when the hair grows again, it is of a white or grey colour, so as to give the horse a pyebald appear- ance, which probably inhances its value. BAG, in commerce, is a terra for a sack, or pouch, containing a certain quantity or weight of some particular commodity. Thus a bag of almonds is about three hun- dred pounds j of aniseed, from three to four hundred pounds weight, 8cc. The best material for making compaft and durable bags, is hempen cloth, previously steeped in a strong decoclion of oak-bark, or tanner's waste. Bag, in farriery, signifies a me- dicated external application, made with a view to recover a horse's appetite. For this purpose, one ounce of asafcetida, with an equal quantity of powdered savin, are mixed together, put into a bag, and tied to the bit. Meanwhile the horse should be kept bridled for two hours, several times a-day, and as soon as the bag is remov- ed, the animal will begin to eat. We have stated this piece of ad- vice on die authority of the Ency- clopaedia Britanmca ; though jve are inclined to think that such su- perficial applications will seldom. avail. See FARRIERY. BAGNIO, a term adopted from the Italian, and signifying a lath : in English, it denotes a house for bathii g, sweating, and cleansing the body ; but sometimes also for worse purposes, ' L2 The B AI The substances used for heating l-agnios are various; such as bricks, stones, c. managed in different ways, and in several ves- sels and utensils, according to the choice or fancy of the proprietor. The effect generally expected from resorting to such places, is an im- moderate degree of perspiration, occasioned by artificial heat : this cannot fail to open the pores ; to attenuate and dissolve the hu- mours ; to dissipate all the super- fluous particles ; and eventually to heat and dry the whole body. Hence this practice cannot be pro- per for persons of a choleric, thin, and spare habit, nor for those sub- ject to periodical discharges. In rheumatic and paralytic dis- eases, great benefit has sometimes been derived from a cautious use of the bagnio. For whatever com- plaint it be resorted to, care must be taken that neither the bowels .nor stomach be distended, which might be the case in the former, by obstructions or costiveness ; in the latter, after a plentiful repast. Besides, the heat of a bagnio should always be accommodated to the strength and peculiar condition of the patient ; for if immoderate, it will be attended with cffjcts very detrimental to the whole frame, the least of which are pustules, tumors, and obstructions of the i surface of the body. BAITING, a practice derived from the barbarous ages, and one of those amusements which degrade the human character. Thus we bear of the baiting of bulls, or bears, by mastiffs, or boll-dogs with short' noses, that they may . take- a firmer hold of their oppo- . nents. Whatever may be urged in jus- tifioation of lull-laiting, this cri- B AK minal species of game deserves to be equally condemned, both qn ac- count of its moral and physical ten- dency. It was first introduced in Eni'land as an amusement, in the reign of King JOHN, about the year 1209, and has been continued t the present day, though the spirit of barbarism has apparently been succeeded by that of refinement. Scarcely an animal is now killed without being previously baited ; because it is pretended, that the chasing and exercise of die poor brutes, render their flesh more ten- der and digestible. Although this assertion be partly true, yet, on the other hand, such meat is much disposed to putrefation, and un- less consumed in time, cannot fail to be hurtful to those who possess a weak and indolent stomach. In- dependently of this consideration, the inhuman practice of bull-bait- ing ought not to be connived at by magistrates, especially about the metropolis, where butchers are suf- fered to sport with our lives, by fuiionshj driving cattle in the open day through crowded streets, and particularly in what is called the City Road, where no person on foot can pass and re-pass with safety. BAKE 11, a person whose busi- ness is that of baking and selling bread. The origin of this useful profession is not ascertained, though it is certain that the first public bakers appeared in the Fast, and . passed from Greece to Italy, about the year of Rome 563. Prior to that period, every house- wife baked her own bread. In ancient Rome bakers enjoyed great privileges, and formed a kind . of Collar, from which neither they nor their children were permitted to withdraw; holding oil their ef- fects in common, and not being aliewcd BAK allowed to dispose of any part of them. To preserve honour and honesty in the College of bakers, they were expressly prohibited all connection with comedians and gladiators; while they were exempt from guardianships and other of- fices, which might interfere with their occupations. By the English statutes, no person exercising the mysteries or sciences of baking, brewing, surgery, or writing, shall be deemed a handicraft. Since the year 1155, the first-mentioned ar- tisans have formed a brotherhood in tin's country ; though the white bakers were not incorporated till 1407, and the brown bakers until 1621. We regret that so wealthy and respectable a body of men as our modem bakers, give us frequent cause of complaint, either by the unwholesome quality, or the defi- cient weight of bread ; an article which loudly calls for the wisdom and unremitting vigilance of the legislature. No new office in any department of police appears to be so necessary, and likely to be pro- ductUe of such essential advantages to the whole metropolis, as that of " Inspector of Bread." BAKING is the art of con- verting flour, or otb.tr farinaceous substances, into bread. As we propose to treat more fully on this subject, under the article BREAD, we shall here only explain what re- lates to a proper method of prepar- ing it. In domestic life, the baking of bread is frequently mismanaged ; which may be ascribed to the fol- lowing circumstances. Some wo- men do not use a just proportion and temperature of water, so that th bread turns out either pasty, or t#o fLm and heavy ; others do not BAK [149 use a proper quantity or quality of leaven, or barm, whence the bread acquires either an unpleasant bit- terish taste, or the dough cannot rise, and consequently becomes tough and viscid ; again, others do not understand the due degree of heat required in the oven, so that it will be either under, or over- baked. All these particulars de- serve to be attended to, otherwise a bad and unwholesome bread will be produced. To survey, therefore, the whole process, which is one of the most complicated in chemistry, we shall here communicate a few general directions. 1 . The flour, whether made of wheat, or rye (which two are doubtless the best and most whole- some species of grain), ought not to be used immediately on coming from the mill, as in a fresh state it is too moist for making good and palatable bread ; but it should be kept in a dry place for several weeks, stirred every day in sum- mer, and at least every other day in colder seasons, till it has ac- quired such a consistence, as ren- ders it loose and yielding between the fingers. 2. As the dongh will not rise, without giving it a proper leaven or barm, this ought to be a princi- pal objet in families, as well as to bakers. If leaven be employed, it should on the preceding evening be deprived of its hard crust, and dissolved with a little, scarcely milk-warm, water; then carefully mixed with about a third part of the flour to be used for baking, and kneaded into a soft dough, by add- ing more tepid water. A small quantity of flour is put on the top j and, thus prepared, it will be ne- cessary to cover the trough with blan ets, and suffer it to stand in L 3 a mo- 150 1 BAK & moderately \rarm plncc till the following morning, that it may rise and duly ferment. The remaining two -thirds of die flour must then be added, \vith a proportionate quantity of hike-warm water, and the whole kneaded into such an elastic dough as will draw into strings without breaking, and not adhere to the fingers. In this state it is again covered, and allowed to Stand (while preparations are mak- ing in die oven), and not disturbed till it begins gently to rise, when it Should be formed into loaves. 3. A proper degree of heat is an essential requisite to the bak- ing process. When the inner arch of the oven appears entirely white, it is generally considered as suffi- ciently healed. But this being a fallacious criterion, we would re- commend the following: Place a handful of flour before the aper- ture of the oven, and if it turn of a brown colour, the heat is then nearly of the degree required ; but if it become black, or remain white, in the former case the fire must be considerably reduced j |md in the latter, more fuel must be added. Lastly, all parts of the oven should be uniformly heated ; and though we cannot enter into farther particulars, yet the attentive house- wife wi;l easily, from her own observations, regulate the degree of heat, with, the same effect as it might be done by Mr. WEDGE- WOOD'S Pyrpmeter for the baking of earthen-ware. Remark. Musty flour, when ba' ed into bread, is not only ex- tremely detrimental to health, but it also imparts a bitter and nauseous taste. When such flour is not too strongly tainted, it may be correct- ed by first kneading it with leaven or sweet barm, then making large B AK holes with a wooden cylinder la- the dough, filling up the cavities with flour that is perfectly sweet, suffering It to remain in this pre- paratory state till the next morn- ing, then removing the dry flour carefully with long spoons or simi- lar implements, and afterwards converting the dough into bread, with the addition of such flour as is not musty. By this simple pro- cess, the flour first mixed up wilt be sweetened, but that which has been left over night in the dough, is said to become so corrupted, that it can be given only to animals. It has frequently been attempted^ and not without success, to baka good, wholesome bread, with little or no barm. In consequence of a dispute between the brewers and bakers of Dublin, concerning the price of yeast, in the year 1/70, the latter carried the point, by making their bread without it. As this process, however, could not be readily imitated in domestic life, we shall here state a metiiod of rah' ing a huhel qfjlour with a tea- spoonful of larm ; first practised by JAMES STONE. It is as follows : Put a bushel of flour into the knead- ing-trough or trendle; take about three- quarters of a pint of warm water, and thoroughly mix with it a spoonful of thick, sweet barm ; then make a hole in the middle of the flour, large enough to contain two gallons of water ; pour in your small quantity, and stir it with a stick, so that it may, with some of the flour combining with it, acquire the consistence of batter for pud- ding ; then strew a little dry flour over it, and let it stand for about one hour, when you will find the small portion so raised, that it will bu-ak through the dry flour scat- tered over it. After this, pour B AK in another quart of warm water, while you are stirring in more flour, till it become as thick as before j then again shake dry flour over it, and leave it for two hours longer repeat the same method about twice more, always suffering it somewhat longer to be at rest, and the bread will become as light as if a pint of barm had been used. Nor does this method require above a quarter of an hour 'more time than the usual way of baking ; and the author of it asserts, that his bread has never been heavy nor bitter. With resped, have sought out many inventions. Alum is no proper ingredient in ths composition of this great suj>- BAL port of life i and lime must be still worse : we tamely permit a few ignorant mechanics to mingle poison with OTir daily food, and gradually to ruin and destroy our HEALTH, the greatest blessing of all ; under the idle pretence of hu- mouring a ridiculons prejudice, in favour of a fashionable but artificial hue, in opposition to the sweet, wholesome, natural complexion of the corn f BAKING-STOVE (portable.) See STOVE. BALANCE, one of the six simple powers in mechanics, prin- cipally used for determining the equality or difference of weights in such bodies as are liable to this computation. There are two kinds of weights principally used at present; the an- cient, or the Roman steel-yard, and the modern, which consists of a lever or beam suspended exactly in the middle, having scaies or ba- sons attached to each extremity. If the arms of the balance be of equal length, and similar weights placed in the scale, the balance will consequently be in equilibria. But if one of the anus be in length to the other as ten to nine, the balance may still be so con- structed, that both the arms with their scales shall equiponderate. This vile contrivance, however, justly deserves to be branded with infamy; because a weight of nine pounds put into the longer arm, will counterpoise another of tea pounds placed in the shorter one 3 but the fraud may be instantly dis- covered, by shifting the weight from the one scale to the other, iij which case the balance will lose its equipoise. BALDNESS, a defed of hair chiefly on the forepart of the head. L 4 152] BAL r.g the pre-disposinc; cn?e.<$ of baldness, exc;^-,ive indulgence in sensual gratifications, and parti- dttlarly in wine and spirits, is per- haps the principal ; though old age lly causes the loss of hair even in th'. j n;ost regular livers. In an- ie, the. term calvus, or b.;id-pr.te, was frequently used by way of reproach for this defici- ency, which then was in great dis- :ding. (See that article.) In large and populous cities', however, these excellent purposes are often in a great measure de- feated,; partly bv a deviation from the genuine principle on which balls were first introduced, under the sanction of wise governments, and partly by connecting thi-5 amusement with collateral objetts, such as suppers, masquerades, card-parties j >:c. Consistently with our plan, wo beg leave to observe only, that morality and health would be bet- ter consulted,, if all public balls and masquerades were limitted to a certain number of visitors exclud- ing every female who ventures to appear without a proper friend or relation : and, upon the whole, by adopting those excellent regula- tions which already subsist in the city of Bath, where decorum or good breeding is the " order of the night." Horsr-l-clls, among farriers, lire given only for the purpose of con- vey in- B AL vcving into the stomach of tint rice and noble animnl, the rn:isturd), or Mctittis im'lifsnpliyllitm, L. is ;m indigenous plant, growing wild in the. West of England, in woods and about hedges ; it produces purple, reddish, and spotted flowers from May to July. See \V ITHERIXG, 53p, and CURTIS, pi. (). BALM (Purple and Write), or Meliit'it grnnd'dl'ira.L. another spe- cies of the balm, iikeuise indigen- ous to this coiUiUy,itnd flowering in May : 54] May : it is delineated in English Botany, t. 636 ; and in CURT. Lond.yo.fc. 6. L 3p. "V/e have mentioned both these native plants, not on account of their diuretic properties, for which thrv were once celebrated, but the fount T, as aifbrding fine aromatic flowers, which are eagerlj visited by bees ; and the latter, as being a iine ornament to a flower- garden. BALSAM, or Native Balsam, an oily-resinous fluid, oozing out of certain plants, either spontaneously, or by incision. . There are a variety of balsams, denominated according to the sub- itancc-s from which they are ob- tained, such as the CANADA., Co- J-AIVA, GILEAD, PERU, TOLU, t 4 :e. of which we shall give an account iuj(''.'r their respcclhf head's. BALSAMICS, a term used in an indefinite manner, but literally :-ying mitigating substances, and often applied to medicines of very different qualities, such as .icnts, detergents, restoratives, ix'\ It appears to be a general phara&er of balsamics, that they pr<- hot and pungent, like the na- balsams and gums ; while their internal use tends to increase the vital heat of the system. Ilr::.-;- th- v :'.re commonly admi- ;:d in those complaints which originate from a diseased action, or a dejfe&ive state of the interior or- gans ; and as they can only be in- t.-xiuml to those parts by die sto- mach and the circulation of the tiuids, it will be easily understood tiiat these slowly opera ling me- dicines cannot be productive of great effects, unless continued for a coi> : me. BALSAMINE, or Touch-me- not, the IfKpatiens noli-tangere, JL is one of the poiaouuu-i nad\c B A-M- plants, growing in moist and sl places, especially in several pa Westmoreland, Lancashire, York- shire, and Wales : it is most abun- dant on the banks of cold brooks running through wood-lands, shel- tered under willows and alder- trees. Its stalks are about eighteen inches high, and its yellow flowers appear in August. See WITHER- ING, 253. The capsules of this plant, when touched by the hand, burst and throw out then" seeds with velocity; whence it has received it name. Balsamine Seeds possess the de- leterious property of producing violent purging, when swallowed inadvertently, especially by chil- dren 5 and inevitable death, when taken to any extent. Dr. UNZER asserts, that the bread baked in an oven which had been heated with the dry stalks of tliis plant, poison- .1 nearly destroyed a whole family, In dyeing, the leaves and flowers of the balsamine, according to M. BECHSTEIN, impart to wool a beautiful yellow colour. BAMBOE HABIT, an inven- tion of the Chinese, by the use of which a person unskilled in the art of swimming may easily keep himself above water. The Chinese merchants, when going on a voy- age, always provide tliemsihes with this simple apparatus, to save; their lives, in eases of danger from shipwreck. It is constructed by placing four bambces horizontally, two before and two behind the body of each person, so that they ,.t about twenty-eight inches : these r.re crossed on each side by two others, and the whole proper- ly secured, leaving an intermediate space for the body. "When thus formed, the peroon in danger slips il BAN 1 k-over his head, and ties ir securely to the waist : by which simple means he cannot possibly sink. Its t^urc is here subjoined. "I I B-AN ['55 . BANDAGE, in surgery, a fillet, or roller, used in dressing and bind- jng up woviuds, restraining danger- ous bleedings, and in joining frac- tured or dislocated bones. The modern and more enlight- ened surgeons have, in some of die most important operations, relin- quished the use of tight bandages, from a conviction of their tendency to do more harm than good. Thus it is certain, that, the most expedi- tious cures of broken limbs, have generally been effected without any bandages ; yet, as there is a necessity of keeping the injured limb in a steady posture, we shall expatiate on this subject under the head of FRACTURES. See also LI- GATURES, and TOURNIQUET. BANDY-LEGS, a vernacular expression applied to distorted or crooked legs. In some cases this is a natural defe6t in the birth, though it may more frequently be ascribed to an improper treatment of infants, by indolent or officious jiUrses. The former will some- times suffer an infant, scarcely twelve months old, to stand for hours on its legs, while confined in a chair, or an absurd machinery, contrived for walking : the latter are too impatient to give early spe- cimens of a child's vigour, and daily try experiments with its ten- der legs, befofe they are able to sustain the weight of the body. When an infant is born with bandy-legs, the timely and judici- ous use of the bandage may, by im- perceptible degrees, correct this de- fed ; but it requires more patience and perseverance than people in ge- neral are able or disposed to be- stow. Hence we cannot suppress a remark made by the ingenious LEV RET, that this species of ne- gleft is attended with more im- portant consequences to the female than the male sex : for, as de- formities of the lower extremities are very frequently connected with similar mal-conformations of thos<3 bones which form the waist, we may hence account for the repeated abortions in many mothers who pay the strictest attention to diet, and every other circumstance, during the period of gestation. This unfortunate deformity, how- ever, cannot be easily remedied after the child has arrived at a cer- tain age ; and we believe all at- tempts would be fruitless, and even hurtful, after the sixth or seventh year : yet there are instances on record, where Nature, unassisted by art, has occasionally performed a cure. Dr. UNZER relates the case of a young man, who was born and reared with legs so dis- torted, that he was obliged to walk on the sides of his feet and heels ; but during his apprenticeship with a taylor, sitting continually with crossed legs, he remarked that his lower extremities began gradually to recover their natural direction, and. that his ancle* in particular * spoil- 156] BAN" spontaneously returned to their pro- per position. He at length escaped from his master, entered on the list of warriors, and thus gave the most convincing proof of the sound- ness of his limbs. BANE-BERRIES, the produc- tion of the HERB-CHRISTOPHER, or AcUea spicala, L. a native plant, which is in a high degree poison- ous, though very rare, and to be met with chiefly in the north- western extremity of Yorkshire, in the vicinity of Malham Cove, Clap- ham, Askrig, and on the lower part of Ingleborough-hill. Its fa- vourite places of growth are shady groves ; its si;''ks attain to the height of eighteen inches, and it produces flowers in May and June. See WITHERING, 483. Although some foreign writers assert that this plant does not pos- sess the deleterious properties which arc attributed to it by LINNAEUS, yet we have reason to believe that its great astringency must be highly detrimental to cattle. In dyeing, bane-berries yield, on boiling them with alum, an excel- 1; Tit black colour, which, in a con- ceutrr.trd state, may be substituted cheap writing-ink. M. VON CRFLL informs us. in the eleventh volume oi" his Chemical Discoveries, p. 118, in German, that one of his mrrespondents, M. THIELBKIX, obtained from the red berries of the i [ rb-Christopher, a colour not in- ferior to that extracted from cochi- neai; a faO, if corroborated by far- ther experiments, of great import- ance to dyers. The latter of these writers says, that after boiling those berries wiih cream of tartar, he . r c:;ed the dye with a solution of tin, i;i aqua fortis j by which pro- cess lie pioMiieed a beautiful and uncommonly permanent colour. B A N- BANK, in commerce, signifies a common repository, where per- sons consent to keep their money : it is also applied to certain societies or communities, who take charge of the money of others, either for the purpose of accumulating it by interest, or preserving ic in safety. The first institution of banks took place in Italy, where the Lom- bard Je.v.-s kept benches in market- places, for the exchange of money and bills. There are t\vo principal kinds of banks ; either public, consisting of a society of monied men, who, be- ing duly incorporated according to law, agree to deposit a considerable fund, or joint stock, to be em- ployed for . their use ; by lending money upon good security, buying and selling bullion, discounting bills of exchange, &c. or prirnte, \vhich are established by individuals, or co-partners, who deal in the same wax a.-, the former, upon their own stock and credit. The greatest bank of circulation in Europe, or perhaps in the world, is that of England. The Company wns incorporated by an act of par- liament, in the fifih and sixth years of WILLIAM and MARY. Divide ;uls of the profits are made half yearly, of which public notice is given, when tho-ie who have occasion for their money, may readily receive it j but private individuals are per- mitted to continue their funds, if they think projier, and may have their interest added to the principal. The Company of the Bank of England is under the superintcnd- ance of a Governor, Deputy-gover- nor; and twenty-four Directors, xv- ho are annually elected by the general court, in a manner similar to that, rf the E'^t India Company. The stability of the liauk of I laud BAN land is considered as equal to tlia-t of the British Government ; for, before its creditors can sustain any injury, all that it has advanced to the public must be lust. At Edinburgh, there are two public banks ; die one, called the Bank of Scotland, \vas established by acl of parliament in lG()o ; the other, denominated the Royal Bank, was instituted by charter, in 1727- Private banking companies have also, within these thirty years, been formed in almost every considerable town in Great Britain ; their pur- chases and payments of all kinds are made by notes, and thus the country business is in a great de- gree carried on by paper currency. It is almost generally believed, that the community at large has derived considerable benefit from this arti- ficial method of increasing the cir- culating medium : a proposition, the truth or fallacy of which it would not be easy to demonstrate. There is another kind of Banks, which are instituted wholly upon .the public account, and are called Bcniks of De-posit : their nature is not generally understood ; but their object is to reform the cur- rency which may at any time be worn, clipped, or otherwise reduced below its standard value. Such were the banks of Venice, Genoa, . Amsterdam, Hamburgh, &x\ when originally established ; the last in particular, being always obliged to pay in good money, according to the standard of the State. As the cash of such banks was more va- luable than the common currency of the country, it necessarily bore . an agio, or an additional per cent- age, in proportion as the currency was supposed to be more or less depreciated. Thus die agio of the bank of Hamburgh, which is said B A N ['57 to vary from fourteen to twenty per cent., constitutes the supposed difference between die standard money of die State, and the dipt, -worn, and debased cunrmy pour- ed in from the neighbouring coun- D O tries. BANK-FENCE, in rural econo- my, signifies theinclosure of ground .with an artificial bank. In places \vhere fiat stones cannot be pro- cured, the mo>t durable and ad- vantageous method of fencing in arable or pasture lands, is with turf .or green sods, about five cr the magnitude and velocity of its current. But as die course of rivers is frequently rapid and irre- , taking different directions, and often turning at acute angles, extensive inundations, especially in higii spring tides, necessarily happen from the overflowing of their banks. Hence it is of die utmost importance to every inha- bitant in the vicinity of rivers, to possess some knowledge of die proper method of forming em- bankments, for die prevention of floods. Although we cannot, consistent- ly \vith our limits, attempt a full mathematical analysis, yet we shall lay down a few general hints, and maxims, by which the reader may be guided in die practical view of this subjet. 1. The principal point to he ascertained, is the elevation, or the heights necessary to be given to such banks. This must be regu- lated by die additional quantity of water which, according to former experience, the river brings down during its freshes ; and likewise by the distance, at which the artificial bank is to be constructed, from the natural boundary of the stream. On this important point, mistaken economy frequently defeats its own purpose. If, therefore, the em- bankment is to be raised at some distance from die natural banks of the river, both a comparatively emalkr height and base will be re* quired ; the saving will be in the duplicate proportion of the former, and the works will be likewise the more durable, nearly in the same ratio; because, by enlarging the additional bed given to the s%v< river, its velocity and power of ruining the works are, likewise, accordingly diminished. Un therefore, the freshes of the stream be loaded with fine sand, which might decompose the. turf, the em- bankment should always be- under- taken at a considerable distance from the edge, of a river. By placing the artificial bank at half the breadth of the stream, from its natural banks, its channel will thus be nearly doubled, and the detached space, in general, afford excellent pasturage. 2. The next circumstance to be attended to, is, that the river will 77.it 1 higher, when embanked, than it did at the time when it was suf- fered to overflow ; and hence the difficulty of ascertaining to -what height it may rise, from the great- est swell which has been observed in its former floods. For this rea- son, the utmost rise in some gorge, where the river could not extend farther, should be accurately mark- ed, as far as can be remembered by 'die oldest inhabitants. Now the increased section in this place should be measured ; and, as the water rises in a much g proportion than the section, the latter must be increased nearly in the same proportion as the gorge already mentioned. Those who negleit this method of regulatrrfg the proper height of the embank- ment, by the greatest swell that has in former floods been observed in the plain, are in danger of con- structing their banks too low, arid con- BAtf fcnsequently rendering them to- tally useless. 3. The whole embankment should, as much as possible, be conduced in an uniform line, r.nd by the concurrence of the proprie- tors of loth banks ; because the general effect to be aimed at, con- sists in rendering the course of the stream straighter than it was before. All bends should be made less abrupt, by keeping the embankment farther from the river in nil convex lines of the natural bank, and approaching to it nearer, where the latter is concave. Thus the action of the waters on the embankment will be consi- derably diminished, and the dura- tion of the work insured. On the same principles, we ought to pro- ceed in fencing rivulets, or brooks, which empty themselves into a larger river j and whatever bends are given at its mcuth to the two lines of embankment, they should always be made less acute than those of the natural brook j at the same time an opportunity should be taken, of reducing the angle of this transverse brook, or, in other words, of condu6ting it with a more gentle flexion into the main river. 4. Particular care should be taken, to cover the outside of die dyke with compact pieces of turf, or green sods, closely united. For if it admits the water, there is great dausrer of drenching the interior o o and more porous part of the wall, while the statical pressure of this fluid body tends to burst the bank on the land side ; and thus the labour of months or years may be suddenly destroyed. Hence too great attention cai not be bestowed on making and keeping it perfedly tight ; so that the whole be one [159 continued fine turf, and even- b?.i\- spot must without delay be care* fully covered with firm and fresh sods : nor should the rat and mice- holes be ne:;!cCccd. Lastly, it deserves to be remark- ed, that a dry earthen bank, not firmly conjoined by grass-roots, will scarcelv maintain itself against the pressure of the water, with a slope of forty-:- >; while a canal convcving a moderates; cannot be supported, eveu with such a declivity. Those banks, however, the base of which is as four to three, of their height, will stand without danger in a moist soil : and this is not only the slope usually given them, but also ob- served in die spontaneous opera- tions of Nature, in the channels which she forms in conducing rills and rivulets through the higher and O O steeper grounds:. This natural form possesses both mechanical and mathematical properties, which justly claim the admiration of those who adopt her beneficent hints and maxims. BANKS of the Sea, are those inequalities or elevations of die ground or bottom of the ocean, that may be compared to ridges or hills, with which the land is more or less intersected. Sea-banks sometimes project above the sur- face of the water, or at least leave this element so shallow, ns to pre- vent a vessel from remaining afloat. Sand-banks arc; very common in the North and Baltic Seas, so that navigators are obliged constantly to use the plummet and compass, to discover their distance and exa<5t situation. As, however, these ele- vations frequently endanger the lives of our brave mariners, we have inserted this article, not with a view of intimidating those naval heroes, 160] BAN the information of J)IT.-.I;M-; whose I-.iiiine^ obliges them to cross -jre men- tioned, that they : :de tliem- i with an apparatus by uo means expensive, and described un- der the head of BAMBOI>HAI- i;A\KLU;iT, an appelln given to a person whose bank or Mock is c^.uusted : the word is iDQ '.!ie 1'ivnch, Inuquc- niiit-. -. -igniries a breaking or iailiug in r.rlhirs of fortune. 1'roni the description given of a bankrupt in our statute-books, he may be defined, " a trader who >e- ; himself, or does certain other uiding to defraud his credi- to:'-. " 'i'he present system of bankrupt- laws is calculated for the benefit of commerce, and founded on the principles of humanity and justice. Hence they confer some privileges not onlv on the creditors, but also on the bankrupt or debtor him- self ; for, by taking into considera- tion the sudden and unavoidable 'nts to which a person engag- 1 trade is liable, they not only grant personal liberty, but likewise pccuni'.iry as-.i--tnr.ee,. to men in this unfortunate situation; on con- dition that, they surrender their wln.le estate, to be divided among .their creditors. The benefit of the .bankrupt-laws, however, are al- lowed to none but actual traders, r,> i ';; general the, only ; U'.n -tridental '< nf di.icliarging I'hout any fault of ,vn. Dm, when other indi- s. the law reu- to the con?e- .. ;i indiscretion. s counti y, krupt .: uf the fullowiiig B A N acts : 1. Ky departing frcrutha realm, \\ith intent to defraud his creditors: 2. By leaving his hou.--; with intent to .secrete himself for the same purpose; 3. llemaining in his house so as not to be a> > sible to his creditors ; 4. Procur- ing c: , himself willingly to be arrested, outlawed, or im- -,it a just and law- ful reason ; 5. C i ^ncy or effects to be sequestrated by any legal process ; (j. Making any ulent conveyance to a friend* which is an act of the same suspi- cious nature as the last ; 7- Pro- curing any protection to screen his . nvits, though not I ' O ed to that privilege bv ua act of parliament; 8. Endeavour- ing, by any petition to the. King, or by a bill against any creditors, to- compel them to take less than tiieir just debts, or to procrastinate the time of payment ; 9. Lying in prison for more than two IIP upon arrest, or other detention t< r debt, wh :ig ball ; JO. Escaping from prison after aj rest for a just debt of one hu. pounds and upwards ; 1 ] . ing to make satisfaction for airy just debt to the amount of one hun- dred pounds, within two months after service of legal process for such :i any tiv..'. ing the privile-.e of parli.i'nent. Sir JOHN HoLTrr. that a. man's removing his goods pri- vately, to ed in exception, was r,o aet of bank: tion only f;audu'iC.:\t gil'ts to third persons, and era-ing them to be sei/e.d by .-.h;:r. p.".c'jf?, in order frr.ud crr;!i:u;'s. It hr..- bcrn e.xprei.-iV dett-nnined, tha^ a : | ;uy- ( } is not an .^1 of baal.-u^iey ; because B A R because there may be good reasons for such conduct, as a suspicion of forger v, ce. If, hi consequence of sue ii refusal, he is arrested, and puts in bail, it is still no act of bankruptcy ; but, if he goes to prison, and remains there two months, then, and not before, he becomes a bankrupt. The consequences resulting from the unfortunate situation of a bank- rupt, will be concisely stated under the article COMMISSION o F B A x K- KUPTCY. BARBEL, in ichthyology, a genus of fresh-water fishes, com- prising thirty-one species, which are principally distinguished by the number of rays in the vent-tin : their general characters are, a tooth- less mouth; three rays in the gills ; a smooth and white body ; and the belly-fins have frequently nine fays. The following ten are die most remarkable species: 1. The CARP : 2. The BARBEL (of which we have here subjoined a more par- ticular account) ; 3. The TENCH 3 4 . The Gum; i . 0x3 5 . The B a E A M ; 0". The ROACH; /.The DACE; 8. The CHUB; 9. The BLEAK. ; and 10. The GOLDEN FISH; for a de- scription of which we refer to the order of the alphabet. The Barbel, or Barl-m, is one of the coarsest frcjli-water fish, and therefore eaten almost exclusively by the industrious poor, who boil it with bacon, to render it more palatable. Its roe is not whole- some, and ought therefore to be thrown away, as the eating of it is frequently attended with nausea, vomiting, purging, &c. The na- tural history of this fish lias escaped the attention of the ancients, though is sufficiently curious. Barbels resemble pike in their general shape, die head excepted ; so. ii. VOL. I. BAR fur die upper jaw of the former is more projecting, and they yre also provided with four dependent fibre.* or rays in the gills, with which, while dexterously playing, they allure their prey, consisting of in- sects and small fishes. Their dor- - sal fin is armed with a remarkably strong and sharp spine, serving diem as means of defence or* at- tack, and with which diry fre- quently cut the nets, or when in- cautiously handled, inflict severe wounds on their captors. In size, die barbel rarely exceeds the length of three feet, and weighs o * o from twelve to eighteen, or twenty - five pounds. Its most frequent places of abode are the sides of hollow banks, in calm and deep waters. In die months of May and June, it deposits its spawn on the stones lining die beds of deep rivers, and between which, as well as poles, rooti of trees, ire. bn harbour during winter, in a com- pact: and social state. Not unlike swine, they dig and excavate the soft banks with their noses, are fond of animal carcasses (particularly of human flesh, according to C. P. FUXK.I:, a reputed German natu- ralist), and become exceedingly fat by living on the refuse of itax. steeped in stagnant waters. Henc;i we may alxo account for their un- palatable, and, perhaps, unwhole- some flesh. They are so tame, xh~t they may be easily caught by die hand } though we do not suggest so dangerous a method of taking them. For the particulars relative to the mcdiod of angling for barbel, we refer to the ankle CARP. B A RBERRI ES : Sec BERBEB RI n * . BAUBLES, or BARBS, in far- riery, are those small excrescences frequently appearing under die tongue of horses, as \vtll as black JM cuttle ;' 162] BAR cattle : they are known by two paps, which may be discovered by drawing the tongue aside. Few animals arrive at a considerable age, without being sometimes troubled with this complaint, which seldom proves hurtful, unless the part affected become inflamed by negleft, and the acrimonious hu- mours there collected should cor- rode the tongue, and produce such a dfgree of pain, as to prevent the animal from taking its proper food. The method of curing tins dis- temper, simply consists in cutting the excrescence close oft" with a sharp pair of scissars, or a knife, washing the wound several times a day with brandy, or port-wine and vinegar, taking care, however, that no hard food but fresh grass, green herbs, and mashes, be given for several days, till the raw part be healed. In those cases where black cat- tin, are subject to a species of barbs, which grow quickly, and hang in the form of fleshy pimples under the tongue, they ought first to be dipt off, as before stated, then pro- perly chafed with garlic and com- mon salt beaten together, and the mouth afterwards gently washed ;;nd rubbed with soft linen, dipt in Inkewarm wine, or brandy and water. But if cows or bullocks happen to lose their appetite, without any external mark* of barbies, M. CrtoMEL, i:\ his Fa milt/ Dictionary (See p. 12t> of our work), recom- mends the juice of garlic, or onions, Jhixed xip with sallad-oil, to be introduced into the nostrils, every morning : this simple me- thod, it is asserted, will restore the natural craving for food. BARILLA, or BARILHA, is property, the Spanish name of a- BAR plant cultivated for its ashes, from which the purest mineral alkali is obtained ; but like wise signifies that particular sort of vegetable alkali which is principally imported from Spain. There are four plants cultivated by the Spaniards for this useful purpose, namely, the Barilla, Ga- in!, Goia, and Salicor. But, as this account appears to be defec- tive, we shall first present the reader with a list of those native vegetables from which good barilla has been extracted in Britain ; and next give a description of the most expeditious and profitable method of preparing this valuable material, for the various processes of washing, bleaching, &c. Among the British plants, from which barilla or mineral alkali may be obtained, we shall at present enumerate the following, and then describe them in their alphabetical places : 1. Two species of the Salsola, L. or SALT-WORT. 2. Two species of the Salicor - ?iia, L. or GLASS-WORT, and SAM- PHIRE. 3. The Zoster a marina, L. or GLASS-WRECK. 4. Two species of the Trl^lachin > L. or ARROW-GRASS. 5. The Chenopod'tum album, and maritimitm, L. or White and Sea GOOSE-FOOT. 6. The sitriplez partitlacoides, and lit tor ali x,l^. or SEA-PURSLANE., and Grass-On A CH. 7- The P fan logo maritima, L, or SEA PLANTAJX. 8. The Tamarix gallica, L. or French TAMARISK. p. The Eryngrtan maritimum, L. or SEA HOLLY. 1O. TheSeditm Telcphium, L. or Orpine ST o N c c R o r, or Li v K L o NG. 11. The 11. The Dipsacjis fulloftum, L. or Manured TEASEL ;. and 12. All the species of the Cynara and Carduus, L. or the ARTICHOKE and THISTLE, when cultivated either on the sea-shore, or in any soil irrigated with sea-water. Bafufa, as nn article of trade, ought to possess the following pro- perties : it should be firm, hard, and heavy, though porous ; diy, and sounding on percussion ; of a blueish colour, and impart, on breaking it, a flavour slightly resem- bling that of the violet. By these criteria, it may be easily distin- guished from pot-ash, though it would be difficult to procure a ba- rilla consisting purely of mineral alkali : as the very best sort of the former generally contains a small proportion of common salt. Ac- cording to the experiments made by Mr. KIRWAX, and published in the first volume of the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy } iu 1789, the barilla exported from Spain, contains carbonic acid, carbon, lime, clay, and silicious earth ; but such as is very pure, also contains both common and Glauber's salt, and water. From the small quan- tity of carbonic acid discoverable in Spanish barilla, he concludes that its mineral alkali is for the most part combined with it in a pure or caustic state ; and that its blueish colour must be ascribed to the matter of carbon : in a similar way, he attributes the green or blue colour of pot-asli to its combination with magnesia. This important article of com- merce is, in proportion to its degree of purity and strength, classed ac- cording to the following places, from which it is imported : 1 . The barilla made at Alexandria ; 2. That BAR f^3 from Meant ; 3. Carthageua; and 4. Bourde, or Smyrna. Various methods and scheme* have, in this country, excited the ingenuity of Speculative men, in the production of this valuable bt'^- stance, for which large sums are annually paid at foreign marki-ts. Those of our readers, who apply their attention to' experiments of this useful nature, will, perhaps, be gratified by the following speci- fication of Mr. JAMES KING'S pa- tent for his new-invented B- barilla, granted in 1/80. As his exclusive privilege is now expired,, we shall communicate the procc-s nearly in thepatcntee's own words. He first takes a quantity of ashes obtained from burning the loppings or branches of ash-wood, oak, beech, elm, alder, and any other kind of green wood and bramble, in the proportion of one-fourth: and a 'similar quantity of ashes ob- tained by burning the green vege- tables, known by the name of fern, brecon, bean and pea-straw, and whin-ashes; also common field and highway thistles ; the stalks of raps and mustard seed; and the bent, or rushes, that grow by the sea- shore. One half of the ingredients being thus procured, they are then passed through a fine sieve, placed on a boarded floor, and carefully mixed with a similar quantity (making the other half) of soap- boilers' waste ashes, which must be intimately blended together with a shovel. Next, he adds one hun- dred weight of quick-lime to twelve times that quantity of the other materials, and likewise intermixes them thoroughly. After this pre- paration, the whole is put into large square iron pans, and a suf- ficient quantity of sei-water is M 2 poured i6 4 ] BAR poured on it to dissolve the limr, ashes, &:c while the mass is stir- red with an iron rake, to effect: a more minute intermixture. A roal fire w now lighted under the pans, and kept briskly burning forty-eight hours, without inter- mission ; at the same time, the pans are continually supplied with sea-water, in order to impregnate these materials with a greater de- gree of the saline quality, till they acquire a proper consistence for calcination in a melting furnace, known by the name of calcar. This apparatus is constructed in the usual manner, except that there is a wall above the grate-room, to separate the fire from the materials laid upon the bottom. An intense degree of heat is used in this cal- car, by means of which the saline mass boiled in the pan is com- pletely dissolved, and afterwards kept in a state of fusion for one hour, during whic'i time, the vo- latile part is expelled, and a fixed alkaline salt remains : this, being cooled in iron pans, produces our British barilla, resembling that im- ported from Spain. Mr. KIVG also declares, in the preamble to his patent, that this new chemical compound is calculated to serve as n substitute for manufacturing crown and broad window-glass, and also bottles, as well as for making soap and alum to much greater advantage, than any other material hitherto used in the pro- duction of those commodities. BARING of Trees, in horticul- ture, is the removing of the earth from the roots of those which are planted in a dry soil. This opera- tion should be carefully performed in autumn, without injuring the roots, around the trunk, so that the winter rains ynd snow-waters BAR may penetrate deeper in the ground, which, towards spring, should be covered up again with manure; because, at that season, the fre- quent night-frosts mi^ht otherwise prove destructive to the tree. BARK, in the dissection of plants, is the exterior coat of trees, corresponding to the skin of ani- mals. As these are furnished with a cellular membrane covering all the fleshy parts, and usually re- plete with white granulated fat, which cau be liquified only by heat; so are plants surrounded with a bark abounding with oily juices, by means oi which, Nature has rendered them inaccessible to cold ; because the spiculae of the ice are prevented from fixing and freezing the fluids, which circulate through the vessels. Hence it is, that evergreens continue their ver- dure at all seasons of the year, be- cause their bark contains an unu- sual proportion of oil, more than is dissipated by the heat of the sun. The bark of p'ants is liable to peculiar diseases, as well as to be preyed upon by insects, which fre- quently prove destrudtive to the tree. One of its most common enemies is the bark worm, which infests and perforates its substance ; and unless the parts affected be cautiously removed by the knife, and the superficial wounds plaster- ed over with a mixture of wax and turpentine, the stem will in pro- cess of time- become cankered, stunted in its growth, and ulti- mately fall a sacrifice to the dis- ease. M. Burros has ascertained, by repeated experiments, that trees stripped of their bark the whole I'-ngth of the stems, do not live lonrer than three or four years, It BAR It deserves, however, to be re- markcd, that, when thus deprived of the whole bark, and suffered to die gradually, they afford a more compail, heavy, and more dura- ble timber, than if they had been felled in their healthy state. The reason of this improvement is ob- vious, as those oily and astringent fluids, which are secreted for the uniform nourishment of the bark, are absorbed and deposited on the fibres of the woovi, which, durjng the progressive dissolution of vege- table life, acquire what Nature had provided for the supply of the ex- ternal integuments. Yet there is one disadvantage arising from the privation of die bark, perhaps tan- tamount to the additional value of the timber, namely, that the far- ther increase, or growth of the tree, is for three or four years effectually checked. The barking of trees ought, in our climate, to be performed in spring, from about the middle of April to that of May ; because at that time the circulating sap facili- tates this operation, which, in dry seasons is not only attended with additional labour, but the bark also will be of inferior value. With respect to the extent of stripping the oak-bark from trees, a wide difference of opinion ap- pears to prevail. Some owners of large tracts of wood, and great ad- mirers of timber, cautiously pro- hibit the removal of the bark nearer than sir inches to the ground 5 about which spot they suppose the tree to be felled : while others en- join it to be done as near the ground as possible, provided that in this operation there be no part of the root laid bare. Mr, S. HAYKS, the author of an excellent " Prac- tical Treatise en Planting," price BAR [165 /s. published in 1/96, inclines to the latter opinion ; and adds, that the advocates for the former me- thod would, on more accurate in- vestigation, save themselves much unnecessary trouble, to little pur- pose, if not to their considerable injury. The inner and more delicate part of the bark, especially that of the ash and lime trees, was used by the ancients, for writing and communicating their sublime ideas to posterity, prior to the invention of paper. In economy, as well as in many of the practical arts, the utility of different bark? is very great and extensive; for instance, that of the oak for tanning leather, and manuring the soil ; the Peruvian, cinnamon, quassia, willow-bark, &c. in medicine and tor culinary uses ; that of the alder and walnut trees in dyeing; and others again for a variety of purposes, such as the bark of the cork tree, &c. kc. Without detailing the particular and curious processes adopted by foreign nations, for rendering the barks of various trees essentially useful, we shall briefly state, that the Japanese make their beautiful paper of the barK obtained from a species of the mulberry tree, called wonts-, the natives of Otaheite manufacture their cloth of the same tree, as well as the bread-fruit and the cocoa trees ; the Russians and Poles produce their shoes worn by the peasantry, twist rope:-:, and form a variety of other useful articles, of the inner bark of the lime tree ; the Germans have, for the last twenty years, convert- ed the bark of the common black and white mulberry trees into ex- cellent PAPER. Aa analytical ac- count of the last mentioned article, M 3 inter- BAR interspersed with many new and curious fafts, we propose to give in the sequel. BARLEY, or Hordeum, L. one of the mo.it useful culmifrrous plants, producing mealy and sac- charine grains, which are princi- pally used for malting and brewing beer. As die different species and varieties of barley are but imper- ly described in English botani- cal books, we shall here attempt to give a more satisfactory account, and also state, in a summary man- ner, the native places and qualities of the various sorts. 1. The Hordeum distichum (s. iBstivumJ, L. or SUMMER EARLKY. It bears flat ears, divided into two rows, containing large grains, and grows wild in Tartary, on the banks of the Saamara ; in the vicinity of Babylon ; and in Sicily. This species requires a loose rich soil, and must be sown in diy weather, in April: there are two varieties : a. The Hordeum distichum nu- dutn, or the Large Naked Barley, bearing smooth, heavy grains, tiiat afford excellent flour, which, when mixed with that of rye, makes a very palatable nourishing bread, and may therefore be used for pud- dings and pastry. The beer brewed of it is of a superior richness and flavour j it likewise yields, on dis- tillation, a greater proportion of spirituous liquor than rye : -hence it deserves to be preferably culti- vated. /;. The Hordeum frutcsccns, or Bushy Barley, one grain of which often produces ten stalks, with broad cla^ green leaves : it is sown late, and generally about Midsiuu- rner 5 .-:oon ripens ; is more prolific, produces smaller grains than former variru , and < nsily degc- ;itratca. The GuTuaiia so\v it very BAR thinly, and in a moist, heavy soil. 2. The Hordeum vuJgare (s. po- lystlclion), L. or the Common Bar- ley of four rows. It is productive of longer, though thinner ears and grains, than the nrt species ; and as it thrives well on inferior soils, it is frequently cultivated in pre- ference to the former. In various parts of Germany, and especially in Thurngia, the common barley is very generally sown in autumn, and is not affected by the severest winters. A variety of this species is the Hvrdcum ccelcste, or the WALLA- CHIAN BARLEY, also called EGYP- TIAN COKN. It produces ears and fruit in every re,spec~t similar to the former, except that it easily sheds its grains ; from which excellent bread is made in Germany, as like- wise cakes, groats, &c. Its sowing time is the month of April, when it is deposited in a. well-manured middle kind of soil. 3. The Hordeum hcxastichon, L. or SIX-ROWED BARLEY. This sort is uncommonly fruitful, so that it is said to produce one-third more in quantity than any other species (ex-? cept tlie next following) ; though, in ordinary seasons, the grains of two of the rows do not attain to maturity. It is sown in a well- prepared and tolerably rich soil, either in April or about Michael- mas : in the former case, it may be mowed so early as Midsummer- day. This species, however, is not so proper for malting and brewing beer, as for being reduced either to groats and flour, or converted into ardent spirits. 4. The Hordeum Zeocritov, L, or BEAKDED BARLEY, or RICK BARLKY, with short and coarse y as likewise short though broad BAR broad ears, divided into two rows. When cultivated on a good soil, and thinly sown, it is the most pro- dutlive of all the species of larky, and possesses the additional advan- tage, that it does not droop its ears nor lodge, even in rainy seasons. Each row contains from twelve to fifteen small grains : these yield an excellent white flour, which, for most culinary purposes, may be substituted for that of wheat. In England, the best home-brewed ale is produced from this grain; for the culture of which, we shall give a few directions in the sequel. 5. TheHordeittn nturinuni, L. or WALL BARLEY; a native, though uncultivated English plant, which grows generally on the sides of roads, walls, &c. Its blossoms ap- pear in May and June : horses and cows are particularly fond of it. 6. The Hordeinn pratense, L. or MEADOW BARLEY, grows on pas- tures, meadows, near the roads, hedges, &:c. ; blossoms in June and July, and is an agreeable fodder to all kinds of cattle. /. The Hordettm maritimitm, L. or SEA BARLEY; the production of pasture grounds and gravelly shores. Cultivation. Barley, in gcnejal, requires a dry, light, mellow and rich soil : hence extraordinary care is requisite where it is to be sown in clay. Immediately after the foregoing crop is removed, the land ought to be ploughed ; which lays it open to be mellowed by the frost and air. In order to pro- mote this effect, rilling, or a pe- culiar method of ploughing, has been introduced, to expose the greatest extent of surface. For the improvement of dry clayey land, Prof. BBADLEY recommends a manure of, rich dung, ashes, BAR [167 chalk, or lime ; and for some par- ticular soils, malt-dust or soot are very useful ; but, ace ording to Sir HUGH PLAT, soap-boilers' ashes are the most fertilising substance for the growth of barley, even upon barren grounds. The comparative advantages of drilling and Iroad-casting, are stated by Mr. PETER SMITH, of Hornchurch, Essex, as follows : in the last week of February, 1 793, he drilled three acres of turnip- land with barley, at twelve inches intervals with two bushels of seed per acre ; it was scarified and har- rowed across the latter end of March, and horse-hoed the second week in April ; at the same time he sowed the grass-seeds, which pro- duced fine plants, far superior to the broad-cast. The produce of the drilled barley was eighteen quarters three bushels, from three acres. On the same day, he sowed three acres of broad-cast in the same field and state of cultivation, with three bushels of seed per acre, and also sowed the grass- seeds at the same time. The pro- duce of these three acres amounted only to fifteen quarters and three bushels. As it is of great consequence in the production of this grain, that it may ripen equally and uniformly, to prevent that inequality which would render it less valuable, we shall communicate the following method of remedying this dctett. It is certain, that barley which comes up speedily in a dusky soil, will gain great advantages over seed- weeds : to forward, therefore, its vegetation, some farmers take out about one-third from every sack of seed-barley or bear, to al- low for the sweling of the grain, M 4 which i-68] BAR which thry ?teep thoroughly in clean water, for at least twenty- four or thirty-six hours, according to the more or k--.s dry constitution of the season. For our part, we would prefer steeping the grain ; because in this manner all tiae light ' and unripe grains swimming on the top, may be easily skimmed off, and thus perhaps the $mut at the fame time prevented. Although vulck-lime has often been recom- mended to be mixed with the wet bailey, before it is sown, yet we agree with those who are of opini- on, that it poisons the seeds, ab- iorbs part of its useful moisture, v. vvji.\out any mr.aLL or green v ueui* iit harvest, lie BAR a!--o sow?i several other fields with the same seed, dry, and without any preparation, but the. crops wnv, poor, producing only tw-nty bushels per acre, and much mixed with green rorn and weeds. There is a species of this grain which was introduced into Britain about thirty years since, by Mr. HALLIDAY, and is hence called by his name, or sometimes Siberian' Bar lei/ ; it is possessed of qualities that entitle it to particular consi- deration as an object of import- ance in agriculture. From a quart of it sown in May 1708, he pro- cured nearly a bushel, which he sowed in April I ~6g, in drills drawn by a plough ; and from this he reaped thirty-six bushels of clean corn. Since that period, Mr. HALLIDAY has made many experiments to ascertain the me- rits of tiiis prolific grain as bread- corn, and as proper for malting. He accordingly informs us, in the second volume of the Gcorgical Essays, price 2s. 6d. published in 1//1, that its flour makes excel- lent bread, peculiarly retentive of moisture ; and the ale brewed from its malt has a fine colour, flavour, and body. (See the va- riety of pur second species, from which it will Appear tuit :his rain is the same which Dr. LJCIISTER, in '.'is Latin Di.-seri..iPon, On the Medicinal P. '/(.> ;;t ReichenbacE, in I ; v jw r Saxony. IVc grairu of cur third species B AR [,69 species being planted close to each other, in a common garden soil, grew briskly, and spread with no less than one hundred and thirteen .stalks, which almost uniformly pro- duced long ears : these contained the surprizing number of two thousand live hundred and thirty- four grains, of which two thou- sand two hundred and five were perfectly ripe and sound, but the remaining three hundred and twen- ty-nine were of interior size and weight. According to this com- putation, one l-usht'l of barley, in a rich and mellow soil, might occupy in planting, at least, twenty acres! We presume that the following additional observations on the cul- ture of this valuable grain, made by a Norfolk farmer, will not be un- acceptable to the practical reader. The best soil, in general, is that which is dry and healthy, rather light than stiff, and yet of sufficient tenacity to retain the moisture. On such land, the grain acquires the best colour and body, is the jviost nimble in the hand, and has tlu- thinnest rind ; qualities which eminently recommend it to the maltster. But, if the land be poor, it should be kept dry and warm ; in which case it will often bear better corn than richer land in a cold and wet situation. The best seed is of a pale colour and brightish cast, without any deep redness or black tinge at the tail. A slight shrivelling of die rind proves it to have a thin skin, and that it has sweated in the mow ; both being favourable circum- stances. As this grain will grow coarser every succeeding year, it should never be sown for two suc- cesue seasons on the same soil. Sprinkling a little soot over the \vatt r in which seed-barley is to be steeped, has been of great service, by securing it from the depreda- tions of insects. In very drv sea- sons, barley that has been wettc^d for malting, and begins to sprout, will come up sooner, and produce as good a crop as any other. If sown after a fallow, three times ploughing is necessary. On lands well manured, clover may be sown with barley ; the former of which, after harvest, affords good fodder during the following winter, as well as from the next spring to July ; when the land should be fallowed till the succeeding spring, and again sown with barley and clover : this method docs not exhaust, but pro- motes, the fertility of the ground, while it produces large crops. The lightest lands are fit for receiving the seed in April ; those of a moist nature, in May; because all soils liable to be inflated bv r weeds, bear the best crops when sown late, with a view to si i tie their growth by the ascendancv of the barlev. Although the broad-cast, at two sowings, is the common method, and the UiUnl allowance from three to four bushels per acre, yet much grain i? tt-us unnecessarily wasted. Half the quantity, and even les, if sown equally, would not only afford a better crop, but the corn also would be less liable to lodge ; for weak stalks, standing close to- gether, are less capable of resisting the force of winds, or supporting themselves under heavy showers. Unless the land be very light and rich, the method of setting and drilling \\ ill not answer. Although one root will produce eighty stalks, all having good and long ears filled with superior grain, yet it is to be apprehended, that this process of planting is too expensive in a coun- try where manual labour is per- formed I 7 0] B A R formed by free-born subjects. Hence it would be preferable to so\v thin ou poor lands, in order to allow sufficient room for die nou- rishment of each plant; as it is proved by experience, that this simple method is die most bene- ficial. It hns farther been suggest nl, when the barley is sown ;;nd har- rowed in, that, alter the first shower of rain, the land should be rolled, to break the clods ; which, by clos- ing the earth about die roofs, will be of great advantage to it in dry weather. Alter the barley has been above ground three weeks or a month, it should again be rolled witfi a heavy roller, to prevent the sun and air from penetrating the ground, to die injury of the roots. This rolling, before the barley branches out, is said to bs attended vt'idi anodier advantage, namely, that it will cause the plant to spread into a greater number of stalks, so that if they be drin, the ground will thus be filled, and the stalks itrengthcned. Whether this expe- dient be proper for all soils, indis- criminately, we are inclined to doubt, though we do not. hesitate to approve of it for very light lands, which arc neither loamy nor other- loo stiff. -rly, if the blade grow too luxuriantly, as is the case in warm and wet springs, mowir.g is said to be preferable to feeding it down by sheep ; bec:'u 3 e the scythe removes only die rank tops, but diose ani- mals, being fond of the sweet end ot die staik next the root, will often bite so close as to injure its future .tion. With re-pec} to the time wm-n f is tit to be mowed, farmers > inly fall into the error of cut- i l.ttu.c ii ia p?rfeclly ripe; BAR thinking it will attain its perfect maturity, if they allow it to lie in the swarth. This, however, is a very common error, as it will shrivel in the field, and afterwards make but an indifferent malt ; it also threshes with more difficulty, and is apt to be bruiocd uncbr the flail. The only certain test of judg- ing when it is lit to mow, must be from the drooping and falling of the ears, so as to double against the straw. In that state, and not be- fore, it may be cut with all expedi- tion, and carried in without danger of heating in the mow. To obviate such accidents, and secure it from being mow-burnt, it is advisable to prepare a large sheaf, or two sheaves, of straw, closely tied to- gether, which should be placed in the centre, when die stack is com- menced 5 and as the layers of corn rise, other sheaves must be put on the first; so that when the whole stack is completed, and die sheaves are removed, a funnel, or vent-hole, may be continued from die bottom to the top. After withdrawing die sheaves, die stack should be covered with a botde of straw, before it is thatched. Barley lying in the mow un- threshed, will keep for one or two years, if the above stated method be adopted. But when this grain is converted into malt, it can with difficulty be preserved longer than one year, without being infested by tceevils. One of die best remedies to destroy diese vermin, is dry worm-wood laid in die malt. For farther information on diis head, see MALT. Numerous have been the at- tempts to cure die smut in barley and other kinds of grain ; a disease which by some is attributed to the gi i.eralioa uf certain minute in- BAR sects that breed in light and corrupted corn, sown in a moist and unfavourable season ; but by others, and with more probability, to die influence of the atmosphere, wafting perhaps insects from such regions as are infested with them. Mr. JOHN REYNOLDS, of Adi- sham, and several other writers since his time, assert that the smut in corn (especially in wheat) may be effectually prevented, by sim- ply steeping the seed in a brine made of lime, salt, and water ; and that he never had any black wheat from seed thus steeped. Experience, however, has fre- quently evinced the contrary ; and as long as it remains undecided, whether the smut is conveyed by the air, or generated by small in- sects, we cannot offer an adequate remedy for this troublesome and destructive disease in corn. See the article SMUT. The best sort of barley is that which is thick in the grain, smooth, weighty, inclining to a whitish o> lour, and neither too old nor new. jMr. JOHN KERRICH, an eminent maltster at Harleston, asserts, that out of a coomb of discoloured lar- ky, more than two bushels will not, in most instances, work on a malting floor ; nor can such grain, in his opinion, be relied upon for seed, as it does not vegetate better in the ground than on the floor. He therefore advises farmers to sow bright barley, or at least such as is kiln dried, which he knows from experience will vegetate ; or to dry it in the spring by exposure to the sun ; an expedient that may probably produce an effect similar to that of kiln-drying. \Ve are much inclined to doubt die latter part of this information, though we *hV,v Mr. KERKipii the credit of BAR [171 having stated an useful fact, as far as it relates to the process of malt- ing ; but so long as the corculum, or heart of the seed, is not in- jured, we are of opinion that it will always germinate, indepen- dently of any external discolora- tion. Uses. Beside the almost incre- dible quantities of barley used in brewing ale and beer of different kinds, the consumption of this grain in broths is very considerable, especially in Scotland and Germa- ny ; in both countries barley-broth i-? as common a dish as soup in France. Hence pcarL-iarley is prepared in peculiar mills, where it is freed of the husk, and reduced to the size of small shot, by grind- ing away all die exterior parts to the very heart of the grain. The Scots and Germans, however, are more saving in dieir domestic eco- nomy, especially the lower classes of people, who frequently per- form that process by hand-mills, or more commonly, in stamping- mcirtars, where die barley is freed from its husks, and rendered fit for culinary purposes. The latter are of a very simple construction, and may be very easily made, by exca- vating a heavy and firm block of wood sufficiently deep, from eigh- teen to twenty-four inches, and fhen adapting to it a wooden pesde, at the lower end of which a few large iron nails widi smoodi heads are generally fixed, for more effecr tually striking the barley and se-? parating its husks. Such an im* plemem is also useful for blanch- ing wheat, oats, and many other ardcles for culinary purposes : we therefore seriously recommend its introduction into every family, which is desirous of reducing the consumption of bread-corn, and lessening 172] BAR lessening the dangers of adulter- ation, which (whether well or ill- founded), resound from every quarter of the metropolis. Prntn-rtics. Barley has, from the earliest ages, been considered as wholesome and nutritive, food for man and cattle. In diseases of the kidneys, and the breast, as well as in that state of the body where it is said to abound in acri- monious humours, deco&ions made of this grain, sufficiently strong, and acidulated with vinegar and sugar, are eminently useful. (See also, WORT.) As a cooling and diluent bever- age, barley-water is of essential service to febrile patients, and in all inflammatory ca.ses, where pre- ternatural heat and thirst prevail ; but to promote its salutary effect, the grosser parts, which remain after decoftion, ought not to be swallowed. BARM. See YEAST. KARX, in husbandry, a covered building or place, with vent-holes in the sides, for laying up any kind of grain, hay, or straw. This kind of store-house being so well known to all rural econo- mist-;, no farther description will be necessary : but as several plans have been proposed for its im- provement, we shall give, an ao- rount of those which appear the most worthy of notice. In the sixteenth volume of Mr. ARTHUR YOUNG'S " Annals nf slgriciiltiir?" we find the follow- ing description of a barn, &:c. com- municated to the editor by the Rev. JloGr.R KEDINGTON, of Ilougham, m ar jJury St. Edmund's : " Let the underpinning be of brick or Mune, two feet h;gh above ground, and let the sides be boarded : the roof of the barn will be best co- B AR vered with reed or straw, and those of the stables with slate, or glazed tile; because they must be more fiat, and the water which runs from the roof of the barn would in- jure most other coverings. At each end of the barn, and over the back- door, small doors, four feet square, should be fixed, at the height of twelve feet from the ground; the two former for putting corn in at the ends, and the latter for filling the middle of the barn, after the bays are full. All the bays should have a floor of clay or marl, and the threshing-floor be made with hard bricks, which will be sufficient for all sorts of grain, except wheat and rye ; and for threshing them, it will be good economy to have planks of onkor red deal, well fitted together and numbered, to be laid down occasionally, and confined by a frame at their ends. A barn built on such a plan would hold a -great deal of com, and be filled most 'conveniently : and if stacks of corn were built at each end, they might be taken in without an)- carting. If more buildings are requisite, two may be added on the backside, like the stables in front : otherwise, if doors are made under the eaves on the back- side, as directed at the ends, and stacks be placed opposite to them (just far enough to avoid the eaves dropping), by placing a waggon be \veen them and the barn by way of a stage, those stacks may be taken in without carting ; which method prevents a great waste of corn, and much trouble. The spars of the roofs of the stables rest upon the upper sills of the sides of the barn, and the outside wall of the stable is ei^rht feet high : the O O barn supplying the highest side, and one end of each stable . and Ik* BAR the stables in return are buttresses to the barn, and strengthen it greatly." This building is of the follow- ing dimensions : The length of the barn inside is 68 feet ; its width 22, 1 ; the height of the sides 17 feet ; of the front doors 15 feet j of the back doors 8 feet and 6 inches ; the stable at each side, in length 26 feet 6 inches, in width 14 feet; the door 4 feet; the threshing-floor has in front an entrance of 1 1 feet ; behind, of p feet 6 inches ; and the width of the porch is 14 feet. The whole expence of creeling this fabric, in the year 1/Q1, was stated to be nearly three hundred pounds. Mr. ARTHUR YOUNG has, in the same volume, inserted a plan for a barn, and other buildings neces- sary for cattle. The dimensions of this structure were given in conse- quence of a request made by the late General WASHINGTON to the author, that he would send him a sketch of a good barn, and the ne- cessary out-buildings, proportioned to a farm of five hundred acres. The threshing-floor is large enough for three men to work on, who, in the course of a winter, can thresh the corn produced on such a farm. This plan appears to us, by far the most advantageous of any that has fallen under our observation : we have therefore been induced to describe it, for the information of our readers. The inner width of the barn is 27 feet square, on each side of the threshing-floor. The porch 11 feet 4 inches, by 12 feet 3 inches. Threshing-floor 3p feet by 20, on its .upper end, and 12t feet at the small door of the porch, which is 6| feet in width. The great dour BAR ['7, at which the carts enter with corn, 14 feet 9 inches. The sheds for cattle, on the four longitudinal sides of the bays, are 2/ feet by 12. Mangers, 2 feet broad, out of which the cattle eat their food. The passages for carrying the straw from the threshing-floor to feed the cattle, are between two and three feet wide. Each passage has -A door ; there are four principal posts to each shed, besides tiie smaller ones, and gutters for conveying the urine to four cisterns, from which it is everv day thrown upon dunghills, placed at a convenient distance. From the mangers to the gutters there is a pavement of bricks upon a slope, laid in such a manner as to terminate 6 inches perpendicular above the gutters; which pavement is 6 feel broad from that edge to the manger. The gutters are from IS to 20 inches broad. There are four sheds for various uses, one at each corner of the threshing-floor. At each end of the barn there are two yards with a shed, to be applied to any purpose wanted: one tor sheep, surrounded with low rack*, and the other divided for a horse, or two, loose, if necessary : die. other half is for yearling calves, which thrive better in a farm -yard, than when stalled. These yards are inclosed by walling, or pales. The maui body of the barn rises 14, 16, or 20 feet to the eaves. There are various sheds placed against the walling, as tlii-> is the cheapest way of sheltering cattle that has yet been discovered.- Should the number of cattle in- tended to be kept, be greater tluui here admitted, a circular shed may be erected fronting the small dooj: of the porch, and the hay-stack> be conveniently disposed near those sheds 174] B A R sheets appropriated for cows, horses, or fat cattle. Corn-stacks must b? built on the opposite side of the barn. In the year 1 / P7, a model of a barn, upon a new construction, med to the Batli Society Mr. DOBSOX, carpenter, of Norwich, who received a premium for his contrivance. The c". ;he common barn, :md that iusf mentioned, is as fol- lows : lUe area of the former, 1 475 square feet ; 24,426 cubic f.'ft. tor corn only ; /02 cubic feet of timber j the latter, according to the model, M/2 square feet, the area ; 30,.QOO cubic feet, for corn only; and 445 cubic feet of tim- ber. By this calculation it ap- pears, that a barn built according to Mr. DOESON-'S plan, gains on one in common use, of the same area, 64/4 cubic feet of space, and requires 257 eubic feet less of tim- ber : and as there is nothing in its construelion. which would increase the price of workmanship, the cost of one on thi> plan, and another of the common kind, would be as 4-15 to /02; and the mathe- matical strength of the former is obvious. A representation of the model above alluded to, is given in the sixth volume of the Repertory cf Arts a>id Alanufactiires. BARN-FLOORS. The best kind are to be found, according to Mr. M ,L, in the district of Cots wold, Gloucestershire: they are from 12 to 14, by 18to20fc:et ; some of on/:, others of stone ; but a species of earthen floor, wnich is here of the calcareous earth of the sub-oil, a kind of ordinary ohippings of free- : . creel to be superior to lioors of stone, or'uny other BAR material, except sound oak -plank. The great excellence oath's- il > >n is owing partly to the materials of which t''iey are made, and partly to the method of forming them, which is, perhaps, peculiar to tint district ; it is described as follows : " Earthen barn-floors are made, in other places, of ivet materials ; a kind of mortar, which, as it dries, is liable to crack, and re- quires some months after it is made, to dry it hard enough for use: on the contrary, the r rials in the practice under consi- deration, are worked dry ; they of course do not crack, and are ready for use as soon as finished. The materials, mixed together, are sift- ed twice over: the first time, through a wide sieve to catch the stones and large gravel, which, are thrown to the bottom of the floor; the next, through a finer sieve, to separate the more earthy parts from the finer gravel, which is spread upon the stones, and upon this, the more earthy parts, making the whole about a foot thick, and trimming down the different layers closely and firmly upon each other. The surface being levelled, it is beaten with a flat wooden beetle, made like the gardeners' turf-beater, until the surface become as hard as a stone, and rings at every stroke, like me- tal. If properly made, they are said to last a great number of years, being equally proof against, the flail and the broom. " These materials, it is true, cannot be had in many districts j but the principle of making barn- floors with dry materials' being known, other substances than these which are here in use, may be found to answer the same pur- pose." The BAR The barn-floors generally used in most parts of the kingdom, con- sume a quantity of large and va- luable oak-timber., often such as might be converted into two and a- half inch ship-timber; they last only from fifteen to twenty years, and require frequent repairs. Hol- low beech-floors, which were in- troduced a few years since, on ac- count of the very high price of oak r timber, are found not to wear more than seven or eight years. We think it necessary, therefore, to give a description of a moveable barn-floor invented by Mr. JOHN UPTON, of Petworth, Sussex, for which he received a reward of thirty guineas, from the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. in the year 1 796. " This floor effectually prevents a waste of corn, in threshing; it .gives an addition of at least one foot in height at the doors, by which means a higher load of corn can be admitted ; and al*o, as the horses do not draw the waggon up an ascent, and upon a .slippery floor; but upon a hard bottom, and level with the farm-yard, two horses can perform the work, v/here four are now generally used. It affords a warm and con- venient shelter for hogs, when it is down; and, when turned up, it may be used as a stable, ox-stall, hovel, or cart-house; two men can place or displace it in five minutes : and, from its allowing, at all times, an easy access to dogs and cats under it, it affords no harbour for vermin. " The following are statements of the materials used, and the ex- pence of the barn-floors, respec- tively. " Barn-floors now in common we : The original floor laid on the BAR C'75 ground, with three cills, and two- inch oak-plank, which in general lasts from fifteen to twenty years, cost ipl. 10s. The hollow-floors on brick quoins, with two and a half inch oak- plank, cost 3ll. lOs. " John Upton s Barn-floor : The new-construAed hollow-floor is composed of oak-plank, five feet eight inches in length, and one inch and a half thick; whereas three-fourths cf the plank used in the original floors, are fourteen feet in length : the whole expencc 231. 10s. " The plank for the last-men- tioned floor may consist of deal, beech, or elm; as they will be perfectly free from decay by damps, which will considerably lessen the expence of the new-con strutted, floor: these are the estimates when the materials are supplied by a carpenter. When they are fur- nished from the estate, a very considerable advantage . arises to the landlord, as the new-construcl> ed floor is composed of small scantlings, which may be obtained from short timber, much inferior in value to those used for the other floors. lf Where there are more than one barn in a farm-yard, this floor may be farther useful, as it may be removed from one barn to another, and save the expence of at least one out of three. " It is supposed, that a floor constructed in this manner will last for one hundred years, or in- deed as long as the barn ; because it is perfectly free from damps, 01^ account of the distance at which it lies above the ground, with a free current of air passing under it when down ; and when it is turn- ed up (which it probably will be at least half the year), it will be a* BAR as free from dec.iy as the posts or beam- ot" the barn." KAROMETER, an instrument fif modern invention, for measur- ing and a-crrl/min-; iue. u'eight of the atmosphere, as well as the hright of mountains, and likewise ibrete.Hing, with tolerable accuracy, the probable changes ot the v. ea- ther. That such an instrument must be of extensive utility to every person engaged in the a<5tive pursuits of life, whether tho*e of gardening and agriculture, or in the various departments of the do- mestic and useful arts, will be uni- versally admitted. Hence we pro- pose to bestow a considerable share of attention on this interesting subjeft. History and analysis : When GALILEO, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, discovered that water could not ascend in a pump, unless the sucker reached within 33 feet of its surface in the well, he justly concluded that the ascent of water in pumps, was effected by the pressure of the atmosphere, and not by the power of suction: that a column of water J3 feet high was a counterpoise to one of air of an equal diameter and ba-e, the height of which extended to the top of the atmosphere) and that consequently the water could not be attracted any farther by the sucker. This important discovery induced his great pupil TOIIRI- CKLLI, to substitute, a column of mercury for that of water; because the former fluid being about 14 times heavier than the latter, he wanted, according to that propor- tion, only about 29 \ inches of quicksilver to determine the. accu- racy of his experiment. He ac- cordingly found that, after having tilled a l,i.^ tube with mercury, BAR and inverted it in a bason of tlie same semi-metal, it descended in- the tube till it became stationary at about 2()| inches above the sur- face of thai contained in the lower vessel. Many years, however, elapsed after this experiment, before any notice was taken of the circum- stance, that this pressure of the air considerably varied at different times, though the tube was uni- formly kept in the same situation. Indeed, these variations in the mer- curial column, were too ob\ious to remain long unnoticed ; and philoso- phers began minutely to mark their degrees. As soon, therefore, as this point was properly attended to, they observed that the changes in the rise and fall of the mercury were in general very speedily suc- ceeded by variations in the wea- ther. Hence the instrument ob- tained the name of wfather-glass, for which purpose it has, since that period, been generally employed, It is surpri/.irg that the ancient 5 were unacquainted with the laws by which the ambient air pres.vs on our bodies as well as on all in- animate matter; aad that OTTO GUKRICKE, a German, to whom the world is indebted for the dis- covery of the air-pump, was the Jir\f who excited the attention of philosophers to this important sub- ject. Although Tor.RiCELLi had previously ascertained, by his ex- periment made in the year 1(5-10', that the mercury in a tube of four leet in leir.*ih did noi rrm.:iu stati- onary at 20 1- inches, but varied ac- cording to the greater or less de- gree of density of the atmosphere; not appear that he ap- plied r'/.s great discover)- to ths purpo.v- of predicting the future, ' or iinp-ivui:!.: olungcs of the wea- ther BAR ther. Even prior to that date, namely, in 1643, experiments were institute.!, both at Florence and Rome, with the Torricellian tube ; and in 1G48 PER IE R, a French- man, made us:* of two similar in- struments; one of which he left in a valley, while with the other he ascended one of the highest mountains of Auvergne: and thus he observed, that the atmosphere on the top of the hill did not press upon the mercury with a force fequal to that observed in a lower situation, where he found the quicksilver much lower than in the former region ; and hence he judiciously concluded, that the air must be lighter, or more rarefied, in proportion to the altitude of places. But that these remarkable changes were in any degree con- netted with the present, or fu- ture, constitution of the weather, was doubtless discovered by GUE- RICKE, though Mr. BOYLE, whose talents and genius deserve die highest admiration, improved and applied it to philosophical purposes. This assertion is amply supported by a passage in a printed work still fcxtant, and entitled "Casp. Schotti *Technica curiosa" (ii. 11. p. 52) ; by which it appears, from a letter addrrsst-d to the author by GCE- KiCKE, that the latter had con- structed a tube filled with mercury, on die top of which fluid he placed a small wooden figure, diat rose and fell with the quicksilver, point- ing out widi its finger, or index, explain the variations of die ba- rometer, has satisfactorily refuted the conjectures of all his predeces- sors, and endeavoured to establish his own, which is founded on a supposition, that a column of air, loaded with vapours, is lighter than a column of pure -air of equal bulk. He con.st-quently averts, 1 . That the denMfy of air is the immediate and on itf cause that supports the mercury -, and 2. That the more clastic the air is, the less does it press and weigh upon its base : foot though there is considerable ingenuity in this explanation, it is t>y no means conclusive. Soon after the publication of diis iheory, M. BEGUELIN-, in 17/3, endeavoured to prove, that ihe variation of the whole mass of the atmosphere, as well as diat ftf the spring or elasticity iu a part BAR of this mass, are the two general causes of the variations of the ba- rometer ; and that the primitive causes of this remarkable effect are, heat, cold, dryness, and moisture, with their different combinations. We cannot enter into the parti- culars relative to the operation of these various causes, but shall briefly observe, diat heat dilates the air ; cold contracts it, and draws together those parts which it is the property of heat to sepa- rate : hence, die natural effect of the former is expansion ; the con- sequences of the latter, condensa- tion, compression of its spring, and an increase of pressure, on ac- count of which, die mercury rises in die barometer. Respecting die effects of dryness and moisture, it deserves to be re- marked, that, if the latter diminishes die pressure of the air, by relaxing its spring, it on the other hand loads it with watery particles, which very considerably augment its mass, so that it may be difficult to deter- mine how far die moisture of die air exerts its inlluence on the rise and fall of the barometer. The same observation may be applied to dry- ness, which dispels the watery par- ticles that increased the weight of the air ; so that there appears to be a perpetual conflict between the effect of spring and ?nass, bef elasticity and wight ; and experi- ence alone can inform us whether, in this contest of the elements, the t of elasticity is much superior to that of weight. Such is the plausible explanation of BEGUEL ix, and we have only to regret, that tin- result of his inquiries, still It aves the subject im olved in much, doubt and difficulty} because evrii this dieory does not account for the m changes of the ataiosj^rrr. Never- BAR Nevertheless, experience has fur- nished us with a sufficient number of facts, from which we may, with tolerable precision, ascertain the present, and predict the future state of the surrounding element, by the praffical use of the barometer. Thus, 1. The rising of the quick- silver generally presages fair wea- ther, as its falling does the 'contrary, or rain, snow, high winds and storms ; 2. In very hot weather, the sudden falling of the mercury portends thunder; 3. In winter, the rising indicates frost; and in frosty weather, if the mercury falls three or four divisions, there will tiertainly follow a thaw ; but if it rise in a continued frost, it will always be accompanied with snow; 4. When foul weather quickly suc- ceeds after the failing of the mer- cury, it will not be of long dura- tion ; nor are we to expert a con- tinuance of fair weather, when it soon succeeds the rise of the quick- silver ; 5. 'If, in foul weather, the mercury happens to ascend consi- derably, and continues in an ad- vancing state for two or three days successively, then we may expect also a continuance of fair weather 3 6. If, in clear weather, the mer- cury falls remarkably for two or three days together, before the rain sets in, it is then highly pro- bable that it v ill be succeeded by much rain, and perhaps high winds ; 7- The unsettled motion of the mercury indicates changeable weather; -8. Respecting the words engraved oh the register-plate, they cannot be strictly relied upon to correspond -exactly with the state of the weather ; though it will in ge- neral agree with them as to the mercury rising and fulling. These words deserve to be- particularly noticed when the mercury removes EAR 079 from" <{ Changeable" upwards ; as those on the lower part should be adverted to, when the quicksilver fulls from " Changeable" down- wards. In other ca-.es, they are of no use; for as its rising in any part forebodes a tendency to fair, and its filling to foul weather, it follows, that though it descend in the tr.be from Settled to Fair, it may never- theless be attended with a little rain j and when it rises from the words " Much Rain" to " Rain," it shews only an inclination to become fair, though the wet weather may still continue in a less considerable de- gree than it was when die mercury- began to rise. But if the mercury, after having fallen to " Much Rain," should ascend to " Chang able," it predicts fair weather, though of a shorter continuance than if the quicksilver had risen still higher j and so, on the contrary, if the mer- cury stood at " Fair," and descends to " Changeable," it presages foul weather, though not of such dura- tion, as if it had fallen .lower. These observations are founded on experience, and we are indebted for them chiefly to Air. PATSICK, who has investigated this subject with considerable precision. It ap- pears from the result of these fa6ts, that the height of the mercury is not t!ie principal criterion for ascer- taining the 'probable changes of the weather, but rather the relative motion of that fluid in the tube. Hence, to enable us to judge right- ly of the impending varLiions, we ought to possess a correct know- ledge, whether the mercury is ac- tually rising or falling. For this purpose, the following rules, stated by Mr. ROWING, maybe of advan- tage : J . Il" the surface of the n> r- cury be convex, standing higher in the middle of the tube than at the N 2 iSo] BAR sides, it generally indicnt-cs the rising of this fluid metal ; 2. If its surface be concave, is is then sink- ing; 3. If it appear level, it is sta- tionary; 4. If, after shaking the tube of a small glass, the mercury rises about half a tenth of an inch higher than it stood before, it is a proof that the air has become heavier j but if it sinks as much, it follows that the atmosphere is lighter. Hence, in making obser- vations on the weather, such a glass should always be previously shaken ; because the metal which adheres to the sides of the tube, prevents its free motion, till disengaged by a slight agitation of the instrument. These phenomena are peculiar to places situated at a distance from the equator, and therefore deserve to be attended to in our climate : on the contrary, at St. Helena, they would be of little or no ser- vice ; for, according to the accurate observations of Dr. HALLEY, made in that island, the mercury remain- ed stationary in all weathers. This judicious naturalist has furnished us with the following curious ac- count of these phenomena, and their causes; of which we shall ive a concise abstract : 1. In calm weather, when there is a prospect of rain, the mercury is commonly low; 2. In serene and settled wea- ther it is generally high ; 3. On the approach of tempestuous winds, though unaccompanied with rain, the mercury sinks lower than on any other occasion; 4. The greatest height of the mercury is observable during the prevalence of easterly or north-easterly winds ; 5. In calm, frosty weather, the quicksilver ge- nerally stands high; 6. After vci v great tempests, when the mercury has been very low, .it generally again quickly asceucU ; /. The ba- BAR rometer In the northern regions ex- hibits greater variations than in those lying more towards the South; 8. Within and near the tropics, there is little or no alteration in the mercury, as before observed. Hence Dr. HALLEV is of opinion, that the principal cause of the rise and the fall of the quicksilver must be at- tributed partly to the variable winds in the temperate zone, the great inconstancy of which, in Britain, is well-known; and partly to the un- certain exhalation and precipitation of the vapours floating in the at- mosphere, which is at one time more saturated than at another, and consequently heavier ; though the precipitation of aqueous vapours chiefly depends on the previous de- gree of evaporation. Our plan does not permit us to accompany these propositions with the explanations given by Dr. HAL- LKY ; and, as the theoretical part has been strongly contested by other philosophers, though not re- futed, till the late Dr. BLACK, of Edinburgh, endeavoured to prove the fallacy of all preceding theo- ries, we shall conclude this sub- ject with a summary outline of his doftrine. According to Dr. BLACK, 1 . Va- pour is formed by an intimate union between fire and water, by which the^/zre, or heat, is so to- tally enveloped, and its a6rion so entirely suspended by watery par- ticles, that it loses its properties of giving light and heat, an i conse- quently is in a latent state; 2. If die atmosphere is affected by any unusual degree of heat, it becomes incapable of supporting a column of mercury so long as before ; for which reason that in the barome- ter sinks. From these preliminary i it follows, tliac as vapour is BAR is formed by the union of fire and water, or tie solution of the latter in the former, it is impossible that the vapour can be condensed, un- til tliis union or solution be effe&ed. The beginning of the condensation O O of the vapour, then, or the iirst symptoms of approaching rain, must be the separation of the tire "which lies hidden or involved in the vapour. This may at first be slow and partial, or it may be sud- den and violent: in the former case, the rain may come on slowly, and after considerable intervals ; in the latter, it will be quick, and in a large quantity. With regard to the erfecl: of this separation be- tween the fire and water, we shall only observe, mat as it is gradual and slow, the barometer may in- dicate rain for a considerable time before it appears : or, if the sensi- ble heat communicated from the vapour to the atmosphere, should be absorbed by the colder parts, or be carried off by any unknown means, or prevented from affecting the specific gravity of trie air, the ba- rometer will undergo no change ; and yet the vapour, being deprived of the heat necessary to sustain it, must descend in rain ; and thus it happens, that the indications of the barometer do not always hold true, respecting the changes of the wea- ther. Hence also it appears, that, though the specific gravity of the air is diminished, unless that dimi- nution proceed from a discharge of the laL'/ii heat contained in the va- pours, no rain will follow; and thus the sinking of the barome- ter may prognosticate wind as well as rain, or sometimes no change whatever. Such is the ingenious theory of Dr. BLACK, who certainly has produced the most philosophic ex- BAR [181 planatlon yet offered on this appa- rently intricate subject} and though his reasoning may not enable us to solve all the difficulties occurring in meteorological investigations, we do not hesitate to say, that it has placed the nature and causes of these phenomena in the clearest point of view, as far as it is possi- ble to account for them, in the pre- sent state of physical science. We shall, therefore, conclude with ob- serving, that though the wind is certainly not the sole cause of raising and depressing the mer- cury, yet, in our climate, it has a remarkable influence on the t>tate of the barometer. For, if the mercury falls, when the wind blows from those quarters which generally are productive of much rain, such as the south and south- :u\-st winds are in the environs of London, mere is no doubt but wet weather will speedily follow : on the contrary, if the quicksilver rises, while the wind blows from dry quarters, such as the northerly and easterly regions are to Bri- tain, then it is highly probable that the weather will become fair. But if the mercury rises during a south- erly wind, or falls while it blows from the north ; in both cases the prognostics are extremely doubt- ful 5 as it frequently happens, that the weather does not correspond to the temporary rising or falling of the quicksilver. A very curious new phenome- non deserves to be mentioned, con- cerning the state of this instru- ment, on particular occasions. M. SCHMIDT, Professor of Mathematics at Pforte, in Germany, -lately ob- served, that his barometer became luminous in the day time, while the horizon was covered with thunder-clouds 3 and that on N 3 approach approach of a tempest, there, ap- peared 01 : the surface of the mer- cury, a small and distinct luminous globe, which could be perceived in day-light, at the distance of srM-i-al yards. We relate this sin- gular faft; and, not being in pos- session of farther particulars, . we can only conjecture, that such a phtno'Yienon may perhaps be ascribed to the greater rarefaction and electricity of the air in the se- rene climate of Germany, previous to the explosion of thunder ; and li- ewise to a more phosphorescent nature of the mercury ; a property which it doubtless acquires w ,< u submitted to the repeated processes of distillation, and other means of purifying that peculiar metallic iluid.r See also SPIDER. BARREL, in commerce, is a Vessel of an oblong size, made of \vood, the form of which is gene- rally known, as well as its use for holding various sorts of merchan- dize : it is also used as a measure for liquids. The English barrel, wine mea- sure, contains the eighth part of a tun, the fourth part of a pipe, and one half of a hogshead, or 31y gallons. A barrel of beer should Contain 36, and one of ale 32 gal- lons. The barrel of beer, vire- gar, or liquor preparing for vine- gar, ought to contain 34 gallons, according to the standard of the pie quart. Barrel is also used to denote a certain weight of merchandizes, and which differs according to various commodities. A bar- rel of Essex butter weighs 106 pounds, and of Suffolk butter 256 pounds. The; barrel of herrings ought to contain 32 gallons, wine pieasurejwhich amount to about 28 usj old standard, aud consist.; of BAR about 10OO herrings. The barrel of salmon ought to contain 42 gallons, . and a barrel of eels the same quan- tity : the barrel of soap must weigh 256 pounds. JJAURKXXESS, a term syno- nimous to sterility, in opposition to fecundity. That the creation might not degenerate, Nature has wisely ordained barrenness to all mon- strous productions ; and hence the sterility of mules, &c. Women frequently become bar^ ren after a miscarriage, or difficult labour. Sterility in either sex may a so arise from a schirrosity or indu- ration in the organs, by which their functions become impaired, and sometimes even destroyed. The causes of sterility, however, are much more frequent in the female than in the male sex: and these causes, in genera], are, schirrosities and obstructions, arising from fear, grief, inordinate passions, intem- perance, negle6t of cleanliness ; but more:* frequently, in conse- quence of inveterate complaints of a periodical nature, peculiar to the sex. Dr. H.ASELauisT, in his Travels to the Levant, advises married per- sons to drink, every night, a tea- cupful of clove- water for the cure of this complaint. We have in- serted this whimsical recipe, not because any reliance can be placed on so trifling a remedy, but in order to attest the inefh'cacy of me- dicines on such occasions, and to. assure those who forsake the path of Nature, and expe6t relief from Art, that they will certainly be dis-? appointed, unless they adopt a more temperate and regular mode of life. BARTER, or Truck, is the exr changing of one commodity for another; and forms a rule in the conv> BAR commercial part of arithmetic, by which the commodities are proper- ly calculated and equalled, by computing the respective value of the different articles offered for exchange. The proper way of ascertaining the difference of prices in barter would be, to find the price of one. of the commodities, and an equiva- lent quantity of the other, either by practice, or by the rule of three. BASALTES, in natural history, a hard stone of a black, grey, or sometimes greenish colour j and on account of its constituent parts, and resemblance to lava, generally classed among the volcanic pro- ductions. Its specific gravity is to that of water, as three to one. The component parts of basaltes are in the following proportion: siliceous earth 50, argillaceous 15, calcareous 8, magnesia 2, and iron 25. It is remarkable, that this fossil is disposed either in solid or jointed columns ; the former con- sisting of five or six pillars, ei- ther of an uniform size, or coni- cal, and generally standing close to each other perpendicularly, of different, and sometimes equal length, as if they had been ar- ranged by a s! ilful artist. The Hebridic island of Staffa is entirely composed of lofty and capacious basaltic columns, the most curious arrangement of whicj, perhaps on the whole globe, is the celebrated Fingal's cave. In Germany, also, there are several basaltic moun- tains; for instance, those on the Rhine, and near Freyberg, in Sax- ony, where basaltes is frequently found of an oval or spherical figure. Spain, Rubsia, Poland, and Si- lesia, also produce various basaltic rc.cks. Great nuautiti s of this fossil are deposited in the neigh- B.AR [183 bourhood of Mount Etna, in Si- cily; of Hecla, in Iceland, &c. But the largest mass yet discovered are, what is called the Giant's Causeway, in Ireland. . As naturalists differ in their opinion concerning the origin of this curious substance, whether it be the production of volcanos aris- ing from subterraneous fires, or derive its origin from crystalliza- tion by water, we shall state only the result of M. BERGMANN'S in- quiry into this subject, as his ex- planation appears to be conclusive. He asserts, that both fire and wa- ter contribute to form basaltes, and it cannot be doubted that there has been some connection between the basaltic pillars and subterraneous fire, as they are found mixed with lava, and other substances, pro- duced by that element. Uses. Basaltes is an excellent material for building houses, and paving streets : it is also employed by lapidaries and statuaries for various productions of art: as well as by artists working in gold and silver, for touch or test-stones. Gold-beaters and book-binders, on the continent, make their anvils of this firm and massy stone. ; which is also used as an ingredient in the manufacture of glass, espe- cially for producing the common window-glass, and green bottles. BASILICON OINTMENT, in pharmacy, a preparation consist- ing of eight parts of hog's lardj five of white resin ; an;l two of yellow wax : or, according to die London College, of nearly equal parts of VLJlou' re-sin, bees wax, and olive oil. Tin- former ingre- dients, prescribed by the Edin- burgh College, are cheaper and equally efficacious. This ointment is generally em- N 4 lo<5a 184] B A S played in the dressing of wounds and r.lecrs, for digesting and cleansing them, as \v-ll as for promoting their ciratri/atio:i. I\ r o>lern surgeons, ho\vcvcr, are n^t willing to attri- bute any considerable etfecl to ex- ternal appl cations; for they are urll convince!, that the healing, of wounds depends more on the spontaneous efforts of Nature, espe- cially in a sound and healthy con- stitution, than upon any artificial aid by liniments, unguents or plasters j and that little benefit can be derived from them, unless the diseased part be properly dressed and cleansed ; while the Internal state of the body should also be duly attended to. Yet, there are instances on record, in which the basilicon, combined either with a 'small proportion of the red preci- pitatj of mercury, or, which is still better, the juice of the burdock- root, has proved efficacious in healing scrophulous ulcers, espe- cially those situated near the arti- cu'.itions of bones. BASKET, a well known utensil, made of twigs interwoven toge- ther. Considered as a measure in commerce, it denotes an uncer- tain quantity, as a basket of med- lars is two bushels ; of asafcntida from 20 to 50 pounds weight, &c. The Ancient Britons were cele- brated for their ingenuity in manu- ' facluring baskets of very elegant workmanship, which they export- ed in ar^e quantities. Basket-salt is made from the vater of the salt springs in Che- shire, and other places. It dirlers from the common brine-salt, in the fineness of the grain, as well as on account of its whiteness and 'purity. In preparing the former kind, sonu; persons use resin and Other ingredients, for separating the BAT crystals, and reducing them t6 a smaller grain; others elfed this by keeping up a brisk fire under the pans, and constantly stirring the salt ; but the most approved me- thod of manufacturing basket-salt is, to take out for this purpose, the third draught of every pan. which is working for the common brine-salt ; and to do this before the granules or crystals are per- fectly formed. Thas the salt will become very fine ; and it is then hard pressed into small wicker- baskets, dried at the stove and kept for sale. As there prevails, in many fa- milies, a prejudice against this species of salt, from an idea that some pernicious articles are used in the chemical process of prepar- ing it, we advise those who are under the influence of such appre- hension, to reduce common salt to powder, in a marble or iron mortar : but it requires to be pre- viously cleaned or purified, by dissolving, and again evaporating it to dryncss ; in which state it may easily be pounded. BAT, or Vi'sfjertilin, an animal which seems to till up the chasm b( tween quadrupeds and birds ; with the latter, however, it has in common only the power of flying, as Nature has provided it with a smooth gauze-like web, serving the purpose of wings. There are twenty-eight species of this animal, of A\hich only four are natives of Britain. The com- mon bat is nearly the size of a mouse, and flies about, in quest of moths and other insects, in tine summer evenings, with a rapid and irregular motion, resembling that of a butterfly. When it a'ights on the ground, it is unable to fly again, till it has crawled to some height. BAT height. It remains torpid during the winter in some subterraneous retreat, revives in the beginning of "spring, and the female brings forth from two to five young at a time, which it suckles like other mani- niillary animals. As the bats of our climate arc frequently troublesome, by infest- ing chimneys, and annoying the neighbourhood of dwellings, w^ shall communicate a method of destroying them, nearly in the words of the Encyclopedia Bri- tunnica. Take the flower-cups of 'burdock, whiten them with chalk, "and throw them up into die way of their flight: thus attracted by the whiteness of the substance, the bats injure their membraneous wings by the hooks of the bur, and fall to the ground. In our opinion, these animals 'are more useful than injurious; as they devour a multitude of insects} though they likewise prey upon bacon, and other animal food sus- pended in chimneys. But having very formidable natural enemies in the owls, which chase them into hollow trees and obscure holes of walls, there will be little occasion "for persecuting them with the bur- dock. BATH, in the general accepta- tion of the term, signifies a conve- nient receptacle of water adapted to the various purposes of washing or cleansing, and bracing the body, either by plunging, or continuing In it for a certain time. Baths may be divided into cold, cool, warm, and hut : and these again into natural and artificial. In order to treat this interesting subject systematically, we shall .consider" it according to the division above-mt-ntioued. BAT [185 Cold Baths are those of a tempe- rature varying tram the 33d to the 56th degree of Fahrenheit'.* ther- mometer. The general properties of the cold bath consist in its power of contrading the animal libr;;.-, while it dissipates the caloric (or natter of heat) that exists between their interstices, and thus effects a greater approximation of the par- ticles, which were before dilat-d and relaxed by heat. That such is the natural influence of cold, can- not be doubted ; and hence this species of bath, by its powerful action on the whole system, is one of the most important medicinal remedies presented by the hand, and, as it were, supplied by the very bosom of Nature. Even in the most remote times, cold bathing was resorted to with obvious advantage, by nervous and debilitated persons ; but in the dark or middle ages, this genuine source of health was totally neglected, till the good sense of Europeans again adopted it as a general restorative, when the prevailing diseases of re- laxation and atony rendtrcd the; use of such a remedy inestimable. The superior advantages of cold bathing over all int< rnal corral - rants, consists chiefly in its imme- diate salutary action on the solids, without the intervention of the organs of digestion and nutrition; without having to perform ;: sage through numerous channels, before it can exert its efficacy. For this obvious reason, it is pecu- liarly adapted to those constitutions whieh, though robust, and appa- rent!}- healthy, are liable to ner hysteric, hypochondriacal, and pa- ralytic affections, as well as to fre- quent attacks of flatulency, and consequent indigestion. Without i86J BAT Without expatiating, either on thr historv, or the sensible < of the, Cold Batli, we shall proceed : I. To a general enumeration of tho.se cases, in -which it cannot be resorted to with advantage and safety ; II. To lay down the necessary rules and directions for the use of this heroic remedy. With respeft to the former, we must be concise, and shall chieiiy point out, by negative propositions, those particular states of the body, in which cold bathing must not be attempted : namely, 1 . In a full habit of body, 01 what is called general plciJiura, on account of the frequent febrile disposition attending such individuals ; 2. In hemorrhages or fluxes of blood, open wounds or ulcers, and every kind of inflam- mation, whether external or inter- nal; 3. In obstructions of the in- testines, or habitual costiveness ; 4. In affections of the breast and lungs, such as difficult respiration, sh ort and dry coughs, &rc. 5 . When the whole mass of the fluids appears to be vitiated, or tainted with a pe- culiar acrimony, wluch cannot be easily defined, but is obvious from a sallow colour of the face, slow healing of the flesh when cut or bruised, and from a scorbutic ten- dency of the whole body ; 6. In gouty and rheumatic paroxysms j though Sir JOHN FLOYER asserts, that " Podagries sometimes have kept their fits off with it;" 7- In cutaneous eruptions, which tend to promote a critical discharge or' hu- mours by the pores (yet the cele- brated physician just mentioned, informs us, that geat cures have been envled in the leprosy, by "ball ing in what he calls " Cold Sulphur Water.") 8. During preg- nancy j and y. In a distorted or de- BAT formed state of the body, except in particular cases to be ascertained by professional men. Sir JOHN" farther recommends, but too indis- criminately, the dipping of ricketty children one year old, every morn- ing in col 1 water; and he is of opi- nion that, in adults, it prevents the infection of fevers, by making the body less sensible of the changes of air ; that, in old women, it stops violent hemorrhages from the ute- rus ; that it has contributed to cure canine madness, poisonous bites of animals, and obstinate agu^s, by going in previously to the return of die fit, and after all the evacua- tions of the body have been proper- ly attended to ; and, lastly, that the Sea-water Bath has been of emi- nent service in dropsies, and de- fective hearing ; in which last case, he knew a deaf person who could hear perfectly well, on the day he bathed in the sea. Experience^ however, has biit too often evinced, that this excel- lent remedy, whether by fresh or salt-water, cannot be implicitly re- lied upon in those complaints ; nor will it be productive of any good effects, unless our condutt, in ge- neral, be accommodated to the following ruVs : 1. It is a vulgar error, that it is safer to enter the water when the body is cno(, and that persons heated by exercise, and beginning to per- spire, should wait till they are per- feftly coofccl. Thus, by plunging into it, in this state, an alarming and dangerous chilness frequently seizes them, and the injury sus- tained is generally ascribed to their going, into it too warm ; while It doubtless arises from the contrary practice. Dr. J.CURRIE, of Liver- pool, in his valuable " Treatise on the ejj'etts (if Water in Fa'crs," (edit. BAT [187 {edit. 2d, Svo. 17P9, price 7.\ . widi equal tiTttii and precision, dial " in the earlier stages of exer- ci*e, be-fore profuse perspiration has dissipated the heat, and fatigue de- bilitated the living power, nothing is more safe, according to my ex- perience, than the cold bath. This is so true, that I have, for some } cars, constantly directed infirm persons to use such a degree of exercise, before immersion, as may produce some increased aftion of the vascular system, with some increase of heat, and thus secure a force of re-a&ion under the shock, \vhieh otherwise might not always take place. But, though it be per- fectly safe to go into the cold bath in the earlier stages of exercise, no- thing is more dangerous than t^.is practice, after exercise has pro- duced profuse perspiration, and terminated in languor and fatigue; because in such circumstances the heat is not only sinking rapidly, but the system parts more easily with the portion that remains." Jn short, it is a rule liable to no ex- ception, that moderate exercise ought always to precede cold bath- ing, to promote the re-ation of all the vessels and muscles, on enter- ing the water ; for neither previous rest, nor exercise to a violent de- gree, are proper on this occasion. 2. The duration of every cold bathing applied to the whole body, pught to be short, and must be determined by die bodily consti- tution, and the sensations of the individual ; for healthy persons may continue much longer in it than valetudinarians ; and both will be influenced by the tempera- ture of die air, so diat in summer they can enjoy it for an hour, when, in spring or autumn, one or two uaay be sufficient, Under similar circumstances, cold water acla on aged and lean persons with more violence than on the young and corpulent : hence the former, even in die hottest days of sum- mer, can seldom widi safety re- main in die bath longer than a quarter of an hour ; while the lat- ter are generally able to sustain its impressions for double that time. 3. The head should first coma in contact with die water, either by immersion, pouring water upon it, or covering it for a minute with a wet clodi, and then diving head foremost info the water. 4. As the immersion wL'l be less felt when it is effected .Hicideniv ; and as it is of consequence that the first impression should be uni- form over the body, we must not enter die bath slowly or timor- ously, but widi a degree of bold- ness. A contrary method would be dangerous : as it might propel die blood from the lower to die upper parts of die body, and thus occasion a fit of apop exy. For diese reasons, the shatter ialh is attended with considerable ad- vantages, because it transmits the r quic. ly over the whole body ; and, consequendy, is more consistent widi the ruies before- mentioned. 5. The morning is the most pro- per dme for using die cold bath, unless it be in a river; in which case the afternoon, or from one to two hours before sun-set, will be more eligible; as the water has- then acquired additional warmth from the rays of the sun, and the immersion will not interfere widi digestion : on the^vhole, one hour after a light breakfast, or two hours before, or four hours after dinner, are the best periods of die day, for diis purpose. 6. While BAT <5. While the bather is in the writer, he should not remain inac- tive, but apply brisk general fric- tion, and move his arms and legs, to promote the circulation of the fluids from the heart to the extre- mities. It would, therefore, be extremely imprudent to continue in the water till a second chillness attacks the body ; a circumstance which would not only defeat the ivhol:: purpose intended, but might at the same time be productive of the most injurious effects. Immediately after the person leaves the bath, it will be neces- sary for him, with the assistance of another person for dispatch, to wipe and dry his bod v with a coarse and clean cloth. He should not afterwards sit inactive, or enter a carriage, unless warmly clothed and wearing flannel next the skin : if season and circumstances permit, it will be more proper, and highly beneficial, to take gentle exercise till the equilibrium of the circulation be restored, and the vessels, as well as the muscles, have acquired a due degree of re-a6lion. The best place for cold bathing is in the invigorating water of the sea, or a clear river ; and where neither of these can be conveni- ently resorted to, we recommend fiowuR BATH ; an apparatus of which may be procured from the tin-man. Its effects are doubt- less more powerful than those of the common bath: and though the Litter covers the surface of the body more uniformly, yet this circum- stance by no means detradls from the excellence of die former ; be- cause those krtermediate parts, \vhkh the water has not touched, rti-ci\e au electric and sympathetic impression, in a degree similar to those brought into actual contact. BAT An every drop of water from the shower bath operates as a partial cold bath, its vivifying shock to robust individuals is more exten- sive, and beneficial, than from any other method of bathing. Hence this bath is possessed of the following important advan- tages ; 1 . The sudden contact of the water may be repeated, pro- longed, and modified at pleasure j 2. The head and breast are toler- ably secure, as it descends towards the lower extremities : thus, the circulation is not impeded, breath- ing is less affected, and a determi- nation of blood to the head and breast is effectually obviateJ ; 3. As the water descends in single drops, it is more stimulating and pleasant, than the usual immersion j and can be more readily procured and adapted to circumstances j lastly, 4. The degree of pressure from the weight of water, is here likewise in a great measure pre- vented ; nor is the circulation of the fluids interrupted so as to ren- der the use of this bath in any de- gree dangerous; a circumstance of the highest importance ; because by the ordinary immersion, persons arc often exposed to injuries which they least apprehend. As the erection of public baths has, from the remotest ages, been considered an object worthy of na- tional attention, and private soli- citude, we Inn e selected a modern specimen of such a structure as, in our opinion, will be admired, and perhaps adopted in this country, where public spirit, and a cordial support of every useful invention, are equally conspicuous. We al- lude to the FLOATING BATHS at HAMBUKOH, an establishment which BAT which owes its origin to the en- ligltened members of the " So- ciety for the Encouragement of Arts and Useful Trades," founded in that city, in the year 1765. These baths were projefted by Dr. MOLDEXHAWER, physician at Hamburgh, and erected by public subscription, on a small lake of fresh water, called the Alstcr. M. ARENS, an eminent architect of the same city, delineated the plan of the building, which, we are informed, is an improvement on similar baths established in the principal towns of the French re- public. Although we have not had an opportunity of comparing the in- ternal construction of the Ham- burgh baths, with those floating on the river Thames, near West- minster-bridge ; yet we have rea- son to believe that they are essm- tially different from any other ex- isting in this country. Induced by this consideration, and convinced of the intrinsic advantages which the former possess, independent of their beautiful external appearance, we have caused accurate represen- tations to be copied from die ori- ginal plates transmitted to us from Hamburgh, with this difference only, that ours are upon a reduced *cale, EXPLANATION Of the Plates representing the Floating Baths erected in the City of Hamburgh. Plate I. 4. Elevation of the longitudi- nal Front of the Floating Bath, with its ornamental entrance; of the surrounding gallery, and the tents expanded over die badiing BAT [189 machines, and covered with sail- cloth which had been four times varnished. The wooden roof is also covered with strong sail-cloth, which had been repeatedly coated with tar. The whole vessel is SO feet in lengdi, and 40 in brenddi. B. E'ei'atio?i of the trnnrcer?? side oft/it 1 Floating Bath, with its glass doors and windows, through die former of which, die corridor, and through the latter, die cabins on each side receive their light. C. Section of the Building: namely, a, b, of die Bathing Ma- chines ; and c, c, of die chambers for undressing and dressing. On each longitudinal side of the vessel, diere are (as appears on inspecting Plate II.) six of these chambers, which may be easily opened from within ; and on each transverse side are two lateral calinf:, partly furnished, and partly designed for store-rooms, to hold various im- plements. The corridor, extending from one side-door to the odier, within die centre of die building (See PI. II. B.f.}, is seven feet and a half wide; and on each side are the bathing machines and chambers. These chambers for undressing and dressing, which are provided with sky-lights, and marked c, are seven feet and a half in lengdi, and four feet wide. They are anti- chambers to the badiing machines a, /;, and each of the former con- tains the most necessary articles of furniture, such as a tabl.:, chair, looking-glass cork-couch (for sup- porting the feet dli diey are dried, after coming from die bath), pegs for suspending clothes, a boot-jack, &c. The badiing machines a, I, be- low the surface of the water, con- sist of four sides, made of ladis two inches 190] BAT inches thick, through which it flows, and t'"-y are provided with a solid \v.> >'!'! H >or, secure 1 by iron 'These machines are six feel br.iad and seven long, so th.i, body may mo\. i;i them without C'>M-traint. > rtuiders them nviv -af)!e, KO l 1 tat. tli^y may be - d isurej and with little trouble., as appears from the machine /; while the impuri- ties settled at the bottom may be rasilv removed. At the side of the. steps (See PI. II. //.), which extend to the bottom of the bathing machine, the latter is provided with a balluster (PI. II. ?'.), adja- cent to which is placed a table and chair. The bathing machines are adapte 1 to different depths of wa- ter, so that every individual may regulate them at 2 j, 3, 3{, or 4 feet in depth, and these propor- tions are marked within the cham- ber. Above each machine are sus- pended t\vo strings, one of which is connected with a bell fixed in the corridor, for calling the waiter : by means of the other, the bathing >n may exclude the current of air circulating between the bottom of the floating vessel an 1 the sur- face of the water, as there is a wooden board which slides down for that purpose. Plate IL ^ Represents the construction of the lloat::;g vessel, which serves for the foundation of the building. It consists of strong double fir- bcii us, cor:;yrt:r! with each other by iron bolts and staples. H. llee.n-smts the ground-plan of one half of the floating vessel; a, the entrance : b, a room on the oppi! for the \\\-' is appointccl to receive aad deliver BAT the admission tickets, &c. ; c, thsr lateral e-ibins ; d, the in; Iressi.ig and dressing chambers ; c, the bathing machines ; f, the corridor ; g, t . :e surrounding gallery; It, the stair-cases leading into the w;rt~r ; i, the ballu-iters at. the bathing ma- chines: all 1,'iese parts have already ii)-d i:i tin; explanation given of the first plate, Cn.iJ E-iths may be called those which are of a temperature b"- : th ,50'th and 76th de;< of Fahrenheit's scale. They are of great service in all cases where cold bathing has before been re- commended, and require nearly similar precautions. As their influ- ence, however, on first entering them is less violent, though their subsequent effect may be attended ' with equal advantages, it follows, that even persons of a more deli- cate organization may resort to them with greater safety. With respect to rules for cool bathing, we refer the reader to ' those already stated in the pre.- ing analysis ; and shall only remark, - that notwithstanding its effects are less perceptible while the body con- tinues in the water, it is necessary that the bather, on coming out of it, should be wiped dry with the greatest expedition, to prevent ca- tarrh:?! affections. If-'n, ,11 Jli'.h^, are such as have a temperature above the 7()ih, rmd not exceeding the u(ilh or p8t.ii gree of the thermometer bet mentioned. There are various springs in Britain, especially those of Bath, Clifton, Buxton, and Mat- look, to which Natures has given this temperature, the most bene- to the human body. But it;r the tepid bath of this de- scription be natural orartlfieal, it i* equally conducive to the restoration of rmiritv Cf energy, though its effects have, till lately, been little understood. Physicians, as well as patients, have hitherto been too generally accus- tomed to consider a warm bath as \vea ening the body, and useful only for the removal of certain dis- eases, especially those of the skin. Experience, however, has amply proved, that there can be no safer and more efficacious remedy in a variety of chronic or inveterate complaints, than the warm bath, if properly used, and continued for a sufficient length of time. Dr. MARCARD, resident physician of Pyrmont, has, in our opinion, sa- tisfactorily demonstrated, that the warm bath, in many cases o"f debi- lity, from spasms, pain, anxiety, and other causes, as well as to heftic and emaciated persons, is, generally, of eminent service, and almost the only means of restoring their health, and prolonging their lives. Instead of heating the hu- man body, as has erroneously been asserted, the warm bath has a cool- ing effect, inasmuch as it obviously abates the quickness of the pulse, and reduces the pulsations in a re- markable degree, according to the length of time the patient continues in the water. After the body has been over-heated by fatigue from travelling, violent exercise, or from whatever cause, and likewise after great exertion or perturbation of mind, a tepid bath is excellently calculated to invigorate the whole system, while it allays those tem- pestuous and irregular motions, which otherwise prey upon, and at length reduce, the constitution to a siek-bt'd. Its softening and as- guasive power greatly tends to pro- mote the growth of the body ; on which account it. is peculiarly adapt- ed to the state of such youth as BAT manifest a premature disposition to arrive at a settled period of - ro\v th : and it has uniformly been observed to produce this singular err'ect, in all climates. The warm bath is of very great utility to such individuals as are troubled with a parched and rough skin ; it has also been found to af- ford relief in many paralytic, bili- ous, hypochondriacal, hysteric, and even insane cases, as well as to forward the cure of scorbutic and leprous eruptions, when strict at- tention had been paid to both diet and regimen. In palsy, likewise, modern observers assert, that warm bathing is one of the most effectual remedies ; though the late Dr. MEAD expressly maintained, that it is prejudicial to all paralytics. Dr. CHARLETON, of Bath, was the first who refuted this assertion ; because he had seen, in the hos- pital of that city, numerous and manifest proofs of its efficacy in paralytic cases. This judicious physician remarks, in his " Inquiry into the Efficacy of Warm Bathing in Palsies," printed in 1770, that he was induced to tarn his atten- tion to this subject, by the preva- lence and increase of nervous dis- eases, but particularly on account of the palsy, which formerly used to be the attendant of the aged, but has now become the too fre- quent and miserable companion of youth. Of 096 paralytics, most of whom had resisted the powers of medicine, 813 were benefited by the proper application of the warm bath. It is perhaps necessary to remind the reader, that this desir- able erlett may be derived from tlie waters of Bath (of which we shall treat in a subsequent article), as well as from every other buih, whether furnished by Nature or Art, 192] BAT Art, provided te tempeiMiure- outs not exceed CJS". We have pur- jiosely inserted Dr. UiiAnLr/rox'.s :iccoiint under the head of" V. Baths," though the wal( rs in tlie city of Bnt!i must, consistently with our division, be classed under the following head. 4. lint Ruth* are those which hive a temix-rature above pS or 100 degrees of FA REN HE IT, and are occasionally increased to 110 or 120 and upwards, according to the particular nature of the case, and the constitution of die patient. As no prudent person, we trust, will have recourse to a hat bath, without medical advice, we shall but briefly enumerate a few parti- culars relative to its use, as well as its effects . 1. Hot bathing, whether natu- ral or artificial, is supposed to be the most general solvent of all the humours of the body ; 2. It conse- quently is the most probable mean of removing obstructions of every kind; 3. Previous evacuations are necessary, to cleanse the first pas- sages, and prepare die habit ; tor which purpose repeated emetics are often safe and useful ; 4. Attenu- ating and aperitive medicines are proper to render the humours more fluid, and promote the discliarge of noxious particles and whatever caused die obstructions ; 5. Too great a degree of heat, or too long a continuance in the bath ; too heating a bed after it ; profuse per- spiration ; exposure to cold air on bathing days; eating of hi^h sea- soned dishes, or drinking of spi- rituous liquors, during a course of bathing, are always improper, of- ten dangerous, and sometimes fatal 5 (5. The head should in no case be dipt, ill! the bather is rising out of the v ater : 7. A course of BAT suouid lie long, but regulated by intervals, according to die various ciiects perceived by the bather ; 8. The temperate seasons of the year are most proper, safe, and beneficial, boUi for drinking and bathing. On the whole, there can be no stated rules laid down, as every thing dvpersds upon the peculiar circumstances of each patient; a'vl hence Dr. OLIVKR asserts, in hins, and rtru. is die pv.uer.jl con >'i" an idle or sensual life, but likewise with a view to ] I cure rheumati-. r such cu- ir climate .-.re loaded d impure <-\! o in- . rian .<:iu to be heat- u by the steam of water artificially < nm- bi&edwitL BAT pcn^tra'r into all the pore's, so t^at they are, in some degree, si- milar to those of the Russians, be- fore described. And though A I. TOURNEFCRT is of opinion that vapour-baths hav? a tendency to injure the organs of respiration, yet if credit be due to SA VARY, i are no people on earth less troubled with asthrr .-. LA: corn- 's than the " ; anlfrvr nations so passionately fond of such bathing. In short, v : sup- press the remarks formerly made on this important branch ot dietetic regimen, that, " tliough the anci- ents could less dispense with the use of the bath, on account of the frequency of their athletic exer- cises, as WL'il as from the want of liiun. which was then much less in use than at present, yet in our , it would he of ._,reat service, if the use of baths were more gene- ral and frequent, and this benefi- cial practice not confined to parti- cular places or season?, as a mere matter of fashion. Considered as ies of universal domestic re- medy, as one which forms the less, bathing, in its different forms, may be pronounced one of the most extensive and be- il restorers of health and vi- gour." BATHS (Dry) were formerly made of ashes, salt, sand, shr r, and similar substances. CENSUS informs us, that the anci- had a variety of swt: baths by a dry heat, and e->p' by o : us natural!'.- t-miit^d from the earth, 2nd received under a pr or hot-house ; or means of hot sand, r artificial bagnios. cniioued establishr ment \ve h.ivc alrea>ly given a short ..ut, under the head QiRagW"; and BAT and we shall here only caution the reader against their improper use, en the authority of Dr. ARBUTH- NOT, who says, in his excellent work " On the Effects of Air on Human Bodies" (SVo.Ss. (jd.) that he has seen two instances of ma- lignant fevers produced by the hot air of a bagnio. Although many cases are record- ed by medical and other authors, from which it appears that dry- l-aths have often been found be- neficial in removing obstinate pains in the limbs, and even curing that odious disorder which salivation cannot always remove, yet we have reason to doubt their efficacy, when unassisted by internal medicines. In such cases as rheumatism, gout, palsy, &c. where profuse perspira- tion is necessary, as it were, to ex- pel the malignant morbid humours, there is iro occasion for resorting to the precarious use of rfry-baths ; we would, therefore, preferably recommend the Prussian Vapour Bath, wliich was lately used in the army of that kingdom, with almost general success. It simply con- sists of a close wooden box, the tower part of which resembles a common night-chair, in whi placed a large vessel with boiling water : the upper compartment has only one aperture on the top, open- ing with t-.vo horizontal doors, hav- ing in the centre an excision large enough to admit a person's neck with ease. In such a box the pa- tient is placed for one, two, or three hours, according to the nature of his case, and the degree of perspi- ration deemed necessary. There can be no reasonable objection against this simple contrivance, which, with a few improvements, deserves to be adopted in the British army, and especially in the navy, EAT [195 where want of room; and other cir- cumstances, might render it, on many occasions, extremely useful. BATHS ^Medicated), are those saturated with various mineral, ve- getable, or sometimes animal sub- stances. Thus we have sulphur and steel baths, aromatic and milk, bams ; there can be no doubt, that such ingredients, if duly mixed, and a proper temperature be given to the water, may, in certain com- plaints, be productive of effects highly beneficial. We well remem- ber the pompous reports published several years ago, by two notorious empirics, and attested by many of our first nobility, who permitted their names to be bandied about publicly, in consequence of won- derful cures said to have been per- formed by the most whimsical com- binations of things and circum- stances. Although we are not inclined to question the truth of these specious cures, yrt, it is re- markable, that such extraordinary facts, if they were fatts, should, in the course of a few years, so far from being improved upon, and ren- dered of practical service to si. ing humanity, have been totally consigned to oblivion. Like fiery meteors, those mysterioi of the healing art, their medicines and patients, all have disappeared. Such seems to be the universal fate of human pursuits, when involved in mystery j and as the practitioners thus engaged, carried on their secret trade in an empirical manner, with- out being able sufficiently to dis- tinguish between the nature of (Urterent cases, and the constitu- tions of the unwary victims of dis- ease, they had recourse (as quacks are always obliged to have) to an wdiscrimvnate administration of their medicatei baths ; & preca- O 2 nous BAT rious practice, which could not fall to diminish the number of cures, and to reduce their ill-acquired re- putation. Notwithstanding this un- favourable result, it would be un- reasonable to impute the want of farther success to the inefh'cacy of medicinal substances, or the baths themselves ; on the contrary, we venture to pronounce, that both will operate, when properly used, in an uniform manaer, so long as the na- ture of man, and diseases, are con- formable to general laws. Hence oar success will always less depend upon the specific virtues of sub- stances, or drugs, than upon the manner in which they are used for particular purposes. Water impregnated with the scales or rust of iron, which a- bound with the saline and sulphu- reous particles of that metal, is of great service for strengthening the part to which it is applied] re-invi- gorating debilitated limbs ; stopping various kinds of bleeding ; restoring the menstrual and hemorrhoidal discharges, when obstructed j and, in short, as a substitute for the natural iron-bath. In the vicinity of smelting works, large quantitk-s of the slag of copper, antimony, and cobalt, are generally thrown away as useless ; but these sub- stances contain a considerable pro- portion of sulphur and vitriolic acid, combined with an earthy base, which renders them valua- ble in baths designed for bracing and giving tone to the weak fibres, or relaxing them when they are preternaturally rigid. Besides, such baths are possessed of detersive pro- perties, so that they may be used with advantage in many cases, if due regard be paid to those cir- cumstances which we have pointed out under the head Cold Baths. In EAT preparing such artificial baths, how- ever, the slags ought to be thrown into the water immediately after they are taken from the furnace, or they should be previously heat- ed : these preparations may then be used, occasionally, either in the form of baths, or fomentations. There are various other medi- cated baths, such as those satu- rated with alum and quick-lime, sal ammoniac, &c. by boiling them together or separately in pure rain water : they have long been re- puted as eminently serviceable in paralytic and all diseases arising from nervous and muscular debi- lity. Lastly, it is worthy of re- mark, that all mineral waters pre- sented to us by the beneficent hand of Nature, may be artificially pre- pared, with tolerable accuracy, and sometimes of superior efficacy, when we are sufficiently acquaint- ed with the component parts of such springs. BATH-WATERS are celebrat- ed on account of their having a higher temperature than any other in Britain, and being the only springs which are sensibly hot to the touch. All other thermal wa- ters of this island are below the animal temperature, and deserve that appellation only, from being invariably warmer than common springs are in general. By the erection of elegant bath:>, these waters are particularly adapts ed to the benefit of invalids, who find here a variety of establish- ments, contributing equally te health, convenience, and amuse- ment. There are three principal springs in the city of Bath, namely, those called the King's Bath, the Cross Bath, and the Hot Bath ; all with- in a short distance of each other, and BAT and emptying themselves into the river Avon, after having p.isse.l through the several baths. Their supply is so copious, that all the large reservoirs used for bathing, are filled every evening with fresh water, from the : r respe6live foun- tains. In their sensible and medi- cinal properties, there is but a slight difference : according to Dr. FALCOXER, t l .e former are, 1. That the water, when newly drawn, app.ars clear and colourless, re- mains perfectly inactive, without bubbles, or any sign of briskness or effervescence ; 2. After being exposed to the open air for some hours, it becomes rather turbid, by the separation of a pale yellow, ochery precipitate, wn-ch gradu:.!- . Jy subsides; 3. No odour is per- ceptible from a glass of the fresh water, but a slight pungency to the taste from a large mass of it, when fresh drawn; which, how- ever, is nrither fetid nor sulphure- ous ; 4. When hot from the pump, it affects the mouth with a strong chalybeat impression, wit' out be- ing of a saline or pungent taste; and 5. On growing cold, the cha- lybeate taste is entirely lost, leav- ing only a very slight sensation on the tongue, by which it can scarce- ly be distinguished from common hard spring water. In specific gravity, the water of the King's, or Hot Bath, and that of the Cross Bath, exceed all other cold or warm springs of that city ; the former being one- tenth, and the latter one-twelfth part of a thousand, heavier than the water in the river Avon. The temperature of the King's Bath water, which is usually pre- ferred for drinking, is, when fresh drawn in the glass, above 116.; that of the Cross Bath 112. But BAT [197 after flowing into the spacious bathing vessels, it is generally from lOOto 106 in the hotter baths, and from 02 to C)4 in die Cross Bath ; a temperature which remains nearly stationary, end is greater than that of any other natural spring in Bri- tain. A small quantity of gas is also disengaged from these waters, which Dr. PRIESTLEY first disco- vered to contain.no more than one- tv.xntieth part of its bulk of fixed air, or carbonic acid. It would be foreign to our plan, to expatiate upon the chemical properties of the Bath waters, which have been so ably analyzed by the ingenuity of Drs. LUCAS, FALCONER, and GIBBS, to whose description we refer : we shall here only remark, that they contain so small a propor- tion of iron, as to amount only to l-20th or l-3Sth of a grain in' the pint ; and, according to Dr. GIBBS, 15i grains of siliceous earth, in the gallon. Dr. SAUNDERS, of London, from valuable work " On Mi- neral Waters;' lately published (Svo. Ss. boards), we have ex- tracted the preceding facts, esti- mates a gallon of the King's Bath water to contain about eight cubic inches of carbonic acid, and a si- milar quantity of air, nearly azotic; farther, about 80 grains of solid ingredients, one-half of which pro- bably consist of sulphat and muriat of soda; 15 1 grains of siliceous earth, and the remainder is selenite, carbonate of lime, and so small a portion of oxyd of iron, as to be scarcely calculable. Hence he concludes, that the King's Bath water is the strongest chalybeate j next in order, the Hot Bath water j and lastly, that of the Cross Bath, which contains the smallest pro- portions of chalybeate, gase^is, and O 3 jaline, BAT saline, but considerably more of the earthy particles; while its water in the pump is also two de- grees lower than that of the others. It is likewise now ascertained, that these springs do not exhibit the slightest traces of sulphur, though it was formerly believed, and erro- neously supported on the autho- rity of Dr. CHARLETON, that the subtile aromatic kalsamin die Bath waters was a sulphureous princi- ple, entirely dissimilar to common brimstone. With regard to the medicinal effect of the Bath waters, we fully agree with the experienced Dr. SAUNDERS (though we may dif- fer from all the resident physici- ans), that much of their salubrious influence is owing to the natural degree of warmth peculiar to these springs ; which, for ages, have pre- served an admirable uniformity of temperature ; that one of the most important uses, is their external ap- plication j and that, in this respeft, they do not appear to differ from common water, when heated to the same temperature, and applied under similar circumstances. According to Dr. FALCONER, the Bath water, when drunk fresh from the spring, general!}' raises, or rather accelerates the pulse, in- creases the. heat, and promotes (he different secretions. These symp- toms, in i . become per- cepti! 'nj it, and will sometimes u>r a con- siderable time : it i^. '. re- markable, that they are only pro- duced in invrili'S. I icnr'. we may conclude, that these waters not only possess heating properties, but their internal use is likewise at- tended with a peculiar stimulus, acting more immediately on the BAT One of the most salutary effe&s of the Bath water, consists in its action on the urinary organs, even when taken in moderate doses. Its operation on the bowels varies in different individuajs,.like that of all Ob f .:r waters which do not contain any cathartic salt ; but, in general, it is productive of qostiveness, an eftec~t resulting from the want of an active stimulus to the intestines, and probably also from the deter- mination this water occasions to the skin, more than from any astringency which it may possess. For, if perspiration be suddenly checked during the use of it, a diarrhoea is sometimes the conse- quence. Hen-e it appears tli.it its stimulant powers are primarily, and more particularly exerted in the sto.na^li, where it produces a variety of symptoms, some- times slight and transient, but oc- casionally so considerable and permanent, as to require it to be discontinued. In those individuals with whom it is likely to agree, and prove beneficial, the Bath waters excite, at first, an agreea- ble glowing sensation in the sto- mach, which is speedily followed b.y an increase of both appetite and spirits, as well as a quick secretion, of urine. In others, where the use of them is attended with head- ach, thirst, and constant drj ness of the tongue, heaviness, loathing of -iomach, and sickness, or, if they are not evacuated, either ine, or an increased perspir ration, it may be justly inferred, that their farther continuance is improper. To conclude: many patients and invalids are apt to desist from the internal use of the Bath water, as soon as they perceive that it raises die pulse, and excites a preterna- tural v X X BAY tural degree of heat, with other symptoms of fever. On such oc- casions, however, medical men ought to be consulted ; that they may determine, whether these ef- fefts are to be ascribed to a favour- able effort of Nature, by which she endeavours to expel something from the body, that is incompatible with its healthy state. And as there is an essential difference be- tween a spontaneous fever, and one occasioned by accident, or intem- perance, it will next be necessary to consider, how far the latter be accompanied with inflammatory symptoms, which ought tobe coun- teracted by the aid of Art j or whe- ther the whole should be attributed to a beneficial crisis, effected by the use of the waters, and in the pro- gress of which Nature should be assisted, rather than interrupted. BAY-SALT, a kind of brownish impure salt, manufactured in France, Italy, and other countries, by evaporating sea-water in clay- pits 3 which is effected at a small expence, and with little trouble. This salt is more or less adapted to all domestic uses, and forms a profitable article of commerce, as it is exported in large quantities. According to the clay employed in making the pits, it acquires differ- ent shades of colour 5 and, in fa- vourable seasons,- the French ma- nufacture not only what is wanted for home consumption, but like- wise considerable quantities for exportation. The greatest diffi- culty which attends the making of bay-salt in England, arises from a deficiency of neat in summer ; because here the rays of the sun are not powerful enough to evapo- rate a large mass of sea- water in a certain time. However, the prac- ticability of imitating the f rench, BAY in the preparation of this article, has been clearly proved by Dr. BROWNRIGG. Such of our read- ers as are desirous of information on this subject, we refer to his pamphlet ; from which copious extracts, together, with remarks, have been inserted in the first vo- lume of the " Museum Rusticum et Commercial?," p. 2/2 : a work pub- lished in the year 1764, and well known to rural economists. BAY-TREE, or Liatrus, L. is an elegant tree, of which there are ten species ; but none of these being indigenous, we shall in this place give an account of those only, which may perhaps in this coun- try be cultivated with advantage 3 namely, 1. The La urns noliiis, L. or Evergreen Bay, is a native of Italy, with an upright trunk, brar.ching out on ever)' side. It may be pro- pagated, either by layers, or by the berries. When the former are transplanted, in a dry season, they require to be constantly watered. To raise this tree from the berries, they ought to hang till about Janu- ary, before ttay are gathered, and to be sown shortly afterwards, in a fine mould. They should be guard- ed from black frosts while young, by placing furze bushes between the drills. HAXBURY asserts, that t is species, thrives exceedingly well on the hottest gravelly lands ; and, after having overcome the hardships of transplanting, it will grow in such situations remarkably fast, and attain n considerable size. The dark-green leaves of this tree afford, by distillation, a very useful oil, which is employed, both in me- dicine, and as a culinary spice. The fragrant, but bitter berries, also yield an essential oil, and in 3. much greater proportion: it hag O 4 seme* loo] BAY sometimes been used with advan- tage in nervous and paralytic affec- tions. With the foliage of this beautiful tree, which, among the ancients, was consecrated to APOL- LO, they crowned their poets and heroes. 2. The Laurus eestlvalis, or De- ciduous Bay, a native of North America. It rises with an upright stem, covered with a purplish bark, and has oblong, oval, deciduous leaves. 3. The Laurus Benzo'e, L. or Benjamin-Tree, which grows fif- teen or twenty feet high : and 4. The Sassafras ; both species are also natives of America. They may be cultivated by the seed, preserved in sand, and sown early in spring, one inch deep, in large pots. They require a soil taken from a rich pasture, with the sward, at least one year before it is used. Nothing more than weeding will be necessary ; which must be con- stantly practised during the sum- mer. About the middle of March, the pots should be taken up, and placed in a good hot-bed ; soon af- ter ' which the buds will appear. "Weeding and watering should still be attended to ; and at the approach of cold weather, in autumn, they should be sheltered under a frame, and replaced in the hot-beds, in the ensuing spring. After having been thus managed for three years, they should be taken out of the pots, and planted in the nursery- ground, where they may remain till strong enough to be finally transplanted. Such plants may also be increased by layers, but very slowly, as three or four years will elapse, before they take proper root. The young twigs should be laid in the ground in autumn ; and, by twisting a wire around the buds. BAY so as to stop, in some degree, tke circulation of the sap, and stripping off a little of the bark with a knife, it has been found that they speedily acquire firm roots. EVELYN asserts, that he has seen bay-trees near thirty feet high, and almost two fee-tin diameter: and HANBURY ranges the bay among his forest-trees. Professor KALMS, in his travels through America, informs us, that the bark of the species called Sas- safras is used by the women of Pennsylvania, for dyeing worsted of a permanent and beautiful orange- colour, which is not affected by the rays of the sun. They make use of urine instead of alum, in prev paring this dye, which is boiled in brass vessels : the wood is employ- ed for posts of inclosures, because it is found to last a long time in the ground j but, when exposed to the air and rain, there is scarcely any timber more subject to be de- stroyed by worms. The same wri- ter informs us, that the Sassafras root is frequently peeled, and put into beer, while brewing ; and also into brandy. A decoction of the root in water, drunk every morn- ing, has, according to him, been used with success in the dropsy. 4. The Laurus Cirmamomum, L. or Cinnamon-Tree, is a native of Ceylon ; has a large branchy root, which is hard and white, without smell : its trunk grows to the height of twenty feet, or upwards, and, to- gether with its numerous branches, is covered with a bark, which is first green, but turns red before it arrives at perfection. The leaf is longer and narrower than the common bay-tree : when first un- folded, it is of a flame colour, but gradually changes to a deep green, on the upper surface, and becomes lighter BAY Jighter on the lower. The flowers are small, white, and grow in large bunches ; they impart an agreeable odour, similar to that of the lily of the valley. The fruit is shaped like an acorn, but of a smaller size. With respect to the culture, or propagation of this valuable tree, in its native place, we possess no particular account ; but it is now become of importance to us, since it has been introduced into our co- lonies. According to the account given by Dr. WRIGHT, its propagation js very easy, and its culture requires but little care. Dr. DANCEK as- serts, that the tree puts out nume- rous side-branches, with a dense foliage, from the very bottom of the trunk : this furnishes an oppor- tunity of obtaining a sufficiency of layers, and facilitating the growth of the tree, which does not perfect its seeds in any quantity under six or seven years, when it becomes abundantly loaded. It seems to .delight in a loose-, moist soil, and to require a southern aspeft : the trees thus planted, flourish better than others which o row in loam, and are not so much exposed to the sun. Whenhenlthy, it is reared from layers of a pretty quick growth, attaining, in eight years, the height of fifteen or twenty feet. The cinnamon-tree, with other valuable plants, was taken in a French ship by Admiral RODNEY, in the last war, and presented to the Assembly of Jamaica. From this parent-tree, several hundred of young plants are already produced, and transplanted in different parts of the island; in all of which it thrives luxuriantly, and will soon be a valuable addition to our com- merce. In this country, it requires to be txeated like other green- BAY [201 house plants, or rather as a stove- plant. The best cinnamon bark takea from the trees growing in Jamaica, is that from the branch, of about an inch in diameter ; as the larger ones do not yield so good a spice. It is the inner rind that constitutes the cinnamon, from which the two external coats must be separated. Cinnamon, though more reten- tive of its properties than any of the other spices, yet requires to be excluded from the air and mois- ture. The leaves of this tree, whether fresh or dried, are strongly aromatic, and afford a good substi- tute for the bark, both in cookery and medicine. In distillation, they yield a fragrant spirituous water, and an essential oil : when reduced to powder, they form a good per- fume. 5. The Lauras Cassia, L. or Base Cinnamon, has lanceolated leaves, triple nerved. The bar.v of this species is imported from dif- ferent parts of the East Indies, and from China. It resembles cinna- mon more in its aromatic flavour than in external appearance ; as it is thicker and coarser : it farther differs from it, in being weaker, abounding more with a viscid mu- cilaginous matter, and being less astringent ; as likewise by its break- ing short and smooth ; while the cinnamon breaks fibrous and splin- tery. 6". The Laurus Camphor a, L. or Camphor-Tree, grows wild in the western woods of Japan, and in the adjacent isles. The root of this tree smells stronger of camphor than any other part, and yields it in greater abundance. This is an- other of the captured plants pre- sented to the inhabitants of Ja- maica j and, if cultivated with care, 202] BEA care, will also be a beneficial ac- quisition. The Abbe GROSIER informs us, that in Chin;i this tree grows to above 15O feet : jgh, and more than forty yards in circumference. The camphor is obtained by lopping the branches, which the Chinese very small, steep in spring v for three days, and afterward rify the sap by boiling. 7- The Launis Pcrsca, L. or the Alligator pear-tree, is another spe- cies of the bay, which is generally cultivated in the West Indie... It HM s to a considerable height, with a straight trunk ; the bark is of a greyish colour ; the leaves of a beau- tiful green. Its fruit is pear-shap- ed , and from one to two pounds weight. It affords an agreeable article of diet to the negroes, and with a little salt and a plantain, furnishes a nourishing repast. When the pear is ripe, its pulp is harder than butter ; and from its similarity in taste to that animal oil, it is called vegetable marrow. There are several other species of the bay-tree, which we shall not enumerate, as they are of inferior value, and consequently less inte- resting. BEAN, or View, L. a genus of plants, of which there are four spe- cies commonly reared in the gar- dens of tin's country : 1. The small ljd-t>n, 01- Magadan ; 2. The Spa- nish ; 3. The Sandwich; and 4. The Windsor beans. The Mag;:/.an beans are est: emed either for the table or catt'e ; they are as palatable as the Windsor, and should be cul- tivated in a loamy soil, in rows near- ly a yard distant from each o! her, and about four inches in depth : th? first crop ought to be set about th;-iatterend of November; the se- cond in Dnjanber ; and the others BEA in January, February and March/ but not so thick as the former. Jf the rows should appear too thin, some may be transplanted from those which are th.cker, but all ought to stand tour inches dis- tant irom each other, and after- wards to be moulded and Dutcli- hoed during the summer. In the- btvinni'.i^ot May, the first sown beans will blossom from the bottom 10 the top, even if they rise to the height of three feel ; they grow strong, and send three or four stalks from one root, but siiould ne\ er be lopped, as this would pre- vent the pods from arriving at their full growth. When ripe, they should be pull- ed, and .set upright to dry, and may afterwards be split ; in which state they are excellent food for horses and swine. The bean-straw is also beneficial, as the produce of ten acres, when cut to chaff with a three-knife machine, will supply sufficient nourishment for ten cows and two calves, for twenty weeks. A man is able to cut as much in twelve hours, as twelve head of cattle can eat in a week. Cows, when kept on this food alone, will eat about 25lb. a clay. Spanish Beans should be planted in October and November, sheltered by walls or hedges, where, if they survive the severity of the season, they will come to perfection early in summer. They may also be raised very close in beds, if cover- ed with mats in winter, and trans- planted in spring. The List-on Bean is preferred to the Spanish ; but as it is apt to de- generate, by ripening early, though not in any perfection, fresh seed ought to be imported every two years. The Spanish and Windsor beans, which are those generally used BE A used at table, should not be plant- ed till after Christmas, but especi- ally the Windsor, which are more liable to injury from cold than any other kind. These beans require an open ground, and should be set at the distance of three feet and a half between the rows, and five or six inches from each other. The Sandurich Beans are har- dier than the Windsor, and may be planted so early as to be fit for use between these and the early crops. This species, however, has lately been much negledted. Windsor beans should first be set about the middle of January, and a new plantation made every three weeks, till the middle of May, to ensure a succession of crops. An- other kind much planted at present, on account of its great produce, is the Taker ; it comes to perfection about the same time as the Sand- wich. The black and white blos- somed beans are also much esteem- ed ; but unless their seeds be pre- served with care, they are apt to degenerate. The Horse Bean is the only kind propagated by the plough. It de- lights in a stifF and moist clay ; three bushels are sufficient to sow an acre, which ought to be per- formed in February ; and the gene- ral produce of an acre is about twenty bushels. But it is worthy of vemavk, that by the new improve- ments in husbandry,, less than one bushel of seed is sufficient to plant an acre of land, and the produce has sometimes been found to exceed that of the old method, by ten bushels per acre. The beans should lie some time upon the ground after they are cut. To keep the soil clean from weeds,, when intended fur a crop of beans the next year, (lung should be laid 0n the land as BEA [203 soon as the wheat stubble, or haulm, is carried oft' ; this method having been found more effectual in preventing the growth of weeds, Iran by ploughing in the liaulm, and laying the dung upon fallow lands. As soon as the beans have ac- quired six leaves, sheep should be turned in, to feed among them ; they will eat ail the young wi even the melilot, but will not hurt the beans, provided they are not suffered to lie down. A writer in the Gentleman's Ma- gazine for l/ti4, recommends the planting of horse beans by the fol- lowing method : Take a plank of oak, of such a size as a man can easily manage by a handle fixed upright in the middle of it, and of such thickness as not to give way in working ; in the under part of tins plank let there be fixed wooden pegs of such length, and at .such distance from each other, as may form proper holes or beds in the ground for the beans. When die land has been proper- ly prepared, the workman must thrust the pegs of this instrument into the ground, and proceed side- ways, managing it so, that there may be the same distance between the last row of holes made by the first impression, and the first row made by the next, as there is between the rows of any one impression. The youngest children may be taught to follow the instrument, and drop a bean into every hole that it makes. As the topmost blossoms seldom come to perfe6tion, they shou.d be taken away when those toward the bottom of the stalks first appear, which may be done by garden shears with long handles : the fur- rows being left wide enough for a careful person to walk in them, without damaging the crop; and the 204] B E A the cuttings, by covering the ground, will shade it, keep it moist, and gradually be convened into manure, which, as strong lands are apt to i , and suc'i only being fit for beans, will be of great utility. Be; ted for seed, .should be plucked up by the roofs, before they are quite ripe, instead of cut- ting the stalks : thus they will re- ceive, nourishment enough after be- ing removed, to ripen fully, and no seed will be lost; which otherwise happens to a great quantity, in their cutting and removal. Beans have long been used by our most celebrated agriculturists, as a preparatory crop for wheat- lands. The beneficial effects of this method are so well known, that it is unnecessary to expatiate upon the subject. We must, how- ever, observe, that in the year 1795, the Society for the Encouragement pf the Arts, adjudged a premium of twenty gxn'neas to LEWIS MA- JESDiE.Esq. an ingenious improver of rural economy (whose successful exertions in planting ash, we have noticed in p. 123), for his judicious culture of beans and wheat. He sowed fifteen acres in February, 17p4> with the Vuiafala equina, or small horse bean. The quan- tity of seed was six pecks to the acre; and the total expence 201. 14s. 3d. or ll. igs. 7|d. per acre. The produce was fifty-nine quar- ters and one bushel, which were sold for 1201. 11s. and Gd. A de- tailed account of this interesting experiment, may be seen in the" fourteenth volume of the Society's Transactions. In the year 1796, Mr. JOSEPH WEBSTER, of Bankside, near Don- caster, received a similar premium from the Society, for having drilled sixteen acres of land with beans, BE A and sown it with wheat In the same year. He employed Co OKE'S Drill Machine, and the beans were of the same species as those sown by Mr. MAJENDIE. Another premium was also given to Mr. ROBERT DUDGEON, of Tynningham, who, in the spring f 1797> drilled three fields, con- taining nearly twenty-three acres and a half, with b aris, and sowed them with wheat in the same year. This process is described, at con- siderable length, with several in- teresting remarks, in the seven- teenth volume of the above-men- tioned work. The Duke of GRAFTOX, about eleven years since, made an ex- periment, to ascertain whether the soil of the common fields of Northamptonshire, and the adja- cent counties, would alternately bear a crop of wheat and beans, for a series of years ; after giving it a, light dressing of dung, namely, from twelve to fifteen loads per acre, every third year, without rendering the land poorer than it was when first cultivated for this purpose. After having manured the field in the manner specified, the Duke, in the first year, sowed one half of it with wheat, and the other half with beans. The suc- cess of this plan was so great, that in a letter to ARTHURYOUXG, Esq. dated August 1?99, he observes^ he has continued this alternate course of crops ever since, without having in a single instance admitted a fallow. Having stated these useful and interesting facts, we shall submit the practical application to the judgment of the reader. But the last-mentioned experiment by no means proves, that a summer fal- low may not, on some particular lands,, BE A lands, be of great advantage to en- sure a succession of crops. With respe6t to the properties of beans, in general, they are nutri- tive, but tend to produce flatulen- cy. Hence they ought to be boiled in their fresh state, when they are less flatulent, and more easily di- gested. The horse bean has been used as a substitute for coffee, which it much resembles in taste, though it does not contain more than half the quantity of oil. French Beans, when eaten be- fore they attain to maturity, are equally palatable and wholesome ; and, if ground and mixed with \vheaten flour, they would, like other beans or pease, make a good and nourishing bread; r t the daily use of it is apt to produce costiveness, and otherwise to dis- order the alimentary canal. Bean Flour, as Dr. DARWIN ob- serves, is probably more nutritive than that of oats ; which appears by its effeft in fattening hogs : and, from the relative prices of the.se ar- ticles, he is of opinion, that pease and beans in general supply a cheaper provender for horses and other ani- mals. But, as the flour of beans and pease is more oily than that of oats, it must be more difficult of digestion. Hence, when a horse has been fed with pulse, he will be less active for an hour or two after- wards, than if he had eaten oats. It will, therefore, be advisable to mix pollard, or straw finely cut, with pease and beans, before they are given to cattle. Bean-Fly. Great injuries are frequently done to beans, especially after a long drought, by a fly called the Dolphin ; (perhaps the same in- seft termed the Black-bean puce- xon.) It is first observed on the top of the plant, and thence eats its way BE A downwards, leaving the stem nak- ed. These insects are so smaR and light, as to be often carried by the wind from one plant to anoiher, and thus injure rhe whole crop. They seldom appear till after the beans are in blossom ; and, if carefully examined, it will be often found that they are confined to a small space. On their first appearance, it has been observed, that one ro\v of beans has b. en giv.atly tainted by them, whil. at the dis- tance of six or eight feet continued uninjured. At first, the top leaves and blossoms are attacked by these s, in co sequence of which appear shrivejaed, and full of blackish specks. Whenever this is perceived, the tops should be lopped and removed. If care be taken to leave none that are taint- ed, the malady will be effectually remedied. A crop has often been preserved by looping off tlu- head of the plant, before the insect had descended 5 for it lias seldom been known to rise after failing with the bean-top to the ground. If the plot is small, and lies near the farm-yard, the most effectual remedy is to turn the poultry into it : for they de- vour, in a very short time, an in- calculable number of insects. BEAN, the Kidney, or Phaseo- l/is, L. is a plant of one species, with several varieties. Those prin- cipally cultivated for the table, arc, 1. The common white, or DittcJi kidny l delicacy and softness, that of BE A of the male is apparent strength , or agility. Expression is the effeft of the passions on the muscles of the hu- man countenance, and the different gestures. The rinest union o ; 'pas- sions, is a just mixture of modesty and sensibility. Indeed, all the be- nign affections, such as love, hope, joy, and pily, add to beauty, while the predominance of hatred, fear, or envy in the mind, deform the vi- sage. Grace is the noblest part of beau- ty. The mouth is the chief seat of grace, as the expressive beauty of tb,e passions is principally in the eyes. There is no grace without motion, nor can impropriety be united with grace. Lord BACON says: " In beauty, that of favour is more than that of colour; and that of gracious and decent motion, more than that of favour." With regard to the final cause of beauty, our taste for regularity, or- der, and simplicity, contributes to our happiness ; and, as beauty is frequently connected with utility, it is highly conducive to improve- ments in agriculture, architeclure, and manufactures It also concurs in an eminent degree with mental qualifications, in promoting social intercourse, and forming connections among in- dividuals in society. Moral Beauty may be defined to consist in that uniform conduct, which, independently of personal interest or advantages,isinfjuenced by no other consideration than that of conscious rectitude. Hence it cannot be applied to a man who ats virtuously, because he is re- \vard ed, and finds no inducement to vice ; nor to persons who are deterred from the commission of crimes, by the appreLeiibiui; of NO. II. VOL. 1. BE A [209 punishment, whether temporal or eternal. BEAVER, or Castor, a qua- druped, of ~ which there are three species. 1 . Thejj/'cr, or common beaver, which inhabits die northern part^ of Europe, Asia, and America, in die banks of rivers or lakes, at a distance from die dwellings of men, and is there a gregarious animal. In populous countries, however, such as Germany, Prussia, and Poland, it is a solitary creature; and the skin, on account of its con- stant residence under ground, ;^ less valuable dian that of the social beaver. The latter is principally found in North America, wher many hundreds setUe togedier on die bank of a river, and construct regular habitations, with admirable ingenuity, such as far excel the primitive huts and hovels erected by mankind. They chiefly subsist on lobsters and oilier fish, and at- tain to an age of rifteen or twenty years. The beaver's tail is from six to nine inches long, ar.d one inch diick ; its flesh has the flavour of fiih, and is esteemed as delicate food. Near the rectum of both sexes, there are two little bags, about the size of a hen's egg, con- taining a brownuh oily matter, called castor, which is a peculiar deposition of fat interwoven with, cellular membrane. This sub- stnnce has a disagreeable, narcotic smell, and a bitterish, acrid, nau- seous taste. By drying it in the smoke of a chimney, it may be pre- served for seven or eight years. It has long been celebrated as a ner- vine and anti-hysteric medicine, though its efficacy has often been doubted. Yet, we are convinced from experience, that the genuine castor affords mi excellent remedy, F and BA >nd may bft employed with advan- tage in langviid habits, and such constitutions, in general, as evince neither a rigid fibre nor a disposi- tion to plethora. Even HIPPO- GRATES prescribed it in hysteric cases ; and GALEN informs us, that ARCHIGKNES had written a treatise on the subject. This gelatinous and oily concrete is taken in doses from five to twenty grains, with sugar; or its virtues may be extracted by water, as well as spirit of wine, which latter forms a stronger pre- paration, but more heating than solid castor itself. In commerce, a distinction is made between fresh, dry, and fat beaver-skins : the first of these are obtained from animals caught in winter ; the second sort from those killed during summer, the hair of which only is used in the manu- facture of hats ; and the third, or fat sort, are such as have been car- ried for some time on the naked bodies of the American Indians, who, as it were, tan the skin with perspirable matter. These furs are -most valuable, while the hair of the others is manufactured into gloves, stockings, &c. but that which is short and silky, is used for hats. Each beaver, when full grown, is as large as a middle sized dog, and yields about twenty-four ounces of fine hair. The skin serves for covering saddles, trunks, and other articles. All those advantages, however, are not equivalent to the damage done by die beaver to forests . and sluices : and as they yearly be- come more scarce in America, while the price of their skin and hair advances, it is doubtful whe- ther they ought to be spared, or exterminated. 2. The moschatus, or water- rat, BED of CLUSIUS, is found in Lapland and Russia, on the banks of the Voi- ga and Yaik: it is devoured by pikes and other fish, to which It imparts so strong a flavour of musk, as to render them unfit for the table. Its scent much resemble, that of the former species, especi- ally about the tail, from which the cunning Russians express & juice, very similar to the genuine musk. Hence, most of the castor sold in the London shops, consists of this inferior sort, or at least is much adulterated with it, so that the druggists themselves are frequent- ly deceived. 3. The lil-ethicus, or musk-rat of North America, the fur of which is much esteemed for its softness and beauty. It is remarkable that, during summer, this animal has a most exquisite smell of musk, which it entirely loses in winter. Probably this agreeable perfume is derived from the Calamus aroma- tiais, or sweet water flag, which is the favourite food of the musk- rat. See Artificial MUSK. BED, a convenience for ease, or sleep. It was the general practice in the first ages, for mankind to sleep upon the skins of beasts ; and the Ancient Britons, before die first Roman invasion, slept on skins spread on the floors of their apart- ments. Rushes and heath were afterwards substituted by the Bri- tons, instead of skins ; but diey reposed upon straw, on the intro- duction of agriculture by the Ro- mans. Straw was used as a couch, even in die royal chambers of England, at the close of the diirteemh cen- tury ; and in the present age, die day-labourers in some parts of Eng- land, and die peasantry of Scotland, sleep on chafi-beds. The BED . The most elastic straw 19 that of f-arley, which may be easily shaken and spread, when inclosed in ticking. Various unsuccessful attempts have been made to substitute the dry leaves of trees, moss, and other soft materials, instead of barley straw, which, however, is more eligible 5 or the leaves of Turkey corn, or maize, are still better. A mattress rilled with horse-hair is preferable to a feather-bed, which heats and relaxes the body, and dis- poses it to pulmonary and he6tic complaints. The bolster should be stuffed with horse-hair, and cover- ed with a small pillow filled with feathers. The bedding might con- sist either of sheets, with blankets and a counterpane, or a single cover, thinly quilted with cotton wool : the latter might be easily washed, and will last for several years. In very cold seasons, a counterpane quilted with a few pounds of soft fvathers, might be substituted for the former; but it should not be Used in summer. BED, in masonry, a course of stones or bricks : the joint of the bed, is the mortar or cement placed between each range. BED, in gardening, a division of the mould raised above the level of the adjacent ground, for the culti- vation ofplants or roots. See HOT- BED. BED-ROOM, an apartment, or chamber, devoted to the enjoyment of nightly repose, after the usual labour and fatigue of the day. Those happy few who, from their respec- iive situations in life, are enabled to choose a spacious and lofty room for breathing in, at least, one-third of their existence, may consider themselves peculiarly fortunate. It must, however, be confessed, that little attention is generally paid to BED [au this important objecl:, even by such persons as might, in this respett, equally consult their health and convenience. A bed-chamber ought never to be on a ground-floor, or have a northern aspeft. Although, on ac- count of a cooler air, many prefer this situation in summer, yet it cannot fail to be unwholesome, as it is most exposed to the influence of a damp atmosphere in the morn- ing, and during the night. Hence we are of opinion, that an eastern front is more conducive to health -, because it receives the first rays of the sun, that beneficent luminary, who, more regularly than a time- piece, awakens the man of a sound body and mind, while he animates, invigorates, and incites him to rise, after having refreshed himself by repose. Besides, a moderate de- gree of heat, thus naturally impart- ed, may be more easily endured, and modified, if necessary, by va- rious means, than a moist and pernicious atmosphere, which even the dry air of summer cannot easily corre6t. P'or similar reasons, small closets and concealed beds are extremely injurious, especially to young peo- ple and invalids. When persons arc from necessity obliged to sleep in them, it will be advisable every morning, immediately after rising, to displace ail the bed-clothes j and, if the sky be serene, to open the door ana windows, in order to pu- rity the stagnant air of so confined a resting place : but we think it, on the whole, a dangerous pra6ticc to sleep with open windows, whe- ther at night, or in the day-time ; though a very small aperture, with- out admitting a current of air to pass through the room, may occa- sionally be useful. Nor should ' P2 BED bedstead be placed near a wall ; or soile ', linen be suftl-rcd to remain in an apartment where the purity of the air is of the first importance. A bed, or couch, ought to staaid free on all its sides, and, if possible, in the middle of the chamber : which is farther of consequence to timid individuals, who tremble during the prevalence of a tempest, or thunder-storm. We know from experience, that a flash of light- ning, should it unfortunately strike. a building, or enter through any of the windows, uniformly takes its direction along the walls, without injuring the furniture in the centre of a room. BEDSTEAD, a frame for sup- porting a bed. Among the various materials used for bedsteads, iron is not only the most durable, but also the most beneficial, with re- spect to health. Oak is excellent for this purpose, being almost im- pervious to worms, if felled in the proper season, and allowed to become dry ; but cedar, were it not for its strong odour, would be still more efficacious in preventing the inroads of bugs, or other ver- min. Hence, the beams and posts of a bedstead, made of any hard wood, might be inlaid with cedar. On this occasion, we cannot, in justice to Mr. LAMBKRT, of Ber- wick-street, Soho, omit to give a concise description of his newly- invented BEDSTEAD FOR THE SICK and WOUNDED, which he terms the Royal Patent Fraffurc Bed, and which is ably caculated to alle- viate the painful situation of the aged, the infirm, or diseased. This tngrnious contrivance, therefore, affords a comfortable accommoda- tion to persons confined by frac- tures, pout, palsy, &c. it is parti- cularly adapted to lying- iu women. BED The bed may be made, and the linen changed, without in the slightest manner disturbing the patient, which renders it highly serviceable in camps and hospitals. We have given a plate of this useful invention, of whi< h the fol- lowing is an explanation : A, the bedstead ; B, the feather-bed ; C, the straining-frame ; D, the frac- ture-frame ; S } S,S,S, four rings in the fracture-frame j E, the sleeping-desk ; R,H, t\vc rings in the sleeping-desk ; F,F,F,F, pul- lies put in motion by the machi- nery ; G,G,G.G, receiving-hooks of the frafture-frame ; 3333, four rings in the straining-frame ; H,H, H,H, receiving-hooks to ditto; /, the plate of the machinery ; A", the great wheel ; L, a pinion, with a wynch turning the great wheel ; O, a pall or stop ; M, a pinion with a fly, to prevent a too sudden descent ; N, the rollers. The subjoined directions should be attended to in making and using the bed. Lay the straining- frame C, covered with ticking, on the feather-bed E, then the under- blanket and sheet : above these, place the fra&ure-frame D, (on which t'.e patient is supported) ; then the bolster, pillows and upper- clothes, in the usual manner. When the feather-bed is to be made, wind up the two frames, C, and D, by the wynch, till the patient is supported above the bed, which may then be made, or, if necessary, another placed in its stead, and the two frames let down- upon it. In changing the linen, the two frames C, and D, must be wound up till they reach the four hooks G,G,G,G ; st cure the hooks in the four rings S,S,S,S, and wrap the sheet you irncud to removej round the for the SICK // Sf /// BED the upper clothes, to exclude cold ; let down the under-frame C ; re- place the blanket, and put on the clean sheet ; draw away the other, and again wind up the frame to the fraciure-frame, and unhcok it at the four corners. Thus resting on the under frame, the patient safely descends to the comforts of a new-made bed and clean linen. As in the early stages of con- sumptive, or asthmatic disorders, it is material to avoid the heat of a feather-bed, particularly if the patient be liable to night-sweats, and if he be able to rise and have the linen changed, the frafture- frame may not be necessary : in this case, die lower frame may be wound a little above the feather- bed 5 at the top of the frame C, there is a sleeping-desk, E, by which the head and shoulders may be raised at pleasure, by fixing the two hooks at the end of the frame to the two rings R,R, and freeing those at the feet : after which, by the use of the wynch, it may be lowered or raised at pleasure. The whole apparatus may be at- tached to any four-post bedstead by a common carpenter. It is needless to expatiate upon the utility of such a bedstead, to families at a distance from the me- tropolis : and as we have no per- sonal acquaintance with this inge- nious artisan, we cannot be sus- pected of partiality : indeed, the first account of his invention, to- gether with a plate, was commu- nicated to us by means of a foreign journal, lately imported. Lastly, jt deserves to be noticed, that the prevailing custom of pro- viding the bedsteads of children \v:ih curtains, is liable to strong and seiipus objections : 1. Because BED [-213 they prevent a free access of air for the renewal of that mass which has been rendered unfit for respi- ration 5 2. They endanger the lives of infants by candle-light, from which fatal accidents have fre- quently happened ; and 3. They are pernicious receptacles for the finest particles of dust, which, as we have already observed (See BED), are inhaled by the person confined within such curtains, on the least motion of the bedstead : and thence, perhaps, many young and blooming innocents may date the first period of their consump- tive attack. We do not, however, mean to insinuate, that curtains ought to be universally abandoned, as there may occur a variety of in- stances, in which the laws of pro- priety and decorum, might render them useful and necessary. BED-TIME, or that period of the evening or night, when we re- tire to enjoy the necessary repose. Although it would be difficult, in the present irregular state of so- ciety, to lay down rules for the proper time of resorting to that place which suspends and makes us forget our daily troubles and cares ; yet, when we consider the subjecl:, with regard to its influ- ence, as well on the health as the moral character of man, it is de- serving of' the most serious discus- sion. Much, indeed, depends on the arrangement of the day, and the different pursuits of the indivi- dual. Those persons who spend the greater part of their time in useful labour, and have sufficient muscular exercise, would better consult their health, by retiring to repose at least two or three hours I if ore midnight) which, accord- ing to the oldest and most accurate observers, are nearly as refreshing P3 g 2i 4 ] BED as double that portion in the mom- ing. Those, however, who lead an idle and luxurious life, are too much the slaves of fashion, habit, and caprice, to adopt any useful changes, which might abridge their amusements or imaginary comforts. On the other hand, the studious, and especially speculative persons, cannot comply with what are ge- nerally called " regular hours ;" because their pursuits are better adapted to the solemn stillness of night, while they indulge in re- flections which require a connected series of thought, and reasoning, uninterrupted by the noise of day. Yet, even literati and artists, ought to pay due attention to this important c.rcumstance, that the atmosphere of the night is always more vitiated, and consequently less fit lor respiration, than that of a serene day ; and as we respire a greater portion of air while awake, than in a sleeping state, it follows that the system must be more in- jured in the former than in the latter case. Nor \rould it be proper to retire to rest immediately after a full meal, or in an agitated state of mind. Hence, two hours after a light supper ought to elapse, in order to prepare ourselves for an invigorating repose, and banish all gloomy or depressing ideas and thoughts which require mental ex- ertion. For the same reason, we &hould remove 'from our sight every object which may irritate the nerves, and never adopt that per- nicious practice of reading, till we fall asleep an imprudence of which many young and thoughtless persons are guilty. Instead ' of &uch a dangerous expedient, it would be more salutary to walk up and down the room for a few mi- BEE nutes, or to take any other gentle CXejv: Lastly, we are of opinion ? that such individuals as breakfast at nine, dine at two, and drink tea at six ; or, instead of this, eat a light supper bet \veen seven and eight o'clock, might, with the greatest benefit to their health, re- tire to bed at ten, and rise at five or six o'clock in the morning, or earlier, according to the de- gree of exercise they have taken on the preceding day. See far- ther SLEEP ; SLEEPING, and WAKTNG. BEE, or Apia, in natural his- tory, a genus of insects, of which the r.idlijlca, or domestic hr bee, is particularly worthy of at- tention. I. Economy, Instiii&s, &<*. A hive of bees maybe considr-red as a populous city, containing from fifteen to eighteen thousand inha- bitants. Tins city is in itself a monarchy : composed of a queey j of males, which are the drones ; and of working bees, called neu- ters. The combs are composed of pure wax, serving as a maga- zine for their stores, and a place to nourish their young. Between the combs there is a space sufficient for two bees to march abreast j and there are also transverse de- files, by which the bees can more, easily pass from one comb to an- other. The queen-bee is distinguishable from the rest, by the form of her body. She is unwieldy, and .sel- dom leaves the parent -hive; but u hen she goes to settle a colony, all the bees attend her to the place she choses. A hive of bees cannot subsist without a queen, as she produces their numerous progeny j hence their attachment -to her is unalter- BEE unalterable. "When a queen dies, the bees immediately cease work- ing, consume their honey, rly about at unusual hours, and even- tually pine a\vay, if not supplied with another sovereign. The death of the queen is proclaimed by a clear and interrupted humming, which should be a warning to the owner to provide the bees with an- other queen, whose presence will restore vigour and exertion : of such importance is a sovereign to the existence and prosperity of this community. It is computed that the ovaria of the queen-bee contain upwards of Jive thousand eggs at one time, hence it is probable that she may produce from ten to twelve thou- sand bees in the space of two months. The dissection of the drone afr fords as great a proof of its being the male, as that of the queen does of her being a female. Drones are smaller than the queen, and larger than the working-bees ; and when on the wing, they make a greater noise. Their office is to impreg- nate the eggs of the queen after they are deposited in the cells ; but when this js erTecled, as they be- come useless to the hive, they arc destroyed by the working-bees, without the power of resistance, as they haye no sting. After the" season of the increase of the bees is past, and when they attend to the collection of winter- stores, every vestige of the drones is destroyed, to make room for honey. Indeed, when the latter are observed in a hive late in atumn, it js a bad sign. Several kinds of working-tees were distinguished by the ancients, COLUMELLA coincides with VIR- PIL, in preferring those which are small, oblong, smooth, bright or BEE shining, and of a gentle disposi* tion : the superior utility of this species has been established by ex- perience. Working-bees compose the most numerous body of the state. They have the care of the hive } collect the wax and honey ; fabricate the wax into combs ; feed the young 3 keep the hive clean j expel all strangers j and employ themselves in promoting general prosperity. The working-bee has two stomachs; one to contain the honey, and another for the crude wax. II, Of the management of Beef t and the most approved methods of preserving them, on removing their honey and wa\. According to COLUMELLA, an slpiary should face the south, in a situation neither too hot nor too cold. It should stand in a valley, that the bees may with greater ease descend, on their return to the hive; and near the mansion-house, but situated at a distance frora noise and offensive smells j $ur rounded with a wall three feet high, and in the vicinity of a brook or river. Where the bees cannot have the benefit of running water, they ought to be supplied with it in troughs provided with small stones, on which they may stand while they drink. They cannot produce either combs, ho- ney, or food for their maggots, without water ; but the neigh- bourhood of rivers or canals with high banks, ought to be avoided, lest the bees should be precipitated into the water by high winds, and consequently perish. The garden in which the apiary stands, should be supplied with melliferous plants, and branchy shrubs, that the swarms which settle on them may be the more easily hived. P 4 Parti- 216] BEE Particular attention should be paid to the circumstance, that the bees be hived in a neighbourhood productive of such plants as supply ihcm with food; such as thyme, tlvl the en- trance is so constructed, that it may be closed by a small door, to exclude injurious animals during winter. The lower part of this door has small semi-lunar inci- sipns, each of which admits two abreast : above these, arc jr.ade two ixAvs of holes, just large BEE epough for one bee to pass. The floor should be so constructed, that it may encompass and secure the foundation of the hive, to pre- vent any disturbance from that quarter. Such a smooth and white floor of gypsum, greatly contri- butes to cleanliness, and the bees become so much attached to it, that they will not easily relinquish their habitation. The straw-wall ought to be one-inch, and the ce- ment before described, half an inch in thickness : the latter is the best coating yet contrived, for ex- cluding noxious insects which would perforate the straw, and for sheltering the bees from rain and wind, while it exhales an odour very grateful to them. M. CHA- BOUILLE has also observed, that bees kept in a hive of this descrip- tion, are surKciently protected against the effect of cold during winter; and that they swarm much earlier than those reared in any other. However ingenious this contri- vance may appear, we regret that the inventor has not stated the particular dimensions of the bee- hive, nor attended to many other circumstances relative to the cul- ture of the insect itself. Hence we arc induced to communicate n later, more accurate, and circum- stantial description of a bee-hive, invented in Italy by Professor GAKTANO HAKASTI, which has. proved of practical utility. This account is translated from tho Trtin$tt(ii(t7is of the Patriotic Sr>- ckiy of Mi Ian, and as it contains much useful information on the subject, we have endeavoured to render it of practical service, by accompanying it with the appro- priate cuts of the different figures described. It BEE It is well known that bees, when properly cultivated, produce con- siderable profit, and in order to obtain the greatest possible advan- tage, it is necessary to supply them with every convenience for the support of themselves and their young. We should also con- trive means to take the wax and honey with the smallest possible loss. In short, when the apiary is placed in a good situation (either south or south-east), that is, in a country abounding with flowers, at a distance from brew-houses, smelting works, &*c. the next and most important point, is the choice of well-constructed hives. In Lombarcly, the common hive, composed of straw, or twigs, is generally used, though ill-con- trived ; as it is difficult to take away the wax and honey without destroying the bees. Reflecting on these circum- stances, M. HARASTI, during his cultivation of bees, conceived that it would be possible to form a hive which should have all the advantages of the best kind, while the simplicity and cheapness of its construction, might bring it into general use among husbandmen. A good bee-hive ought to pos- sess the following properties : First, it should be capable of enlargement or contra6tion, according to the number of the swarm. Secondly, it should admit of being opened without disturbing the bees, either for the purpose of cleaning it ; of freeing it from insecls ; of in- creasing or dividing the swarm ; or for the admission of a stock of pro- visions for the winter. Thirdly, it should be so constm&ed, that the produce may be removed without Jnjury to the bees. Fourthly, it be internally clean, BEE [217 and free from flaws. All these properties unite in the hive here described. Jt is formed of four open square boxes, A, B, C, D, as represented, by the following cut : These boxes are fastened to each other by several wooden buttons, I, I, &c. which turn uuon a nail or scre\v. The whole is covered with a moveable roof, which pro- jects over the boxes slanting from the centre a, that the rain-water may run off. It is necessary to place a stone on the top of the roof, to keep it on firm. Instead of buttons, the boxes may be combined by a rabbet fastened with wooden pegs ; but in either case, the conjoined parts should be closed with cement. If the swarm is not very numerous, three, ,or even two, boxes will be sufficient. Each of them should be about three inches, or three inches and a half in height, and about six inches in the clear within. They should be made of wood, at least three quarters of an inch thick, that the bees, wax, &c. may be less atfected by changes in the temperature of the atmosphere. Within the boxes, at the upper part, 2i8] BEE part, there should be fixed two tars, in the form of a cross, with tde extremities extending to the angles of the box, as is represented in the following figure : To these bars the beeg attach their combs. At the lower pnrt of each box, in front, there must be an aperture or door, as at c, c, c, d, as high as is necessary for the bees to pass conveniently, and about an inch' and a half wide of these apertures, only the lowest (marked d), is to be left open for the pas- sage of the be"s - T the others are to be closed by means of a piece of wood, properly fitted to them. It must be evident, that this bee-hive has all the advantages be- fore mentioned. To lessen or en- large it, only requires a diminution or increase of the number of the boxes ; and a communication with the internal part can easily be ef- fected by the removal of the cover. The cheapness and facility of the construction of this hive is evident, as nothing is requisite but to join four boards with nails, or in any other manner, so simple that it may be done by a day-labourer. When the hives are made, they should be placed in a good situa- tion : the best it south-east. The rays of the morning sun will rouse the bees to their labour ; but they must not be too much exposed to the heat of noon, which may be mitigated, by placing the branches of trees to shade the hives, as vio- BEE lent heat is injurious, not only to the bees, but to the wax and honey. The country around the apiary should be of a sandy soil, abound- ing with -plants and shrubs. As bees love cleanliness and quiet, the circumjacent space should be kept clean, and free from offensive smeils and noise : smoke is particularly disagreeable to them. The boards or table on which the hives are placed, should be dry, clean, and sound ; and the hives ought to be sufficiently raised to prevent their exposure to dampness and insects ; they should also be kept at a dis- tance from a wall, to avoid the re- flected heat of the sun. In the table on which the hives are to stand, there should be an aperture, under each, about two inches square, as is represented at c, in, the fallowing cut ; This aperture should with a piece of tin, drilled full of small holes, so as to afford a free passage to the air, and at the same time prevent the ingress of insefts. That this may not occasion any in- convenience to the bees in cold and damp weather, there muit be a sliding piece of wood./, under the tin, by which the hole may be completely covered. When it is intended to introduce a swarm of bees into a new hive, it must be thoroughly cleaned, and the inside rubbed with virgin wax. It is advantageous to place a piece pf dean honey-comb, about nine inches. BEE inches long, in the hive, and care should also be taken to choose that which is made of very white wax. This piece being supported by a stick passed through it, offers to the bees a kind of nest, and excites them to continue their work. The new hive being thus pre- pared, the manner of introducing the bees into it, from an old hive, is as follows : the latter must be placed upon one of the boxes of the new one; but as it will seldom happen that they are of the snine size, and exa6tly fit each other, a board, at least as wide as the largest of the two hives, and which has a hole equal in size to the smallest, must be placed between them, and completely joined with cement, or by any other means, in such a manner as to be (juite close, and to leave the bees no passage except into the new hive. As these inserts generally work downwards, they will soon ' get into the new hive ; and, when iris occupied by about one-half of the swarm, some holes must be made in the top of the old hive, and ki j >t covered, till the proper time fur ma -ing use of them. Every thing being disposed as above directed, we must take the opportunity of a fine morning (but not a very hot one), about eight or nine o'clock, at which time, most of the bees are generally out of the hive, gathering their harvest. The comb is to be cut through, by means of a piece of iron wire, and the old hive, with the board on which it stands, is to be separated from the new one. An assistant must immediately place the cover (already welX fitted) upon the top of the new hive. The old hive is then to be taken away, to the dis- BEE [219 tance of thirty or forty paces, and to be there placed upon t\vo chairs, or other supports, in such a man- ner as to be quite firm ; but leav- ing a free space, both above and below, for the following purpose. Upon this old hive (the holes at the top of it being first opened) is to be placed one of the boxes of the new hive, having the cover loose- ly fastened on it, so that it can easily be removed ; this box must be fixed upon the old hive, in such a manner (by closing the intervals between them with iinen cloths, &c.) t at the bees, upon going out by the holes in the top of the old hive, can only go into the new one. In order to drive 'them into it, some live coaU must be placed under the old hive, upon which a few linen rags may be thrown, to produce a great volume of smoke. As the smoke rises, the bees, being incommoded by it, will ascend to the top of the old hive, and at length will go through the holes into the new one. When all the bees , or nearly all, are gone into it (which may be known by- looking in at the little door, or by their noise), it is to be removed gently from the old hive, and placed under the box already al- luded to, the top or cover being previously taken oft". The next morning, if it should appear that the two boxes, of which the new- hive is now composed, do not af- ford sufficient space for the bees, a third box may be added, under the others ; and after that a fourth, if necessary, as their work goes on, changing them from time to time, so long as the season permits the bees to gather wax and honey. In performing the operations here described, it will be neces- sary to defend the hands and face from 220] BEE from the stings of the bees. The best way of doing this, is to cover the whole of the head, neck, &c. (over a hat) with coarse <:lo;h, or canvass, which may be brought as low as the waistcoat, and fa^ to it: through this cloti see the operations of ti.c. bees, without iearir.; . igs. The hands may be protecte.i b" means of gloves, of which die bjst are those made of wool. When we mean to bring a new swarm into a hive, diat prepar- ed as above, and formed of two, three, or four boxes, according to the size of the swarm, must be brought near the place where the swarm is. The upper box, with the cover fastened on (but so that it may easily be removed),, must be taken from the others. Tiie cross bars, before described, should be smeared with honey, diluted with a little water ; the small door must be shut; and die box must be turned upside down, and brought under the swarm, which is dien to .be introduced, in the same way, and with similar precaution as into a common hive. When the whole swarm is .in die box, it is to be carried to the other boxes (previ- ously placed in their destined situ- ation), and, .turning it very care- fully., is to be put upon them. The buttons are then to be turned, die interstice.-* ith the cement already described, and all die little drxirs closed, except the lowest, through which the h< ig js moie dis able to a frtih swarm than a hot suo, for which reason, that the may not wish to leave their habitation, it will be right to .ark tin: ! ive for some days-, lint it is more adumti:-:t ous to ift artiacial BEE collect those which abandon their native hives, and trie hive here de- scribe 1 is very convenient for that purpose. The following method, f \KASTI conceives to be more simple, and more secure than any ot..er hitherto proposed. Take a well-stocked hive, of four box--;, i.i some of the,?, par- ticularly in the Uvo lowernftst, if they arc well filled, there is cer- taiuiy a young brood; for in > loner boxes uie young bees are accustomed to change from the chrysalis to the perfect state, about the end of April, or beginning of May, if the hive be very full ; but, if otherwise, this change does not take place till towards die end of May, or even the middle of June. At diat time, a fine serene day, but not excessively hot, mast be chosen, and about eight or nine o'clock, the hive must be divided into two, in the folio wing manner : Between the two upper boxes and the two lower ones, force in a few slips of wood, so as to separate the boxes sufficiently for the comb to be cut through with a piece of iron or brass wire. To prevent the bees from coming out through this opening, and thereby annoying the person employed in the operation, the smoke of tobacco may be blown (by introducing the small end of a pipe) into die opening ; this will cause the bees to resort to the inner part of the hive, and will ku'ep diem quiet. Or, i:. of the pipe, a small pair of bel- lows may be used, to die nozle of which is B E E is fitted a hollow cylinder of tin, or otiier metal, furnished with a little door i, and terminat- ing at one end in a tube h, (into which the nozle of the bellows is fitted) and at the other end, in a smaller tube, k, through which the smoke is to pass. Into the body of the box, through the door i, is to be put a lighted rag, the smoke of which may be blown, by means of the bellows, into the hive. But, if the hands and face are well co- vered, these precautions are unne- cessary. An empty box must be in readiness, in the place where the hive is to stand ; a cover must also be procured j and, as soon as the hive is divided in two parts, the two upper boxes must be taken from the lower ones, and the cover must be immediately put upon the latter, closing all the in- terstices with the usual cement. The upper boxes are to be placed upon the empty one just mention- ed, so that a hive will there be formed of three boxes. The lower boxes, on which the fresh cover was put, must be left at rest till the evening, at which time a third may be placed under them ; and when it appears that a proper quantity of work has been done in the lower box (of either hive), a fourth box may be added, under the others. In the above manner, artificial swarms may be formed ; and, by this method, we not only avoid the inconvenieucies which attend the procuring of swarms in the com- mon way, but we obtain the ad- vantage of having the hives alwavs well stocked. This ought to be the first object of every one who cultivates bees ; for it is allowed to be of more advantage to keep the" hives well stocked, than to increase their number ; and, in fact, it has been observed, that if a hive of 4OOO bees gives MX pounds of ho* ney, one of 8000 will give twenty- four pounds. Up-n tliis principle, it is proper to unite two or more hives, when they happen to be thinly stocked. This may easily be done, by taking a few handfuls of balm, and scat- tering it in those hi; es \\hich are intended to be united. By this means, the bees will all acquire the same smell ; 'and, it has been observed, that, bv the sense of smelling, bees 'distinguish those which belong to the same hive. After the above preparations, the hives are to be joined, by placing them one upon the other, in the evening, when they are at rest, taking away those boxes which contain few or no bees. Care must be taken to shut all the little, doors, except the lowest. It may even be proper some- times to shut the lower door also, when, for instance, any tumult within the hive, causes the bees to endeavour to quit it; which may happen from there being more queens than one, or from die in- vasion of wasps, hornets, &c. In such case, that the bees may not be deprived of air, a piece of tin, perforated with numerous holes, may be used to close the opening, instead of the usual door, and may be taken away when the bees be- come quiet. The following is the method of taking the wax and honey, with little or no injury to the bees; but it 222] BEE it should be previously remarked; that the honey is chiefly at the top of the hive, the young brood in the middle, and the greatest stock of wax is at the bottom. For this reason, when tlm-e of the four boxes are filled with comb, &c. the tipper one A is to be first taken off, in the manner here described. The buttons I, I, &c. \vhich serve to unite the boxes, are to be turned, or the wooden pegs (if such are used) taken out ; the cement em- ployed for closing the intervals is to be scraped off; and then a piece of iron wire is to be drawn through the comb, so as to divide it. When the box A, is separated, its cover is to be taken off and put upon the box B, now become the highest. After taking out the contents of the box A, it is to be cleaned, and again placed upon the stand or table, under the box D, taking care to open its little door, and to shut that of the box D. To prevent any bees remaining in the upper box, when taken away, a little .smoke- may be introduced by means of the bellows already described. The more empty spare the bees find in the hive, the. more eagerly they go to work. The brood of the box B, which remained at top, do not long delay to swarm, or at least they pass from the. state of chrysalis into that of the perfecl and laborious animal j therefore, when it is perceived that the lower part of the hive is occupied, the box B, may be taken off, in the manner already described, and, after being emptied, may be placed under A. In the same way, the third box C, in which there is generally a ' good stock of wax, may afterwards be taken off; but this is a matter of greater consequence, because in general the eggs are deposited in if. We must also take care not to de- prive the bees entirely of the stock of wax and honey which they have collected for the winter. A hive made in the manner here ]v tinted out. appears to me to be such as would be most useful to hus- bandmen in* general, who wish to cultivate bees; but a hive may be made, upon the same princi- ples, which will shew the work of the bees, through its whole pro- gress, and thereby enable any one to study the natural history of these wonderful insects. A hive of this kind is composed of three or four boxes, with a cover, like the hive already de- scribed; it may also be of tin- same form and size. But, in every box, on that side which is opposite the little door, there must be fixed a pane of glass, with a sliding shut- ter over it, so that by drawing back these sliders, the inside of the hive will be. exposed to view. To see the bees at work, however, it is ne- cessary that the comb .should be disposed in a regular manner, and perpendicular to the pane of glass. This may be obtained, by placing in the boxes, instead ot the two cross-sticks already described* in p. 218, five parallel sticks or bars, as represented in the folio , figure : The bees' will attach their combs to these b;>rs, and the intermediate space will afford sufficient %l>t for seeing them work. If more Uzht BEE light is desired, it may be obtained by opening the little doors opposite the glass; which doors may be made considerably higher than is above direfted, and may have a slider over them, by which their aperture may be diminished at pleasure. The sliders which cover the panes of glass, ought never to be opened, except for the purpose of observing the bees 5 because a strong light lessens their disposi- tion to work. If it should be per- ceived that the boldness of the glass is prejudicial to the bees in winter, it may then be covered with a cotton cloth ; or it may be entirely taken away, and a piece of paste-board put in its place ; for at that time, the operations of the bees are suspended. Instead of making a little door to each box, to be left open when the box is lowermost, for the pas- sage of the bees, perhaps it might be better (because more simple) to cut a groove ia the board or table on which the hive is placed. This groove should be about two inches wide, and about three-fourths of an inch high at the outer edge, and should be gradually diminished, both in width and height, towards the part where it meets the hive, as is represented at I, in the fol- lowing figure : BEE [223 Two advantages are derived from this construction. First, the little door in the box, and the con- trivance for opening and shutting it, will be unnecessary. Secondly, it is sometimes proper to diminish or enlarge the opening for the pas- sage of the bees, according to cir- cumstances, without shutting it entirely, and this may be doue with the greatest ease, by moving the. liive nearer to, or farther from, the edge of the table; or this pas- sage may be entirely closed, by moving the front of the hive be- yond the groove ; but, in that case, some small holes must be made in the hive to let in air, which mar be stopped up when that formed by the groove is open. A tardier advantage attending this construction is, that as the groove will have a slanting direc- tion, the bees will thereby be en- abled, with very little trouble, to remove from the hive any dead bees, excrement, &c. which may- be obnoxious to their nature. Another very curious and use- ful bee-hive, is that originally con- trived by Mr. THORLEY, of Lon- don; which, from near sixty years experience, has proved of superior utility to any other It is con- structed as follows : the lower part is an octangular box, made of deal boards, about an inch in thickness, the cover of which is externally seventeen inches ia diameter, but internally only 15*-, and its height ten inches. In the middle of this cover is a hole, which may be opened or shut at pleasure, by means of a slider. In one of the pannels is a pane of glass covered with a wooden door. The bee- hole at the bottom of the box is about 3j inches broad, and half an inch high. Two slips of deal, about half an inch square, cross each 224] BEE each othr.r in the centre, of the box, and are fastened to the pannels by means of small screws. To th'se slips the bees fasten their comb.s. In this oi-tangular box the. bees, after swarming in the usual man- ner, are hived, and suffered to continue there, till they have built their combs, and filled them with honey; which may be known by opening the door, and viewing thrir works through the glass ^ane, or by the weight of the hive. When they have filled their habitation, a common bee- hive of straw, made either fiat at the top, or in the common form, must be placed on the octangular box, and the slider drawn out; thus a communication will be opened between the box and the straw-hive, so that these industrious insects will fill this hive also with the product of their la- bours. Wh?n the straw-hive is sufficiently filled, the slider may be pushed in, and after placing another in its room, again speedily removed. Mr. THORLEY has added ano- ther part to his bee-hive, which consists of a glass receiver 18 inches in height, 8 inches in dia- meter at the bottom, and in the greatest part 13. This receiver has a hole at the top, about an inch in diameter, through which a square piece of deal is extended to nearly the bottom of the vessel, having two cross bars, to which the bees fasten their combs. Into the other end of this square piece is screwed a piece of brass, which serves for a handle to the receiver, or glass hive. When the bees have filled their straw hive (which must have a hole in the centre, covered with a piece of tin) Mr. T. places the glass receiver upon the top of the straw hive, and draws out the BE piece of tin. The bees now, find- ing their habitation enlarged, pur- sue their labours with such alacrity, that they likewise fill this glass hive with thur stores. The Egyptian bee-hives are made of coal-dust and clay, which being well blended together, the mixture is formed into a hollow cylinder, about a span in diameter, and from Fix to twelve feet high : this is dried in the sun, and becomes so hard that it may be handled at pleasure. Another, of a very simple and ingenious construction, has been in- vented by M. DK GELIEU. Jt may be made either of straw or wood : but, as its internal dimensions must bs the same throughout its whole length, it is necessary that its form should be either cylindrical or pris- matic. Its principal advantage is, that its bases are moveable, and may be fixed by pins at any distance from each other; by which means its size may be increased, or diminished, according to circumstances. It must lieon its side, and, in the foremost base, there must be a passage left for the bees. Hence, by drawing out the. posterior base, the honey may be taken from the back part of the hive, without hurting the bees j and, when this is done, the base should be pushed in close to the re- maining comb, that an intermediate space may remain. By turning the hive, and making the entrance in that part, which had before been the posterior base, tine bees will build new cells, in the room of those taken away; consequently the honey will be whiter, and more pure. Whoever intends to eret an api- ary, should purchase hives towards the close of the year, when they are cheapest j and such only as are full of conibts, and slocked with a suf- ficient BEE ficient number of bees. In order fo ascertain the age of the hives, it should be remarked, that the combs o'fthe last year are white, while those of the former year acquire a darkish yellow. Where the combs arc black, the hive should be re- jected as too old, and liable to the inroads of vermin. Bees never swarm till the hive is too much crowded by the young brood. They sometimes begin to swarm in May, or earlier, accord- ing to the warmth of the season. As soon as a swarm is settled, the bees should be immediately hived, to prevent their taking wing again. If they settle on a low branch of a tfee, it may be cut oft" and laid on a cloth, the hive being ready for their reception. If the queen can be placed in the hive, the rest of the bees will soon follow ; but if it be difficult to reach them, it will be advisable to let them remain where they have settled till the evening, when there will be less danger of their escaping. : When the swarm is hived, they should be immediately removed to the apiary, but the hive should be kept near the place at which the bees settled, till the evening, lest some stragglers might be lost.' The usual method cf uniting swarms, is by spreading a cloth at night upon the ground close to the hive in which the two swarms are to be placed. Lay a stick across the cloth, on which place the hive with the new swarm: on giving a smart stroke on the top of the hive, all the bees will drop in a cluster upon the cloth. Then take another hive from the stool, and place it over tie bees, when they will ascend into it, and mix with those already there. Another method is, to invert the hive in which the NO. II. VOL. I. BEE [22$ united swarms are to live, and strike the bees of the other hive in- to it, in the manner before de- scribed. All the writers on this subject acknowledge, that one of the queens is slain on this occasion, together with a considerable number of the working bees ; but COLUMBLLA only, has suggested an easy mode of killing the queen of the latter swarm before the union, and con-' sequentfy of preserving the lives of the working bees. This may be effected, by finding her when the bees are beaten down upon the cloth. A large swarm weighs eight pounds, and others gradually less, to one pound. Hence a good swarm should weigh five or six pounds. Such as are less than four pounds weight, should be strength- ened by a small additional swarm. The size of the hive ought to be proportionate to the number of the bees, and it should be rather too small than too large, as these in- sefts require to be kept warmer than a large hive will admit. Great improvements may be made in providing plenty of pas- ture for bees j and as a rich corn country is unfavourable to their in- dustry, the practice of other na- tions, in shifting the abode of their bees, is deserving of imitation. M. MAILLET, in his description of Egypt, informs us, that the na- tives of that fertile country annually send their bees into distant regions to procure sustenance for them,' when they cannot find any at home. About the end of Oftober, the in- habitants of Lower Egypt embark their bees on the Nile, and convey them to Upper Egypt, when the inundation is withdrawn, the lands are sown, and the flowers are be- Q. ginning 226] BEE joining to bud. The>e iusects are thus conducted through the whole r.amt of Egypt, and, after having gathered all the rich produce of the banks of the Nile, are re-condutt- cd home about the beginning of February. In Fiance, floating bee-hives are very common. One barge con- tain* from sixty to a hundred hives, which art well defended from the inclemency of the weather. Thus the owners float them gently down the stream, while they gather their honey from the tknvrvs along its banks; a single, bee-house yields the proprietor a considerable in- COEOC Their method of transporting bees by lai I, is. also worthy of our attention. The hives are fastened to each other by laths, placed ou thin pack-cloth, which is drawn up on each side, and then tied by a ' piece of pack-thread several times round their tops. In this state they are laid in a cart, which generally contains from thirty to fifty hives, a/id couveyed; to places where the bees can collect houey and wax. ' During the winter, bees are in so lethargic a slate, that a little food is sufficient for their susten- ance: but as every stiuuy day re- vives, and. prompts them to exer- cise, food is necessary on these oc- casions. Some hives of bees which are supposed to have died of cold, have in reality perished by famine-, especially when a rainy summer prevented them from collecting a sufficient store of provision. Hence the hives should be carefully ex- amined in autumn, ajid ought tlicn to wtigh at 1< act eighteen pound's each. "\Vith respect to the {reeling of be<-s,the commoupracticc is, t . tbcm d much Jiuiiiy in autumn us BEE aiil mafce the hive weigh twenty pounds. The honey should be di- luted with water, and put into an empty comb, split reeds, or upon .vool , \\ hich the bees will suck perfectly dry. By the dilution with water, however, the honey is apt to become candied, in which state it is prejudicial to the bees. A better method is., to replenish the weak liives in September, with s.uch a portion of combs rilled with honey taken from other hives, a$ may be deemed a sufficient supply. This is done by turning up the weak hive, cutting out the- empty combs, and placing full ones iu the.ir stead, secured by pieces of wood, that they may not fall down when the hive is replaced. If this method be considered too trouble- some, a plate of honey, unmixed with watcx, may be placed, under the hive, aiui straws laid across the plat;, co\e;ed with paper perfo- rated with several small holes, through which the bees will suck the honey without difficulty. The degree of cold which beea can endure, has not been ascer^ tained. In the cold parts of Russia, they are often found in hollow tn .-.-;. Their hives are frequently made of bark, which does not afford tlw.ni much protection. Hence Mr. "\VIUTE observes, that bees which, stand on the north side of a build- ing, will not consume more than one-half of the honey necessary to supply others which stand in the ,sun. In winter, however, they should be examined ; and if, in- SU.V.-1 of b;v-u clustered bctv/ecn the combs, they are found in u^m- at the bottopj of the hive, . ho;; Id be. carried to. a warmer place-, svhere tb::y will soon reco- f.i winters extremely severe, 1,.) on UK; bottom of *a old cask tae- BEE the depth of half a foot of very dry rarth, powdered, and pressed down hard. On this, place the stool \vith the hive ; and, to preserve a com- munication with tiie air, cut a hole in the cask, opposite to the en- trance of the hive, in which fix a piece of reed, or hollow alder, and then cover die whole with dry earth. In Britain, it i.s usual, in taking the honey, to deprive the bees of their lives. The common method is, to suffocate them with the smoke of brimstone ; but Mr. MANLEV has adopted a more humane and judicious pLui : he says, " I never destroy the old stock of bees ; but after lifting them, to examine what honey there is, if I think the hive is full, I put another under it with a flat top, having a scmare hole in the centre. When the bees' are in the under hive, I place a shutter, which is of wood, in the hole at rop j and that prevents them from going into the upper hive. I then invert it in a bucket, and strike it with a rod till I think they are all out, after which they gu into the under hive." Mr. Yv'iLDMAJ? gives the folLr.v- ing instructions for taking the ho- ney and wax : Remove the hive into a darkened rccrn, that it may appear to the bees as if it was late in the evening ; then gently invert the hive, and place it between the frames of a chair, or any other steady support, and cover it with an empty hive raised a little to- wards die window, to give the bees sufficient light to guide their ascent. Hold the empty hive, stea- dily supported, on the edge of the full hive, between the left side and arm, and continue striking widi the right hand round the full hive, lioiu the bottom upwards, and the BEE . [ being frightened by the nois,e,, will ascend into the other. 1: the strokes, radier quick than strong, round the hive, till all the bees are gone out of it, M'hich will be in about five minutes. As sooii as a number of the bee.s have got into .the empty hive, it should be raised a little from the full ono> that they may not return, but cm- tinue to ascencl. When they are all out of the full hive, that in which the\- are must be placed on. the stand, to receive the absent bees as they return from the fields. If this is done early in spr the royal cells should be examined., that any of them which contain young bees, as well as those in the other combs, may be preserved. These should on no account be iu- jured ; though, by sparing them, a good deal of honey be left behind- The combs should be cut from the sides and top as clean as possible, to save the future labour of thu bees. During this operation, the hive should be placed, reclining to the side from which die comb.; are taken, and afterwards put for some time upright, that the re- maining honey may run out. Having finished the taking of thu w:'.;; and honey, the next busi- ness is to return the bees to their old hive, for which purpose we must refer the reader to the direc- tions already given, when we stated the usual medied of uniting swarms. By inverting die liive which con- tains the bees, and placing their own over it, they will immediately ascend, especially if the lower hive be struck on thu sides to alarm them. With regard to die increase of bees, MJ;. HUBBAUD, of Bury St. Edmund^, adyiios the owner to tt 2 428] BEE wait with patience, until he has acquired twenty stocks, and in the month of April to separate ten of the strongest hives for swarming ; the other ten must be raised on large empty hives, the tops of which should be previously taken off, and the joinings of the two hives secured with a little clay ; which plan prevents the be-\s from swarming. He also recommends the prime swarms from the other stocks, to be put into three-peck hives at least ; for, when they ap- pear very early, they will probably swarm again in a few weeks, which should always be prevented, and all the after-swarms be united, two or three into one ; for the great advantage arises from a large quan- tity of bees being kept together ; and, by that mode, ten stocks will generally yield fifteen good ones. The manner of treating bees in Portugal, is as follows : A spot of ground is chosen for the hives, ex- posed towards the south or south- east, well sheltered from the north- ern blasts, and surrounded with shrubs and flowers ; of the latter, rosemary is preferred. The richer the neighbouring grounds are, the, better ; for bees are said to range for food to the distance of a league from their home. Lanes are cut through the shrubby thickets, of five or six feet wide. The fences between the lanes are about the same dimensions, and formed at intervals into small recesses, like bowers or niches, to receive the hives. The Portuguese hives, in general, are of a cylindrical form, and about twenty-seven inches high by four- teen in diameter. They are con- strufted'of the rind of the cork- tree, and covered with an inverted pan of earthen ware, the edge of BEE which projefts over the hive like, a cornice. The whole js fastened with pegs made of hard and dura- ble wood, and the joints cemented with peat. In (he front of the cy- linder, at the height of about eight inches, there is a small aperture, where the bees enter. The inside is divided into three equal com- partments, which are separated by cross sticks, on which the bees form their combs, or cells. When they swarm, which is usually in May or June, the hives are placed to receive them, where they settle. If, on attempting to collect, them, they fly away, a sheet is placed at night on the ground, contiguous to the swarm ; and when they alight, the hive is pvit over them, with the entrance closed ; then the whole is covered with the sheet, in which they are carried home. The honey-combs , are taken out in June, during the heat of the day, but not if a high wind prevail, or at the com- mencement of a new or full moon. A person holds a chaffing dish, with a coal fire, covered with moist peat, to increase the smoke; which being introduced among the bees, from the top of the cylinder, they either escape, or remain intoxicat- ed at the bottom ; then the hive is taken to pieces, by drawing out the pins. The combs, except two cells around the hive, are cut out, without destroying the bees, and the incision is covered with pulve- rized clay. It is not advisable to remove them, until they be full of honey. In this country, at former pe- riods, many artificial methods have been invented and practised, with a view of stimulating the industri- ous bee, to still greater exertions > and thus to increase the production >f BEE of honey. Although we are no ad- vocates for such schemes, nor do we give credit to the marvellous reports circulated to confirm ti eir success, yet we consider the recipe given by the late Prof. BRADLEY, in his Family Dictionary, suffici- ently carious, if not practically useful, to communicate it to our readers : Take a handful of sweet yeast, one dram of camphor, half a dram of musk dissolved in rose- water, a sufficient quantity of yel- 1 >w bees-wax, and oil of roses (which last, however, being an expensive article, may be safely emitted); pound the tirst two iu- gredients well together, and put them into the melting wax ; theij add the oil of roses, and make i.t up into a mass, which should be cool, before the musk is incorpo- rated with it. Of this composition, place a piece of the size of a hazel- nut at the side of a hive, and it will be found, that it not only in- creases the number of the bees, but also enables them to improve the hone) r , in the proportion of three to one. Yet the learned editor does not inform us, whether this im- provement is productive of a super rior quality, or larger quantity of honey, or perhaps of both. "With respect to the Diseases of Bees, we shall mention a few hints, extracted from the above-men- tioned work. Bees are sometimes affli&ed with a diarrhoea, in consequence of feeding greedily on the blossoms of the milk-thistle, and elm. The best cure is, pounded pomegranate seed and honey, moistened with rich, sweet \yiae ; or raisins mixed with similar wine or mead, in \vhich rosemary has been boiled. "When they are infested with ver- juin, the hive m\>st be cleansed, and perfumed with a branch of BEE [229 pomegranate, or the wild fig-tree, which will inevitably destroy them. Butterflies are said to conceal themselves in the hives, and annoy the bees : these intruders may easily be exterminated, by placing lighted candles in deep tin pots be- tween the hives ; as the flame will attrad them, and conduce 10 their destruction. In order to extirpate hornets preying upon the honey, it is only necessary to expose shallow vessels near the hive, with a little water ; to which these predatory insedls will eagerly repair, to quench their thirst, and thus easily drown them- selves. To prevent bees of one society from attacking or destroying those of another, Dr. DAKWIN recom- mends a board, about an inch thick, to be laid on the bee-bench, and the hive to be set on this board, u ith its mouth exadly on the edge , the mouth of jhe hive should also be contracted to about an inch in length, and a semi- circular hollow made in the board, immediately under the mquth of the hive. By this simple method, the assailing bees will be constrained to act with great disadvantage. If, however, this should not suc- ceed, Dr. DARWIN advises a re- moval of the bee-hive to a distant part of the garden, and to a more easterly aspeft ; as he has from ex- perience observed the good effects of such a change. Tin's acute phi- losopher farther observes, in his ad- mirable " p/iytologia," when treat- ing of the glands and secretions of vegetables, that the depredations of insects committed on that nutri- tious fluid, honey, is probably inju- rious to the products of vegetation ; and that some plants are more ex-? ppsed and accessible to bees than, Q 3 others, BEE other?, which arc cither V.rli \ fendrl, or srcme a greater portion of honey than is necessary lor their ovn eoon.niiy. Of the. latter de- scription fir.-, the catch-fly, clew, hellebore, and aconite ; fonnrr, the Doctor mentions the :' >r>r.((inijn/ruu>, or jjuck- ' -'Jtzsuar, or Alpine Coifs-foot ; in both of :'so appears to be a .ifHy of i The flowers of the two. Isst-mentionc-d plants arc peri ally loaded with beu, ;-i;id butter- flies ; insomuch, fliat at Kempton- l.md, in Germany, Mr. WORUDGE in his "Mysteries df Htts'b&n- dry," chap. ix. 3, he saw forty great iiee-hiyes filled with honey, to the amount of seventy pounds lit each, iJi one fortnight, by their being placed near a large field of buck- %vheat in flower : and Dr. DAKWIX adds, that he well remembers hav- ing seen an astonishing number of on a field of buck-wheat in Shropshire 1 , as v/ell as on a plant of the alpine coltsfoot in his garden : from which the scent of honey could be perceived at several feet nee from the flower. To conclude this interesting sub- ject, y/e cannot omit the judicious rks cf a veteran writer, Dr. J. ANOERSIV . numerous and useful works, in e h of and dor, 1 :orny, are of jnestimable value to the British farmer. In on.' of his pnsrtieal p-.iprrs, "On .'if of ' the Bati' he oh . a note, that hi {.his stock, ih ^)uv- .-. -s of win- >'. mrn m . ^ ^t 4 - \ by a nippin; 1 ; frost, or f I rain, these creatures are roused i;v,m their torpid state; and, be- ing unable to obtain food abroad, they are obliged to consume and exhaust their stores, and to perish from 1 as the warmth of cather in f-pring invites then to search in vain for jio-.vers ailbrd- --nt, they are often chilled by cold, before they are able 10 return to the hive. To prevent such fatal accidents, Dr. Axm-.KT/x is of opinion, that no method would be so effectual as that of placing the hives in an ice-- house, at the approach of winter. Here- they may be 1"' pt till the spring has so far advanced, that no danger is to be apprehended from bad weather. During the whole winter, they will remain in a state of torpor, and reqxiire -no food. A:> soon as the mild weather incites them to appear, they will commence, their labours with vigour. The intense, degre.e, of cold which the bees sustain, without the least in- jury, in Poland and Russia, where quick-silver is some .times frozen, removes every doubt, or anxiety, concerning the safety cf bees in a .British ice-house. BEES' -"NVAX, a solid concrete, obtained from the honey-combs, af- hetftfefet and liquid parts are. ' them between iron plates. The 1--M tti should be hard, con of a .ow colour, av.d an 10 that of .. Pure b;-.V-v,.ix, when '.en : bv long keeping, it becomes harder and more hi it! - - line ; co- lour, an;l partly also its fr;n;-;ni< e. towhichbe- s'-wa>: is applied, arc various : great qnantitii'sof it are annually hleach- fd, and cuii', eitcd into candV-s. On accx-tua BEE .account of its softening and healing nature, it is much usexi in cerates, piaster-; and ointments. Artificial it'a i m\\y be extracted from many vegetable substances, especially from the flowers of the lime-tree, by a chemical process ; but we doubt whether the ex> pence attending this experiment Would, in tliis country, be equi- valent to the advantages. It is, however, certain, that tear is con- tained in a much greater number of vegetables than has hitherto been supposed ; and it may easily be extracted from the leaves of most plants and trees, as is manifest from their .shining cover, or varnish, which generally consists of waxy matter. This concrete also forms an ingredient of several resins; and rnay be separated from gummy, mucilaginous, and saccharine mat- ters, by simple water; from sa- ponaceous substances, by water or Spirit of wine; and from resinous bodies, by means of vitriolic aether, BEK-BKEAD is a species of crude Xvax, collected by the \vorking-bee from the farina of flower-cups, con- I'eyed to the hive in the hollows of its hind-legs, and deposited in the cells with the egg, to serve as food for the young maggot. This sub- stance often varies in colour, ac- cording to the different flowers from which it is separated; and though generally white at first, it is afterwards' changed, by the im- purities arising from the steam, &rc. of tlie bees. In some hives, this crude \rax is said to amount to one hundred weight hi a season, if the total consumption of these voracious young maggots be calculated in proportion to the incessant kbour of their supporters; though the real v::x in the whole hire may perhaps jiot exceed two pounds weight. B 1:2- GLUE, formerly called Vir- BEE [231 gin-wax (Propolis), is another bal- samic production of the bee, which deserves to be noticed : it is a kindot' natural mastich, of a reddish colour, and very agreeable smell. Small pieces of it are frequently found in the holes and crevices of the hives, where it is employed by those little artists, as a cement for excluding cold, rain, "and noxious insects. Tn the immense forests of Poland and Russia, where bees select their own habit .lions in the hollow trunks of trees, the bee-glue is deposited in much larger pieces, and of a su- perior flavour, to what is obtained in countries where these inserts arc- reared by the aid of art. The inha- bitants of the former, generally use it as a vulnerary application, to pro- mote the healing of fresh wounds. Dr. JAMES, in his " Medicinal Dic- tionary," praises the bee-glue as being gently heating, abstergent, and attracting: it softens indurated parts, alleviates pains, and induces cicatrices on ulcers." STINGS of BEES are more vi'- rulent than even those of wasps, and sometimes attended with very violent effects. As the sting is barbed, it is afcvays left in the wound. When, therefore, a per- son is stung by a bee, the sting should be instantly extracted; for, by its peculiar form, it will pene- trate progressively deeper into the wound, and communicate more ot" its poison, according to the time it is suffered to remain. It should be carefully pulled out with a steady hand ; for, if any part of it breaks in, remedies will in a great measure bi j ineffectual. When the sting is completely extracted, the wounded part should be sucked ; and little, if any, inflammation will ensue. If a few drops of spirit of harts- horn be immediately rubbed on the part afFe&ed, the cure will be mops U 4 speedily BEE speedily accomplished. This spi- rit, however, aon beech-mast, is of too soft .1 nature, and easily boils away. When these huts are eaten by the human species, they occasion giddiness and hcad-ach ; but after being well dried and ground, they have been found to make whole- some 'oread : they have ; l-o occa- sionally been roasted, and used a-, a Substitute for cnlr'rc. JJEEC PI-MAST OIL, is exp- d from the. mast, after it has : shelled and pounded. It is used in many parts ol France and Siksia instead of butter; according to some accounts, it is little inferior to oil of olives. Alter the oily part has been extracted, the remainder of the mast, v. \, is said to be -iiid more palatable than before, and mav be e fonverted into flour, of a -similar taste and colour to that of wheat. fn order to obtain pure oil, the following circumstances must be * attended to : 1 . The fruit must be cart-tally selected, and all mu.sty, rotten, or tainted nuts, particularly those of the former year, should be rejected. '2. The s:rll of the nut should he taken oft, which is necessary jtot cnlv i.'r increasing the, quan- ;mt also for improving the quality of the oil, because the husk communicates^ a particular rla- tour. 3. The film which surrounds the kern-.l, should then be nmov- rd, an operm'mn which is essential to the perfection of the oil and the flour: for the. film, th< nigh small in quantity, has an astringent dis- able taste, which is plainly :he oil and the . when' its removal has been fieglected. It maybe se;- putting (lie kernels into hot water, ti; i.~ practised in blanching aluionds, 1 -1. After the nut*? arc gathered , they should be presen r ed for two or three months in a dry place, so thinly spread out as not to allow them to heat, and often turned, to keep them sweet; then bruised lke. apples in a cyder mill. In this state, the mass should be put into of strong thin canvas, and pressed cold. The oil must be ex- tracted by three degrees of pres- sure : the first moderate, which gives the purest and finest oil ; the second harder, which yields it of an inferior quality ; and the third as forcibly as the materials will bear, from which an oil of an indirr'er-* ent quality is obtained. After each separate pressure, the bag should be tunv<] , ;ast, after being well shaken, may be preserved for use. It hns been asserted, that tlnr mast, though three times pres.-ed, is more nutritive than in its natural state. It iiLi-.v, therefore, not only be eiven as a wholesome food to poultry, s'.vhv, and oxen, but also be manufactured into hair-powder. BEEF, the flesh of black cattle, prepared for food. Tins process is managed in various ways, accord- ingly as the meat is intended for keeping a longer or shorter time. The usual metho 1 of salting beef, being general!}' known, we shall to the article " BACON," and briefly observe, that much de- pends, 1 . On the purity and quan- tity of the salt used for this pur- pose ; 2. On the size of the pieces,, and the nature of the vessels in which they are kept; and 3. On the ingredients which may be em- ployed with a view to assist the operation of the salt. It is an established faft, that salt proves antiseptic only when used in a cons'tde-rable quantity; and tha,t a weuk briue strongly tends to BEE io hasten the putrefaction of ani- mal substances: hence the Itetfgfr* sity of making a liberal use of this article. On the other hand, as rommon sea-salt contains a very considerable proportion of mug- vt'sia, one of the most absorbent ranhs for promoting putrefaction, it is at tended with gn at inconvenience to those who are obliged to make use of large quantities of such salt ; because it is difficult to .separate that ingredient from this concrete. Hence rock-salt, though appa- rently more impure, is doubtless more advantageous, and proper tor the curing of beef; because its .crystallization has been accom- plished by Nature, probably after the more earthy base, or mag- nesia, had, in a great measure, spontaneously subsided. \Yc offer tin's as a mere conjecture; as it is of little importance to the eco- nomist, ho\v thi:3 combination of salt and putrefactive earth has ori- ginally takeu place, if we can gest a method of purifying the forme:-, so iis to render it lit for the purp 'd: See SALT. At present, however, we shall treat iirst of the manner which, by ex- perience, has been found the most ftrec.tual for salting, preserving, and imparting a fine flavour to beef, mutton, and pork. For this liiseful information we are indebted to M. SCHKUKL, who has inserted the following recipe in the " Eco- ?;oiriicul Jnnntftl," for September i7f)5, printed at Leip/ig: Take four pounds of common salt, one pound and a half of refined sugar, iLwo ounces of salt-pctre, and two gallons of pure spring water. Boil die whole over a gentle lire, and piref ully scum off the irupuritic:;. After this brine has become cold, pour it over the nicatj so that every SEE j>35 part of it maybe completely co- vered. In this preparation, thfe meat not only keeps tor many- months, but die pirkle also ha-i the effect of sofrening the hardest and toughest bref, and rendering it as mellow as the flesh of chicken. But, in warm weather, it will bn ncccstiarv in express the blood from tii:: meat, and to rub it well with, line sail, belike, it is immersed in the liquor. Young pork .should not be left longer than three or four day-, in this brine, during which time it will be sufficiently softened; but ham* intended to be dried, may lie. in it a fortnight, bc- f /re, tiiev ST6 suspended. At that period, they ought to be rubbed with pollard, and covered will* paper bags, in order to prevent them from becoming fly-blown. It farther deserves to be remarked that, though this liquor is more expensive at n'rst than the common brine, yet as it may again be used after boiling it, and adding morft water with a proportionate quan- tity of the other ingredients, iis relative utility is obvious. We understand that the late EMPRESS of RUSSIA employed this composi- tion with uniform success, in her household economy. A very curious experiment wa$ tried, in the year 1/30', before the commissioners of the Yk-tualling- Orh'ce, relative to the saltip beef. Both jugular veins of a bul- lock were opemd, and the animal bled almost to death: the carcase was then cut open, the intestines were taken out, and while warm, a tube was introduced into one of the large arteries, which was in- ed with a strong brine: this circulated through all the blood is, so thai the flesh of the bul- Icck waij (apparently) salted alike through- 236]' BEE throughout the whole body; for, on cutting a piece of the leg and Hp, the brine issued from those parts. Some of this beef was then stowed, and sent to sea, with a view to ascertain how long it ivculd keep in that state : but the result of the experiment has not teen published. Indeed, it is not difficult to foresee the event: as the arteries were no longer pos- sessed of the power of absorption inherent in the living body, the muscular fibre, not being saturated \vith the saline liquid, would ne- arily putrify. As to the properties of beef, in general, we shall only say, that it affords a good, strong, and invigo- rating nutriment, because no ani- mal .food is equal 10 the flesh of a healthy, middle-aged bullock. Plethoric persons, however, as well as youth, in whom there is natu- rally a disposition to generate heat, should eat beef in great modera- tion. Hence, it is most service- able to the robust and a6tive adult, employed in manual labour, who digests both fat and lean with equal facility. Yet, when sajted, even the most tender beef is deprived of a great portion of animal jelly, so that we may without hesitation pronounce, that one pound of fresh beef is equal to one -.pound and a half in a salted or pickled state. BEEF-TEA, a preparation com- monly made for persons whose energy of the stomach is reduced, either after recovery from diseases, or in consequence of complaints arising from indigestion. It has been a common practice, to treat valetudinarians, or patients, with viper-broths, instead of beef-tea : the former, however, does not ap- pear to possess any superior effica- cy, though it certainly is more nau- seous tljan the latter', BEE "Beef-tea is usually made, by cut- ting one pound of the lean part of a buttock of beef into very thin slices, or shreds, and boiling it with nearly a quart of water: when it grows hot, die rising scum must be taken oft", while it continues boiling for about twenty mini After it grows cold, this liquor is strained and decanted ; in which state it resembles a light infusion of fine green tea : has a very grateful flavour, and is more stregthening, than other broths. This recipe is similar to that given by the late Dr. BARRY, in his classical " 7 /' sugar into th'- wort, while boiling. This ma!.' .:;t liquor j is as stronir, and will keep as long without becoming ^.mr ur ilar, as if two bushcL ol' malt had been em- ployed." Dr. : .;dds, that the latter is the preparation nse:' \vater, and boil one-half of it, or as much a can conveniently be managed ; put the part of tL as boiled, \vhlle. it is ytt of its full heat, to the cold part, contained i:i a barrel er cask ; and then add one gallon vf molasses, c\ uled trea- ele, stirring them iher : add a little yt-ast, if the vessel be, new ; but, if i: . . J. for the -ame purpose, the yeast ;s un- necessary. Keep the bung-hole open till the fermentation p.; to be abated, and then elo.se it up. The beer will, in a day or t\\o af- terwards, be lit to drink. " It is usual to put tops of the spruce fir into the water which i* boiled for making :!. .:id it 1- then called .--prtiLL' h'ur. But, though Uiis is done at sea, such tops can be obtain^ count of tlie scu.rvv ; } ( sary, and iu.._, . . ,j :>i egsUy procured. Scurvy-grass, or* i herbs or drugs, used in mak- : irl, gill-ale, or any other fia- vouied malt limior, may be added at discretion, .but a little of the outer rind of an orange-peel, in- fixed in the beer itself, and taken out as soon as it has imparted a, sufficient degree of bitterness, will both be. found grateful, and assist in keeping the beer from turning sour. A very little gentian-root, boiled in the water, either v little orange-peel, or without, gives also a very cheap, wholesome, and; -.ant bitter to this beer." The philanthropic editor of the " Reports of I ha Sudctyfor letter- in a the Condition, and UUT^o^ins the Comforts vj' the Poor," T. BER- NARD, Esq. very justly ob> (in a note, vol. i. p. 10-1), " that it would be a very desirable thing, that the poor should be able to supply th with beer of their own invv. ing, without being . d .ilways to recur to the ale- house. I am aware of the cu'sacl- ge of brewing in small quan- tities ; but that might be corupen- : for by great advantages, and by the superior flavour of beer .w. -The following recipe is according to the :s used in the House of Indusirv, at Shrewsbury : To half a bushel of malt, add four pounds eacle, and three-quarters of a hops ; this will make iv, en: v-iu'e Aliens, ef beer j the >' \, hieh (supposing the \ of the -.;-: in to be only equal to' the expeiice of f,uel), would be tv/o-pence a gallon, where the ma- . -; were purcha,ied to th ' ; and, when bought at retail sliop, about three-p-eneeu I ha\e tried the receipt, 'and found ,_cr very ^ood : it v.as lit for - USC BEE use in a fortnight ; but it Is riot calculated for keeping, particularly in warrn weather." We have been induced to com- municate these different methods of preparing a pure and wholesome beverage, in order to contribute our mite, however small, towards alleviating the burthens of domes- tic life, at the present critical pe- riod. And though we should not succeed in persuading many per- sons, hi the middle ranks of so- ciety, to adopt our suggestions we still may flatter ourselves with the. chearing hope, that they will hu- manely exert their influence ca such families as may be benefited by brewing their own liquors at home: instead of carrying, perhaps, one-half of their weekly earnings to the next ale-house, and debarr- ing their helpless children from that necessary assistance,, fcr want of which, thcv are often doomed to become additional burthens on the parish. Having pointed out the pecuHar qualities of good beer, as well as the most easy and advantageous methods of using a substitute for malt, we shall iu-xt consider the. most effectual way of clarifying this grateful beverage ; and of pre- venting it from turning sour, or restoring it to its former bris' .. when it has, by mismanagement, acquired a tart or insipid taste. Various schemes have, been pro posed, and many also adopted in breweries, fonjUi'ing or clarifying different beers. But, as the supe- rior brilliancy and transparency of that liquor, depend in a greai , sure on the quality of the malt and water v, hich properly belongs to the article " Brewing" we shall, here speak of that process only so far as. it relates to the management tit beer, alter it is fermented. BEE In ftnt.un, mak liquors are gr- it 'rally fined with ground-ivy, the -.'a, L. : which pKint 4 .er, will n< .'i produce th, sired effect, if the beer has hem brewed of bud malt, or otherwise mismanaged during the different processes of boiling and fermenting the wore. In such cases, and espe- cially if it has been too long boiled, the liquor may indeed bf. clear, by throwing into it an a tional quantity of ground-ivy ; but it will retain an opacity, c ; r.ivbid appearance, bet.. use this useful plant,, being at first lighter tliaii -iquid, and swimming on the top, gradually becomes heavier; and though it combines with the impurities of tl\e liquor, and at Ii sinks to the bottom of the ':, yet it i.s incapable of cor- recting and decomposing those nm- nous and empyrcunxatic par- ticles, which partly anse from in- ferior . .1 aiv partly extri- cated by tlie a'.-U'ui <>(' too gre-.it and long-continued heat. I Luce we shall propc i \ving sim- ple remedy, wlu'ch \ cated to us by a continental IV: After tiie beer is pr. eel, and a few da\s old, ta !-..- gallon out of <-. Uvo ounce.-, of IKI; : (or filings, whk h arc .->till better) to every gallon. ! a moderate lire, till it bi.ils, and j let the stand fur an hour or two ; and, when milk-warm, pour the dear,. -f it into die burre; iu the proportion before speci- fied. In tlus - it undisturbed for twenty-four i then tlie beer should either be. bottled, or drawn oil' imp other vessels. This easy and process., not only has the oil' completely clarif} ing the beer, but like- 46] B likewise preventing it from turn- ing sour, especially if it be laid up in bottles properly corked, and se- tiired with a cement consisting of nearly equal parts of melted bees'- wax, resin, and turpentine. There is also considerable da- mage to be apprehended from the effects of a thunder-storm, by which ale or beer is apt to become turbid and flat, not only at the time when undergoing the critical process of fermentation in the tub, but like- wise after it has been barrelled. In the former case, we are not acquainted with a better method than that of placing (on the ap- proach of a tempest) several ves- sels filled with lime-watef, or where this cannot be immediately procured, only simple water con- tiguous to the fermenting vat; and, If it be convenient, both fluids in their several vessels should be on a level, or the beer might be some- Vhat lower than the water ; which attracts and absorbs the then pre- vailing acidity of the atmosphere. In the latter case, the injurious influence of thunder may be effec- tually prevented, by laying a solid piece of iron on each cask : this easy expedient we find recorded in the Gentleman s Magazine, for Ja- nuary 1753 ; and the anonymous writer adds, that the fa6t is ac- counted for in one of the volumes of the "Athenian Orndcs." In summer, especially in what is called the bean-season, when all malt liquors are liable to become flat, the following remedy is often successfully employed as a preven- tive : Take a new laid egg, perfo- rate it with small holes, put it in a clean linen bag, together with some laurel-berries, and a little barley; then suspend it in the vessel con- taining the beer: instead of the BEE berries and barley, a few leaves of the walnut-tree may be substituted . Others put sak made of the ashetf of barley-straw, into the vessel, and stir it till it be incorporated ; or, if the beer is not very sour, a urns' I quantity of such ashes, or calcined chalk, oyster-shells, egg-she'lls, &c. may be suspended in a similar man- ner, in order to absorb the acidity of the liqnor, and recover jts for- mer sweetness. Sour Beer, however, cannot be* easily restored in the manner above stated, without undergoing a new process of fermentation, or impreg- nating it, for that purpose, with fixed air. But as the latter is an expensive and troublesome method, we shall communicate another of more easy application. GLAUBEX recommended his sal miral;iit (common Glauber's salt), and salt- petre, to be put into a linen bag, and suspended from the top of the cask, so as to reach the surface of the liquor : thus the beer will not only be preserved and strengthened^ but it may also, when flat, or sour*. be restored to its former briskness. The experiment may be easily made; but we cannot vouch for its result. Another, and a better remedy, for recovering tart, or insipid beer, is the following : add to every pint of such beer, from twenty to thirty drops of what is commonly called 1 oil of tartar (salt of tartar, or pure pot-ash, reduced to a liquid state'y by exposing it to the influence of the air in a cellar, or other damp situation) ; then mix it in the ves- sel, and the acidity will 'be quicUy neutralized. Those who live at a distance from apothecaries' shops, or wish to prepare this liquid tar- tar, for occasional use on journeys, especially in summer, may easily- BEE make it, by dissolving two ounces of fine pearl-ashes in eight ounces, or half a pint, of pure water, fre-. quently shaking the bottle, then suffering it to stand for twenty- four hours, and afterwards filtering the solution through a fine cloth. In this state it may be preserved for one year; but beer thus re- stored ought to be drunk soon after it has recovered its briskness, or at least on the same day : and this small addition of vegetable alkali is, in warm seasons, rather con- ducive, than detrimental to health. When beer has acquired a pecu- liar taste of the cask, either from ;m unclean state of the vessel, or, by long keeping, from the astrin- gency of the oak, it is advisable to suspend in it a handful of wheat tied up in a bag ; which generally removes the disagreeable taste. With respeft to the physical pro- perties of malt-liquors, we shall observe, that they are possessed of various degrees of salubrity, ac- cording to the proportion and na- ture of their ingredients, namely, water, malt, and hops, of which they are composed ; and likewise, according to the manner in which they have been brewed. If, for instance, a large proportion of wa- ter has been used, the beer will be more proper for quenching thirst, than if it were strongly impreg- nated with die mealy and spiritu- ous particles of the malt. Hence, strong and sweet beer is the most nourishing and beneficial to thin and emaciated persons ; stale and bitter ale, the most intoxicating ; and weak, half fermented porter, the most flatulent, and least ser- viceable to nervous, debilitated, Jiysteric, or asthmatic constitutions. .But, as there is no peculiar te^t, by which we can ascertain with t: NO. II. VOL. I, BEE [241 critical accuracy, when the vinous fermentation is completed, and tho acetous has commenced, every kind of beer must be barrelled, or bot- tled, before it is perfectly fer- mented, so that the completion of this natural process is effected hi the stomach and bowels. Strange as this proposition may appear to some persons, it is so true, that the infinite diversity of flavour and briskness obtained from the samd mixture, when drawn off into dif- ferent vessels, or bottles, cannot fail to strike the most superficial observer. Beer always contains a portion of fixed air, which being disen- gaged within the human body, is apt to occasion flatulency and looseness. To the mariner, how- ever, and those who are subject to scorbutic complaints, it is, in general, a wholesome beverage, though we cannot refrain from ani- madverting upon the prevailing, erroneous notion, that ale or por- ter promote digestion : mis is re- futed by the uniform evidence of experience, whence it clearly ap- pears that, of all liquids whatever, pure water is the most beneficial solvent of animal and vegetable substances. Such individuals, there- fore, as make use of nourishing, and principally animal food, re- quire no beer for its digestion; as the habitual drinking of malt Ji- quors will expose them to all the inconveniencies of plethora, or a lull and gross habit. Others, how- ever, who live chiefly on vegeta- ble diet, and whose stomach is weak or impaired, may be greatly invigorated by a moderate use of strong and litter malt-liquors a purpose which the common table beer cannot answer. Persons of dry and rigid fibres, and whose "11 bile 24*] BEE bile is duly secreted, ought to drink such beer as is sufficiently- strong and nourishing, -without be- ing of an intoxicating nature : for this purpose, we would give the preference to Belts Beer, over Burton, and other ales. A thin, weak> and well-fermented beef, is diluent and wholesome ; whence it agrees well with the plethoric, and persons disposed to corpulency. On the contrary, thick and nou- rishing inalt-liquors are most ser- viceable to the debilitated, and especially to wet-nurses ; conse- quently sweet beers are chiefly nu-* tritive, and more proper for daily use, on account of their being least exposed to dangerous adulte- rations ; while the litter kinds possess medicinal properties, and should be drunk in a weak state of digestion, by individuals subject to acidity in the stomach. Lastly, every kind of beer is improper for the hysteric, t{ie hy- pochondriac, and all those who are already of a full habit, or manifest a thick, atra-bilious blood ; but it is of peculiar service to the labo~ rious, the lean, emaciated, and all such constitutions as are not liable to flatulency, or any organic dis- eases of the breast. , BEESTINGS, or Breastings, in domestic, economy, a term used for the first milk drawn from a cow after calving. This liquor is of a thick consist- ence, and yellowish colour,- whence some persons have imagined, that it is impregnated with sulphur. As Nature has peculiarly designed the beestings for the purpose of cleans- ing the young animal from those .viscid impurities which, in the hu- man subject, are denominated the jr-rrniiuw ; it appears rational, that the calf should partake of this be-- EEE nefit. Nor is this strong and viscid liquor calculated to afford a whole* some food ; though farmers, in ge- neral, give it to the indigent cot- tager. And, as it is frequently eaten by children, who are scarcely able to digest it, we are of opi- nion, that it might be better em- ployed in feeding young calves, or by converting it into cheese. BEET, or Beta, L. a plant of which there are four species, viz. 1. The maritlma, or sea-beet, which grows spontaneously by the sea side; and in salt marshes in many parts of England. 2. The hortemis, or common white beet, is cultivated in gardens for its leaves, which are frequently used in soups. The root of this species seldom attains a greater size than that of a man's thumb ; the varieties are the white beet, the green beet, and the Swiss, or chard beet: these vary from one to the other, but have never been known to change to the lirst or third sort. 3. The vul garis, or red beet, the roots of which are large, and of a deep red colour. It is worthy of remark, that the larger these roots grow, they are more tender ; and the deeper their colour, the more they are esteemed. The va- rieties of this species are the com- mon red beet, the turnip-rooted beet, and the green-leaved red beet. 4. The cicla, which grows wild on the banks of the Tagus, in Por- tugal ; it is originally a small, white root, but there is a variety of it, called by the Germans Runkelriibc t or the Beta allissima of Botanists, the culture of which cannot be too strongly recommended. The stalk of the latter grows to the height of seven or eight feet ; and the root weighs from eight to twelve pounds. This variety of the root of scarcity BEE is the tme Afangel-wurxtt, which some years since excited much at- tention in Britain ; though there is Reason to suppose that other species of the beet have been frequently mistaken for the Beta albissima ; the root of which is white, juicy, and streaked with red fibres : it is sown like cabbage, and to pre v ent injury to the fibres of the root, the young plants must not be pulled, but du^ up with a spade; they should then be transplanted on the same day (; ither in rainy weather or after sun-set), on a rich well-plough- ed and manured soil, in rows, from sixteen to eighteen inches asunder. The roo.3, however, will not arrive at perfection, unless the plants be twice hoed, at least, and stripped of the superfluous leaves every fort- night, or three weeks. From the first and third species before-mentioned, some German chemists have extracted sugnr ; but the difficulty and expellee attending the process are so considerable, that this vegetable will never be worthy of the particular attention of the gardener for this purpose j though it will always deserve to be culti- vated as food for man and cattle. The common white, as well as the red beet, should be sown sepa- rately in the beginning of March, upon an open spot of ground. It requires a rich soil (such as is fit for wheat), and a low situation, which may be watered occasionally. The ground should be thoroughly clear- ed of weeds, and manured at least a year before it i.s sown. As the manuring is a matter of great im- portance, it should be repeated be- fore the soil is ploughed, which ought to be performed three times. Immediately after the third plough- in.-;, the ground should be carefully harrowed. A rake, with teeth BEE from lime to twelve inches distant, should be drawn across it, so as to mark lines, which must be crossed by others transversely. If the seed be fresh and sound, one is sufficient. but if doubtful, two may be dibbled about the depth of an inch, at each of the points where these lines cross. When the plants have acquired six or eight leaves each, the ground should be thoroughly weeded ; care being taken not tc deprive them of the surrounding soil. If more than one plant appear on die same spot, the superfluous ones must be re- moved ; and wherever a seed has been unproductive, another should be sown. When the ground is quite cleared from > weeds, the- plants grow rapidly, and all farther - care is unnecessary. The harvest generally commences about the end of September. The root should be dug up with great care, and the leaves and stalks cut off, to prevent it from growing 5 but, in performing this operation, though it is necessary to cut them close, great care must be taken that the root itself be not injured. In the year 1/55, M. LULIJ. DE CHATEAUVIEUX, being of opi- nion that a great part- of die ex- pence of dung and labour might be saved, if pot-kerls could be culti- vated in die same manner as wheat according to the new^ husbandry ; he sowed a bed forty feet long and six wide, with beet, and two others with carrots. Where the. plants grew too diick, they were thinned, so as to leave a distance of fourteen or fifteen inches be- tween die beets, and seven or eight between die carrots : neither of diem were watered. On digging up die beet-roots, ir October, they were all nearly five or six inches in diameter. He ascribes their II 2 luxuriant 244] BEE luxuriant growth to the method of culture without manure. According to Mr. RocauE, the white f-ect is a most excellent fod- der for cows : the best way of feeding them, is to mow the plant, and give it to them fresh during the summer. The red led is possessed of mild aperient qualities, and affords but a weak nutriment to the human body. Hence it should be eaten for supper, by persons of a costive habit : but, though it be easily di- gested, its use is sometimes attend- ed with flatulency ; for which rea- son, it would be more wholesome and nourishing, to eat the beet with other more mealy roots, such as potatoes ; or with those of an aromatic nature, for instance, parsley, celery, &c. BEETLE, or Scar al ecus, I,, a well-known insect, of which there are eighty-seven species, of one common formation, having cases to their wings, which are the more necessary, as they mostly live be- neath the surface of the earth. Besides their diversity of shape and colour, the difference in the si/e of the various species is also consider- able, some not being larger than the head of a pin, while others, as the elephant beetle, are as big as a closed hand. The May-bug, or cock-chaffer, is the species most deserving of our notice, on account of the formida- ble ravages it commits on the terri- tory of the husbandman. In some SIM son?, it has been found to swarm in such numbers, as to devour every vegetable production ; our principal object, therefore, will be to r.oint out the best means for its destruc- tion. It is necessary to observe, that the insect is first generated in the earth, from the eggs deposited BEE by the fly, in its perfect staff?. About three months afterwards-, the insects contained in those i break the shell, and crawl forth in the form a small gmb or maggot, which feeds upon the roots of ve- getables ; and continues in this concealed and destructive state for more than three years, gradually- growing to the size of a walnut. It is the thick white, maggot with a red head, so frequently found on turning up the earth. At the end of the fourth year, these extraor- dinary inserts emerge from their subterraneous abode ; when, in the mild evenings of May, an attentive observer may perceive them rising from the earth in numbers before him. The willow seems to be their favourite food ; on this tree they hang in clusters, and seldom quit it till they have completely de- voured its foliage. Rooks are par- ticularly fond of them, when in their state of grubs ; and hence the prejudice of fanners against these birds is ill-founded. In Ireland, the damage done by the beetle was at one time so great, in a particular district, that the inhabitants came to the resolution of setting tire to a wood of some extent, in order to prevent their propagation. As these insects cannot support the heat of the mid-day sun, and therefore conceal themselves till evening under the leaves of trees, the most effcitual way of -destroy- ing them is to beat them off with long poles, and then to collect and burn them : or, according to Dr. T. MOLYNKUX, they are very bene- ficial for fattening poultry. Smoke is extremely offensive to them, consequently, the burning of heath, fern, or other weeds, will prevent their incursions in gardens, or ex- pel BEG pel them if they have entered. The leaves of the young turnip are sup- posed to be devoured by this tiy, which Dr. DARWIN conceives may be destroyed by rolling. That very troublesome insert, the common black beetle, may be extirpated by placing a hedge-hog in the kitchen, during the summer nights. A German writer recommends to place a bundle of pea-straw near their holes, as they are fond of creeping into it, and after a short time, it should be suddenly taken away, and burnt. Another simple method, which is so well known, that it scarcely deserves to be mentioned, is, to place a vessel with any liquid, with pieces of board in an ob- lique direction, to facilitate their ascent to the edge of the vessel, over which they will fall into the liquid. BEGGARS require no definition. Various opinions ha\ e been held, concerning the good or bad Con- sequences which result from tlie practice of relieving common beg- gars, in the public streets. Dr. BURN observes, " that this kind of charity, is setting up private judgment against public law. The legislature has provided for the poor in one way, but we think that is not so good, and therefore will have a way of our own the worst and most abandoned of the people are sustained by the efforts of well- meant, but very ill-judged charity ; there is oive way," he says, " to put an end to begging, and the easiest in the world to gii'c them nothing. If none were to give, none would lx.'g; and the whole mystery and craft would be at an end in a fortnight." SeeCHARiTY. We cannot implicitly agree with BEG 1>45 the rigorous measures of Dr. BURN; for, though the legislature have provided for the poor, in many instances this provision is ineffectual ; and it may often hap- pen to be dispensed at too late a period, for the relief of the dis- tressed object. Tiie generality of the poor in the metropolis, may be divided into two classes : first, those who are incapable of working; and, se- condly, such as are able, but un- willing. The former may be con- sidered as real objects of chanty; but they ought not to be suffered to infest the streets, and expose their distorted limbs, or disgusting sores. Tlxe latter class, however, is most numerous ; as it compre- hends the most abandoned find pro- fligate outcasts of society. What- ever is given to these miscreants, may be considered as applied to the rising fund of vice and immo- rality. -On the other hand, a due distinction ought to be made be tween those who have by misfor- tune been reduced to a state of in- digence, and others, who are va- grants by profession. ROUSSKAU justly remarks, that a great num- ber of beggars may become bur- thensome to a state ; that it is a duty incumbent on a wise admi- nistration, to make such regula- tions as will prevent beggars from annoying the industrious : yet we would reply to this benevolent philosopher, that the execution of such a plan has often been at- tempted, but lias succeeded only in countries or cities comparatively small ; for instance, in Geneva, Munich, Hamburgh, &c. and if credit be due to public report, in the Imperial city of Germany, which, in this respeft, forms a re- markable exception. U 3 Mr. 246] BEL Mr. BI.EAMIRE, in his " Re- marks on the Poor Lau'.s," just published, pointedly observes, (hat " persons utterly unable to support themselves, were always proper objecls for parochial relief; but the idle, lazy, and abandoned, who now, to the shame of our modern governors of parishes, crowd every poor-house, were, and still ought to be, objects of punishment. If those (he adds), who are entrusted with the care and management of the poor, would exercise an im- partial and honest discrimination among the persons who apply to them for relief, poor-houses would be less frequented ; the poor-rates considerably reduced ; and, by turning those receptacles into work-houses, vicious idleness be checked., and virtuous industry greatly promoted." Jt does not behove u.s to pro- nounce judgment on beggars ; but, reflecting on the contagious ten- dency of street-legging, as an al- lurement to those whose moral principles are weak, or corrupted, we shall conclude in die words of a learned magistrate, who empha- tically says, in one the latest critical journals, " that the enormous sums which have of late years been rais- ed for the support of the Poor, are not only a national grievance, but a national disgrace !" See farther, POOR-HOUSES. Belladonna. See Deadly NIGHT- SHADE. BELLES LETTRES, or polite literature, a very comprehensive expression, though not easily de- fined. Our industrious predecessors, ihe editors of the " Eticyclopcedia Britannica" justly complain that they cannot find either a clear de- finition, or a succinct explanation, cf the. word;- .&'// Lett res, nor any BEL summary of those sciences which are comprehended under this ge- neral and collective denomination. "With diffidence we venture to as- sert, that, to us, it docs not appear a vague term ; and though neither the voluminous French nor English Dictionaries contain an analysis of this expression, our difficulties, in- this respect, are by no means in- surmountable. When we consider the influence or effect of polite literature on the moral and intellectual character of man, it may be defined to be that extensive ramification of the sul- jt'ccit'e sciences, which are peculi- arly calculated to improve the heart, and enlarge the mind, in contradistinction to those nlji-i-ttrc, or physical sciences, which princi- pally tend to increase the know- ledge of the .senses, while they ex- plain the nature of external ob- jects, and are therefore denomi- nated Natural and Experimental Philosophy, including Natural His- tory in all its branches. Of the latter, we shall treat in their proper places ; and confine our analysis, at present, to the Belles Ltttres. These useful and elegant acquire- ments distinguish the accomplished scholar from tin illiterate mechanic, who studies and applies the effects of motion, form, variety, andaction, while the former endeavours to ac- count for their causes. It would be inconsistent with our plan, to accompany every department of polite literature with a separate de- finition ; which would extend this article beyond its proper limits. Hence we shall content ourselves^ with exhibiting merely an outline of the branches of this extensive tret- of learning. ] . The Arts of Speech, compre- hending Oratory and Poetry; whidi BEL last is again divided into epic, dra- matic, lyric, c. 2. Ornamental Gardening. 3. Elegant Architecture. 4. Music, vocal and instru- mental. 5. The Gymnastic Arts, such as Dancing, Fencing, Riding, &c. 6. The Art of Drawing, which includes Painting, Engraving, Carving on Wood, Basso Relievo, and Mosaic Work. 7- The Art of Printing, the most simple, but the most extensively useful. We cannot, on this occasion, differ in opinion from the Monthly Reviewer, who, in the 79th volume of that work, when analyzing the Transactions ot the Royal Society of Edinburgh, makes the following judicious remarks : The French, beside many other similar institu- tions, have long had their Academy of Sciences, and also that of Belles hi'tti'L-s. The gentlemen addicted to philosophical inquiries, knew the value of the former, and the Me- moirs of the Academy of Inscrip- tions and Belles Lettres form a body of criticism and curious in- vestigation, not equalled by any other polite nation in Europe. We have, indeed, in this country, the Royal Society, and the history of their Philosophical Transactions. W r hy polite literature has not been thought worthy of some public in- stitution, no good reason can be assigned. The true cause, per- haps, is, that political ferments, party disputes, the violence of fac- tion, and the interesting obje&s of trade, which naturally engross the thoughts of a great commercial country, may have contributed to make the poets, the historians, and the orators of antiquity, appear too frivolous, and umverthy ot' at- BEL 047 tendon. Letters, it is true, have been cultivated in England, not- withstanding all discouragements ; but it must be allowed, that they would have been cultivated to more advantage by a body of men assembled under the royal patro- nage. The want of such an in- stitution has been always considered as a reproach to this country. Even in the present age, which, to its honour, has given encouragement to the Arts, and, indeed, has raised them to a degree of unrivalled per- fection, the idea of such an academy- has never been started, or, at least, never pursued with effect. It is re- served, it seems, for our fellow- subjects of the north, to take the lead in this important business. BELL-FLOWER, or Campa- nula, L. a genus of plants compre- hending eighty species : of which, however, only nine are indigenous. The following are the principal : 1 . The rotundifoliu, or Round- leaved Bell-flower, which grows on heaths, and the borders of fields ; with long narrow lanceolated leaves on the stem, but heart or kidney- shaped, and sometimes oval leaves close to the ground 3 it produces blue or white flowers, in August and September. See WITHERING, 241 ; and CURTIS, Lond.J'asc, 4. t. 21. Cattle and Sheep -browse upon these flowers with avidity j and they are likewise useful in dye- ing. The milky juice of the white flowers is said to impart a beautiful green colour, by the addition of alum. The juice of the blue flowers alone has been used fqr painting and writing ; and DAJ.^OURNEY as- serts, that with these flowers he dyed wool and clqth of a fine rf gogne colour, having previously im- mersed them in a properly diluted solution of bismuth, B. 4 2, The 248] BEL 2. The rapnncuhis, or Rampion Bell-flower, with straight stalks two feet high, undulated leaves, those next the root short, lancc- .s'haped, and nearly oval : its small blue or white flowers, which ap- pear on the upper part of the stein, blow in July and August. See WITHERING, 242 ; and En-gl. Rot. t. 283. Formerly the rampion was cultivated in gardens, for its roots, which were used in salads ; and though much neglected, it is often met with in a wild state, on fal- lows, and beside, causeways ; espe- cially near Croydoh and Esher, in Surrey. 3. The Icitifolia, or Giant Bell- flower, with oval lance-shaped leaves, a very simple cylindrical stem, solitary flowers (in August), nnd pendent seed : it grows in thickets and under hedges. See WITH. 243, and Engl.Bot. t. 3O2. The roots of this species are like- wise an useful addition to salads. 4. The rapunailoid.es, or Creep- ing Bell-flower, with heart and fence-shaped leaves, a branchy' stalk, pendent flowers, and re- flected flower-cups. It grows in thickets, blows in August, but is extremely scarce, though it has for- merly been found in some woods among yew-trees, in Oxfordshire ; and recently at Blair, in Scotland. The roots of this species are like- wise esculent, and cattle are fond of its leaves. 6. The glomerata, or Clustered- Bell-flower, with angular stem-;, nnd sessile flowers terminating in a head. It grows on high calcareous hmds, and blossoms in July and August. See WITH. 244, and Eni-l. Hoi. t. (JO.. Although bees eagerly frequent the flowefs of this species, yet it should be carefully extirpated from meadows and B E L fields, as being a pernicious food for cattle. Bi'IKs. See DAISY. BELLOWS, an apparatus so contrived, ns alternately to inspire and expel the air. This machine is too well known to require a parti- cular description. It is used in chambers, kitchens, forges, and founderies, as likewise for organs, and other pneumatic instruments, to introduce into them a proper vo- lume of air. AXACHAKSIS, the Scythian, is recorded as the inventor of bellows, Their action bears an affinity to that of the lungs ; for what is called blowing in the former, is an illus- tration of respiring in the latter. Animal life may, on some occasions, be supported by blowing into the lungs with a pair of bellows ; espe- cially in accidents of drowning or suffocation. Hessian Bflloirs, a contrivance for supplying a mine with fresh air, for the respiration of the miners. This machine has been improved by M. PAPIX, who has changed its cylindrical into a spiral form. BELLY- ACH, or Colic, is a dis- ease which may arise from various causes, and is generally accompa- nied with costiveness, though some- times also with diarrhoea, especially in children. Adults frequent'' come liable to attacks of this ma- lady, in consequence of excess in eating, or after partaking of incon- gruous mixtures, or dishes, which may occasion a distension of the bowels. The symptoms of this complaint, in infants, are, sudden cries, con- traction of the thighs towards the belly, striking with the feet, distor- tions of the face, not unlike those in laughing, hastily seizing and re- linquishing the maternal breasts, acid BEN acid eruptions, Src. If the child be costive, it will be necessary to relieve the bovrcls with very small doses of manna and rhubarb, given in chomomile tea, every half hoar, till they produce die desired eriect : .omctimes a small quantity of the powder of gum arabic is an useful jiddition. When green feces are discharged, a few drains of mag- nesia, with one or two of rhubarb, according to the nge of die infant, may be given with advantage; but the greatest benefit will, on such occasions, be derived from a proper application of clyster.-,, composed either of a decoction of chamomile, with a spoonful or two of sweet oil, and a few grains of salt; or milk, oil and sugar, or merely a solution of white soap and water; which last is the cheapest, and most cfri- cacious. Cataplasms, or the com- mon poultice, made of bread, milk, and oil, mav likewise be applied to the lower part of the belly, and re- peated as often as they grow cold ; adding every time the necessary portion of new milk, to give them a proper consistence. See COLIC. Hells,acroaTitfitic. Sec QUACKE- RY. Jiiwfit nf'Cfergi/. See CLEKG Y. BENE-SKEDVthe production of -an American plant, the botanical name of Which we have, not been able to ascertain. According to a letter of Mr. J. MOKKL, inserted in the lirst volume of the " Tranxac- tinttf! of the America n Philosophical S'lciet'/ ;" this seed yields an oil of an equal, and even preferable qua- lity, to Florence oil : one hundred \veight of seed will produce ninety pounds of oil ; its cultivation, there- fore, deserves to be strongly recom- mended. BENT GRASS, or ^m/w, a genus of grasses comprehending forty-one species, of which., accord- BEN [-47 ing to Dr. SMITH, only cidit are indigenous; though Dr.. HULL enumerate.-? fourteen : of these, however, we shall take notice of only two : 1. The Stncart-nti, or Silky Bent-grass: it grows to the height of three or four feet, oil drv sandy fields. See WITH. 120'. "W'hea young, it affords a tolerable fodder for cattle; but should not be given to them in its mature state, as ii-? sharp leaves are apt to injure their gums. AVith a decoction of the brown flowers and stalks of this species, linen may be dved of a pleading yellow colour, merclr bv icd dippings, without any- farther addition, except a little alum, which gives it a greenish shade. The stalks are iiM-d by the Russians and Tartars, for ma- iu:i':ictur'mg beautiful basket-work. 2. The stf:: ';?;;/ To, Creeping Bent-grass, or Blue Squitch- grass, grows in ir.oiit -fields and mead ows ; see W i T H . 13 1 . It deserves to be cultivated, as it produces a wholesome and nourish- ing fodder for cattle ; and, at the same time, suppresses the growth of mosses, and other weeds, by its quick and luxuriant vegetation. BEXZOIXK, a concrete resin- ous juice, obtained, according to Mr. DKYAXDER, from the Sft/rur lemn'e, L. a tree which groves chiclly in the island of Sumatra. It is imported from the East Indies, in large masses composed of white and light brown pieces, or yel- lowish drops, which easily break between the fingers. This resin is extremely fragrant, especially when heated; and, in a cold state, it has a sweetish taste. When exposed, in proper ves- sels, to the action of fire, benzome yields a considerable proportion of a white saline concrete, called : Flowers 250] BEN Flower* of Renzolnc, or Ren wit: add : this chemical production is obtained in a cheap and easy way, invented by Mr. SCHEELE ; his process is as follows : Take one dram of the salt of ben/.oine, and dissolve it gradually in three oilpces of boiling water j then strain the liquor, while, hot, into a glass vessel which has previously been heated; let it stand till the crystals are formed, and afterwards care- fully decant the solution, and se- parate all the salt, by repeated gentle evaporations and crystalli- zations. As, on account of their extreme lightness, flowers of ben- zoine cannot be easily reduced to powder, it is advisable to preserve them in the form of a line precipi- tate. When properly made, they have an agreeable taste and a fra- grant smell. Spirit of wine dis- solves them completely, as well as \vater by the assistance of heat. In order to keep them suspended in the latter medium, sugar must be added, and, in that state, they may be easily formed into a bal- samic syrup. In diseases of the breast, from twenty to thirty grains were formerly administered, and held in great estimation as a pec- toral and sudorific medicine ; but they are at present seldom em- ployed, except as an ingredient in the well-known paregoric elixir, and likewise in the camphorated tincture of opium. As a perfume and cosmetic, the solution of flowers of benzoine still maintain their reputation at the toilette ; though, we believe, that their elHcacy is not superior to the crystals of lemon juice, or even the salt obtained from the ashes of bean-straw, and that their agree- able; odour is the only superiority which they possess, BEN Bejixoine, or a Salt of similar properties to that obtained from the Styrax lenzo'e, L. ha.i lately been discovered by the French chemists, in the urine of different animals, especially horses, 4rom which it may be precipitated in a white powder, by adding only a small proportion of muriatic acid, or spirit of salt. But this lenzoic acid lias been found in still greater quantities in the urine of cows and horses, in which hay and straw had been soaked. Hence, near cow-houses ad stables, where great numbers of cattle ar,e fed, it may be easily manufactured in the large way, by combining this va- luable acid with lime, and after- wards precipitating it by the ma- rine acid, which will effectually remove the offensive smell. Probably the urine of all herba- ceous animals contains Uie ben- zoic acid in abundance; as it ap- pears to be chiefly derived from the sweet-scented spring grass, or Anikoxant/wm odoratum, L. This fragrant substance has likewise been discovered in the urine of in- fants, by M. SCHEELE : he, how- ever, observes, that he could pre- cipitate it in considerable quanti- ties, only during that stage of in- fancy when there existed no phos- .phoric acid, or similar salt in the urine ; or, in other words, while the phosphoric ingredients were em- ployed by Nature in the formation of bones. This remarkable pheno- menon also proves, that the ben- zoic acid is actually generated in the animal economy ; because the first nourishment of infants, the mother's milk, does not appear to contain it. Hence the French chemists have endeavoured to ex,- plain the cause of the rapid forma- tion of bones during early infancy j HER because the phosphoric acid of the urine of infants, and the phosphat of lime contained in milk, both be- ing deposited in a solid form, con- tribute to the consolidation of the animal frame : and these two sub- stances have, by chemical analysis, been found to serve as the basis of bones. BERBERRIES/ or Barberries, the Jiert-t'ris, L. a slirub better known by the name of Pipcridge tush. There are three species of this plant, but one, only is indige- nous, namely, the vu/guris, or Common Berberry, which grows spontaneously in hedges in many 4>arts of England and Scotland, and is frequently cultivated in gardens for its fruit, which makes a good pickle, and is used for garnishing dishes. It ri:-es to the height of eight or ten feet, with many stalks, which have externally awhile bark, but yellow on die inside: the stalks and branches are thorny ; the leaves are oval, and obtuse, with siighdy serated edges ; the blossoms grow at the wings of the leaves, in small bunches, like diose of the currant bush : these are succeeded by oval fruit, which are at first green, but when ripe turn to a fine red colour. The flowers appear in May and June j and the fruit ripens in Sep- tember. SeeWiTH.350, and Eiivl. Bot. 4f). There are three varieties of this shrub, viz. the berberry, which bears a fruit without stones ; the berberry with white fruit ; and die cistern burberry, or diat which product s a black and sweet fruit. The first sort is generally propa^ gated by suckers, but the method of planting by layers is preferable. The best time for laying down the brunches, is in autumn ; and the yourg shoots ojf the same year ire EER [251 most proper for this purpose. W; en this shrub is cultivated for its fruit, it should be planted singly, and not in hedges, as \\as formerly tlic practice ; the suckers should be cut up every autumn, aad the .luxu- riant shoots pruned 3 by this means the fruit will be more abundant, and of a butter quality than that which grows wild. The third spe- cies should be planted in pots, and sheltered as soon as die young shoots are taken olf, till die plants have acquired strength, when they inay be removed to a wanner situa- tion . -Berberries, on account of their astringent properties, have occa- sionally been prescribed in bilious diarrhoea?. Tiie I'.^yptii.ns u.-iU them in rinx.es and malignant fe- vers, for abating heat, invigorating the body, and preventing putrefac- tion. For this purpose the fruit, according to Dr. LEWIS, should be macerated for twenty-four hours, in twelve times its weight of water, with the addition of a little fennel- seed ; the liquor, when strained, should be sweetened with sugar, or syrup of lemons, and given libe- rally as a drink. The flowers, when near, are offensive to die smell, but at a distance their odour is extreme- ly fragrant. An infusion of the bark in white wine, is purgative-. In distillation, the berries, when previously bruised, have been mixed with the grain to increase the quan- tity of spirituous liquors. The roots, boiied iu ley, impart a yellow colour to wool 5 and in Poland, leather is tanned of a most beautiful yel.ow with the bark of the root. The in- ner bark also, widi the addition of alum, has been employed for dye- ing linen of a similar colour. The effect of this shrub upon wheat lands is truly singular ; and though 252] fcER though well known to botanists, is not familiar to every farmer. "When growing "m the. hedges near corn- fields, it changes the ears to a dark brown colour, and prevents them from tilling} nay, its influence in this respect has often extended across a field to the distance of three or four hundred yards : it should, therefore, be carefully eradicated from lands appropriated to tillage. Jt is eaten by cows 1 , sheep, and goats, but rejected by swine. BERE', or Barley -![, or Square Parley, is a very strong- luxuriant plant, both in grain and straw : it resembles bailey in growth, and cone- wheat in si/e. It is generally cultivated in Ireland, for malt, in the best and richest soil, usually after potatoes : the time ot sowing is between Michaelmas and Christ- mas, at the rate of one barrel, which is t\vo hundred weight, to ;>.n Irish acre ;' and its produce is said to be, generally, from twenty to twenty- live barrels an acre. Two bushels and a half of st ed to an English acre, will be in the same propor- tion. For the information of those readers who are not acquainted with the difference in the measure- ment of land, we shall observe, that five Irish are equal to eight English acres and fifteen perches, or 7O.560 feet to an Irish, and 4.'3 060 feet to an English, acre. The culture of bere is recom- mended in this country 1. Be- cause it will succeed extremely well in any soil fit to produce a crop of I .irk-., and even on cold stilMa-nds, where barky will not thrive : 2. As it ript us from one to three weeks r than a nv other grain: 3. ]t may, if generally cultivated, be in- troduced into our malt-distilleries, not only instead of barley, but, what is of much greater import- BER ancr, as a substitute for wheat, of which so much is used in these ma- nufactories : and, lastly, it may, with great advantage, be given to swine, instead of barley-meal. Moreover, it has been asserted, that an acre of land will yield more of this grain than of barley. Bere labours under the disad- vantage of not being easily cleared of its anns, or beard. This has been imputed to carelessness in cleans- ing, or preserving it from moisture in the stacks } but the difficulty U more probably owing to the grain being cut down before it is tho- roughly ripe. If sown earlier than, usual, it is still more productive. A correspondent, in a letter to the editors of the " Museum Rusti- cuiii," &rc. mentions a curious cir- cumstance respecting the cultiva- tion of this grain: " Amongst some wheat," sa) s he, " that was sown last year, a small quantity of bere happened to be mixed ; all of which bere is now in the ear, and in the most flourishing condition I ever beheld : even the long-continued easterly wind has not in the least affected it ; and we may expect it to be ripe very soon. I could earn- estly desire some of your readers to try this experiment, and shall endeavour to have it done myself. There are many of your readers who would be glad that this grain had a better character, as to its cleanliness ; and I am persuaded it would come into great esteem everv where." BEUGAMOT, a variety of the citron, produced by grafting the latter on the stock of a bergamot- pear-tree. The fruit has an exqui- site smell and flavour ; and its es- sence is highly esteemed a's a per- fume. It is extracted -from the rind of .the fruit ; by culling it into- upali BER BER Small pieces, and expressing the oil into a glass vessel. A fragrant water is distilled from the peel, as follows : Take the rind of three bergamot-pears, one gallon of pure spirit, and four pints of water ; draw off a gallon in a balneum ma- rls, or water-bath, and add a sufr ticient quantity of refined white sugar : or, take of the essence of bergamot three drams and a half, spirit of wine three pints, and of volatile sal ammoniac one dram 5 distil off three pints in a similar manner. BERNE -MACHINE, an en- gine for rooting up trees, invented by P. SOMM ER, a native of Berne, ia Switzerland. This machine consists of three principal parts : the beam, the ram, and the lever. The beam is composed of two planks of oak, three inches thick, and separated by two transverse pieces of the same wood, of an equal thick- ness. These planks are perforated with holes to receive iron pins, upon which the lever acts be- tween the two sides of the beam, and is shifted higher as the tree is raised out of its place. The sides are secured at the top and bottom by strong iron hoops. The pins should be an inch and a quarter, and the holes through which they pass, an inch and a half in dia- meter. When the machine is in action, the bottom of the beam is secured by stakes driven into the earth. The ram, which is made of oak, elm, or some other strong wood, is capped with three strong iron spikes, which take fast hold of the tree. This ram is six or eight inches square ; and an inci- sion is made longitudinally through its middk, from the lower end to liie first ferule, in order to allow room for the chain to play round the pulley, which should be four inches thick, and nine inches in diameter. The ram is raised by- means of the chain, which should be about ten feet long, with links four, inches and three quarters in length, and one inch thick. One end ot this chain is fastened to the top of the beam, while the other, after having passed through ths lower part of the ram, and ever the pulley, terminates in a ring or link, the two ears of which serve to keep it in a true position between the two planks of the beam. The hook, which should be made of very tough iron, is inserted in this ring ; and the handle ought to he- two inches thick where it joins to the hook, and gradually lessen i;i thickness np to the arch, which should be about half an inch ^11 diameter. On each side of the uppv-r pin is a semi-circular notch, which rests alternately on the pins, when the machine is worked. The hole and arch serve to fix. a long lever of wood, by means of two iron pins, and thus it is raised or lowered at pleasure, in order to render the working of the machine easy, in whatever part of die beam it may be placed ; for, without thi contrivance, the extremity of the lever would, when the handle is near the top of the beam, be higher than men standing upon the ground could reach. This machine is worked in the following manner : it is placed against a tree, and die end of the beam supported by stakes. The iron handle is placed in the open- ing between the two planks of die beam, and the wooden lever lixeJ to it, by means of the iron pins. The hook takes hold of the chain, and one of die iron pins is thrust ifito s.; 4 ] BET into the outer row of holes, by which means the exterior notch will rest on the pin, which will be the centre of motion ; and the end of the lever being pressed downward*, the other notch will be raised, at the same time the thain, and consequently the ram. Afterwards, the other iron pin is to be put into the hole in the inner row, above that which was before the centre of motion, nnd the end of the lever elevated or pushed up- vards, the latter pin on which the notch rests then becoming the cen- tre of motion. By this alternate motion of the lever, and shifting the pins, the chain is drawn up- wards over the pulley, and conse- quently the whole force of the engine exerted against the tree. There is a small wheel joined to the end of the ram opposite the pulley, in order to lessen the fric- tion of that part of the machine. From this account, the reader will perceive that the machine is a single pulley, pompoonded with a lever of the first and second order. As the push of the engine is given in an oblique direction, it will exert n greater or less force against the horizontal roots of the tree, in pro- portion to the angle formed by the machine with the plane of the ho- rizon ; and the angle of 4.T is the maximum, or that when the ma- chine will exert its greatest force ngainst die horizontal roots of the tree. Bcthlihc.in. See STAR of Beth- lehem. JBETOXY (Wood), m Bclomca offidnaKs, L. a low perennial plant, growing wild in woods, and thick- ets ; its flowers, which appear in July and August, are of a purplish colour, nnd stand in spikes on the tops of the stalks. See WITH. BEZ 530 ; and CURT. Loud. fuse. 3* t. 33. Tanners have employed this plant as a substitute for oak-bark ; and, according to D.VMBOURNEY, the leaves and branches of the betony, when in blossom, may be used for dyeing wool of a permanent dark- brown colour, when previously dressed in a weak solution of bis- muth. The leaves nnd flowers have a bitterish taste, accompanied with a weak aromatic flavour. They are mild corroborants, and, when in- fused, 01 gently boiled, the decoc- tion may be drank as tea : a strong tincture made in rectified spirit, has proved beneficial in laxity and debility, when taken in small, re- peated doses. It is remarkable, that the roots of this plant greatly differ in qua- lity from the other parts : the for- mer are bitter, nauseous, and, like the roots of hellebore, occasion violent diarrhoea, when taken in a small dose. It is farther affirmed, that betony affects those who ga- ther any quantity of its leaves and flowers, with a disorder resembling the effects of intoxication. Sein/a. See BIRCH. BKZOAR, in natural history and medicine, is a calculous con- cretion, found in the stomach of animals of the goat kind. It is a morbid substance, possessing nei- ther taste nor smell, and it cannot be considered in any other light than as a weak absorbent. In a more comprehensive sense, bczonr includes all concrete substances formed in the intestines of ani- mals : hence pearls, and the con- cretions called crab's eyes, belong to the class of bezoars. Fn.f.til Jinoar, is a kind of stone formed like the animal bezoar of several BIE several coats round some extrane- ous body. It is found in Sicily, in sand and clay-pits. Bldens. See MARYGOLD. BIENNIAL PLANTS are those, of only two years duration. Several vegetables are of this tribe : being- raised from seed, they generally at- tain perfection the first year ; and in the following spring, or summer, they produce their flowers and seeds, and soon afterwards decay. Biennials consist of esculents, and flower-plants. The former in- clude the cabbage, savoy, carrot, parsnip, beet, onion, leek, cc.; and the latter,* the Canterbury bell, French honey-suckle, wall-flower, stock July-flower, Sweet- William, China-pink, common-pink, carna- tion, scabious, holly-hock, tree- mallow, vervain-mallow, tree-prim- rose, honesty, or moonwort, &c. ; ell of which, if sown in March, April, or May, rise the same year, and in the following, shoot up into stalks, i'ower, and produce per- fect seeds in autumn. Though most of the biennials dwindle in the third year, a few of them, par- ticularly holly-hocks, wall-flowers, carnations, and pinks, produce flowers which, however, are gene- rally small, and of faint colours. Hence it is necessary to raise an annual supply from seed ; though the three last mentioned plants may be propagated by slips and layers. BILBERRY,' or the Paidnitn*, L. is a plant of which, according to BECHSTF.IX, there are twentv-six species, while others enumerate only fifteen : of these, the following are indigenous : 1. The myrtilhif, or Bilberry, \vhich grows in abundance, in woods and heaths. See WITHE- RING, 370, 'and Engl. Bot. 456. The- herriet*, when ripe, are of a B1L [itf dark-blue colour; and, on account of their astringent quality, are oc- casionally .given in diarrhoeas, with good err'e6t. In Scotland, thev are eaten by the Highlanders, in milk; and likewise used in tarts and jel- : they produce a violet-coloured dye, which requires to be fixed with alum. The juice, mixed with a fourth part of lime, veniigrise, and sal ammoniac, affords a purple pigment used by artists. The vounsj tender leaves of this plant, properly- dried, are an excellent substitute for tea. 2. The utiginosum, or Great Bilberry, is found on marshy heaths . See WITHBRIHO, 3/6, and Engl. Bat. 581. The fruit of this species is not so much esteem- ed as that of the preceding, be- cause, if eaten in any quantity, it is apt to occasion head-ach. 3. The Iritis Idtca, or Red "Whortle Berry, which grows ou heaths, and in woods. SCC"\\'ITHER- ING, 3"1, and Engl. But. 50: >. Its fruit is acid, and cooling. J;i Sweden, it is eaten in the form of a jelly. The young leaves of this spe- cies might also be advantageously used instead of tea ; from which they can scarcely be distinguished. 4. The Oft/coccus, or Cranberry, is common in bogs covered with mosses. It grows abundantly in, the north of England, likewise on Dersingham moor, in Norfolk, and in Scotland and Ireland. See WITH.' 372, and Engl. Eot. 31p. Great quantities of these berries are used in confectionary, as deli- cious ingredients in tarts ; to which they impart a rich flavour. A con- siderable traffic is carried on with cranberries, in the northern coun- ties; insomuch, that at Longtown, in Cumberland, alone, the amount of a market-day's sale, is said to be from 256] i* I L from 20 to ;;oi. ft dcscrvrs to be added, that this fruit may be kept in a fresh state for many years, merely by immersing k in a bottle filled with spr .and closely stop|xvl. Silver. !>oilcd in a decoc- tion of the- berries, acqui /whiter and mo;v bc.autiful lustre. All the spr bilberry an- ar.tUcptic ; and their juices, mixed with sugar, and properly fernK r.tcd, may be- converted into .vratrful and wholesome domestic BILE, is a yellow, or greenish, 5tiponaceons liqv\or, secreted in the liver, and collected in the gall- bladder, into which it regurgitates, as it \\crc, into a blind gut, and is thence discharged inlo the lower end of the daoacntnn, or beginning of the j-'junurn. (S, c AHDOMKN). Its principal use appears to be that of sheathing or blunting the acids contained in our daily food, and thus enabling the milky liquor, called chyle, after being mixed with bile in the duodenum, to enter the lacleal veins, or milk vessels, which convey a nutritious supply to the whole body. (See LACTEALS). Hence an increased quantity of aliment requires a greater proportion of bile, to pro- mote its digestion ; and, accord- ingly as the stomach is more or less distended with food, it presses on the gall-bladder to obtain a pro- portionate quantity of bile, which is then mixed with the chyle, as before described. See (Jn YL K. and LIVKK. Bile is a very important fluid in the animal economy, insomuch, that from an excessive secretion of it, the inhabitants of warm climates become liable to many tedious and oiten fatal diseases. A super- abundance- of bile in the first pas- R 1L . t-ithrr flows again into fue. stomach, and is productive of ge- neral languor, nausea, a foul tongue, loss off appetite, and indi- i : or, when it is determined intcsunes, it is generally at- tended with a painful dinrrha:a. la the tempt -rate climates, how- c\i .', a \itiat eil and superfluous bile is more frequently diffused through the whole body. in tins case, the >kiu assumes a yel- low colour, the urine becomes .-.cuubly impregnated with bilious matter, the pulse is preternatural- ly quick, and the patient com- piains of heat, thirst, head-ach, and other symptoms of fever. His body becomes gradually emaciated, and his visage strongly indicate^ the dis- order of the constitution. Various are the causes of this rxten.-iu 1 de- rangement of the different bodily functions ; but we may safely as- sert, that most persons, particular- ly in li.ot climates, contract billon* diarrhoeas, colics, fevers, and chronic diseases of the liver, by intemper- ance in eating animal food, drink- ing spirituous liquors, and by brav- ing the sudden transitions of tem- perature, from the intense heat of day to the piercing chilness of night, aud thus checking insensible per- spiration one of the most neces- sary excretions of the human body. For the cure of such maladies as may arise from numerous and di- ver.silied causes, no general plan can be safely prescribed. But it deserves to be remarked, that the? greatest bench' t may be derived from adopting a proper diet and regimen ; both with a view to prevent and relieve bilious diseases. Hence we \voulu advise persons liable to eruc- tations, flatulency, and costiv which arise from a vitiated bjie, to abstain om all acrid, watery, and oily BIL oily food, especially tatter and fat meat; to abandon hot liquors, such as tea, coffee, punch, 8>rc. to regu- late the depressing passions of grief, anger, and anxiety ; to exchange a hasty and irascible for a more placid and com{>osed temper ; and on the whole to pursue a calm, steady, and temperate course of life. Initiated Bile, is a common dis- ease in infants, who are suckled by intemperate or passionate nurses; or, in consequence of their being fed with improper nutriment, such as viscid pap made of flour, instead of biscuit or well baked bread j animal food, before they are twelve months old ; gingerbread and pastry. Tnis complaint manifests ittelf by green stools, and an acrid quality of the bile, which even excoriates the flesh : the child expresses its pain by incessant crying, and draw- ing up of the legs. Nature, there- fore, frequently removes the evil by copious evacuations, which are spontaneously excited by the acri- monious state of the humours. Hence die impropriety of admini- stering chalk clysters combined with laudanum, or other cordials, and thus in a manner locking up the poison within the intestines ; while the infant becomes most ef_- fedually intoxicated. Thence arise convulsions, enlargement of the mesentery, a principal, though re- mote, cause of consumption; the scald head; and scrophula in all its forms. Instead of following those dangerous practices, which are cal- culated only to aggravate the com- plaint, two circumstances ought to be attended to, namely, i . To re- move tlie stimulating matter, by repeated small doses of tamarinds, combined with a solution of manna; and 2. To counteract the preler- NO. ir. VOL. i. BIL [257 natural weakness and irritability of the intestinal canal, by the addition of gum 'arable, powder of salep- root, or a little jelly made of Iceland moss. In cases, however, where considerable acidity prevails, it will be advisable to give a few grains of magnesia, in intermediate doses : but, if the spasmodic strictures of the abdomen continue, a medical practitioner should be consulted, whether it be proper to have re- course to a few drops of laudanum, or paregoric elixir, remedies which ought never to be intrusted to dabblers in medicine. BILL, in husbandry and mecha- nics, an edged tool, made of iron, with a curvated point. It is much used by gardeners, for pruning trees, and by plumbers and basket- makers. When fitted to a short handle, it is called a hand-bill 5 when to a long one, a hedge-bill. BILL, in law, a declaration in writing, either of some injury which the plaintiff has suffered from the defendant, or an offence committed by the person complained of, against some law or statute of the realm. BILL, in commerce, a security for the payment of money given under the hand of the debtor, by which he is bound to pay the sum specified either on demand, or at some future day, according to the agreement of the parties. In case of failure, the payment may be legally enforced. These bills must be written on stamped paper: if under 301. the duty is 8d.j if above 30)1. and not cxceeding50l. it is Is. ; above 5Ol. and not ex- ceeding lOOl. the duty is Is. 4d. j and above lOOl. and not exceeding 2001. it is 2s. BANK-BILL, is an obligation signed on behalf of a company of bankers, by one of tiieir cashier-:, S foe BIN for value received, and payable on demand. " BILL of EXCHANGE, a secu- rity among merchants in different countries, for the more easy remit- tance of money from the one to the other. This mode of facilitating payment in commerce, is now ex- tended to almost every kind of pe- cuniary transactions. BILL of LADING, an acknow- ledgment signed by the master of a ship, and given to a merchant. It contains an account of the goods re- ceived on board by the former from the latter, with a promise to deliver them at a certain place, for a speci- fied ^um. BILLS of MORTALITY, ' are ac- counts of the number of births and burials in a certain district, dur- ing a week, month, quarter of a year, or a whole year. The London Bills of Mortality are composed by the company of parish-clerks, and express the number of each sex ; specifying also the various diseases of which they died. BILL of SALE, is an instrument by which a person who delivers goods as a security to the lender of a sum of money, empowers him to sell them, if the sum borrowed be not repaid at the appointed time. BINDWEED, or Convolvulus, L. a genus of plants, comprising forty-three species, of which only three are natives, namely : 1 . The arvensis, or Small Bind- weed, a common plant in fields and hedges, but particularly trou- blesome in gardens of a gravelly soil ;" its white and red flowers ap- pear in June and July. See WITH. 230, and Engl. Bot. 312. As the roots of this plant, particularly in wet seasons, strike deep into the ground, and injure the growth tof corn, they ought to be carefully BIN extirpated, and transplanted ort the sandy banks of rivers and lakes, where they greatly tend to bind the soil. Bees are uncommonly partial to the flowers of the con- volvulus ; and it is eagerly eaten, by black cattle, and sheep. 2. The sepium, or Great Bind- weed, likewise a pernicious plant in gardens ; it thrives under moist hedges ; its stalk grows to the height of several feet, and bears white or purplish blossoms in July and August. See WITH. 240, and Engl. Bot. 313. The root of this species is very acrid and pur- gative to the human constitution ; but does not affe6l swine, though eaten in large quantities. Its flowers are frequented by bees. 3. The soldanella, or Sea Bind- weed, grows on die sandy" shores of the sea, but cannot be long preserved in gardens; its purple flowers blow in July. See WITH. 24O, and Engl. Bot. 314. This species is also possessed of cathar- tic properties, so that half an ounce of the juice of the root, or one dram of the powder, is a strong dose. The leaves of the Sea Bindweed have often been ex- ternally applied for the reduction of dropsical swellings of the legs ; and, it is asserted, with good effect. Among the exotic species of this plant, we shall only mention the Ccrnvolvuhts Jalappa, or Jalap, a native of Spanish America, which affords the drastic medicine of that name ; the Batatas, or Spanish Potatoes, a delicious root imported from Portugal and Spain, but too delicate to thrive in the open air of our climate ; the scoparhts, or Bushy Bindweed, which grows wild in the island of Barrancas, and affords, it is said, the fragrant oil and wood of Rhodium ; and, lastly, BIO lastly, the Scammonia, or Syrian Bindweed, from the inspissated juice of which is prepared the effi- cacious purgative substance known by the name Sc AMMO NY. BINDWEED, Black : SeeClimb- ing BUCKWHEAT. BIOGRAPHY, an account of the lives and characters of remark- able persons. It is the most en- tertaining and instructive branch of history, and admits of the descrip- tion and passion of romance, with this essential difference, that the characters and incidents ought not only to be agreeable to Nature, but strictly true. Hence no books are so proper for the amusement and instruction of youth, who, by read- ing them, are incited to the imita- tion of great and virtuous actions ; while they are deterred from vice, by an animated delineation of its baneful effects. As the subjects -of biography are the lives of either public or private persons, many useful observations may be made from authentic ac- counts of those who have been eminently beneficial to society. Nay, even the lives of immoral characters may serve as a warning to deter others, and especially youth, from listening to the temptations of iolly and vice. Philanthropists, who have ex- posed their lives, or employed their faculties in the service of their fel- low-creatures, deserve that their memory should be perpetuated, both as a tribute of public gratitude, and as virtuous examples in the annals of histoiy. The love of fame is natural to the human mind ; and, when properly directed, is at once productive of happiness to the individual, and general benefit to mankind. In the lives of great men, their public cliara6ters are principally to be regarded ; but, as the world is inquisitive, the investigation of their private conduct may also occasion- ally be useful, to illustrate the in- fluence of example. On the other hand, too minute an inquiry into the foibles and infirmities of emi-> nent men, is an illiberal and cen- surable curiosity. Among the an- cient biographers, PLUTARCH is generally allowed to excel. On the relative merits of the moderns, we shall not venture to pronounce ; as this would be an invidious and un- pleasing task. BIRCH-TREE (Common), or Betula alia, L. is one of the indi- genous trees which has already been mentioned under the head of " AL- DER-TREE," though the latter is only a species of the same genus, and ought more properly to have been denominated Betula alnus, L. The white, or common birch- tree, is not of a large growth, but when cultivated in a favourable soil, and a good situation, it rises to a considerable height. There is a degree of elegance in its ge- neral appearance in summer, and the bark in winter is frequently variegated with red and white. It is easily cultivated by the usiial method ; but, when raised from seed, the young shoots of the birch should remain two years in the seminary, and then be trans- planted in rows. They may also be propagated by layers : for this purpose, a sufficient number of plants should be placed at a dis- tance of three yards from each other, in a soil which has been twice turn- ed by the spade. If, in the follow- ing year, they should produce no shoots, they may be lopped to with- in half a foot of the ground, to form the stools, in consequence of which S 2 they 260] B I R they will germinate with vigour in the following summer. In autumn, the young shoots should be plashed near the stools, and the tender twigs layered near the end's. Thus managed, they will have taken root, and become fine plants, the following autumn. The wood of the birch is of very extensive use, as we have before Plated under the article ALDEH. Prof. PALLAS informs us, that the Tartars cover their huts with its bark, and the navigators of the Volga construe!: of it portable boats, cradles, &c. ; it is also used in fu- migations, to purify a vitiated at- mosphere. The Laplanders cut the outer bark into thongs, of which they manufacture ropes, baskets, and other utensils ; and it even forms some part of their wearing apparel : it is also used in dyeing ; and, as a substitute for oak-bark, in tanning. The Swe- dish house-wives employ this bark, after burning it to a certain degree, as a cement for broken china, or earthen-ware. When boiled with alum, it affords a dye of a dark- red colour. DAMEOURNEY asserts, that the bark is better for tanning, when dried, than in a fresh state. For this purpose, it is cut into small pieces, and boiled for half an hour in pure water ; and the prepared hides are steeped in it, whileluke- warm. The ley is again boiled on the two following days, and the steeping of the leather as often re- peated ; after which it is suspended to dry in the air. Leather thus prepared, is said to, be water-proof. The leaves of the birch give a yellowish colour to wool, which has been previously prepared with alum. Those collected in the spring, however, are not so pro- per for dyeing, as the autumnal BIR leaves ; because the former pro- duce a greenish tinge ; but the lat- ter afford a beautiful yellow colour. They have aiso been used in the dropsy, itch, &c. either applied externally, or in decoctions taken by the mouth. The fungus wliich grows on the trunk of the birch-tree, is a very good styptic ; and when boiled in. water, beaten, and dried in an oven, it makes excellent touch- wood. Birch-twigs are used for fishing rods and brooms ; as well as by bird-catchers, who smear them with bird-lime. Birch- Jf^iiie was formerly in considerable repute, as a remedy for nephritic disorders, b'.:t is dis- used in modern practice. As it is a rich cordial, and, according to Dr. NEEDHAM, an excellent re- medy for consumption, and the scurvy, we shall acquaint our readers with the method of pre- paring it ; though we have no ex- perience of its medicinal powers. The juice or sap of the birch- tree, should be extracted about the beginning of March, when the buds begin to swell, and before they have opened .their leaves. An incision, or hole must be made in. the trunk, Almost as deep as the pith, under some branch of a well-spreading tree, on its south- western side, and about one foot above the ground : a hollow tube should then be fitted to the aper- ture, through which the sap will fldw similar to distillation. On ap- plying a little mould to the orifice, the wound will heal, and the bark afterwards close. Some persona are of opinion, that the sap drawn from the trunk of the tree, is not so 'pure as that obtained from its higher branches. To prevent this juca BIR juice from fermenting, till a suffi- cient quantity is procured, the bottles in which it is collected, ought to be immediately stopped. One of the best methods of making birch-wine is as follows : to every gallon of the sap, add a pint of honey, or a pound of sugar, stir the whole together, and boil it for an hour with a few cloves, and a little lemon peel ; at the same time carefully scum the rising impurities. When coo!, a few spoonfuls of new ale should be added, to induce a proper degree of fermentation : and, after the yeast has settled, the wine should be bottled up, and kept for use. If this liquor be prepared with pro- per attention, it becomes so strong that the common stone bottles, into which it is decanted, fre- quently burst, BIRCH-TREE (Dwarf), or, Be- tula nana, L. an indigenous, creep- ing plant, which grows on moist heaths, and rarely exceeds three feet in height. It has roundish leaves, tender branches, a smooth bark, and its flower-catkins are uncommonly small : this diminu- tive tree, however, is more com- mon in the marshy parts of Russia, Sweden, and on the mountains of Lapland and Norway, than in Britain. From its fibrous roots, the Norwegians and Laplanders manufacture very beautiful car- pets ; and its leaves ers of l-',smnlh. To this mixture may be ascribed the property which bis- luuili-ore has of making sympa- thetic ink, similar to that formed by a solution of the regulus of co- balt. Sec INK. In dyeing, a solution of Tin- glass in aqua fortis has lately been recommended by DAMBOURNEY, for fixing certain colours on Wool, iu preference to alum, or other neu- tral salts. See DYEING. In medicine, the calx and flowers of bismuth were formerly used, In cases Vv'hcre a*itin;ouial prepa- BIS rations are now employed with greater safety, and equal eftett ; so that the former are, at pre- sent, chiefly converted into pig- ments and cosmetics. Neverthe- less, we are possessed of the most convincing proofs, that the mtigistery of bismuth is one of the most powerful anti-spasmodic*, especially in cramps of the sto- mscfi. When cautiously adminis- tered, in doses from half a grain to one grain, in simple water, re- peated every hatf hour, or oltener, according io circumstances, it af- fords speedy relief of the most ex- cruciating pain 5 and is, in this re- spect, of superior efficacy to the celebrated flowers of zinc. But we think it our duty to repeat, that lyjth medicines require the greatest precaution. BISTORT (Great), or Snake- weed ; the Polygonum listorta, L. a native species of knot-grass, most pi; ntiful on meadows and pastures, in the northern counties of Eng- land : it has a thick oblique root, about the size of a finger, blackish brown without, and reddish with- in ; a simple round, slender stem, nearly two feet high ; oval leaves, and the stalk terminates in thick short, spikes, of whitish red flowers, which appear in July, and are pro- ductive of seeds in August. See WITHERING, 382 ; and Engl. Bot. 509, As this indigenous plant is sub- servient to many useful purposes, \ve have been more particular in its description, than the limits, of our work will permit on future occasions. Cattle ana sheep are exceedingly partial to the herbage of the Great ;t ; but horses will not eat it. The young leaves 'are excellent for culinary use ; and a sraull quantity of BIS ef the root, reduced to powder, and added to the dough in baking, communicates an agreeable taste to the bread, and improves its sa- lubrity. The Great Bistort has likewise been usefully employed in the arts of dyeing and tanning. According to GLEDITSCH and BAUTSCH, two creditable authors, the herb with its blossom has, by tanners on the Continent, been found to be a pro- per substitute for oak-bark; and PAMBOURNEY assures us, that from the root of this plant he ob- tained a decoclion of a mordorc shade, in which he dyed wool of a real beaver colour, after having previously immersed it in a ley, sa- turated with a solution of bismuth. All the parts of this plant have a rough, austere taste : the root, in particular, is one of the strongest vegetable astringents produced in this climate ; and therefore justly recommended in intermittent fe- vers, immoderate hemorrhages, and other fluxes, both internally and externally, where the constitution of the patient requires such a me- dicine. According to a late popu- lar writer, it has often, and espe- cially in agues, been given in larger doses than those commonly admi- nistered : he has prescribed it both, alone, and together with gentian, to the amount of three drams in one day. It is allowed to be a very powerful styptic, and consequently possessed of antiseptic properties ; but we. doubt, whether it is suffi- ciently efficacious to supersede the use of the Peruvian bark, or even that of the white willow. BISTORT (Small), Welch, or Alpine; the Folygonum.vivipanim, L. is likewise an indigenous plant, which grows on the moorlands in several parts of Westmoreland and B 1 T [269 the North Riding of Yorkshire : it has a smaller root than the pre- ceding species ; a simple slender stem, six inches high, spear-shaped leaves, and the staiks and branches terminate by spikes of whitish red flowers, which appear in June or July, and bear seeds in August. See WITH. 383 ; and Eng. B-jt. 669. Although we have no distin6t account of the economical and physical uses of this plant, yet it may be rationally inferred, that it is not inferior to the preceding spe- cies. Indeed, GMELIN informs us, that its root is so far from being astringent, in the island of Kamt- schatka, that the inhabitants eat it in a raw state ; and STELLER, a late traveller, found it sufficiently sweet and nutritive, to support him without any other aliment, for se- veral dr.ys. The Samoiedes also eat it as a sweet and wholesome food. Several other nations dry and reduce tliis root to flour, of which they bake good bread. If credit be due to OLOFF, who has visited Iceland, the inhabitants of that inhospitable climate make bread, even of the ?mall knot's which grow on the upper part of the stalk. BITE, of a mad dog, an unfor- tunate acciderit which but too fre- quently happens in hot summers ; and is supposed to be occasioned chiefly by suffering that faithful animal to feed upon putrid meat, without supplying it with sufficient water ; but more probably origin- ates from a specific contagion, like the small-pox, &c. The disease thence arising in the ,human spe- cies, is called Caijine Madness, or, according to medical writers, Hy- drophobia; a term which littTaliy signifies " dread of water." This BIT This virulent disorder does not, in general, manifest itself till a considerable time after the bite ; for, though in some instances it has commenced in seven or eight days after the accident, the patient often continued in health for twen- ty, thirty, or forty days, nay, some- times for several months. If the wound be not prevented, it will, ill most instances, be healed long before the symptoms of the disease appear ; though it frequently resists all healing applications, and forms an ulcer discharging a quantity of matter. The approach of the dis- ease is known by the cicatrix of the wound becoming hard and ele- vated, and by a peculiar tingling sensation in the part affected ; pains shoot from it towards the throat : in some cases it is sur- rounded with livid or red streaks, and seems to be in a state of inflammation ; more frequently, however, no remarkable external change can be perceived. But the patient soon becomes melancholy, prefers solitude, and is troubled with nausea. Sometimes the cha- racteristic symptom of the disease, the dread of water, suddenly at- tack the patient, and every at- tempt to swallow liquids, is ac- companied with the most painful sensations. This appears to be a circumstance peculiar to the hu- man race ; for mad animals do not evince any dread of water. There is not the least doubt, that the disease is occasioned by the saliva of the mad creature being mixed with the human blood. Un- less, therefore, part of the true skin be injured, the poison will not be communicated ; but, in the con- trary case, the smallest quantity is sufficient to produce the fatal effect. Hence, if the cuticle has been BIT wounded, it is absolutely neces- sary to remove the surrounding muscular substance by the knife, and to lose no time in submitting to this operation ; as it is the only certain and effectual preventive. It is, however, of consequence previ- ously to be convinced, whether the animal has been actually mad; though it is affirmed by creditable writers, that the bite of creatures which were neither diseased nor raving, nay even the bite of healthy dogs, has been productive of hydro- phobia. Others have maintained, that the very breath of a mad dog, as well as the blood of a hydropho- bous patient touched by a sound person, have been attended with a similar effet. In order to ascertain whether a dog is really infected with that dis- temper, the. following particulars deserve attention. Several days previously to the invasion of the disorder, the animal becomes sullen, and shews equal indifterei.ee to his master, his food, and drink. His ears and tail droop ; instead of bark- ing, he growls and snaps at every surrounding object, runs about ir- regularly, is no longer able to dis- tinguish his master from strangers, and lolls out his tongue, which is parched, and of a livid hue. At length, he drops down suddenly, starts up again, bites whatever seems to obstruct his passage, and in this condition he seldorrTsun ives twenty-four or, at the farthest, forty-eight hours. Persons bitten during the last period of the disordered animal, arc in the greatest danger from the contagious nature of the saliva. If the disease has actually been com- municated, the pulse indicates spasms, but it is not always fe- verish; the patient generally feels a burning BIT Spurning heat in the throat and in- jured part, according to the degree of violence with which the malady is accompanied. But the proximate cause of the affection appears to be confined to the nervous system, unconnected with any other disor- der ; so that patients, labouring under the influence of hydropho- bia, have overcome the small pox, and quartan agues, without any aggravation of symptoms. Hence opiates, and other narcotics, as is the case in many nervous diseases, produce no effect. As it is gene- rally allowed, that canine madness, If the dread of water has once taken place, can seldom be cured, the most essential part of the treatment will be the speedy application of preventives. For this reason, we have already stated the immediate necessity of cutting away the parts contiguous to the wound, especially where that operation can be per- formed, without injuring any large blood-vessel. Beside this precau- tion, the wound should be fre- quently washed, by pouring cold water upon it from a considerable height ; and to prevent the canine virus from remaining about the wounded part, it should be kept open, and a discharge of matter promoted for several weeks ; by sti- mulating ointments, mixed with cantharides, or similar applications. Among other means of destroy- ing the contagious matter at the part, both the actual cautery, and burning with gunpowder, have been occasionally employed ; as fire is one of the most powerful agents. Others have washed the affected place with vinegar, or caustic al- kali properly diluted ; the. latter of which has been found more effec- tual. Bathins in sea-water, as well as BIT iz 7 i drinking it, have been prescribed as preventives. Dr. MEAD, in his treatise on this subject, asserts, that the greatest success has been obtained from diuretics, and conse- quently dire6ts the following pow- der: Take ash-coloured ground- liverwort, half an ounce ; black pepper two drams: reduce them separately to powder, then mix them together, and divide the whole into four doses, one of which must be taken every morn- ing, fasting, for four days succes- sively, in half a pint "of warm cows-milk. The famous East India specific is composed of twenty-four grains of native, and an equal proportion of factitious cinnabar pulverized, with sixteen grains of musk, and taken in a glass of arrack, or brandy. It is esteemed a great antispasmodic, and an infallible remedy for preventing the effects of the canine virus. Mercury has been recommended as an efficacious preventive, when applied to the wound by friction, and taken inwardly in the form of calomel, to raise, if possible, a slight salivation. At the same time, venesection, opium, the bark, and camphor, have successively been administered in large quan- tities ; the warm bath ; and every remedy that human invention could suggest. M. SABATIER mentions an instance in which, by repeated attacks of a mad dog, the patient had received twenty-live wounds, and above fifty scratches : these were all radically h'-aled, by the application of the cautery, and of fire, which completely destroyed the poison. As no specific Temedy has yet been discovered for the cure of this dreadiiil disorder, we shall suggest 272] BIT suggest the following plan of treat- ment, which, by experience, has been found to be the most effec- tual. After the bitten part has been cut away, and the wound washed with a pickle made of vinegar and salt, it should be dressed twice a day with yellow basilieon, to which may be added a little red preci- pitate of mercury, or a small por- tion of the po\vd?r of cantharides. Next, it will be advisable to have immediate recourse to diuretic and sudorific remedies ; and for this purpose we recommend the fol- lowing medicines : Eight prepared millepedes ; halt' an ounce of Venice treacle 5 two drams -of volatile salt of hartshorn ; one dram of cam- phor, and eight ounces of what is called water of acrtated ammonia. Mix. these ingredients, and let the patient take a small tea-spoonful every hour the first day, till it be attended with profuse perspiration, and a copious discharge of urine : the second da 1 /, two tea-spoonfuls may be given every two hours ; and, in this proportion, the doses may be gradually increased, till he is enabled to take a table-spoon- ful, several times a, day. But if, by such progressive doses, the urinary passages' should be too much stimulated, or even blood be evacuated, it will be necessary to suspend the use of this medi- cine, for a few days, till the vio- lence of the symptoms has abated ; and then to add, to each draught, a little gum-arabic dissolved in water; or to drink lintseed-tea, dur- ing the course. We have stated this prescription, on the authority of Dr. SELLE, late physician to the KING of Fa u ssi A, ar.d one of the most eminent medical philosophers on the Continent. BIT In 'those cases, however, where the absorption of the poison cannot be prevented, and the dread ";ef water rjas already seized the pa- tient, it will be useless to trouble him with liquid medicines ; but large doses of musk and opium then become necessary; and every kind of irritation ought to be care- fully avoided. Although the cold bath, and mercurial frictions, have been very generally used, and sometimes been attended with ap- parently good effects, yet little or no reliance can be placed on them, when the disease has made any progress in the system. We are firmly persuaded that, where the bite of a mad dog has been ne-: glefted for several days, or weeks, neither the skill of the most expe-, rienced practitioner, nor the most celebrated Nostrums, can afford the desired relief. BITTER, is a term app'ied to substances of a peculiar ta.-te, and generally opposed to sweet ; the principal of which are, the Gen- tian and Bistort-roots, Hops, Lesser Centaury, Cardnus-, rc. Most bitters impart their virtue?, both to watery and spirituous fluids. By distillation, their taste is in a great measure destroyed; but, on evaporating the watery solution to a thick consistence, the bitter prin- ciple remains unaltered, and is fre- quently improved. See EXTRACTS. Dr. DARWIN ingeniously ob- serves, that the bitter, narcotic, and acrid juices of plants, are secreted by their ghmds, for defending ve- getables against the depredation of insects, and larger animals. An acrid juice exists in the husks of walnuts-, and in the pellicle, or skin, of the kernel; but not in the lobes, or. nu- tritious part. Bitters appear to have been excluded from tire seed, lest they BIT" they might have been injurious to the tender organs of digestion of the embryon plant. In some seeds, however, he adds, there is a bitter quality, which refuses to mix with the oleaginous part ; as the oil ex- pressed from bitter almonds is as tasteless as that from the sweet kind. Vegetable bitters possess the combined properties of astringents and aromatics. Hence they are frequently employed in weakness of the stomach and intestines ; in cold habits, where the bile and humours require to be attenuated or diluted ; and for promoting na- tural evacuations, particularly those by the pores and the urinary canal. They are also of service in many cases of indigestion, loss of appe- tite, flatulency, &c. when these complaints proceed from muscular weakness, or a phlegmatic and inert stjrte of the fluids. But, in constitutions where the fibres are tense and rigid, or an immoderate heat and inflammation prevail, the continued use of bitters, especially in the gout, would sensibly in- crease the disorder, and frequently determine it to the kidneys. Thus the secretion of urine might be greatly checked, to the injury of the patient, nnd at length either dropsy or consumption would be the natural consequence. It is not easy to conceive, in what maimi.T bitters taken by the stomach operate on the human system ; though they are generally considered as powerful tonics. So much is certain, that they do not aft as stimulants ; because neither the frequency of the pulse, nor the force of the circulation, is increased by their use. Nor can it be main- tained, that their operation is similar to that of astringents ; so that bit- No. III. VOL. I. Bit' |> 7 3 ters are to be considered purely as tonics, which strengthen, or im- part new energy to the rmiscular fibres of the stomach; an efFeft which is by sympathy communi- cated to other parts of the body. Bitter substances are often used as vermifuges, though seldom effi- cacious ; and externally, as and-', septics. In domestic economy, they are, at present, chiefly em- ployed for the destruction of in- sects, See. ; but it deserves to be remarked, that there is scarcely a litter root growing in this island, which might not be converted to very useful purposes. See BREAD. BITTER SALT. See EPSOM SALT. BITTER - SWEET. See Woody NIGHTSHADE. BITUMENS, are inflammable mineral bodies, not sulphureous, or only casually impregnated with sulphur. They are of various de- grees of consistence,' and appear, in the mineral kingdom, to corres- pond with the oils and resins in the vegetable. By their peculiar smell, they are easily distinguished from either purely animal or vegetable productions. When the native rock-oils are mixed with concen- trated mineral acids, they become thick, and at length consistent : in which state they are called bitu- mens. There is a thin fluid bitumen called naphtha, which is found on the surface of waters, or oozing from clefts of rocks in the eastern countries, particularly Persia. It has a strong smell, very different from that of vegetable or animal oils, is highly inflammable, not so- luble in spirit of wine, and almost as limpid as water, with which it is more averse to unite than any other oil. Next to naphtha, in consistence, is petroleum, or rock- T oil i BL A oil : the former is colle&ed for making varnishes, aud the latter is used for lamps and torches. Cre- ouine naphtha is sometimes recom- mended in diseases of the nerves, but it is seldom obtained in a pure state. The solid bitumens are, amber, jet, asphaltum, or bitumen of Ju- dea, and fossil or pit-coal. By dis- tillation, they all yield an odorous water, more or less coloured and saline ; an acid frequently in a concrete state, an oil similar to the native rock-oils, but which soon increases in weight, and becomes thicker; and, lastly, a quantity of volatile alkali. The residuum is a charry matter, differing in appear- ance, according to the nature of the analyzed bitumen. Barbadoes tar is a bitumen of a consistence between a fluid and solid j and turf or peat is, by some writers, supposed to belong to tin's class. It is conjefbired by naturalists,, that all bitumens are of animal or vegetable origin ; and that the cir- cumstances by which they differ from the resinous and other oily matters of vegetables and animals, are die natural effects of time ; or of an alteration produced en them by mineral acids ; or of both causes combined. This opinion is die more probable, as bitumens, on a chemical analysis, arlbrd oil and volatile alkali, neidier of which is found in any other minerals. BLACK, die darkest of colours, supposed to be owing to the ab- sence of light, as most of die rays which fall on black substances are not reflected, but absorbed by ditm. Ther are many shades or varie- of this colour. The native b,lack substances are, black chalk, BL A pitcoal, black sands, black vcge-- table juices, and cutde-fish ink. Those which are the product of lire, comprehend charcoal blacks, soot blacks, and black metallic calces. Blacks obtained by mixture, are those from iron, silver, and from a combination of lead with sulphur. The infusions of certain vegetable astringents, mixed with green vi- triol (which is a solution of iron in the sulphuric acid), produce a deep black colour, of most extensive use for dyeing and staining. The astringent substances chiefly em- ployed for this purpose, are the excrescences of the oak-tree, call- ed galls ; all parts of this tree, as the leaves, acorns, and more par- ticularly the bark and wood. A great variety of other vegetable substances, such as the small branches and flowers of the su- mach-tree, alder bark, bistort root, and, in general, those which are astringent or corrugating to the taste, possess simi ar properties. The power by which these vegeta- bles strike black with vitriol, and their astringency, arc proportional to one another, and seem to de- pend on one and the same princi- ple. Of the other properties of this astringent and colouring mat- T' r, little more is known, than that it is dissolved and extracted both by water and spirit of wine, and that it dot-s not exhale on the evaporation of the menstruum. Sec the article DYEING. The only native vegetable black, is the juice of the cashew nut-tree, . or Anacardium occidentals, which probably is the tree that yields the black varnish of China and Japan. See YAKNTISH. Lastly, there are also several colours artificially prepared for the Use BL A nse of painters, such as Limp- black, ivory-black, German-black, See. See COLOUR-MAKIVG. BLACK-BIRD, or Turdus me- rit/a, a species of the thrush. When young, its plumage i,s of a rusty black ; but at the age of one year, being the period of its full growth, its feathers acquire a deep glossy Wack, the bill a bright yel- low, and the edges of the eye-lids a similar colour. The black-bird loves solitude, 'and chiefly frequents thickets, and the remotest parts of plantations and woods. In severe winters, however, it is sometimes compell- ed to approach barns and farm- yards, in search of food. It builds earlier than any other bird, and forms its nest in hedges and thickets, of withered grass and moss, plastered with clay, and covered with hay or straw. Its fcggs are commonly four or five in .number, of a blueish-green colour, marked with irregular dark spots. About the latter end of March, it has a young brood, which may be taken at ten or twelve days old. The only way to distinguish the young cock from the hen, is' by its colour ; as that of the former is of a deeper black. When young, they are commonly fed with bread and milk, or curds j but the most proper nourishment is a- sheep's heart chopped small, mixed with bread, and moistened with -water : they should be fed every two hours, and kept very clean. This bird, especially the male, has a very pleasing note, but 'too loud for a confined situation ; and it may be taught to whistle tunes to a pipe. It sings during the spring, and the early part of sum- mer; is silent ::i tlr. njcuitirig srj- B L A [ 2 ft sort, and resumes its music in the latter part of autumn. BLACK CATTLE, among gra- ziers, denotes all die larger kinds of domestic animals which contribute to our support or convenience ; such as oxen, cows, horses, Sec. As thest; will be respectively treated of in their proper order, we shall, diere- fore, at present, state only the es- sential properties of a perfect breed of Hack cattle, designed for die purposes of the dairy, as laid down by Mr. MARSHALL : 1 . The head small and clean, to lessen die quantity of offal. 2. The neck diin and clean, to lighten die fore-end, as well as to lessen die collar, and make it sit close and easy to the animal in work. 3. The carcass large, die chest deep, and the bosom broad, with die ribs standing out full from die spine j to give strength of frame and con- stitution, and to allow sufficient room for th;> intestines within the ribs. 4. The shoulders should be light of bone, and rounded off at the lower point, that the collar may be easy, but broad, to give strength ; and well covered with flesh, for die greater ease of draught, as well as to furnish a desired point in fatten- ing cattle. 5. The back ought to be wide and level throughout; the quarters long; the diighs thin, and standing narrow at the round bone ; die udder large when full, but thin and loose when empty, to hold the greater quantity of milk; with large dug-veins to fill it, and long elastic teats for drawing it off widi greater ease. 6. The legs (below the knee and hock) straight, and of a middle length ; their bone, in general, light and clean from fleshiness, but with the ioints and sinews of a moderate size,, for die purposes of T 2 strength BL A strength and activity. 7. The flesh ought to be mellow in the state of fleshiness, and firm in the state of fatness. 8. The hide mellow, and of a middle thickness, though, in our author's opinion, this is a point not yet well determined. Black cattle, as well as horses, have been observed to thrive better in salt-marshes, than in fresh-wa- ter meadows, or upland pastures ; and it has been conjectured, that the herbs produced by the lands near the sea, are more healthy for herbaceous animals, than such as grow on higher lands. But it is said, that the saline particles with ivhich the earth, as well as its pro- duce near the sea, is strongly im- pregnated, occasions this beneficial change in the condition of cattle j as these salts purge away the foul humours which the beasts have Contracted, either by idleness, cr by being over-heated in labour. As cattle are naturally fond of salt, and, if left at their liberty, will take -no more of it than what is condu- cive to their health, it is recom- mended to lay common sea-salt in the fields, for them to lick as often es they please. See SALT. BLACK CANKER is the name given by husbandmen to a cater- pillar which commits great devas- tation among turnips. The best method of destroying these insects is, to turn a body of ducks into the fields infested by them. In the yi-.ar 1^4, Mr. COKE purchased, lour hundred ducks, and set them at liberty on thirty-three acres of turnips, which they completely cleared of the caterpillar in rive dnys. In a relative proportion, twenty or thirty might be employed upon a small f:.rm, with consider- able effect. Jllack Clock. See BLA BLACK FLY, an insect that at- tacks the seedling leaves of tur- nips, cabbages, and many other vegetables. In summer, it may frequently be seen in swarms on the wing near the ground, search* ing for, and settling on the fresh bites; and thus, in some seasons, destroying thousands of acres. Its ravages may be prevented by the following means ; Mix one ounce of flour of sul- phur with three pounds of turnip- seed daily, for three days succes- sively, in a glazed earthen pot, and keep it closely covered, stirring it well at each addition, that the seed may be impregnated \vith the sul- phur : then sow it as usual, on an acre of ground, and the fly will not attack it till the third or fourth seedling leaf is formed, by which time the plant will have acquired a bitterish property, and conse- quently be out of danger. Others advise to rix alder-bows in a har- row, and draw them over the land immediately after the seed is sown. Again, others bruise the bows, and fumigate them with burnt tobacco, and a small quantity of asafcetida. See TURNIP. BLACK LAND, in agriculture, a term used to denote a peculiar kind of clayey soil, which in rainy weather appears of a~ dusky or blackish coiom, though, when dry, it more icsembles a pale grey, than- a true, black. Oi> ploughing this soil, especially in wet reasons, it is apt to adhere to the plough-shares - f and assumes a darker and mud* dier appearance, the more it is worked. It generally abounds with small white stones, and always contains a considerable proportion of sand. A soil of this description may be improved, by manuring it such ,subitance as tend" to pul- BLA pulverize die ground, and deprive it of its tenacity. See LAND and MANURE. BL \CKLBAD. See LEAD. BLACK LEATHER is that which, having passed through the hands of the currier, after being scored and rubbed three times on the grain side with copperas-water, acquires a black colour, instead of the russet, as left by the tanners. See LEATHER. BLACK-LEGS, a name given by the Leicestershire breeders to a disease incident to calves and sheep, It is a kind of gelatinous humour, which settles between the skin and flesh of the neck, and not unfre- quently in their legs. To remove this troublesome complaint, we conceive that the sal-ammoniac dissolved in the smallest possible quantity of water, and applied to the parts affe&ed, by means of pro- per compresses, or even simple friction, conjoined with suitable ex- ercise, would be the most effectual remedy. BLACK TIN, in mineralogy, a term given to tin-ore when it is ready to be melted into metal, after having been well stamped, wash- ed, and dressed. It is taken up from the washing-troughs in the form of a fine black powder, and from this circumstance is called Hack tin ; two pounds of which being melted, will produce one pound of white tin. The principal mines from which this useful metal is obtained in Britain, are those in Cornwall.- See Ti v, BLACK \VADD, in mineralogy, is a kind of ore of manganese, re- markable for its property of taking h're, when mixed with a certain proportion of lintseed-oil. It is JbuuU m DftrbyshuCj aud is a use- B L A [277 ful ingredient in paints ; for on being ground with a large quanti- ty of oily matter, it loses the pro- perty above-mentioned. BLACKBERRY, the fruit of the common bramb'e, or Rul-us fruticosiiSy L. See BRAMBLE. These berries, when eaten im- moderately, and too frequently, are apt to produce the most violent ef- fe&s, as fever, delirium, &xr. BLACKING, in general, signi- fies a factious black ; as lamp- black, shoe-black, &c, The com- mon oil-blacking consists of ivory- black mixed with lintseed-oil. The shining blacking is made in various ways, and affords employ- ment to several persons in the me^ tropojis, who prepare it for the supply of the shops. The prepa- ration which has experienced the most extensive salei, is probably that of Mr. BAYLEY. His patent being expired, we shall communi- cate the particulars of the process. Take one part of the gummy juics that issues, in the months of June, July, and August, from the shrul) called the goat's thorn ; four parts of river-water ; two parts of neat's foot, or some other softening, lu- bricating oil ; two parts of superfine ivory-black j two parts of deepblu^, prepared from iron and copper ; and four parts of brown sugar- candy. Let the water be evapo- rated, and, when the composi- tion is of a proper consistence, let it be formed into cakes, of such a size that each cake may make a, pint of liquid blacking. Frankfort- Rhicklng is made by a process much more simple. A quantity of the lees of wine is burnt in a well-closed vessel, and the residuum reduced to powder, which, when mixed with water, T 3 i BL A is fit for immediate use ; or, if made into cakes, may be preserved for any length of time. , Ivory-black, as imported from Holland, is prepared in the follow- ing manner : Small pieces of ivory are smearefl with a little lintseed- oil, and put into a black-lead cru- cible ; this is covered with a similar vessel inverted, but of a smaller .size, and the crevices are secured with a lute made of potter's clay and rye-flour, so as to prevent the access of external air. Thus pre- pared, the whole is exposed to a red heat, not toq intense, for about half an hour, after which, it is taken out and suffered to cool gradually. Whea cold, the charred ivory, or tones, where the former is scarce, ought to be reduced to powder, and triturated, with the addition of water, on a painter's stone, till it assumes the form pf a smooth paste. In this state it is moulded into small cones, and allowed to dry. Similar black may also be obtained by burning the stones of peaches, after having previously dried them and removed the ker- nels. This useful fact we state on the authority of HOCHHEIME?, a German writer on general eco- nomy. BLADDER, in anatomy, a thin membranous, expanded receptacle of some juice or humour secreted ia the animal body. This term principally applies to the vessels in which th.e urine and bile are re- spectively coUecteq; and hence the two chief reservoirs pf this nature are the yrinary I ladder, and that containing the tile. In this place we s'ha|l treat only of the former, which is situated within the cavity of the. pelvis : its form is oval, and being a continuation of the abclo- , it is almost uniformly $ur- BL A rounded with bones, though below, and at each side, encompassed by muscles. It is remarkable, that this vessel is considerably larger in the female than in the male sex. Nature has wisely contrived that the human bladder should possess and is rendered more pliant and soft. The second process is the most important of the whole. Its objeft is to loosen and carry off, by means of alkaline lies, that particular sub.st.ance in cloth, which is the cause of its brown colour-. The operation of alter- nate watering and drying is as fol- lows : After the cloth has been bucked,- it is carried out to the field, and frequently watered, dur- ing the first six hours. For, if in the course of that time it he allow- ed to dry, 'while strongly impreg- nated with salts, the Litter, by ap- proaching closer together, and g assisted by a degree of heat BLE which increases in proportion to the dryness of the cloth, aft with greater force, and destroy its tex- ture. After this time, dry spots are suffered to appear before it re- ceives any water. By the continual evaporation which takes places on the surface of the cloth, it is evident that this operation is intended to carry off .some impurities that remain after the former process of bucking. This is clearly proved from the fact, that the upper side of the cloth, where the evaporation is Strongest, attains to a greater de- gree of whiteness than the reverse side ; and the whole likewise turns much lighter on being exposed to the influence of the sun, air, and winds. Soitring. Every person, who possesses the smallest knowledge of chemistry, is aware that alkaline salts may/ by various methods, be converted into absorbent earths. One of these is, frequent solution in water, and again -evaporating it. A transmutation, therefore, of these salts must be continually going for- wards in the cloth, during the al- ternate waterings and dryings of the former process. The souring process is sooner completed in cold, than in warm weather ; and it is now experimentally ascertained, that vitriol is preferable to milk sours in bleaching. The next is, hand rullivg with sou/} and warm water, rutf.ing- loards, starcli'nig, and blueing. After the cloth has been suffici- ently soured, it is washed in the mill, to deprive it of the acrid par-. tides which adhere to its surface. From the mill, it is taken to be washed by the hand, with soap and warm water, to free it from the. oily particles which could not be - ' V dis* BLE Disengaged by die milling, Soft soap is preferred to hard, for this purpose, as the latter contains a considerable quantity of sea-salt, which is prejudicial to the cloth. The management of coarse cloth in this operation is very different from that of fine ; for the former, instead of being worked by the hands (a method which would be too expensive), is laid upon a table, rubbed over with soap, and then placed between what are called rubbing-boards, which have ridges and grooves from one side to the other, in the form of teem. The starching and blueing, which is the last operation, differs so little from the process employed by laun- dry-women, that it scarcely re- quires description. But it often happens, that the cloth, when ex- posed to dry in the open ah", after being starched, is wetted by rain, which frustrates the eff eels intended by the operation : to remedy this inconvenience, many bleachers em- ploy a dry-house, where the linen may be dried in all weathers. As bleaching is a process con- nected with manufactures, and can- not be performed with advantage by private families, it is useless to enter into farther particulars. But the art is still susceptible of im- provement ; for scarcely a year elapses, which does not produce some new discovery in this useful branch of manufactures. We shall, therefore, content ourselves with communicating a few of such hints as may prove advantageous to the practical bleacher ; and with which, we presume, there are many pei> sons still unacquainted. The new method of bleaching with the dephlogisticated or oxyge- nated muriatic acid, or spirit of salt combined with manganese, is BLE [281 founded upon the remarkable pro- perty which that acid possesses of destroying vegetable colours ; and, though various attempts have been made to introduce it into this coun- try, the difficulties or disadvantages attending it have prevented its ge- neral adoption. This acid was rirst applied to the purpose of bleaching, by M. BERTHOLLET j and the par- ticulars of the process are described at length in a treatise on bleaching, published a few years since at Edinburgh ; and likewise in the Supplement to the Encyclopaedia. Briianraca. It is to be regretted, that no cx- a6t comparative statement of the difference of expence between the oid and new methods of bleaching, has yet been laid before die public ; but it is probable that the acid drawn from one pound of salt, will whiten four of linen cloth, with- out any addition. The expence in this case may appear trifling, but when we compute the vitriolic acid which is employed, and that the residuum is almost useless, it will soon be found to be very consider*- able j and upon the whole, the ad- vantage may be only in the saving of time : but M. BERTHOLLET as- serts, that by this method the tex- ture of the cloth is less injured than by that hitherto practised. The oxy-muriatic acid is also very generally used for bleaching paper. According to M. CHAP- TAL, blotting-paper, when put into it, is bleached without suffering any injury ; and old books, and prints, when soiled in such a man- ner as to be scarcely distinguish- able, have been completely restored to their original state. The simple immersion of a print in this acid, is sufficient to produce that desirable effecl ; but with books, some far- ther BLE t!uT respects preferable to that of pot-ash. The chemical attraction of the former is somewhat stronger than that of the latter ; and, on account of this quality, it does less injury to the cloth. Alternate boilings in solutions of pot-ash, gteepings in oxy-muriate of lime, exposure to the aftion of light, and evaporating water on the green, are found to complete, within six weeks, at little more than half die expence, what otherwise cannot be performed in leis than double the time. Notwithstanding this great im- provement, Mr. HIGGINS was anxious to diminish still farther the expence attending the process of bleaching. Convinced that the mixtures of sulphur with soda, are detergents, or cleansers of the most powerful kind, he was naturally led to conjecture, that lime, which, in other respects, possesses pro- perties nearly similar to those of the fixed alkali, might also resemble them in the detergent eftett of their combination with sulphur. He made trbl : n sulphuret of lime, composed of four pounds of sul- phur added to (.Vvf.'ity pounds of lime, and diluted in sixteen gal- lons of water, formed a solution which answered cold, just as well lor the bleaching cf linen, as die boiling solution of pot-ash. Jn consequence of this experiment, he recommends, that linen, after be- ins* perfectly cleansed from tie BLE wraver's dressing, be immersed alternately in solutions of sulphuret of lime, and of oxy-muriate of lime, namely, six times in each. By this method, linen may be com- pletely bleach, d, and with a con- siderable saving of expence. In Ireland, it is at present almost ge- nerally adopted. The same process, with certain convenient modifications, yet al- ways managed upon one common principle, is applicable to the bleaching of linen, cotton, silk, and wool. It has likewise been reduced to practice in France ; but in a manner less simple and skilful than in Britain and Ireland. We shall conclude this article by abstracting the patent lately granted to Mr.TuRNEULL, for an improve- ment in the common process of bleaching cotton, or linen pieces : Take any kind of earth which is easily mixable with water, such 35 clay, marl, or Fuller's earth, or if that cannot be had, any kind of soft mud or the like, which is put into a boiler to evaporate the moisture, dried, again mixed with \\ ater, and passed through fine sieves. This powder is then mixed with quick-lime, which is slacked in the earthy mass, and forms the materials for the several luckings which the cloth is to undergo. The pieces are to be worked in the bucking tubs for a number of times, alternating this operation with rins- ing and souring, as is usual in the long established method, and after- wards exposing them to the air, on the bleaching ground. The only difference in the process here em- p1oyed, is the admixture of earthy mud, or clay, to the lime, so that the corrosive power of the latter is diminished, and may consequently be i'.-; I'd more freely. In the k.=it BLE buckings, pot-ash is also added to the earthy mixture. Hence the patentee's method unites that of fulling with scap, or washing with alkaline lye; and it is very pro- bable, that by such a combination, not only time, but also cxpencc may be saved, as alkali is the most valuable article used in the process. The latest work published on this subject is, we believe, a treatise written by M.PAJOT DBS CHARMES, of which a translation v/as lately published in London, by Messrs. Robinson, in one vol. 8vo. B LE E Dl XG, a term used to ex- press either a spontaneous, or arti- ficial, discharge of blood : in the former case, it is by medical writers called hemorrhage ; in the latter, ie- iii'SLciion, or blood-lei ting, of which la by crooked pins, or staples, in tke same manner : the cypher is un- derstood by a plain peg, without any mark. On the top of each pi- i.-; printed the figure which it repre-. bents, to render die work intelligi- ble to any person that may see it, without being acquainted with the marks. These pegs are made. to fit the large holes. Pieces of brass wire, bent to a right angle, about half an inch from each end, and made to fit the small holes, serve for the purpose of lines, to separate the different parts of die work. The box contains twenty-eight partitions, situated as in the fol- lowing cut, ten of them to hold figures, and the others for the lines of different lengths. iiiiiiiiii * - > i.'-- *;ir,y * . :.* . rfjs "' "' " " ~ '* i : a * f- ; f'?' : ? "*'. *-"?' f '* *' ' ** f * T '? ?-* fi % <* '?*' *' -'> f ti ' " A, ITie BLI A, The box, with its several divi- sions, containing the different pegs, bars, &c. with which the rules in arithmetic are to be performed. B, The cover, which, when turned back, and standing on its feet as represented, shews the holes where- in the pegs and bars are occasionally placed to exhibit the value of the figures. C, The pegs, marked in such manner as to enable the blind person to distinguish by the touch, what each peg is intended to repre- sent, when placed in the holes in- the cover B . A complete specimen of this ma- chine may be seen in the Reposi- tory of the Society, Adelplii-build- ings, London. With respeft to the education of the blind, we have already remark- ed, that it deserves public sympa- thy, and the interposition of the le- gislature j as their natural industry, and persevering application, will enable them to overcome the great- est difficulties, and amply repay the trouble and expence bestowed on their mechanical, or literary, ac- tiuirements. To strengthen their faculties, and preserve their health, Hind children should never be suf- fered to remain idle, so that during the hours of recreation, they ought to take suitable exercise, such as riding on horseback, walking out in fair weather, the use of dumb-bells, the bath-chair, &c. In regard to diet, their meals should be tempe- rate, light, and of easy digestion. Vegetables the most farinaceous, and least acescent, should be pre- ferred to animal food. Neither fermented liquors, nor ardent spi- rits, should be given them, except in ca^es of general debility. Tea is likewise pernicious ; and their regu- .ktr drink ought to .consist of equal.. B L I [287 parts of milk and water : a little chocolate, and coffee, may occa- sionally be granted; but infusions of balm, sage, or ground-ivy, are more wholesome. Tobacco and snuff must be absolutely prohibited ; and, on die whole, blind persons should neither be too much restricted to the observance of a rigid system of diet, nor allowed to eat and drink whatever is suggested by their own fancy : in the former case, they are apt to' become pitiable slaves to custom ; and, in the latter, it is a shameful dereliction of duty in those whom Providence has enabled to see, and. direct their affairs. BLINDNESS, in farriery, is a disease incident to the eyes of horses, but more particularly to those of an iron grey, or dapple- grey, colour; and is supposed to proceed from riding them too hard, or backing them at too early an age,.' This disorder may be dis- covered by the walk or step, which, in a blind animal, is always un- certain and unequal, when led ; but, if he be mounted by an ex- pert horseman, an apprehension of the spur may induce him to move with more freedom, so that the blindness can scarcely be per- ceived. A horse may also be known to have lost his sight, if observed constantly to prick up his ears, and move them backwards and forwards, on hearing any per- son enter the stable. The ordinary cause of blindness in horses, is attributed by Dr. LOWER to a spongy excrescence growing in one, and sometimes iu two or three places of the coloured part of tiie iris, or which being ultimately over-grown, covers the pupil when the horse is brought hit* BLI into the light, but again dilates on returning him to a dark stable. See EYES of Horses. B L i N D - w o R M (fragi Us) , or si o w- worm ; a species of the slnguii, or snake. It is about a foot in length, and of the thickness of fhe little finger. Its name is de- rived from the slowness of its mo- tion, and the smallness of its eyes. It is chiefly found in gardens and pastures. The Rev. Mr. FOSTER, in his " Observations on twxious Ani- mals^ asserts, from his own ex- ix^rience, that the bite of this crea- ture is perfectly harmless ; and he mentions two cases in which it was not attended with any ill conse- quences. These observations are farther corroborated by a passage in the twenty-ninth volume of the Monthly Review, respecting a dog havingbeen bitten by a slow -worm without any ill effects. BLISTER, in medicine, signi* fies either a thin bladder, contain- ing a watery humour raised on the skin, or the application of vesica- tories to different parts of the body. With this intention, Spanish flies are most commonly employed ; though we are possessed of a great variety of indigenous plants, which might be effectually substituted. Hence we recommend, from ex- perience, the following : 1 . Mus- tard-seed mixed with vinegar suf- ficient to convert it into a thick paste, to be spread upon linen ; 'J. The fr ;.-,! i root of the horse- radish, grated, or in fine shavings; 3. The bruised leaves of the dif- ferent species of the Ranunculus, or crow-foot; 4. The leaves of the Polygn.'wm. hydro/riper, or water- pepper, growing wild on the banks of rivulet-; -. aud 5. The most po\v- BL1' erfu! of all indigenous ve the Daphne Maser&tnt, or spurge olive, every part of \vhich is ex- tremely acrid, but the rind is pre- ferably used for blister.-;. Whether fresh, or dried, this rind should be previously steeped for a few hours in strong vinegar, and then a piece about one inch broad, and two or three inches long, tied over- night to the part : after it has suf- ficiently drawn, the blistered place is covered with an ivy leaf ; and a similar vesicatory is applied contiguous to the former. In this manner, it is continued, ac- cording to particular circumstances, especially in chronic diseases, till the desired effect is attained. Where no time is to be lost, we advise the use of mustard-seed, as before de- scribed, with the addition of a little salt, which greatly increases its effi- cacy. These cataplasms are often more proper than the blisters pre- pared with Spanish flies ; because the former operate more speedily, and act with less violence on the fluids than the latter. Hence they are of eminent service to promote critical eruptions; to prevent the small-pox from breaking out on the face, when applied at the com- mencement of the disease, either to the calves of the legs, or the soles " of the feet; to mitigate the pain arising from internal inflammations, to drive catarrhal and rheumatic humours from the more essential or- gans of life to the proximate external parts, and to rouse the indolent powers of Nature. In themc.stacutc pains of the head, and the tooth-ach proceeding from a rheumatic cause, as well as in inflammatory affec- tions of the eyes, such plasters may be usefully applied to the neck or the arm - f in inflammations of the chest, BLI best, to the breast and between the shoulders ; in apoplectic fits, to the temples, &c. In paralytic diseases, it is of the utmost consequence to place the blister in that direction which cor- responds with the situation of the nerves in die part affected; and, in rheumatic disorders, such places should be preferred, as contain nerves connected witii the painful part, immediately under the skin. Thus, in the most acute lumbago, or sciatica, it would be of little use to blister the hip or thigh, where, the nerves are situated deep in die muscles ; but by applying a vesi- catory to die sole of die foot on die same side, we may promise almost certain relief. In all inflammatory, and especi- ally in nervous affections, attended with a small, feeble pulse, and where the powers of Xctture are ra- pidly declining, the use of blisters is very extensive. Their operation is in a great measure mechanical; as die first action is that of stimulating the vessels of die skin, inducing the 'blood to flow from the part most affected by inflammation, to the surface; thus exhausting the prin- ciple of irritability, and collecting die serum, or watery part of the vital fluid, under the cuticle. We shall farther observe, that in acute and dangerous diseases, where it is often necessary to re- peat the application of blisters, the new one should never be delayed till die former is completely healed. But, with respect to the time they ^re to be left on die skin, much depends on die degree of irritabi- lity in the patient, as well as die relative strengdi of die plaster. Some constitutions, of an irritable fibre, experience its effects in k:S - NO. in. VOL. i. than half an hour, while in others it . may remain four, six, or eight hours, without raising the skin. la opening a blister, it is not necessary to cut away the epidermis, or scarf skin, and to cause unnecessary pain and irritation j as a single lon- gitudinal incision is sufficient to give vent to the collected humour. Blisters sometimes operate on the urinary canal, and produce a painful strangury, or difficulty of making urine : this effe6t may be " remedied by the internal use of camphor, assisted by diluent and agglutinating emulsions, such as strong decoctions of barley, lint- seed, solutions of gum arabic, &c. j and to prevent such accidents, the blister itself may be mixed with camphor. If, on the other hand, they will not draw, the skin ought to be previously nibbed with strong vinegar : or, if their action be too violent, a little of the extract of henbane may be added to the com- position. Ctt'ttion. We think it our duty to warn the reader against the use of blisters, in which the Spauhk fly is the principal ingredient. In plethoric persons, or those of a full habit, they increase the circulation of the blood ; and ought td be ap- plied only after the necessary eva- cuations have been strictly attended to. In diseases of a putrid tendency, such as low fevers, and bilious di- arrhoeas, they are pernicious, be- cause they stimulate and spread the contagion over the whole frame:. Lastly, when the humours are ob- viously in a state of dissolution, which is evident from the s allow and lifeless complexion of cachectic persons, blisters are not unfro quently productive of incurable mortification. These fatal effects, however, seldom or never take place U from 290] B L O from the application of mustard- seed, or hovse-radish. ELITE, the small red, or Ama- ranthus llitnm, L. is an indigenous species of the amaranth, which is frequently found growing on rub- bish, c. It flowers in July and August : on the Continent its seed is used as a substitute for millt-t, and the leaves are dressed and eaten like spinach. Elite, the upright. See round- leaved GOOSEFOOT. BLOOD, the most copious fluid in the animal body, and essentially necessary to the preservation of life : it is generally of a red, but in most in setts, and in all worms, of a Xvhite colour. ThehumanbodyisjbyDr.KEiLL, supposed to contain at least one half of its weight in blood ; includ- ing in this computation all that ex- ists in the lymphatic du6ts, nerves, or any other vessel. This computa- tion, however, is exaggerated ; and \ve believe that the greatest quanti- ty in a full-grown adult, seldom ex- ceeds thirty pounds weight. Its most remarkable property is that of incessantly circulating in the ca- vities of the heart, arteries, and veins, while the animal is alive. Although HIPPOCRATKS appears to have possessed a faint idea of this admirable process, when he says, " that all the blood vessels spring from one; and that this one has neither beginning nor end; for where there is a circle, there can be no beginning;" yet as he was not acquainted with the office of the valves, he could neither compre- hend, nor demonstrate, the circu- lation of the blood. This most important of al] discoveries in phy- siology, was reserved for the im- mortal HARVEY, who first ascer- tained the true nature and uses of BLO the valves, and about the year 1616, taught, in his Leclures at Cam- bridge, that justly admired doclrine, the. substance of which he published in 1628. He proved that, in most animals, the blood circulates in ar- teries and veins, and through the medium of one, two, or more hearts (s( j c ANIMAL KINGDOM) ; that in arteries it moves from the trunk to the branches ; and that, meeting there with the branches of veins, it returns in a languid state to the heart ; that the heart communicates a new impulse, and propels it to the trunk of the arteries ; and that by these, the thickness of their coats, exerting muscular force, again drive it into the veins. Valves are si- tuated in every part of this circulat- ing course, in order to prevent the return of the blood. The colour of this fluid in the arteries is of a florid hue ; but some- what darker in the veins, except in those of the lungs, in which it is of a lighter cast. When exposed to the open air, the blood gradually separates into two parts, namely, the serum, or a yellowish, some- times greenish fluid, and the eras- samcntum, or cake, which resem- bles a red mass swimming distinct- ly on the top. The latter contracts greatly in its dimensions, and in- creases in solidity ; properties which depend on the state of the indivi- dual at the time when the blood is drawn. Hence, in vigorous per- sons, when attacked with an in- flammatory disease, the solid part is so tough that it resembles a piece of flesh, and has therefore been called the bi(j)'tj coat; whereas, in other diseases, it is very soft and tender, breaking in pieces on the slightest touch. By chemical ana- lysis, it discovers the same princi- ples with other animal substances ;- yield" BLO BLO [291- yielding In distillation a volatile spi- rit, a great quantity of phlegm, and fetid oil; lastly, there remains a charred matter, which, when burnt in the open air, leaves a white earth similar to calcined hartshorn. According to some chemists, how- ever, it contains both an acid and an alkali. But the most remarka- ble circumstance in the blood, is its texture, which consists of millions of red globular particles, or more properly, as Mr. HE wsoNcallsthem, flat vesicles, each of which has a little solid sphere in its centre. He pbsenes, that they are flat in all animals, of very different sizes in different creatures, and impart to the blood its red colour. In man, they are small, perfectly rlat, and appear to have a dark spot in the middle. To see them distinctly, he diluted the blood with fresh se- rum. Their shape he supposed to be of great importance, but it can be altered with a mixture of differ- ent rluids. By a determinate quan- tity of neutral salt contained in the serum, this fluid is adapted to pre- serve those vesicles in their flat shape ; for, if mixed with water, they become round, and dissolve perfectly, but on adding a little of any neutral salt to the water, they remain in it without dissolving, or any alteration of their form. The uses of the blood in the ani- mal economy are so various and important, that some have not scrupled to maintain that it is pos- sessed of a vital principle, from which the life of the whole body is derived. This opinion was for- merly entertained by HARVEY, and has lately been revived and sup- j)orted,withmanyingenious,thougii inconclusive, arguments, by JOHN HUNTKR. Yet so much is cer- tain, that die blood stimulates the cavities of the heart and vessels to contract, that its circulation contri- butes to generate the heat of the body, and propagate it to the re- motest parts ; in short, that it nourishes every part, and supplies all the secretions, which, without exception, are separated from the blood. Hence it forms the bones, ligaments, tendons, membranes, muscles, nerves, vessels, and the whole organized body. The blood is of different degrees of viscidity in different anirhals,. and even in the same creature, at different times. It always pos- sesses a considerable degree of te- nacity ; which, however, is re- markably greater in strong than in weak animals : thus, the blood of bulls was used by the ancients as a poison, on account of its extreme viscidity, which renders it totally indigestible by the human stomach. Animal blood was formerly "held in great esteem, as a medicine in various diseases ; for instance, the blood of goats and some other crea- tures was employed by the follow- ers of GALEN, and recommended even by the late Dr.MEAD in pleu* ritic attacks. But at present the principal use of blood is confined to the arts, for making Prussian blue ; sometimes for clarifying cer- tain liquors ; and very large quanti- ties are used in the manufacture of, loaf sugar. In horticulture, it is re- commended as an excellentmanure, when poured in spring on the roots of fruit-trees, having previously re- moved the soil round the trunk : thus employed, it promotes the growth of the tree, and enrichc fruit. A mixture of blood with quick-lime, forms an exceedingly- strong cement, and has therefore been used in preparing chemical lutes, as weil as in making; the U 2 "floors 292] BLG floors of common farm-houses, and other humble habitations. For the latter purpose, a mixture cf clay, OK.-blood, and a moderate portion of sharp sand, beaten well together and uniformly spread, produce a neat, firm floor, and of a beautiful colour. Whether blood really affords nourishment, has been doubted by some, and affirmed by others. In our opinion, it contains little or no alimentary matter ; and though it may be digested by very powerful stomachs, it might be more advan- tageously employed in manuring the soil. In hot climates in parti- cular, it is highly alkalescent, and was therefore wisely prohibited to the Israelites. When blood was used as a common article of food in this country, the scurvy not only prevailed more generally than at present, but it was a more violent tmd obstinate disease. . Travellers inform us, that in some countries the savage natives Hre accustomed to intoxicate them- selves by drinking the. irarm blood of animals. This barbarous prac- tice, with its consequent effect, ap- parently confirms JOHN HUN- TER'S opinion, that this fluid is the immediate reservoir of the vital principle; and the inebriating qua- lity of the blood certainly deserves the farther researches of the che- mical philosopher. Several expres- s-ions in Scripture also tend to coun- tenance the conjecture of this acute inquirer. See TRANSFU- SION. BLOOD - HOUND, Sanguina- riii*, a species of dug remarkable for possessing the sense of smelling in the highest degree. This animal is distinguished by his long, smooth, . and pendent ears, broad chest, mus- cular form.,, a deep tan colour, aud is BLO generally marked with a black spot - above each eye. We believe the breeding of this species has of late years been negletted. These animals were formerly much employed in the discovering of game that had escaped, or been stolen out of die forest. From the acuteness of their smell, they are said to have also been able to trace the footsteps of man with the great- est certainty ; hence, they were trained for discovering delinquents \vlio endeavoured to escape the hands of justice. Dogs of this species were once greatly esteemed on the confines of England and Scotland, and em- ployed to prevent, or detect, the depredations which the inhabitants were continually committing on each other. r.LOOD-SHOT EYES, an in- flammation of the membranes which invest the eye. As u - e propose to- treat of the diseases incident to that organ, in general, under its alpha- betical head, we, shall at present only state the first and most neces- sary rules for preventing the pro- gress of inflammatory complaints ; namely, rest, and exclusion of light, without heating the eye by a clos* cover ; cold fomentations repeated- ly applied, when they become warm ; abstinence from animal food, ant) all heating or stimulating liquors ; mild aperients ; and, if these do not produce the desired effect, leeches may be applied, near the eyes ; though drawing blood, by cupping and scarifying near the temples, has generally been found more ef- fectual. BLOOD-SPAVIN, in farriery, is a .swelling and dilatation that runs along the inside of the horse's leg, forming a small, soft tumor in the hollow part, and is not unfrequenUy accouv* BLO accompanied with weakness and lameness of the part attested. The cure of this disorder should at first be attempted with restrin- gents and bandages, which will be found very efficacious in strengthen- ing the joints j but if these should fail in reducing the vein to its natu- ral size, the skin must be opened, and the vein tied with waxed thread passed under it with a crooked needle, both above and below the swelling, and the turgid part suf- fered to digest away with die liga- tures : for this purpose, the wound should be daily dressed with a mix- ture of turpentine, honey, and spi- rit of wine. BLOOD-STONE, or Hematites, is a hard mineral substance of a red or purple colour. It is found in masses of different forms, and con- tains a considerable portion of iron, insomuch, that forty pounds of that metal have been extracted from a quintal of die stone. The iron is of a very inferior quality, and there- fore seldom used ; but the blood- stone itself, on account of its hard- ness, serves to burnish or polish metals. Dragon's Blood. SeeDRAGOx. BLOOD-LETTING, in surgery, is performed with a view either to diminish die quantity of the circu- lating fluid, or to relieve a particu- lar part, in case of inflammation, and, consequently, it is either ge- neral or local. General blood-letting, is that which is performed upon a vein or an artery : hence we have the terms phlebotomy and a/rtenotomy, Local, or topical blood-letting, i.s performed by scarification and cupping-glasses, by leeches, or by pun&ures made with a lancet, ac- cording to the nature of the disor- der. This latter, or topical blood- B L O [293 letting, is never dangerous but in many cases has been found effectual in relieving the patient. With re- spedrt to venesection, however, a.s different opinions are entertained of its utility by different physicians, it may not be improper to offer a few remarks. There was a period, during which blood-letting was in very general use, and obtaived great credit, as one of the most effectual means of prolonging life : while a plethoric halit was supposed to be a prin- cipal cause of early dissolution. Through die veins thus regularly opened, at certain seasons, the su- perfluous or vitiated blood was emitted, while that of a more salu- brious quality was supposed to be left behind. It is now well known, however, that the corrupted part of the blood cannot be separated from the mass, so as to preserve the re- maining particles sound and uncor- rupted. If die quality of the blood ever become vitiated and diseased j if it be too diick and viscous, or too acrid and serous, the whole mass necessarily participates in the in- feftion: neidier is it in die power of art to contrive any method, by which die corrupted part may be separated from that which is in a sound state. It would be equally unreasonable to expert, tiiat a spoil- ed cask of wine could be cured of its tartness, by attempting to draw the acid and impure portion from die top, in order to leave the sweet and wholesome part behind. Considered as a remedy, phle- botomy must certainly be allowed to possess its usesj it is sometimr-; a necessary expedient, to produce an immediate diminution of die fulness of die blood, particularly when the time is too short, and the danger too pressing, to admit U 3 of 194] of any other method for effect- jng that purpose. As there can be no doubt, that blood-letting is an invaluable remedy in some disorders, it is the more pecu- liarly incumbent on the practiti- oner, to distinguish with care those cases in which imminent danger may be averted, and health re- stored by the use of it. There are two cases, and perhaps only two, in which venesection is likely to be attended with real advantage ; I . When it is required to prevent the fluids from gaining access to the parts more essential to life ; and 2. Where means must be speedily used to counteract a threatened in- flammation in the intestines. But even in those two cases, the intelli- gent physician is at no loss for other remedies, which may be frequently administered with greater safety and equal success. The blood contains in itself, and affords to the. vessels, nerves, miiscles, membranes, tendons, li- gaments, bones, in short, to the whole organized body, all the sub- stance and properties which enter into the formation of each, and constitute them what they are. Each of these parts is evolved from the blood, and adapted to its pro- per place, in so wonderful a man- lier, that the human mind is to- tally at a loss to comprehend how this operation is performed ; nei- ther have the researches of the most acute and attentive observer been able to account for it. And as die blood serves to supply the waste, and to make up the losses, which those parts occasionally sus- tain, it may be considered as the original source of our whole orga- nization. Now it requires little reflection to perceive, that by icg this \ital fluid., the sources BLO of animal support and regenera- tion are in a great measure ob- structed and diminished. Although it be true, that the blood lost by periodical bleedings is soon repro- duced by the activity of the vital powers, yet this restoration is not effected without considerable ef- forts, and at the expence of the whole machine. As this exertion, therefore, is a great pressure upon the vital powers, it must of course be attended with a proportionate degree of their consumption. And experience has shewn in number- less instances, that persons accus- tomed to frequent blood-letting are not only rendered more delicate in their constitutions, and more sub- ject to diseases, but also that they die in general at an earlier age than others. The absurd notion, that bleeding is useful and necessary to the pro- longation of human life, is still pretty generally received among the common people of all coun- tries. Yet neither the good nor the }(!(/ days, supers titiously marked in the almanacks for the amuse- ment of the vulgar, can palliate or justify the mischief with which this dangerous error is pregnant : for bleeding can only be of service in some urgent cases, and when performed at the proper time : but to the healthy it is always injuri- ous. Blood-Jetting, in farriery, an operation oft^n undertaken when it is as useless and pernicious as in the human species. Such horses, however, as stand much in stable, and are full fed, occasionally re- quire, bleeding, especially when their eyes are heavy and inflamed, or when they feel unusually hot, and ch.imp their hay. -Young horses should be bled when :BLO V/hen they are shedding their teeth, as it allays those feverish heats to which they are subject at that pe- riod ; but the cases that more par- ticularly require bleeding, are colds, falls, injuries of the eyes, strains, and all inflammatory disorders. These noble creatures should al- ways be bled by measure ; two or three quarts are generally a suffi- cient quantity ; and when vene- section is repeated, strict attention should be paid both to the disease and constitution of the animal. BLOOD-VESSELS, in anato- my, are long membranous canals, which convey the blood tlirough every part of die body. They are divided into two classes, arteries and veins. For an account of the construction, situation, and uses of the former, see ARTERY. The reins originate from the ex- tremities of the arteries, and return die blood from diem into the au- ricles of the heart, which is die common termination of all the veins. Like the arteries, the veins are also composed of three mem- branes, but more delicate than diose of the former, and nearly transpa- rent; they are divided into trunks, branches, ramuli, &c. In general, die veins are situated by the sides of the arteries, but more superficial- ly; and as diey proceed towards the heart, they gradually become larger. As the veins do not pulsate, the blood, which they receive from the arteries, is urged forward partly by the contractility of their coats, partly by the pressure of the blood from die arteries, and pardy by respiration. They are moreover furnished widi valves, which pre- vent die return of the blood. See BLOOD. BLOODWORT, the Small- grained Dock, or the Ritmex san- BLO [295 ts, L. is a plant seldom cul- tivated, as it so quickly propagatrs that it becomes a troublesome weed. See WITHERING, 353. The fresh leaves and stalks of this vegetable afford a juice of a dusky blood-red colour ; which, after standing for a short time, changes to a dark blue or violet tint : and if prepared with alum, it might pro- bably be used in dyeing. This juice, when laid over other colours in painting, imparts to them an addi- tional lustre, and may be used, if properly mixed, either as a red or blue colour. Bloody Flux. .See DYSENTERY. BLOSSOM, in general, signi- fies" the flowers of plants. See FLOWER. It is also applied to the flowering of trees in the spring, called their bloom. The use of the blossom to the vegetable is, partly to protect, and partly to draw nourishment for the embryo fruit or seed. Blossom is also a term applied to a horse, whose general colour is white, but interspersed with sorrel and bay hairs. Such horses are so insensible, and hard both in the mouth and flank, that they are scarcely of any value; and are likewise very liable to turn blind. BLOW- PIPE, in chemistry and mineralogy, an instrument by which the breath may be directed in a stream upon the flame of a lamp, or candle, in order to vitrify a smaU quantity of mineral substance. The process of assaying in the dry way, may readily be performed in the same manner. Most of the experiments which can be made by means of a large apparatus, may also be accom- plished by the blow-pipe, in a mucfy shorter space of time, while even the smallest particle of the matter U 4 is 2-96]' B L O 5s sufficient. " The first inquiry to be made," says M. BJERGMANN, " is, what a substance contains, not how much." Experiments with the blow-pipe have this advantage over those conducted in crucibles, that -we can distinctly see all the phenomena from beginning to end; by which means we obtain an illus- tration of the series of operations and their causes. BLOWING, an agitation of the air by means of a pair of bellows, the mouth, &c. Butchers have a very pernicious custom of blowing meat, to deceive the buyer. The sudden change of veal and lamb in particular may, in some degree, be attributed to this cause. It is also a common practice to blow poul- try, and all sorts of fish, except those of the shell kind. The me- thod of blowing fish, especially cod and whiting, is, by placing the end of a quill, or a tobacco-pipe, at the vent, and making a hole with a pin \mder the fin which is next the gill ; consequently the fish appears large and full, but when dressed will be flabby, and little else but skin and bones. By placing the thumb on each side of the vent, and pressing it hard, the air may be perceived to escape, and this impo- sition be detected. As the venders of provisions, who are guilty of such disgusting prac- tices, may at the same time be in- feeied with the most loathsome dis- eases, the articles thus polluted should he rejected as being unfit for consumption. Indeed, the per- nicious tendency of blowing meat is obvious, and ought therefore to \\-. discouir.g'xl I 1 )' every class of purchasers, while it claims the se- rious and vigorous interference of the public magistrate. 'i"<:, in botany, is the gva- ELU dttal and perfect expansion c-f flowers. : Blowing nf Glass, is performed by dipping the end of an iron blow- pipe into melted glass, and blowing into it. See GLASS. BLUBBER, the fat of the whale and other aquatic animals. It lies immediately under the skin. In the porpoise it is firm, fibrous, and about an inch thick ; in the whale, it is commonly six inches in thick- ness. Formerly, the blubber was boiled down into train-oil on the shores of Greenland, and other places, where the whales were caught; but it is now brought home in casks, and undergoes that process in Britain. The quantity, of blubber yielded by a whale is forty, fifty, nay sometimes, eighty, hundred weight. BLUE, is one of the seven co- lours of Nature, into which the rays of light divide themselves when refracted through a prism. Tlie principal blues used in painting are, Prussian blue, bice, Saunders' blue, azure or smalt, verditer, &rc. ; for the preparation of which, see CO- LOUR-MAKING. In dyeing, the principal ingredients which r.fford a blue colour, are indigo and woad. See also DYEING. The Dutch l;lue, commonly call- ed Turnsol, may be prepared by the following process : The kind of lichen called Arabic, or, in de- fault of it, the large oak moss, be- ing dried and cleansed, ought to be reduced to a powder, and by the nnce of a press, forced through a sieve, the holes of which should be small. This powder should be then mixed in a trough with an alkali called vetas, or the ashes of wine lees, in the proportion of one- third ashes, and two-thirds lees. This composition being moistened M'i 1 >, tfith human urine, a fermentation is excited, and a due degree of moisture preserved by the addition of the same liquor. When it as- sumes a red colour, it should be removed into another vessel, again moistened with urine, and stirred, to renew the fermentation. In a few days the blue colour will begin to appear, and it must then be carefully mixed with a third part of pure powder of pot-ash ; after which it should be removed into wooden pails, three feet high and six inches broad. As soon as the third fermentation begins, it ought to be mixed with pulverized chalk or marble. The last gives no addi- tion but in weight. A line blue colour, equal to ul- tramarine, may be made by collect- ing the blue corn-bottle flower, or Centaurea cyamis, which abounds in almost ever}' corn-field : it has two blue tints ; the one pale in the larger outward leaves, the other deeper, which lies in the middle of the ilt.werj by rubbing the last, while fresh, so as to express the juice, it will yield a beautiful and unfading colour. On the same day that the flower is gathered, the middle should be separated from the extremities, and when a quantity of the juice is ob- tained, a small addition of alum will produce a permanent, clear blue, which, in the opinion of many persons, is not inferior to ultramarine. lu? John, among miners, is a kind of mineral which has lately been fabricated into vases and other ornamental articles. It is of the same quality as the cubical spar. At the foot of die high mountain called Mam-Tor, at Castleton, in perbyshire, it is still found in large BOA [297 pieces, which are sold for about nine pounds per ton. BLUE-BOTTLE (Corn), or the Centaurea ojanns, L. is a plant common in corn-fields. See WI- THERING-, -4/2; and Engl. Rot. '2~7 This vegetable is considered as a weed j but besides the property of affording a \aluable paint, a's mentioned in the preceding article, it is also much frequented by bees. A decoction of the flowers with galls and copperas, affords a good writing-ink ; and it may also be. employed with success in the dye- ing of liiu'n or cotton. BLUEING, is the art of com- municating a blue colour to dif- ferent kinds of substances. Laun- dresses blue their linen with smalt; dyers, their stuffs and wools with woad or indigo. Blueing of metals is performed by heating them in the tire till they assume a blue colour ; it is parti- cularly practised by gilders, who blue their metals before they apply the gold and silver leaf. Blui'ing uf iron, is a method of beautifying that metal for mourn- ing buckles, swords, &c. The pro- cess is as follows : Take a piece of grind-stone or whet-stone, and rub hard on the work, to take from it the black scurf; then heat it in the fire, and as it grows hot, the colour changes by degrees, appearing first of a light, then of a darker go'd colour, and lastly of a blue. Some-' times they also grind indigo and salad-oil together ; and rub the mixture on the work, while it is heating, with a woollen rag, leav- ing it to cool gradually. BOARD, a piece of timber sawed thin, for building, and other purposes. A cheap and durable composi- tion BOA tion for preserving wcdther-J-rio-rd- if/g, may be made; in the following manner : Take three-parts of nir- slacked lime, two of wood-;' and one of fine sand, or sea-coal Sift the.se through a fine , and let them be well mixed: then add as much lintseed oil as will bring the whole into a con- sistence tit for working with a painter's bm.^h. At first, the weather-boarding a thin coat of this mixture; and when that is dry, give it a second, as thick as can be conveniently worked. This composition is cheaper and more durable than paint : it is also im- penetrable to water, and not liable to be injured by the action of the weather, or the heat of the sun. BOAT, a small open vessel worked by oars or sails. The for- mation and names of boats are dif- ferent, according to the purposes for which they are intended : hence they are slight or strong, with a keel, or flat-bottom, open, half, or whole decked, and plain or or- namented. M. BERN i F.RES invented a boat which is not liable to be overset or sunk. Some trials were made with this vessel, at Paris, in the year IJ77) in the presence of a concourse of spectators. Eight men went into the boat, and rocked it till it filled with water, and nf- terwards rowed it along the river in that state, without danger of sinking. M. BERNJLRES then ordered a mast t be creeled in the same boat, when filled with water, and hauled down by a rope fastened to the top of the mast, till it touched the surface of the river, so that the i heeled in a position to which neither winds nor waves could bring her ; yet as soon as the rope, let go, the boat recovered her BOA rrinipoie in less than a second. This experiment proved that the- boat could neither be sunk nor overturned, and that it afforded thegreatest prsiblesecurity against accidents. Hence this invention is of the first importance to the in- habitants of maritime states. In the year 1785, a patent was granted to Mr. LUKI:, T , for his im- provement in the construction of boats and small vessels, so that they will neither overset nor sink. This useful invention is described in the specification of the patent, as follows : To the outsides of boats and vessels, of the common or any other form, are projecting gunwales, sloping from the top of the common gunwale, in a faint curve, towards the water, so as not to interrupt the oars in rowing j and, from the extreme projection, (which may be greater or less, ac- cording to the size and use the boat or vessel is intended for), returning to the side in a slight curve, at a proper distance above the water- line. These projecting gunwales mav be made solid, of any light materials, that will repel the water, or hollow and water-tight, or of cork, and covered with thin wood, canvas, leather, tin, or any other light metal, mixture, or composi- tion. These projections are very small at the stem and stern, and increase gradually to the dimensi- ons required ; they will effectually prevent the boat or vessel from being overset by sudden squalls, or violent gales of wind, either in sailing or rowing, or by imprudent or unskilful management. In ti- inside at die stem and stern, and at the sides (where -the projecting gunwales are not necessary), and under the seats and thwarts, are. iaciosures, or bulk-heads, made water- Perspective Vievr. 13 <_S ?^1SD / , Ttavnvt BOA water-tight, or filled with cork, or other light materials that will repel the wak-r : the spaces between the timbers mayinlike manner be tilled up. By this means, the boat or vessel will be so much lighter than the body of water it must displace in sinking, that it will with safety carry more than its common bur- then, though the remaining space should by any accident be filled with water. Under the bottom, along the centre of the keel, is af- fixed a false one of cast iron, or other metal ; this will strengthen sind protect the bottom from in- jury in many cases ; and, by being placed so much below the surface of .the water, will aft as balla?t with more power than a much greater weight in the common si- tuation, and is much more safe, by being fixed in the proper place, and not liable to shift by any sudden motion of the boat or vessel. ICE-BOATS, a modern in- vention of THOMAS RITZLER, of Hamburgh, whose name deserves to be transmitted to posterity; as his ingenious and useful contri- vance has already saved many va- luable lives from a watery grave. We have given an accurate repre- sentation of such a boat, with our First Number, and shall here fur- nish the reader with the description. fig. 1, Is a perspective view of the boat, the body of winch con- sists of wicker-work covered with leather, to render it impermeable by water; and so remarkably light, that it may be easily ma- naged by one person, both on the ice and in the water. Its length,., when measured on the outside, is 7! feet in the keel, and 12 feet above from end to end : its breadth, 2 feet at the bottom, and 4 at the. tipper part. BOA [299 Fig. 2, Represents the plan ot the boat, the bottom of which is shod with two small pieces of iron, marked x, .r : by means of two hooks, one of which is delineated on the plate, the boat may with the greatest facility be slided over the ice. In the lower part, or body, of the vessel, there is a large opening, 3 feet long, and 15 inches wide, pointed out by o, o, o, fig. 2 ; and o, fig. 3 ; the four sides of which are. secured by a frame- work, marked r, fig. 1 , and 3, to prevent the water from en- tering the vessel. Through this opening, also, the boatman is ena- bled to step upon the ice in tho.re places where it is too uneven t3 admit the sliding of the boat, find to cany it, by means of the han- dles, as represented in fig. 1, where the person standing, is marked only with dotted lines, to shew that he has quitted his former station in the boat. Ano- ther advantage derived from this, aperture, in the middle of the boat, is the counterpoise which a column of water in its centre produces, and thus prevents it from being overset, while the man who carried it over the ice, immediately raises himself above the level of the wa- ter, and sits down in the vessel. But, in order to approach nearer to the person whose life is endan- gered, there is also employed a ladder with a long jointed -handle, which is pushed forward and held by another assistant standing on the firm ice. On this ladder (which will be delineated among the implements of restoration from DROWNING) the boatman places himself, and advances as near as possible to the body immersed in the water. Having successfully cxtra&ed it, no time should be- lost 300] BOA ld>t in laying it in a proper posture in the boat ; for which purpose then: is a kind of chair with an elevated back, on the stern of the boat, marked n, in fig. 1, and 3 ; which last exhibits the longitudi- nal section of the vessel. M. GUNTHER, one of the most active members of the Hamburgh Society for the Encouragement of t'-e Arts and usrful Trades, in- forms us in the third volume of their Transactions, published in 17()5,tbathe has often been pr when unfortunate persons have been rescued from untimely death, by means of the ice -.boat, and that the swiftness and dexterity with which this machine may be managed by ex- pert assistants, is almost incredible. Hence the vessel is not intrusted to any other but skilful hands, and during summer it is deposited in an airy place, and the leather pre- served from becoming either too dry or mouldy. The whole of this useful apparatus costs only 150 marks currency, or about 101. sterling ; .a sum so insignificant, that, while the city of Hamburgh has built five such ice-boats, the great city of London ought to be in possession of at least one, hundred. LIFE-BOAT, at Shields, one of the most useful modern inven- tions, by which many lives and much property have already been saved. It was built by Mr. GREATHEAD, an eminent ship- builder, and generously present- ed to the inhabitants of South .Shields by die , present Duke of NORTHUMBERLAND, by whose beneficence North Shields has also been supplied with a boat of a si- milar construction. Mr. FAIRLESS, who furnished some useful hints respecting the original plan; describe? tbe. .y BOA as measuring thirty feet by ten, re* sembling in form a common Green* land boat, but more flat in the bot- tom. The quantity of cork em- ployed in the construction is about seven hundred weight, with which the boat is lined, inside as well as outside of the gunwales, two feet in breadth ; the seats being also filled with the same material. It is rowed by ten men, double bank- ed, and steered by one at each end with oars, being alike in its form at both ends, and contrived so as not to sink in the sand. This boat draws very little wa- ter, and can carry twenty persons, even when full of water. Being water-proof, and rendered buoyant by eork, it always keeps afloat, preserving its equilibrium without danger of oversetting, and is able to contend against the most tre- mendous sea, having never failed, in a single instance, of conveying a distressed ship's crew in safety. When taken out in the highest seas and broken water, the men testify no apprehension ; and though cork-jackets were at first provided for them, yet their confi- dence in the boat is so great, that they now refuse them. A model of this useful boat is kept at Northumberland-house, in the Strand. It might beirapro\e was gradually reduced to three feet four inches. In rickety children, the bones are obviously softer than they ought to be in a sound state, owing, perhaps, to their erosion, occasioned by the discharge of an acrimonious humour. In a similar manner, the scurvy has often been remarked to affeft these solid parts of the human frame. Hence, in the former instances, attention to a proper diet, gentle fricVion with coarse cloths, exercise, fresh air, and cold bathing, will frequently chnnge the constitution of such children, insomuch, that at the age of twenty there will not remain the least symptom of their former de- bility. It is generally believed, that the bones, in a healthy state, are in- " sensible to pain, because the larger ones are unconnected with any nerve : hence the operation of the trepan has been performed upon sound persons, who wrrenof un- der the influence of opium, with- out giving them any additional pain during the perforation of the skull. See FRACTURES and TEETH. Decomposition of Bitt's. After tiring separated from the animal, they may be hardened and softened, both by acids and alkalies, accord- ing to the quantity of saline, matter employed, and the manner in which it is applied. AltheughBoBBRAAvta asserts, that alkaline ;iU; render them harder and firmer, and that acids make them softer and more flexible, yet these ctiert . take place only in certain circumstances. Thus NKWMAN found, that bones be- came harder and more compact by steeping them in oil of vitriol > but BON when this acid was in sufficient proportion, it destroyed their co- heMon, and dissolved them. JJr. Lr. \v is, on the other hand, observed, that diluted vitriolic acid, though it rendered them remarkably soft, luade them at the same time brittle ; but that either in aqua fortis, or spirit of salt diluted, as well as in the acetous acid, they became flexi- ble and soft like leather. The most effectual and cheapest method of reducing the hardest bones to a soft pap or jelly, is that effected by the action of simple water, heated in what is called Pa pin's Digester-, a machine consisting of a strong and O O close iron vessel, in which the steam of boiling liquors is confined, and thus a more intense degree of heat is produced than any fluid could otlicnvise acquire. This erret, how- ever, may be accomplished in a much shorter time, when, instead of pure water, alkaline solutions are . employed ; yet the latter could not properly be used in any culinary process. If bones be exposed to a mode- rate tire, either in own vessels, or in contact with the burning fuel, they become opaque, white, and friable : by increasing the lire, they are still more reduced, and easily crumble into a powder. But, if they be at tint submitted to an in- tense heat, such as is required to melt copper or iron, they become firra, semi-transparent, and sono- rous, not unlike hard mineral stones. Thia curious experiment deyrvt.s i he farther researches of the chemist. A method of producing phos- phorus in large quantities from bones, has been invented by M. SCHEEI-E, who employed for this purpose the vitriolic acid: it has, therefore, been doubted, whether the BON tiie phosphoric acid is naturally contained in die bones, and united with calcareous earth, or whether it is generated by a combination of the vitriolic acid with a certain quantity of lime. As, however, tile phosphoric acid has likewise, though in a smaller quantity, been discovered in the gastric iuice of animals, there is reason to conclude .that it forms one of die elementary constituents of bones. See BEX- ZOIVE. Colouring of Bones. This pro- cess may be performed either by immersing bones in the common dyeing liquors made of animal and vegetable substances, or staining them without heat, by different metallic solutions. To succeed in the former method, the bones should previously be boiled in a so- lution of alum, and afterwards steep- ed in a decoction made of anv co- louring substance. Thus, for in- stance, to stain them of a red colour, half a pound of Brazil-wood may bt j boiled for an hour in a gallon of strong lime-water, .in which the bones are sutTered to lie till they acquire a proper colour : if they assume too deep a hue of purple, it will be necessary to plunge them again into a solution of alum, which has the eifecl of bringing diem to a crim-,on or scar'et .-hade. By metallic solutions, bones may be easily spotted or variegated: Thus a solution of silver in aqua- fortis, imparts, according to its strength, a brown or black cole r.r, a solution of gold in u^ua-r^ia, or in spirit of salt, a fine purple ; a solution of copper in the acetous acid, a -pleasant green ; and solu- tions of the same metal in the" vola- tile spirit of ammonia, at first a .deep and beautiful blue; but which, on exposing it to the air. BON [307 changes into a green, or blueish green. On touching the bone v.'ith the two* solutions first mentioned, it acquires the desired tint in a few hours, when placed in the open air; but in those liquors made with copper, it should be steeped for at least twenty-four hours, sufficiently to imbibe the colour. In such cases as require immersion for some time, the bone may be variegated, by co- vering the:.-: p&rts which are in- tended to remahi white, with wax, or other matter not soluble in the staining liquor. Ecunondcal uses of Bones. Be- side the various toys, and ether articles of domestic economy, nv.-.C,-'. of bones, they are extensively use- ful in many of the chemical arts ; for instance, to absorb the sulphur of ferruginous ores for rendering cast-iron malleable ; to form tests and cupels, or vessels for reiininjj gold and silver with lead ; to n::::. ( ; gksses and porcelain of a miiky colour ; to rectify volatile salts, and empyreumatic oils ; to pro- duce glue, &c. But the most important and beneficial uses, to which bones may be rendered sub- servient, are those in rurul eco- nomy. In EVELYN'S PHilosdphicat Dis- course (f the Earth] we n cet with a note by Dr. A. HUNTER, the editor of a new edition of this tit-a'ise, published in 1778, from which we' shall extract the follow- ing account : Bones are an ex- cellent manure, though not gene- rally known ; they should, 1 ever, not be calcined, as their virtue will be dissipated by the fire. A. ST. LEGEK, Esq. had once laid down to grass a large of very indifferent lime-stone land, with a crop of corn; and "X2 J ' from 3oS] BON from this uniformly weTl-dressed piece he selected three rods of equal quality with the rest, and manured them with bones broken very small, at the rare of sixty bushels per acre. Upon the land thus managed, the crop was infi- nitely superior to the rest. The next year's grass was also more luxuriant, and has continued to preserve the same superiority for at least eight years, insomuch that in spring it is green three weeks before the rest of the field. He also dressed two acres with bones, in two different fields prepared far turnips, at sixty bushels to the acre, and found the crops incom- parably more productive than the others managed in the common way. Upon grass-lands, he ob- served, that this kind of manure exerts its influence more power- fully in the second year than in the first. For whatever soil it be intended, the bones should be well broken, before they can be equally spread upon the land. No pieces should exceed the size of small marbles. To perform this neces- sary operation, he recommends the bones to be sufficiently bruised, by putting them xuider a circular stone which, being moved round npon its edge, by means of a horse, in the manner tanners grind their bark, will very expeditiously rrrect the purpose. Some people break them with small hammers upon a piece of iron, but that method is inferior to grinding. Al- though bones of all kinds may be tised with advantage, yet those of fat cattle are doubtless the best} but unground bones should never be employed, as they me of little or no service to the soil, A. ST. LP.GER has also found it beneficial to m& ashes with. BON the bones : a cart-load of the for- mer being put to thirty or forty bushels of the latter, and heated for twenty-four hours (which may be known by the smoking of the heap), the whole should be turned. After lying ten days longer, this excellent manure will be fit for use. Lastly, Dr. HUNTER remarks, that the best method of grinding bones, is that between two cast metal cylinders. And as mills are very rarely erected purposely for this operation, the apparatus may be added to any common water-mill, at a very trifling expence. BONE-SPAVIN, is 'a bony ex- crescence, or hard swelling, on the inside of a horse's leg. A spavin, which begins on the lower part of the hock, is not so dangerous as that which grows higher, between the two round processes of the leg- bone } and that which appears near the edge, is less injurious than if it were situated more towards the middle and inwards, where it would, in a greater degree, im- pede the bending of the knee. A swelling occasioned by a kick or blow, is not at first the tru^ spavin, nor so dangerous as when it proceeds from a natural cause 5 and that which grows on the leg of a colt, is not so inveterate as that of a horse come to maturity. In old horses, the spavin generally is in- curable. The usual method of treating this disease is, by blisters, and the actual cautery. When a fullnes.i on the fore part of the hock is occasioned by hmxl riding, or any other violence, cooling and repell- ing application^ are proper, as hi the case of bruises or strains. Among the various prescriptions for the blistering ointment, the fol* lowing, by Mr. UIBS.QN, is prefer- able ; BON able : Nerve and marsh-mallow oint- ment, of each two ounces j quick- silver, one ounce, thoroughly min- gled with one ounce of Venice tur- pentine ; Spanish flies, powdered, a dram and a half ; sublimate, one dram ; oil of origanum, two drams. When the hair is cut as close as possible, the ointment is to be ap- plied pretty thick to the injured part, in the morning, and the horse should be kept tied up without any litter till night. He should then be untied, that he may lie down, and a pitch plaster fastened to the part, with a proper bandage. After t^e blister has done run- ning, and the scabs begin to peel off, another may be applied, which will have a still better effect ; and in young horses, will generally complete the cure. But if the spa- vin has been_of long standing, a re- petition of the blister five or six times, will perhaps be requisite. Each application must be made at intervals of a fortnight or three weeks, lest the blemish of a scar, or baldness, remain on the part. Spavins on old or full- aged horses, as they grow more inward, and run among the sinuosities of the joint, are, for the most part, incurable. In such cases, the strongest cau- stic blisters must be applied, or the part immediately fired; but the best and safest way to preserve the use of the limb is, by long-repeat- ed applications of the above-men- tioned blistering ointment, for some months, if necessary. The horse, in the intervals, should be exer- cised moderately ; and by degrees the hardness will be dissolved, and disappear. If the spavin is deep, and runs so far into the joint that no appli- catiq j can reach it, all medicines BOO [309 will be unavailing. When the dis- ease docs not penetrate the joint, and the blistering method is found ineffectual, the swelling may be safely cauterized with a thin iron, forced pretty deeply into the sub- stance ; and it should afterwards be dressed according to the forego- ing directions. BOOK, a general name for most literary compositions 5 but should, with propriety, be applied to such productions only as extend to the size of a volume. The writings of MOSES are al- lowed to be the most ancient of any extant ; but as several are cited by this author, some must undoubtedly have been written previous to his time. The oldest books of a profane nature, with which we are acquainted, are HO- MER'S Poems ; though the Greek authors mention no less than se- venty other writers prior to HO- MER. The materials used by the an- cients instead of paper, were of various kinds j as plates of lead and copper, the bark of trees, bricks, stone, wood, &c. Instead of wooden tablets, the leaves of the palm-tree were afterwards used, and the inner part of the bark of the lime, the ash, the maple, and the elm : as these could be rolled up, they received the name of vo~, lumen, or a volume, which appel- lation was afterwards transferred to similar rolls of paper, or parch- ment. The material next introduced for the purpose of transmitting the re- cords of the learned to posterity, was wax ; and afterwards leather, or the skins of goats and sheep, which at It ngth were manufactured into parchment : these were suc- ceeded by )eadj linen, silk, horn, X 3 and, gio] BOO and, lastly, paper. Books were iirst. made square, in the f<;rni of blocks and tables ; hat t:iat of rolls was aftenvards found most conve- nient : they were composed ofse- v .! sh :ets fa.st.enrd together, and '. upon a stick : the: whole making a kind of column, -\\b.\d\ v. as managed by the stick as a handle, it being considered a crime to lay hold of the roll itself. The volume, \vhcn extended, was com- monly fifty yards in length, and a vard and a half wide. The pre- sent form of books, consisting of separate leaves, was not unknown to the r.icients, though little used by them. With the. form of books is also connected their internal economy, as the order and arrangement of lines and pages, margins, &c. : these have undergone many varia- tions. At first, the letters were only divided into lines ; afterwards into separate words, which by de- -, were distinguished by ac- -;, and distributed by points and stops into periods, paragraphs, chapters, and other divisions. The Orientals began their lines from the right, and carried the m to the ite the Gi to in both dh'cc'ticm, alternately begin- ning in the one, and returning in :her. The method of writing practised by the Chines;- is stiii more curious, as ti. tjit-ir lines from the top to the bottom of the page. CMinplaints were made as earlv as the time of SOT.OMON-,' respect- ing the multiplicity of books ; and ar i.( \v too numerous, not only to be. procun .1, but . to be. known by their rn or titles. The editors oftheLVi- ci/cl' ;,'"'<.'.'; J-i!'i'-:>>niic(t remark, that " Jnt T '.md has more to fear on this BOO score tlnn otlvr countries, sincr, besides our own produce, we have for some years past drained our neighbours." It is but justice to observe, however, that this idea is unfounded, as it is a well known fact, that the number of volumes annually published on the Conti- i!":u. and particularly in Germ is more than four times the amount of those issued from the British in the three united king- doms: besides which, imny hun- dred volumes are annually exported, thus rendering the number in the country nearly what it would be without the importation of foreign books. This truth will be evident to those who reflect on the relative difference between the price and quality of the paper employed on the Continent, and that u.->ed in this country, not to mention the extremely high price of labour, and many other circumstances, which, we apprehend, will ultimately tend to impede the progress of BritiMi Literature. But with respect to a superfluity of books, they are doubtless of use ; for knowledge U ever advantageous, raid cannot^ be too widely diffused. We shall conclude this article, by slating a method of preserving books firm the deprecations of wunns and insects. There is ?>. very small insect that deposits its in books during the month of August, cv,v eialiy on those leaves iu.arc.st the cover. These gradu- ally produce a sort of mites, pimihr. to' what arc: generated in cheese, and which afterwards change their state, and become beetles: and when the time of their trans- formation approaches, they eat through, till they gain the extremity of the book. The best p:xvei;uvt: ag.unst tiitir at- tacks BOO tacks is mineral salts, to which all insects have an aversion. Tiie wit c-ilK-d in the old system of chemistrv, arcanum diiplicatxm, alum and vitriol, are proper for this purpose; a small quantity of which should be mixed with the paste used by book-binders. To pre- vent the depredations of the book- worm, M. PHEDIOER advises book-binders to make their paste of starch instead of flour. He likewise directs a little pulverized alum to be strewed between the book and its cover, and also upon the shelves of the library. BOOK-KEEPING, is the art of recording mercantile transac- tions in a systematic manner. A mere-hint's books should con- tain every particular which relates to his affairs ; and exhibit the state of his business, the connection of the different parts, with the amount and success of the whole. Accord- ingly, they should be so full and regular, as to afford information in every point for which they may be consulted. -Book-keeping comprehends the following heads : the debts owing to a merchant, and those due by him to others ; the goods which bdongtd to him, with the quanti- ty and value sold, and those which remain in his possession ; also the amount of his stock when the books were opened, together with his profits and losses, an. I the extent of his property at present, The Italian method of book- keeping by doiiHc-entry, is found- ed on tiie most universal principles, and is therefore the best in exten- sive and complicated mercantile transactions. Indeed the accoun- tant who thorou^lily understands \t, can with facility either adppt or BOO [311 invent any other form better suited to any particular business. Accordiog to the Italian method, three principal books, namely, ths waste-book, journal, and ledger, are used. The waste-book, or day-book, begins with an inven- tory of the owner's goods, a list of debts due to him, and of the debts he owes to others ; and it is conti- nued with a clear statement of the money received or paid, and the goods bought or sold by him, &rc. The accountant's first care should be, to have nothing defec- tive ; and his second, to insert nothing superfluous in the waste- book. The journal is a concise record of transactions compiled from the waste-book, in the same order as they stand there, but expressed in a technical style. The whole art of writing the journal depends upon the proper choice of the D". and C rs . Every thing received, or person accountable to us, is D r . ; and every tiling delivered, or per- son to whom we are accountable, is C r . On these two comprehen- sive rules, and their various modi- fications, depends the regularity of accounts. As for the more par- ticular rules, they will readily bs suggested by the judgment of the accountant. From the journal, the different transactions are posted in the ledger. Each account is distin- guished by a proper title, and ar- ticles of the same kind received and delivered, are entered on op- posite sides of the. same folio. For instance, money received is enter- ed on the one side, and money paid on the other ; or goods bought on the one side, and goods sold on the other. TUe left hand page is X 4 called. BOO BOO called the D r . side ; the tight hand page the C r . side of the account $ and the dift" rence between the sums of the D r . and C r . sides is de- nominated the balance. Accounts, in the ledger, are of three kinds, personal, real, and fictitious. Personal accounts are those opened for ever)' person or company with whom the merchant has any dealings or credit ; real accounts are those of property, such as ready money, goods, ships, houses, &c. ; and fiftitious ac- counts are stock, together with profit and loss, and its subsidiary accounts. The stock account contains, on the D T . side, the amounts of the debts due by the merchant when the books were opened; and on the C r . the amount of money, goods, 8fc. belonging to him ; con- sequently the balance shews the amount of his nett stock. Profit and loss account contains every article of gain on the C r . and of loss on the D r . side ; therefore the ba- lance is the nett gain cr loss, which is posted on the proper side of the t>tock account above-mentioned. Several subsidiary accounts are opened, to shorten and methodize that of profit and loss, such as interest account, proper expenses, Sec. These are used, or others invented, according to the nature and puqxjses of the business. Accounts may be opened in the ledger, in the same order as they occur in the journal ; or thc.se of a similar kind may be placed toge- ther ; tiie yersonal account* in one part of the book, and the real ac- counts in another. Besides the three principal, there are subsidiary books used by mer- chants of extensive connections and business. These are, the cash- book, book of charges of merchan- dize, book of housc-expences, in- voice-book, sales-book, bill-book, receipt -book, letter -book, and pocket-book. Some merchants also ke-/p a memorandum -book ; but the man of business cannot be restricted to these, as he. -will either use them, or invent others more conformable to the nature of his business. In the year 1796, a patent was granted to Mr. EDWARD THOMAS JOXES, of Bristol, for his method or plan of detecting errors in ac- counts of all kinds, by which they may be adjusted in a regular and concise manner. This work is entitled, The Lnglbli System of Book-keeping, which requires a day-book, or journal, an alphabet, and a ledger, ruled in the follow- ing manner: namely, the day- book has three columns on each page, for receiving the amount of the transa6tions ; one column of which to receive the amount of the debits and credits, one column to receive the debits only, and ano- ther to receive the credits only ; or it may be ruled with only two co- lumns on each page, one to re- ceive the amount of the debits, and the other the amount of the cre- dit -. There must also be on each page of the day-hook, four other columns ruled, two on the left side, next the amount of the debits, and two on the right side next the amount of the credits, for receiv- ing the letter or mark of posting, and the page of the ledger to which c M h amount is to be posted. The alphabet need not be ruled at all, but must contain the name of every account in the ledger, the letter that is annexed to it as a mark of posting, and the page of the ledger. The ledger must be ruled BOO ruled with three, four, five, or seven columns on each page, as may be most agreeable, tor receiving the amounts of the dirle.rent trans- actions entered in tine day-book. But in order to prevent any mistakes that may happen from the hurry of business in a count- ing-house, Air. JOKES has given only one column for receiving the amount of every transaction, whe- ther debits or credits, at the in- stant of making the entry : and, for the convenience of separating die debits from the credits, pre- vious to posting, which is neces- sary to prevent confusion and per- plexity, he lias two other columns on tlie same page ; that on the left side, into which the amount of every debit must be carefully en- tered, and that on the right for the amount of the credits j which co- lumns must be cast up once a month. The column of debits and credits of itself forms one amount j the column for the debits produces a second amount ; and the column of credits a third amount ; which second and third amounts, added together, must exactly agree with the first amount, or the work is not done right.. By this means, the man of business may obtain monthly such a state- ment of his affairs, as will shew how much he owes for that month, and how much is owing to him ; and the debits being- added together for any given time, with the value of the stock of goods on jiand, will, when the amount of the credits is subtract- ed therefrom, shew the profits of tlie trade. The patentee's manner of exa- mining the books kept by this me- thod, also professedly differs from that hitherto practised, as well in BOO [313 expedition as in the certain accu- racy which attends the process j it being only necessary to cast up the columns through the ledger de- bits and credits, according to the examples given, aud the amount of those columns, if right, must agree with the columns in die day- hook for the same corresponding space of time. These castings should take place once a month, and if the amounts do not agree, the posting must then, but not else, be called over ; and when the time, whether it be one, two, three, or four months, that is al- lotted to each column of the ledger, is expired, the amount of each co- lumn should be put at the bottom of the first page, and earned for- ward to the bottom of the next, and so on to the end of the ac- counts ; taking care that the amount in the day-book, of each month's transactions, be brought into one gross amount for the same time. Having already enlarged upon this subject, we shall only observe, that this new system of book- keeping, however ingeniously con- trived, has not met with that gene- ral approbation to which it is ap- parently entitled. To enforce his claim to -public patronage, Mr. JONES concludes the specification of his patent by asserting, that up- on his plan every page will be proved in the progress of calcula- tion, and " the balances of ten thousand ledgers could not unob- servedly be taken off wrong." We give him full credit for this as- sertion ; though it has, perhaps by invidious rivals, been objected that his method is more complicated than the old Italian system of book-keeping ; which has, by ex-. perieuce, beea found fujly adequate to 3 i 4 ] BOO to the purpose of mercantile accu- racy. EOORCOLE, is a species of the JRraisica, L. and generally culti- vated in the openfields like turnips, c.ibb.iges, or the turnip-rooted cab- It is one of those hardy pV.ints, the leaves of which may be cut without detriment to its growth, ,ncl will produce a new crop in the course of a month or six weeks. According to an experiment made, by ]VTr. BAKER in the year 1/O3, an Irish acre of fa-lew .nd. which was pkntcd with boi.-ivoie, at the distance of two fret, and hoed in the Tullhn me- thod, produced plants which weigh- ed about five pounds ten ounces each on an average, and the whole produce of aiilrihh acre was 40,096 pounds. It should be observed, that the li'.nd must be well manured, and in H high state of tillage, for the cul- tivation of this plant, which, if kept constantly hoed, will grow very luxuriantly, and, in the hottest weather, be infinitely more brittle in the leaves than any other culti- vated in gardens ; which is a cer- tain indication of its being a healthy plant. It is worthy of the attention ef the farmer or grazier, on account of the rapidity of its growth, and the property of withstanding the eirect of severe frosts, while it af- fords an excellent vegetable for the table, and may be used with advan- tage for feeding sheep. Mr. BAKER farther observes, that sheep should not be suffered to depasture so long upon a crop of boorcole, as to injure the stalks ; because its future growth will be checked by depriving it of the sprouting leaves. BOOT, a cover or defence f.or BOO the l?g and foot, made of leather, and generally worn by horsemen. The boot is by no means a modern invention, as it was worn in the Iiomrm army by the infantry as well- as the cavalry. It was originally made of leather, but afterwards of 1 "'.-< or iron, that it might be proof against the sword. There arc various kinds of boots, as hunting -boots, fishing -boots, jack-boots, 3cc. The fishermen of New England preserve their boots water proof by the following com- position: One pint of boiled lint- seed oil, half a pound of mutton suet, six ounces of pure bees-wax, and four ounces of rosin. These ingredients are melted together over a slow lire, and the boots or shoes, when new and quite clean, are warmed, and rubbed with the composition till the leather is com- pletely saturated. There is an improved composi- tion for preserving leather, the good effects of which are sufficient- ly ascertained. One pint of drying oil, two ounces of yellow wax, two ounces of spirit of turpentine, and half an ounce of Burgundy pitch, should be' carefully melted tog-ether over a slow tire. V\ ith this mix- ture new shoes and boots are rubbed either in the sun, or at some, dis- tance from a lire, with a sponge or brush : the operation is 10 be re- peated as often as they become dry, until they be fully saturated. In this manner, the leather becomes impervious to wet ; the shoes or boots made of it last much longer than those made of common leather ; acquire such softness and pliability that they never shrivel nor grow hard or inflexible , and, in that state, are the most effeclual pre- servatives against cold and chil- blains. It is, however, necessary to EOR BO T to remark, tint shoes or boots. I prepared, ought not to be worn till h :ivc: become perfectly dry and dasLic; as, in the contrary the leather will be too sort, wear out much sooner 1)1:111 even the common kind. .BORAGE, the Common, or Bo- r-figo offitinaKs, L. a native p'ant, ntly found growing in \ fends, and up.m old wnils ; it is rough, and clothed with small prickly hairs; has alternate k-ivcs, and bears blue spreading flowers in June and July. Sec WlTH. 230, and .ty/. Sot, 3(5. The flowers of the borage are much frequented by bees, ami the plant itself may be used as a culi- nary vegetable, or as an ingredient in lettuce-salad, to which it im- parts an agreeable flavour. The whole of this plant abounds with nitrous particles, which may be easily obtained by elixation ; for alter evaporating the lixivium to a proper consistence, and allowing it to stand in a cool place, crystals will be formed, which deflagrate upon the fire, and possess all the properties of salt-petre. BORAX, in chemistry, a salt produced in the mountains of Thi- bet, in Asia, both naturally and ar- tificially by evaporation. The borax imported from China is purer than that of -Thibet, and is found in a natural state in small masses of irregular crystal*, of a taint white colour. .Beside the vi- trescible earth, which is an e>s<. n- tial principle of borax, it contains roppcr ami the marine acid, but no traces of the vitriolic. It has also been clearly proved bv . rimento, that borax consists of fos- sil alkali, in some degree neutra- lized by a peculiar salt. When .diaL-eived and crystaliz.d, it. forms small transparent masses ; and thf^ refiners have a. method of shcoti'.i:; it into large crystals, winch, how- ever, in n: . and art: inferior to, the genuine salt. BJHIX is useful in metalh. for sold 'ring ; in the fusion of earths, with which it as well as iu oilier chemical p and dv.-.-rs frequently employ it fc.r '. gioss to silks. :ii"dienl properties have IKVM suilicien;: Mr. BI.SSET recommends a weak tion of this salt in v seat- ing aphthous crusts, or the thrush in the mouth and fauces of clvldrcn. A small quantity of it, powdt red and mixed with sugar, is oft-n ap- plied for the same purpose. \\ e are not acquainted with a more bal- samic application to sore nipples, or chapped lips and hands in fro.-tv :er, than a fe/.v grains of borax dissolved iu warm water, wit!. addition of a little pure honev. BGTAXV, tliat part of natural histcry which relates to plants c-r This pleasing science had the misfortune of being, from :i fanev, considered meivlv as a branch of medicine ; and - the naturalist was employed in covering tne virtues of plant-;. knowledge of their or. In cor.s. .-(.'Us of botany, the sttuu fined to mi mil plants ; which wen for v ith a view to discover rcm;> On the revival of letters, in- of investigating plants in tht dfin of Nature, they were stiKiied only in the writings of PLINY and Diosco- BOT DIOSCORIDKS : thus translators, commentators, and practitioners, :a agreeing, a variety of names was given to the same plant, and the same name to several plants. At length, more careful researches mid many excellent observations were made ; but the latter being enveloped in a chaos of nomencla- ture, physicians nnd herbalists no longer understood each other. Botanists of real genius indeed occasionally published instructive books, among which the principal are the writings of CORDUS, GKS- XEK, CLUSIUS, andCfxsALt'ixv.'s ; but each of these authors regulat-< ing his nomenclature by his own method, created new genera, or divided the old ones, according to las own fancy. Hence the genera and species were so intermingled and confounded, that almost every plant received as many names as there were authors employed in its description. The advancement of the study of botany was, however, greatly promoted by the writings of the indefatigable BAUHINS, two bro- thers, each of whom undertook an universal history of plants, in- cluding a synonymy, or exact list of the names of each plant in the works of all the writers that pre- ceded them. Meanwhile, voyages of disco- very enriched botany with new tn asures, and while the old names owr-loaded the memory, new ones were invented for the newly discovered plants. In order to extricate themselves from this im- mense labyrinth, botanists were obliged to adopt some methodical arrangement. RAY, HERMAN', KIVINIUS, proposed their respec- tive plans ; but TOURNEFOKT, who published his system in surpassed them all. To him vre are indebted for the first complete regular arrangement of the vege- table kingdom; his plates of ge- neric characters are excellent, but his work is deficient, as it contains no characters or descriptions of the different species. At length, LINNJEUS formed the vast project of new moulding the whole science of botany. Hav- ing prepared the rules by which it ought io be conducted, he deter- mined the genera of plants, and afterwards the species ; and by keeping all the old names that agreed with these new rules, and new modelling all the rest, he established a clear nomenclature, formed upon principles more con- sonant with Nature. He also in- vented specific names, which he joined to the generical ones, in order to distinguish the species. The whole Linnsean system is founded on the idea, that there is in vegetables as well as in animals, a real distinction of the sexes ; that each plant may be analysed by its several organs of fructification ; and, consequently, that it is ne- cjssary to acquire an accurate knowledge of the nitml-er, shape, situation, and proportion of these parts. Hence, only the student will be enabled to understand the elements of the science. And as all vegetables are capable of pro- ducing blossoms and fruit, or seed, the following parts, which compose a flower, must be minutely examin- ed in every plant, namely : 1. The calyx, or flower cup, or empaic- mentj 2. The corolla, or blossom, or flower-leaf ; 3. The stamina, or chives ; 4. The phtillum, or pointal ; 5. The pericardium, or seed-vessel ; 6. The si7nij;a, or st-eds. To these may be added the BOt the neftary, or honey-cup ; and tlie receptacle, or base. It required the resolution, know- ledge and ingenuity of LINNJEUS, to erF-Ct this reform with success. His system at first met with re- sistance, and meets with it still from his rivals in fame 5 but on account of its practical utility it has been almost universally adopt- ed throughout Europe. To pursue the study of plants with advantage, that of the nomen- clature must nojt be neglected. Names, it is true, are abitrary ; but if the most engaging part of Natural History merits 'the atten- tion of the curious, it will be ne- cessary to begin with learning the language of the writers, in order to know with precision to what ob- jects the names employed by them actually belong. The vegetables on the face of the globe may be considered as analogous to its inhabitants ; under which view of the subject vege~ tables may be said to resemble the inhabitants in general ; classes, the nations ; orders, the tribes ; genera, the families ; species, the individuals ; and varieties, the same individuals in different circum- stances. Beside the satisfaction which the study of the works of Nature, and especially that of botany, affords to an inquisitive mind, it counteract the passion for more frivolous amusements, and always presents objects worthy of contemplation. Hence the late Dr. WITHERING very justly remarks, that, inde- pendently of its immediate use, the studv of botany is as healthful as it is innocent ; that it beguiles the te-'diousncss of the road ; furnishes amusement at every footstep of the solitary walk ; and, above all, that BOT [317 it leads to pleasing reflections on the bounty, the wisdom, and the pjwer of til? Great CREATOR ! Among the latest etfmeittary works of this branch of science art the' following : Dn WIT HE RING'S " Arrangement of British Plants ;' in four volumes 8vo. (ll. 11s. tid.) Prof. MARTYN'S translation of ROUSSEAU'S " Letters on the Eh'.' me nts of Botany, addressed to ft Lady," (7s.) PKISCILLA WAKE- FIELO'S "Introduction to Botany,'' (3s. 6d. with plain, and ?s. with coloured plates) ; md, lastly. Dr. HULL'S " Introduction totke Study of Botany." BOTTLE, a small vessel mads of glass, leather, or stone. Glass- bottles are better for cyder tlum those of any other substance. Dr. PKKCIVAL censures the cont- mon practice of cleansing wine- bottles with shot ; for if, through inattention, any of it should remain, when the bottles are again filled with wine, the metal will be dis- solved, and the liquor impregnated with its deleterious qualities. For this reason, he recommends pot- ash in preference to shot, as a few- ounces of the former dissolved iu water, will cleanse ?; great number of bottles: and where the impuri- ties adhere to the sides, a few pieces of blotting paper put into the ves- sel, and shaken with the water, will remove them in an expeditious manner. BOTTLING, the filling of bot- tles with liquor, and corking them in order to preserve it. Particular caution should be used in bottling cyder : the best way to secure the bottles from bursting, is to have the liquor thoroughly fine before it be bottled. If one bottle break, it will be necessnry to give vent to the remainder, and cork them up again. .18] EOT again. Weak order is more apt to bur.st the bottles than tli;it of a stronger qualitv: they should he placed so that the corks ni:;v he kept wet, and stowed in a cellar not exposed to the t h.uiges and in- fluence of the this pi:r- tlic ground is preferable to a frame ; and a layer of saw-dust o" s.md better than the hare soil : but the most proper situation is a .-l;va:n of runr.iiv; v Hofucd heer may he much im- proved by putting a small qi;a:.l:iv of crys tills of tartar, spirituous liquor, or sugar boiled with the essence oi" cloves, into each bottle. In order to ripen bottled liquors, they are some rimes exr.o.-ed to iuo- tlerate warmth, or the rays of the sun, which, in a . will bring them to maturity BOTTS, in zoology, a species of short worms produced and nou- rished in the intestines of a horse. As the flies, from v. ' the botls are produced, do not fre- quent the neighbourhood of large towns, horses are not liable to this they be kept in the *ta- ble during .summer and autumn. In summer the females of these flies enter th- anus of the horse, vhere they deposit their eggs, which are soon hatched by the heat, and the worms penetrate into the in- ti'stinrs, sometimes as far as the stomach. Botts are very large maggots, com posed of circular rings with prickly feet, by which they adhere to the. part where they breed, and derive tlieir nourishirx nt. AVlun they reach the stomach, they fasten themselves in its mu.-;cu!ar cont, and suck the blood like leevhes, each worm ulcerating the part \\jiere it fixes, til! \i rc.-rniMf s ;< huney-comb. These ww:u. I EOT not unfrequently the cause of corf* vulsions. Botts that are generated in the ch of the horse are extremely dangerous, and seldom di^covera ' ble till they have acquired - strength, when thry throw him .-eat agones. The symptoms of the other kinds, 1 are more troubles' -me than dangerous, are the following : The horse becomes lean, and looks jaded ; his hair stands out roughly j he often strikes his hind feet ng;mi^t his belly ; he is sometimes griped, but generally lies down quietly on his belly foi a short time, and tin u gets up and eats his food. JJut the .surest sign is, when he voids the botts in his cU .: For the cure of botts in the sto- mach, calomel should iirst be . in large quantities, and repnUcd at intervals. ^Kthiops mineral may be given afterwards. The botts, that many horse - troubled with in the beg summer, are always seen on tin; straight gut, and are often thiouu out with the dung and a yclit matter. They r.re not dang- in that part, though they raider the hor.se restless. The & when thev aHe.ct the animal ;s commonly in the months of May and June, alter which they are rp.rely seen, as they do not c<,ji- tinue with the horse above a fort- night or three we eks. Botts in the straight gut may be cured by giv- ing th- horse a spoonful of savin, cut small, once or twice a day, in oats or bran moistened, to v, may be added three or four clous of garlic. The following aioetie. pur-'e hhouid also Le g.ven at in- 1 O O terrain : F ; :ie socotrine aloes, ten drams ; i'n sh ialap, (.lie drain ; ari- stoluchia, or tirtiiwcrt and myrih powi. BOW BOW powdered, of each two drams ; oil of savin and amber, of each one dram; syi up of buckthorn, enough to form the whole into a ball. BOUNTY, in commerce, a premium paid by government to the exporters and importers of cer- tain commodities, such as corn, sail-cloth, silk-stockings, fish, &rc. Bounties are sometimes given to support a new manufacture against one of a similar kind established by other nations. To promote the manufacture of sail-cloth in this country, was doubtless an object of the greatest national importance, on account of our vast consumption of that article. The principal intention of boun- ties to exporters, is to enable the: British trader to become beneficial to his country, by giving him a compensation for his ingenuity and industry. As bounties are usually granted only for a limited time, they can never be the cause of any material loss to a nation, though avaricious men are often stimulated by a desire of gain, to convert to their private advantage what was intended for the benefit of the com- , niunity. BOW, a weapon made of wood, horn, or some other elastic hub- stance, and bent into a curve, in which position it is kept by a string fastened to each end. The elastic power thus acquired, is such, (hat after bending, and unbending, an arrow is impelled with great force. The long-bow, so called by war of distinction from the cross-bow, is the most ancient of all weapons, and has very generally been us* d by remote and barbarous n:\tior.s. The Laplanders, who support them- selves principally by hunting, excel 4 he most civilized nations in the construction of this instrui:. Th.ir bow is composed of two pieces of strong elastic wood, of :m equal size, which are flat on each side, and glewed together. This instrument expels the arrow with much greater force than if it were formed of one piece of similar di- mensions. The Indians still make use of the bow ; and the repository ol ih.v Royal Society contains a West- Indian bow two yards long. In the year 17-10 a bow and qui- ver containing twenty-four m i made of reed, pointed with .steel, and bearded, were found in the New Forest, Hampshire, s\\(>]- to have lain there since the reign of WILLIAM RUFUS, who was shot there O'-^Q years previous t<_> their discover)': the re- us vrete not decayed, nor the :;tccl points rusty. The strength of a bow is calcu- lated on the principle, that its spring or clastic j o\ver is proportionate to th.: extent of its curve. The u.s of the bo\v is termed archery, those who practise it, are calktl bowmen, or archer*. See AR- CHERY. Crcss-l-ou- . This weapon i sists of a stt-el bow set in a shaft of wood, with a string and tri : It is bent by means of a piece of . a;;J cxpeh bulL-ts, lurze ar- rows, darts, ice. wii velo- .citv. BOWELS, or intestines, ny<: very important parts iu the animal oitcn subject to di;--- ! i, if Ltd,, may be -.vitji dangerous consequences. Oi nature, in partictiiar, arc inlLiiii- maticnj of t;,e bov/cU, v, . ni!e.st tlieni.-ca.. > \,\ a . acute ]:a!;i, frcq-.M-.Mt'y accoinp:'.- viui a s,-Jij.itio;j of bun- . 320] B O W abdorricri is pained on the ;c-t touch, anil >he body i nera11y costive. After taking any kind of nutriment, the patient is inclined to vomit ; but the princi- pal symptom, in- \vhicll an inflam- matory state of" tlr; intestines in ly he distinguished from a mere colic, is a peculiar fever, with a small, though hard pulsn, while the heat in the. extremities of the bo ly con- tinues almost the same as when in n state of health. The most fre- quent causes of this dangerous com- plaint are, acrid substances in the bowels ; cru,le and hardened 1- Confined ruptures ; suppressed he- morrhages ; violent diarrhoeas and dysenteries: abortions, &:c. At their commencement, inflamma- tions are often confounded witli other complaints ; and sometimes they terminate in a fatal mortifi- cation, though more frequently in suppuration. The degree of dan- ger may be ascertained by the in- creasing coldness of the extremities, and the more or less inveterate ob- stipations of the bowels. Hiccough, and vomiting of excrements, indi- cate the approach of dissolution. If theinflammation be occasioned by a confined rupture, it sometimes may be reduced by fomentations with cold water and ice, or still more effectually by dropping and evaporating vitriolic .nether on the protuberant part. Diluent and emollient liquids are of no service in this case, as they only contri- bute to distend the bowels ; and where the external application of cold has no efl'cct, the patient must, without delay, submit to an opera- tion. Suppressed hemorrhoids and other n-atr.ral iluv ?, should be re- stored by apj>'.vi:;u r l.x/chcs to the ports, and rvpMicd warm lumen- BOW tations. DiarrhcRas and dysenteric?? ought to be treated according to their causes ; and poison introduced into the stomach, should be reme- died according to the rules given uiulrr the head of AVTIOOTES. "When there is reason to suspeft an inflammation, venesection will be necessary ; but the quantity of blood drawn must be. regulated by the strength of the patient, and the- nature of the fever. Ti>'- bowris should be opened by emollient clys- ters ; or, if These prove ineffectual, strong solutions of pot-a.vh, in vine- gar, ought, without delay, to bo injected, and the abdomen nibbed \vith balsamic and antLspasmodic embrocations, such as the campho- rated liniment, mixed with an equal quantity of honey ; or, in cases >f extremity, the latter, dissolved in a strong decoction made of sagf- Jf-aves and vinegar. If these reme- dies produce no relief, the smoke of tobacco may be introduced by the rectum, and blisters applied to the abdomen. But, during the obstipation, no medicines should be used internally ; as stimul:uii);>; the stomach and bowels c.mnot fail to increase the inflammation, and thus endanger the life of the patient. Dispnsfx r>f the Sotrels in Horses. It is difficult to form a proper judg- ment respecting disorders of the stomach and bowels of these ani- mals. If a healthy horse, on taking cold after hard riding, &c. should have- a moderate purging, it ought not to be stopped, but rather en- couraged with an opening diet and v/ater gruel. But if it continues long, with gripings ; if the hor.*e loses his appetite and flesh, and voids the mucus of the bowels, or other slimy matter, the following drench should L>e given, and re- peated BOW peated every other day for three times. Lenetive electuary and cream of tartar, of each four ounces,, yellow rosin, finely powdered, one ounce, and four ounces of sweet oil, mixed in a pint of water gruel. If the distemper increases, and the horse's flanks and belly appear inflated, a clyster should be given, of chamomile flowers one handful, red-roses half a handful, pomegra- nate and balanstines, of each an ounce, boiled in two quarts of wa- ter to one; and strained with three ounces of diaseordium, and one of mithridate, dissolved in it, to which may be added a pint of port wine. This mixture should be injected once a day, and an ounce of dias- cordium given in the animal's night- drink. When the griping is very severe, in consequence of the mucus of the bowels being washed away, a clys- ter, composed of two quarts of .tripe-broth, or thin starch, half a pint of the oil of olives, the yolk of six eggs, well broke, and two or three ounces of coarse sugar, should frequently be injected warm. Horses thathave weak stomachs, or bowels, void their aliment undi- gested ; and they are generally lean. The following purge has been found an efficacious remedy. Socotrine aloes, six drams ; rhu- barb powdered, three drams ; myrrh and saffron, each a dram ; made into a ball with syrup of gin- ger. This purge should be given two or three times, and afterwards an infusion of zedoary, gentian, "Winter's bark, and orange-peel, of each two ounces ; pomegranate, bark and balaustines, each an ounce; chamomile flowers and centaury, each a handful; cinnamon and cloves, each an ounce ; the whole Steeped in a gallon of port, or strong NO. in." VOL, i. BOX [521 beer, should be given to the quail-* tity of a pint every morning. For the cure of the bloody-flux in horses, the following clyster is highly esteemed : oak-bark, four ounces ; tormentil-root,two ounces; burnt hartshorn, three ounces ; boil- ed in three quarts of forge- water to two, and strained with the addi- tion of two ounces of diascordium, four ounces of starch, and half a dram of opium. Gum-arabic dis- solved in hartshorn should be the horse's usual drink. Incostivenesa, gentle purgatives, such as cream of tartar, Glauber's salts, and lenetive electuary, should be given. Four ounces of any two of these dissolved in warm ale, re- peated every other morning in the course of one week, and Assisted by an emollient clyster prepared with a handful of salt, will answer this purpose. Scalded^ bran, with au ounce of fenugreek and lintseed, occasionally given, will prevent cos- tiveness. But where it is consti- tutional, and the horse continues in perfect health, no inconvenience will arise from it; nay, it is well known, that such horses are re- markably vigorous and hardy. BOX, generally implies a small coffer, or chest,, to contain articles of any kind. The term is also employed to express an uncertain quantity or measure : a box of quicksilver, for instance, contains from one to two hundred weight ; a box of prunella only fourteen pounds ; and among ironmongers, a box of rings for keyj, two gross, &rc. BOX-TREE, or Buxus, L. a genus of plants containing three species ; namely, the semper virens, or common box, with oval leaves ; the angusiifolia, or narrow-leaved box ; aad the suffruticosa, or Dutch Y box; BOX box; the first of which only is indigenous. The two first-men- tioned species, grow in great abun- dance upon Box-hill, near Dork- ing, in Surrey, where there were formerly large trees of this kind. Of the first species, there are two or three varieties, which are propa- gated in gardens ; and this, as well as the second, may be either raised from seeds or cuttings; the latter should be planted or sown in autumn, on a shady border. Box-trees may be transplanted at any time, except Midsummer, provided they be taken up with a good mass of earth, but the best time for their removal is October. The Dutch, or dwarf-box, is in- creased by parting the roots, or planting the slips : it should be in- termixed with other evergreens. The uses of the large kind of box are various : many articles of turnery, and musical instruments, are. manufactured of its wood : which is of greater specific gra- vity than any other of European growth, as it will not float upon water. In Paris, combs are made of no other material than this "wood; and the quantity imported annually from Spain into that city, is estimated at 10,OOO livres. Box admits of a beautiful polish when made into articles of furniture, for which it is now much employed, as its bitter quality renders it se- cure from the attacks of worms. It is asserted, that a decoction of box-wood rubbed on the head, will speedHy restore (he hair decay- ed in consequence of malignant fe- vers ; but care should be taken in applying it, to prevent it from touching thr skin of the face, which, in consequence of this ern- brnrnrion, would likewise be co- Vcred with hair, A similar dccoc- BOX tion h.is been recommended as a powerful sudorific, even prefera- ble to Guaiacum ; though, at pre- sent, neither the wood nor the leaves of the box-tree are used for medicinal purposes. BOXING, the art of fighting with the fists, which, among the Romans, were either naked, or inclosed a stone or leaden ball. Hence this exercise is very ancient, having been in vogue in the heroic ages. To the disgrace of this country, the art of boxing, about half a cen- tury since, formed a regular kind of amusement, was encouraged by the first nobility of the kingdom, and even tolerated by the magi- strates. About the time above- mentioned, a booth was evefted at Tottenham-court, to which the public paid for admission the same as at a regular theatre, and the profits were divided among the combatants ; the victor receiving two-thirds, and the remainder de- volving to the loser. In conse- quence of the inconveniencies sus- tained at TAYLOR'S booth, by the patrons of this refined art, Mr. BROUGHTON, then the principal actor in these exhibitions, erected a more commodious amphitheatre near Oxford-street. This barbarous amusement was at length negleft- ed; though within these few years it has again enaged a considerable degree of the public attention : a fatal issue, however, which took place at one of the combats, again brought the practice into disrepute. On this occasion, one of the com- batants was killed on the spot ; and His Royal Highness the PRINCE of WALES, who was present, declared, that on account of the dreadful cx- nmple he had then witnessed, he never again be present at, cr BRA or patronize another exhibition of a similar kind. Boring also signifies the tapping of a tree, to make it yield its juice. This operation is performed on the maple, by making a hole in the side of die tree, about a foot from the ground, with an auger or chi- sel : from this juice or sap a good sugar may be extracted . BRACES, a supplementary arti- cle of dress, now very generally adopted ; which by rendering a tight cincture altogedier unnecessary, cannot be too much recommended, both to men and women, for the sake of health as well as comfort. If they were used to keep up die stockings, instead of tight garters, it would be an improvement of much greater moment dian many are inclined to imagine ; for garters doubtless occasion great mischief, whedier tied above or below the knee, in causing die part to which they are applied to acquire an un- natural hardness, in disposing the thighs and legs to dropsy, and in- ducing great fatigue in walking. BRAIN, in anatomy, ? great viscus in die cavity of die skull, of an oval figure, and larger in man, in proportion to his size/ than in any other animal. The brain is uniformly considered as the grand sensorium of the body, or the or- gan of all the senses ; and hence it is supposed, not without reason, to be the seat of the soul. The most important functions of an animal body are those of the brain. To afford a more distinct view of the subject, we shall mention a few experiments which have been made upon animals. If die brain be irritated, dread- ful convulsions take place all over the bvpdy. If any part of the brain be compressed, diat part of die BRA [323 body which derives its nerves from the compressed part, is immedi- ately deprived of motion and sen- sation. On compressing, tying, or dividing a nerve, die muscles to which the nerve proceeds, become paralytic. If the nerve thus com- pressed, tied, or divided, had be- fore any particular sensation, it ex- ists no longer; but, on removing die compression, or untying it, iU peculiar sense returns. From these phenomena, it is evident, diat every sensation in an animal body is derived from the brain, or from die spinal marrow,, which is a continuation of die brain; and that it is conveyed thence, through die medium of die nerves, to all parts of die sentient body. But, in what manner the various sensations are produced by die nerves, and how the wilf operates upon die contiguous and remote organs, so as to put diem into instantaneous motion, are dif- ficulties which have never been sa- tisfactorily explained, and, in all probability, will always baffle the keenest investigation. As die brain is die representa- tive organ of die mind, its sound and perfect state is of die utmost importance in the exercise of the intellect. If, therefore, the brain of an individual, be preternaturally soft, or too firm and hard, or spe- cifically too light, or proportionate- ly too small; or if it be in any manner compressed or shaken by external violence ; or if acrimo- nious humours should settle en it, in consequence of various diseases ; or, lastly, if in plethoric habits too great a portion of blood should flow towards die head, and too much extend its vessels ; in all these cases, die representing faculty will more or less partake of die dis- Y 2 order. 324] BRA order. Thus, the power of ima- gination, or fancy, is sometimes so much increased, that the pa- tient is either in part, or entirely, deprived of the faculty of judgment. Such, for instance, is the case in delirious persons, who are then only called maniacs, when a total privation of their reasoning faculty is evident. In ideots, or stupid people, however, the mental dis- ease arises chiefly from their in- capacity of comprehending and pro- perly arranging ideas. The causes of these humiliating derangements of the human mind, though various, may be reduced to the following heads : namely, in- ordinate passions, especially those which are attended with a great dissipation of strength ; debauchery of every kind ; an irregular mode of life ; excessive eating and drink- ing ; intense, as well as long-con- tinued application to study ; and likewise, a sudden change of cli- mate, air, and aliment. It deserves to be pointed out &s a vulgar error, that abscesses of the brajn discharge themselves through the mouth and ears ; and that snuff is liable to enter into the brain ; neither of these is capable of passing through that bone, which has the form of a sieve ; nor is any matter, or fluid, secreted in a com- mon cold, evacuated by that ca- nal, though discharged through the nostrils. The seat of this disease is, indeed, not in the brain, but in the cavities of the nose ; and if im- posthumes take place in the ear, they suppurate and empty them- selves externally. Iiijl animation of the Brain, is a disease more common in hot than in temperate clirnalt:s : in the lat- ter, however, it may also take place frora'cxternal violence, or in con- BRA sequence of severe falls, blows, and bruises upon the head ; night- watching 5 hard-drinking ; strong passions, especially those of grief, anger, and anxiety ; exposure to the heat of the sun during sleep, with the head uncovered, &c. The principal symptoms of this danger- ous malady are, pain of the head, redness of the eyes, want of sleep, and slight dropping of blood from the nose : these are attended with costiveness and a retention of urine. As the disease, when neglecled, is often fatal in a few days, medical advice should be called in without delay. Meanwhile, the patient ought to be kept as quiet as possi- ble, and free from the access of strong light ; his body must be kept open by clysters ; the legs bathed in warm water j the bleed- ing of the nose promoted by warm fomentations to the part ; and the head, after being shaved, should be frequently rubbed with vinegar and water ; or cloths dipped in the following solution may be applied, and repeated every hour, or half hour, with the best effect. Take two ounces of nitre, and one ounce of sal ammoniac, dissolve them in five pints of water and half a pint of strong vinegar. Of this mixture the patient may also drink a table spoonful every hour, or oftener. BRAKE is a large and weighty harrow, used to reduce a stubborn soil. It consists of four square bulls, each side rive inches thick, and six feet and a half in length. The teeth are seventeen inches long, and bend forward like a coulter ; four of these are inserted in each bull, fixed above, with a screw nut, having twelve inches free below, with a heel close to the under part of the bull, to prevent its being pushed back by stones. This instrument requires BRA requires four horses, or the same number of oxen, and may be ap- plied with great advantage in fal- lowing strong clay that requires frequent ploughing*, as a breaking between each ploughing will pul- verize the soil. In the month of March or April, on ploughing strong ground for barley, a cross brakcing is preferable to a cross ploughing, and may be performed at half the expence. A brake with a greater number of teeth than that above described, is not proper for ground that is rendered adhesive by the roots of plants, such as land newly broken up : on the contrary, a less num- ber of teeth would not sufficiently break the clods. BRAMBLE, the Common, or Rul-usfriiticosits, L. a species of the raspberry bush, which grows wild in hedges, and has three varieties, one of which bears white fruit. See WITH. 4(X). There are seve- ral other species indigenous in Eng- land ; as the saxatilis, or stone bramble, the ar&icus, or dwarf crimson bramble, the chamce-morns, or mountain bramble, by some call- ed cloud-berry, and the corylifolins, or hazel-leaved bramble. The bad effects of the fruit of the bramble, when eaten too freely, have already been mentioned under the article BLACKBERRY. In Pro- vence, it is employed in the colour- ing of wine. The Russians mix the berries of the saxatilis with honey, which, when fermented, is a pleasant beverage. Wine and vinegar are also made from ' the fruit of the bramble ; and a syrup and jelly prepared from it, are used as gentle astringents. The leaves afford several colours in dyeing. As tliis plant is of quick growth, it $n i; oeadvantageouslyemploycdfor inclo.;ures ; because it defends the young quick-set hedge from sheep, and by intertwining itself with a dead hedge, preserves it from in- jury. The usual method of plant- ing it, is in two rows upon the bank, the lower of bramble, and the upper of white- thorn. BRAN, the husks of wheat, which when ground are separated from the flour by a sieve. It con- tains a portion of the farinaceous matter, less glutinous than flour, and slightly detergent and purga- tive. Infusions of bran are ofierj applied externally, to cleanse the hands instead of soap ; and it also removes scurf and dandriff. Bran may, in times of scarcity, be advantageously employed in the making of common household bread ; this is effected by previously boiling the bran in water, and then adding the whole decoction to the dough: thus the bran will be suffi- ciently softened, and divested of its dry husky quality ; while the nu- tritive part, which is supposed to contain an essential oil, is duly pre- pared for food. It is asserted, that the increase in the quantity of bread, by the addition of 14lb. 14 oz. of bran to 561b. of flour, is from 34lb. to 361b. of bread, be- yond what is produced by the com- mon mode. In one instance, 5(31b. of flour, with 14lb. 14 oz. of bran, produced, on being weighed the next day, when cold, 1061b. and a half of bread ; which is above half as much more than what is com- monly made, and about twice the quantity obtained from a bushel of wheat, when merely the fine flour is used. BRANDY, is a spirituous and inflammable liquor, obtained by distillation from wine. French brandies are acc'ovmted the best in Y 3 Europe j 326] B R A Europe; and those of Bourdenux, Bochelle, Cogniac, Charenton, &c. are held in the highest estimation. Good brandy is cirar, not too hot, nor sharp, and of a pleasant vinous Jlavour. French brandy acquires by age a great degree of softness, and at the same time a yellowish brown colour, which our distillers have imitated in their artificial pre- parations. But this colour being found only i:i such brandies as have become mellow by long keep- ing, it follows that the ingredient, from which it is extracted, is the wood of the cask, and that the bran- dy in reality has received a tincture from the oak. The peculiar flavour which French brandies possess, is supposed to be derived from an essential oil of wine, mixed with the spirit ; but, more probably, it originates from the very nature of the grape, or the wine-lees. It deserves to be remarked, that our distillers frequently make use of the spirit of nitrous cet/icr, corns monly called, dulcified spirit of nitre ; a very small proportion of which, added to pure whiskey, or a liquor obtained by the distillation of malt, imparts to it a flavour, not unlike that of French brsndy. A vinous spirit has been extract- ed from carrots by Mr. THOMAS HORNBY, of York, who, in 1/88, communicated to Dr. HUNTER a particular account of the whole process. This may be viewed in the light of a national advantage, as it affords the means of supplying another material for the distiller, and of saving great quantities of barley and wneat. By Mr. HORN- BY'S experiment, it was found, thnt an acre of carrots (20 tons) produced 2-10 gallons of . . which is considerably more than what can be obtained from five BRA quarter? of barley, the averag duce of an acre. Brandy, even of the most genuine kind, is less wholesome than rum ; but the counterfeit and adulterated sorts are exceedingly detrimental to those who are habitually addict- ed to the use of this pernicious liquor. It should, therefore, be dmnk very moderately, rather from necessity than for gratification. When the stomach is empty, weak, and lax, a moderate dram excites a pleasant warmth and gentle ten- sion ; it is said to promote diges- tion, by dissolving the \iscid phlegm which loaded that organ, invigorating its fibres, and stimu- lating its coats to aft with more vigour. Yet all these good effects will not counterbalance the mis- chiefs done by an indiscreet and immoderate use of this cordial. Melancholy tempers, as "well as choleric and sanguine habits, can- not fail to be injured by ardent spirits 5 and, in short, a too free use of them, in any constitution, is of the most fatal consequence. Hence, SYDENHAM with great justice and propriety exclaims, " Would to God brandy were to- tally abstained from, or used only on occasions to support Nature, and not destroy it, unless it were thought proper to prohibit any in- ternal use of it at all, and leave it entirely to surgeons for bathing ulcers and burns."- See also DlS- TILLING. BRASS, in metallurgy, is a fac- titious met;il, made of copper and zinc, or lapis cataminmis. The French call it yellwv copper. The Scriptures inform us, that the first formation of brass was previous to the dtr luge ; but the use of it was not, as is generally believed, nnd as the Arundelian marbles assert, BRA prior to the knowledge of irorr. In the earliest ages, whose manners have been delineated by history, \ve find the weapons of their war- riors invariably framed of this facti- tious metal. Military nations were naturally studious of brightness in their arms : and die Ancient Bri- tons, particularly, gloried in the neatness of theirs. Hence various nations continued to fabricate their arms of brass, even after the dis- covery of iron. By long calcination alone, and without the mixture of any other substance with it, brass affords a beautiful green or blue colour for glass : but if it be calcined with powdered sulphur, it will give a red, yellow, or chalcedony colour, according to the quantity, andother variations in using it. Brass-colour, is that prepared by- colour-men and braziers to imitate brass ; of which there are two sorts : namely, the red brass, or bronze, which is mixed with red- ochre, finely pulverized ; and the yellow, or gilt brass, which is made of copper-filings only. Both sorts are used with varnish. Cnrinthian Irafs, is a mixture of gold, silver, and copper ; so called from the melting and running to- gether of immense quantities of those metals, when the city of Co- rinth was sacked and burnt, 146 years before Christ. BRASSICA. See CABBAGE, COLE- WORT, RAPE, ROCKET, and TUR- NIP. BRAWN, is the flesh of a boar, pickled or souced, wiiich is always found to be better tasted, according to the greater age of the animal. The most approved method of pre- paring it is as follows : After the boar is killed, take the flitches on- ly, without the legs, and extract BRE [327 the bones from them ; sprinkle the flesh with salt, and lay it in a tray till the blood is drained off; let it then be salted a little more, and rolled up as hard as possible. The collar of brawn should be made of the whole length of the flitch, so as to measure nine or ten inches in diameter. The flesh thus prepar- ed is to be boiled iii a large kettla or copper, till it becomes tender enough to be pierced with a straw : then set it by, till it is thoroughly cold, and immerse it into the fol- lowing pickle : To every gallon of water, put near two handfuls of salt, and as much wheat- bran ; boil them well together j then drain the liquor from the bran a* clear as possible ; and when the liquor is quite cold, put the bran into it. BREAD, an important article of food, prepared of flour kneaded with a mixture of yeast, water, and salt, and afterwards baked in an oven. Mankind seem to have an uni- versal appetite for bread, which may be accounted for on the sim- ple principle, that the preparation of our food depends on the mixture of the animal fluids in every stage. As, among others, the saliva is ne- cessary, it requires dry food as a stimulus to draw it forth ; for which reason we use bread with meat, which otherwise would be too quickly swallowed. Bread serves as a medium to blend the oil and water of food in the sto- mach, which it stimulates ; and it is peculiarly proper for that pur- pose, being bulky without too much solidity, and firm without difficulty of solution. Before the invention of mills for grinding corn, bread was prepared by boiling the grain;, and forming Y 4 H 328] BRE it into viscous cakes, not very agree- able to the palate, and difficult of digestion. In process of time, ma- chines were constructed*for grind- ing corn, as well as for separating the pure flour ; and a method was discovered to raise the dough by fermentation. Dough may be fer- mented either by leaven or by yeast ; but as the latter raises the kneaded mass more uniformly, and produces the sweetest and lightest bread, it is general')' preferred. Bread well raised and baked is not only more agreeable to the taste than unfer- niented bread, but more readily mixes with water, without forming a viscous mass, or puff, and is at the same time more easily digested in the stomach. Bread in this country is divided into three kinds, namely, white, wheaten, and household. Fine white bread is made only of flour ; the wheaten contains a mixture of the finer part of the bran ; and the household of the whole substance of the grain. An act for regulating the assize of bread was passed in the year 1773 j by which it was enacted, that all bread made of the flour of wheat, and which shall be the whole produce of the grain, the hull thereof only excepted, and 'which shall weigh three -fourth parts of the weight of the wheat, shall be allowed to be made, baked and Fold? and shall be understood to be a standard wheaten bread ; also, that every standard wheatrn peck loaf shall always weigh 1/lb. 6oz. avoirdupois ; every half ptck loafslb. II 07,. ; and every quar- tern loaf 4lb. 5 1 oz. ; and be i narked with the letters S. W. ; and that every peck loaf, half peck loaf, and quartern loaf, shall always be sold, as to price^ in BRE proportion to each other respec* lively. Although we have, in the article BAKING, given general directions for successfully conducting tliit complicated process, yet we think it will be useful, in this place, to add, by way of supplement, a few particulars relative to this subject, and more especially applicable to domestic purposes. Mr. DOJSIE, who appears to have paid great at- tention to the art of baking, gives the following simple and much ap- proved method of making good white bread : Take of fine flour, six pounds ; . of water, moderately warm, but not hot, two pints and a half ; of liquid yeast, eight spoon- fuls ; and of salt, two ounces. Put about a pint of the warm water to the yeast, and mix them well, by beating them together with a whisk. Let the salt be put to the remain- ing part of the water, and stirred till completely dissolved. Then put both quantities of the fluid gra- dually to the flour, and knead the mass well till the whole is pro- perly mixed. The dough thus made must stand four or rive hours, that is, till the exact moment of its being fully risen, and before it is sensibly perceived to fail. It is then to be formed into loaves, and immediately placed in the oven. To bake it properly, is at- tended with some difficulty to those who are not skilled in the art. The first care is to see that the oven be sufficiently heated, yet not to such a degree as to burn the crust. If a green vegetable turns black when put in, the oven will scorch the bread ; in which case it must stand open till the heat has somewhat abated. The next cir- cuimtance to be attended to is, that the mouth of the oven be wetf closed. BRE closed, tilkthe bread has risen to Its full height, which will not take place in less than two or three hours. After this, but not before, the oven may be opened for the purpose of viewing the bread, and seeing that it is baked without being either burnt or too crusty ; for if the mouth of the oven be not kept closely stopped till the bread is fully risen, it will flatten and be- come heavy. When properly ma- naged, the above-mentioned ingre- dients will have lost about one pound two ounces in weight, so that a well-baked loaf of this kind diould amount to seven pounds twelve ounces. Bread may be made without yeast, as is practised in Hungary, by the following process : Boil two good handful s of hops in four quarts of water ; pour the decodion upon as much wheat bran as the liquor will moisten. Then add four or five pounds of leaven 5 mix the whole together, till perfectly unit- ed. Put this mass into a warm place for twenty-four hours ; then divide it into pieces about the size of a hen's egg ; let these be dried in the air, but not in the sun, and they will keep good for six months. Or, make the above into six large loaves, take six good handfuls of dough, broken small, and dissolved in eight quarts of warm water, and poured through a sieve into one end of the bread-trough j then pour three quarts more of warm water through the sieve after it, and what remains in die sieve must be well expressed. Like all other farinaceous sub- stances, bread is very nourishing, on account of the copious mucilage it contains ; but, if eaten too free- ly, it is productive of viscidity which obstructs the intestines, and B R E [329 lays the foundation of habitual cos- tiveness. Leavened bread, or such as has acquired an acidulated taste by a slow fermentation of the dough, is cooling and antiseptic. By tiiis process, all ihe viscous are combined with the drier parts of the flour, and the fixed air is expelled in baking. New baked bread contains a large proportion of indigestible paste, which may- be rendered less uir.vholesome by- allowing it to dry for two or three "Jays, or by toasting it. This mode ought to be adopted, both on account of health and economy, especially in dmes of scarcity. Stale bread, in every respect, de- serves the preference to that which is newly baked ; and persons trou- bled widi flatulency, cramp of the stomach, or indigestion, should abstain from new bread, and parti- cularly from hot rolls. Various substances have been used for bread, instead of wheat. In the years 162Q and 1(J30, when there was a dearth in tins country, bread was made in London of tur- nips, on the recommendation of Dr. BEALE. In 1693 also, when corn was very dear, a great quan- tity of turnip-bread was made in several parts of the kingdom, but particularly in Essex, by a receipt registered in the Philosophical Transactions. The process is, tt> put the turnips into a kettle over a s'ow fire, till they bee*. me soft; they are then taken out, squeezed, and drained as dry as possible, and afterwards mashed and mixed with an equal weight of Hour, ar.d knead- ed with yeast, salt, and a little warm water. The following is another method of making bread of turnips, which deserves to be recommended for its cheapness: Wa^li clean, pare, and BRE and afterwards boil a number of turnips, till they become soft enough to mash ; press the greatest part of the water out of them, then mix them with an equal weight of wheat-meal, make the dough in the usual manner with yeast, &c. j it will rise well in the trough, and, a ft or being well kneaded, may be formed into loaves and put into the c\c.n. Bread prepared in this man- ner has a peculiar sweetish taste, which is by no means disagreea- ble; it is as light and white as the vhraten, and should be kept about twelve 'hours before it is cut, when the smell and tasie of the turnip will scarcely be perceptible. Potatoes have also been made into bread, by different processes. The simplest is to choose the large mealy sort, boil them as for eating, then peel and mash them very fine, without adding any water. Two pirts of wheat flour are added to one of potatoes, and a little more yeast than usual. The whole ma.v is to be kneaded into dough, and allowed to stand a proper time to rise and ferment, before it is put into the oven. Bread thus pre- pared is good and wholesome ; and if bakers were to make use of no worse ingredients than this nutri- tive root, they might be justified in times of scarcity, provided they sold it at a moderate price, and under proper limitations. M. PAHMENTIEE. found, from a variety of experiments, that good bread might be made of equal quan- tities of flour and potatoe meal. He ;;lso obtained well-fermented bread of a good colour and taste, from a mixture of raw potatoe-pulp and -whraten meal, with the addition -,; rsnd salt. Dr. DARWIN asserts, that if eight pounds of good raw potatoes be grated into cold water, and af- ter stirring the mixture the starch be left to subside, and when col- lected, it be mixed with eight pounds of boiled potatoes, the mass will make as good bread as that from the best wheaten flour. He likewise observes, that hay, which has been kept in stacks, so as to undergo the saccharine process, may be so managed, by grinding and fermentation with yeast, like bread, as to serve in part for the sustenance of mankind in times of great scarcity. As an instance of the very nutritive qualify of hay, it is mentioned, that a cow, after drinking a strong infusion of it, for some time, produced above double the usual quantity of milk. Hence, if bread cannot be made from ground hay, there is reason to be- lieve, that a nutritive beverage may be prepared from it, either in its saccharine state, or by ferment- ing it into a kind of beer. There are other vegetables, says Dr. DARWIN, which would pro- bably afford wholesome nutriment, either by boiling, or drying and grinding them, or by both these processes. Among these may be reckoned perhaps the tops and bark of gooseberry-trees, holly, gorse, and hawthorn. The inner bark of the elm may be converted into a kind of gruel, and the roots cf fern, and probably those of many other plants, such as grass or clo- ver, might yield nourishment either by boiling, baking and separating the fibres from the pulp, or by extracting the starch from those which possess an acrid mucilage, such as the white bryony. The adulteration of flour and bread has often been the subject of animadversion. Mealmcn and mil- lers have been accused of adding chalk, BRE Chalk, lime, and whiting to the flour, and bakers of mixing alum with the dough. There is much reason to sus^-jct, that these pra&ices are but too prevalent. It has been asserted, that the adulteration of bread is owing to the legal distinctions in the quality of it, and to our making colour the standard of goodness. Dr. DAR- WIN observes, that where much alum is mixed with bread, it may be easily distinguished by the eye : when two loaves so adulterated have stuck together in the oven, they break from each other with a much smoother surface, where they had adhered, than those loaves do which contain no alum. An excellent method of making bread of rice is, by boiling thrte- fourths of wheaten flour and one- fourth of rice separately. The rice should be well boiled, the water squeezed out (which may be afterwards used as starch for linen, for there can be no better), and the mass should then be mixed with the flour. It is made in the same manner as common bread, and is very nutritive. One pound and a half of flour mixed with half a pound of rice, will produce a loaf weighing from three pounds to three pounds two ounces, which is greater than that obtained by baking bread of wheat flour only. Pace has also been tried in the same proportion with barley, and makes good bread for labouring people ; but the gain in baking is by no means equal to that obtained by mixing it with wheat. See RICE. Another mode of preparing bread with all the bran, the result of which we have stated under the head of BRAN, is as follows : " Take seven pounds seven ounces of bran and pollard, and fourteen BRE [331 quarts of water, and boil the whole very gently over a slow lire. When the mixture begins to swell and thicken, let it be frequently stirred, to prevent its boiling over, or burning either at the bottom or sides of the vessel. After havi:^ boiled two hours, it will acquire the consistence of a thin pudding. Now put it into a clean cloth, and squeeze out the liquor : take n quart of this, mix it with three pints of yeast, and set the sponge for twenty-eight pounds of flour. The mass, bran, and pollard, even after the liquor has been separated,, will be found to be above four times its original weight ; it is then to be placed near the lire. In about two hours, the sponge will have sufficiently risen. The bran and pollard, then lukewarm, -should be mixed with the flour ; and, after adding half a pound of salt, the whole must be well kneaded, with one quart of the bran liquor. Thus prepared, the dough is form- ed into loaves, and baked for two hours and a quarter in a common oven. The bread, when cold, will weigh one half more than the same quantity of flour would, without the addition of the bran. If the bran-water only is used, and the bran itself (which, by the boiling, increases considerably in weight) is not added to the dough, the increase of bread will still be considerable ; but not. more than one- third of the increase obtained, when all the bran is used. The great advantage of eating pure and genuine bread must be ob- vious. Every part of the wheat, which may be called flour, was not only intended to be eaten by man, but it really makes the best bread, since that may be called the best which is of most general use, and so S3 2] BRE so fine as to contain no parr of i : .e husks of the grain. But the de- lusion, by which so many persons are misled, to think that even the. whole hour is not good enough for them, obliges them to pay a se- venth or eighth part more than they need, to gratify a faiu- ml appetite. Had it not been for the custom of eating whiter bread than the whole of the flour will make, die miller and baker would not have employ- ed all their art to render the bread as white as possible, and make the consumer pay for this artificial whiteness. NEW SUBSTITUTES FOR FLOUR OR BREAD. We have, in the pre- ceding analysis, as well as on for- mer occasions, mentioned various substances which might advanta- geously be employed in the manu- facture of this indispensable article of human sustenance ; indepen- dently of the different kinds of grain and roots that are already made subservient to this beneficial purpose. In order to exhibit a dis- tindt view of the most promising substitutes, whether indigenous or exotic, and especially such as have actually been used, on the authori- ty of creditable evidence, we shall here divide them into three classes, and, in the course of t!u j work, give a morq particular account of each article, in its alphabetical order. I. Farinaceous Seeds : Wheat- grass, or Tritirnm Spelia ; Millet, or Panicurn ntiiiuceum ; Common Buck- wheat, or Polygonum Jai!<>py- rum ; Siberian Buck-wheat, or Po- hjgonum taiaricuni ; W ? ild Buck- wheat, or Polygonum convolvulus; Wild Fescue-grass, or Festucajlui- tans ; Maize, or Indian Corn, the Mays Zta; Rice, or Oryzasativa; Guinea Corn, or White Round- Indian Millet 5 the Hokus BRE Sorgkum,L.; Canary-grass, laris canariensisj Rough Dog's-tail Grass, or Cynosures echinatus ; Water Zizany, or Zizania aqua- tii-n ; Upright Sea Lime-grass, or Elymus are-iarius; Sea-reed, Mar- r.im, Helme, or Sea Mat-weed, the Calamagrostu, or si run do arenaria. The following mealy fruits, how- ever, deserve a decided preference over many of the preceding : viz. Water Caltrops, or the fruit of the Trapa natans, L. ; Pulse of various kinds, such as Peas, Lentils, Beans, and the seeds of die Common Vetch, Fetch, or Tare-acorns, and especially those of the Queri ' v ccrris and esci/hts ; the seeds ot the White Goose-foot, Common Wild Orage, or the Chcnopodium allum ; the seeds and flowers of the Rocket, or Erassica cruca ; the seeds ot the Sorrel, or Rumex acetosa; of the different species of Dock, or La- pallium ; of the Yellow and White Water-lily, or the Nymphosa lutea and alia ; of the Corn-spun-ey, or Spcrgula arv crisis; of the Spinage, or Splnacia oleracea, L. ; of tlie Common Gromwell, or Graymill, the Lithospermum ojjiciiiale; of the Knot-grass, or Paniculum auicu- larc ; the Beech-nut (sse p. 233) ; tlie husks of tlie Lint-seed, &c. II. Farinaceous Roots : namely, those of the Common and Yellow Bethlem Star, or Qrnithogalum lu- tcum and umlctlatuin ; of the Yel- low Asphodel (see p. 13O) ; of tlie Wake Robin, or Arum maculatum (after being properly dried and washed) ; of the Pilewort, or Lesser Celandine, the Ranunculus ficaria; of the Common Dropwort, the Sp}- rcea Jtlifendula \ of the Meadow- sweet, or Spiraea ulinaria ; ot the White Bryony, or Bryr,ifi alia; of the Turnip-rooted Cabbage, or '' ; of the Great Bistort, BRE or Snake-weed (p. 268) ; of the Small, Welch, or Alpine Bistort (p. 269) ; of the Common Orobus, or Heath-pea; the Tuberous Vetch ; the Common Reed; both the Sweet- smelling and Common Solomon's Seal ; the Common Corn- flag, or Gladiolus communis; the Salt-marsh Club-rush, or Sdrptis maritimus, &c. Indeed, some authors also include in this list the roots of the Mandraeora, Cnlchicnm, Fitmaria i-id!-. , nelletortu acconitifol. and nigr. , Lilium l;idlif. , and many others ; but for these last mentioned \ve have not sufficient authority. III. Filrotts and less juicy Roots : viz. those of the Couch-grass, or CreepingWhcMt-grass : the Clown's, or Marsh Wound- wort (p. 31); the Marsh Mary-gold, or Meadow Bouts; the Silver-weed, or Wild Tansey; the Sea Seg, or Caret arenarhis, &c. Having thus stated the various substitutes for bread, wiicy have either already been rdopte/ with success in this country, or which might, in times of real scarcity, be easily converted into proper nutri- ment, we cannot better conclude this article than in the words of ARTHUR YOUNG, Esq. who, in his Observations on the late Royal Pro- clamation, recommending frugality in the consumption of corn, as one of the surest and most etFe&ual means of alleviating the present pressure of the times, espouses the cause of the unfortunatepoor, nearly in the following words : Every master or head of a family is in duty bound to second, without compulsion, the humane views of the legislature. Hence, bread made of the whole produce of the wheat, excepting only seven pounds of the tran in each bushel, and adding cue-fourth or third part of a sub- BRE stitute, would probably be the most efre6live saving. If the consump- tion of the whole kingdom be com- puted at 8,O(X),OOO of quarters in twelve months, this saving on all the wheat consumed in nine months would be 7OO,OOO quarters, which would feed 875, OOO persons, at the ordinary consumption of one quar- ter a head per annum ; and pro- bably be equ.il, under the present restrictions, to arford food to 1,OOO,OOO of people for the next nine months. Farther, if the sav- ing of oats to the supposed number of 50O,OOO horses of luxury, be calculated only at one bushel per week, this would, in nine months, amount to 18,OOO,OOOof bushels ; or sufficient to support i,000,OOO of persons for the same period of time, allowing to each not less than twenty-five bushels per annum. With duedeference to Mr. YOUNG'S statistical information, however, we beg leave to doubt whether 500,000 fat horses, crammed on the food of man, move about the king- dom : though it must be acknow- ledged, that pleasure horses " are speciacles of envy to the starving poor abominable and scandalous spectacles, which, in times like these, ought to be removed from the view of those whose miserable children might be fed on the corn thus saved." BREAD-FRUIT-TREE, or the Artocarpus, L. a plant which grows in the South-Sea Islands, and is remarkable, for the size and nutritive quality of its fruit. Al- though this tree has been mention- ed by many voyagers, it was little noticed till the return of Captain WALI.IS from the South Seas. It grows in abundance on the La- drone Islands. In the Society Islands, it is of the size of a mid- dling 334] B R E dling oak ; its leaves' are about a foot and a half in length, of an oblong shape, deeply sinuated like those of the fig-tree, which they resemble in colour ; and, when broken, exude a milky juice. The fruit is shaped like a heart, and at- tains the size of a child's head. Its rind is thick, green, and co- vered with excrescences of a hexa- gonal figure. The internal part of the rind is composed of a pulpy substance, full of twisted fibres : this pulp becomes softer towards the middle, where a small cavity is formed, containing no kernels or teeds. The inhabitants of Suma- tra dry the soft internal part, and use it a.s bread with other food. At Amboyna, they dress the inner rind with the milk of the cocoa- nut, and fry it in oil like fritters. It affords, much nourishment, is very satisfying, and therefore pro- per for labouring people. Eeing of an astringent quality, it is also beneficial to persons of a laxative habit. Its taste is rather harsh, and similar to the potatoe-bread made in the. West of England. The milky juice which issues from the trunk, when boiledwith cocoa- nut oil, makes a very strong bird- lime. From the investigations of bo- tanists it appears, that this tree can only be propagated by suckers or layers, owing to a deficiency in the parts of fructification, BREAKSTONE (Chickweed). See Procumbent PEARLWORT. BREAM, or Brama, is a species of the Cyprinus, or carp. It inha- bits lakes, or the deep parls of smooth rivers, and affords sport to the angler, though it is not mu< h esteemed for its flavour. The rules for catching tliis fish are nearly si- milar tothooe established ibr taking BRE carp in general, which will be stat- ed under the article CARP : the tackle, however, should be finer than what is commonly used for that nsh; and the angler should throw his line as nearly as possible into the middle of the stream. The bream may be taken with a blue- bottle fly, cither by whipping, or in the common metliod, by paste or gentles. BREAST, or fore part of the che.it, .signifies that cavity of the trunk which is composed of many bones, namely, the sternum or breast-bone in front, twelve ribs on each side, twelve vcrtclrcr t or turning joints of the spine, as the body is turned upon them, and two shoulder blades. The thorax, or chest, extends from the, lower part of the neck to the midriff, and con- tains the organs most essential to life, surh r..s the heart, the lungs, and likewise the wind-pipe and tho gullet. With respect to the dis- eases of the breast, we refer to the articles COUGH and INFLAMMA- TION. BREASTS, or mammcc, in fe- males, are two glandular, protuber- ant bodies on the sides of the chest, in the most proper situation for giv- ing food to the inf. int. In some in- stances there have been found three, and even four breasts in one person, all yielding milk alike. They are very sensible to the touch, and ought therefore to be carefully guarded against external injury ; as a very slight bruise or blow may be attended with fatal consequences. No part of the human body is SQ easily affected by cold, and so liable to cancerous complaints, as that of the. female breast. See CAXOCR. There prevails a custom of draw- ing the l:rfi\is after de'ivr-rr, when, the secretion of milk is so great, that BRE that from an incapacity of the child to empty, or relieve, them by early sucking, the vessels are consider- ably distended, and the breasts so completely filled as to occasion much pain to the mother. This practice is severely censured by the Rev. C. CKUTWELL, in his " Ad- vice to Lying-in Women" publish- ed in 1779 : and he is of opinion that the attempt is unnatural, as applying a different agent from that designed by Nature ; and in- tlelicate, because a disease of a ma- lignant tendency may thus be easi- ly communicated ; while it is pain- ful and dangerous to the patient. Accordingto his experience, the ne- glect of drawing the breasts has ne- ver been prejudicial. If, says he, they were not touched during this state of fulness, hardness, or inflamma- tion, but the whole suffered to subside, which would happen in a few hours, the child might then be safely put to the breast. It is the application of too great force in drawing them, or placing the child to suck at an improper time, and not the delay, which causes the mischief. If the infant cannot be suckled the first day, or before die hardness appears, it should be de- ferred till the breast becomes soft. This callosity is chiefly produced by some external injury, such as drawing the breasts, heated rooms, hot and stimulating liquors, medi- cines, &rc. all of which contribute to excite inflammation, or increase a slight degree, of irritation, so as to occasion a milk-fever, abscesses, or both. See NIPPLES and SUCK- LING. BREATH, fetid, a misfortune to which many persons are liable, though they appear to be in per- fect health. It may arise from va- fious causes., the principal of which BRE [335 are, carious teeth, putrid gums, ul- eeratiuiis of the lungs, or some pe- culiarity in the constitution of die individual. If it originate from hollow teeth, care should be taken that no frag- ments of provisions, and especially cheese, remain in them, alter eat- ing : hence the mouth ought to be washed or properly rinsed after every meal with tepid water, or lukewarm chamomiletea. A simi- lar precaution is necessary, wheu the teeth are carious, or die gums in a flaccid and spongy state : but if the lungs or other organs of re- spiration be diseased., due regard ought to be paid to the primary af- fection, of which we shall treat under the head of PULMOXART CONSUMPTION. In this case, as well- as iu some peculiar habits, where the real cause, of fetid gums cannot be easily ascertained, the skill of the practitioner is frequently baffled ; yet we shall venture to suggest a remedy which has, in a great variety of instances, been at- tended widi the desired effect. Many persons afflicted with that disagreeable complaint are, also, bubjivt to habitual costivem-ss, which cannot, in general, be re- lieved without administering lax- atives : these, by relaxing the bowels ultimately tend to in- jure the constitution. On die other hand, we have observed from experience, that finely powdered chaixoal, newly prepared, and kept in clo.-:e vessels, has a remarkable tendency to open the bowels, with- out inducing an extraordinary de- gree of weakness, especially if it be mixed with die syrup of yellow roses. For this purpose, a table- spoonful of each, diluted widi a little water, should be taken two or three times every day, according 3J6] B R E to circumstances. Thus, if thr patient abstain, for some lime, from the use of animal food, the most distressing costiveness may be gra- dually relieved with pert>ft safety to the constitution ; while the car- bon a6ts on (lie whole system as the most effectual antiseptic with which we are acquainted. To in- crease the effect or' this mild medi- cine, a tea-spoonful of squill vine- gar may occasionally be added to each dose, together with a little cinnamon or other aromatic water. The best palliatives for sweeten- ing an offensive breath, are gar- gles consisting simply of lime- water ; or a deco6tion of the Peru- vian bark ; or a liquor made by inixing two ounces of compound alum-water, and half an ounce of essence of lemons, with three ounces and a half of fennel -water, which should be frequently used previous to going into company, BREATHING, is that alternate contraction and expansion of the Jungs and breast, by which animals inspire and expire the surrounding atmosphere; a process essentially necessary to the support of life. From the moment a child enters the world, the air penetrates into its lungs, which were previously filled with a watery mucus, but are then opened for the circulation of the blood. Thus respiration, one of the primary and most important of the vital functions, commences with birth, and is incessantly a6tive ; as it cannot be interrupted for many minutes, without endangering the life of the individual There have, indeed, been instances of persons wantonly endeavouring to restrain the act of breathing, nay even to check the pulsation of the arteries, so as to exhibit a specimen of apparent death, for several mi- BRE mites. We still remember the ac- count of .such a hazardous experi- ment related by a most respectable professor in the University of Edin- burgh, who informed his pupils, that a man possessing the talent here alluded to, at length paid the price of his life, by remaining, in one of his exhibitions, a fatal ex- ample of his temerity. More frequent, however ^ though not so immediately dangerous, axe the instances in which persons, in other respects sensible, unthink- ingly expose themselves to situa- tions, where they must necessarily breathe the most vitiated and per- nicious atmosphere. Such is the case in all public assemblies, which are confined in narrow limits, par- ticularly in theatres and other places of amusement, to which numbers of spectators indiscriminately re- sort, and where each individual is obliged to respire. pJirt of the aggre- gate mephitic vapours of the com- pany. Far from wishing to discou- rage the frequenting of those fa- shionable places of resort, in gene- ral, we only think it our duty to warn such invalids, as are liable to athmatic or pulmonary complaints, against a too free indulgence in these enticing amusements. Indeed, we are convinced, by numerous fads, of their deleterious influence; and if any person be disposed to doubt the propriety of this caution, let him retleft on the dreadful ef- fects frequently produced by shut- ting up 5 or 6 passengers in a stage- coach, only during a short space of time ; and he. will acknowledge that our admonition is well founded. Hence we would advise those who lead a studious or sedentary life, never to continue for several hours together in a close and perhaps low apartment, where they admit the same same air to re-enter the lungs, which has before been respired, and has become at length totally unfit for supplying the vital principle. Thus, they deprive themselves of the most beneficial cordial of life, namely, fresh air, and exhaust the source of vitality as mucji in one hour, as was perhaps destined by Nature for the support of weeks, or even months. Instead of following such an irrational practice, they ought either to remove to another atmo- sphere, or to open the window or door, to admit a supply of pure air, rather than to destroy them- selves by an obstinate or indolent perseverance in their former habit. BREECHES, a part of the dress of most Europeans, worn by males, and reaching from the waist to the knees. The Romans had no dress corresponding with our breeches. This article appears to be a habit peculiar to the barbarous nations of the North : they were worn by the ancient Gauls, Germans, and Britons ; and were also introduced into Italy, as early as the time of AUGUSTUS, where they afterwards grew so fashionable, that HONO- HIUS and ARCADIUS thought pro- per to restrain them by a law, and to expel the breeches-makers from Rome, under the idea that it was unworthy a nation which ruled the world, to wear the apparel of bar- barians. With respect to the construction of this article of our dress, it may be useful to observe, that if made too tight in the waistband, or of improper materials, they must ne- cessarily occasion uneasiness, and prove injurious to the body. The form most to be preferred, and now very generally adopted, is that of paii!.aloons : these ought to be of a sufficient width, of a thin sub- . KO. ni. VOL. i. BRE (.337 stance in summer, and of warm cloth in winter. Breeches made of leather, and so narrow as to fit ex- aftly the shape of the limbs, arc liable to many inconvehiencies : they benumb the hips and thighs, occasion a painful pressure upon the parts, especially the abdomen j and, by the close texture of the leather, in a great measure impede perspiration. BREEDING of Cattle : As the different circumstances to be at- tended to in the management of cattle, will be stated when treating of the various kinds of useful ani- mals, we shall here only observe, that the first thing to be considered is Icauty of form ; the next is pro- portion of parts, or what may be called utility of form ; the third, which has engaged the attention of midland breeders, is the texture of the muscular parts, or what is called, flesh; a quality which, how-, ever familiar it may have been to the butcher and consumer, has not in general been attended to by breeders. In short, it is a rule ap- plicable to all sorts of live-stock, to breed from straight backed, round bodied, clean, small boned, healthy animals ; carefully rejecting such as have roach backs and heavy legs, with much external appearance of offal, &c. To the late Mr. BAKEWELL, of Disliley, who was undoubtedly the most scientific breeder of his time, we are indebted for many new and important improvements in the art breeding cattle. His principle was, to procure the best beast, that v/ould weigh most in the valuable joints j and thus, while he gained in point of shape, he also acquired a breed much hardier, and easier fed, than any other. With respect 'to the breed of 'Z oxen, 338] BRE oxen, Mr. BAKE WELL asserts, that the smaller the bones, the more perfect will be rhe make of the beast, and the quicker it will fat- ten. The breed preferred, and considered by him as the best in England, is that of Lancashire. The shape which should be the criterion of a cow or bull, an ox, or a sheep, is that of a hogshead, or a firkin, with legs as small and short as possible. He found from vari- ous experiments in different parts of the kingdom, that no land is too Ind for a good breed of cattle, and particularly of sheep. The great advantage arising from his breed is, that the same quantity of food will suffice them, much longer than it will any other kind; besides which, the wool is of the finest quality, and the sheep stand the fold per- fectly well. The wintering, of ca'ttle, also re- ceived particular attention from this professional breeder : his horned beasts were tied up during the winter, in sheds, and fed with straw, turnips, or hay ; all the lean beasts were fed with straw alone, and lay without litter. Young cattle, that require to be kept in a th'riving state, are fed upon tur- nips ; and as the spring advances, and this vegetable becomes scarce, Lay is their only food. The floors, on which the cattle stand, are paved, and raised six or eight inches above the level of the yard ; and each crib being only broad enough for a beast to stand on, its dung falls on the lower pavement ; by which contrivance it is kept perfectly clean without litter. E At ED i N G of Fish . The neces- sary qualities of a pond for breed- ing fish, are very different from those \vfcrch arc- requisite to make it serve for their nourishment . A ' good breeding pond is more rare to be met with than a good feeding one. The best indications of the former, are plenty of rushes and grass about its sides, with gravelly- shoals like those of horse-ponds. The quantity of the r-pa wn of fish is prodigious ; and where it succeeds, one fish may sometimes produce millions. Hence two or three mel- ter*j and as many spawners, placed in such a pond, will, in a short time, stock a whole country. If it be not intended to keep these ponds entirely for breeding, but to let the fish grow to a considerable size, their numbers should be thin- ned, or they will otherwise starve each other. Different kinds of fish may also be addedy which will prey upon the young, and prevent their increasing in number. For this purpose, eels and perch arc most useful, because they not only feed upon the spawn itself, but also up- on the young fry. Some fish will breed abundantly in all kinds of waters ; of this nature are the roach, pike, perch, &c. BREEDING, Good; an expression which is used to denote the propel deportment of persons in the exter- nal offices and decorum of social intercourse. Good breeding necessarily implies civility ; though a person, without being well bred, may be civil : the one is the result of good-nature j the other, of good sense joined to experience, observation, and atten- tion. The most perfeft degree of good breeding is only to be acquired by great knowledge of the world, and keeping the best company. To at- tain this desirable obje6t, we would advise parents not to suiter thtir Children, after a certain age, td spend :d the greatest part of their time among servants, or menial de- pendents ; from whom neither good language nor proper manners can be expected ; and \vho seldom fail to instruct the susceptible young mind in all die low cunning, and artifices of the vulgar. Good- breeding adorns and enforces virtue and truth ; it connects, it endears, and while it indulges the just li- berty, restrains that indecent licen- tiousness of conversation, which alienates and provoke.?. Great ta- lents render a man famous ; great merit procures respect ; great learn- ing, esteem : but good-breeding alone can ensure love and affec- tion. Hence it deserves to be pe- culiarly recommended to women/ as the greatest ornament to such as possess beauty, and the safest refuge for those of a contrary description. It facilitates the conquests, and de- corates the triumphs of beauty ; while, on the other hand, it atones, in some degree, for the want of that quality. On the whole,, good- breeding is attended with so many advantageous effects, that, though it cannot be called a virtue in itself, it may be jusly considered as one of the most pleasing and useful ac- complishments ; inasmuch as it has a direct tendency to check the vio- lence of all the turbulent ]>a, and to render ihe path through life more comfortable and easy. BRE\\ I \{ ; , the art of preparing beer or ale from malt, by extracting all its ftrmr-ntub'e -parts in the best manner; by adding hops in such pro- portions as experience has shc\\'n, will preserve and meliorate the ex- tracts ; and by causing a perfect fermf ntntion in them, by means of yeast and barm. One of the most approved methods of performing tiiis operation, is as follows : S R B f339 Take of the purest and softest water you can procure, as much as you will have occasion for ; boil if, put it into large tubs, and let it stand exposed to the air to purge itself, at least one week. Grind a sufficient quantity of the best brown, high-dried malt ; let it re- main four days before you i that it may mellow, and dispose it- self for fermentation. Fill a copper with your prepared water, and let it boil ; then lade about three-quar- ters 1 of a hogshead into the mash- tub, filling the copper up again, and making it boil. When the water in the mash-tub is cooled to such a degree, that, in consequence of the stream subsiding, you may see your face in it, empty into it, by degrees, nine bushels of the malt, mash it well, and stir it about with the rudder near half an : till it is thoroughly wetted, an corporated with the water : spread another bushel of malt lightly over its surface, cover the whole with empty sacks to keep hi the steam, and leave it for an I At the end of the hour, the ter in the copper being boiling, damp the fire, and let the water cool a little as before : then lade as much as is necessary on the mash, till the whole together will yield about a hogshead of wort. Wheri this second quantity of water is added, stir it again well, cover it, and leave it for another bouf. Then let the first wort run in a small stream into the under back, and lade another hogshead of hot water on the mash: stir it again cover it, and let it remain for hours. In the mean time, return the first wort into the copper, and put into it six pounds of fine brown hops, first rubbing them between Z 2 tho BRE the hands. Then make a brisk fire under your copper, till the li- quor boils ; let it continue to boil till the hops sink j then clamp the fire, and strain the liquor into cool- .ers. When it is about as warm as new milk, mix some yeast or barm with it, and leave it to work till the surface appears in curls ; then stir and mix the whole properly with a hand-bowl, and let it again ferment. Repeat the stirring with the bowl three times, then tun it, .and leave it to work in the hogs- head. When it has nearly done working, fill up the cask, and ,bung it, but let the vent-hole re- main open. Beer thus brewed, though brown, will be as clear as rock-water, and \vill keep for any length of time. Set the second wort aside for the next brewing, which, as far as wet- ting the mash, must be managed f xa&ly in the same manner as the first ; but afterwards, instead of water, heat die second wort of the first brewing, and lade it on the mash, which will give the new wort additional strength and soft- ness. Make the second wort of the second brewing with water, and save it for the first wort of the third 5 and so on for as many brew- ings as you please. A third wort may be taken from the first brew- ing, winch should be heated and laded on the mash of your second brewing, after taking off the se- cond wort; and thus an additional hogshead of very good mild beer may be procured. On taking a review of the above process, and the multiplicity of cir- cumstances to be attended to, it is easy to see that the operation of brewing is of a very precarious na- ture ; and requires great skill and dexterity to manage it with com.- BRE plete success. The goodness of* the beer will depend on the quality of the malt from which it is made ; on the peculiar properties of the water with which it is infused ; on the degree of heat applied in the mashing ; on the length of time the fusion is continued ; on the due manner of boiling the wort, toge- ther with the quantity and quality of the hops employed ; and on the proper degree of fermentation : to ascertain all which particulars, with precision, constitutes the great mystery of brewing, and can only be learnt by experience and repeat-- ed observation. Mr. MILLS, in his " System of Practical Husbandry" and Mr. COMBRUNE, in his " Theory ajid Practice of Brewing," give the fol- lowing directions for the choice of materials used in brewing, and foe conducting the whole process :. 1. Of the Water. Pure rain- water, as being the lightest, is esteemed the most proper. Wdl and spring waters are commonly hard, and consequently unfit for drawing the tincture completely from any vegetable. River-water^ in point of softness, is next to rain- water : and even pond- water, it' pure, is equal to any other for brewing. 2. Of Malt. Those malts are to be preferred for brewing, \\ hich have been properly wetted and ger- minated, then dried by a moderate heat, till all the adventitious mois- ture is evaporated, without being blown, vitrified, or scorched, bytoa hot or hasty fires. For, the better the malt is dried, the sounder will be the beer brewed from it, and the longer it will keep. In order to ascertain the quality of this article, bite a grain of it asunder, and if it tastes mellow and sweet,, breaks soft, BRE soft, nnd Is full of flour from one end to the other, it is good ; which may also be known by its swim- ming on the surface, when put in- to the water. The best way of grinding it, is to bruise it in a mill composed of two iron cylinders. These brtrak the malt without cut- ting its husk, so that the hot water instantly pierces its whole substance, and soon draws forth a rich tinc- ture, with much less mashiug than in the common way. 3. Of Hops. Experience has proved, that hops slack-dried, or kept in a damp place, are perni- cious ingredients for making beer ; and likewise, that they yield their aromatic bitter more efficaciously, when boiled in wort than in water: hence, to impregnate the extracts from malt with a due proportion of hops, their strength, as well as that of the extract, should previously be ascertained. The newer the hops are, the better they always prove ; the fragrance of their flavour being in some degree lost by keeping, notwithstanding the care used in preserving them. Private families, who regard only the flavour and salubrity of their malt liquors, should use from six to eight bushels of malt to the hogshead of their strongest beer. The quantity of hops must be suited to the taste of the drinker, and to the time the liquor is intended to be kept. From two to three pounds will be sufficient for a hogshead, though some go as far as six pounds. Mr. MILLS is of opinion, that small Leer should always be brewed by itself ; in which case, two bushels and a half of malt, and a pound and a half of hops, are sufficient to make a hogshead. 4. Of the Vessels used in Brew- ing. The brew-house itself, and BRE every vessel in it, ought to be per- feftly clean and sweet ; for if die vessels are in the least degree tainteJ, the liquor put into them will contra^ a disagreeable scent and taste. A vessel of the most simple and excellent contrivance, among the multiplicity of brew- ing utensils adapted to family pur- poses, is that of Mr. J. B. BOKD- LEY, an ingenious American, who has described it in his " Essays and Notes mi Husbandry and Rural 4tf'uirs;" (Philadelphia, 1/99.) He terms his process, by way of distinction, a tripartite metliod of l-n-n'ing; because the kettle-appa- ratus, represented in the subjoined cut is worked in three division?. The whole vessel is 4O inches long, 2O broad, and 24 deep : namely, di- vision a, i-> thirteen ; b, nine ; and c, two inches deep. The dotted lines are marked, where the perfo- rated moveable bottoms are placed. In a, is the water or u'ort; I, contains the malt; and into c, the hot water is pumped up, or poured over from a to c, by means of the small pump, d; and thus passes through every particle of the maltj so that, by frequent agitation, the water in a manner washes out its whole substance, and extracts all its farinaceous and saccharine ingre- dients. This operation is repeated, occasionally stirring up the grains, till the liquor becomes clear ; when it should be briskly boiled (see the Z 3 subse* BRE subsequent directions), and then drained off into coolers. Mr. BORDLEY ingenuously acknow- ledges, that a Swedish method of b f \\ r ing in camp afforded him the M-it for this invention. He also ;, that his tripartite kettle is mod-., of copper, and the small pump of un'tai; though we are in- that, for the latter, id, or pure t: . would be prefer- able to brass', in order to prevent the formation of verdigrise. At the bottom is a cock in one side of the vessel! On the whole, we con- sider this as the most proper and nient piece of machinery, ever . ed for family-brewing. 5. Of the heat of the water for Mashing. Particular care should be taken, that the malt be not put intoihe water whilst boiling hot. In order to bring the water to an exact heat, Mr. COMBRUNE ad- vises us, to put on the fire 22 quarts, gallons, or barrels, ac- cording to the quantity wanted ; and when it has just arrived at the boiling point of the thermometer, to add 10 similar measures of cold water, which, when mixed with the former, will be of a temperature not exceeding l6l of Fahrenheit : and this he considers as the most proper heat for mashing. He far- ther remarks, that water which has endured the fire the shortest time, provided it be hot enough, will make the strongest extract. 6. Of Mashing. When the water is brought to a due heat, the malt is to be put in very leisurely, and uniformly mixed with it. 7. Of hiling the Wort. As the design of boiling die wort is to clear the liquor of its impurities, and to obtain .the virtue of the hop, a much shorter time than usual is sufficient. Long boiling of the BRE hop is a most pernicious practice, and produces an austere, nauseous bitter, but not a pleasant aromatic one. Instead of adding the hops to the wort, when this is put into the copper, or before it boils, they may be infused about five minutes be- fore the wort is taken off the fire : if this is not sufficient to give the desired degree of fragrant bitter, ten minutes may be taken, or as much longer as will be found ne- cessary. Mr. MILLS prefers put- tin;;- the hops to the wort towards tl\t: latter end of the boiling, rather than at the beginning, because the continued boiling of the liquor is apt to dissipate their fragrance. 8. Of Fermentation. One gallon of yeast, in the coldest fermenting weather is, according to Mr. COM- BKUNE, sufficient to ferment the extract from one quarter of malt ; and, if properly managed, will yield two gallons of yeast. Great care should be taken in the choice of yeasts, as they are liable to be soon tainted, and very readily com- municate their infection to the li- quors fermented. The whole pro- cess of fermentation should be car- ried on in the slowest and coolest manner; so that the temperature, which at the commencement was between 40 and 50 of Fahrenheit, should very gradually be raised to the 70th degree. Fermentation will always succeed best, where the air is purest. If too hot water has been employed for obtaining strong and fatty extratts, from the malt, fermentation will be retard- ed : on the contrary, in weak ex- tracts, it is so much accelerated, that the whole soon becomes sour. "NV'hen the fermentation is at its height, all the feculent matter, or foul yeast, which rises on the sur- face, must be carefully skimmed off, BRE fff, whatever be the quality of the liquor. The beer, as soon as it is tolerably clear, should be racked off into perfectly clean and sweet casks ; and, when managed in this manner, will remain a long time in a state of perfection. 9. Of fining the Liquor. As the excellency of all fermented liquors depends, in a great measure, on their transparency, it often becomes necessary to resort to artificial means, in order to bring them to this state of perfection, if the pro- cess of fermentation has been mis- managed. Thus, a solution of isin- glass in stale beer, is used to fine and precipitate other beers : but, as this method has proved ineffec- tual in brown beers, we are in- formed by Mr. COMBRUNE, that brewers " sometimes put one pound of oil cf vitriol into one lutt, though four ounces should never be ex- ceeded in that quantity." On this subject we refer the reader to p. 239 of our work. 10. Of the distempers of Mali Liquors. Among the distempers incident to beer, one, which has been found most difficult to cure, is that of its appearing ropy. A bunch of hyssop put into the cask will, however, effectually remedy this evil. A satisfactory account of the different methods of recovering flat, tart, or sour kei-r, having been already given in this Encyclopaedia, p. 24O and 241 , it would be super- fluous to repeat it in this place. It deserves to be remarked, that l-rou'ti beer, made from well-dried malt, is, in the opinion of Mr. COM- BRUNK,-kss heating thanpa/e beer, brewed from slack-dried malt. Jf extracts from pale malt be made with very hot water, they will keep sound for a long time ; but those obtained from brown malt, with BRE [343 too cold water, will frequently turn sour. Having thus afforded an analy- tical view of this important subject, we shall conclude it with an ac- count of the latest patents, which, have been granted to those who have contributed, or attempted to improve, die Art of Brewing. In March, 1788, Mr. W. KEH, of Kcrfield, Tweedale, received the King's patent for his improvement in brewing ale, beer, porter, an4 other malt liquors, so as to save a considerable portion of hops, to pro- duce the liquors of a superior fla- vour and quality, and render them less liable to become acid or putrid. The steam which arises from the boiling copper, is known to be strongly impregnated with the es- sential oil of the hops, in which their flavour consists. Instead, therefore, of allowing it to escape and evaporate, as it does in the common mode of brewing, Mr. KER contrives to preserve and con- dense it, by means of a winding- pipe fixed to the copper, similar to the worm of a still, or by a straight pipe passing through cold water, or any other cooling medium. The oil and water, thus obtained, are returned into the worts, when bail- ed ; or die oil, after being separated from the \yater, along with which it had been exhaled, is returned into the worts after they are boiled j and the watery part, which, after die oil is separated, still continues im- pregnated with the aromatic taste and bitter of the hop, is returned into the next copper or boiling ves- sel, and so on, from one copper or boiling vessel into another. By this process, a considerable part of the hop and flavour, which is lost in die ordinary mode of brewing, is preserved ; die flavour of the liquor Z4 is 344] B R E is improved by the preservation of the finer parts of the aromatic oilj and tL<: :ile and beer are better se- cunxl from any tendency to acidity or putrefaftion, and therefore must be fitter for home consumption and exportation. In June, 1790, Mr. JOHN LONG, of Ireland, obtained a patent for an improvement, which he calls an entire new method, in all the essen- tial parts, of brewing good malt liquor. Though his method, in one resp ft, is similar to that adopted "by Mr. KER, yet, as it compre- hends the whole process of brew- ing, we shall lay iubefore our read- ers, nearly in the words of its au- thor. 1 . For the better extracting the virtues of malt, place near a mash- tun a shallow copper, or other ves- sel, that will readily heat, the curb . of which to be on a level with the tun, and to contain from two to six hogsheads, according to the dimen- sion of the tun, more or less ; and, at the lower end of the copper, have a cock, from two to five inches in diameter, to conduct the heated liquor from the copper into a tube, Which passes down the external part of the tun, and enters it through an aperture about six inches from the bottom ; then forming two re- volutions, more or less, through the body of the tun, and communicat- ing its heat to the wcrt as it passes through the tube ; and then, at a convenient distance from the place where it first entered, it runs from the tun into a cistern or tub, situate " as near as convenient to the copper or heating-vessel. In the tub or 1 cistern is to be placed a pump, for the purpose of conveying the cooler liquor back to the copper or- heat- ing vessel again, there to receive tlie heat of 208 degrees, more ar less (which it will require after the first half hour), and then convey it through the mashing-tun, as be- fore, and in the same manner, as long as the working brewer may think necessary, to raise the ma^h- ing-tun to any degree of heat re- quired. By adhering to the fore- going process, the first liquor may, 1 with the greatest safety, be, let upon the malt, from 20 to 30 degrees lower than the present practice j by which means it operates with gentleness, opens and expands the malt, and prepares it for the recep-f tion of sharper or warmer liquor, so as to extraft the whole of the saccharine quality from the malt. By the foregoing method, the ma.sh- ing-tun, instead of loosing its first heat (which it docs by the present praftic; j ), continues to increase in heat every moment, by conveying the heated liquor through the tube into the tun ; by which means, at the end of two hours, the working brewer can have the tun brought to any degree of heat he shall think best suited to the -different qualities of the malt. Persons who would wish to save expence, may heat their mashing-tun at the side or bottom, by a large piece of me* tallic substance made fire-proof, and fixed therein ; which, in some degree, will answer the end pro- posed, but with great trouble and delay. 2. To prevent the wort from receiving a disagreeable flavour, while in the under-back, a tube must be placed at the cock of the mashing-tun, to receive the wort as it comes off, and convey it to a great cistern, or refrigeratory, which is supplied with a stream of water. The wort, passing through that medium in a spiral tube, soon loses- that heat which so of ton proves BRE proves prejudicial to the brewer in warm weather : it is then poured from the tube into a vessel in which pumps are placed, to return the worts into the copper, for the pur- pose of boiling otf. 3. As the great objeft of long boiling the wort is remedied, by this invention of taking the extract from the hops in a separate manner from the worts, Mr. LONG boils the lat- ter no longer tium from fifteen to fwenty minutes ; and, by pursuing that method, he saves much time find fiul, and regulates the length of time accordingly. : 4. He steeps his hops, the pre- ceding day to which they are to be used, in a copper or other vessel, with as much fluid, blood-warm, as will cover the hops ; where it is to remain over a slow fire at least fourteen hours, close covered ; the copper, at the tenth hour, not to be of a greater heat than l/o de- grees, continuing slow until the last .hour. Then he brings the copper gradually to a simmer, or slow boil ; in which state he suffers it to re- main about ten minutes, and then runs off the fluid ; and this he docs at the same time the first wort is boiled off, that they may both pass together through the refrigeratory, into the fermentation or working- tun. After the foregoing operation, he covers the hops again with other liquor, brings the copper to boil as scon as convenient, and lels it remain in that state a considerable time, until the second worts are boiled off. Then he passes the hop- fluid with the wort, the same as in the first instance: ; and, if. there is a third wort, he boils the hops a third time with small worts, and drains oft" the liquid as before; by which means he gradually obtains (lie whole of the essential oil and B R E [345 pleasant bitter from the hops, which is effectually preserved in the beer. 5. When the wort is boiled oil", it is conducted from the cock of thtt copper or boiler into a tube of a proper dimension, which passes the wort from the cock to the large cistern or refrigeratory, and there performs several revolutions, in a spiral manner, through the same tube; which is immersed in a con- stant supply of cold water, where it loses the greatest part of its heat in a short time, and thence conti- nues a straight course through the tube, a little elevated, and of a suitable length, placed in brick- work, until it meets a small refri- geratory, supplied with colder water from a reservoir made for mat pur- pose, at the head of the works ; whence a continual stream runs on the surface of the tube down to the great refrigeratory, cooling the wort as it passes, in order to enable the working brewer to send it into the backs, or working-tuns, at what- ever degree of heat he may think proper. The tubes may be made of lead, or any other metallic substance. 0'. To enable him to brew in the warm summer months, Mr. LONG sinks the backs, or working- runs, at least to a level with the ground, but if deeper the better, and covers them closely by an arch made of bricks, or other materials, that will totally exclude the atmospheric He then places them as near as possible to a spring or sand-drain, a.s their depth will naturally draw the water thence, which must be so contrived as to pass or flow round the backs or tuns. Next, he in- trxluces a large tube, which passes through the tuns, and keeps the wort several degrees lower than can possibly be done by the present practice ; by which means he pro- duces 54 6J BRE tluces a complete fermentation, even in the dog-days. 7. In cold or frosty weather, if the tan and barks should lose the first, heat, intended to be conducted through the process by the forego- .d, a supply of warm or l>o--ling water may be conveyed by :be, which pusses through the uf the. backs or tun, ce.iv.mu- nieating its heat, which rises to any degree the working brewer .lull think proper: by pursuing th"< method, in the coldest season, . may :ilv> ays be pro- In February 17.08, Dr. RICHAKD SHANNON obtained a patent for };;; method of improving the pro- og,boifing, evaporating, raising, applying and condensing steam or vapour trom aqueous, spirituous, saccharine, e and other fluids. The prin- ciple of his invention consists chief- ly in the following arrangement : .By covering and making the mash- tnn air-tight, and casing it round, inu'er and over, with a steam- right casing, so that, during the .ing and soaking of the malt ar.d grain used, the heat may be preserved, or raised and regulated Jo any pitch, by the application of . both in and between the rasing of the mash-tun ; by which contrivance, the whole of the fa- rina and substance of the grain may be as effectually extracted in one, or at most in two mashings, -as is now done in three or four. The steam, conducted by a y roper tube or pipe, is to be also employed tor .sweetening and cleansing all f the r- quisites of a pro- per c.'ai/ for making bricks ; then i-t^ate a t/-w rules applicable to prac- tice i all situations ; and conclude \\ith a general account of ihe late invent ons, for which the King's pa- tent has been granted : by which means the reader will be enabled to ascertain their respetive merit. It is an erroneous notion, that bricks may be made of any earth that is not stony, or even of sea- ouse i for those only will burn red, which contain iron particles. In England, they are chiefly made of a motley, yellowish, or somewhat reddish, fat earth, vulgarly called loam. Those of Stourbridge clay, and Windsor-loam, are esteemed the most proper and durable bricks ; such as will stand thcgreatest degree of heat, without melting. In gene- ral, the earth for this manufacture ought to be sufficiently fine, free from pebbles, and not too sandy ; which would render the bricks heavy and brittle ; nor too fat, which would make them crack in drying. Nor should it contain too many calcareous and ferruginous ingrt dients ; as the former prevent iV mass from becoming firm in burning, and occasion the bricks to crumble, when exposed to the air ; while the latter, or iron particles, ivt.u:! the preparation of bricks, in- somuch that it is sometimes impos- ijible to give them. du,e consistence ; BRI this Inconvenience, however, may be remedied, by allowing the clay- to lie for a considerable time under the influence of the atmosphere, then soaking it in pits, and after- wards working it well, in the usual manner. The common potter's clay, which is also employed for the manufacture of bricks, is opaque, imparts a slight colour, sometimes yellowish, blueish, greenish, but more frequently of different shades of light-grey, excepting that of blue, which is always dark : by kneading and spreading such clay, it becomes smooth and glossy ; it is soft, fat, and cold, though agree- able to the touch, slightly adheres to the tongue, and, when of the best quality, it should neither be too light nor too heavy. Its con- stituents chemically examined, are found to consist of thirty-seven parts of pure argillaceous or clayey earth, and sixty-three parts of sili- cious or flinty earth. Whoever' is desirous of produc- ing the best and most durable kind of bricks, ought to attend to the following rules : 1 . Clay of every description, whether fat or lean, whether more or less mixed with particles of lime, iron, ice', must be dug after Midsummer, that is, between the beginning of July and latter end of October, before the first frost appears : it should be re^ peatedly worked with the spade, during the winter, and not formed into bricks till the following spring. 2. The clay, before it is put into pits for soaking, must be broken as small a;s possible, and allowed to lie at least ten days : every stratum of twelve inches should be covered with water, as in this manner it will be more uniformly softened. 3. Two such pits, at least, will be necessary for ' every brick-manu- BRI factory, so that after having been suffered to remain for five days, the second may be prepared, and thus the manufa6ture carried on without interruption. 4. The next step is that of treading and tempering the clay, which requires double the labour to what is usually bestowed on it ; as the quality of the bricks chiefly depends upon the first pre- paration. If, in tempering them, too much water be used, they be- come dry and brittle ; but, if duly tempered, they will be smooth, so- lid, and durable. Such a brick requires nearly as much earth as one and a half made in the com- mon way, when too great a pro- portion of water is added ; in which case the bricks become spongy,light, and full of flaws, partly through ne- glect in working them properly, and partly by a mixture of ashes and light sandy earth (as is generally practised in the vicinity of London), with a view to dispatch and facilitate the work, as w<. 11 as to save culm or coals in the burning. 5. Bricks made of proper earth, being more solid and ponderous, require a much longer time for drying than those made in the common way ; they ought not to be removed to the kiln, till they have become lighter by one half, and give a hol- low sound on collision ; because the proper drying of bricks will prevent them from cracking .and crumbling in the kiln. 6. Of whatever materials the kiln be constructed, each burning of from 6 to 10,OOO bricks requires that the fire be kept up for 24 hours, and double that time for a number of from 1 2 to 50,000. The uniform increase of heat deserves great at- tention j the duration of it should be r-^'-iIated according to the sea- sou , and, during the last 24 hours, BRI T349 the fire should be uninterruptedly supported by means of flues - f but afterwards the kiln must not IK". suddenly closed ; as there is always some danger of bursting the flues, or melting tlie bricks. It would be useless here to en- ter into particulars relative to the manner of burning bricks in the neighbourhood of London ; we shall therefore only observe, that they are chiefly burnt ia damps built of the bricks themselves, after the manner of arches, in kilns, with a vacancy between each brick to admit the passage of the fire, but with this difference, that in- stead of being arched, the bricks project one over another on both sides of the space, for laying in the wood and coals till they meet, and are bounded by the bricks at the top. The place for the fuel is car- ried up straight on both sides, till about three feet high, when it is almost filled with wood, over which is laid a stratum of sea-coal, and then the arch is spanned over. Farther, sea-coal is also strewed over the clamp, between all the rows of bricks \ and lastly, the wood is kindled which also commu- nicates with the coals; and when the whole is consumed, the manu- facturer concludes that the brick* are sufficiently burnt. Among the multiplicity of pa- tents lately obtained for the making of bricks, it is somewhat singular, that the inventors confine their lu- crative views chiefly to the forma- tion of this useful article, without paying much regard to the materLli of which it may be composed. Of this nature are the patents granted to the following individuals : 1. Mr. EDMUND CARTWKIGHT, of Doncaster, for his invention of a new principle, on which bricks. 35=] * R I bricks, stones, or any otfier build- ing materials to be substituted for those articles, may be so fomi- rd, as to be applied with peculiar advantage in the erection of walls, and in the construction of arches. (Dated April 14, 17.05.) His im- provement consist- in giving bricks such a shape or form as.ilir.t. whrrt in work, t' ey shall mutually loek into, or cramp each other. The principle of his invention, he s.ivs, will be readily understood, by sup- posing the two opposite sides of a common brick to have a groove or rabbet down the middle, a little more than half the width of the side of the brick in which it is made ; there will then be left a shoulder on each side of the groove, each of which shoulders will be nearly equal to one quarter of the width of the side of the brick, or to one half of the groove or rabbet. Buildings constructed with bricks of this principle, will require no bond-timber, one universal bond running through, and connecting the whole building together 5 the walls of \\ hich can neither crack nor butee out, without breaking C3 * O through the bricks themselves. When bricks of this simple form" are used for the construction of arches, the sides of the grooves or rabbets, and the shoulders, should be die radii of the circle, of which the intended arch is to bef the segment. In forming an arch, the bricks must be coursed across the centre on which the arch i.s turned, and a: grooved side of the bricks must face" the workman. They may be either laid in mortar, or dry, and the interstices after- wards tilled, and wedged up, by pouring in lime-putty, plaster of Paris, grouting, or any other con- venient material, at the discretion of the workman, or bunder, ft is obvious, that arches upon thh principle, having no lateral pres- sure, can neither expand at th fool, nor spring at the crown, con- nt'v they will want no abut- ments, requiring only perpendicu- lar walls to be let into, or 'to rest upon ; ;ind they \vill want no in- rumberit weight upon the crown, to prevent iheir springing up; A circumstance of great importance 1 in many situations, in the construc- tion of bridges. Another advan- tage attending this mode of arch- ing is, that the centres may be struck immediately; so that thd same centre (which in no case need be many feet wide, whatever may be the breadth of the arch) may be regularly shifted, as the work pro- ceeds. But the greatest and most striking advantage attending this inventi' -a is, tfee absolute security 1 it affords (arid at a very reasonable rate) against the possibi ity of lire; for, from thr peculiar properties of this arch, requiring no abutments, it may be laid vfpo'n, or let into, common walls, n'o stronger than what are required for timbers, of which it will preclude the neces- and save the expence. For a more particular account, we refer' the reader to the third volume of the " Re-pert on/ of Jrts and Ma- nufacture's" p. .84, and following, o which he will also fuic! annexed 1 t\vo plates illustrating the ,-,u! ; 2. Mr. FHANCIS FARO.-JHARSOX, of Birmingham, obtained a patent (dated Febr. 20, 1~ or ends ; or open at top, bot- tom, sides, or ends : but such as are used by the original inventor, Dr. APOLLOS KIXSLEY, are the most convenient, and contain from one to six bricks in each mould, ac- cording to their size. Each frame, or mould, has a fixed bottom ; and, \vhenmore than one brick is mould- ed in the same frame, or mould, the division between them is made in three parts. The middle piece is made a little tapering, and serves as a wedge to confine the other t\vo parts in their places, while the mould is filling ; and, when dis- charged, the wedge or middle part is lifted out, which liberates the other two : by that means the moulds are discharged with ease. Moulds for large single bricks and BRI [351 ornaments, have one side, bottom, or end, taken orF by means of stt-a- dy pins, joints, or cramps, which will confine them while filling, and may be opened in any way that will allow them to discharge. The moulds may be made of metal, or of wood and lined with metal. The- foot of the spindle may stand in, and be supported by a bar, made fast to the platform, at the bottom of the tub j or it may be supported by a collar, inclosing the spindle, above the semi-circular sections, and made fast to the tub ; by that means the whole space under the forcers will be open, and free U> form bricks and ornaments of any size or shape. The friction-roller* are placed in a frame, which may- be raised or lowered by screws, ac- cording to the thickness of the bricks or ornaments ; and, by means of the screws, the moulds may be liberated from any foul matter, that may obstruct their passage through the machine. Clay for bricks, or- naments, potters'-ware, and tileo, of all descriptions, may be temper- ed and moulded of any size, or shape, in the above-described ap- paratus. The clay being put into die tub, is, by the action of the sec- tions, perfectly tempered and mould- ed at the same time, &c. To conclude, we shall only add, that the reasons why the modern bricks are so very inferior to those by the ancients ; which, ia their monuments, after having withstood the ravages of time tor many centuries, are still in perfect preservation, appear to be princi- pally the following : In the pre- sent expensive state of society^ the price of manual labour, the far from being adequate to the pressure of the times, is so consi- derable, that the numufacUm: is uudcr 35z] BRI under a kind of necessity to make choice of those m: 1 . Trials which are the. cheaoest and most easily procur d : thus, a mixture of the most improper earths and clay is often employed in the manufacture of bricks, without reflecting that two bodies specifically different in their nature, must necessarily re- quire different degrees of heat in the kiln, in order to produce an uniform hardness, and an intimate combination of parts. On the con- trary, the ancients not only select- ed the very best sort of clay, but combined it with other ingredients xrell adapted to form the most complete cement, such as coarsely powdered charcoal and old mortar :klded to the clay. Of this descrip- tion, likewise, were the bricks which Professor PALLAS, on his last journey through the southern provinces of Russia, discovered in the stupendous Tartar monuments, and which would scarcely yield to the force of a hammer. Another advantage peculiar to the bricks and tiles manufactured by our fore-fathers, arose from their me- thod of burning them uniformly, after being thoroughly dried. There rs no doubt, that if all the defects before pointed out, were removed, and modern brick-makers were to pay more attention to their art, by digging the clay at proper seasons, working it better than is done at present, bestowing more care on the burning of them, and particu- larly by making them much thin- uer th;>n what is prescribed by the Standard forin, we might, produce bricks of an equal strength and durability to those of our less en- lightened, but more provident and industrious, ancestors. BRICK-LAYERS, artisans whose bu>i;u'ss it is to build with bricks, BR r and to perform brick-work ; sucli* as tiling, walling, chimney- worky and paving with bricks and tiles ; in country places, they also under- take the masons' and plasterers' business. The London brick-layers were incorporated as a regular company in 15(J8, consisting of a- master, two wardens, 2O assist- ants, and 78 of the livery. The art of brick-laying has been analysed in a particular treatise by MOXON; in which he describes the materials, tools, and method of working used by bricklayers. Great care should be taken that bricks be laid joint on joint in the 1 middle of the walls as seldom as- may be. If they be laid in winter, let them be kept as dry as possi- ble 5 if in summer, they ought to be wetted, because they will then unite with the mortar better than if they were quite dry, and render the work much stronger.. In large buildings, or where it is too troublesome to dip each brick separately, water may be thrown: on every course after they are laid, as was judiciously done, when- building the College of Physicians in London, on the suggestion of Dr. HOOKE. If bricks are laid in summer, they should be covered, to prevent the mortar from drying too quickly ; because, thus it will not be cemented so firmly as if it were left to dry more gradually, In winter also they ought to be well covered, to proteft them from rain, snow, and frost, which last is the worst enemy to mortar, especially if the work has become wet just before the frost happens. OIL OF BRICKS, a singular pre- paration, formerly much esteemed in the cure of many diseases ; but now justly exploded as absurd and pernicious rather than useful. It is SRI is obtained by soaking fragments of bricks in olive oil, and after- wards distilling them in the usual manner. In the present improved state of chemistry, it lias been found that, by this fanciful pro- cess, the oil of olives, so far from being impregnated with healing in- gredients, is necessarily corrupted. Brick- water, or water impreg- nated with the contents of bricks, is possessed of properties so pecu- liarly striking, and at the same time so pernicious in their effects, when used for culinary purposes, that we cannot, in justice to our readers, withhold from them the following curious experiment made by Dr. PERCIVAL, and stated in the first volume of his Essays. He steeped two or three pieces of common brick, four days in a bason full of distilled \vater, which he after- wards decanted off, and examined by various chemical tests. It was not miscible with soap ; struck a lively green with syrup of violets ; became slightly laftescent by the Volatile alkali j but entirely milky by the fixed alkali, and by a solu- tion of sugar of l-ead. No change v. -is produced on it by an infusion of termentil-root. Hence the Doc- tor justly concluded, that the lining nf -('ceils -ic ilk l-ricks, a practice very non in many places, is ex- tremelv improper, as it cannot fail to render the water hard and un- wholesome. Clay generally contains rt variety of heterogeneous matters; and coloured loams often partici- pate of bitumen, and the ochre of iron. Sand and lime-earth are still more common ingredients in their composition ; and the experiments of Mr. GEOFFREY and Mr. POTT prove, that the earth of alum also may in considerable quantity be se- parated from clay. As the. NO. ni. VOL. i. B R I [353 clay is exposed to the open air for a long space of time, before it is moulded into bricks and burnt, this process in many respects resembles that by which the alum stone is prepared. And it is probable, that the white efilorescence, which is frequently observable on the sur- face of new bricks, is of an alumin- ous nature : indeed the combina- tion of the vitriolic acid with the" earth of alum, may be sufficiently accounted for, partly from the long exposure of clay to the air, before it is moulded into bricks, and partly from the sulphureous exhalations of the pit-coal used for burning them, together with the suffocat- ing, bituminous vapour arising from the ignited coal. BRIDGE, a construftion of stone, timber, or iron, consisting of an arch or arches, and built over a river, canal, &c. for th? convenience of passengers. A bridge built of stone is evidently the strongest and most durable : the proper situation for it is easily known ; and the only circumstance necessary to be ob- served is, to make it cross the stream at right angl s> that boats may readily pass through the arches with the current of the river. Those, bridges built for a com- munication between hL-li roads, ought to be so strong as to resist all accidents, and afford an easy- passage to the waters : they should therefore be at least as long as the river is wide at the time of its greatest flood ; because, by the ac- cumulation of the waters above, too great a fall may be occasioned, and die foundation of the piers and abutments may thus be under- mined. The necessary requisites in a bridge are, that it be well designed, commodious, durable, and suitably A a ornamented. 354] B R I ornamented. The pier* of stone bridges should be equal in number, that the central arch may be where the current is strongest. As the piers always diminish the bed of a river, it must be hollowed in pro- portion to the space occupied by them, especially where frequent inundations prevail, so that the waters may gain in depth, what they lose in breadth. It has been ascertained by experience, that when the height of die piers is six feet, and the arches are circular, it is sufficient to build die former two feet more in thickness than die sixth part of die width of die latter; or in odier words, die thickness of the piers of an arch of 36 feet, ought to be 8 feet ; diose of an arch of 48 feet, 10 feet, &c. Rectangu- lar piers are seldom adopted, ex- cept in bridges over small rivers. In all others diey project by a tri- angular prism, which presents an edge to the stream, in order to di- vide die water, and prevent the accumulation of ice, as well as to hinder vessels from running against them. When die banks of rivers are of a tolerable height, die bridge should be made quite level above, and all the arches of an equal width ; but where die banks are low, and, for die sake of navigation, a large arch is made in the middle of die stream, then the bridge ought to be more elevated in die centre dian at the cads ; in which case the slope should be easy and gradual on both sides, so as to form one continued curve. The width of small bridges is generally thirty feet, but those near l::rge towns usually have thirty tVt-t clear carriage way, besides the foot- path : die parapet walls on each side are about eighteen inches thick, BRI and four feet high; they commonly project with a cornice underneath ; sometimes ballustrades of stone or iron are placed upon die parapet, as at Westminster-bridge} but this method is only employed where a bridge of great extent is constructed near a capital. Where stone bridges cannot be erected on account of the expence, Aery strong and durable bridges miiv be constructed of wood : these ought to be so framed, that all the parts may press upon each other like an arch ; and thus, instead of being weakened by the pressure of a heavy body in its passage over it, they will become stronger. The method of forming a wooden bridge is so well known to every architect, that it is needless to en- large upon die subject. Among the Romans, the build- ing and repairing of bridges was committed to the pontijices, or priests ; and die care of these edi- fices was afterwards undertaken by the Emperors themselves. In the middle ages, die constructing of bridges was classed among the acts of religion, and a regular order of hospitallers was founded by Saint BENEZET, towards die end of the twelfth century, who were de- nominated pontifices, or bridge- builders ; their office was to facili- tate the progress of travellers, by making bridges, establishing fer- ries, and receiving strangers into hospitals, or houses, on the banks of rivers. Of all the bridges of antiquity, that built by TKAJAX over the Da- nube is allowed to be the most magnificent : the pit-rs were 20 in number, built of square stone, and each 150 feet above the founda- tion, 6"O feet in breaddi, and 170 feet distant from each other. The piers BRI piers -of this vast structure still re- main. Among modern bridges, that built over the Thames at West- minster may be considered as one of the most mugnificejit in the world ; it consists of 13 large and two small arches, together with 14 intermediate piers : the two mid- dle piers are each I/ feet in thick- ness at the commencement of the arches, and contain 3000 cubic feet, or near 2OO tons of solid stone : the middle arch is /6 feet wide. Blackfriars bridge is also an ex- ceedingly light and elegant struc- ture ; it contains nine large arches of an elliptical form ; the central arch being 100 feet wide. We cannot injustice avoid men- tioning the patriotic efforts of Mr. BURDOX, member for Durham, who in 179'-i obtained an aft for the erection of a bridge across the river Wear, near Sunderland. This structure is of cast iron, and con- sists of six ribs, at five feet distance from each other : the spandrils are composed of cast iron circles. The six ribs were put together over the river in the short space of ten days. The superstructure is of timber, planked over to support the car- riage-road, which is composed of marl, lime-stone, and gravel, with a cement of tar and chalk upon the planks, to preserve them : the whole width of die bridge is 32 feet, and the arch is supposed to weigh upwards of CJOO tons, of which 260 are iron. This magnificent, stunt ure is erected on improved principles, yet differing from those adopted by the Colebrook^Dale Company. Al- though adhering to the ancient con- struction ofbridges, by the subdivi- sion of the parts of the arch, in the manner of key-stones, Mr. B UK- DON took advantage of the ducti- BRI [555 hty and tenacity of iron, to produce an arch of that metal, at least fif- teen times lighter dian a corres- ponding arch of stone, and most easily put together. The expenceof constructing this bridge amounted to 2G,OOOl. the whole of which, except 40001. was furnished by Mr. BURDOX. This gendeman, in 1/Q5, also obtained a patent for his invention of die manner of making and applying cast iron blocks, to be substituted in lieu of key-stones, in the con- struction of arches, which blocks, tubes, &c. he employed in the bridge above- mentioned. A patent was granted to Mr. NASH, of Dover-street, in 1/p/, for an invention somewhat similar to that above-mentioned. lie pro- vides hollow masses of cast or wrought iron, which are to be filled with earth, sand, &:c. and have die appearance of solid bodies. Ac- cording to this plan, die arch of the bridge is formed by hollow frames, or boxes, each consisting of four sides and a bottom. Thesa boxes, after being properly arranged in the manner stated by the pa- tentee, are then to be filled with sand, stones, &c. by which means the arch becomes like one solid body cased widi iron. A farther explanation of diis invention may be seen in die 6di volume of die Repertory of Arts and Mamtfac-* tun' a. The latest patent for bridges, was that granted in June 1 800, to Mr. SAMUEL WYATT, of Chelsea College, for his invention of a new method of constructing bridges, warehouses, &:c. without the use of wood, as a constituent part. The principle of his discover}' consists in the combination of pipes, tubes> or hollow pieces of cast iron, in a A a 2 longitudinal 356] B R I longitudinal direction, and plates or pieces of the same material, having sockets in them to receive the ends or shoulders of the pipes, placed transversely, and extending from one side of the bridge to the other, so that when the requisite number of pipes, &c. are put together, they form the arch so firmly as not to require the aid of screws, bolts, cramps, or any iron fastening what- ever ; but the joints should be closed with lead or cement. When applied to warehouses and other buildings, Mr. WYATT'S in- vention consists in forming arched cielings of cast iron, and support- ing them and the floors by hollow pillars, or cylinders, of the same material. It ought to be remarked, that the number of sockets in die transverse iron plates, should al- ways correspond with the number of ribs in the arch. Various other kinds of bridges are constru&ed, according to the purposes for which they are de- signed, such as pendent or hang- ing-bridges,, draw-bridges, floating- bridges, and those made of copper, or wooden -boats fastened with stakes or anchors, and covered with planks ; but as the descrip- tion of them would swell this ar- ticle to an undue length,and as they are not immediately connected with subjects of economy, we shall con- tent ourselves with having given the preceding account of bridges in general. BRINE, or Pickle, is water sa- turated with saline particles. It is either native, as the sea- water; or factitious, when formed by a solu- tion of salt in water. Pickle made according to t'-e common rule, that it, should I ear an egg, may be sufficiently strong to preserve substances intended for BRI early use. A true pickle, how- ever, for preserving meat, fish, and butter, during a long voyage, ought to be boiled down till the salt be- gins to crystallize, which is disco- verable by a thin scum on the sur- face of the liquid while it continues over the fire. The water being then completely saturated with salt, the pickle is perfect. In the salt-works at Upwick, in Worcestershire, a pit yields at the same time three sorts of brine, of different degrees of strength. This pit is worked by a pump, and the strongest salt first brought up from the bottom, is called first man : the next, which is of an inferior qua- lity, is denominated irtiddk man ; and the third, or weakest, last man. Leach Irine is what drops from the granulated salt in drying : it is preserved and boiled a second time, being stronger than the brine of the pit. The species of sand found in the Staffordshire brines, after coc- tion, is supposed by naturalists to be produced by that operation, as it was not previously found in the water. Brine-pan, a place where salt- water is confined and exposed to the heat of the sun, by which salt is obtained by evaporation. Brine -springs, those .saline foun- tains which yield water for the manufacture of salt. It is sup- posed that the saline spring at Namptwich, in Cheshire, would be sufficient to yield salt for the consumption of the whole king- dom. Besides this, there are several other remarkable brine-springs in England, particularly that of East- Chennock, in Somersetshire, which rises twenty miles from the seaj and another at Barrowdale, rear Keswick, in Cumberland. The latter BRI latter rises in a plain near a bog, and sixteen gallons of the water yield one of pure salt, which is the more remarkable, as an equal quantity cannot be obtained from less than twenty-two gallons of the waters of the German ocean. There are several other salt-: springs beside those above men- tioned, particularly at a place in Durham, called Salt-water Han gli, where a muh'tude of saline springs rise in the river Wear, to the ex- tent of about forty yards in length, and ten in breadth. One of these, which issues from a rock, is so strong, that in the space of a hot summer's day the surface is covered with pure crystallized salt. In these springs the water is strongest at the bottom, and richer in dry than in wet wea- ther. They generally yield four ounces of salt from a pound of brine. It is probable that there is an immense mass of fossil salt in the bowels of the earth in the coun- ties where these springs arise. There are several other substances dissolved in their water beside salt, particularly sulphureous matter, an impure ochre which discolours the brine, but speedily subsides ; and in most, a selenitic earth is found de- posited at the bottom of the salt- pan Briktng'Of Corn, See SMUT. BRISTOL HOTWELL, is si- tuated at the bottom of St. Vin- cent's Rock, on the Gloucestershire bank of the river Avon, about a mile below Bristol, and within four of the Channel, or arm of the sea. The rock, from which the hot spring issues, is a hard, compatt, and very fine lime-stone, inter- spersed with calcareoxis spar, and containing those transparent quartz crystals, forpnerly much esteemed, B R 1 [357 and known by die name of Bristol S tones. The Hotwell spring is a clear te- pid water, which rises (o the quan- tity of forty gallons in a minute. When fresh, it -is inodorous, and sends forth numerous air bubbles if poured into a glass. It is agree- able to the palate, but without any particular taste. Its specific gra- vity is 1OOO77 ; from which it is evident, that it contains but a very small intermixture of foreign sub- stances. It is of a very moderate warmth, and the difference of tem- perature, as given by several obser- \ ers, may be partly owing to a slight variation in the heat of the spring itself, and partly to a difference, in the thermometers. Dr. CARRICK. calculates its real temperature, as jt is drunk at the pump, at 74 i ; and Dr. NOTT states its highest point at /0' : though we have, with a very accurate thermometer, in April, 1/98, found it to be only 72. According to Dr. CARRICK'S analysis, a gallon of 231 cubic inches contains 3O inches of car- bonic acid, and three inches of com- mon air. By a farther analysis of Bristol water, by evaporation to dryness, he obtained the following contents in the wine gallon : of muriated magnesia, 71 grains 5 mu- riated s.-.da, 4 ; sulphated soda, 11^-; selenite, 1 1 ^ ; ana carbonated lime, 13 i ; making 47 i grains of solid contents. Dr. NOTT, from one gallon of the water, obtained a residuum by eva- poration, which weighed 52 grains. On examination, he found it to con- tain, in various combinations, vitri- olic acid, aerial (carbonic) acid, 3. peculiar gas, holding caix in most intimate solution, marine salt in a large proportion, and calcareous earth. A a 3 From From these investigations of the Holwell water it is evident, that tiie principal component parts are, a large proportion of carbonic acid gas, or fixed air ; and a certain portion of magnesia, and lime in various combinations with the mu- riatic, vitriolic, and carbonic acids. The general inference is, that it is considerably pure for a natural fountain, as it contains no other solid matter than is found in almost all common spring water, and in less quantity. On account of these ingredients, especially the carbonic acid gas, the Hotwell water is efficacious in pro- moting salutary hemorrhages in green sickness, as well as in the blind hemorrhoids. It may be taken with advantage in obstruc- tions and weakness of the bowels, arising from habitual costiveness. It is one of the safest and most effica- cious remedies in neutralizing and sweetening the acrimony of the vitiated humours of debilitated and consumptive patients, as it is sup- posed to pervade the most minute capillary vessels, and is well known to have a salutary effect on the first passages. Hence it has, for up- wards of a century, been ju.-tiy considered as a specific in diabetes ; but if, in this disease, as well as in hectic fevers in general, the water should disagree with the stomach, as is frequently the case with per- sons who have impaired that organ by intemperance, or if there be room for the least apprehension of plethora, or a determination of the blood towards the breast and head, ihe use of it should not be attempt- ed, without proper advice. But the high reputation which this fountain has acquired, is chiefly in the cure of pulmonary consump- tion. From the number of unsuc- BRI cessful cases, however, among those who have used the Bristol water in this disease, many have denied any peculiar efficacy in this spring, supe- nor to that of common water. Ex- perience has proved that it alleviates some of the most distressing symp- toms of this formidable disease ; and it is particularly efficacious in moderating the thirst, dry burning heat of the hands and feet, partial night-sweats, and hectical symp- toms. Hence, in the earlier stages of phthisis, this water may materi- ally contribute to die restoration of health, and even in the latter pe- riods, mitigate the disease, when the cure is doubtful, if not hope^ less. The sensible effects of this water, when drunk warm and fresh from the spring, are, a gentle glow of the stomach, succeeded sometimes by a slight and transient degree of head- ach and giddiness. By a continued use, in most cases , it is diuretic, kreps the skin moist, and perspirable, and improves the appetite and health. Its effects on the bowels are vari- able. On the whole, a tendency to costiveness seems to be the more ge- neral consequence of a long course of this medicinal spring, and there- fore the use of a mild aperient is requisite. These effects, how- ever, are applicable only to inva- lids : for healthy persons, who taste the water at the fountain, seldom discover any tiling in it but a de- gree of warmth, which distinguishes it from the common element. The season for the Hotwell is generally from the middle of May to October; but as the medicinal properties of die water continue the same throughout the year, the sum- mer mondis are preferred merely on account of die concomitant bt .- nelits of air and exercise. A gentle laxative BRI laxative is the only necessary pre- parative, previous to the use of the water, especially after a journey, by which the body is generally dis- posed tocostiveness. Two or three days rest ou^ht to be taken after great fatigue, before this water can b^- used with advantage. Early in the morning, and two hours before breakfast, is the most proper time for employing this wa- ter medicinally, when it is usual to take two glasses, spending about half an hour in gentle exercise between each dose. Two glares are afterwards taken between break- fast and dinner ; and these are ge- nerally found to be sufficient in one day. The size of the glass varies from a quarter to half a pint : the latter is reckoned a full dose. Hectical patients, however, should begin their dietetic course with a glass of ass's milk, and gradually increase the quantity from half a pint to a pint. Those with whom the water dis- ngrees, when taken fasting, should begin with a quarter of a pint at a time, and take from four to six doses in the course of the day ; one lose about an hour before, and an- other an hour after a meal. If it operate as a cathartic, which is not uncommon in relaxed habits, a small dose of ipecacuanha, or if it occasion costiveness, a quantity of rhubarb and cream of tartar, will be necessary to assist its ope- ration. In every case, it is best to drink it at the fountain-head, as its volatile particles easily escape. The exercise of walking, or riding on horseback, immediately after taking the. water, can be recommended to the robust only ; for the inrirm re- quire more gentle exercise, such as Aiding in a carriage, sailing in a boat, and the like. Persons of a B R O [359 very irritable habit should sit down for a quarter of an hour, after hav- ing taken a draught of the water, which may be increased from a quarter of a pint to a pint, accord- ing to circumstances. The Hotwell, though consider- ably higher than the river Avon, is, however, so far affe&ed by the spring tides, which rise in that river, that it becomes, in some de- gree, turbid. It is then not thought to be so efficacious ; but, after two hours pumping, the spring gene- rally returns to its original purity. British {fines. See WINE. BROAD-CAST, a term in hus- bandry, used to denote a particular mode of sowing corn, pulse, tur- nips, clover, grasses, and most field-plants. When seeds are scat- tered over the surface of the ground by the hand, they are said to be sown in broad-cast; by which, this method is distinguished from drilling, and horse-hoeing, or the new husbandly. The comparative merit of the drill and broad-cast has, by several experiments, been deterhiined in favour of the former. One of the most practical details on this sub- ject, was communicated to the So- ciety for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Com- merce, by Mr. BOOTH, of Ather- stone, who, in the year 1/89, ob- . tained the gold medal from that patriotic institution, as an acknow- ledgment of his merit, in ascertain- ing this interesting point. Mr. Boo TE selected a piece of cold clay land of twenty acres, four of which were drilled with four bushels of wheat ; and, at the same time, four acres adjoining, of a similar soil, were sown in die broad-cast way, with ten bushels of the same grain, A a 4 In 360] BRO In the beginning of April, 1/68, th drilled who-ited I one and a half to three inches 1 dee; > in the soil, will vegetate sooner, and grow faster, "than that sown on tho surface, - which 'is seldom buried deeper than from one quarter of an inch to an inch at a season, when moisture is particularly re- quisit; for the growth of the-plant. BROCCOLI, a species of the Srttf.-.'-cu, or Cabbage-plant, cul- d for the use of the table. There are several kinds of this plant, particularly the purple, the white, and the black broccoli, &c. but the Roman, or purple species, is prefer- able B R O able to all others. The seeds of this vegetable should be sown about the latter end of Mav, or beginning or June, and 'wh-n the voung- plants have germinated eight leaves, they should be transplanted into beds. By this m.mioement, towards the latter end of July they will be fit to be planted out in some well shel- tered piece of ground, at the dis- tance of a foot and a half in the rows, and two feet between each row. The soil proper for broccoli is rather light than heavy. The nrown, or black species, though iiytvior to the 'Roman, is much hardK"-. It should be 'own in the ; , sv.d planted about two feet and;- Maples br > has a white head similar to the rar.liliov. . -e,:rcrly distin- guishable from it in flavour. According to IV. DARWIN-, the cultivation of brocc-oli and cauli- flower must be ver> similar, c v as to the seasons of -the veav : for they are varieties of i he same species. The f'ilowiiir d;reci.'ons for the culture of thi-< plant were transmit- ted to the DoiHor by Mr. TIGHF,; of Ireland; which, for their practi- cal utility, we ^hall lay before our readers. Broccoli may be so managed, as to supply the table with a delicious and salutary vegetable during seven months of the year, namely, from the beginning of November ti end of May. For this purpose, procure prime seed from Rome or Naples, both for early and late sowing. Sow at the cessation of the vernal snows, and repeat it once a month till the end of May, or longer. When three leaves ap- pear, transplant them; and when six leaves appear, transplant them 4 second time. Afterwards in June, ERO [361 July, and August, transplant them again two or three feet asunder, and let them remain. During i ternber and October, the ground must he loosened, repeatedly clear- ed from weeds and stones, and the plants earthed up, to preserve their roots from the frost, and to prt their being injured by the equinoc- tial wnds. Sprinkle the i: about them occasionally with wnfer impregnated with dun : to sow and them at a distance from hedge's,* -, and walls. The head of the broccoli rally-Completed in five or six fVom its ri st appearance, and .sh be suffered to remain i: i ; the stalk may be boiled with t'ie flower, but should b- peeled before it is brought to the table. Some kinds of Italian broccoli produce bulbs at their roots, which are supposed to 1 the purpo-e of supporting other stems. It'.iuch stalks appear, they .vKiiild be broken off when the principal stem is transplanted. In order to obtain good seed of the Naples broccoli, a few of the largest heads of the earliest growth must be reserved to run up to seed. All the tinder shoots should be taken off from time to time as they sprout, leaving only the principal stem to produce flowers and seed. By this management, if no other species of cabbage be permit- ted to seed near the broccoli, its seeds will be as good as those im- ported, and the propagation of the plant may thus be continued for many years. BKOME-GRASS, or Bromus, L. a genus of plants comprehend- ing forty-six species, of \vhich, ac- cording to Dr. WITHERING, t>ni,f BRO nine, but, according to Dr. SMITH, tu't'lvt-, are indigenous : the follow- ing three are the principal : 1. Th&acatinus, or Smooth Rye Bromc-grass ; the Poli/murpk/is of "\VITHKRING ; which is not rare in Norfolk, and grows near Edwin's Ford, Caermarthen shire, among the winter corn; with panicle expand- ing, husks naked, seeds distinft, awns shorter than the blossom, not quite .straight; it flowers in Julv. Cattle are fond of this grass, the seeds of v. inch are. prevalent among rye, in a considerable proportion, and wht.-n ground with the latter for bread, not only render itUack- ish, but produce a narcotic or stu- pifying eftecl:. From its flower- bundles, as BECHSTEIN informs us, a beautiful green dye may be easily extracted. 2. The moLlis, or Soft Brome- grass, Lob-grass or Oat-grass, is mostly found growing in corn- fields, though sometimes in mea- dows, pastures, hedge-banks, and even on walls : panicle rather up- right ; leaves very soft and woolly ; awn about the length of the blos- som : flowers in May and June. BECHSTEIN affirms that this plant affords a very agreeable fodder to all kinds of cattle, and that it de- serves to be cultivated on sandy lands, as being well adapted to consolidate the soil. But its me- rits and demerits, in an agricultural view, are not sufficiently ascer- tained. Mr. SWAYNE say?, that it is a troublesome weed in corn- fields, and therefore disliked by farmers ; while it is of little, value in pastures and mowing grounds, AS here it generally sheds its seed before the time of mowing, and produces very few root-leaves. 3. The pitmatus CFcstuca pin- iiata, L.) or Spiked Heath Brome- BR O grass, is found growing on heath t, and fields of a calcareous soil, pa: ticularly in Yorkshire, Oxfordshire, and Kent : its straw undivided ; spikets alternate, nearly sitting; cylindrical, somewhat awned : it flowers in July. This grass is much relished by cattle of every description, but especially by sheep and goats. Jt deserves to be remarked, with respect to the different species of brome-grass, that, though they may be allowed to grow in meadows and pasture-grounds, their seeds should not be suffered to mingle with corn. To extirpate this noxious weed from rye and wheat-grounds, the farmer win find it his interest to employ (as is frequently done on the Con- tinent) young people, or even chil- dren, in car! i/ weeding. Such au expedient should be particularly adopted, when the crop of a pro- mising field of wheat is intended for seed-corn ; as, by this precau- tion, not only the land may be cleared of the pernicious roots, but the farther propagation of this weed will be effectually prevented. Lastly, the seeds of brome-grass. when mixed with corn, render it much lighter, and consequently of less value to those who purchase and sell grain by weight. BRONZE, a metallic compound of copper and tin, to which zinc and other substances are sometimes added. It is hard, brittle, s>onor- ous, and specifically heavier thau the metals of which it is composed. M. TILLET, in his memoir con- cerning die ductility of metals, ob- serves, that in bronze the colour of the copper is totally disguised by that of the tin, even though the proportion of the former be four- fifths to that of the latter. This 'compound is much more fusible thau BRO BS. o than copper alone, and less liable to be covert- d with verdigrise. From the properties here enu- merated it appears, that bronze is well calculated for the casting of bells, cannons, statues, and other works exposed to the air and wea- ther. Bronze-colour, in imitation of the metal, is much used by the colourmen of Paris, who prepare two sorts of it, namely, the red bronze, and die yellow or golden: the latter is made solely of the very finest and brightest copper-dust ; the former is prepared of the same material, by adding a small propor- tion of well pulverized red ochre. Both are applied, with varnishes, to the outside of substances, as gold leaves are in gilding. But, to prevent it from turning green, the bronzed work should, as soon as laid on, be carefully dried over a chafing-dish. Branding. See HATCHING. BROOK, a little river, or small current of water. It is distin- guished from a river by this cir- cumstance, that in general it has a current only at particular seasons, whereas a river flows throughout the year. Considerable damage is some- times occasioned by the overflow of brooks, in conseque nee of sud- den and heavy falls of rain. An inundation is caused by a stoppage of the water in its course, which prevents it from running off as fast as it comes in ; consequently, if the channel for the erllux be larger than that for the influx, the water will not overflow the banks. Thus, by opening the channel of die river Wellaud, at Harborougb, in Lei- cestershire, to a considerable dis- tance below the bridge, the river Ivis never since overflowed die town, as it formerly did after sud- den rain. The legislature has enforced the clearing of die channels of brooks near turnpike-roads, by enacting, that the commissioners shall give- notice in writing, to the overseers of the highways, of the sever;; rishes through which such brooks or rivers flow, to open their re- speftive channels, that the water may have free passage. BROOK -LIME, the Kraut ca BeccaJjunga, L. a species of SPEED- WELL, growing in slow, shallow streams, and near springs that sel- dom freeze. The whole of this perennial plant is smooth and suc- culent 3 the stf in creeping ; the leaves are egg-shaped, flat, ser- rated with glands 5 die bloss< >ms, which are blue, appear in June and July. We have mentioned it as one of the neglected vegetable.;, which may occasionally be used foi culinary purposes, and particularly as a salad. BROOM, the Common, or Spar- tu:m scoparium, L. an indigenous plant, very common on sandy pas- tures and heaths, and requiring no particular description. Wh: n grow- ing of a large size, die broom de- serves a place among our flowering shrubs, on account of the profusion ol its gold-coloured blossoms. Its use is very extensive, not only in domestic economy, but likewise in the arts, and in medicine. Although this vegetable is chiefly employed for making brooms, thatching houses, and covering stacks in pre- ference to straw, as it more readily admits the air into the stack, and equally well secures it from rain ; yet it also serves as a substitute for the oak-bark, in the tanning of k-atht-r; for which purpose both die twigs and branches are usefully eirployed, 364] BRO employed. The old \vood of the common broom furnishes the cabi- net-maker with most beautiful materials for veneering. In some places, the tender branches of this plant are mixed with hops in brew- ing; but we doubt whether they are wholesome, as it is afti that sheep become intoxicated by browsing upon them. The flower- buds may be preserved as pickles, and eaten instead of capers. From the roasted seeds, a kind of ( has been made by the house-wife, though of inferior taste to that obtained from the roots of the car- rot, beet, .succory, &c. The macerated bark of the broom has been found sufficiently fibrous and elastic, to be manufactured into cloth. A tolerably pure alka- line salt is produced by burning the whole plant. In proof of the medicinal proper- ties of this vegetable, Dr. MEAD relates the case of a dro;> ; ;ical per- son, who was recovered by taking half a pint of the decoction of green broom-tops, -with a spoonful of whole mustard seed, every morn- ing and evening. The patient had been tapped three times, and had tried the usual remedies to no pur- pose. Dr. WITHERING, on this occasion, observes, that an infusion of the seeds, drunk freely, has been known to produce similar happy effects; but whoever expe61s su. h benefit to follow in every dropsical case, will be greatly deceived. He has known them succeed in one case that was truly deplorable; but out of a great nnmber of trials fairly mad :, this proved to be the only instance, in which the medicine had a goodeifett. A strong lixivium of the ashes was used in the Swedish army, in the year l?5f), for the cure ef dropsies consequent to a catar- rhal epidemic fever. The urine lie- came plentiful, and the pati were soon restored. BROOM, the Spanish, or Sparfi- um junceum, L. an exotic shrub, which may be easily cultivated in our climate, by sowing it either in the spring or autumn : but as the plants will not succeed when re- moved after attaining a large size, they should be transplanted before they are two years old. The twigs are employed for basket-work, and the flowers arford a plentiful supply of food for bees : hence the culture of this shrub is recommended near bee--hives. BBOOM-GRASS. See BROME- GRASS. BROTH, a liquor in which the flesh of animals has been boiled ; and which is rendered palatable by tr,e addition of herbs, &c. If other ingredit nts be used, such as ric'% pearl-barley, oat-meal, &c. it is then generally called soup. We have already, in the article BEEF-TEA, pointed out the com- mon error, that iroth is more < digested than solid food. And though we are countenanced in this opinion by the most enlightened physicians of the age, yet, we fear, that old customs and deep- rooted prejudices will continue fo prevail, while supported by so rna'.iy old women, beside those of the Faculty. Perhaps nothing but experimental conviction of the contrary, can produce a change of sentiments imbibed with the mo- ther's milk. Mutton-broth, veal- broth, and chicken-broth, are such comfortable tilings, when the ap- petite is disordered, and the sto- mach fastidious, that they are ge- nerally administered in all states of fever, without any regard to the nature of the disease, or the con- stitution. BRO stitutlon of die patient. In this preposterous manner, the stomach is inundated, and the bowels are drenched, till all their tone and vigour are irrecoverably destroyed. Indeed, from the slight degree of attention paid to the subject of diet, an accurate observer may be led to conclude, that the stomach is destined for a certain time to serve the purpose of a laboratory, where the effecl of medicines is to be ascertained, before the vessel to be used in this chemical process has acquired sufficient vigour to withstand the attack. . Yet such is the infatuation of the multitude, that they would rather encourage the prosperous commerce in eme- tics and purgatives, than listen to sugtre.stlons, which tend to con- OO ' fute spurious notions ; and, by correcting their former errors, would eventually deprive them of many favourite cups and dishes: Thus, we are not vain enough to flatter ourselves with producing such a change on the prevailing manner of living, as to banish cither teas or broths to their pro- per places the apothecaries' shops ; and to substitute in their room, more wholesome articles of nutri- ment ; though we are firmly per- suaded, from reason and daily ex- perience, that the physical order of things has also been perverted in the present age, and that the swal- lowing of drugs is not a primary, but a secondary, object in the cure of diseases . To return from this digression, which ever\ r friend of suffering hu- manity will readily excuse, we shall give a few directions for pre- paring broths from other sub- stances, beside those made of but- cher's meat. Artificial Broth. Dr. DARWIN BRO [3*5 observes, that all the mushrooms which are cooked at our tables, as well as the ketchup made by pre- serving their juices in salt and wa- ter, possess an animal flavour. In proof of this, the following cir- cumstance may b$ adduced, which occurred in a family of invalids, who frequently wanted u'eak l-roth: the sagacious cook-maid repeatedly- deceived them, by administering a mixture of thin gruel with a small quantity of good ketchup, adding only a little salt, and a few shred- leaves of parsley. Fish-/:roth, though nourishing, is by no means equal to that made of wholesome butcher's meat. Af- ter separating the heads of fish, gntiing, and carefully cleansing them from the gall, put them into an earthen pipkin, or a tin sauce- pan, and cover them with water, from half an inch to one inch above their surface, accordingly as the broth is intended to be weak or strong. Onions, parsley, or celery, may be added at pleasure, and the whole should be seasoned with pepper and salt. After simmering the fish over a gentle fire, till they fall to pieces, add a proportionate lump of fresh butter well floured: when this is dissolved, and the li- quor strained from the bones, the broth is ready for the table ; and may be eaten with bread, either toasted or plain. The fish best adapt- ed for making this palatable soup, are macl-.erel, perch, roach, dace, gud- geons, bleak, or minnows. And though we do not recommend die preparation of such liquid dishes as eligible, either in point of health or economy, yet as fish in many places, especially near the sea- coast, are of easy purchase, they may occasionally serve as good sub- stitutes for more solid animal food, for 366] BRU for which we have lately submitted to pay an exorbitant and unreason- able price. Broth for horset, was formerly considered as an useful medicine lor these noble animals, especially in all complaints of the bowels, or the colic. Some farriers also com- mended the use of broth triads of tiipt', on account of its mucila- ginous quality, in fevers and other distempers, which prevent a horse from feeding. From later and more accurate observations, however, it appears that liquid animal food, being contrary to their nature, is pernicious to granivorous creatures, and may generate such disorders as cannot be easily remedied. The use of broth should therefore be confined to the administration of clysters when a horse is costive : fhus, by injecting two or three quarts of a fat and emollient de- coction, prepared either of tripe or other intestinal substances contain- ing fatty matter, the crude visci- dities of the. bowels may be re- lieved. If the guts be very full, so as to require a strong stimulus, more or less common salt may be added to the clyster, without which the operation will seldom succeed. BRUISES, or contusions, being frequently neglected at first, may produce consequences more alarm- ing than those of wounds. Blows received on the head, pit of the stomach, hip, or the knee, are the most dangerous. A violent inflam- mation, in consequence of injured nerves, or the destruction of blood vessels, often occasions the morti- fication of those parts, which the most skilful treatment cannot re- trieve, if the accident be neglected for many hours or days. Instead, therefore, of listening to officious old women, or neighbours, an ex- BRU perienceJ surgeon ought instantfy to be consulted. We know a re- cent, melancholy instance, of a most promising youth, who, when study- ing physic at Edinburgh, was so improvident as to suffer a slight contusion on the knee to pass un- noticed ; which, however, proved fatal to liim a week after the acci- dent. When the contusion is slight, fomentations with lukewarm vine- gar and water, repeatedly applied to the part, will generally relieve it ; but if it be of a more serious nature, either decottions of the German leopard's bane (Arnica motitana, L.) or arquebusade wa- ter (see p. 103), may be pre- ferably used. Dr. BUCK AX in- forms us, that he has often seen cataplasms of fresh cow-dung ap- plied to violent contusions ocea- sjioned by blows, falls, bruises, &c. and never knew them fail to have a good effedt. In more violent cases of this nature, the patient's diet and regimen ought to be in every respect similar to that suggested under die head of INFLAMMATION". Bruises of dog-i, which they of- ten receive either in hunting, or by other accidents, may be cured, ac- cording to Professor BRADLEY, in the following manner : If a bruise appear externally, anoint the swell- ing with a decoction of chickweed and groundsel, boiled in strong ale j which will assuage the pain, and reduce the tumor : bur, if it be a wound, cut away the hair, and cover it with a plaster made of equal quantities of the routs of great comfrey, melilot, and oil of roses. As the latter, however, might be too expensive an ingre- dient, we recommend either to sub- stitute a little of the spirit of turpen- tine, or more simply, to lay two or three BRU three folds of the common black, adhesive plaster on the injured part, immediately after the acci- dent, so as to prevent bleeding, and to exclude the air. But, if there be reason to suspect that the bruise is inward, give the dog a drench, composed of a pint of new milk, and a quarter of an ounce of spermaceti. Bruises on the u'i thers of a Horse, arise from pinches of the saddle, and from want of care, often im- posthumate, and turn fistulons. Such tumors may be bathed three or four times a day with warm vinegar ; and if this application proves inefie&ual, either an ounce of the oil of vitriol, or half an ounce of white vitriol, dissolved in a little water, should be mixed with a quart of vinegar, which makes an excellent repellent lotion, and will frequently prevent the formation of an abscess. But when the swel- ling is attended with heat, smarting, and little watery pimples, the fol- lowing mixture may be preferably applied : take two ounces of crude sal ammoniac, boiled in a quart of lime-water ; or, instead of these, a handful of wood, or pearl-ashes, boiled in common water j pour oft" the decoction, when settled, and mix it with half a pint of spirit of wine ; anoint die parts afterwards with lintseed oil, or elder oint- ment, to soften and smooth the skin. In critical swellings, however, the repelling method must be avoided, and the swelling relieved by suppurating poultices. These tumors ought never to be opened before they are ripe, but suffered to break of themselves ; otherwise the whole sore will be spongy, dis- charge a bloody ichor, and soon degenerate into an ulcer. The openings, however, may be enlarg- ed, and the lips pared away,' that the dressings may be easily applied, taking care to avoid the ligament, which runs along the neck to the withers. If a suppuration appears on the opposite tide, let it he treat- ed in the same manner. The open- ings should incline downward, to let the matter flow out easily. If the bones are foul, they must be dressed with tintture of myrrh, till they scale off. When the fungus is very troublesome, and the matter discharged is oily, yellow, and v;s- cid, pledgets soaked in the follow* ing preparation will be found be- nelicial : take of blue vitriol, dis- solved in a pint of water, half an ounce; oil of turpentine, and rec- tified spirit of wine, of' each four ounces ; white wine vinegar, six ounces ; oil of vitriol, and yEgyp- tiaeum, of each two ounces. Let this be made hot, and the pledgets soaked in it, and then immediately applie 1 to the part atlei -led, taking care to bathe the swelling round it with spirit of wine and vinegar. "\Vhen the cavities are ristulous, the callosities must be cut out with a knife, where it can i>e done, conve- niently, and the remainder be de- stroyed by corrosives. BRUSH, a domestic implement, consisting generally of a collection of hairs or bristles, fastened in a frame of wood, bone, or ivory ; with, or without a handle: and used for various purposes. This simple manufacture, io capable of great improvement ; as we seldom meet with brushes, the hair of which is so firmly cemented, or otherwise secu ed in the frame, as to ensure their constant u.->e, until the hair itself is worn out by me- chanical friction. \Ve shall, un- der the head of CC.MEXT, commu- nicate 5 68] B R U nicateafew hints for remedying this defect. Ft&jfc-bvsk, an instrument fre- fincntly employed for increasing the circulation of the fluids in lan- guid habits, especially in paralytic and rheumatic oases, in order to rr]i\v pain and unea.-lnrss of the skin. Although we do not depre- cate, but rather strongly recom- mend, friction to the aged and se- dentary in particular, yet we are of opinion that this simple and use- ful operation may be performed with equal ease, and more atten- tion to cleanliness, by a piece of flannel, than by a flesh-brush ; be- cause the perspirable matter ad- hering to each hair of the latter, is thus spread from one part of the body to another : whereas the for- mer may be frequently turned, and afterwards washed, as often as is necessary. Stomack-lrush, a curious instru- ment which excited considerable attention about the middle of the last century. It was invented by the ancient physicians, but again brought forward by the surgeons of France and Germany, with a view to scower or cleanse the stomach, or remove foreign bodies fallen down the fauces and gullet. It consists of a piece of sponge fastened to a long whale-bone pn .be ; or is composed of soft hair, formed into a fascicle by twisted brass or steel-wire, the handle or stem of which may be invested with silk or thread. Previous to its application, the patient drinks a small draught of waim water ; then the brush, being moistened in some convenient liquor, is introduced into the gullet, and slowly pro- truded into the stomach, by twist- ing rnr.n-! its wire-handle. We doubt, L<,. ; bether many of BRU our readers would submit to thi painful operation, which we have mentioned here, on the authority of the Gentleman's Magazine for De- cember l/50j where a medical correspondent farther advises the operator to draw the handle of this brush up and (linen in the stomach, and through the oeso- phagus, like the sue cr in a sy- ringe, till it be, at length, wholly extracted. He farther suggests the utility of plentiful drinking, while the brash is at work, arid so long as any foul matters are discharged. Those readers who incline to try the experiment (which probably no modern surgeon would recommend, unless for removing material ob- structions in the throat, &:c.) will find a cut of this instrument in the work above-mentioned : and the candid author of that paper con- cludes with saying, that: though this contrivance is greatly extolled, and said to prolong life to a great age, especially if practised once a week, fortnight, or month ; yet there are very few instances of its happy effects ; probably because it has been tried oj few. See GUL- LET and WINDPIPE. Tooth-brush. Many comp 1 prevail concerning the imp* manner in which these instrun: are manufactured. We shall presume to oifer any advice to the mechanic ; having, in this respect, uniformly deprecated the use of either brushes or sponges. Regard- less of vulgar prejudices, we venture to recommend the application of the small finger to the gums, when there are no interstices between the teeth ; or the use of a soft piece of calico : Jhe former is a natural instrument, not liable to hnit gums, as it has the advantage. of being soft and pliable; and, by feeling feeling the least pressure of resist- ance, will have no tendency to in- jure the teeth or gums. Nothing, therefore, but injudicious delicacy can oppose this simple substitution. BRUTE, a general name for all animals, except mankind. Among brutes, the monkey kind bears the nearest resemblance to the human race, both in external shape, and in- ternal organization. Investigations relative to the structure and econo- my of brutes, form the subject of what is called Comparative Ann torn the bark of the buck- thorn is much recommended as a mild, cheap, and efficacious remedy, in every respeft preferable to the ber- ries. After being exposed to the air, pr soaked iu water, this bnrk soon BUG soon assumes a yellow, orange colour. It contains a considerable proportion of gummy ingredients, which render it a tonic, gently as- tringent, and antiseptic medicine. The resinous extract is acrid and astringent, strongly purgative and resolvent: but the bark, in pow- der, mixed with honey, gum ara- bic, or any other mucilage, as well as a watery deco6tion of it, operates mildly, when taken in small doses, for the cure of intermittent! : it may also be beneficially employed in slow, putrid, or nervous fevers, and in general debility after chronic diseases. Externally applied, in green wounds, laxity of die fibres, malignant foul ulcers, and in stop- ping the progress of mortification, this remedy possesses tonic, gently Stimulating and healing proper- ties. The deco&ion is of great service in reducing inveterate in- flammations of the eyes, and curing the itch} as it cleanses the skin, and abates the burning heat, with- out repelling the humours. But it should never be employed in ulcers that have arisen in consequence of erysipelas, or the rose : in other cases, its application will always be more safe, and attended with better" effects, when it is at die same time used internally. 2. The/rongifZo, or alder buck- thorn, or black-berry bearing alder, grows in woods and moist hedges ; jt generally attains a height of from six to ten feet. The wood of this shrub, when young, is soft and yellow, but becomes hard and light-red with age : its external bark is dark-grey, with white spots, but internally yellow ; the branches contain an orange-coloured medul- bry tube. Its yellowish leaves appear late in May, or June, and Cpmetimes a second foliage pomes Ciy ,?/:> BUG forth in autumn. The berries are at first dark-green, then become red, and at length black, when ful- ly ripe ; containing a sweet, though unpleasant juice. Goats devour the leaves with avidity, and they are also eaten by sheep : the flow-* ers are particularly grateful to bees. The bark dyes yellow,, and with iron, black. The berries gathered before they are ripe, dye wool green. Charcoal prepared from the wood, is preferred in making gun-powder. DAMBouRNEYmade the following successful experi- ment with the ripe berries. He bruised them in cold water, and allowed the whole to undergo the vinous fermentation, which took place in eight days. This liquor he boiled for half an hour, and then dyed wool that had been pre- viously prepared with bismuth : thus he obtained a veiy beautiful green colour, which he called a new, or native green, because it was not in the least affeted either by strong vinegar, or a solution of potash. On adding a little sugar of lead to the dye, the vivacity of the colour was considerably in- creased. The rind, boiled in milk, is as- serted to be a safe and efficaci- ous remedy for eruptions of the skin ; yet we do not advise the reader to try experiments with this, or similar remedies, without con- sulting a medical friend. Decoc- tions of the bark in table-beer, are very certain and bri.sk purgatives, in dropsies, or constipations of the bowels of cattle. BUCK-THORN, the SEA, or common sallow-thorn, the Hip~ pophce rhamnoides, L. is a very important shrub, growing wild on sandy shores, in various parts of the British coast, especially in B b 3 Kent, rt * \ I o / 4 J BUG Kent, Lincolnshire, and York- shire : it sometimes attains the height of eight or ten feet. Its bark is light-brown, the wood white, the small leaves of a sea- green colour, but silvery white be- low. The leaves appear early in spring ; ' the yellow flowers in June or July ; the line red berries late in autumn. In situations contiguous to the sea-shore, or the banks of rivulets, this shrub eminently deserves to be cultivated, as it is well calculat- ed to bind a sandy soil, and to prevent the water from penetrating through banks and fences. It may be raised from seeds, but more expeditiously by planting lay- ers, or propagating it from the very abundant spreading roots. On account of its thorny points, it affords excellent hedges, even on a sandy soil. Although cows refuse the leaves of the sea buck-thorn, yet they are browsed upon by goats, sheep, and horses. The berries are strongly acid, with an austere vinous fla- vour : in Lapland, they are pickled and used as spice, but the fisher- men of the Gulph of Bothnia pre- pare from them a rob, which, added to fresh fish, imparts a very grateful favour. From the leaves of this shrub, M. SUCKOW obtained an agree- able dark-broii'n dye for wool and silk, first treated with vitriol of iron : DAMBOUKNEY succeeded in producing a similar colour on cloth that had been previously steeped in a solution of bismuth. BUCK -WHEAT, the Poli/go- mim J'agopyrinn, L. a species of the Persicaria, also called snake- weed, bucke, branks, French wheat, or crap. As this useful plant requires no botanical descrip- BUG tion, we shall proceed to state it* most approved method of culture, and important uses in agriculture : both subjedts being intimately con- nected. Buck-wheat was introduced into Europe nearly four centuries since ; and, according to GEKARD'S Her- bal, cultivated in England, about the year 15C)/. It is a native of the northern parts of Asia. Dur- ing the last thirty years it has ex- cited the attention of able agricul- turists, who have furnished us with the following result of their ex- perience. This grain delights in a mellow, dry, loose, sandy soil, but does not thrive so well in a free loamy stone-brash, and should never be sown in wet, poachy ground. It requires little or no manure, but frequent sun-shine, On heaths newly ploughed up, the turf of which has been burnt, or that have been manured with wood" ashes, its vegetation is luxuriant. The proper season for sowing is the last week in May, or the beginning of June; and though it may be sown much earlier or later, yet, in the former case it is exposed to the night-frosts of April and May, or, in the latter, it may be too late for arriving at maturity. In the year 1/87, however, a crop of buck- wheat was obtained, that had been sown so late as the 22d of July. A shower of.rain, after the seed is harrowed in, greatly promotes its growth, and it generally appears above ground in rive or six days. Buck-wheat is in flower through- out the summer, and would yield much larger crops, if all the grains would uniformly ripen, and could be collected at the same time. From one to three bushels are sown on each acre, in this country : and the Germans calculate sixty pounds weight BUG weight to every hundred square rods of land. Three months only are required for bringing it to ma- turity, and it produces from twelve to twenty-fold. The most econo- mical manner of harvesting this grain is, by pulling it out of the ground, like flax, stripping it of the seeds by the hand, and collecting them into aprons. Thus all the ripe seeds are easily separated, be- fore they are put into bags, to be conveyed to the granary ; while the straw is left, till dry, in the field. In this state, it affords an excellent substitute for hay; and it is affirmed, that the German farmer obtains, at less expence than by mowing and drying the whole, in the usual way, ten times the quantity of corn. Another variety of this grain was, about a century ago, introduced into Germany, and has lately also been cultivated in Britain, known by the name of SiterianBuck- wheat. Itpossesses considerable advantages over the former ; because it is not only a fourth part heavier in the grain, but also more palatable, and, in this respect, resembles rice. It thrives in the poorest soil, is not affected by cold, and, being more disposed to branch out, and spread its stalks, requires scarcely one half ot the seed necessary for the cul- ture of the preceding species. From repeated experiments, made in this country, it appears that the culture of buck-wheat ought, in many cases, to be adopted in pre- ference to a summer- fallowing j as the crop produced is not only so much clear gain, but also affords a considerable quantity of straw, for fodder and manure ; beside which, it is a more advantageous prepara- tion fo: the next crop. There will be sum cent time to sow the land BUG [375 with buck-wheat after spring feed- ings, a crop of turnip-rooted cab- bage, or vetches. When sown in July, buck-wheat is an excellent sheltering crop to clover j and two crops of this grain have, in favour- able years, been obtained from the same land. Mr. ARTHUR YOUNG, in the sixth volume of the " Annals of Agriculture" has inserted an in- structive paper, communicated by the Rev. R. MOSELEY (Sept. llth, 1786), from which we learn the following valuable facts : That three crops were sown on the same ground, between autumn and au- tumn, with only three ploughing^, namely, winter-tares in September, with one ploughing, which were reaped early in the succeeding summer ; then immediately buck- wheat was sown, after one plough- ing and harrowing : in September the buck-wheat was ploughed in, and wheat was sown on this one ploughing, the crop of which was great. Thus, says Mr. YOUNG, as the spring advances, and the sun becomes powerful enough to exhale the humidity of the land, the crop also advances, and screens it from the action of his beams. The weeds in the soil vegetating with the young tares, are either strangled by their luxuriance, or cut off with, them, before they produce seed. This crop is cleared from the land so early, that the soil would remain exposed to the sun for three months, in the most scorching heat of the summer ; and, if thus left exposed, the three ploughings would be hurtful to the soil, except mat they might destroy some weeds. Hence, to give one ploughing immediately, and harrow in buck- wheat, saves experice ; and the growing herbage shades the earth, when it most requires to be protected : by this B b 4 manage- J76J BUG management, a dressing of manure is gained at the cheapest possible rate. In short, to introduce a sys- tem more complete, is not in the power of science. It appears to be undecided, whe- ther buck-wheat improves or im- poverishes the soil. There can be no doubt that it will produce the latter effect, like all plants that are suffered to run to seed ; and, on the contrary, that it renders the soil more fertile, when ploughed in, before the seeds are formed. Such, at least, is the opinion of Mr.BoRD- LEY, a respetable American far- mer, and Mr. FARRER, a consider- able corn-facior in London. But Mr. YOUNG, whose knowledge and reputation are equally great, observes, en the strength of his own experience, that this plant ameliorates the soil insomuch, that the farmer may have any crop after it, especially wheat ; for which rea- son it is (1784) commonly cultivat- ed about Norwich, One of the principal uses of buck-wheat in this country, is that of feeding horses. Mr. FARKEH ad- vises it to be mixed with bran, chaff, or grains, either whole or broken in a mill. When consumed in the state of grass, it flushes cows with milk ; hence it is presumed, that the meal mixed with grains would have the same good eff &., and en- rich the milk. One bushel of it is equal to two bushels of oats, even mixed with beans, and four times the quantity of bran ; it will be full food for a horse a- week, and re- quire much less hay. According to his experience, eight bushels of luck-wheat meal will go as far as twelve bushels of barley meal. But the American farmers assert, that it is an improper food for horses on a journey, or employed BUG in a&ive labour ; though its. m,ea3, when mixed with other corn^ or cut straw, answers weil even fofr horses in a slow draught. It is unquestionably a cheap corn, sub- servient to many good purposes, and peculiarly excellent for fatten- ing hogs and poultry : the former are said to become intoxicated by eating the whole plant; but no such efTet takes place from the seeds alone. Pr. WITHERING ob- serves, that sheep feeding upon this vegetable, become unhealthy; but it is relished by cows and goats. For culinary purposes, also, the grain of the buck- wheat is used in various forms, arid affords a nutri- tious meal, which is not apt to tura sour on the stomach. Mixed with barley, it is, in Tuscany, baked into bread, which possesses the proper- ty of retaining its moisture much longer than that of pure wheat ; and though of a darker colour, it is equally nourishing. In Germany, a very palatable grit, or a granulat- ed meal, serving as an ingredient in pottage, puddings, &c. is prepared of buck- wheat ; and if the seed be pure, the produce of each bushel is ten pecks. In the electorate of Brandenburgb, not only ale and b^'er is brewed from a mixture of it with malt, but likewise a very excellent spirit of a blueish shade is obtained by distillation ; the fla- vour of which resembles that of French brandy. The taste and co- lour of stale beer, may be much improved by adding a small quan- tity of the flour of this grain. From this, as well as die preced- ing species of buck- wheat, theTar- tars prepare a delicious food, by simply blanching the seeds, with- out mills or ovens, in a manner very ingenious, and applicable to most other species of grain. They BUG first pour cold water on the seed, and stir it well, in order to bring the light and imperfeft grains to the top, which are thrown away with the water. Then the wet corn is put in sacks, where it is suffered to remain from ten to twelve hours : thus, after swelling a little, it is roasted over a slow fire > in iron pans, and continually stirred till the grain becomes tolerably hard, so that it feels tough and elastic between the teeth. In this manner, the husks soon crack, and may easily be separated from the kernel, in one of the plainest do- mestic .implements, a wooden mor- tar, or a bruising machine made of the hollow trunk of a tree. By this process, the grain acquires a yellow transparent appearance, and is much improved in taste. From the fresh blossoms of these plants, DAMBOURNEY dyed wool, prepared with bismuth and tin, of a beautiful brown colour ; and, from the dryed flower-bundles, different shades of green. Those of the Siberian species, in particu- lar, yielded a fine yellow, which, on boiling the wool still longer in the dye, changed into a golden tint, and at length assumed a bril- liant yellow. There is a third species of buck- wheat, the culture of which has lately been strongly recommended by Professor PALLAS, and Dr. Wi- THERixo; and which we shall presently describe. BUCK-WHKAT, the Climbing, black bindweed, or climbing snake- weed ; the Polygonum convolcn- lus, L. a native vegetable, grow- ing about corn-fields, gardens, and hedges ; it flowers in June and July. Its seeds are as good as those of the two preceding species, are produced in greater quantity, BUG [377 may be more easily colle&ed, as they ripen more uniform y, and the plants bear cold better than the exotics before mentioned. Ac- cording to LINNAEUS, cows and goats eat it, but sheep, swine, and horses, refuse it. Its culture in fields is, however, attended with this inconvenience, that its creeping stalks must be supported by brush-wood, and it is consequently better a lasted for be- ing cuit.vated in gardens. It is remarkable, that most Bri- tish and foreign writers indiscrimi- nately recommend the culture of the buck-wheat, likewise, on ac- count of its iiowers, which are very grateful, and beneficial to bees ; and that Dr. DARWIN, ia particular (see page 230 of this Encyclopaedia), mentions a species of buck-wheat, the Pofygoxttn mt'lumpyrum, of which we can find no account in the botanical works of this country: with de- ference to his profound knowledge of natural history, we are almost inclined to think, the Doctor alludes to a very different species of buck- wheat (perhaps cow-wheat) that is not cultivated in Britain. BUCKING, one of the opera- tions performed in the whiten- ing of linen cloth, or yarn. See BLEACHING. BUCKRAM, is coarse linen cloth, stiffened with glue, and used in the making of garments, to keep them in proper form. It also serves for wrappers to cover cloths, serges, and ot;,er articles of mer- chandize, in order to preserve them from being soiled, and prevent their colours from fading. In ge- neral, old sheets and pieces of cioth are converted into buckram ; but .sometimes new pieces of linen cloth are used for that purpose. Buckram 3/8] BUD Buckrams are sold wholesale by the dozen of remnants, or small pieces, of about four ells long, and of different breadths. BUD, in botany, the embryo or rudiment of a plant, growing on the stems and branches of trees, and covered with scales, or with a resinous varnish, to protect it from the winter cold, and from the de- predation of insects. Buds pro- ceed from the extremities of the young shoots, and along the branches, sometimes single, some- times two by two, either opposite or alternate, and sometimes col- lected in greater numbers. In ge- neral, we may distinguish three kinds of buds : the leaf-bud, the flower-bud, and that containing both in one covering. The first species contains the rudiments of several leaves, which are variously folded over each other, and sur- rounded by scales. The second species, or flower-bud, contains the rudiments of one or several flowers, folded and covered in a similar manner. This bud is called by PLINY oculus gemmce, or the eye of the bud, and is employed in that species of grafting, called inoculation. The third sort, which is the most common of any, pro- duces both flowers and leaves. Buds, together with bulbs, which are a species of buds, generally seated on, or near the root, are very properly called by LINNAEUS hyl-ernacula, a term signifying the winter-quarters of the tmbryon shoot. As plants are supposed to bear a striking analogy to animals, they may, not improperly, be reckoned both viviparous and oviparous ; in which view, seeds may be consi- dered as vegetable egsjs ; buds, as living foetus's, or infant plants, BUD which renew the species as cei- tainly as the seed. As each bud contains in itself the rudiments of a plant, and would, if separated from its parent vege- table, become in all respects similar to it, LINNJEUS, to shew die won- derful fertility of Nature, has made a calculation, from which it ap- pears, that in a trunk scarce ex- ceeding a span in breadth, no less than ten thousand buds may be produced. How great then must be the number of plants, which are capable of being raised from one large tree ! See the article LEAVES. Flower-buds of many trees, says Dr. DARWIN, arise immediately from the terminating shoots or spurs of the preceding year, and are either accompanied with leaf buds or separately, as in apple and pear-trees. Others proceed from the shoots of the present year, al- ternately with leaf-buds, as those of vines, and form the third or fourth buds of the new shoots. They differ from leaf-buds, because they perish when their seeds are ripe, without producing any addi- tion to the tree ; the leaf-buds, on the contrary, decay in autumn, and their caudexes are then gra~ dually converted into alburnum, or sap-wood ; over which the new leaf-buds shoot forth their caudexes and radicles, or insert them into it, and gradually fabricate the new bark and root fibres. Some of the disciples of LINNJE- us are of opinion, that about Mid- summer leaf-buds may be changed into flower-buds, or fiower-bucls into leaf-buds ; and this may be effected even after the vegetable ernbryons are generated, by weak- ening or strengthening the growth of the last year's buds. Hence, if some inches of a branch be lopped off BUG off .at Midsummer, which is some- times done by unskilful gardeners, the remaining buds on that branch will become more vigorous, and produce leaf-buds instead of flower- buds. But the contrary effect will take place, if a vigorous branch of a wall-tree be bent beneath the horizon, so as to impede the gene- ration of new caudexes. Budding. See ENGRAFTING. BUG, in zoology, a species of cimcx, too well known to need any description. Of the various recipes for the extirpation and prevention of these vermin, the following have been found, by experience, to be the most effectual : 1, Take of the highest rectified spirit of wine, half a pint ; newly distilled oil, or spirit of turpentine, half a pint : mix them together, and crumble into it half an ounce of camphor, which will dissolve in a few minutes : shake the whole well together, and with a piece of sponge, or a brush dipped into it, anoint the bed, or furniture, in which those vermin harbour and breed; and it will infallibly kill and destroy both them and their nits. Should any bug, or bugs, happen to appear after once using it, the application must be repcat- rd, and at the same time some, of the mixture poured into the joints and holes of die bedstead and head- board. Beds that have much wood-work, require to be first taken down, before they can be thoroughly cleared of these ver- min; but others may be perfectly cured without that trouble. It is advisable to perform this work in the day-time, lest the spirit con- tained in the mixture take fire from (he, candle, while using it, and occa- sion .serious damage : 2. Or, Take an ounce of quick- BUG [379 silver, and the whites of six or eight eggs ; beat them together till the quicksilver appears like a black sediment at the bottom of the ba- son ; then rub it over all the joints and crevices of the bed with a painter's brush. This will have the desired effect, while it gives a varnish to the furniture, and im- parts no disagreeable smell. 3. Or, mix the pulp of the bitter apple with a solution of vitriol, and apply the composition carefully to all the crevices, which serve as a nursery to the bugs. The solution alone has proved effectual : but, it applied to stone walls, it may be mixed with lime, which will give it a lively yellow colour, and ei.sure success. The boiling any kind ot wooden work in an iron caldron, with a solution of vitriol, effec- tually prevents it from taking the worm, and preserves it from rot- tenness and decay. 4. Professor KALM mentions, that from repeated trials he has been convinced that sulphur, it properly applied, will entirely de- stroy bugs and their eggs, in beds or walls, even though they were ten times more numerous than the inhabitants of an ant-hill. And Dr. FORSTER, his translator, adds that a still more effectual remedy is, to wash the infected furniture with a solution of arsenic. 5. The cheapest, and most plea- sant remedy, has lately been dis- covered by J. G. L. BLUMHOF, of Gottingen; who a;- K rts in the Economical Journal (in German), for June 1797, that the giccn leaves and twigs of the BIKD'S- CHERRY, or Primus Padus, L. if placed in the crevices and holes of places frequented by lugs, mice, and ruts, will citlrlualiy expel them. BUGLE, or Ajuga, L. a genus of BUI BUI of plants, comprising three species, all of which are natives ; but we shall only mention the reptatis, or common bugle, which grows in woods and moist pastures, in many parts of Brita'n. It has creeping suckers, and bears blue, red, and white blossoms in May. Its roots are astringent, and strike a black . colour with vitriol of iron. BUILDING is the art of con- structing and raising an edifice : in which sense it comprehends as well the expences, as the inven- tion and execution of the design. In the practice of this useful art, there are five particulars to be principally attended to : 1 . Situa- tion ; 2. Contrivance, or design 3 3. Strength and solidity j 4. Con- venience and utiliy; and 5. Ele- gance. As our aim is not to im- part elementary instructions in the art of building, we shall only sketch the most essential rules, by an attention to which, the reader may be enabled to discriminate between good and bad building, and to guard against many common errors. In laying the foundation of a building, proper care should be taken to ascertain the nature of the soil, either by a crow or rammer ; or, which is still better, with a mi- ner's or well-digger's borer, in or- der to discover whether it is tho- roughly sound, and fit to bear the weight that is to be laid upon it. If the foundation be not very loose, it may be ire proved by ramming in large stones. With regard to situation, a dwelling-house ought never to be erected near marshes, fens, or a boggy soil, nor too close on the banks of a river, unless it stand on rising ground, at the north or west side of the bank. See COUNTRY HOUSE and FARM HOUSE. Contrivance, or design, is of the first importance in building, as a skilful archite.3: will not only make the structure handsome and conve- nient, but often save great expen- ces j which cannot be avoided when, by hasty and injudicious ma- nagement, any future alterations become necessary. A model is the most certain way to prevent mistakes, and is superior to the best draughts. But, if the latter be adopted, they should be of the largest size, so that the delineation of all the chimneys, hearths, bed- places, stairs, and the latitude of all doors and windows, in each floor, may be distinctly represent- ed : and if the workmanship be agreed upon by the bulk, it will be useful (for obviating differences and disputes) to insert the length and thickness of the ground plates, breast-summers, girders, trimmers, joists, raisings, and wall-plates ; as also the thickness of the walls, par- titions, &c. In timber buildings, the seyeral sizes of the ground- plates, interduces, breast-summers, beams, principal port-braces, quar- ters, window-posts, door-posts, cel- lar-beams, principal rafters, &c. should also be minutely ascer-? tained. Instead of expatiating, in this place, on die strength, utility, and elegance of buildings, it may not be improper to give an abstract of the principal acts of parliament, passed on this important subject ; and afterwards compare the an- cient method of building with mo- dern improvements. On re-build- ing the city of London, after the great fire, in \QQQ, it was emitted, That in every foundation within, the " BUI the ground, one brick be added to the thickness of the wall next above the foundation ; that no timber be Jaid witliin the funnel of any chim- ney; and that the proper size of timber for ordinary buildings be adapted to certain proportions spe- cified in the aft. For the regulation of building w-ithin the Bills of Mortality, and in other specified places, it was ma&ed in the eleventh year of GEORGE I. and the fourth of his present MAJESTY, that party-walls must be ere&ed of brick or stone ; which shall be two bricks and a half thick in the cellar, two bricks thick upward to the garret-floor, Sec. Besides, there were several other limitations made respecting the size and disposition of the tim- ber. Every building is to be sur- veyed, and the person who offends against the statute, in any of the particulars recited, is liable to a penalty of 25Ol. During the 18th century, and particularly within the last forty years, great improvements have been made in the art of building ; as our modern edifices are more convenient, and elegant, than those of former times. Our ancestors generally inhabited houses with a blind stair-case, low ceilings, and dark windows; the rooms were built at random, without contri- vance or symmetry, and often with steps leading from one to the other ; so that we might be induced to imagine, they purposely guarded against the influence of light and fresh. air. The more happy genius of our age is for light stair- cases, fine sash windows, and lofty apart- ments. Thus, a house built, ac- cording to the prevailing taste, ex- cels both in point of compactness and uniformity j insomuch that on BUI the same extent of ground, it af- fords nearly double the conveni- ences that could be procured on the old plan. The modern rage for building, however, is apparent- ly attended with this unfavourable efFet, that little attention is paid to the quality of the materials, and the strength of the edifice, if spe- culative monied men attain their object, in erefting houses that may be lett at a certain rent. We be- lieve there are few, perhaps no, instances recorded in ancient his- tory, that dwelling-houses have tumbled down before they were finished or inhabited; such events, however, have occasionally happen- ed, during the last twelve years, especially in the metropolis. Instead of that variegated tinsel ornament betowed on almost every chimney- piece, and other immaterial parts of a mansion, it would be more ju- dicious, and economical, to attend to the quality and durability of bricks, mortar, and timber. Nor do our modern builders, in the erection of their walls, observe that uniformity, which rendered the buildings of the Romans almost indestructible. From the descrip- tion given in the 4p?d number of the Philosophical Transactions, by Mr. ARDERON, it appears that the ruins of two old towers, belonging to the Roman camp at Castor, iu Norfolk, were built in the follow- ing ingenious manner : They be- gan first with a layer of bricks, laid fiat as in pavements ; on that they placed a layer of clay and marl mixed together, and of the srux thickness with the bricks ; then A layer of bricks, afterwards of ciuy- and marl, then of bricks again; making in the whole three layers of bricks, and two of day. Over this were placed brick.s and lime- twenty- $S2j B U 1 twenty-nine inches, the outside being faced with bricks cut in squares ; then brick and clay al- ternately, as high as the old ruins now remain standing. He adds some remarks on the hardness of the mortar, and durableness of the bricks, the length of which last is found to be. 1/,4-tenths inches, or a Roman foot and a half; their breadth 1 1 ,6-tenths inches, or pre- cisely a Roman foot ; and their thicknessonly 1 ,3-tenthsof aninch. This last circumstance deserves particular notice, and we therefore refer the reader to the article BRICK, p. 352. Many compositions have, with more or less success, been devised for making mortar impenetrable to moisture. The following we be- lieve is one of the most simple and effectual : Mix thoroughly one- fourth of fresh unslacked lime with three- fourths of sand ; and let jive labourers make mortar of these in- gredients, by pouring on water, with trowels, to supply one mason, xvho must, when the materials are sufficiently mixed, apply it in- stantly as cement or plaster, and it will become hard as stone. This recipe is given by Mr. R. DOSSIE, in his second volume of" Memoirs of Agriculture and other Econo- mical Arts," 1771- The author, on this occasion, observes that the lime used should be stone-lime-. that previous to its use, it should be preserved from the access of air or wet, and the plaster screened for some time from the sun and wind. He justly remarks, that its excel- lence arises from the particular at- tra&ion between lime and sand, which would be destroyed by slacking the lime. Shimmed mi!k (ays he) is preferable to water ; and for the similarity of this mor- fctll tar to that of the ancients, he re* fers us to PLINY, VITRUVIUS, &:c, Another very durable and cheap cement in building, \vhich is parti- cularly designed as a handsome cnhhig rif walls, is that of the late P. WYCII, Esq. Take four or five bushels of such plaster as is com- monly burnt for floors about Not- lingham (or, according to Mr. Doss IE, a similar quantity of any ifrras, plaster, or calcined gyp- sum) beat it to tine powder, then sift and put it into a trough, and mix with it one bushel of pure coal ashes, well calcined. Pour on the water, till the whole becomes good mortar. Lay this in wooden frames of twelve feet in length on the walls, well smoothed with com- mon mortar and dry, the thickness of two inches at each side, and three inches in the middle. When the frame is moved to proceed with the work, leave an interval of two inches for this coping to ex- tend itself, so as to meet the last frame- work. In December I/SO, Dr. R.WIL- LIAMS obtained the King's patent for his invention of a morfar or stucco for the purpose of buildings. As the term of the exclusive privi- lege of using this composition is now expired, we shall give the fol- lowing particulars : Take of sharp, rough, large-grained sand, sifted* washed, dried, and freed from all impurities ; of well-burnt lime, slaked, and finely sifted - } of curd"., or cheese, produced from milk ; (the first, fresh made and strongly pressed, to divest it of its whey ; die second, whilst perfectly sound, rasped into powder with a grater., or brought into a very light sub- stance, with scrapers, or fine-tooth- ed plane irons, in a turner's lathe); aud lastly,, of water in its natural state, BUI state, in the following proportions, viz. of the cheese, or curd, four pounds ; the lime twelve pounds ; the sand eighty-four pounds ; the water ten pounds. If the sand is not thoroughly dried, or the lime has got damp from the air, the quan- tity of water must be less than, the above proportion ; and, on the contrary, when the lime is used as soon as slaked, it may require more ; so that the proper stiffness of the mortar, under those circum- stances, will regulate die making of the composition. As the goodness of this mortar depends on the preservation of the natural properties of the cheese, or curd, made use of, all those parts the least tainted or rotten must be rejected; and as the cheese, like the curd produced from skim-mi) k, is divested of its buttery and oily par- ticles, and on that account possesses a powerful cohesive quality, which makes it better for this work than that made of milk in its rich and pure state ; it is at all times to be bought of the wholesale cheese- mongers at a lower price than any other ; and being more convenient than the curd, as that will require frequent making, is to be preferred to it, as well as to every other sort of cheese j for less of it is sufficient, only four pounds being allowed to the net hundred weight of all the solid ingredients ; more than which might make the mortar too lively to keep in its place without bag- ging, but less should not be u as that, on the other hand, would endanger its drying loose and gritty within its surface, hinder it from adhering properly to the walls, and thus reduce it to the level of com- mon mortar. Many tedious' and trivial rules are stated by die pa- tentee, relative to the manner of BUI [383 applying this cement, and its pre- servation in boxes for ready use. Those who wish to acquire additi- onal information concerning this subject, may find the specification of the patent, at full length, in die third volume of the " Repertory of Arts and ManvfaBurts. In July, 170, Mr. H. WALKER, of Thunnastoa, Leicestershire, pro- cured a patent for his invention of a method, by which houses and other buildings, of anye-tic Ascription or dimensions, might be creeled in one entire mass or body, at a much easier ex pence, especially in the articles of timber, lime, and work- manship, and which would be equally as durable in themselves, and less liable to accidents by fire, than buildings creeled upon tlict common construction. His process is as follows : 1. The patentee takes an argil- laceous earth or natural clay, which he purities by the usual well-known methods, and compounds it with sand, or broken or pounded pot- tery or brick, coal-ashes, charcoal, or, in short, with any other of tiiose substances which are adapted to form a good, firm, and durable brick, when properly baked ; and he varies die composition according; to the nature of die component parts themselves, and the purposes which they are intended to answer; but, for common constructions, he u ies the same proportions as brick- makers in general, lie then pro- ceeds to mix, knead, and incorpo- rate the said materials, tiil they arc brought to the requisite firmness and tenacity for building ; which is nearly such, that the parts of any lump or mass of the same may be readily incorporated with, or joined to, any other similar mass, by mo- derate blows widi a wooden mallet, and 384] B U I and the occasional addition of a very small portion of water : this compo- sition lie calls tie prepared material. 2. He constructs floors, -walls, and all other buildings, according to this invention, in such a manner that the power of fire, from wood, coal, charcoal, coak, or other com- bustible matters, may be applied to the external and interior surfaces x>f the floors, walls, and other parts, by means of fires maintained in cavities left within, which he calls by the name of furnaces. 3. With respect to the particular forms, dimensions, and relative po- sitions of the said floors, walls, and other parts of buildings, and the furnaces left or formed within the same, together with the apertures or communications, for the pur- poses of ventilating the fires, of suffering the volatile mstters to rscape, and of convtrtinglthe whole into one entire mass of brick, by a due communication and continu- ance of heat, Mr. WALKKR says, the ground must be rendered solid, and the foundation laid in the usual manner; after which he applies a quantity of the prepared material before alluded to, and beats, rams, or presses it down to the thickness of about six inches ; and in width, corresponding -with the intended dimensions of the wall, regulated by boards or framing. He then plants upright, at the distance of about thirty inches asunder, in the said layer or bed of prepared material, a number of cylindrical pieces of wood, of about nine inches in dia- meter v each, and eighteen or more inches in length, to serve as moulds for the cavities of the furnaces ; and between each of such moulds ho places, in the longitudinal direction of the wall, a number of pipe?, of wood, or other materials, or rod-?, fcU! of combustible or incombustible matter, for the purpose of forming communications between all the several furnaces, or as many of them as he thinks proper. Then he proceeds to form another layer or bed of the material, to the same height, namely, about six Inches^ and disposes a number of such pipes, or rods, for the purpose of forming similar communications. In this manner, he constructs the whole, or so much of the wall as he apprehends, at the time, may be conveniently formed, in the raw or unburnt state ; taking care, as the work advances, to raise thd wooden cylinders, or moulds, that a sufficient portion of them may remain above the surface of the; work, to admit of the reception and proper fashioning of each subse- quent layer ; or he forms the com- munications between the furnaces, by perforating the weoden moulds^ in various places, at right angles to their respective axes ; and through the said perforations he passes a baf of iron, or other material, which serves to connect three or more of the said furnace-moulds, and, being afterwards withdrawn, as the work proceeds, leaves cavities of commu- nication, similar to those formed by pipes, rods, &c. in the manner be- fore described. Farther, he opens such a number of horizontal or oblique apertures, or flues, into all the furnaces, and likewise into all the cavities, as may be requisite for admitting, on all sides, the access of atmospheric air. In some in- stances, he forms the horizontal or oblique apertures, or floes, by dis- posing, along with the pipes, a suit- able number of taper rods, which are afterwards extradted. 4. When the wall is built, he cither suffers it spontaneously to dry, BUI dry, or promotes this effect by mo- derate fires in the furnaces. Some- times by increasing the heat within, and at others, by suitable applica- tions of fire externally, he converts the whole into one entire mass of bricks. By occasional closing or opening of the furnaces at top, or any of the other apertures, in vari- ous parts, the intelligent operator will easily understand how to regu- late the progress, communication, and effect of the heat, that the con- version into brick may be uniform through the entire mass. 5. The dimensions of the fur- naces, the positions and relative distances of the pipes of commu- nication and lateral apertures, and the thickness of the layers of the prepared material, are each suscep- tible of great variations, according to the nature of this preparation, the activity of the fuel, the proposed solidity or figure of the work, &:c. 6. He then forms the remaining parts of the wall, or edifice, by ap- plying additional portions of the prepared material in contact with that already baked ; while he also avails himself of proper and suitable external and internal moulds, sup- ports, frames, and other occasional contrivances, well known to build- ers, for sustaining works, or form- ing arches, or determining the figure and positions of soft plastic substances. 7- The ground-floor is likewise .formed of the prepared material, leaving hollow spaces between the supports beneath, for making fires, ventilated by side apertures, which are provided with numerous holes. When the floor is of consider- able thickness, it will require the construction of furnaces, in every respeOt similar to those before de- scribed. NO. III. VOL. I. BUL 8. The fir5t above the ground floor is made upon suitable tempo- rary framing, in such a manner that the upper surface shall be plane, and the lower concave, so that it may, when baked, support itself, upon the principle of a low arch. Q, and 10. The patentee con- structs, bakes, or burns other floors above the first, and also die roof, &c. he closes the apertures, fills up the furnaces, amends the deficien- cies, adorns the walls, floors, ceil- ings, or other parts, with his pre- pared material, according to the taste and direction of die pro- prietor, Various plans have lately been devised for securing buildings, and ships, against fire. We shall, how- ever, mention only that of DAVID HARTLEY, Esq. who, in April, 17/3, obtained a patent for his in- vention of applying plates of metal and wire, varnished or unvarnished, to the several parts of buildings of ships, so as to prevent the access of fire, and the current of air ; secur- ing the several joints by doubling in, over-lapping, soldering, rivet- ting, or in any ether manner closing them up ; nailing, screwing, sew- ing, or otherwise fastening, the said plates of metal in, to, and about, the several parts of btiiM- ings, and ships, as the case may require. Convinced that this me- thod would be too expensive for common buildings, and that it does not afford sufficient security against violent flames, when the contigu- ous buildings are actually burning, we shall suggest other, and more effectual means of protection, under the article FIRE. BULB, in botany, a kind of large sill-terraneous lud, though some- times appearing above ground, upon C c or 3 86] BOL or near the root of certain herbaceous plants, which are therefore deno- minated bulbous. LINN^US con- siders the bulb as the winter-quar- ters of the future vegetable; be- cause every bulb contains, in mi- niature or embryo, a plant, in all respefts similar to its parent j so that many plants and trees may be propagated, with equal facility, by the bulbs or buds, as well as by the seeds. The tender rudiments of the future vegetable, of which the bulb or bud is composed, are inclosed, and, during the severities of winter, defended against cold, and other external injuries, by a hard bark, or rind, which generally consists of a number of scales, placed over each other, like tiles, and fastened together by means of a tenacious, resinous, and frequently odorifer- ous substance. Thus defended, the buds remain upon different parts of the mother plant, till the ensuing spring. Bulls are distinguished from liuds, by this circumstance, that the former are generated on the broad caudex of the plant within the ground, or in contact with it, and immediately shoot down their roots into the earth ; whereas, buds are formed above the soil, on the long caudexes which constitute the fila- ments of the bark of trees, and shoot down new roots from, the lowerend of those elongated trunks. Dr. DARWIN observes, that bulbs may be divided into leaf and flower- bulbs. When a tulip seed is sown, it produces a smail plant the fiist summer, which in the autumn dies, and leaves in its place one or more bulbs. These are ii-af-lulbs, which, in the ensuing spring, rise into stronger plants than those of the lirst year, but no flowers are yet B UL generated : in the autumn, these perish lil:e the former, and leave, in their places, other leaf-bulbs, stronger, or more pcrie6t, than their preceding parents. This succession continues for four or five years, tilJ at length the bulb acquires a greater perfection or maturity, necessary for seminal generation, and pro- duces in its place a large flower- bulb in the centre, with several small leaf- bulbs around it. This successive formation of leaf- bulbs in bulbous-rooted plants, pre- vious to the formation of ajtoiver- lull, is curiously analogous to the production of leaf-buds on many trees for several years, before tlie production of flower-buds : thus, apple-trees, raised from seeds, ge- nerate only leaf-buds for ten or twelve years, and afterwards annu- ally produce both flower and leaf- buds. Hence it appears that the adherent lateral or paternal pro- geny, being the most simple and easy, is consequently the first mode of re-prodn6tion ; and that the pro- pagation by seed is not accom- plished till the maturer age or more perfect state of the parent-bud. Bulbous roots are said to be solid, when composed of one uniform lump of matter, as in the tulip ; tunicated or coated, when formed of a plurality of coats, surrounding one another, as in the onion ; squa- mous, or scaly, when composed of lesser scales, as in the lily ; jointed, as in the tuberous nioschatel ; du- plicate, when there are only two 'bulbs to each plant, as in the crocus and saffron ; and aggregate, when there is a congeries of such roots to each.' One of the most striking phe- nomena in vegetable nature, is tliat of raising plants from their bulbs, without earth. 'DUHAMEL even raised EUL Raised small oak trees-, merely -by \vater, in which he kept diem eight years : they produced fine leaves every spring, and grew more rapid- ly during the two first years, than u they had been planted in the best earth: an useful hint this to die cultivators of diat noble tree ! As bulbs immersed in water produce roots, stem, and leaves, we might be induced to diink, that the order of their growth, in these different parts, would be alike; but experience evinces die con- trary. DUHAMEL cut off some of the largest hyacinth-roots, almost two fingers breadth from their ends; then placed the bulb on a botde, in such a position, diat the end of die cut root touched the water ; and made a mark on the outside of the botde, exa6dy oppo- site to the extremity of the root ; he likewise made marks corre- sponding to the ends of some en- tire roots. The latter continued growing, and soon extended be- yond die mark of their former Lngth ; but die ends of die cut roots remained stationary. This experiment clearly demonstrates, .that roots only grow at their end. BULFINCH, orpyrrhula, a spe- cies of bird comprehended under the genus Loxia, and so generally known as to require but litde de- scription. The head, wings, and tail are black ; die breast and belly red; the upper tail, coverts and vent, white ; and die brtast of an ash-colour. In the female, the under parts are of a reddish brown. This bird is common in most parts of die Continent, and throughout Russia and Siberia, at which last places it is caught for the table. It is also pretty general in England, builds in bushes, five or. six B U E [387 feet from, the ground. The nest is principally composed of moss, and die eggs, which are five or six in number, are of a blueish white colour, marked at the large end with dark spots. The time of breeding is about the end of May, or the beginning of June; and in summer its principal residence is in woods ; but in winter it approaches gardens and orchards, and is, per- haps, unjustly stigmatized for de- stroying the buds of trees, though, it appears that its object is not die bud itself, but " die worm in the bud," and diat the bulfinch is one of those species of birds .diat de- fend die embryo fruits, by destroy- ing die nests of innumerable iii- se6ls, and thus promote tiiejr growth. In its wild state, the bulrinch lias a simple note, but when tamed, it becomes remark- ably docile, and may be taught to whisde any notes, or even a whole tune, in the most accurate man- ner. There is a considerable num- ber of these birds annually import- ed from Germany, some of which are even taught to speak, but they are remarkable for imitating wind- music, particularly flagelets. When bulrinches are taken young, they may be reared in the same manner as a linnet. The best way Jo distinguibh the cock of diis bird from the hen, is, to pull half a dozen featiiers from its breast, when about three weeks old, and in ten or twelve days af- ter, diey will appear of a brightiah. red. BULL, or Bos Taurus, in zoo- logy, is naturally a fierce and ter- rible animal, having cylindrical horns, bent outwards, and loose dewlaps. When chased, he has a majestic and sullen air, often tear- ing up the ground with his feet and C c 2 Jborr>5. ^88] BUL J -J homs. A bull, like a stallion, ought to be the most handsome of his species. He should be tall and well made ; his eyes large aud pro- tuberant, black and rolling; his forehead broad, and close set, with short curled hair; his ears long, hairy within and without; his horns longish, clean, and bright. And as Nature has designed the head as his principal instrument, both of offence and defence, it ought to have every mark of strength, and also to be propor- tionably aided by the neck. The large muscular neck, provided it be well proportioned in its parts, and the head finely connected therewith, of all others deserves the preference. It ought not, how- ever, to be incumbered with a coarse wreathy skin and dewlap ; the latter, on the contrary, ought to be thin and supple ; and the for- mer tight and smooth. The breast should be large, and the shoulders deep, thick, broad, and high; the back straight and broad ; the ribs broad and circular ; the belly deep, straight, and tapering a little to the hind thighs, which should be large and square. The roof ought to be ' wide, particularly over the chine and hooks; and the tail (if the bull is of the true English breed) should not extend far up the roof ; and be strong and deep, with much lank hair upon the under part of it; and the hind part of the buttock rather square than exuberant ; from which mark, there is an absolute, certainty he does not partake of the " buffalo, or muscular thighed breed, ' which are the worst feeders. The joints and legs should be short and strong ; and the body long, deep, and round, filling well up to the shoulder, and into the groin. BUL The finest breed of bulls, anil Other cattle, ever reared in this country, was that of the late Mr. FOWLER, of Rollright, Oxford- shire; whose stock was sold by auction, in March, ljf)\. The editor of this work was among those who witnessed this enchant- ing exhibition of animals, and ad- mired their incomparable size, form, vivacity, in short, the most picturesque view, both as to ob- jects and scenery. Here the most respectable farmers of the first agricultural country in Europe had assembled ; some of whom had travelled several hundred miles, from almost every corner of the island. Fifteen prime heads of cattle, namely, five bulls, and ten cows, were separately sold for the enormous sum of 24641. or, on an average, 1641. each : the finest bull, named Sultan, only two years old, was purchased by Mess. FREEMAX and P,DEN, of Glouces- tershire, at the price of 2201. 10s. Such was the reputation of that celebrated breeder, Mr. FOWLER, that FREDERICK the Great, of Prussia, honoured him with his correspondence, and rewarded him with a gold medal. By well known artificial means, the nature of this animal is remark- ably softened, and all his impetuo- sity destroyed, without diminishing his strength : on the contrary, af- ter this operation, which is usually performed before he is two years pld, his weight is increased, and he becomes more fit for agricultural purposes. The age of these animals may be distinguished by the teeth and horns ; the first four teeth drop out at the age of six months, and - are succeeded by others o a darker colour, which are broader than the former BUL former. When they are sixteen months old, the next milk-teeth likewise fall out, and at the com- mencement of the fourth year, all the fore-teeth are renewed. The bull, cow, and ox, naturally live from fifteen to twenty years ; but are generally killed at an earlier age. See also Cow, and Ox. These animals are extremely fond of licking themselves, espe- cially when lying at rest ; but this practice should, as much as possi- ble, be prevented, for the hair be- ing an indigestible substance, re- mains in the stomach, where it becomes coated with glutinous matter, which in time forms hard balls, and not unfrequently proves destructive. We conceive that small quantities of common salt, or preferably, rock-salt, occasionally exposed to cattle for licking it, would not only preserve their health, in general, but also tend to obviate the effects of the unwhole- some practice before alluded to. Dr. LYSONTS, of Bath, informs us, in his "Practical Essays," 1772, that the epilepsy in bulls, is sometimes occasioned by hydatids (little trans- parent bladders filled with water), or other matters immediately ac~t- ing upon the brain ; and he relates an instance where this formidable disease was cured by the opera- tion of trepanning, performed by Mr. CHESTON, a very ingenious surgeon, at Gloucester. BULLOCKS, in this country, are most advantageously fattened by stall-feeding ; a method now brought to systematic perfection. The following is the result of experience, inserted in the eleventh volume of the " Annals r>f A"rl- f *J O culture, a.s communicated by J. II. CAMPBELL, Esq. of Charlton, in Kent j who is one ef the most BUL [389 judicious and successful graziers in the kingdom. He first remarks, that the quantity of food required to fatten an animal, depends entire- ly on the thriving disposition, and not in the least on his weight; and then gives the following an- swers to Mr. YOUNG'S queries : 1. One hundred bushels of pota- toes, and seven hundred weight of hay, are generally sufficient to fat- ten any ox that is a tolerable good thriver. 2. Small quantities of potatoes should be given at first j then increased to one or two bushels per day, but always in- termixing the dry food, and regu- lating the quantity of hay, by the effe6t which potatoes produce on the bowels. There ought to be at least five servings in a day, and ac- cording to the quantity an ox can be induced to eat with appetite, he will the sooner become fat, conse- quently the cheaper, and with more profit. The roots need not be cut, except in the beginning, to entice the animal to eat them; but they should always be fresh and clean. 3. There is no corn or meal necessary, unless it can be had at a moderate price ; in which case it would tend to expedite, and consequently to render more pro- fitable the whole of the feeding. Of this nature are brewer's grains, one bushel mixed with a peck of pollard, sometimes pea or bean- meal coarsely ground, given in two divided portions. 4. Cleanliness is a principal requisite in the feeding of cattle : hence not only the man- gers, but also the stalls, ought to be kept as clean as possible; and the former should be cleared from dirt and dust, with a blunt-pointed trowel, every morning. After cleansing their stalls, a sufficient quantity of fresh Utter should be C c 3 strewed BUL strewed over ; which will invite them to lie down. Mr. CAMPBELL is of opinion, and we fully agree \\ ' ;i him, that rest contributes to fatten cattle much sooner ; and likewise that combing and carding their hides, every day, promotes their thriving more than equal to the small portion of time thus con- sumed. Lastly, he found the greatest difficulty in prevailing up- on the people, to whose care the bullocks were committed, to fol- low strictly his directions, and to abolish die practice of giving them too great portions of food at a time. Urns, the animal frequently be- comes disgusted, his appetite is impaired, and the food is wasted. The hay is to be cut once ; or, if not very weighty, twice along, and three times across the truss, so as to be in squares of eight or ten inches : in this state the cattle eat and digest it more readily, while the fattening is considerably expe- dited. BULL-RUSH, or Club-grass ; the Sclrpiis locus tris, L. is an in- digenous plant, frequently found in rivers, pools, and fens. It at- tains a height of from five to twelve feet, and is, near the root, about the thickness of a finger. Its spikes are dark-chesnut, or dark-brown with a tinge of red. A /hen fodder is exhausted, cattle will live upon this plant; and for that purpose it may be made into hay. Goats and swine eat it, but it is refused by cows and sheep. In Sweden, cottages are thatched ; and, in Britain, pack-saddles are stuffed, with the bull-rush. Bot- toms of chairs, and mats, are like- wise very commonly made of it, and their finer or coarser quality depends upon the age of the grass. From the pith, or medullary aub- BUR of this vegetable, a kind iff paper may be prepared, by pressing it, and afterwards giving it con- sistence, by a proper addition of size. BURDENS, or heavy loads, can- not fail to be injurious to the lungs j because the person carrying them is obliged to inspire and expel the air with greater force than is de- signed by Nature. Those who, either from imprudence, or a mis-f taken economy, exceed the limits of their strength, by doing at once what should be performed at two different times, expose themselves to various degrees of danger. Thus persons supporting heavy burdens, as porters, colliers, and day-la- bourers, in general, by over-strain- ing the tender vessels of the breast and lungs, frequently become lia- ble to blood-spitting, asthma, rup- tures, pleurisies, &c. This fatality is apparently generated in early youth, from an absurd and hurtful notion, that the children of work- ing people should be timely accus- tomed to hard labour. Every hu- mane master of a family, as well as the more judicious neighbours of cottagers, ought seriously to warn those bold adventurers of the immi- nent danger to which they expose themselves by such imprudence. Young females, in particular, should be stopped in the streets, when walking with heavy loads on their heads ; a measure no less necessary than that of. removing an infant from the precipice of a window. From the pressure of such burdens, on the vessels of the brain, young persons become stupified ; an effect which is obvious to every accurate observer. In countries, where the inhabitants carry all their water and other commodities on the head, many are affiifted with scrophulous complaints: BUR complaints : but the worst conse- quences of this practice are, weak lungs, and a constant disposition to cough and catarrh, which frequently terminate in incurable consumption. BURDOCK, or CLOT-BURR, the ArSiium Lappa, L. a well- known plant growing on the road sides, on rubbish and ditch-banks, bearing purplish blossoms in July and August. The blackish, but internally white root of this vegetable, might be very advantageously employed in washing, on account of its sa- ponaceous property. Before the -flowers appear, the tender stems stripped of their rind, are boiled and used like asparagus ; or eaten with vinegar and the yolk of eggs, .rather than oil/ in the form of sa- lad. The plant is browsed upon by cows and goats, but refused by sheep and horses ; nor is it relished by swine. BOHMER mentions the root of the burdock, among those vegetables from which starch may be extracted; and SCHAEFER obtained from the stalks a whitish green paper. Boys catch bats with its flowers. See the article BAT, p. 185. In medicine, says Dr. WITHER- ING, decoctions of the burdock- root are esteemed, by judicious physicians, as equal, if not superior to those "of sarsaparilla. The fresh root has a sweetish bitter, and some- what austere taste ; is aperient, diuretic, and sudorific ; and said to a6l without irritation, so as to be safely used in acute diseases. The seeds have a bitterish, sub-acrid taste, and are recommended as powerful diuretics, when taken either in the form of an emulsion, or a powder, in doses not exceeding one dram. BURDOCK, the LESSER, o* BUR [391 Xantldum strumarium, L. likewise a native plant growing on dung, and grounds highly manured : the thornless stem is a foot and a half high, thick, often spotted ; the leaves heart-shaped, lobed, on long foot-stalks; flowers from June to September. The leaves are bitter and astringent : they are eaten by horses and goats, but refused by cows, sheep, and swine. A de- coclion of the whole plant yields a bright yellow colour; which, how- ever, is more lively, when the flowers alone are employed. BURGOO, a kind of porridge, is a nutritive dish, eaten by mari- ners, and much used in Scotland : it is made by gradually adding two quarts of water to one of oatmeal, so that the whole may mix smooth- ly ; then boiling it for a quarter of an hour, stirring it constantly ; after which, a little salt and but- ter should be added. This quan- tity, prepared as directed, will serve five or six persons for ^ meal ; and COCKBURN considers it very proper for correcting that un- wholesome disposition to costive- ness, so frequent to persons of a sea-faring life. BURIAL, the interment of a deceased person. The rites of bu- rial have been, at all times, and in every civilized country, considered as a debt so sacred, that those who neglefted to discharge it, were justly detested. It is, therefore, not a matter of surprize that the Greeks and Romans were ex- tremely solicitous about t' e burial of their dead ; as, in their opinion, the souls of their departed friends could not gain admittance into Eiysium, till their bodies were committed to the earth. Hence, in ancient times, it was deemed a duty incumbent upon every trayel- Cc 4 Jfcr, 392] B-UR ler, who should happen to meet \vith a dead body in his way, to cast three handfuls of dust or mould upon it. The honour of burial was, however, denied to tyrants, traitors, and those who had committed particular crimes, and were punished with death. Among die primitive Christians, interment in cities was not per- mitted for the first three centuries, nor in churches for many ages after, and hereditary burying places were forbidden till the 12th cen- tury. That the extravagant abuse of burying in churches is highly infectious, on account of the ex- halations arising from the putrid bodies, must be evident to the meanest capacity. This absurd and pernicious custom is of early origin : for the honour was at first conferred to the sacred relics of martyrs ; and in the ninth century it was allowed also to persons of distinction : the same privilege was granted to those who revered the shrines the clergy and monks making the faithful believe, that to place them in the repository of the bodies of saints, was the greatest mark of dignity they could receive. Although this cus- tom still prevails, yet nothing can be more detrimental to the health of the living, even though the vaults should remain closed ; because there is a continual putrid exhala- tion of noxious vapours, particu- larly in the hot days of summer. Hence this may be considered as the real cause of many disorders, which are erroneously .attributed to the various, and often sudden, changes of the atmosphere. Premature ilurial, a complaint which, in modern times, has ex- cited the attention of many judi- cious inquirers, and become lately BUR the subject of public investigation, in several States of Europe. It is a well attested truth, that many un- fortunate persons are consigned to the grave, before they are actually dead ; and that individuals, subject to epilepsy and apoplectic fits, have often been too hastily buried, or more properly smothered in their coffins. To prevent such fatal ac- cidents, houses for the reception of dead bodies have, within these last ten years, been erected in va- rious cities of Germany, where eveiy inhabitant has a right to de- posit the body of a deceased per- son, till putrefaction has actually commenced. We forbear to ex- patiate on the propriety and utility of a measure, which can be cen- sured only by obstinate and super- stitious Jews, who, from an old religious injunction, are enjoined to bury their departed friends on the same day, and before sun-set. With respect to the method of ascertaining the probable causes, and most evident symptoms, of actual dissolution, we refer the reader to the article " Apparent DEATH j" and shall here only ob- serve, that \heji-rst stage of putre- scency may be distinguished by the oily nature of the humours exuding through the pores, and forming a perceptible clamminess on the surface of the body. The exhaling vapour is accompanied with a faintish or slightly cada- verous odour, which marks with precision the point of time for in- terment. In the second stage, the emanating vapour is sensibly alka- lescent, with a strongly putrid and offensive smell, which may alone: prove noxious to the attendants. On the contrary, in cases of cancer and mortification, the putrid efflu- via proceeding from vital heat and motion* BUR motion, ceases after death, or as sooa as the body becomes cold : hence the two cases are so distinct, that they cannot be easily mis^ taken. BURNET, the GREAT, or Wild, or Meadow Burnet ; the Sangui- sorl-a officinafis, L. ; a native plant growing on moist pastures, espe- cially on a marly and calcareous soil, in the North of England. It is a hard, woody plant, and grows from two to three feethigh, branch- ing towards the top, and termi- nated by thick oval spikes of flowers, of a greyish brown-co- lour, which appear in June and July. This vegetable ought not to' be confounded with the following, or the Upland Burnet, which is a very different genus of plants. The "Great, or Wild Burnet, has been usefully employed in the art of dyeing. VOGLER dyed wool, silk, linen, or cotton, in a decoction of the dried, brown-red flowers, of a grey colour with a greenish shade, by the addition of alum ; of a dark lilac, which soon assumed a beau- tiful grey, by adding a solution of tin ; and of a deep black colour, on dropping into the liquor a solution of copperas. According to BECHSTEINT, the whole of the wild burnet is used in tanning leather, as a substitute for oak-bark : and the plant is also relished by cattle, especially by sheep. BURNET, the UPLAND, or Po- tcrium sanguuor&a, L. is likewise a native plant, and by some called the Common Garden Burnet, though it grows wild in a dry cal- careous soil. Jt has fibry peren- nial roots, and retains its leaves throughout the year, but the stalks arc annual : it has long been culti- BU,R [393 vated as a choice salad-herb in winter and spring. The leaves, being of a warm nature, are also used in cool tankards, and for im- parting an agreeable flavour to wine. When bruised, they smell like cucumber. With respect to the more or less profitable culture of this plant, the opinions of practical farmers are divided. At the head of those who have discouraged the introduction of this grass, are the late eminent botanist, Mr. MILLEK, and Dr. JAMES ANDERSON, one of the most skilful and celebrated writers on agriculture. The former asserts, in his Dictionary, that the plants are left uneaten by the cattle, when the grass about them has been cropt to the roots ; that in wet winters, and hi strong lands, the plants are of short duration ; and that the produce is insufficient to tempt any person of skill, to en- gage in its culture : the latter, in. his Essays on Agriculture, also af- firms, that die produce of burnt-t is too small to be worth cultivating, On the other hand, we meet with several authorities by whom the upland burnet is strongly re- commended as proper food for cat- tle, on account of its partaking of the nature of evergreens, and grow- ing almost as quickly in winter as in summer. For the first introduction of thi< plant into arable fields, we are in- debted to EARTH oLOMEwRocan:, an honest farmer of Walham Green, near London ; who, in. March, 1/61, sowed six pounds of the seed upon half an acre of ground, with a quarter of a peck of spring-wheat ; but the seed be- ing very bad, it came up but spa- ringly. Not discouraged by this failure, he sowed two other pounds in 394] BUR in the beginning of June, upon about six rood of ground, which he mowed in the beginning of Au- gust, and at Michaelmas trans- planted them on about twenty rood of ground, at the distance of one foot each way, taking care n-.it ! bnry the heart. These plants bore tvo crops of seed in the following year ; the first about the middle of June, and the second about the middle of September. In the se- cond year, also, two good crops of seed were produced. As it could not be cut after September, h let it stand till the next year, when it sheltered itself, and grew very well through the winter, except during a hard frost, when it, nevertheless, remained green. In March, it co- vered the ground, and was fit to receive cattle. It may be mown three times in one summer, just before it begins to flower. From six rood of ground, he obtained 1150 pounds at the first cutting of the third year j and was enabled to sell, in autumn 1763, no less than three hundred bushels of the seed ! The next authority is that of the Rev. DA VIES LA MSB, Reftor of Ridley, in Kent, whose letter to Dr. TEMPLEMAN, the first Secretary to the Society for the Encouragement of the Arts, &c. is dated December 1O, 17<55. From the particulars of his statement it appears, that one acre of land, at two mowings, pro- duced ten quarters of seed, and three loads of hay ; that burnet- str.-w is a very useful fodder for horses, calves, cows, and sheep ; and that the chaff is also valuable, when mixed with any other, for feeding cattle of every description. Mr. LAMBE is fully persuaded, that burnet will prove a very great ac- quisition to husbandry, on many accounts 5 but more particularly for BUR the following reasons : It is a good winter pasture, consequently it will be of great service to the farmer, as a constant crop he may depend on, and that without any expence for or tillage, after the first sow- ing- ; whereas turnips are precari- ous and expensive ; and when they fail, the farmer is very often put to great inconveniencies to keep his stock. It never blows or hovea cattle, and will flourish upon poor light sandy, stoney, or chalky land. After the first year, it will weed itself, and be kept clean at little or no expence. The cultivation of burnet is nei- ther hazardous nor expensive: if the land be prepared, as is generally done for a crop of turnips, there ia no danger of any miscarriage. It very frequently happens, thar every farmer, who sows many acres with turnips, finds several of them pro- duce little or nothing ; the fly, the dolphin, the black caterpillar, the dry weather, or some unknown cause, often defeating the industry and expence of the most skiifui husbandman. When this happens, as is too often the case, it is advis- able to sow burnet, and in March and April following, he will have a fine pasture for his sheep and lambs. Mr. W. PITT, a respectable far- mer of Pendeford, Staffordshire, when speaking of the culture of the "upland burnet, informs us, that one of his neighbours has obsen cd in it this valuable property as a meadow-grass, that it preserves the hay from over-heating in die stack ; and that the hay of a mea- dow in his possession, which con- tains naturally a considerable por- tion of this grass, always comes from the stack of a fine fresh green colour, while his other hay, without ' v this BUR tliis plant, was overheated, and turns out quite brown. The plant itself makes very good hay ; and, even after threshing out the seed, is eaten as eagerly by horses as the best clover-hay, but is less luxuriant in its growth than the Irnad red clover ; the produce per acre not exceeding two-thirds of that ob- tained from the last mentioned vegetable, in the same field. T. LE BLANC, Esq. of Caven- ham, Suffolk, sowed in October, 1"82, a space several perch square, with burnet-seed and rye, being a part of 10O acres laid down to rye- grass, trefoil, and white clover ; the soil was a blowing sand upon a chalk bottom, worth about 3s. 6d. per acre. It was folded for the rye. A flock of between six and seven hundred sheep were turned in on the 5th of April, 1/S4. The grasses were, in general, back- ward, but the burner, in its growth much more forward than the rest. For the first two or three days, the sheep did not eat it at all -, a fortnight after, he viewed it again, and found the burnet eaten to the ground. On examin- ing it again, June 4th, it was pared close. When a flock has so large a range as 100 acres, and eat up the growth of any small spot so clean, it is a far more satis- factory proof that they have no dislike to the plants growing there, than if they were confined to a small field with no other herbage. In the second volume of Dos- SIE'S Memoirs of Agriculture, Mr. BAKBER asserts, that burnet im- proves land from six shillings to one pound per acre ; and though sheep do not like it at first, they will at length relish it : he also supposes, it prevents the rot in tlie=e animals; BUR L395 For the more successful culture of burnet, we shall point out the following concise directions, being the result of B. Rocaufi's expe- rience, whom we have mentioned as its first cultivator in England : 1 . Although it flourishes on stony and graveiiy, as well as in strong lands free from water, yet it will succeed better on a dry soil : nor will it thrive on grounds newly broken up ; which are best sea- soned with potatoes. 2. It may be sown in April, May, June, July and August, and will appear above ground in about eight or nine days. 3. The soil should be worked very fine with a harrow, and rolled ; twelve pounds of seed are sown to an acre, when it should be slightly harrowed and rolled again. 4. The first year it must be kept very clean ; and in the next, it will be- come strong enough to choak all other grasses, for no drought stints it, and no frost destroys it. 5. As the seed sheds, when ripe, it should be cut in the morning while the. dew is upon it, and threshed the same, or the next day : those who wish to save the seed, should feed the grass till May, as otherwise it will be too rank, and lodge ; in a green state, it is heavier than any other pasture-grass. 6. If two horses are allowed to an acre, it will grow faster than they can eat it : the first crop purges them as efrec- tually as the strongest physic; which, however, is the case only for three days. Mr. ROC&UE also arh'rms, that he kept a horse en- tirely on burnet ; that it cures these animals of the distemper called the grease, but that this eftet is produced only by the first crop ; and that he recovered one, which was considered as incurable by any other means. Lastly, 396] BUR Lastly, it deserves to be noticed, that burnet increases the quantity of milk in cows, and produces good butter : it is likewise maintained, that the mutton of sheep fed on it, ia more juicy, better coloured, and flavoured, than that from any other focd ; while it not only cures the rot in sheep, but also recovers such as have scowered. BURNET- SAXIFRAGE;. See ANISE. BURNING, the aftion of fire on fuel, the minute parts of which are thereby put into violent com- motion, so that some of these par- ticles assume the nature of fire, and escape, while the remainder is ei- ther dissipated in the form of va,- pour, or reduced to ashes. There are many instances on record, of persons who have been burnt to death by fires kindled in their own bodies : but such individuals gene- rally had long indulged to excess in spirituous liquors. Burning, in surgery, denotes the application of the a6tual cautery, cr a red hot instrument, to the part affected. In the Mogul em- pire, the natives cure, or pretend to cure the colic, by applying a ring, red hot, to the patient's na- vel ; and among the Japanese, the practice of burning constitutes nearly the whole of the healing art. It is, however, certain, that several vtjry extraordinary cures have been performed by burning : and the an- cients frequently had recourse to this remedy, with singular advan- tage. BURNING-GLASS, or burning mirror, a machine by which the sun's rays arc collected into a point, and thus their force and effect con- siderably increased, so as to con- sume objects within its reach. There are two kinds of burning BUR glasses, namely, convex and com-* cave. Those of the convex form are lenses, which, by acting ac- cording to the laws of refraction, incline the rays of light towards the axis, and unite them in a point, or focus. The concave ones are mirrors, or reflectors, whether made of polished metal, or silvered glass ; which, by the laws of re- flection, throw back the rays into a, point before the glass. These instruments are undoubt- edly of very ancient origin : the most celebrated were those of AR- CHIMEDES and PROCLUS; by the former of which the fleet of MAR- CELLUS was destroyed, at the dis- tance of a bow-shot. In modern times, there have been several in- ventions of this kind, remarkable for their large diameter, and pow- erful effects; the principal of which arethoseofM.AGINE,ofSEPATALA, SETTALA, and BUFFON j the latter of whom made one that consisted of 40O mirrors, which reflected all their rays to one point, and with this he could melt lead and tin, at the distance of 140 feet. Sir ISAAC NEWTON presented a burning-glass to the Royal Society, which consisted of seven concave glasses, so placed that all their foci join in one physical point. This instrument virtifies brick or tile in one second, and melts gold in half a minute. BURNING of LAND, or Burn- laiting, a practice long employed in agriculture, but now nearly abandoned. It is performed by cutting oft" the turf of the ground, piling it in heaps to dry, and after- wards burning it to ashes, which are spread over the bare surface and ploughed in. Many consider it as a very profitable method of dressing, for it need only be used oh BUR on the poorest, and worst kind of lands, or barren, rushy, and heathy grounds, that have long been un- tilled. By this useful practice, an excellent crop may be obtained from the most impoverished soil j though the effect does not con- tinue longer than trm-e years, when the ground becomes as poor as it was before. Land may be so much exhaust- ed, by repeated crops after burn- baiting, as not to receive benefit from any thing, till recruited by ten or twelve years fallow : hence the fanner should, after the first crop, prepare for the second, by the addition of any common ma- nure. A correspondent in the " Mu- seum Rusticum," ascribes the ne- glect of this system to the follow- ing causes : 1 . The poverty of many small farmers, who, holding their estates at a rack-rent, will not venture to lav out such a con- siderable sum on lands, wliich they may probably quit before their money will be returned. 2. Land- lords, observing the parsimonious conduct of farmers, in working out the land, and thinking of no im- provement beyond the present crop, are, in general, averse to this expdient, and will not grant permission to. their tenants to adopt it. Bastard I urn * baiting. This practice consists of burning the refuse product of the land, such as stubble, haulm, &rc. upon the ground which produced them ; or whatever else is laid on it, for that purpose. It may be considered under four heads : 1 . The burning of sedge on wet lands ; a very old and successful practice. 2. Burn- ing the stubble upon corn-fields ; \vhich is also an ancient and com- BUR [ 397 mon method^ and though the ashes thus produced are light, and not abundant, yet the heat impart- ed to the ground, makes such a dressing better than four times the quantity of ashes of another kind. 3. The burning of any waste pro- duct on heaths and commons ; the benefit of which is not sufficiently known : this is performed by stub- bing up the broom, or other wasta matter, piling it in heaps, and co- vering them with the earth that had been raised in digging to the roots ; then burning the whole, and spreading the ashes on the ground, to be ploughed in. 4. The bringing of certain substances to impoverished land, and burning them there ; such as sticks, stubble, haulm, or other waste matters of any kind. The principal advan- tage of tiiis last method does not so much consist in the quantity of ashes produced, as in the en- livening warmth communicated to the ground, by such a number of small fires, which greatly contri- bute to promote its fertility. BURNS may proceed from fire, as well as a fluid body ; which lat- ter may be either heated, or consist of corrosive mineral acid, such as aqua fortis, oil of vitriol, &c. In this place, we shall treat only of burns occasioned byjire, and refer the reader for an account of other accidents of this nature, to the head of " SCALDS." In slight cases, the burnt part may be held for a minute near the fire ; or, if it be a finger, the pain and inflammation will be abated by bringing it in contact with the ear ; which, in this instance, acts like a conductor. Ink, the juice of onions, or a little brandy, or even salt nibbed on the part affect- ed, all tend to prevent blisters ; but 39S] but if these, nevertheless, should rise, open them with a lancet, or a fine pair of scissars, without cut- ting away the scarf-skin, let out the collected humour, and then apply a mixture of oil and limc- w-itrr, beat up with a new-laid egg, spread upon soft linen rags, and r. newed every hour, or oftener. One of the most simple reme- dies in recent burns, and which is in great vogue on the Continent, consists in the expressed juice of the burdock, or clot-burr; the fresh and tender leaves of which possess healing virtues, and are therefore applied not only to burns, but also to wounds, ulcers, &c. There is a kind of green ointment kept in families for occasional use : it is composed of equal parts of the juice obtained from the middle leaves of the burdock, and oil of almonds, or olives, in the purest . This composition is said to be of singular efficacy, also, in healing ulcers, allaying pain arising from piles, removing tetters, and suppurating pustules of the face, if assisted by internal remedies, adapt- ed to particular cases. BURNT-GRAIN, a distemper incident to corn, and frequently confounded with the smut, though in its nature, very different from the latter. According to DUIIA- MEL, the husks, or external cover- ings of the grains in burnt ears, are, in general, tolerably sound, with this difference only, that when the seeds begin to ripen, they appear drier and more parched than those of the healthy ears. The skin, or bran, which forms the immediate cover- ing of the grain, is noi destroyed in this disease, as is the case in the. smut : and die infected ears are less firm and consistent in their texture, than the sound ones : the BUR' husks of the former also beem dry and whitish, in proportion to the incre HC of the distemper. The grains retain some degree of firm* ness, and if opened, are found to be full of a brownUh substance^ emitting a nauseous ?rnell, and be* ing unctuous u> the touch. The most effectual method of preventing a distemper, the cause of which is as little known as that of the smut, is first to wash the seed v.-ell in common water, and scum oil' all the damaged grains that float on the surface, then in steep it in brine, a strong ley of a-shes, urine, &c. ; lastly, to sprinkle it well with quick-lime, before it- sown. BUR-HEED : See BURWEED. BURYING- GROUNDS arc places consecrated to the interment of dead bodies ; and have, from the eariiest institutions of society, been h Id in great veneration, both- by Heathens and Christians. It is, how- ever, to be regretted, that the latter paid less attention to the influence of such places on the health and comforts of the living, than the more sagacious Pagans, who generally ap- pointed distant and elevated situa- tions, for committing the remains of their friends to the maternal earth. There can be no diversity of opi- nion as to the pernicious tendency of burying-grounds in the vicinity of dwelling-houses (see the Article BURIAL), especially in large and populous cities. Hence Dr. DAR- wi-sr, in the true spirit of a philan- thropic philosopher, boldly, though pertinently, remarks : No burials should be tolerated in churches .or church-yards, where the monu- ments of departed sinners shoulder God's altar, pollute his holy places with dead men's bones, and, by putrid exhalations, produce conta- gious BUR. gious diseases among those who frequent his worship. Proper bu- rial places should be consecrated out of towns, and divided into two compartments : the earth from one of these should be removed once in ten or twenty years, forthe purposes of agriculture, when it will be suf- ficiently saturated with animal de- composition ; and sand, or clay, or even soil that is less fertile, should be substituted. Dr. DARWIN far- ther thinks, that the removal of this earth is not likely to shock the relations of the deceased, as the superstition concerning the clay, from which we rose, and into which we return, has gradually vanished before the light of reason. In- stances of this happy change oc- curred, about thirty years ago, in removing a quantity of rich earth from the close of the cathedral at Lichfield; and more lately, in changing a burying -ground at Shrewsbury, both which were exe- cuted without exciting supersti- tious terror, or popular commotion. Although we cannot, in confor- mity to our professed sentiments, and in justice 'to the Doctor's bene- volent design, on this occasion dif- fer as to the propriety of die expe- dient he lias suggested, yet we doubt whether the tide of prejudice, which influences the multitude, is not, at present, too powerful an obstacle to such innovations. Be- fore attempts of this nature can be made with any hope of permanent success, we venture to say, that rauch remains to be previously done in our schools, as well as in private education, to unfetter the young mind from the chains of dogmatical slavery, and to inculcate principles of untainted morality, being the most substantial basw oCpure Chris- tianity. [399 BUSH-VETCH, or the Vlaa stpium, L. an indigenous plant, growing in woods, hedges, pas- tures, and meadows. Its leaves are doubled together ; bunches shorter than die leaves ; the stem upright, sometimes four feet high ; die blos- soms of a dirty purple, and appear in May and June. This plant shoots earlier in spring than any other eaten by catdej vegetates late in the autumn, and continues green all winter. Although die cultureof the bush- vetch was strongly recommended by Dr. ANDERSON in I/"/, yet from later experience, it appears that, it is dirh'cult to collect the seeds, as the pods burst, scatter them about, and being made the nest of an insecl, scan ely a third part of diem will vegetate. Dr. WITHERING, however, observes, that a sp;;t of garden-ground, sown in drills with this vetch, was cut five times in the course of the se- cond year, and produced at the rate of 24 tons per acre of green food, which, when dry, weighed nearly 4| tons. The Rev. Mr. SWAYNK also informs us,_ in the third vo- lume of the papers of the Bath So- ciety, that he selected part of a field in which the bush- vetch naturally abounded, sowed it with this plant, and it succeeded so well, that he cut it four times in the same year ; the produce of the hay was 24 tons ll cwt, per acre, which is up- wards of one-third more than lu- cerne generally produces. But Mr. SWAYNE has since observed to Dr. WITHERING, that though tin; bush-vetch is very palatable to all kinds of cattle, its cultivation, on a large scale, would be attended with difficulty, as the seeds are generally devoured by a numerous species of insects. It is farther remarkable, that 4oo] BUS that ants arc extremely partial to this vegetable. BUSHEL, a measure of capa- city for dry substances, such as grain, pulse, fruit, &:c. ; it con- tains, in general, four pecks, or eight gallons ; being the eighth part of a quarter. According to the earliest excise- laws, a London lushel'is to contain right wine gallons of wheat; the gallon, eight pounds of wheat (TROY-WEIGHT, which see) ; the pound, twelve ounces ; the ounce, tiventy penny-weights ; and each penny-weight, thlrty-tico grains, or corns, of wheat taken from the middle of the ear. But as such grains are of very different weight in different ears, nay, in the same ear, and even in the same field, the uncertainty of this calculation must be obvious. Nevertheless this standard bushel is kept in the Exchequer : when filled with common spring-water, and mea- sured before the House of Com- mons in 1696, it was found to con- tain 2145,6 solid inches ; and the same water being weighed, amount- ed to 1131 ounces, and 14 penny- weights, troy. The first malt-acl:, however, altered these proportions, as it was then enacted, that the legal Winchester bushel should be 18j inches diameter, and eight inches deep. The coal-bushel was regulated at 19} inches wide : thus, says Mr. RENAKDSON, in the 491st number of the " Philo- sophical Transactions" two mea- sures, both differing from the ori- ginal one, were legally established; and from time to time innovations were: made, till it became difficult to determine, what was meant by the name of any measure. Be- side this inconvenience, the bushel has, in different counties and BUS places^ and without any apparent cause for such diversity, been made of different dimensions : at Abing- don and Andover, a bushel con- tains nine gallons ; at Appleby and Penrith, a bushel of peas, rye, and wheat, holds 16 gallons ; of bar- ley, big, malt, mixt malt, and oats, 20 gallons. A br.shcl contains, at Carlisle, 24 gallons; at Chester, a bushel of wheat, rye, Sec. is 32 gallons 5 and of oats, 4O; at Dor- chester, a bushel of malt and oats is 10 gallons ; at Falmouth, the bushel of stricken coals is ] 6 gal- lons ; of other articles, 20, and usually 21 gallons; at Kingston- upon-Thames, the bushel contains 8 ; at Newbury, 9 ; at Wycomb and Reading, 8f; and at Stamford, 16 gallons. In ascertaining the accurate weight of a bushel of corn, there is a considerable difference arising both from the nature of the grain, and its relative perfection : thus, a bushel of oats weighs only about 40 pounds; of peas and beaus, about O'O; and the bes.t wheat should weigh fromt>2 tof>4 pounds. With greater accuracy, how- ever, may be calculated the cubic, or solid capacity of vessels ; so that a bushel containing 2145 inches, will be nearly equal to one foot and a quarter cubic measure : consequently a body of a cart, com- prising forty feet, will hold about thirty- two bushels, stricken mea- sure. If a calculation be made as to the number of perfect grains of wheat, which ought to be in one standard bushel, it will he found that the net amount is 491,520 grains, or /(5SO to one pint, or pound. BUSTARD, or Otis tar da, in ornithology, is said to be the largest of theBritLsh land-fowl; its breadth, with BUT \vith expanded wings, being nine feet ; the length nearly four ; and the male weighing from 25, to 27 pounds. The female is about half the size of the male, and 'marked with different shades of colour. Bustards inhabit most of the open countries lying to the south and east parts of this island, froui Dorsetshire, as far as the "\ Voids of Yorkshire. 'In. autumn, they are (in Wiltshire) generally found in large turnip-fields, near theDovvns, 'and in flights of fifty or more. They are exceedingly shy, and dif- ficult to be . : shotj run very fast, and fly, though slowly, many miles 'without resting : and, as they take flight with difficulty, they are sometimes run down by grey- hounds. Corn and other vege- tables are their usual food ; but "they are very fond of those large earth-worms which appear in great "numbers on the downs, in the summer-mornings, before sun-rise. These are replete with moisture, answer the purpose of liquid food, and enable them to live long with- out drinking. Nature has provid- ed the males with an admirable magazine for their security against drought} being a pouch, the en- trance of which lies- immediately under the tongue, and is capable of holding near seven quarts ; this they probably fill with water, to "supply the females when sit- 'tig, or the young before they are fledged. Bustards Jay only 't\vo eggs, resembling those of a "goose, of a prle olive-brown, marked with spots 'of 'a dark co- lour : they build no nest, but only scrape a hole in the ground. BUTCHER, a person who slaughters cattle for the use of the "r. ruis no ;mci retails meat, NO. IV. VOL. I. B tr t Although, by the constitution of this country, the butchers 'are not so restricted as they .were in ancient Rome, nor in such high reputation for skill and. shamble-learning, 3s they are among the Jews, yet there are proper laws enacted for regu- lating their trade, and preventing the abuses committed by them, and their servants, if they were duly en- forced. A butcher selling swine's flesh measled, or dead of the mur- rain, shall, for the first offence, be amerced ; for the second, stand in the pillory : for the third, be im- prisoned, and pay a fine; and-, for the fourth, abjure the town. Those who exaft unreasonable prices for their meat, shall forfeit double the value 5 they are also occasionally fined for forestalling, &c. but per- haps never fcr BLOWING (which see), as few persons are inclined to complain, when redress of grie- vances is attended with loss of time and trouble. It appears that our legislature has affixed such' an imputation of proneness to shed human blood, upon persons who slaughter brute creatures for a subsistence, that, by the laws of England, no batcher is permitted to serve on a jury 1 , when sitting on the life of a fellow- subject. With respeft to the unlawful dealings of caTcass-l-utchers, it. has often been maintained, and we ap- prehend, upon good grounds, that they are a tax upon the necessaries of Jife, a toll upon the market, a chief cause of artificial famine ; in sh< :!, the worst class of usurers. Dr. BUCHAN justly censures the practice adopted by butchers, of tilling the cellular membranes of animals with blood. Thus the meat appears fatter, and weighs more than it would do in its natural D d state, 'BUT state, while it is rendered unwhole- some, and unfit for keeping. See also BALANCE. BUTCHER'S BHOOM. See KNEK- HOLLY. BUTTER, an artificial prepara- tion of cow's milk; which, either in its entire stata, vlf, yielded only 12 02. of butter; and the cream of two days milk pro- duced 3lb. 2oz. Hence it appears to be more profitable 'to collect the cream, and churn it, than to churn the whole milk. Cream-butter i*, &UT likcui.-,e, the richer of the twv>, though it will not keep so long sweet. Injustice to Dr. JAMES AxDpR- SON, who has favoured the public with an excellent Essay " on the Management of the Dairy" inserted in the correspondence of the Bath and West-of-England Society, we. shall communicate a few of his aphorisms: 1. The first milk, drawn from a cow is always thin- ner, and of an inferior quality to that which is afterwards obtained ; and this richness increases pro- gressively, to the \ery last drop that can be drawn from the udder, 2. The portion of cream rising first; to the surface, is richer in quality, and greater in quantity, than what rises in the second equal space of time, and so forth : the cream con- tinually decreasing, and growing worse than the preceding. 3, Thick milk produces a smaller proportion of cream than that which is thinner, though the cream, of the former is of a richer qua- lity. If, therefore, the thick miik be diluted with water, it will af- ford more qreajn than it would Iv.ivc; done in its pure state ; but its quality will at the same time be inferior. -1. Milk carried about in pails, or other vessels, agitated, and partly cooled, before it be poured into the milk-pans, never throws up such a good and plentiful cream as if it had been -put into proper vessels immediately after it came from the cow. ' Dr. ANDERSON, in the samej paper, imparts the following judi- cious hints : The milk should bq forced out of the cavities of the?, butter 'with a flat, wooden ladle, or skimming dish, provided with a short handle; and this should be dexterously performed, 'with as little 'B U T littler TV one part : beat them up together, so that they may be completely blended. To every pound, or six- teen ounces of butter, add one ounce of this composition. Mix it well in the mass, and close it up for use. Butler prepared in (hi* manner, will keep good for thrco years, and cannot be distinguished from that recently salted. If should, however, be remarked, that butter, thus cured, does not taste well till it has stood a fort- night, or three weeks. In tho opinion of Dr. ANDERSON, such butter would keep sweet during the longest voyages, if it were so stowed, that it could not melt by the heat of the climate, and occa- sion the salts to separate from it. Hence the butter ought to be pre- viously freed from its mucilage, which is more putrescible than the ciiy parts. In order to prepare it for a distant voyage, let it be put into a vessel of a proper shape, which should be immersed into another, containing water. Let this be gradually heated, till tho butter be thoroughly melted, in which state it may remain for some time, and then be allowed to settle. Thus, the mucilaginous part will fall entirely to the bot- tom, and the pure oil will swim uppermost, perfectly transparent, while hot ; but, on cooling, it be- comes opaque, assumes a colour somewhat paler than die original butter, before it was melted, and acquires a firmer consistence ; by which it is better enabled to resist fche; heat ejf tropical climates. Dd3 When 4 o6] BUT When this refined butter is be- come somewhat firm, yet soft enough to be handled, the pure part should be separated from the dregs, then salted, and packed in the usual manner. There is another, still more cu- rious, way of preserving this rerin- ed butter, stated by Dr. ANDER- SON. After it is purified, add to the butter a certain portion of firm honey, mix them well, and they will thoroughly incorporate: this mixture, when spread on bread, has a very pleasant taste, and may be given to aged persons, if they relish it, instead of marrow; and to others, as being useful for coughs and colds. The proportion of ho- ney employed was considerable ; and the Doctor remarks, that this mixture has been kept for years, without acquiring the least degree of rancidity ; so that there can be do doubt that butter might thus be safely preserved during long voyages; The food of cows very often affects the taste of butter. Thus, if wild-garlic, charloc, or May- weed, be found in a pasture ground, cows should not be suf- fered to feed there, before the first grass has been mown, when such pernicious plants will not again appear till the succeeding spring; but milch-cows must not partake of the hay made of those plants, as it will likewise com- municate their pernicious influ- ence. Cows should never be suffered to drink water from stagnant pools, in which there are frogs, spawn, &c. ; or from common sewers, or ponds that receive the drainings of stables^ all which are exceedingly jmproper. As turnips and rape impart a BUT disagreeable taste to milk and but- ter, Mr. ARTHUR YOUNG directs the dairy-man to boil two ounces of saltpetre in a quart of water ; to bottle the decoction ; and, when cold, to put a large tea-cupful of the mixture into ten, or twelve quarts, of new milk, immediately after it comes from the cow. As the turnips become stronger, the proportion of nitre may be in- creased. A shorter, and equal- ly effectual method, is, to scald the pans, or trays, with boil- ing water, just before the milk is poured in, and it will answer the purpose imended. But it is not generally known that the bad flavour, or rancidity of turnip-1-ut- ter, arises solely from the green food, or the tops of that plant. By previously cutting these away, the evil is completely prevented. Lord EGREMONT has adopted this expe- dient : he fed from 25 to 30 cows, for the greatest part of the winter, with turnips, the tops of which were carefully separated : and the butter prepared from thdr milk was equal to the very best cf the kind. For removing, or rather pre- venting, the bitter taste of barley- straw butter, a.s well as the ran- cidity of turnip- intter, Mr. MAR- SHALL suggests the following sim- ple, and rational means : Instead of putting the cream, immediately after it is skimmed off the milk, into the jar, or other retaining ves- sel, it is first poured upon hot u'ater, and having stood till cool, it is again skimmed off the wa- ter. According to experiments ac- curately made by Mr. JOSEPH WIMPEY, to determine the com- parative value of butter and cheese, 105.-} gallons of milk, properly dis- posed. BUT posed in pans for skimming off the cream, produced 36 Ib. of butter, and 60lb. of skimmed cheese. From a like quantity of milk were made 106'lb. of raw-milk cheese, and 61b. of whey-butter. After selling the cream-butter at 8\d. and the skimmed cheese at 2d. the pound, when the raw-milk cheese, two months old, was worth 3rd. the pound, and the whey-butter /d., it appears that a small ad- vantage of about three per cent. fies on the side of butter and skim- med cheese. Many abuses are practised in the packing and salting of butter, to increase its bulk and weight, against which we have an express statute. Lumps of good butter are frequently laid, for a little depth, at the top, and with an. inferior quality under it ; some- times the butter is set in rolls, touching only at top, and standing hollow at bottom. To prevent such deceptions, the faftors at Uttoxeter, in Staffordshire, a market famous for good butter, employ a surveyor, who, in case of suspicion, tries the cask, or jar, with an iron instrument, male not unlike a cheese-taster, and which he thrusts in obliquely to the bottom. But we understand, that the greatest frauds are com- mitted with the Irish butter, im- ported in firkins. One of our sagacious correspondents has sug- gested to us the propriety of com- municating the marks, which the butter-casks ought tg have on them, to distinguish their real goodness, before they are exported from Ireland : such information might be a guide to private fami- lies, who purchase a whole, or half a firkin at a time. On particular inquiry, we could only learn from BUT- [407 several eminent butter-men, that the name of Belfast, or some othr r town in the north of Ireland, i> usually marked on the cask, with an additional cross, and either one or more incisions under it, accord- ing to the superior quality of the butter. We trust, however, that no person will be disposed to pur- chase so precarious an article, with- out previously examining the con- tents of the vessel. Lasly, we cannot omit to ani- madvert upon the pernicious prac- tice of keeping milk in leaden ves- sels, and salting butter in stone jars, which begins to prevail, from a mistaken idea of cleanliness. Bat, in the hands of a cleanly per- son, there surely can be nothing more wholesome than wooden dishes. We fully agree with Dr. AXDERSOX-, that vessels made ei tlier of solid lead, or badly glazed, are alike destructive to the human constitution ; that we may doubt- less attribute to this cause the fre- quency of paralytic complaints, which occur in all ranks of society ; and that the well known effects of the poison of lead, are, bodily debi- lity, palsy death ! MILK- BUTTER is principally made in Cheshire ; where, con- trary to the usual practice in other parts of the kingdom, the whole of die milk is churned, without being- skimmed ; preparatory to which operation, in summer, immediately alter milking, the meal is put to cool in earthen jars, till it becomes sufficiently coagulated, and has ac- quired a slight degree of acidity, sufficient to undergo the operation of churning. This is usually per- formed, during the summer, in the course of one or two days. In winter, in order to forward coagu- lation, the milk is placed near a D d 4 tire j 4S] B'UT lire j but, in summer, if it has not been sulTicit.-nt.ly cooled, before it is added to the former meal, or, if it has been kept too close, and be iwt chuined shotly alter it has ac- quired die necessary degree of coa- gulation and acidity, a fermenta- tion will ensue ; in which case, the butter becomes rancid, and the milk does not yield that quantity, xvhich it wouldj if it had been churned in proper time. This is also the case, when, in winter, the jars, or mugs, have been placed too near the tire, and the milk runs entirely to whey. No peculiar process attends the making of this kind of butter. WHEY- BUTTER is so called, from its being made of whey, which is either green or white. The former is taken from the curd, out of the cheese tub ; the white \yhey is pressed out of the curd, by the hand or otherwise, after having been put into the cheese vat. This kind of butter is made as follows : Sometimes the white whey, or, as it is called in Cheshire, the thrust- ings, is set in cream mugs, to ac- quire a sufficient degree of coagu- lation, and acidity for churning, either by the. warmth of the sea- son, or of a room, in the same manner as above described, for making milk-butter. In other in- stances, the green and the white whey are boiled together, and turned by a little sour ale, or other acid, which produces fleetings. See calding WHEY. In this case, when the gretn whey is boiled alone, it is necessary to keep up such a tire as will malce the whey as hot as possible, without boiling it ; a.\d, when it has acquired that degree of heat, the butyraceons particles, which it contains, will break and separate,, and rige to the surface,, BUT which effeft usually takes- pJacc in- :ice of an hour. Care should, be taken to rub the boiler, it" ot iron, with batter, to prevent the v.-hey from acquiring a rancid In other respects, t' e pro-v cess of making whey-butter differ*, little from that of milk-b>: But the former will keep c. few days, has a marbled appear- ance, and does not cut quite so^ firm, or clear, as butter ma cream. * One of our correspon- dents observes, that, in the year; 1794, whey-butter was sold by, contract, for the whole year, at lOd. per pound, and carried 2O miles to Manchester : he further. remarks, that the fleetings ave- " nice eating," witii sugar, though, some epicures add wine or bi;: BUTTER-MILK is that part of. the milk which remains after the butter is extracted. Curds of but- ter-milk arc made by pouring into, it a quantity of hot new milk.. The quality of butter-miik great- ly depends on the manner oi ma- naging the process of clmrnuig. If it be obtained according to the Lancashire method, above-describ-. ed, it becomes an excellent food for man, being both wholesome and pleasant ; though it is, in many English counties, given to hogs. Good butter-milk is refreshing and cooling : hence, it is often re- commended in hectic fevers, for. abating preternatural heat and flushings of the face. In spring, if drank freely, it is said to pro- duce a favourable change on the fluids, when they are in a state of acrimony. And, though modern physicians smile at the idea of sweetening, or purifying the blood, yet the good effects of butter-milk, at, well as sweet whey 4 in proper cases BUT cases and constitutions, have -too often been experienced, to admit of any doubt, in consequence of an unsettled theory. . BUTTER - BURR, the COM- MON, or Colt's-foot, the Tussilago fetasitcs, L. is an indigenous plant, growing in moist meadows, pastures,- and banks of rivers, Its leaves are the largest of any plant in Biitain, and, in heavy rains, af- ford a shelter to poultry, aud other small animals. Its flowers appear in April, before the leaves, as in most other venial plants. The root, dug up in spring, abounds with a resinous, aromatic matter : it has a strong sraeil, and a bitter- ish, acrid taste. In Germany, the leaves of the butter-burr are bruised, and mix- ed with charF, or cut straw ; in which state they are fondly eaten by cattJe. Formerly, the root of tliis plant was hi, iily esteemed as a sudorific, and aiei-apharnyc, for which pur- poses, a dram of it was given for a dose ; but, as it has been found to possess ihv.se virtues in no very eminent degree, it has again been negk-cted in the shops. The late Sir JOHX KILL, however, in his '.' I'irtues of hritish. Hurls," pub- lished in 177O, calls die common butter-burr an admirable medicine in fevers of the worst kind;, as, when taken early, it prevents die mischiefs that often arise naturally in die disease; and oftener from the errors of physicians. Sir JOHN farther informs us, that, about the middle of the last cen- tury, when a disease of die putrid kind prevailed in England, die same lever raged also in Germany] and while, die English died by s, and by cnemical medi- B U T [409 cjnes, the Germans lived by the use of the butter-burr. He also very seriously speaks of a heavier visitation, and it" the greatest of u,I calamities should come, there are few things from. w;nch we might' expect so great relief as this herb. The Greeks u^ed it with the great- est success ; aud the very name of die plant among the Germans, is p'.'Siiltnce-u.'. Mr. EDWARDS, in his "Natu- ral History of Birds," gives the following curious directions for taking the figure, of these insects : Take butterflies, or -field-moths, clip off the wings close to their bodies, and lay them on clean pa- per, in the form of the insect when flying j then have ready prepared gum-arabic, which has been some time dissolved in water, and is of a thick consistence ; then pour a drop of ox-gall into a spoonful of this liquid, mix it well together, and spread a little of it on a pure of thin, white paper, wide enough to take both sides of the fly; when it begins to feel clammy, the paper is in proper order to take the down from its wings ; lay the gummed side on the wings, and it will ad- here so as to take them up ; then double the paper, so as to have all the wings between it; lay it on a table, pressing it close with the fingers, or it may be rubbed gently with something hard and smooth; after which, on opening the paper, the wings will come forth transpa- rent ; the down of the upper and under sides, adhering to the gum- med pap : e,r, forms an accurate like- ness of both skies of the wings, in their natnrrd shape and colour. - When the gummed papers have BUT been opened, the bodic* of thr flies should be copied from the na- tural ones, upon stiff, and separate paper, painted in water colours/ and fixed between the representa- tions of (lie M-ings. BUTTERWORT, or the Pin- gtacula, L. ; a genus containing six species, of which die most re- markable is the i-ulgarit, or com- mon butterwort, or Yorkshire sa- nicle, growing on bogs, or low, moist grounds, in England and Scotland. Its leaves are covered with soft, upright, pellucid prick- les, secreting a glutinous liquor ; the blossoms violet, purple, and reddish, with white lips, and an ash-coloured, woolly spot on the palate : its flowers appear in May and June. LINNAEUS informs us, that if the fresh gathered leaves of this plant be put into a strainer, through which the miik of the rein-d-ier is poured while warm, and set by for a day or two, to be- come acescent, it acquires such a degree of consistency and tenaci- ty, that neither whey nor cream, separate. The inhabitants in the north of Sweden eat this coagulated milk, as a very grateful food. When the leaves have been once used, it is not necessary to have recourse to them again ; for half a spoonful of the prepared milk, mixed with a fresh quantity of other milk, will always effect the purpose: but Mr. HAWES, who tried this expe- riment witli cow's milk,, did not succeed. The juice of the leaves of com- mon butterwort kills lice in men and brutes ; and likewise cures: chaps in cow's udders. Neither sheep, cows, horses, gouts, nor swine, will feed upon the plant; though it is erroneously believed that it occasions the rot in sheep. Exter- BUX External applications of the root, are, according to BECHSTEI^, a good vulnerary; and, if credit be due to him, decoctions made of the \vhole plant, tend to restore the hair to a bald head. BUXTON WATERS are those warm mineral springs which rise in a village of that name, in Der- byshire, and have long been cele- brated for their medicinal proper- ties. One of the earliest treatises on the virtues of this spring, was published in the year 1752, by Dr. JONES, of Derby : at which pe- riod Buxton appears to have been a place of great resort. SHORT, in his " History of Mineral Wa- ters" mentions that several re- mains of Roman antiquities have been discovered near this spot : hence it is probable that the foun- tain vy-as known to the ancients. The springs issue from several small fissures, in a calcareous free- stone. They are very numerous, and always afford a sufficient quantity of water to supply the va- rious baths. The most ancient spring is called Saint Anne's Well, which is now inclosed in an ele- gant stone building. There are several others, that supply a num- ber of beautiful baths, both public and private. With respect to its sensible pro- perties, the Buxton water cannot be distinguished from common spring water, when heated to the same temperature. It is clear and colourless, and does not become turbid on being exposed to the air ; it leaves no sediment, nor does it form any incrustation on the pipes, or stones, through which it flows. Its temperature in the gentlemen's bath is invariably at 82. During the cool of the morning and even- ing, a tlnn column of steam, is per- BU X ceptible over the surface of the bath; but, if this continues throughout the day, it is consider- ed as an indication of approaching rain. The principal peculiarity in the appearance of this spring, is a large quantity of elastic vapour that rises, and forms bubbles, which pass through the water, and break as soon as they reach the surface. The air of these bubbles was ascertained by Dr. PEARSON, to consist of azotic gas, mixed with a small proportion of atmospheric air. By evaporation to dryness, he found that a gallonof the water con- inl.ioJ only 15 grains of residuum, of which he estimated 1| grains to be muriat of soda, 1\ sulphat of lime, and 10} carbonat of lime. Euxton water is frequently em- ployed both internally and exter- nally; one of which methods often proves beneficial, when die other would be injurious ; but, as a bath alone, its virtues may not be su- perior to those of common water. As the temperature of 82". is several degrees below that of the human body, a slight shock of cold is felt on the first immersion into the b ;th ; but this is almost imme- diately succeeded by a pleasing glow over the whole system. It is, therefore, proper for very deli- cate and irritable habits. The cases which derive most benefit from the external use of Buxton waters, are those in which a loss of action, and sometimes of sensation, affects particular limbs j in consequence of long-continued, or violent inflammation, or exter- nal injury. Hence, the chronic rheumatism, succeeding the acute, and where the inflammation has been seated in particular limbs, is often wonderfully relieved by this bath. The internal use of the wa- ter ter has been found to be of consi- derable service in symptoms of de- fective digestion, and derange- ment of the alimentary organs. A judicious use of this simple remedy will often relieve the heart-burn, flatulency, and sickness ; it will in- crease the . appetite, aniniate the spirits, and improve t!,e hcalih. At first, however, it sometimes occa- sions a diarrhcra, which is rather salutary than detrimental. It also affords great relief, when taken in- ternally, in painful disorders of the bladder and ki i 'd has lik;> \/ise been recommended in eases of the p;out> but, when taken for these complaints, Dr.. DEXMAN advises the addition of some aromatic tincture. As an external application in the gout,. Huxton water is sometimes of service:, though the bath ir.^cif is more i', -.tore the func- tions of the parts afflicted with this Disease. In ail cases -of active in- flammation, the use of these wa- ters should be carefully, avoided, on account of their supposed heat- ing properties. A full course cou- ^i.sts of two glasses, ere fre- quently the former is of a yellowish white, with oblong rust-coloured spots : the back of the head, neck, and coverts of the wings, are of a deep brown, edged with a pale, rust colour ; the tail is barred either with black, or ash colour. -There is another species, die ccruginosus, or moor-buzzard, with a greyish body, and yellow legs. It makes its nest in a tuft of grass, or among rushes, is a fierce and vo- racious bird, and a great destroyer of rabbits, young ducks, and other water-fowl. CABBAGE; [4'3 C. CAB CABBAGE, or Brassica, L. A genus of plants comprising sixteen species, of which the following are tne principal : 1 . The orientalis, or perfoliate cabbage. This species is indige^ nous, grows in corn-fields, and clirFs on the sea-coast near Har- wich, and Bardsey near Orford, Suffolk ; but it is not cultivated. 2. The campestris, or field -cab- bage, which is also a native, and grows on the sea-shore near Dover. The severest winters do not injure this plant, which becomes pecu- liarly useful when every other spe- cies is destroyed. It is more gene- rally known under the name of cauliflower, and its culture has been much improved in Britain, where it has become a source of national wealth ; the greater part of Europe being supplied thence with seeds, and, till lately, Hol- land almost wholly with plants. 3. The Nupus, or rape, or cole- seed cabbage, which is indigenous, and also reared in \arious parts of England, especially in the Isle of Ely, for its seed, from which rape- oil is extracted ; the refuse is called oil-cak- 1 , and is useful for the fat- tening of oxen, and other catue. The most piercing frost afreets not this hardy plant, which, in severe v/inters, is of no small service in feeding ewes j when, from the in- tenseness of the cold, the ground is so frozen that no turnips can be taken up. In the county of Nor- folk, the cakes are broken to pieces, and strewed on the land as manure, for which purpose it is considered CAB particularly efficacious. The cul- tivated variety, though it has a stronger taste, may be eaten like the turnip. 4. The rapa, or turnip-cabbage. This is a native of Britain, and grows principally in corn-fields : it is eaten either boiled, roasted, or raw, generally with the addition of pepper. The importance an4 value of tins species, for the fatten- ing of cattle in particular, have not been generally known or ascer- tained till within these few years. The soil intended for planting, ought to be manured and tilled in the same manner as for the com- mon turnip, the necessary extent of old pasture-ground, being previ- ously breast-ploughed and burntl The land should be dug as shallow' as possible, and the ashes turned in : about Midsummer, or sooner, should the weather be favourable, the planting ought to be com- menced ; two perches, if well stocked with plants, being suffi- cient to supply an acre. Independently of the utility of this plant, as a fcxL'er for cattle, during the wirier season, it has been much recommended as a sea- store, from the facility with which it may be preserved on ship-board; and as it furnishes an agreeable and wholesome food for sailors on long voyages, at a time when every other fresh vegetable is entirely spoiled. 5. Tlie Qleracea, or sea-colewort, sea-cabbage, or common cabbage, is also indigenous, and grows prin- cipally on cliffs near-the sea-coast*. Early 4*4] CAB Early in the spring, this species is preferred to those that are culti- vated ; but, when gathered on the sea-coast, it is requisite that it be boiled in two waters, to deprive it of its saline taste. The roots may be eaten like those of the preceding species; but they are by no means so tender. All the various kinds of garden-cabbage in use at our tables, originate from this. The red cabbage is chiefly used for pickling. In some countries, the white cabbage is buried in autumn, when full grown, and is thus pre- served during the whole winter. See WITHERING, p. 502. They are cut in pieces by the Germans, who, mixing them with some aro- matic herbs and salt, press them closely down in a tub, where they soon ferment, and are eaten under the name of sauer kraut. Dr.DARwiN observes, that Sea- Cale is much esteemed for the de- licacy of its taste, which is superior to most kinds of broccoli. It ap- pears that this species of the cab- bage should be sown the latter end of March, or the beginning of April, in drills, and afterwards earthed up. In autumn, it should be transplanted into high beds, one row of roots in each bed, about a foot asunder ; and, in winter, it should be covered up. The beds should be made in dry ground, and the produce will not be fit for the table till the third year after sow- ing. The year before it is cut for eating, it must be covered in the beginning of winter, first with stable-dung, which may be pre- vented from pressing on it, by placing a few sticks in the form of a cone over each root ; it should then be covered with long litter, to the height of two or three feet. About the beginning of January it CAB may be gathered, and the cutting continued till'May, one bed being kept under another. It should be boiled, and sent up on toast, like asparagus. To this species also belong those varieties of the Irassica, denomi- nated the turnip-rooted cabbage, and the drum-headed cabbage. The former is generally supposed to have been brought from Lapland, and is found to be well calculated for uplands and wolds. It delights in a dry, sandy, mixed soil, which is prepared in the same manner as for turnips. The seed is usually sown in the beginning of June, and yields so abundantly, that half a pound of it, if sown on a seed- bed two or three perches square, will produce plants sufficient to stock an acre. But if they run too much to stalk, care must be taken to transplant them, and thus to check their luxuriant vegetation. This plant is very hardy, and its bushy tops furnish a most excellent and abundant food for cattle dur- ing the spring. It is pr.ncipally raised for feeding oxen, cows, hogs, and horses } but, if given to sheep during winter, it occasions a species of white flux, of which, however, they soon recover on a change of food ; and which is sel- dom, it ever, attended with any dangerous consequences. The drum - headed cabbage is usually sown on a bed towards the end of February or March 5 but sometimes also in August, in which case the plants are set out in No- vember, and transplanted in July. A hardy variety, of a deep green colour with purple veins, and of the same size as the drum-head, has been produced from this cab- bage, by planting it alternately with the red kind ; and, when the pods - - were CAB \vere completely formed, by cutting down the red and leaving the other for seed. This variety is particu- larly useful in the feeding of cows or ewes; as it affords an increase of milk, far superior to that pro- duced by turnips : and is equally excellent for the fattening of cattle, which it does six weeks sooner than any other vegetables. Al- though these plants are generally supposed to impart a disagreeable flavour to butter and cheese, made from the milk of cows fed upon them, yet this may be easily pre- vented, either by putting one gal- lon of boiling water to six gallons of milk, when it is exposed in the leads ; or by dissolving one ounce of nitre in a quart of spring- water, and mixing about a quarter of a pint of it with ten or twelve gal- lons of milk, when warm from the cow. By breaking off the loose kaves, and giving only the sound heart to the cows, this disagreeable quality may also be obviated ; as other cattle will eat the leaves without injury. 6. The mural is, or wall -cab- bage, which is usually found on eld walls and rubbish. This plant is a native of Britain ; all its parts are considerably acrid, and have a rank, disagreeable smell : it is, therefore, never cultivated. 7- The Aliiinn, or Savov. Tills is an exotic, and is chiefly propa- gated for winter use ; being gene- rally preferred when nipped by die frost. It is sown towards the latter end of April, and the culture of it varies but little from that pursued with respecl to the common white cabbage ; the only difference being, that the latter species may be set more closely together than the former ; for, if planted in close places, it is subject to be almost CAB {415 consumed by caterpillars or other vermin. 8. The Munensis, or Isle-of-Man Cabbage, which grows in a sandy soil, on sea shores, particularly in the north-western parts of Britain. This plant differs little from the Brassica muratis, as it appears to correspond exactly with some spe- cimens in the possession of Dr. WITHERING. Like the latter, it is not cultivated. To these species may be added the Scotch cabbage, so denominated from being more particularly culti- vated in Scotland, where it consti- tutes a very considerable article of food for cattle. The variety intro- duced into England a few years since, is the green Scotch cabbage, which will grow extremely well on moor-lands, and, if cut just before the frost sets in, and hung up under cover, forms a food so peculiar] v agreeable to cattle, that, when once they have tasted it, they will rarely relish any other. There is another species of the Brassica, denominated the mowing cabbage (chmix dfoucher}. It ap- pears to be a native of Germany, but has been cultivated with consi- derable success in France, both as a pulse for mankind, being free from the bitter herbaceous taste of the other cabbages, and as a fodder, equally good and abundant for cattie. This plant is reared from seed, and will admit of being cut four, five, or six times in the year it is sown ; after which it is left for the winter. In the month of Fe- bruary it shoots forth, when its leaves may be cut again ; in April it begins to grow up, and produces stalks and seed, which may be gathered in June. During the first year of its growth, this plant doe not send forth any stalks ; its leaves appearing 416] CAB appearing to rise immediately out of the ground, from which circum- stance it maybe cut like grass, and dried in a similar manner for hay. It will also yield oil, far superior to that ot cole and poppy seed, and equal to that expressed from olives. Culture. The different modes of cultivating this plant do not, in general, vary much. The soil best calculated for cauliflowers, is a spot <>i" ground tolerably rich, and well defended from the north, east, and west winds, by hedges, pales or walls, the first of which, espe- cially if constructed with reeds, are most preferable, as they meet the wind, which, by falling on them, cannot reverberate, r.s is the case with tlie latter. But, should the .soil Delected for this purpose, be natu- rally wet, it will be requisite to , raise it up ill beds two feet and a half, or three feet broad, and about 'four inches above the level of the ground. On the contrary, if it be jfjry, no embankment is necessary. With respeft to .the other species of cabbage, with a few exceptions, they delight in situations rich, open, .and dry, yet not too much exposed to the inclemencies of our var climate ; care being taken at the same time not to plant them too near, especially when intended for seed; as, independently of their mutually obstructing the growth of their roots, by the commixture of their effluvia, they will produce a mixture of kinds. This is particu- larly the case with respeft to the planting of white and .red cabbages together, and of Savoys with either of those species. In fact, it is to .this cause we owe the continual importation of fresh seeds from abroad, our gardeners rarely saving any good red cabbage- seed ; where- as, if a contrary conduct were pur- CAB sued, they might continue species as good in Britain as in any other pnrt of the world. In whatever light we view this plant, whether as an article of food for man, or as fodder for cattle, it fully merits all the attention, which of late years has been bestowed upon it. It amply repays the care and diligence which the industrious cultivator confers on it, each species being equally fruitful. And it is a fact, though not generally known, but wlrch deserves greater publi- city, that when the common gar- den cabbage is in 'perfection, and we wish to cut it, if, instead of severing the whole from the stalk, as is usually done, the loaf, or heart only be scooped out, and all the large, lower leaves left entire, a young cabbage will, in due time., be produced, superior in na;-u.e vcs- F e 3 J rl_, 422] C A L sel, till it be changed into a black alkaline, coaly mass. This is call- ed, by chemists, the Hack flux, a double quantity of which, in pro- portion to the calces, or scoriar, exposed to a proper heat in a cru- cible, closely covered, will maVe them melt, and resume their me- tallic form. CALCULARY of a Pear, is a cluster of small, strong knots, which are dispersed through the whole of the parenchyma of the fruit. It is mostly found in rough- tasted, or choke-pears, of which it does not form any essential part ; as the several knots which com- pose, it, are only so many concre- tions, or precipitations out of the sap, in a manner similar to that seen in urine, wine, and other liquors. Calculus. See STONE. Calendar. See KALENDAR. CALENDER, a machine em- ployed in manufactories to pi-ess woollen, and silken stuffs, and li- nens, in order to make them smooth, even, and glossy, and nlso to give them waves, as is done wMi mohairs and tabbies. This r.pparatus consists of two thick cy- linders or rollers of very hard and well-polished wood, round which the stuffs intended to be calendered, are wound. The rollers are then placed cross-wise between two very thick boards, the tower of which serves as a fixed base, while the upper one is moveable by means of a thick screw, with 3 rope fastened to a spindle that form- its axis : the uppermost board is also laden with large st&ries of above ;ty thousand potmds weight. CALF, in zoology, the young of z cow. On account of its great utility, the means of rearing, feed- ing and improving- this animal/ C AL hare from its earliest existence, ^x- ercised all the ingenuity of man- kind. There are two methods of feeding calves : the first is,, to let them run about with their dam the whole of the first year; a plan which is generally acknowledged to be productive of the best cattle, and is pursued in counties where fodder is cheap. The other mode is, to take them from the dam when about a fortnight old, irom which period they are " brought up by hand." Various plans have, with consi- derable success, been tried and re- commended for the rearing of calves, with a small allowance of milk, and in some cases without any. In several counties of Eng- land, calves, on being taken from the cows, are taught to drink luke- warm fiet, or skimmed milk ; it being dangerous to give it them too hot. The time selected for this purpose, is from the latter end of January to the beginning of Mav, nbom tUL-he weeks after which, for nearly a month, they are fed with milk diluted with water. Small, wisps of hay are then placed round them on cleft sticks, in order to induce them to eat. About the latter end of May, they are turned out to grass, being only taken in a few times at first, during the night, when they have milk :ii:d water rtivnn them} which is also conti- nued, though in less proportion, during the last month, till they are able to feed themselves, and conse- quently disregard it. Care is also taken to wean them with short nnd sweet grass ; for, if hay and water be used, they become liable to swellings and the rot. In other parts of England, a composition called linseed-miik is found to be of considerable utility foe CAL for this purpose. The principal ingredients of which are, a small quantity of linseed-oil-cake' finely pulverized, which may be ine; ed as occasion may require, in pro- portion as the calf becomes accus- tomed to it, and gradually mixed v.'itii some ski. nine ,1 milk, sweet- ened with treacle. Tiiis must be made nearly as warm as new milk, wh. n first taken from the cow. An infusion of hay, called indiscri- minately hay-tea, or hay- water, mixed with linseed, and boiled down to the consistence of a jelly, has likewise been tried with suc- cess ; as niso a species of water- gruel, consisting of nearly one- third bark}-, and the remainder of oats, ground very fine. A similar composition is used in the county of Cornwall; t 1 e only difference being the addition of scalded or skimmed milk. These are some of the principal modes adopted for the rearing and weaning of calves; from which, in general, the rest djfter but little. The fattening of calves, from the esteem in which their flesh is held, is an object of importance, especi- ally in the vicinity of London, where the lands are not so profit- able for breeding cattle, as in other parts of the country ; and the me- thods used for that purpose an- as various as those for reaving- them. Since the improvements which have taken place in rural economy, calves have a much greater variety of food than before. Grains, po- tatoes, malt-dust, pollard, and turnips, together with sweet hay, now constitute their common ali- ment. But, in order to ma!.e them fine and fat, the best and most efficacious way i*, to keep them as clean as possible, by ele- vating the coops in such a planner CAL [423 that the sun may not have t<>;j great power over them, and to* such a height above the level of the ground, that their urine may pass off; by giving them fresh litter every day, and suspending over the coop a large chalk-stone, so that they can easily lick it. Be- sides this, it is usual to bleed them when they are about a month old, and again just before they are slaughtered ; which practice contri- butes in a considerable degree to the beauty and whiteness of the flesh, and is therefore more frequently repeated by some persons ; but this is not altogether necessary ; twice bleeding being fully suffici- ent for that purpose, in the opinion of the most experienced breeders. It is, however, to be observed, that those calves which are intend- ed for balls, or to be gelt for oxen, should be selected as soon as pos- sible ; as for the latter operation they should not be older thau twenty days, Distempers, From the first day of their birth, calves are subject to various distempers, which require great attention. The earliest is that generally called the scouring, for which an ingenious correspon- dent in the Annals 'f Agriculture (vol. xix. p. 43/) prescribes a mix-! ture of powdered chalk and wheat- meal wrought into a ball with gin, as a medicine that may be given with safety. They are also liable to be hoven, in which case the thrusting of a penknife through that part of the swelling which ri-u-j highest near the hip-bone, and in-. traducing a large quill into the ori- fice, have been attended with suc- cess in relieving them. The sho'otc is another distemper which is par- ticularly fatal to calves, and attacks them a lew days alter their "birth. K e 4 The. 424] C A L The symptoms generally are, 1 . A colic more or less violent, which is often very severe and dangerous, especially when it is infectious. This antecedent colic is terminat- ed, and the animal relieved, by a discharge taking place from the bowels ; but this is sometimes fa- tal before the sJioote appears. 2. A loathing, and refusing of food, even previous to the evacuation, which increases and decreases in proportion to the violence and du- ration of the distemper. In this disorder, the cheapest, and perhaps the best medicine which has gene- rally been administered by several experienced breeders, is milk well mulled with eggs; or eggs and flour properly mixed with oil, melt- ed butter, and mucilaginous roots, or speeds, such as linseed, aniseed, &c. But the most fatal of the va- rious diseases to which calves are subject, is that denominated in Herefordshire, the gut-tie, where it most commonly prevails ; the symp- toms of which are, a total stoppage in the bowels, except a copious dis- charge of blood and mucus, accom- panied by a violent fever, that oc- casions the affected animal to kick at its belly, lie down, and groan. This is the effecl of an erroneous method of castration, which causes a stoppage in the bowels, and brings on mortification, and which in a few days proves fatal. The only safe mode of cure is, to make a perpendicular incision four inches under the third vertebra of the loins over the paunch, or stomach, and introduce the arm to find the part affecled, the beast being kept, if possible, in an ereft position, by the help of proper assistants. In order to remove the stoppage in the stomach occasioned by the tie, arid to carry off the fever, four C AL- ounces of Glauber's salts, two ounces of cream of tartar, and one ounce of senna, infused in two pints of boiling water, are given, to which are added halt a pound of olive oil ; the whole of this is worked off with gruel in which mallows and alder-b?rk have been infused. In order to avoid any far- ther detail of this and the preced- ing distempers, we must refer our readers to the third volume of Mr. YOUNG'S Am} ah of Agriculture, p. 200 216; and to the second volume, p. QS 104, of the Reper- tory of Arts and Hffanujaftures. Calf's Snout. See Lesser SNAP- DRAGON. CALICO, a stuff or cloth of cotton, originally manufactured in India ; but, within the last twenty or thirty years, it has been imitated in Britain, and brought to great perfection, since the invention of machines for spinning cotton. In the towns of Manchester, Glas- gow. Paisley, &:c. many thousards of industrious hands are employed in the manufacture of this article ; which, according to its different degrees of fineness, is sold from 6d. to 6s. and upwards, a yard. Cotton cloth is an intermediate substance between that made of flax and animal wool ; but by no means deserves to be commended as a substitute for flannel, next the skin. Calico imbibes and retains the perspired humors, unless it be as frequently changed as linen ; while flannel admits a free evaporation through its more numerous pores. CALKINS are the prominent parts at the extremity of a horse- shoe, bent downwards, and the edges blunted. They often occa- sion horses to trip, and sometimes also produce the I' ley me, or an in- flammation in the foot between the sole CAM sole and the bone ; while the dis- ease is communicated to the back and the sinews. Calkins, when ' formed like a hnre's ear, and if the horn of a horse's heel be pared pretty lo\v, seldom do much damage ; but when left large and square, they spoil the foot entirely. There are single and double calkins, accord- ingly as they are made at one or both ends of the foot : the latter, however, are but rarely hurtful, and generally make a horse trot more even and steady. " Cnltha. See MARSH MARY- GOLD. Caltrops. See PONDWEED. CALX properly signifies lime ; but the term is also used by che- mists and physicians for a line powder, which remains after the calcination of metals and other mi- neral substances. All metallic calces are found to weigh more Thau the metal from which they were oriffiually produced. See ^ J t CALCINATION. CAMBLET, or CHAMBLET, a stuff made of wool, silk, and some- times of hair, especially that of goats, combined with the first- mentioned substances. In some, the warp consists of \vool and siik, and the woof of hair. The real oriental camblet is made from the hair of the Angora goat. There are no camblets made in Europe of goat's hair alone : France, Hol- land, Flanders, and England, are the chief places where this manu- facture is carried on. Those of Brussels are allowed ro be of the finest quality, and those of Eng- land stand next in repute. These articles are of various kinds, which are denominated JiguredcaaAdets, tratefed camblets, camblets, &c. CAM [425 CAMBRIC, in commerce, a species of very fine white linen, made of flax, which derives its name from Cambray, a city of France, where it was first invented. This article has long been an object of considerable advantage to the French, who formerly drew large, sums annually from England by its sale : hence the British Parliament was induced to pass several law* to prevent this loss of our national wealth ; and, among others, the 18 GEO. II. c. 30', and 21 GEO.!!. c. 20, which impose a penalty or'ol. on all who are convicted of wear- ing, selling, or making up for hire, any cambric or French lawns ; which, however, are allowed to be exported. A cambric manufactory was established some years since at Winchelsea, in Sussex, to regu- late which the statutes of the 32 GEO. II. c. 32, and 4 GEO. III. c. 3/, were passed; but it was very soon relinquished, and the manu* facture carried into Scotland and Ireland, whence we are now sup- plied with that article. CAMUXE. See GOLD of Plea- sure. CAMMOCK. See Thorny REST- HARROW. CA.MPMILE. SeeCHAMOMiLE. CA.MPKACHY "Woou. See Loti- WOOl}. CAMPHOR, a white, solid, transparent resin, of a very vola- tile penetrating smell, and a bit- terish aromatic pungent taste, ac- companied with a sense or coolness. It is chiclly extracted from the wood and roots of the Lauru.-i Cutit- p/tora, L. a tree growing in Sumatra and Japan ; but may also be ob- tained in small quantities, by distil- lation, from a variety of vegetables, suqfi as the peppermint, carda- moms, &c. in \\ iiidi it may easily be 4*6] CAM bediscovered by theirpeculiar cam- phorated odour, and their cooling pungent tast . From these, the camphor mny be disengaged by dis- tillation, either in a pure state, or in combination with essential oils. In order to separate it, dissolve the whole of the camphorated oil thus obtained in a proportionate quan- tity of alcohol ; then dilute this so- lution with twelve times the quan- tity of distilled water : if the oil contain no camphor, the water used for the mixture will remain clear and transparent ; the alcohol will gradually combine, with it, and the oily particles separate. On the contrary, if thr oil be mixed with camphor, the whole mixture will be converted into a milky liquor, from which the camphor will be gradually precipitated in the form of a white powder, while the oily parts ascend to the surface of the water. By melting this powder in a close glass vessel, over a mode- rate fire, it will assume the concrete form of camphor ; though the re- maining liquid will retain a small portion of this substance, as well as of essential oil. Camphor is justly esteemed one of the most efficacious medicines for promoting perspiration, reliev- ing spasms, and resisting putrefac- tion : hence it has long been cele- brated in malignant fevers, and epidemical distempers. In deli- rium, it frequently procures a com- posed rest, after opiates have failed of success. In modern practice, however, it is chiefly employed ex- ternally, to diminish inflammation, to disperse tumors, to obviate mor- tification, to stimulate in cases of local palsy, and to allay rheumatic and paralytic pains. "We state, on the authority of Dr. C. f.. HOFF- MANN, of Mayence, the oldest CAN physician now living in Gernianj, that camphorated applications in the malignant, confluent small-pox, are often the only means of saving the patient's life; and that he once restored to health a young lady in a hopeless situation, by using, in the course of twelve days, not less than eighty-Jour ounces of solid camphor, chiefly in the form of an ointment made with the yolk of eggs, spread on clean napkins, and applied, as often as they became dry, over the whole body. Internally, camphor is given in nervous afte&ions, in order to ex- cite the vital power, and alleviate spasmodic complaints. It is recom- mended as singularly efficacious in cases of ardor uriiife, or scalding of the urine, and nervous head-achs ; the dose may be increased from three to twenty grains ; and, in cases of madness, from five to thus, ty grains ; two, or three times a day, after the necessary bleedings, pur- gatives, and the tepid bath. To render camphor properly diffusible in water, it should first be dissolved in a little spirit of wine, or express- ed oil, and then well triturated with mucilage of gum arabic. CANADA BALSAM, a trans- parent resinous juice, of an agree- able smell, and a warm pungent taste. It is imported from Canada, in North America, and may be considered as a very pure turpen- tine, being obtained from a species of the fir-tree. The genuine kind is of a light amber colour, and j- firm consistence. Although it has not hitherto been much employed in medicine, yet it appears to be possessed of all the properties and virtues attributed to the balsam of COI'AIVA, to which we refer. CAMPION. See CATCH-FLY. CANAL, au artificial cut in the CAN CAN the ground, wliich is supplied with water froai rivers, springs, ixc. in order to make a navigable commu- lon between different places. Th?re av.- circumstances, upon which the particahr < tions, necessary tor construing navigations, depend; and which consequently inaei'.se, or dimmish, the labour and txpence of execut- ing them: such as, the situation of the, ground ; the vicinity to, or connection with rivers ; the facili- ty or difficulty with which the necessary quantity of water can be procured ; and many other re- quisites. The utility of canals to a trading nation are too well known ; we shall therefore only refer to the following, among the many works that have lately been published on this important subject, in which the structure, economy, and ad- vantages of canals are amply and perspicuously treated, viz. i.Mr. FULTON'S " Treatise on Canal '.ration;'' 4to. 18s. Taylor, 1796. The author displays an in- genuous disposition, and a sincere wish to promote useful improve- ment. His work is well written, the engraving beautifully executed, and the whole is replete with ire- ful information. 2. Mr. CHAP- MAX'S " Olservations on the vari- ous si/stems of Canal Navigation;" 4to. b's. Taylor. This performance also abounds with useful instruc- tion, and forms a valuable and ne- cessary addition to Mr. FULTON'S work. 3. Mr. TATHAM'S " On the Political Economy (if Inland Navigation, Irrigation, and Diain- age ;" 4to. ll. tis. Faultier, l/"9. This work likewise contains some valuable hints, and is not destitute of utility. On the subject of clearing navi- gable canals of weeds, we shall treat under the head of WEKDS. CANARY BIRD, or FnngiLla, cauaria. is a species of finch, and a native of the Canary Islands. It is supposed to have been first brought to Europe in the 14th c-r- tury. At a still later period, ca- nary-birds were more generally introduced into Germany, where the greatest attention is paid to the breeding and rearing oftae.se beau- tiful creatures, wnich are much celebrated for fiieir song, and do- cility in imitating musical notes. Hence they have become a source of considerable emolument to the Tyrolese, who export vast num- bers to various parts of Europe, and also to England. If treated with proper care, they will breed, and become as vigorous and health- ful in this country, a,s in their na- tive islands. These delicate birds are subject to a variety of diseases ; to pre- vent winch, the greatest care should be taken to provide them with pure water and simple food. During die time of moulting, h often proves fatal to many of ciiem, a little white wine drop- ped on a piece- of biscuit, or sugar, will be of considerable service. CANARY GRASS, orPhalaris, L. a genus of plants, comprising twenty-four species, of which two only are cultivated in England j viz. 1 . The Caianiensis, or the ma- nured canary-grass, which is raised from seed, and requires the soil to. be made very fine and light on the surface. It is sown the first dry week in February. The plant is generally ripe in the beginning of September, and requires to be a considerable time in the field, but it is seldom injured by wet wea- ther. 425] CAN ther. It is chiefly cultivated on account of its seeds, which are found to be best calculated for canary, and other small birds. It also nourishes the Coccus phalnridis, which is properly a native of the Canary Islands, but is become na- turalized in England. 2. The artfndinacea, or painted lady-grass, or ladies traces, which is occasionally sown in our gar- dens, on account of its beautiful striped leaves. It is of consider- able utility for thatching ricks, or cottages, as this plant is more du- rable than 'straw. In the north of Europe, where its stalks attain the height of from two to six feet, it is mowed t\vice a year, and given to cattle, as a nutritious and whole- some food. We are, therefore';, of opinion, that this species might also be successfully cultivated, for the same purpose, in Britain. CANCER, a round, though un- equal, and, at first, indolent tumor, generally situated in glandular parts, such as the breasts, arm- pits, &c. When this tumor grows terge, is of a livid, blackish, or leaden hue, and attended with ex- cruciating pain, it is called an occult cancer; but, when it becomes a sore, or ulcer, discharging a very fetid, ichorous matter, it is then an open, or ulcerated cancer. The latter species is by far the most dangerous, and has, by the most judicious practitioners of all ages, been considered as incurable by tiny internal remedies: the occult cancer, however, has sometimes, especially before it had attained a considerable size, been cured by external applications, of which we shall give a short account. The causes of this formidable disease are not distinctly ascertain- ed : llnu^h its origin is supposed CAN to depend chiefly on a predisposition of the body; which, if increased by depressing and de- bilitating passions of every descrip-- tion, as well as the cessation of periodical and salutary fluxes of blood, frequently produces that fa- tal malady. The peculiar acrimony of the fluids which, by its stimulus, often changes a scrophulous ulcer into a true cancer, is of a very diversified nature; and thence arise the va- rious forms and characteristics of this complaint, as well as the. nu- merous difficulties with which the cure of it is attended. Hemlock aJid arsenic., used internally, and applied externally, have indeed, in a few instances, been attended with success; but it is, on the other hand, very doubtful whether these, or any other medicine, have ever cured a real, cancer. Hence it is generally believed, that extir- pation by the knife is the only cer- tain remedy. Lately, however, a physician has appeared in the me- tropolis, who confidently maintains that he has discovered a method of curing a disease, which has hi- therto baffled the ingenuity and skill of the most able and expe- rienced practitioners. Although we have promised (see note to pp. 1O7 and 108 of our work) to ana- lyze his medicines, and thus to as- certain whether they contain arse- nic, yet having had no opportunity of performing the experiment, we are obliged to delay the farther ac- count of that discovery, whether real or pretended, till we arrive at the article SCIKRHUS, To com- pensate, in some decree, for this apparent defect, we shall commu- nicate the latest, and most important information on this subject, receiv- ed from die Continent. C AN In cancers of the face, Dr. HANDEL has lately., and with un- common success, prescribed the application of the expressed juice of the Canluus turnejilosus, L. the woolly-headed thistle, or friars crown. This simple remedy was formerly in great repute, and strongly recommended by BORELL, STAHL, TIMMERMANN, and other continental physicians. Dr. HAX- DEL ordered his patients to anoint the parts aft'eded, with the fresh juice, six or eight times everyday; and he found, that, in the course of a fortnight, it checked the pn . of the most malignant cancer. The editor of this work has, in one instance only, observed a similar happy effect, though there always appeared to be great alleviation of pain, and an abatement of the fetid smell, emitted from cancerous ul- cerations, when this liniment v. -is duly administered. For this pur- pose, he made use of a soft feather, i>ut previously added to the juice about the eighth part of rectified spirit of wine, in order to precipi- tate the feculent particles, tl iut also widi a view to preserve it longer in a sweet state. Dr. HAXUEI. far- ther asserts, that by the application of this juice, after the necessary internal remedies had been used, he has cured the itch, scald heads in children, the thrush, violent in- flammation of the eyes, inveterate ulcers of the legs, &:c.; especially in those constitutions which had been reduced by the use of mercu- rial medicines. Notwithstanding these favourable accounts, we doubt whether a confirmed cancer \\ ill always yield to such super- ficial treatment ; nay, it is admit- ted by all those foreign practition- ers, that the juice ot the woolly- Leaded thistle was of service only CAN [429 \v!iin applied to cancerous ulcers in the face, and produced no relief whatever, where the female breast was afflicted with that loathsome disorder. In such cases, unfortu- nately, all remedies hitherto dis- covered have been found ineffec- tual, unless they were applied in the earliest stage of the cancerous tumor. Thus it is affirmed by BROMFIELD, COLLIGXOX, CUL- LEX, THEDEX, UXZER, and many other medical men of eminence, that the timely use of the /-el/ai/on- na, or deadly nightshade, )>as often dispersed glandular indurations, and large tumors of this descrip- tion ; but, as the internal adminis- tration of this virulent plant can- not safely be intrusted to those who are unacquainted with its na- ture, and the constitution of the human body, we shall only remark that it may, with equal advantage, be employed i-.tten/u/jy. For this purpose, the leaves of the deadly nightshade should be boiled in milk, to form a decoction suffi- ciently s'.rong, and with which the part a fleeted must be frequently fomedted. Ano'.her method of procuring relief in this painful complaint, has been discovered by BASSIAXO (. \\KMIN.\TI, an ingenious Italian, who first observed the benefit de- rived from the application of the gastric liquor of living animals to putrid and cancerous ulcers. Se- veral other physicians on the Con- tinent, and especially J. V. H. KOHLF.K, have lately, by ihe te.it of experience, confirmed the truth of tins observation. It is, there- lore, much to be regretted, that this animal fluid cannot be easily procured in sufficient quantities, to produce so desirable an elicit. For the gratification of our readers, ww CAN shall extraft the following curi- ous particulars from KOHLER'S treatise on chirurgical subjefts, published at Leipzig, in 170D. i'Vom giMnivorous animal.;, such us cows, oxen, calves, &e. he ob- tained a quantity of gastric juice, but it was not in a pure stat", and always mixed with alimen- tary matter ; on the contrary, that of carnivorous animals, for in- stance, dogs, cats, and especially birds of prey, though in smaller proportion, was much purer. Among the latter class, the liquor extracted from the stomach of a large species of raven, which he terms in German, " Golkral-en" he found to be the most effica- cious. But each of these vora- cious creatures devoured twelve ounces of solid meat in twcnty- fowr hours, as their usual allow- ance. They ought, however, to receive no food for twelve hours before, and after, the extraction of their gastric juice ; an operation \fhicli is performed in the manner as follows : The neck of the bird must be stretched, till no folds or wrinkles are observed in it ; an assistant then introduces into its .throat a small tube, made of horn cr bone, which hr>s three longitu- dinal incisions, and two small holes near the top : through the latter a piece of tape is passed, the pro- jetting ends of which are fastened across a little stick, in order to pre- vent the creature from swallowing the .tube. Into this apparatus is introduced a proportionate piece of a moist, but veil expressed sponge, by means of a whalebone rod, to which it is firmly tied, and then thrust down so far as to reach the stomach of the bird. An expert operator will easily ascertain the length 10 which he may safely pro- CAN ceed. After having thus fixed the apparatus, each raven is locked up in a different cage, or partition, made of boards, where it c-. easily disengage itself from this iniur-ihrnnce. The liquor pro- cuvci by carefully expressing the sponge, ontrlit to be immediately applied; for, after having stood twenty-four hours, it bet orr corrupt that worms are bred in it 5 though, in its sweet state, it pos- sesses neither odour nor taste. It is, however, difficult to obtain a sufficient quantity of this juice for effecting a complete cure of a can- cer , as eight ravens afford only one ounce of it in twenty-four hours. Nevertheless, as the effi- cacy of this simple, though expen- sive, remedy, especially in eradi- cating the most virulent cancers of the face, is well attested by se- veral respe&able practitioners, we thought it our duty to insert the preceding account. CANDLE, a light made of tal- low, wax, or spermaceti, the wick of which is usually composed of several threads of cotton, There are two species of tallow candles, the one dipped, and the other moulded; the tirst are those in common use; the invention of the second is attributed to LE BREGE, of Paris. Good tallow- candles ought to be made with equal parts of sheep and ox-tallow j care being taken to avoid any mix- ture of hog's lard, which occasions a thick black smoke, attended with a disagreeable smell, and also causes the candles to ran. When the tallow has been weighed and mixed in due pro- portions, it is cut very small, that it may be more speedily dissolved j for otherwise it would be liable to iwrn, or become black, if left too long CAN long over the fire. As soon as it is completely melted and slammed, a certain quantity of water, pro- portionate to that of the tallow, is poured in, for precipitating the impure particles to the bottom of the vessel. This, however, should not be done till after the three first dips } as the water, by penetrating the wicks, would make the candles crackle in burning, and thereby render them useless. To purify the tallow still more, it is strained through a coarse horse-hair sieve into a tub : where, after having remained three hours, it becomes fit for use. Wax Candles are of various kinds and forms ; they are made of cot- ton or flaxen wicks, slightly twisted, and covered with white or coloured wax. This operation is performed either by the hand or with a ladle. In order to soften the wax, it is first worked re- peatedly in a deep narrow cauldron of hot water ; then taken out in small pieces, and gradually dis- posed round the wick, which is fixed on a hook in the wall, be- ginning with the larger end, and diminishing in proportion as the neck approaches ; to prevent the wax from adhering to the hands, they are rubbed with oil of olives, lard, or other unctuous substance. When it is intended to make wax candles with a ladle, the wicks bring prepa red ?.s above-mentioned, a dozen of them are fixed at equal distances round an iron circle, which is suspended over a tinned copper vessel containing melted wax ; a large ladleful of which is poured gently and repeatedly on the tops of tiie wicks, till the candles have acquired a proper size, when they are taken down, kept warm, and smoothed upon a wal- CAN [431 nut-tree table with a lo'tg square instrument of box, \i hich is conti- nually moistened with hot water> to prevent the adhesion of the wax. In other respetts, this mode of making wax-candles corresponds with that of manufacturing them by the hand. From the increasing demand and price of wax, various experiments have been tried, in order to disco- ver proper substitutes, which might possess similar solidity. We are informed by a foreign journal, that this desirable obje6t has been satis- factorily attained, by melting down an equal quantity of tallow and resin. In order to ascertain the truth of this assertion, we were induced to repeat the experiment, but without success : for, though the two substances incorporated, thcv had not a sufficient degree of cohesion ; and, when moulded into a proper form, the tallow burned, but the resin dissolved, and sepa- rated from it. In September, I/op, Mr. WIL- LIAM BOLTS, of London, obtained a patent for new modes of improv- ing the form, quality, and use of candles, and other lights, made of tallow, wax, spermaceti, &c. This invention the patentee founds on four principles : 1 . On the fabrica- tion of the body of such lights, prior to, and independently of, the wicks which may be subsequently applied to them. 2. On the applica- tion of moveable wicks, which may- be applied to, or extracted from the candles, or lights, any time after they have been made. 3. On the using of fixed, or ordinary wicks, for those lights or candles, at any period subsequent to the making of either; and 4. On placing the inflammable substance, while in fusion, in a close vessel, and sub- mitting 43 2 ] CAN milling it there to the action of a vacuum, and of a pressure superior to that of the atmosphere. This was effe6ted with a view to extract, by the vacuum, whatever elastic fluid may remain in it, under the ordinary pressure ; and also to in- crease the solidity and whiteness of the substance, by the superior weight applied to it, when cooling. From the very great utility of candles, they early became the ob- ject of adulteration : hence it is pro- vided by various acts of parliament, that all adulterated candles shall be forfeited ; and if any tallow- chandlers, or melters, make use of melting-houses without giving due* notice to the excise-officers, they tihall be subject, to a penalty of lOOl. ; or, if they fail in informing those persons of their making candles, and thus prevent them from ascertaining the duties, 501. ; and if any person is convicted of making candles privately, they are forfeited, together with the uten- sils, and lOOl. by the 5 GEO. III. c. 43. Those candles, however, for . which the duty has been paid, may be exported, and the duty al- lowed ; but, by the statutes of 8 ANN, c. (), and'23 GEO. II. c. 21, no drawback is allowed on the ex- portation of foreign candles. Although candles are preferable to lamps, as their light is less in- jurious both to the eyes and lungs, and as they do not produce so great a volume of smoke, yet a clean chamber-lamp, which emits as little smoke and smell as possible, is far superior even to wax-candles; for, 1. As all candles burn down- wards, tlic eye necessarily becomes more fatigued, and strained dur- ing the later hours of candle-light ; 2. Because they yield an irregular li^ht, which occasions the addi- CAN tional trouble of snuffing them; and lastly, because, if the air be agitated ever so little, or if the candles are. made of bad materials, they injure the eye by their flaring light. CANDOCK. See Wliite WATER- LILY. CANINE MADNESS. See BITE of a mad dog. CANKER, a disease to which trees are subject 5 it proceeds prin- cipally from the nature of the soil, and causes the bark to decay. If the canker be seated in a bough, and a large one, the general practice is to cut it off at some distance from the stem ; if a small one, close to it. When the tree is thus open and exposed, it is liable to receive in- jury from the air, moisture, and in- sects. To prevent this, white lead and boiled oil, made into a kind of thick paint, with the addition of sublimate of mercury, has been, recommended by Dr. DAK WIN, as an useful remedy, especially when applied to the wounds of those trees, the wood of which contains less acrimony, and is consequently more liable to be penetrated, and eaten by a large worm or maggot, that would otherwise consume the whole internal wood. In the 13th vol. of the Transac- Ihfis of the Society of Arts, &c. the ingenious Mr. BUCKNALL ob- serves, that, in pruning, this me- dication ought never to be omitted, as experience has demonstrated, that mercury removes the noxious fticcts of canker in the more deli- cate fruit trees, so effectually as to influence the vegetation of plants, by affording both smoothness and a free growth to the bark. He directs every stump, together with the decayed or blighted brandies, and all those that cro>s the CAN the infected tree, or where the leaves curl, to be taken off smooth 2nd even ; the gum is likewise to be pared down close to the bark, and rather a little within it, but not so as to destroy the rough coat; the fissures, out of which it oozes, are next to be opened to the bot- - torn, the blotches to be cut away, and the canker extirpated : all the wounds are then to be anointed with the medication, a little being smeared over that part of the canker which was not large enough to be cut. The tree must also be scored, and the moss rubbed off; but care should be taken to avoid breaking off a single branch, as this would be productive of dan- gerous consequences. " A tree thus managed (says Mr. BUCKXALL), will, with its remaining free shoots, run large ; which, as they require a great flow of sap, will keep the roots in con- stant employ, and thus necessarily 'establish it in permanent health." He also remarks that, where the sole object is to remove the canker, hog's lard will be found of consi- derable utility; but, if wet also is to be guarded against, it is by no means so beneficial as tar. There is also another method of curing this disease, which has been tried with success; namely, where a branch of a valuable tree is likely to be destroyed by the canker, to in'close the affected part, and some inches above it, in a garden pot of earth, previously divided, support- ed by stakes, and tied together round the branch, which will then strike roots in the mould; and which, after some months, may be cut off, and planted in the ground : thus preserved, it will produce a new tree. NO. iv. VOL. t. C AO [433 CANKER-WORM, a species of insects particularly destructive to corn, grass, and ever}' other vegetable in which it can harbour. It has been erroneously supposed, that excessive and continual wet' weather will destroy them, but this is so far from being true, that an instance has occurred of their hav- ing been found buried six feet deep, in a firm soil. These worms, every fourth year, become flies, when they deposit their spawn on the ground, and thus produce maggots. Soot has been strewed on the land infested with these vermin, and various other remedies have been tried, but without success ; except that practised in the county of Norfolk, where, some years since, the can- ker-worm was particularly perni- cious. The expedient alluded to,' is as follows : when they become flies, and are settled on the trees, especially those of oak, elm, and maple, they are shaken off, so as to drop on pack-sheets, or tilters, spread under them for that pur- pose. If, in this manner, they ar destroyed soon after their first ap- pearance, when in the state of flies, and before they can do far- ther mischief by lodging on the ground, their numbers will be con- siderably diminished, and, in a few years, they will be almost wholly exterminated. Cantharides . See Spanish FLY. CAOUTCHOUC, ELASTIC RE- SIN, or India rubier, is a substance produced from the Syringe Tree, or latropha etastica, L. which is a na- tive of South America. It oozes in the fcrm of vegetable milk, from incisions made in the tree, and is principally collected in wet wea- ther, when it flows abundantly. Ff Various 434] C AC Various conjectures have 'been firmed by the most eminent bo- tanists, and chemists, as to the means used for inspissating and in- durating this vegetable substance. The general opinion, however, is, that it concretes gradually when exposed to the air. It is particu- larly celebrated for the uncommon flexibility and elasticity, which it displays immediately on acquiring a solid consistence, and for the many purposes to which it is ap- plied by the Indians, who make boots of it that are impenetrable to water, and when smoked, have the appearance of real leather. They also make bottles of it, to the necks of which reeds are affixed, and through these the liquor is squirted by pressure. The inhabitants of Quito, in Peru, also prepare from this substance a species of oil-cloth and canvas, which are formed by moulds made of clay, and worked into a variety of figures. Over these moulds is spread the juice ob- tained by incision } and, as often as one layer is dry, another is added, till the vessel acquires a proper thickness; when the whole is hrld Over a strong smoke of burning vegetables, which gives it the tex- ture and appearance of leather. Before the operation is completely finished, the substance, while still spft, will admit of any impression being made on its surface, which is indelible. The chemical properties, and other interesting peculiarities of this elastic resin, have been dili- gently explored by the most inge- nious natural philosophers of Eu- rope., from the time it was first . . known. Various experiments have ' been made to dissolve it, and to ascertain whether it would assume tJim.-r.ent figures, with the same CAP facility as it did in its original state, This has been effected by the fol- lowing simple process : Mr.Vv'i XCH put a pound of good vitriolic aether into a bottle, capable cf containing four pound.-, of an v common fluid. On this sther he poured two pounds of pure water, stopped the bottle, inverted it, and agitated both li- quids for several minutes, in order to mix, or, rather, to wash the nether in the water. On subsiding, as the aether floated on the top, he left the bottle in the inverted di- reclion, opened it cautiously, sub- stituted his thumb for the stopper, and thus let the water gradually escape into a vessel beneath. This operation he performed re- peatedly, till the sixteen ounces of aether were reduced to five. Hav- ing thus obtained a very pure aether, he found it to be the most perfect solvent of elastic gum. When im- mersed into it, after being cut into small nieces, it began to swell in a very short time; and, though the aether aclcd m it but slowly at first. yet, in five or six hours, the whole was completely dissolved, and the liquor remained transparent. If too large a proportion of elastic gum be employed, it will subside to the. bottom ; and may, after be- ing taken out of the bottle, be moulded into any form, so as to retain its former elasticity. The caoutchouc is at present chiefly employed by surgeons, for the inje&ion of liquids, and also by painters, and others, for rubbing out pencil marks, &rc. ; though we do not hesitate to say, that it may be advantageously used for socks, or even shoes and boots, as well as various useful articles of domestic convenience. CAPER, or Capparls, L. an ex- otic genus of plants comprising. se- ven CAR ven species, of which the spinosa, or common caper, only is culti- vated in Britain, but with great difficulty. This plant delights in the crevices of rocks, old walls, &c. and thrives luxuriantly in an horizontal direction. In the warm parts of Europe, it is propagated by seeds, and the buds, pickled with vinegar, &rc. are annually import- ed from Italy, or the Mediterra- nean. Capers are supposed to excite the appetite, to assist digestion, and to be useful detergents, and ape- rients, in obstru&ions of the liver. CAPONTAIL GRASS. See FES- CUE. CARAWAY, the Common, or Camm carui, L. is an indige- nous biennial plant, propagated from seeds, which ought to be sown in autumn ; it blows in the second year, and decays a short time after the seeds are ripe. This plant furnishes a wholesome and agreeable food to goats, swine, and sheep, but is refused by cows and horses. The young roots are said to be more delicious than parsnips, and the tender leaves may be boiled \vith pot-herbs. BECHSTEIN asserts, that cara- way, if carefully transplanted into a richer soil, produces roots not in- ferior to those of the scorzonera, both in taste and utility : they also afford a very agreeable pickle, when preserved in vinegar, sugar, &c. On account of their aromatic smell, and warm, pungent taste, die seeds of caraway may be class- ed among the finest stomachics and carminatives of our climate. To persons affli6led with flatulency, and liable to colics, if administered in proper quantities, they generally afibrd considerable relief, and may CAR sometimes be used with advantage in tertian agues. Caraway seeds, when finely pounded, spread on bread and but- ter, with a small quantity of ginger and salt, and eaten every morning and evening, have been found to be an excellent remedy against hyste- rics ; unless this complaint arise from improper diet, acrid humors, bile, passion, &c. They are like- wise used in cakes, and, when in- crusted with sugar, are called car- away-comfits/ Besides these mul- tifarious purposes, caraway-seed* are distilled with spirituous liquors, on account of their flavour; but they produce a noxious, heating oil, which renders those liquors far more pernicious to health, than they are even in a pure state. Carton. See CHARCOAL. CARDAMOM, or Cardamo- mum, a species of the Amomvm, is a native of India, comprising two varieties. 1. The majus, or greater cardamom, which, when it arrives in England, is a dried fruit, or pod, about an inch long, and contains two rows of small triangular seeds, of a warm aromatic flavour. 2. The minus, or lesser cardamom, a fruit of an inferior size to that of the preceding variety, but considerably stronger, both in smell and taste. The cardamom is, in this coun- try, only known by its seeds, which are sometimes usefully employed in, colds, flatulency, colics, and in laxity and debility of the intestines. Its seeds are said to possess this advantage over those of the pepper species, that notwithstanding their pungency, they do not immode- rately heat or inflame the bowels. CARDINAL FLOWER. See WA- TER GLADIOLE. CARLINE, orCAROLiXETm?- TLE, the Carlina, L. a genus of Ff 2 plants 43 6l GAR plants comprising nine species, of which the vulgaris, orWildCarline Thistle, only is indigenous, and ge- nerally indicates a barren soil. The other species are propagated from seeds, which should be sown in a bed of fresh undunged earth, but not be transplanted, as they will not bear this operation. When the plants appear above ground, they must be carefully weeded, and af- terwards thinned, being left about a foot apart. The Carline blows generally in the second year, but, if the season be wet, it seldom pro- duces good seeds, and often decays soon after blowing. Its flowers have the remarkable property of expanding in dry, and closing in moist weather ; from which cir- cumstance they are often consider- ed as natural hygrometers. In Ger- many, the acauiis, a species of this genus, forms an article of food, and the roots, when dressed like arti- chokes, or made into salads, are highly esteemed. In Switzerland, this plant is also cultivated on ac- count of its culinary utility ; besides which it furnishes an agreeable food to goats, as they eat it eagerly, but it is refused by cows and other animals. The Carline is known principally from its roots, as they are some- times used in hysterical cases, for which they are said to be an excellent remedy. They have a strong smell, a sub-acrid, bitterish, aromatic taste, and were formerly imported from the more southern parts of Europe. CARMINE, a powder, of a very beautiful red colour, partaking of the shades of scarlet and purple. It is used by painters in miniature ; but, on account of its high price, they are often induced to substitute lake. The manner of producing it is preserved a secret by colour- GAR 5 and, thoiigh many receipts have been published, none has ever been found to answer die purpose. The following process, however, we shall communicate on the au- thority of the Gentleman's Maga- zine for 1/53, in which it is asserted that this costly article maybe made, even in greater perfection than that produced by the French artists : Take four or five gallons of pure water, and dissolve in it a sufficient quantity of pot-ash to make a strong lye. After having filtered the so- lution, put it in a brass pot, and boil in it one pound of the clean shreds of scarlet cloth dyed ingrain, till they have totally lost their co- lour; then squeeze the shreds, and pass all the lye through a flannel bag. Dissolve two pounds of alum in a proper quantity of water, and add this solution to the lye 5 stir them well together, and the whole- will become rather thick ; it is then to be repassed through the flannel bag, and the liquor will run out clear ; but if it be at all tinged, it is again to be boiled, with the addi- tion of a small quantity of dissolved alum, passed through the bag a third time, and all the carmine will be left behind. Fresh water is then to be poured repeatedly into the bag, till all the alum is washed away ; when the colour must be dried, so as to prevent any dust from settling on it, and may then be kept for use, being previously re- duced to an impalpable powder in a glass or marble. Jf, however, in the boiling, so much water evapo- rate, as to require an addition, care must be taken to add only boiling \vatr-r to supply the deficiency. CAR K AT jo N . See CLO v E- Pi XK. CARNIVOROUS animals are those which seek for, and feed on, flesh. It is a quiistion among phi- losophers, CAR losophers, whether man is natural- ly carnivorous. Those who are of a contrary opinion, rest their argu- ments chiefly on the structure of the human teeth, which are mostly incisores, that is, cutters, or nw- lares, I. e. grinders, and not such as carnivorous animals are provided with : besides, it deserves to be remarked, that, even when we eat flesh, it has previously undergone an alteration by boiling, or roasting. Nevertheless, it must be allowed, that we are furnished with teeth necessary for the mastication of every kind of food, whence it may reasonably be inferred, that Nature has kindly intended, both the ve- getable and animal kingdoms, for the sustenance of mankind. CARP, or Carpio, L. is a spe- cies of the Cyprinus, a genus of fish comprising above thirty spe- cies. Carp are also called white- fish, on account of their glittering scales, and are distinguished from other fish, by having no teeth, the want of which is supplied by seve- ral small rough bones fixed in their throat. They were introduced into England during the 1 6th century. These fish are much celebrated for their longevity, many of them attaining an age of from 60 to 1OO years, and growing to the extra- ordinary length of six feet. They delight in muddy ponds, which are well sheltered from the wind, and into which should be thrown the liquor from cattle-yards, mixed with clay, peas, beans, oil-cake, &c. In order to fatten them, and increase their size, the growth of grass under the water should be particu- larly attended to ; as they princi- pally feed on it during the summer months. To effect this, when the water decreases in summer, the t!iy ; naked sides of the pond should CAR [437 be raked, and grass- seeds abun- dantly sown : these will produce a plentiful supply of herbage, which, when the pond is filled up by rains, affords a feeding place, where the fish will speedily fatten. In the winter, they crowd together in the mire under the ice, which should be occasionally opened to ad- mit air, for want of which the carp is often severely affected. But where it is practicable, part of the water should be drawn off, which will be more beneficial to the fish, than to penetrate the ice. This should also be done, when the pond has been struck by lightning, or when the fish are sick, which sometimes happens, if the water become foul or turbid. Carp are much celebrated for their docility, and have been known to be so tame, as to swim to the shore, and take their food, on be- ing called, or summoned by the sound of a bell. In general, how- ever, they are extremely cunning, and difficult to be caught, except during the time of spawning. The best season for catching carp and barbel, is the month of July, and die most proper time, at day- break. Care must be taken to use neither lead nor shot in the lines j which ought to be proportionate to the length of the rods, and made of Indian twist, or strong pearl-co- loured silk, armed at the bottom links with sea - grass, Turkey- grass, or strong silk-worm gut, perfectly free from knots or frett- ings. When the spot for angling is fixed upon, it is requisite, on the preceding night, to throw in a con- siderable quantity of paste, pre- pared of bread and bran, or mixed with lob-worms cut to pieces. Tliis purpose may also be effected F i 3 b? 433] CAR by throwing in a mixture of blood and grains, which must be repeated three successive nights ; the spot being marked with particular at- tention. In the dawn of the morn- ing, after the depth has been plumbed with the greatest exact- ness, the bait for the first rod, which is to lie at the bottom, should be a well-scoured lob-worm, and the hook must be passed through its body, about three inches from the tail; that part being more agreeable to the fish than the head. An additional ground -bait should be thrown in, at the same place, on the three preceding nights. The worm being dropped as exactly as possible on the ground-bait just thrown in, the first rod is to be laid on the ground, and the second baited. The bait for this rod must be four red worms, properly cleans- ed and pierced through the head. The third rod ought to be baited with a paste prepared of the follow- ing materials : the crumb of white bread one day old, soaked in warm milk, till it has imbibed enough to make it of the necessary consist- ence; when the milk is to be pressed out, and a sufficient quan- tity of honey added, to impart to it a sweet flavour. A little saffron, well dried and powdered, must also be mixed, together with a few drops of oil of rhodium, in order to tinge it of an orange colour. It is then fit for immediate, use 5 but care must be taken, that the floats for each rod be of the short single- plugged kind, and that the fish " be played deep j" as, if this caution be neglected, the fish will ' break," and make its escape. Carp are much esteemed for their delicacy and flavour, which may be greatly improved by keeping them in river water for a few days, CAR, before they are eaten. Their gall is in much repute among the Turks, for staining paper, and also for making a fine sap-green colour. Formerly, it was erroneously believed that the frequent eating of this fish proved a certain remedy for dimness of sight ; and, with that view, many persons used it as their daily food ; though without con- sulting their health. Of all animal substances, carp is doubtless the most liable to putrescency ; and as its fat is indigestible, it ought par- ticularly to be avoided by febrile patients, invalids, and convale- scents. CARPET, a covering for floors, &c. manufactured of wool, or other materials, and worked with the needle, or in a loom. The carpets in the greatest estimation are those of Persia and Turkey 5 but a ma- nufactory has been established at Paris, where they are made in 'the same manner as the true Persian carpets, to which they are little in- ferior. There is also a good sort made, in Germany 5 these are often embellished with silk, and some are even made of dogs' hair. In England, cafpets are manufactured of a superior quality ; the most ele- gant and valuable of which are those known by the name of Brussels. CARRIAGE, a vehicle which is employed in conveying persons, goods, merchandize, &c. from one place to another, and is usually constructed with two, or four wheels. Carriages have various names, which, together with their struc- ture, are so generally known, as to render any description of them unnecessary. From their great utility, more, particularly when ap- plied to the purposes of family- con- CAR convenience, they have excited the attention of the most ingenious artisans, who have sedulously stu- died to improve them. Hence a variety of experiments have been made, in order to ascertain die best, and most proper mode of constructing them, and preventing the different obstacles which tend to impede their motion. To dis- cuss these, would be to embark into too wide a field of inquiry into the principles of mechanics, and to deviate from that plan of concise- ness we have adopted. Those of our readers, who may be desirous of acquiring minute information on this subject, will be gratiliecl by a perusal of Mr. ANSTICE'S " Re- marks on fy/ieet- Carriages," 1799. Svo. 2s. 6d., in which it is fully and ingeniously investigated; and the rules for constructing wheel- carriages are laid down, accord- ing to the strictest principles of mechanics. CARROT, or Daucus, L. a genus of plants comprising ten species, of which the Carota, or common car- rot, only is cultivated in Britain, where it was introduced from Flanders, in the reign of Queen ELIZABETH. Carrots are propagated from seeds, which maybe sown at differ- ent times, during the whole season j in order to procure a succession of young roots for the table. They require an open situation, at a little distance from a wall ; the seeds should be previously rubbed be- tween the hands, to take oft' their beards, as they will otherwise ad- here to each other, and come up jn patches; but if sown close un- der the wall, they will too quickly run up to seed, and produce indif- ferent roots. These plants delight in a warm, light, sandy bum, CAR [439 which should be dug to a consider- able depth, to facilitate the roots striking downwards, as they are apt to become forked, and to shoot out lateral branches. They grow most luxuriantly after turnips, which 'render the land more clear of weeds than it is found alter any other crop. As a culinary article, the carrot is well known; it also furnishes a wholesome and nutri- tious fodder for cows : if given to them in the winter, and early in the spring, it greatly increases their milk, and imparts to it an agree- able flavour. Hogs thrive well on carrots, which they fondly eat, when boiled in their wash. A sparing allowance of these roots, besides the usual food, is said to produce an invigorating effect on hunters : plough, and cart-horses also eat them with avidity ; and, while thus fed, require no corn, and very little hay. Oxen and sheep fatten very speedily on car- rots 5 and, if the latter animals are " half fat," when put up, they will be completely so, in about three months. This vegetable lias also been cultivated for feeding deer, in parks; a practice which, in severe winters, when every other kind of food is scarce, has been attended with advantage. As a fodder for cows, sheep, and swine, the tops of carrots are equally valuable with the roots. Nay, sometimes even hay has been made by mowing these tops, to- wards the latter end of June ; yet they should not be cut so closely as to injure the crown of the root. Although carrots, when left in the ground, will not endure the severity of winter, like cabbages and other vegetables, yet, by pro- per care, they may be preserved, so as to arford a wholesome and r f 4 strengthen? 440 J CAR strengthening fodder for cattle. Hie method alluded to, is amply described in the eleventh volume of the " Annals of Agriculture," from which we extract the follow- ing account: Soon after Michael- mas, when the weather is dry, the carrots are dug out, and piled up on a bank of earth, raised about six inches above the level of the soil, and proportioned to the quan- tity of carrots intended to be pre- served. On this bank is spread a thin layer of straw, on which the carrots are placed, with their tops turned outwards, and the ends folding one over another. The small roots are topt, and laid in the middle, to prevent the two sides from separating, by the greater pressure of weight on the centre. Every second or third row is co- vered with a little dry straw, and the stacking thus continued, till it reaches to the height of about four feet, when an additional quantity of dry straw is carefully spread over the tops, and the whole is thatched with sedge. Another line is then commenced in the same manner as the preceding, and sufficient room left for one person to pass between them. The inter- mediate space is next filled up with dry straw, and the outside defend- ed with bundles of the same mate- rial, staked down, or fastened with hurdles. Thus secured, carrots will protect themselves from frost, by their own tops, and ensure a constant supply of fodder, at a pe- riod when almost every other vege- table is destroyed. Various, but unsuccessful, ex- periments have been made to pre- pare sugar from carrots; as they yielded only a thick syrup, similar to treacle. Nevertheless, these roots have lately been more ad- CAR vantageously employed in distilla- tion. After mashing, and pro- perly fermenting them, M. BRIE- GER, a foreign distiller, obtained from ten pounds of the roots, one quart of what is called " first runnings," and half a pint of a very strong ardent spirit. As a German acre of land produces, upon an average, 10,000 pounds weight of carrots, he is of opinion, that a loose soil might be more ad- vantageously employed in the cul- ture of those roots, than in that of any seed-corn. See also p. 320, BRANDY. In medicine, a marmalade of carrots, on account of their strong antiseptic qualities, has been suc- cessfully used for preventing, and curing the sea-scurvy. An infu- sion of them has also been found to afford considerable relief to per- sons afflicted with the stone, and worms, but especially the tape- worm. A poultice, made of the roots, has often been attended with similar success, in mitigating the pain, and abating the smell, of foul and cancerous ulcers. CART, a land carriage, with two wheels, drawn either by horses or oxen, for conveying heavy goods, &c. generally at short distances. In rural economy, the proper construction, and adaptation, of carts to different soils and situations, are objects of the first consequence to every reflecting farmer. Never- theless, it is surprizing, that little attention has been paid to this im- portant subject, previous to the late improvements in agriculture ; the flourishing aera of which, in Britain, commenced about the middle of last century, or the year 1/54, when that patriotic Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufa6tures, and Commerce, was insti- CAR instituted at London. / Since that memorable period, numberless in- ventions have been introduced into rural economy, and the names of Lord ROMNEY, Mess. SHIPLEY, MOKE, and many other illustrious promoters of true national wealth, will ever be remembered by a grateful posterity. One of the most active members of this re- spectable institution is Mr. AR- THUR YOUNG, of whose public spirit, and indefatigable labours, we have before us the most ample and satisfactory proofs. His " An- nals of Agriculture" though con- ducted on a plan too diffuse for ordinary readers, is a work replete with practical facts ; and, on the whole, the best illustration of Bri- tish husbandry. In the 18th vo- lume of these Annals, we meet with an elaborate paper, entitled " The Farmer's Cart;" by the editor ; from which we shall ex- tract the following particulars : Mr. YOUNG first observes, that the most general farmer's carriage iu England, is a waggon, drawn by four horses, in which is convey- ed corn, hay, wood, &c. but not dung or earth, which arc usually CAR [44* moved by carts, or tumbrils, drawn by three, or four horses : carriers almost universally employ broad- wheeled waggons, drawn by eight horses. In Scotland, waggons were formerly used, but afterwards changed for large carts, and more lately for small ones, drawn by one hore. In Ireland, the most common vehicle at present is the vne-horse car, with low wheels beneath the body of the machine ; which has universally superseded the use of English carts and waggons, from a conviction of their inferiority. No- thing, says Mr. YOUNG, exceeds the amazing expedition with which corn and hay fields are cleared iu that country, by means of this use- ful, though inelegant implement. In consequence of such a decisive encomium, as well as the very fa- vourable account given of this ma- chine by the late Mr. BAKEWELL, of Dishley, Leicestershire, in the " Communications In the Board of Agriculture," we have been induced to present our readers with the fol- lowing cut, and description, of an Improved Irish Car. The 44*] CAR The advantages of this vehicle, which was preferably employed, and strongly recommended, by the last mentioned agriculturist, con- sist in the facility with which it is laden, on account of its Jowness ; and, when gate-ways and roads are narrow, much room is gained by the wheels being fixed under the body of the cart. In such si- tuations, therefore, it is well cal- culated for carrying manure, espe- cially on meadow or ploughed land ', and, for that purpose, its wheels ought to have a flat bear- ing, and to be at least six inches in breadth. Another peculiarity in the construction of this cart is, that its wheels are necessarily cylindrical ; and that the facility of draught arising from this unobserved cir- cumstance, was probably imputed to some other part of the machinery. But, though contrary to the gene- rally received opinion, Mr. ALEX- ANDER CUMMINGS (in his Obser- vations 071 the Effect which Car- riogn--whccls unth Rims nf different shapes have on the Roads, printed in the Communications to the Hoard of Agriculture), has satisfactorily demonstrated, and it is likewise evinced by experience, that the resistance to the cylindrical wheel is not increased, but diminished, 1 1/ increas'mg the breadth ajid the flat bearing of its rim. The know- ledge of this fact is of very great importance to the farmer, as well as to the waggoner , for, by avail- ing himself of this simple improve- ment, he may be enabled, in al- most all seasons, to drive his broad- wheeled carts, &c. on his meadow or ploughed ground, when no nar- row wheel can be employed. Hence it would be superfluous to enumerate the farther advantages of this implement ; yet, when the CAR width of gate- ways and the breadth of roads will admit of the wheels being placed at the sides of the cart, icitltout confuting the ividth of its body, it will probably be more advantageous to have them at the sides, than under the cart. One of the greatest advocates for one-horse carts, is Lord ROBERT SKYMO UK, whose excellent paper on this subject, datedTaliaris, 5th Sep- tember, l/p6 (inserted in the 27th volume of the Annals of Agricul- ture), deserves the thanks of all British farmers. This patriotic no- bleman strongly recommends the cart which lie employs on his estates, as a most useful implement of husbandry. Convinced of its superior excellence, in many situa- tions, we have thought proper to annex an accurate engraving of this cart, for the elucidation of which, we shall extract the follow- ing particulars from his Lordshipls letter, addressed to the editor of the last-mentioned work : The advantages of single-horse carts are universally admitted, wherever they have been atten- tively compared with carriages of any other description. By his own observation, Lord SEYMOUR is led to conclude, that a horse acting singly will do half as much more work as in conjunction with ano- ther, so that two horses will, sepa- rately, perform the work of tliree conjunctively. This difference, lie believes, arises partly from the sin- gle horse being so near the load he draws, and partly from the point or line of draught being so much below his breast ; as the wheels of single-horse carts are usually made very low. When a horse draws in conjunction with another, he is ge- nerally embarrassed by some dif- ference of rate the horse behind. CAR or before him, being quicker or slower than himself: whereas a single horse has only his load . to contend with, and is not inconve- nienced by the greater or lesser height of his fellow. Nor is there any necessity for employing addi- tional drivers ; as horses, once in the habit of going singly, will fol- low each other as uniformly, and steadily, as they do when harnessed together : hence, on the most fre- quented roads in Ireland, one man conducts three, four, or live single- horse carts, without any inconve- nience to the passenger. Dimensions of the lody of the tart employed by Lord ROBERT SEYMOUR : Two feet eleven inches across the bottom ; three feet nine inches, inside length ; one foot high ; sloping top, nine inches. Iron zrAft'/y. - Two feet eight inches high ; rim, three inches and a half wide, and from three-quar- ters to an inch thick ; spoke, three inches and a quarter at each end, worked off to two inches at its centre. In die introduction to the letter above alluded to, his Lordship ob- serves, that the price of iron cast into wheels is l6s. percwt. ; and the weight of each wheel is about three- quarters of a hundred. Two in- convenicncies, however, arise from the use of low cast-iron wheels ; namely, 1 . That such iron is very liable to break upon concussion ; and 2. That the course of a wheel of so small a diameter, occasions a very quick consumption of grease. The first of these objections is, in a great measure, removed by the facility with which the rim of the wheel may be repaired by the ap- plication of wrought iron ; the lat- ter being joined ty the former by a CAR [443 rivet, the wheel acquires a degree of elasticity, and thus becomes [crimps, stronger than it was when new. In order to furnish a regular supply of greas.-, Lord ROBERT has introduced four grooves or ca- vities in the boxes, increasing a little towards their centres : and with a view to defend the axle- tree, which consists of wrought iron, against the harder body uf the box, he ordered the extremity of it to be steeled. Mr. ARTHUR YOUNG, in the i.Sth volume of his Annals of Agri- culture, before quoted, states the following dimensions of a single- horse cart, which he, by the test of experience, has found to be the most advantageoui : Buck. .Length, 5 feet 1 inch. Breadth, 3 feet 7 inches. Depth, 2 feet. Cubical feet, 35 and a fraction. On his farm of 3$O acre_s, in Suffolk, Mr. YOUNG employs only five such carti - y and observes, th:vt he would not add more tluuoi*' to the number, even though he. should increase his business to 4 Q? 5QQ acres : hay, coru in the straw, faggot-wood, billets-, dung, clay, marl, lime, bricks, &:c. are all conveyed by them ; carrying out 9, and even 10 coombs of wheat in sacks, and they are never drawn by more than one horse or ox. Xo farm of the same extent, in an arable country, has less than three waggons, three tumbrils, and a light cart : the exact price of these different implements, in the year 17i)2, amounted to ICK)1. ; while the building of six carts, upon Mr. YOUNG'S plan, costs only 63 1. : thus he saves about 40 per cent, in annual repairs. Beside this great reduction of expeace, another cir- cumstance 444] CAR cumstance deserves particular no- tice As these carts had for many years been the object of ridicule, Mr. YOUNG offered a bet to one of his prejudiced neighbours, that he should load a waggon, till five horses could not stir with it ; and Mr. YOUNG engaged tocarry away that load with ease, in his carts, with four of the same horses ; but the confidence, which his antago- nist possessed in waggons, would not allow him to accept the offer. The infinite benefit, concludes Mr. YOUNG, of which these carts would be to t!:e roads, if their use should becorrte general, may be easily conceived. In all the exa- minations before Committees of the House of Commons, as well as in most of the treatises published on the subject, it has been admit- ted that no police or management can keep the roads in rep.iir, while such vast weights are permitted to be drawn in a single carriage. Par- "liament has been made so sensible of this fact, that repeated afts have been passed, by which the weight of waggons was limited, and a certain breadth of the wheels en- joined. Experience, however, has proved, that both are insufficient, and that the only method of effect- ing a favourable change, would be to prohibit numerous teams. Let every man carry whatever weight he pleases in a one-horse cart, and pay a light toll ; let the load of a two-horse cart be limited, and the toll increased ; farther lessening the weight, and raising the toll, when four horses are employed; and thus advancing the turnpike cxpences for every additional horse, till it amounts nearly to a prohibi- tion. If such a plan were to be adopted, we should soon see all and employed simply, as a roller, or for carrying manure, &c. on land where common "wheels cannot be admitted. By means of these rolling carts, the surface of the land is to be fre- quently compressed, in order to consolidate the soil more perfectly, so that the earthy particles may embrace the roots of the grasses, and retain their proper moisture ; on which the luxuriancy of such soils in a great measure depends. CARTILAGE, is a smooth, elastic, and insensible animal sub- stance, somewhat approaching to the nature of bones. Cartilages have a natural elasti- city, the power of which is so great that, on being forced out of their situation, they spontaneously re- turn to it, as soon as that force is removed. They are principally situated in those parts of the hu- man body, which require a slight and easy motion, as in the ears, nose, &c. Their elasticity supplies the place of antagonist muscles, or such as are by Nature designed to counteract each other. Cartilages also invest all the ends of those bones, that are conjoined for per- forming motion ; because, as they are both smoother and softer than bones, which are insensible, the attrition occasioned by the motion of the joints is thus more eliectu- ally guarded against. See likewise CHAKCOAL. CASE-HARDENING r/ Imn, is a superficial conversion of that metal into steel, by a cementation of it with vegetable or animal coals. This operation is usually perform- ed on small pieces of iron, worked into tools ond instruments, by put- ting them together with the ce- ment, into an iron box, which is closely 446] CAS clteely shut, and exposed to a red heat, for several hours. Thus, the surface of the iron, to a certain depth, is converted into steel, to Which a proper degree of hardness may be given, by a sudden immer- sion of the heated pieces into a cold fluid. See IRON. CASSAVA, or latropha Mani- hr>t, L. a native shrub of South America, eminently deserving to be transplanted to our climate ; for it is asserted that one acre of its roots produces a quantity of food equal to that usually obtained from six acres of seed-corn. This shrub grows from four to seven feet high, is knotted, covered with an ash - coloured bark, and pithy within : its broad palmated leaves, together with its white and rose- colotm d blossoms, render it a very beautiful plant. According to M. BRUXJBLLI, it may be propagated by seed, but more expeditiously by suckers : when these are planted in a deep, rich, and light soil, they Vegetate with surprizing luxuri- ance, and produce in the course of one year, a white, soft, and farina- ceous root, from one to two feet in length, and from five to six inches in circumference. The very extensive use of the cassava, as an article of food in South America, is a striking in- stance of human ingenuity success- fully directed to prepare whole- some nutriment from such vege- tables as, in their natural state, are very active poisons. A mild, nu- tritious food is obtained from these routs in the following manner ; Immediately after being gathered, they a iv washed and stripped of their thick rind by means of a knife : the heart, a pulpy mass, either \\hite or yellowish, is re- peatedly passed between cylinders, CAS and turned by mill-work, till all the juice is expressed. The dry pulp, being thus freed from the poisonous juice, is a compound of farina and vegetable fibre, and re- quires no farther preparation than to be thoroughly dried, over a very slow fire. In this state, it will keep for several months in close vessels ; and, when wanted, it may be formed into cakes, by kneading up with water, and baking it ; or into pottage, by boiling it with water, and a little Cayenne pepper. The pure farina is the tapioca of the shops : it is separated from the fibrous part, by taking a handful of the pulp, after the juice is extracted, and working it in the hand, till a thick Avhite cream appears on the surface : this being scraped off and washed, in water, gradually subsides to the bottom, and after pouring off the liquor, the remaining moisture is dissipated over a slow fire, con- stantly stirring the farina, so that at length it concretes into grains, about the size of sago, which be- come hard by keeping. This is die purest and most nutritive part of the pulp, and forms a very wholesome and palatable food, which, if preserved in a dry place, maybe kept for any length of time. By heaping together the cassava- cakes, till they begin to heat and become mouldy, and then infusing them in water, to induce a very rapid fermentation, the Indians prepare a very sharp and disagree- able, but intoxicating liquor, which will not keep longer than a day, without spoiling. Although this liquor, previous to distillation, has a sweet and mild taste, yet, when drunk in any quantity, it occa- sions excessive swelling of the body, convulsions, and death. > Accord- CAS According to M. BRUKELLI, hogs, and some other animals, eagerly devour the fresh root, without the least injury. But Dr. BANCROFT, in his Essay on the Natural His- tory of Guiana, Sec. (8vo. 6s. 1/69), states that the expressed juice of the cassava-root, \vhen drunk by sheep, hogs, and poul- try, proves inevitably fatal to them ; yet the animals thus poisoned are always eaten by the inhabitants. The best antidotes against the vi- rulent effects of the cassava, in its crude state, are red pepper and rum, if immediately used. Fatal as this root is in its natural condition, it is rendered perfectly innocuous, and wholesome, by fire. By baking the meal, says the last mentioned au- thor, it is converted into nutritious food, and the poisonous juice of the root is, by both the Indians and colonists, boiled with venison, pep- per, &c. by which process they prepare an agreeable and salubrious soup. We have enlarged upon the pro- perties of this beneficial vegetable, because we think its general intro- duction into our West Indian set- tlements would be attended with the happiest effects ; and that it -might, by proper management, also be transplanted to the northern hemisphere. This, however, is certain, that exotics of almost every description might gradually be na- turalized in colder climates, if the following particulars were strictly attended to : namely, 1. That they be placed in a soil and situation congenial to their original habit ; 2. That in removing them farther northward, only the seeds and suckers of plants already accus- tomed to a cooler region, should be selected ; and 3. That this method f transplanting them, be regulated CAS [447 upon certain principles, to be de- rived from a careful examination of the greater or less intimate con- nection, or affinity, subsisting be- tween vegetables of the same class, or genus. Thus, the potatoe, arti- choke, vine, mulberry- tree, and many other of the most useful ve- getables, have been inured to cli- mates very remote from their ori- gin ; and the three last mentioned are now enabled to withstand the severest winters. As we intend, on similar occa- sions, to refer to this article, with regard to the method of depriving ;e tables of their poison- on s juices, we shall conclude this account with a few practical direc- tions to that effect ; because these will be applicable to any other tuberous and farinaceous root, as well as to seed, or fruit. Instead of grinding, or bruising such sub- stances, in the rude manner adopt- ed by the Indians, the roots, in particular, should first be properly. peeled, and tlie.n grated upon a sieve. By moderately pressing this pulp with the hand, the juice, to- gether with some feculent matter, will pass through ; the latter will speedily subside, so that the liqnor may be poured off and fermented, by which method it will proba- bly be deprived of all its poison- ous qualities : should this, how- ever, not be the case, there is no doubt, that from the expressed juice of all mealy roots (if the fermenting process be duly conducted), a very pure ardent spirit may be obtained by distillation. The pulp which remains on the sieve, must be either repeatedly washed with cold water, or soaked in several waters, without suiter- ing it to ferment, till the liquor conies off quite clear : all these wash- 448] CAS washings being put together, will deposit a mealy sediment ; which, after ponnn.j off the water, should be dried in 'i i-^ntki heat ; but the fibrous residuum on the sieve can be used only as fuel. Tnus, the purest tapioca may be extracted from the cassava, and similar gra- nulated masses may be obtained from European vegetables ; many of which we have already menti- oned in pp. 232 and 235, of our work, under the article BREAD. CASSIA, in botany, a genus of plants, comprising thirty species, the most remarkable of which are : 1 '. The cassia fatula, L. or purg- ing Cassia of Alexandria. It is indigenous in Egypt, and both Tndies, and bears a cylindrical pod, containing a soft, black pulp, of a sweetish taste, which dissolves, for the most part, both in water and rectified spirit. This pulp is a gentle laxative, and frequently given, in doses of several drams, to persons of costive habits. In inflammatory complaints, it is sometimes administered in much larger doses, from one to two ounces, when acrid purgatives are improper ; though it is apt to nan* srnte the stomach, to produce fla- tulency, and griping: especially if the pulp be of an inferior kind, or spoiled by long keeping : these effects may, however, be obviated by the addition of aromatics, and by taking it in a liquid form. 2 . The Ctissia Senna. See S F. x \ A . CASSIA-BARK. See Laiirns Cas- s';a, p. 201. CASTOR. See BKAVPR. CASTOR-OIL is fxtrafted from the castor nut, or the seed of the Pi cinur community a native of the TvVst Indies. These seeds are about the si/o of siiKill beans, which, in their brittle shells, con- CAS tain white kernels, of a sweet; oily, but somewhat nauseous taste. Nor is the expressed oil quite free from the acrimony of the nut ; though it is, in general, one of the mildest, and safest purgatives ; sor that half a tea-spoonful for a dose has been given, with success, to new-born infants, for lubricating: the first passages, and expelling the" meconium. It is also one of the best vermifuges, and a most efficacious remedy for the dry belly-ach, and iliac passion, when administered in proper doses, to children and adults ; viz. the dose for the for- mer, from one to two tea-spoon- fuls ; and the latter, a table-spoon- ful, repeated every two or three hours. As patients generally have a great aversion to this oil, in its pure state, it may be taken swim- ming either in a glass of pepper- mint, or simple water, or in the form of an emulsion, with mucilage, or with the addition of a small quantity of rum. The greatest precaution, however, is necessary with respect to the quality of this oil, as there are two modes of pre- paring it, namely, by decoction and expression : the former is of a brown colour, has a rancid, dis- agreeable taste and smell, and con- sequently unfit for internal use; whereas that obtained by expres- sion, is more limpid, nuht-r verging to a green colour, and almost tune- less ; but, when spoiled by long keeping, it is likewise an improper medicine. External!)-, castor-oil warmed, and rubbed on the parts affected, has been successfully applied in that painful spasmodic contraction, and rigidity of the muscles, called the tetamts ; as likev, ise mixfd with opium and camphor., in the foim . AT form of a liniment, to relieve the most distressing spasms, and par- ticularly the tnsnius, or locked j a iv; in which cases, however, it possesses no specific adtion. CAT, or Felis Cains, L. a genus of animals, comprising twenty-one .species, and belonging to the same class as the lion and the tyger. Though originally a variety of the wild cat, one of the most ferocious brutes, this animal is now domes- ticated, and bred in Britain, as \vell as in other parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, of which countries it is a native. The former inhabits hollow trees, especially the oaks of large forests, and in winter retreats to die deserted holes of foxes and badgers. Its skin is an excel- lent fur, but by no means compen- sates the damage done by wild cats to game and poultry. The domestic cat, when suffer* 'ed to retire to thickets, easily re- turns to a wild state. Its colour is uncommonly diversified; but the most beautiful varieties are, the reddish Spanish cat> and that of Angora, with long silken hair. A tame cat generally attains the age of about twelve years : the female breeds in the first year 3 though it grows till eighteen months old ; she usually produces from four to six blind kittens, after a gestation of fifty-five days; and carefully conceals them, apprehen- sive of the unnatural voracity of the male. It is farther remarkable, that the female also has been ob- served to devour her offspring, when it happened to be deformed, or mon- strous. The flesh of animals, or fish, is the most agreeable food to cats ; for they partake of vegetable ali- .raent -only from necessity. As they chew with difficulty, frequent . *o,iv. VOL, i. CAT [449 drink is indispensably requisite to the 'preservation of their health. There are, however, some plants of which they are excessively fond j and when indulged with them, pre- sent a variety of whimsical gesti- culations : of this nature is the valerian root, and the herb called nep, or cat-mint, the nepeta cata- ria, L. : on the contrary, they shun other vegetables as their mortal enemies, for instance, the common rue, or ruta graveolens, L. Any substance rubbed with the leaves of this plant, is said to be perfectly secure from their depredations : for the communication of this useful fa6t, in domestic life, we are in- debted to C. P. FUNKE, a German naturalist. Cats enjoy a warm temperature, and a soft couch ; moisture and filth, as well as water and cold, arc equally repugnant to their na- ture ; hence they are continually cleaning themselves with their paws and tongue. Another pecu- liarity is, the purring of these ani- mals, when they are cajoled, or flattered, by passing the hand over their backs : this singular noise is performed by means of two elastic membranes in the larynx, or the upper part of the wind-pipe. Their hair is so eleftric, that the expanded skin of a cat makes an excellent cushion for the glass cy- linder, or globe, of an electrifying machine. The flesh of cats is eaten by se- veral nations, but the substance of the brain is said to be poisonous. 'From the intestines of these ani- mals are manufactured the cele- brated Roman chords, for covering the violin. With respeft to their peculiari- ties, we shall remark, that cats possess a very acute sense of bu'Ji G g smell 45] GAT smell and sight; by the strutfture of their eyes, which sparkle in the dark, they are better enabled to discover obje&s of prey, such as mice and rats, at night, than in the day time: hence they ought not to be luxuriously fed, if kept for the clestru&ion of those \ ermin . It is, however, to be regretted, that this useful domestic creature is one of the most deceitful companions. Constantly bent on theft and ra- pine, the cat is a compound of cmv- CAT to malice and anger, it will b* more prudent to keep them at a due distance, CAT- SALT, a beautiful granu- lated species of common salt, thus denominated by the manufacturer. It is made from the bittern, or leach brine, by the following pro- cess : When the common salt is drawn out of the boiling pans, it is put into long, wooden troughs, the bottoms of which are perforated, that the brine may drain off. Be- riing and dissimulation, seizes eve- neath these troughs, vessels ry opportunity of doing mischief, placed for the reception of nd flies from punishment, when detected. It is, therefore, not a little surprizing, that many elderly ladies are so partial to these qua- drupeds, that they will even suffer them to sleep in the same bed ; a practice fraught with considerable danger; as the exhalation of cats 'is extremely detrimental to the lungs; besides which, they are liable to hydrophobia, as well. as the more faithful dog. For these reasons, we would advise parents, not to permit their children to play fur hours, with these animals, even though the swallowing of cat's hair should not be attended with such bad effects as many are inclined to believe. Lastly, Whether the marvellous stories concerning the revengeful ' disposition of cats, be well founded, or otherwise, it cannot be doubted that many judicious persons have so invincible an antipathy against these. creatures, that they have been known to faint in rooms where cats were ' concealed 5 and that no arguments were sufficient to efface the im- pression. We are, therefore, do- lly" of opinion, that great pre- caution ought to be vised in the : meht of the purring tribe; instead of provoking them arc the brine, and across them small sticks, to which the cat-salt adheres in large and beautiful crystals. This salt is very pungent, and, though pellucid when in a mass, becomes white on being reduced to powder : it is sometimes used for culinary purposes, but more frequently employed by the manu- facturers of hard soap. CATAPLASM. See POULTICE. CATARACT. See GUTTA SE- RENA. CATARRH, or COLD, a disease arising generally from a sud- den diminution of insensible per- spiration, by exposing the body to a damp, or cold air, after having been, for some time, under the in- fluence of a warmer temperature. It is at first attended with an in- creased secretion of mucus, from the glands and membranes of the nose, eyes, throat, windpipe, &c. : henre a defluxion of a thin, acrid humor, which irritates those glands and membranes, occasions some difficulty of breathing through the nose, with a sense of fulnesst, and sooner, or later, produces all the usual symptoms of a common cold. Contrary to the prevailing opinion, we are convinced that bleeding is seldom, if ever, neces- sary CAT fcary m these, and similar affec- tions. As, however, catarrhs are sometimes attended with a slight degree of inflammation, and fever, their treatment must be regulated accordingly: but, if unaccompa- nied with febrile symptoms, there is no danger to be apprehended. In the latter case, only, we shall suggest a few directions for ma- naging those frequent complaints, which are generally neglected at their commencement. It was formerly maintained, that all colds may be cured by sudorific remedies ; but experience has prov- ed that this method, though some- times successful, has often been productive of injury. In modern times, the opposite treatment has been adopted, and both the inter- nal use, and external application of cold water, have been indiscri- minately recommended. The true and proper plan, however, appears te be the medium between these extremes; for it cannot be doubt- ed, that keeping the body too warm, and excessive indulgence in hot, diluent drink, predispose it to catarrhs; as, on the other hand, the internal and external use of cold water tends to strengthen the whole animal frame, and renders it less susceptible of the impressions of air and cold. But, unfortunate- ly, the preservative means have, in this instance, been confounded with (he curative, or those intend- ed for effecting the cure. Hence, in the beginning of every catarrh, tiie following particulars deserve attention : 1. To dilute and weaken the acrid humor, secreted by the glands: this purpose 'may be at- tained by inhaling the steam of water, and drinking proper quan- tities of Y/arm diluents. CAT [45 2. To prevent too great a de- fluxion of humors, or to render the mucus itself milder, and fa- cilitate its excretion, it will be of great advantage to apply vesi- catories contiguous to the parts most affeAed by the cold. (See BLISTER.) 3. To evacuate the conco&ed, or digested matter : this salutary effedt is accomplished either by spontaneous defluxion, or by the pores and urine. Both must be principally intrusted to Nature j as we should assist, and direct, her operations only in the mildest, and most Cautious manner. Dr. MUDGK, in a treatise on this disease, recommends the steam of hot water, as a most efficacious and safe remedy, and which in- deed he considers as almost infal-' lible. The method of inhaling these steams is very simple; but he observes that, for healthy per- sons, who may accidentally see his machine, great precaution is ne- cessary, not to make the experi- ment of respiring through cold water; as thus they would be al- most certain of contracting a severe cold. For those troubled -with a catarrh, he directs as follows : In the evening, a little before bed- time, the patient, if an adult, is to take three drams, or as many tea- spoonmls of paregoric elixir, in a glass of water : but, if a child un- der rive years of age, one te$- spoonful ; or, from five to ten years old, two. About three quarters of an hour after, the pa- tient should go to bed, and, being covered warm, the inhaler three parts filled with water, nearly at the boiling point (which from the coldness of t'e metal, and the time it ordinarily requires before it is used, will be of a proper tem- G g 2 perature), CAT perature), and being wrapped up in a napkin, but so as not to ob- struct the valve in the cover, which is to be placed at the arm-pit, and the bed-clothes being drawn up, and over it, close to the throat, the tube is to be applied to the mouth, and the patient should inspire and expire through it, for about twenty minutes, or half an hour. -It is very evident, says Dr. MUJDGE, as the whole act of res- piration is performed through the machine, that by inspiration the lungs will be filled with air, which will be hot, and loaded with va- pour, by passing through the body of water ; and in expiration, all that was contained in the lungs will, by mixing with the steam on the surface of the water, be forced through the valve in the cover, and settle on the surface of the body, while under the bed-clothes. The great use of this particular construction of the inhaler is, 1. As there is no necessity, at the end of evety inspiration, to remove the tube from the mouth, in order to expire from the lungs the vapour which had been received into them, this machine, may, therefore, be used with equal facility, by chil- dren and adults. 2. As febrile symptoms frequently accompany the disorder, the valve, in that re- spect, is also of the utmost im- portance: for a sweat, or> at least, a tree perspiration, not only re- lieves the patient from the restless anxiety of a hot, dry, and, some- times> parched skin, but is, of all evacuations, the most eligible for removing the fever ; and it will be generally found, that, after the in- haler has been used a few minutes, the warm vapour under the clothes will, by settling upon tbe trunk* pro- CAT dace 3 sensible perspiration, wliich will gradually extend itself to the legs and feet. In any feverish habit attending this cough, it would be proper to take a draught of warm, thin whey, a few minutes before the inhaler is used; and after the pro- cess is over, the sweat which it has occasioned, may be promoted by drinking small draughts of weak, w.arm whey, or barley-water. The sweating is by no means so essen- tial to the cure of a catarrhous cough, as that the success of the inhaler at all depends upon it ; yet the Do&or observes, that its ad- vantages are very important, when the disease is accompanied by fe- brile symptoms. After this respiratory process is performed, the patient generally passes the night without the least interruption by the cough, and feels no farther attack than, per- haps, once, or twice, in the follow* ing morning, to throw off th^ trifling leakage, which, unperceiv- ed, had fallen into the bronchiac and vesicles, during the night; the thinner parts of which, being evacuated, the remainder is easily expe6iorated. However, continues Dr M VDGE , if the patient hopes not to be dis- appointed in the hUccess of this pro- cess, it is essentially necessary that he strictly attend to the following rules : 1. As valetudinarians are but too well acquainted with the first symptoms of this disorder, the remedy must be used the same evening; which will, in an ordi- nary attack, be attended with an immediate cure : but, if the sore- ness of die respiratory organs, or the petulance of the cough, indi- cate CAT cate the severity of the cold, the in- haler, without the opiate, should be repeated the next morning. 2. If the use of this apparatus, 8rc. be delayed till the second night, it will be always proper to repeat rhe process the follow- ing morning, without the opiate, except where the attack has been violent. 3 . Should the cough be neglect- ed tor some days, it will always be necessary to employ both parts of the process at night, and the suc- ceeding morning, as the first sim- ple inflammatory mischief is now most probably aggravated by an additional disease, of a chronic na- ture. But, if this should be omit- ted, and the cough continue to harass the patient, it is of the . utmost consequence, particularly in delicate and tender individuals, to attempt the removal of it as soon as possible, before any float- ing acrimony in the constitution . (from the perpetual irritation) re- ceives an habitual determination to an organ so essential to life as the lungs. If the patient, with ease and freedom, expectorates a thick, and well digested, inoffensive phlegm, there is generally but little doubt of Ms throwing off the disorder, with common care, in a few days ; and till that be accomplished, a proper dose of paregoric elixir, for a few successive nights, will be found very useful, in suppressing the fatiguing irritation, and ineffec- tual cough, occasioned by a matter which, in the early stage of the disease, flows into the bronchiae, during the night, and is generally too thin to be discharged by those . convulsive efforts. But, should the cough still continue, notwithstand- ing a free and copious expectora- CAT [ 4J3 tion, and the discharge, instead of removing the complaint, become a disease greater than the constitu- tion can support, it is possible that a tender patient, possessed of weak and relaxed lungs, may do himself irreparable injury, without the least appearance of purnlence, or any suspicion of suppuration. In those cases, besides increasing the general perspiration, by the salu- tary friction of a flannel waist- coat, change of situation, espe- cially long journeys on horseback, conducted as much as possible, through a thin, sharp, dry air, will seldom fail to remove the com- plaint. On the contrary, if the cough should continue dry, husky, without expectoration, andfatiguing to the breast, provided there be no apprehension of tubercles, either forming, or already formed, there is not, perhaps, a more efficacious remedy for it than half a dram of gum ammoniac, with eighteen, or twenty drops of liquid laudanum, made into pills, taken at bed-time, and occasionally repeated. This excellent remedy was recommend- ed by Sir JOHN PRIKGLE, and Dr. MUDGK observes, that he has, iu many instances, found it to be very successful, and generally expedi- tions ; for it almost uniformly pro- duced an expectoration, ami abat- ed the distressing fatigue of the cough. The latter practitioner has, likewise, in many instances, known a salutary revulsion made from the lungs, by the simple application of a large plaster, about five or six inches in diameter, of burgundy pitch between the shoulders j .as tl.e perspirable matter, which is pent up under it, becomes so sharp and acrid, that it generally produces, in a few days, a very considerable itching, some little .tendency to in- O g 3 ^animation, 454] CAT flammation, and frequently a great number of boils. This applica- tion should be continued (the plaster being occasionally chang- ed), for three weeks, a month, or longer, if necessary, Although seemingly a trifling precaution, yet it is by no means a useless one, to the patient, not to expose his shoulders to the cold air, while in bed, during the night ; but to take care that they be kept warm, by drawing the bed-clothes up to his neck, when . lie reposes. If, notwithstanding these, and other means, the cough should continue dry, or be unattended with a proper expectoration, and together with a soreness, produce shooting pains through the breast, and between the shoulders, accom- panied with difficulty of breathing, flushes of the cheeks after meals, a burning sensation in the hands and feet, and other symptoms of a he&ic fever, no time must be lost, as there is the greatest reason to apprehend, that some acrimony in the habit is determined to the ten- der substance of the lungs, and that consequently tubercular sup- purations will follow. In this cri- tical and dangerous situation, the Dotor observes, from long expe- rience, that the patient will derive the greatest benefit from a change of air, and by strictly adhering to a diet, consisting of asses' milk and vegetables.' His advice concern- ing large bleedings, appears to us liable to many objections. CATCHWEED, the TRAIL- ING, or German Mad wort, Aspe- nigo procuml-ens, L. an indige- nous plant, growing near roads, and Samongst rubbish. Its angular ciem bears blue, or purple flowers, Lg April and May. It is common CAT nparBuxley,in Sussex, and In Holy Island. Sheep are exceedingly fond of this weed ; and its tender leaves may be dressed and eaten as an excel- lent culinary vegetable. There is another plant to which Dr. WITHERING gives the name of CATCH WE'KD, namely, the Ga- lium Aparinc, L. ; but which is more generally denominated Clea- ver's GOOSGRASS: hence we propose to treat of it under that article. CATECHU, or Mimosa Ca- techu, L. or sensitive plant, which is a native of the East Indies, and, comprises above sixty species. From this plant is produced the extra 6t denominated catechu, which was for a long time erro- neously called Terra Japomca, from the earthy particles it con- tains; but which are entirely ad- ventitious, and consist of impu- rities adhering to it, while in the furnaces, or kilns, in which it is prepared. The extract of Catechu, when in its purest state, is a dry sub- stnnce, which may be reduced to powder, and almost entirely dis- solved in water, or in spirits of wine. It is a mild, but excellent astringent, and leaves in the mouth an agreeable sweetness. This me- dicine is more particularly useful in alvine fluxes; and where, on this accpunt, astringents become necessary, it is, perhaps, the most salutary. It is also successfully employed in complaints peculiar to females, laxity and debility of the viscera, in general, and in various pther diseases, which require, strengthening remedies. When dissolved in the mouth, the catechu has frequently afforded relief for weak and ulcerated gums, CAT />r aphthous eruptions, or the thrush, and similar affections. The best form in which catechu can be taken, is that of simple in- fusion in warm water, with the addition of cinnamon, or cassia : thus it is freed from its impurities, and rendered more palatable. It .is given in doses from fifteen to forty grains, according to the age and constitution of the patient, CATERPILLAR, or Eruca, a genus of insects, comprehending many species, of which that most generally known is the common, or garden-caterpillar. The natural food of these creatures consists of the leaves and verdure of vege- tables ; but, harmless as they ap- pear, there are some species among them which destroy one another, xvhenever an opportunity offers : the generality of caterpillars, how- ever, are very peaceable, and many species live together in the same place, without molesting each other. These would breed and multiply to an incredible degree, were they not devoured by other inserts, which prey upon them, both ex- ternally and internally, and liter- ally consume them alive. Caterpillars are very destructive in gardens and iields, especially those denominated the black, and the black -canker caterpillar, which prey principally on .turnips. The former insect is of the colour of Sfiot ; and, when full grown, about three quarters of an inch in length. It commences its depredations for- wards the end of August, or the beginning of September, and is particularly numerous, when the north or easterly winds prevail. To counteract the devastation' oc- casioned by this insect, it has been recommended, at the first plough- ing, to irrigate the furrows with CAT lime-water, which will effectually destroy it; as few insects like the smell of any thing that has been burned. The black-canker caterpillars are principally found in the county of Norfolk, where, from the great numbers of insects which 'have been washed upon the beach, by the tide, it is generally believed that they are not natives, but wafted across the ocean. These cankers are supposed to be the ca- terpillar state of the yellow fly, which is particularly destructive in fields planted with turnips and cab- bages ; for they have been ob- served regularly to assume the ap- pearance of those flies. For this evil, there appears to be EO other remedy, but to pull the creatures off their nests, and to watch the flies, which during the hot weather are daily depositing their eggs on those plants. There is also another variety, called by gardeners the grub, the skin of which is vefy tough, and of a brown colour. This insect is particularly injurious, usually de- positing its eggs in the very heart of the plants, through all the blades of which it eats its way, leaving behind a great quantity of its ex- crement, which is hurtful to vege- tation. Grubs likewise burrow under the surface of the ground, and do great damage to young plants, by eating off their tender stalks, and drawing them into sub- terraneous hobs. This mischief is principally done in the night ; but, if the earth be stirred about an inci; deep, where a plant is found to be thus injured, the insect will be dis- covered : and this is the only cer- tain way of exterminating U noxious vermin. When caterpillars attack fruit - G g 4 CAT trees, the most efficacious way t(? destroy them is the following : Make a strong decoction of equal quantities of rue, wormwood, and common tobacco, and sprinkle this liquor on the leaves and young branches every night and morn- ing, while the fruit is ripening. Various other experiments have been made with a view to extirpate these mischievous vermin. We shall, however, mention only the folio wing methods, which have been attended with peculiar success : Take three quarts of water, and one quart of vinegar ; let them be heat- ed till they nearly boil ; then put one pound or more of pure soot into the mixture, and stir it with a \vhisk till the whole is duly incor- porated. Sprinkle the plants with this preparation every morning and evening : in a few days all the ca- terpillars will disappear. This has also bren effected by sprinkling plants (and more especially goose- berry-bushes, which are remarka- bly subject to die depredations of these insects) with a preparation consisting of one quart of tobacco- liquor, in which an ounce of alum has been dissolved. As soon as the plants or bushes appear to be in the least degree corroded, or any eggs are observed on die leaves, a brush should be dipped into the li- quor, which, by drawing die Land gendy over its hairs, is carefully sprinkled on diem. If any eggs be there deposited, they never come forward after this application; and if diose eggs have already been changed into worms, they either die, or sicken, so as to fall off die bush 5 in which case they may be easily killed. When the trunk and boughs of trees abound with the eggs of ca- ,. terpillars, especially in the early CAT spring, it is advisable to rub the bark of all the affected places with a sponge dipped in soap-water ; and, where the height of the tree renders it necessary, this operation may be facilitated, by fastening pieces of flannel to a lath or pole, after soaking them in a similar li- quor. About the middle of the last century, experiments were made to manufacture paper from the cods which caterpillars spin, and in which they undergo their transformations from a worm to a nymph, or chry- salis, and thence to a butterfly. These cods, after being cleared of the leaves that adhered to them, and well beaten, were reduced to a kind of pulp, which, when spread in water, was collected into the form, and made into sheets of pa- per of a coarse brown colour j but as some of them were much whiter than others, it was supposed, that by being beaten and . washed a longer time in the mortar of die mill, they would acquire a greater degree of whiteness. At the pre- sent period, when the materials for manufacturing paper are exceed- ingly scarce, we would recom- mend a repetition of this experi- ment ; for, if the result should be successful, considerable advantage may be derived from the cods of t-.ose insects, which occasion often irreparable damage to the industri- ous cultivator. See also, INSECT. WATER-CATERPILLARS, Erucce aquatic te, L. are thus called from their living under water. They feed on aquatic plants, and respire by their stigmata in the same inan- . ner as the common caterpillars of . the garden. There are, acccording to REAU- .MUK, two varieties of these insects, the one on the Putamogelun, or pond- CAT pondweed ; the other \ipon the Lcnticula, or duck-meat : die lirst of diese is the larger ; and, as its operations are more easily distin- guished, k is better known than the other. Though strittly an aqua- tic animal, it does not delight in the water, and is extremely soli- citous to avoid wetting itself. It is produced in the same manner as the land-caterpillar, from an egg which the parent butterfly deposits on the h'af of a certain plant, out of which die insect, as soon as it is hatched, gnaws a piece of a cir- cular form. This it carries to ano- ther part of the same leaf, and places it so as to construct a cavity in which it may safely lodge. It then fastens down the piece to the larger leaf, by silk of its own spin- ning, leaving holes at certain dis- O- 7 O tances, through which it may push its head, and prey upon the ad- joining leaves : these are naturally so smooth, that they are seldom wetted ; and, as often as its habi- tation becomes too small, the in sect makes others successively, each being adapted to its periodical size, till it undergoes the usual changes into a butterfly. In this state, as soon as its wings are dry, it leaves the water, never to return again. WOOD-CATERPILLARS, JBpMM syivestres, are thus denominated, because they live, contrary to the generality of caterpillars, tinder the bark, in the trunk, branches, and roots of trees, and sometimes in the body of the fruit. They are produced from eggs deported on the surface : and eat their way far- ther, as soon as they are hatched. Some of these caterpillars leave their abode in order to change into their chrysalis, and thence into th struftion. CATHARTICS. SeePuRGATiv -s. CATMINT, or NEP, the j\>- peta Cataria, L. a native plant growing on pastures and hedges, in a calcareous soil near Bungav, Suffolk ; Wick Ciifts ; on the beach at Rampside ; Low Furness ; \ I lev Castle, &c. Its stalk is a high, and branched; the leaves arc of a velvet-like softness ; the soms white, with a tinge of spotted with purple, and appear in July. This is a hardy plant, and easily propagated by seeds ; it has a bitter taste, and strong smell, resen: a mixture of mint and peanyi An infusion of the catmint ! commended as a good cephalic, and deemed a specific in chlorotic cases : two ounces of the juice are usually given for a dose. Cats are exceedingly fond < : especially when it is withered. Mr. RAY mentions, that he had tran*- planted the common catmint : tlie fields into his garden ; but the cats soon destroyed it : these p' however, which came up from tin.: seeds, unitormlv escaped ; ami he found the old proverb vei namely, namely, " If you set it, the cats will eat it ; if you sow it, the cats will not know ic." The plant is raten by sheep, but refused by cows, horses, goats, and swine. C .\Ts-Mi L K . Sec WA XT- w CRT. CATS TAIL, or HEED-MACK, the; Typha, L. a genus of native plants consisting of two species : J. The latifolia, or great cats tail, bearing a stalk from six to eight feet high, leaves a yard long, and somewhat sword-shaped, cylindri- cal catkins, and no blossoms ; it grows on the banks of rivers, fish- ponds, and in marshes ; 2. The singiistifolia, or small cats tail, with semi - cylindrical leaves below, where sheathing the stem ; but flat and strap shaped towards the t:nd ; it also grows in ditches and ponds, and is frequently met with in the clay-pits of Norfolk and Suffolk, There is, according to JLrNNJEUs, a variety of the second species growing among rocks, where its roots are confined ; so that it becomes smaller, but its spikes ;ire more numerous. Spe-* oimens of it have been found on Houn slow-heath. The cats tail is one of those ne- glected plants which might be easi- ly applied to various useful pur- poses. At present, its leaves only are employed, partly by coopers for calking the bottom of casks, nr-d partly by the manufacturers of rush-bottomed chairs. In Rus- sia, the woolly down surrounding the seed, is mixed with the feathers of quails, and used for stuffing bolsters. But the Germans have lately made successful attempts to- v.vuds converting the downy cat- kins of this plant into a more va- luable article of commerce. In 1 7^0, M. "\VEICHH AN, an ingeni- ous hatter of Ostritx, in Lower Lusntin, transmitted to the Econo- mical Society of Leipzig, an excel- lent Ii.al, manufactured of one part of this vegetable substance, and two parts of hare's fur. He as- sured the Society, that the mixture not only worked admirably well under the bow, but likewise form- ed a complete union when felted. A proportionate addition of Spa- nish wool, would probably afford a still better material, and produce hats sufficiently fine and clastic. Professor FORSTER, of Halle, in the year l/po, sent to the Society above-mentioned, a specimen of blot ting paper made of a mixture, consisting partly of the villous hair of the cats tail, and partly of the coarsest linen and woollen rags em- ployed for that purpose ; but Dr. BOHMER, whose botanical work we have frequently quoted, asserts, that a good writing paper has been manufactured of the dry down ob- tained from those catkins, after they had been, in a manner, parch- ed by the heat of the sun ; and that such paper was peculiarly fit for drawings and paintings. CATTLE are those quadrupeds, which serve either for tilling the ground, or as food for man. They are d:\ided into Hack cattle, which comprise horses, oxen, bulls, cows, and their young; and into siuai\ cattle, that is, rams, ewes, lambs^ goats, cvc. Having incidentally treated on some of the animals that are class- ed under this denomination, we shall confine our present account to die management of cattle in ge- neral 3 pointing out such vcgeta-?. bles, as may be given diem with advantage, together with a few supplementary rules, to be observ- ed in the breeding of these useful animals, and sonic observations on the CAT ttie most common distempers to '.di they are peculiarly liable. J. WlTH RESPECT TO FOOD. The first object in the article of food, is wholesomeness : wild cattle feed entirely on the green vegeta- bles, which they find throughout the year. Similar nutriment should therefore, if possible, be procured for tame cattle, in all seasons ; but .such food can be found only among those plants, which are either con- stantly green, or arrive at maturity yn the winter. Of all vegetable productions, the most exuberant, for this purpose, appears to be the cabbage, with its numerous varie- ties, of which we have already spoken : the disagreeable taste, which that plant is supposed to impart to milk, can be no reason- able objection to its use; as it may be obviated by boiling, or, still more effectually, by preparing it in certain vessels, of which we sha'l give a description, with a cut, under .the head of ROOT- STEAMER. Turnips and carrots constitute .the next article, and cannot be too forcibly recommended, especially /is a winter food. So very great is the produce of the. latter plant, that, according to the account of Mr. ARTHUR YOUNG, twenty work-horses, four bullocks, and six milch-cows, were fed at Par- tington, in Yorkshire, for above five months, with carrots, the pro- fluce of three acres 5 nor did they, during that period, taste any other food, except a little hay. The milk, he farther adds, was excel- lent, and the refuse fattcried thirty hogs, with very Jittle additional food. Potatoes and buck-wheat fur- pish a supply, equally excellent wholesome. Horses are par- CAT [459 ficuhrly fond of" the latter, V also fattens poultry very s;x while. its blossoms^atibru . lood fur bees, at a period when the vegetable creation is, for the most part, stripped of its verdure. To these may be added, the plant, called whins, the utility of which, has but lately become generally knowii. They require, it is true, to be ground in a mill, before the/ are given to cattle, and do not materially ameliorate the ground, a circumstance considered as an objection to their culture; but, notwithstanding these apparent disadvantages, they produce an ilent and invigorating fodder, and constitute one of the elr articles of winter provision ; as they continue green during the v, year, and will grow on the most indifferent Burnet, white beet, the M;: Wurzel, or root of scarcity, haviu; been already mentioned, it is un- necessary again to point out thrir utility in feeding cattle. There is another branch of the vegetable creation, usually ///< nit m. creeping, or purple fescue ; and the Huli.us lanatus, meadow- grass; die physical properti which, we shall notice he.ie.Htci . To this numbi the Astiagalus glyci/p/itltos, s\ milk-vetch, or wild liquorice* vetch, or milk-wort, as it is diffe- rently called j which, independent- ly of its utility in affording a whole- some and nutritious winter-fodder, deserves every attention from the cultivator, as it will flourish luxu- riantly on the most barren s oil. J CAT The LatJiyrusApha.cn an&pratensLt, yellow vetchling, and everlasting tare ; several species of trefoil and clover - } the purple, or everlasting bush vetch, and the everlasting pea, all are most excellent fodder for cattle. Fir-tops, that is, the tender shoots of firs, though not generally known, also constitute an useful substitute. A rcmark- nble instance of this fac\ occurs in the fifth volume of the Bath So- ciety Papers, where an ingenious correspondent mentions, that, be- ing greatly in want of provender, having very little, or no hay, he was obliged to feed his cattle on fir-tops. And, though he had up- wards of 400 head of horned cattle, yet he did not lose above four or five ; while many farmers and graziers, who lived in the same county, lost one-half, and several of them almost their whole stock. Hence we seriously recommend farrher trials to be made with this article, which, in our opinion, pro- mises a wholesome and invigorat- ing food, and might, in a short time, be procured without employ- ing large quantities of land for the growing of winter provision. The last vegetable that peculiar- ly merits attention, as affording a proper food for cattle, is the Tri/b- iiuiii Mi'iilotus officinalis, L. com- inon melilot, which frequently calls forth all the patience of the industrious cultivator ; but which, from being a noxious weed, may become an inestimable resource. This plant has been given, both in a green and dry state, to horses, bullocks, asses, goats, and sheep, all of which have eaten it eagerly ; it has also been allowed to pigs, which, however, relished it only "while green. Let it suffice to ob- serve, for the present, that, as the CAT itu-Klot grows on the worst soils, where it spreads like a shrub, and rises to the height of from three to rive feet, great advantages may be obtained by planting it in desolate and barren places. In enumerating the various ve- getables which appear to be the most beneficial food for cattle, we have necessarily avoided entering into any particular details con- cerning their culture ; because some of diem have already been, and the rest will be, hereafter, noticed ia their alphabetical series. II. THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. The English cattle are divided into several classes, or breeds, de- nominated from the different coun- ties in which they are reared ; as the Lincolnshire and Holderness, which are distinguished for their size; the Welsh and Norfolk breeds, which are as remarkable for their lean, and wretched ap- pearance, as the Lancashire and Herefordshire are for their beauti- ful and healthy look-. Besides these, there are several others, as the Sussex, Devonshire, or Somer- setshire, which, though fine cattle, do not attract that attention, which is generally, and deservedly, paid to the Lancashire and Hereford- shire breeds. The former of these is particularly celebrated for the improvements made by the late in- genious Mr.BAKEWELL, of whose mode of breeding we have already given a concise account, pp. 337 and 338. There was a remarkable peculi- arity in Mr. BAKE WELL'S cattle j namely, their uncommon docility and meekness, which w r ere so great, that a boy with a switch could, without any difficulty, conduct them from one part of his farm to another. This- gentleness was the effect CAT effect of management, and evinces the superiority of his mode of breeding. While we admire and acknowledge its excellence, we cannot but advert to the mischief which is frequently done by horned cattle, and doubtless arises from very contrary praakvs. Such in- jurious consequences, however, might be prevented by tipping, that is, by sawing off the points of the horns of cows, bulls, and oxen, and fixing on them small knobs of wood, about three inches in diameter ; then boring a hole through the horn and wood, and clinching a nail on the opposite side. Although, by tiiis precau- tion, the horns are in a manner despoiled of their beauty, yr:t, when compared with the advan- tage resulting from it, this trifling loss cannot be regretted. . Concerning that fatal disorder, the rot in sheep, Mr. BAKEWELL was particularly attentive to its origin and progress : he found, from experience, that it was gene- rated solely by floods. Wheh, therefore, particular parcels of his best breed were past service, he fattened them for the butcher : and to be certain that they would be killed, and not go into other hands, he used " to rot them" before they were sold. This singular practice appears to have been the offspring of jealousy : it was effected by overflowing a pasture, or meadow, in summer ; as the soil thus inun- dated inevitably rots all the sheep that feed on it, the succeeding au- tumn. In the breeding of stallions for obtaining cart-horses, Mr. BAKK- \VELL was also particularly suc- cessful ; by observing the same rules of proportion as we have i tioned under the article CAT [461 CATTLE;" and making them in like manner docile ar. His economical plan of feeding the lat- ter with turnips, cannot be suffici- ently recommended to every dustrious breeder. All thci-s roots were carted to the stalls, by \\ iiich one acre went as far as three. With respect to the saving of straw, he observed similar care ; for, by giving it to his lean beasts in small quantities, he preserved their ap- petite sufficiently keen to make them eat clean, and thus prevented an unnecessary waste for litter j which is but too prevalent among agriculturists. Nor was his hay consumed in a can less and extra- \i\\> '/Mit manner^ the same econo- mical management that was spicuous in o', : ;ments of his agricultural concerns, also pre- vailed here ; and the measures he pursued, to ensure as large a quan- tity as possible at all seasons, dis- play an ingenuity and spirit of hus- bandry that rarely occur. This great objert was effected by water- ing his meadows (which were situ- ated near a small brook), by n of cuts that intersect them, and convey water to those parts which are at a distance from the brook ; and by making others for car. off the water, after it had n the land. These various w. which were completed at a consi- derable expence, notwithstanding the disdain and censure of his neighbours^ enabled Mr. BAKK- WELL to float from sixty to eighty acres of land at pleasure : and he found his labours crowned with the most ample success ; as n-> other annual manuring was re- quired. Instead of thistles, ridges, farrows, holes, hills, &c a disgrace to any farmer, i chiii i ni ii^ meadows ui\ level, 462) CA1* fcvel crops of hay, and beautiful verdure, renewing the highest cre- dit on his character, as an en- lightened, and public-spirited agri- culturist. The Herefordshire breed above- mentioned, appear to be a mixture of the Welsh, and a spurious race of long-honied cattle. Mr. CAMP- BELL, of Charlton, in Kent, how- ever, is of opinion, that the true Herefordshire cattle, with respe6t to kindly disposition for feeding, or delicacy of flesh, is not more than equal to the true-bred Sussex; though the former are more com- plete in their make, generally wider Snd fuller over the shoulders or fore chine, and the breast or bris- ket, also in the after-part of the rump, which is much oftener nar- row and shelly in the latter. In short, the cattle of Herefordshire are, in the opinion of the most ex- perienced farmers, considered as the best In England for oxen, the dairy, and for fattening. Besides the rules we have already stated, under the head of BREED- ING, we shall in this place observe, that cattle may be much improved by crossing the strain, or breed ; which is said to be attended with the most beneficial consequences. This praftice, though ridiculed by some prejudiced farmers, is never- theless sanctioned by the opinion and long experience of many suc- cessful breeders, and especially the late Mr. BAK.KWELL ; who has re- commended the propagating .from the old breed, only, till a better could be procured. In keeping live-stock on grain, as well as grass-farms, their kinds, size, and number, in proportion to the means of subsistence, deserve unremitted attention ; as likewise the modes of keeping them, and CAT their mamrre. It is assert- ed, that English Cows require, hi general, from one to two acres of pasture : this is mostly mad?, by sowing grass-seeds after the ground has produced crops for many years, being both ameliorated aftd ex-' hausted under manuring* and good tillage. Such land continues se- veral years afterwards in grass, which is carefully cleared of bram- bles and strong weeds. During this time, the cows drop their dung, which is exposed on the ground, to be exhausted by the" united effects of the sun and wind ; and which, according to the old system, is supposed to benefit the soil in a considerable degree. But' the good effects of this irregular method of fertilizing our pastures is, in a great measure, counteracted by the continual treading of the cattle; and we have every reason to hope that such wasteful and un- profitable modes of manuring wiil sooner or latter be relinquished,* and better practices be generally adopted. See IRRIGATION. The plan which prevails at pre- sent, is attended with this advan- tage, that rich grass -pasture will keep grown cattle at the rate of ] j of an acre per head, during the six wanner months ; and common pasture, at the rate of two acres- ' e?.ch. Thus, they require very, little attention ; and, as they range at pleasure, and drop their manure on the field, the expence and labour of heaping up, carting out, and spreading it, are entirely saved. On the other hand, by the .cattle treading on the grass and pasture, the value of the latter is much di- minished. Besides, pastures re* quire expensive fences ; the dung being scattered on the ground, is exposed to exhalation and waste, by &y ihe joint action of the sun and weather, and is thus greatly re- duced : to this must be added the time and trouble bestowed on driv- ing horses and oxen to the field, and thence to the stable or stall. These inconvcniencies may, how- ever, be obviated, and the cattle iupported at less expence, by soil- ing them, a practice now becom- ing general in this country, and which cannot be too strongly re- commended. By this means, \vry few or no division-fences are re- quired : instead of IT of an acre, one-fourth part will suffice for the -subsistence of a beast during the six warmer months ; the whole of their manure is \vell preserved, and s;iven to the soil, where it is most wanted, and in the best condition ; the land is not trodden in, and the cattle always ready for immediate use. They are also kept more cool, are less tormented by flies than if pastured, acquire good roats, and full flesh ; though they consume a much smaller quantity of food. Many persons, however, may object to the laying aside of division-fences, that bad seasons \vill happen, when no grass can be cut and carried in, on account of heavy rains, or cold winds which retard its growth; and, conse- quently, that it will be requisite to have some fields divided off, in \vhich tlto cattle may find pas- turage. To these it may be an- swered, that it will always be found a more safe and profitable plan to keep a quantity of hay in store, to meet the contingencies of unfavourable seasons, and to feed beasts in the manner practised in towns, where they frequently are kept on hay and straw, during the whole year, and thrive exceedingly well. Much, however, depends in the f ttt'.Miingof cattle, on their '' thriv- ing disposition: singular as it may- appear to many of our readers, the tendency of animals to become fat, is not a little promoted by what is called, sweating them ; a practice which has been attended with un- common success. This has been particularly experienced by the in- genious Mr. MOODY, who asserts, that the hotter cattle are kept, the better they will fatten. He, there- fore, shuts them up iu an ox- bouse, and for some time ad no air to enter through the holes of the doors. The breath of so many beasts, and the heat of their bo- dies, SJOOQ make them sweat ex- ceedingly, and when this is at its highest point, they most speedily fatten. After sweating two week>. all the hair falls off, a fresh coat appears, and they sweat no more: but those beast^ which do not sen- sibly perspire, seldom grow fat. Linseed oil-cake remarkably con- tributes to the. fattening of cattle, and rend'-rs their dung much richer than any other vegetable aliment; but, as this article is advancing ia price, and difficult to be procured, it has lately been superseded by linseed-jelly, which L> incompara- bly superior, . and, when givea with hay or meal, makes an excel- lent mixture for stall-fattening. It is prepared as follows : To seven parts of water [Ait one of linseed, which has been previously steeped for 48 hours; then boil it gently for two hours, stirring the ma-:? continually, to prevent it from burning. It should afterwards by cooled in tubs, and mixed with meal, bran, or cut chaff. Mr. MOODY gave two quarts of this jelly every day to each large bul- lock, which amounts to little more tUa than one quart of seed in four days, and is a great saving in the article of food. Having already, in the articles BLACK. CATTLE and BULLOCKS, stated the most proper method of fattening cattle, we refer the reader to those heads, and proceed to dis- cUss the last section of this subject. III. THE DISEASES OF CATTLE. No distemper is perhaps more common among these useful ani- mals, than that of being swoln,that is, lloii'ii or haveh, as it is termed by farmers. It arises either from {heir being exposed to damp situa- tions, or from eating too greedily of any succulent food, such as tur- nips, clover, particularly red clover, which is a dangerous food for horned cattle ; for, when wetted by dew cr rain, it may prove a de- structive poison. For this fatal malady, various remedies have been tried, with more or less success, of v/hich we shall select" the most ef- fectual and expeditious. The ge- neral practice is, to make an inci- sion with a penknife in the body of the affected animal, in order to give vent to the conlined air: the wound is then covered with a com- mon or adhesive plaster, to prevent external cold from penetrating it ; and thus the danger, in general, is speedily removed. But, where it is practicable, it surely behoves us to employ more gentle remedies for the alleviation of this disorder : we, therefore, extract with satis- faction, the following recipe from t.'ic 33d volume of the Annals of Agriculture. ; where it is announ- ced as a specific for hoven cattle, even in the most desperate cases ; effecting a cure within the short space of half an hour. Take three quarters of a pint of olive oil ; one pint of melted batter, or hog's laid; give this mixture by means CAT of a horn or bottle ; and if it doe,< not produce a favourable change in a quarter of an hour, repeat the same quantity, and walk the ani- mal gently about. For sheep at- tacked with this malady, the dose is, from a wine glass and a half to: two glasses. ^Besides these reme- dies, instruments have been invent- ed for the purpose of relieving blown cattle : two of these con- trivances we shall describe, as be- ing particularly distinguished for the ingenuity of their construction, and the speedy relief they afford. The first is a flexible tube, invent- ed by the celebrated Dr. MUNRO, Professor of Anatomy at Edin- burgh : it consists of iron wire, about one sixteenth of an inch in diameter, twisted round a rod three eighths of an inch in diame- ter, and made of polished iron, in order to give it a cylindrical form ; the wire, alter being taken off the rod, should be covered with smooth leather. To the end of the tube, which is intended to be pass- ed into the stomach, abrdsspipe two inches long, of the same size, or rather larger than the tube, is to be firmly connected : and to pre^ vent the tubs from bending toa much within the mouth, or gullet, an iron wire, one eighth of an inch in diameter, and of the same length as the tube, is put within it, but afterwards withdrawn, when the tube has entered the stomach.* As Dr. MUNRO has ascertained, that the distance from" the fore- teeth to the bottom of the first stomach of a large ox, is about six f?0. IV, VOL, L 4 66] CAT In justice *o Mr. EAGER, we cannot omit to mention, that the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &rc. in \7QQ, voted to him a reward of fifty guineas, for com- municating to the public his simple, yet effectual, method of relieving cattle thus dangerously affected ; and that the Earl of EGREMONT has candidly testified his conviction of the propriety of the principles on which Mr. EAGER' s opinion, rela- tive- to the cause of that distemper, was established. In short, several respectable persons have farther at- tested, that the practice, also, lias been attended with complete suc- cess. There are various other distem- pers, to which the farmer's live- stock are frequently subject ; such as the worms, or botts in horses (see p. 318), the mildew, mur- rain, quarter-evil, rot, scab, &c. among different species of cattle. With respect to the nature and cure of these, we refer to the order of the alphabet : such of our read- ers, however, as may wish for more minute information, on the subject of cattle, will probably be gratifi- ed by the perusal of Mr. CULLEY'S " Observations on Live -Stock," (8vo. 4s. 6d.) ; a small work that was published a few years since, and is believed to possess consider- able merit. Before we conclude this interest- ing article of national importance, \ve shall add a few general re- marks, tending chiefly to preserve the health, and improve the phy- sical properties of cattle. It is ad- mitted, by all enlightened breeders, that cleanliness is one of the most *:sential requisites to the prospe- rity of those animals ; and we may venture to add that, in this respect, a decree of aUentioa ought to be CAT paid, little inferior to that bestowed on the human frame. Hence, fre- quent washing, espeeially aftei'lurd labour ; friction with proper bruslv- es, and curry-combs, gentle walk- ing after a fatiguing journey ; and the immediate removal of litter, both from the stall*, and .farm- yards, should not be neglected. But, alas! let us look around, in the vicinity of London, and inspect the filthy situation of cows, in ge- neral, which are kept in a state wur.se than hackney coach-horses, for the sole purpose of giving the greatest possible quantity of milk, without regarding its quality every judicious person will shudder at the picture. And yet, we de- rive from these beneficent brutes a considerable part of our daily sustenance, especially for children, and those persons whose organs of digestion have not been impaired by the habitual use of fermented, spirituous, or intoxicating liquors. See MILK. In a preceding part of this work (p. 2/0"), we have pointed out the great necessity of supplying BLACK, CATTLE with sufficient quantities of common salt ; and, for the rea- sons already stated, we are of opi- nion, that ALL kinds of cattle, espe- cially >/ur/>, would be much bene- fited by the continual use of this, simple and natural spice, which eminently conduces to the digestion of succulent vegetables, and is al- most a specific for preventing the effects of flatulence. Salt cannot be given in excess : it is affirmed, that it enables the farmer to bi- crease his live-stock; as it augments the nourishment vf the food eaten, in pn portion to the quantity (f sa- line matter. It is also said greatly to improve the wool in quality, as wcU as quantity. Hence it ought to CAU to be freely given to sheep, and tattle of every description : but, to imitate Nature, it should be previ- ously dissolved, and then mixed with a pure, fine clay, in a \nass, which is to be placed under shelter, so that the animals m:iy lap it at pleasure : such is the process which the unprejudiced grazier will be disposed to adopt. Lastly, Mr. BOKDLEY, the American, relates a fact worthy the attention of British farmers* About sixty years ago, he learnt, from a country farrier, that, " onct- or twice a week, giv- ing salt to horses, effectually se- cures them against I:otts;" ever since that period, he has experien- ced the good effects of this manage- ment j and adds that, during twenty years residence on his farm, at Wye, in Maryland, he always kept 'upwards of fifty horses on the banks of a river, containing salt-ivater, and never met with a single instance of that disease. CAUDEX, a botanical term, signifying, in general, the stem, or trunk of a tree. It is properly that part of plants which joins together the lilumnla, or leaf, and the ra- dictf, or root fibres ; and which is called the caudex, by LINXJEUS, when applied to entire plants. He consequently divides it into the ascending and descending body of tiiL j vegetable : the former contri- butes to die formation of the trunk, the latter to that of the root. In herbs and shrubs, die caudex is denominated Caulis, or the stalk. Dr. DARWIN observes, that, in herbaceous plants, the caudex is generally a broad, flat, circular plate, from which the leaf-stems ascend into the air, and the radi- cles, or root-fibres, descend into the earth. Thus, die caudex of a plant CAU [467 of wheat lies between the stem and the radicles, at the basis of the lowermost leaf, and occasionally produces both new stems and ra- dicles, from Us sides; whereas that of a tulip is situated under the principal bulb, arid gc:ic:'.::i.-s new, though smaller ones,, in the bosom of each bulb-leaf, besides one prin- cipal, or central bulb ; the caudex of the orchis, and of some sp cies of the ranunculus, lies above their bulbous roots; but those of the buds of trees constitute the longi- tudinal filaments of the bark, ex- tending from die plumula, or apex, of die hud on the branch, to die. base of it, or its root-fibres, beneath die soil. The elongation of the caudexes, which takes place in the buds of trees, says Dr. DAKWIN, is ana- logous to what happens to some herbaceous plants, as in wheat: when the grain is buried two or three inches beneath the soil, an elonga- tion of the caudex occurs almost up to the surface, where anodier set of fibrous roots are protruded, and the upright stem commences. It is the same widi tulip-roots, and also diose of many odier vege- tables, when planted too deep in die earth. This caudex of the buds of tree* not only descends, as before de- scribed, but likewise ascends from each bud to diat above it; as on di& long shoots of vines, willows, and briars ; in this respect, resembling die wires of strawberries, and oditr creeping plants. Thus die caudex of perennial herbaceous plants con- sists of a broad plate, buried be- neath the soil, to protect it from the frost ; while that of die buds of. trees is furnished with a long, vascular cord, extending from die H h 2 bud, C AU bud, on the branch, to the radicfc, beneath the earth, and enduring the winter frosts, without injury. When treating of vegetatfe ge- neration, and the organs of re- production, Dr. DARWIN, in his " P/njtologia" mentions a remark- able animal fad, illustrative of this curious, and important subject : Many insects, such as the common earth-worm, and the polypus, are said to possess so much life, throughout a great part of then- system, that they may be cut into two or more pieces, without de- stroying them ; as each part will acquire a new head, or a liew tail, or both; and the insect thus be- come multiplied. How exactly this is resembled by the long cau- dex of the buds of trees, which possess such vegetable life, from one extremity to the other, that when the head, or plume, is lopped off, it can produce a new plume ; and when the lower part is cut off, it will generate new radicles ; and thus may be wonderfully propagated. See also BUD, BULB, and LEAVES. CAULIFLOWER, faeBotrytis, L. a variety of the Brassica oleracea, or sea-cabbage, a native of the Isle of Candia, but, of late years, has been so far improved in Britain, as to exceed, in ' size and flavour, those flowers which are produced in most parts of Europe. Cauliflowers are raised from seeds, which ought to be saved only from large, and white flow- ers'; as, without this precaution, they will not prosper. The seeds should be so\vn in March, in a rich, but not too dry soil, where the young plants, on their first sprouting out, may be sheltered from the evening frosts, which Dually happen at that season. C AU About the middle of April, wink* in their first leaf, they should be transplanted into a nursery, five or six inches apart; where they must remain till the latter end of May, or the beginning of June, \vhen it will be proper to remove them to those spots, in which they are intended to blossom. The best time for this purpose, is in wet weather, which will make them strike root quickly j but if the season be dry, holes should be dug in the ground, at about three feet distance, which must be well wa- tered, previously to setting the cau- liflowers. By these means, and also by watering them frequently, during warm weather, the plants will grow rapidly, and produce large flowers in autumn. It some- times happens that, notwithstand- ing these precautions, they will not flower till after Michaelmas ; in which case they must be dug out. together with the earth at their roots, and set upright in a green- house, or other warm place, where the blossoms will increase in size, and be fit for use in winter. But, in order to have cauliflowers in the summer, a different mode of culti- vation must be pursued. To effect this, the seed should be sown in the beginning of August, on an old: cucumber, or melon-bed, over which a little mould should be sifted, about a quarter of an inch thick; this should be shaded with' mats, and occasionally watered, to prevent the sun from injuring the plants. About a. month after sow- ing, they will be fit to " prick out," when they should be set four or five inches apart, either under a south wall, to remain there, till spring, or in the places where they are destined to blossom, and cover- ed with glass bells during the se- verity C AU *"erky of winter. Thus, and espe- cially by the latter method, the plants will, in the spring, become firmly rooted, and consequently produce larger blossoms than those which are set in that season. The cauliflowers planted out at Michaelmas, will blow about three weeks sooner than those set in the spring; nevertheless, it is neces- sary to make plantations in both seasons, that there may be a con- stant succession of crops. Care should, at the same time, be taken to set them where they may not be exposed too much to the sun, and also to water them well, which will contribute greatly to their growth: M. BECH STEIN, a Ger- man writer, however, asserts, that they will thrive most luxuriantly in the open fields. As soon as the blossoms begin to appear, it will be requisite to break off the large leaves, and lay over the flowers, in order to shelter them from the rain, and the scorching heat of the sun, which would otherwise cause them to turn yellow. As cauliflowers are apt to be da- maged by the wind, and sometimes to be blown up by the roots, parti- cularly during the months of March and April, they require to be safely protected from its violence. For such plants, therefore, as blossom earl) r , and hays large, close flow- ers, we would recommend the practice adopted in some parts of England, namely, of allowing some of the most forward ones to re^ main tor seed, and tying them care- fully to stakes, to prevent their re^ ceiving any injury from the wind. As soon as the pods are full grown, ;ind the seeds have arrived at ma- turity, the whole stalk must be cut off, and dried, previously to the geeds being rubbed out> as they C A U [469 arc liable to be shed, if left upon the plants, till the seed-vessels are dry. The proper method of dressing cauliflower for- the table being sufficiently understood, we shall only add, that among the succu-? lent plants produced in our cli- mate, this doubtless is one of the most nourishing, and likewise the best adapted to tender organs of digestion, especially in valetudina- rians and invalids: such persons, however, ought to eat it with the addition of some aromatic spice, such as pounded cardamoms, or caraway or a small proportion of bread. CAUSTICS, in medicine, are remedies, the operation of which resembles that of fire ; by destroy* ing the texture of the part to which they are applied, and converting it into a substance not unlike burnt flesh. Those bodies which possess cau- sticity, are, when taken internally, mortal poisons : so powerful is their action, in general (for instance, arsenic), that cautious physicians hesitate to prescribe it, even exter- nally. There are, however, seve- ral others, which may be in a great measure divested of this deleterious quality, such as the nitrous acid, or aqua fortis ; lunar caustic, or a solution of silver in nitrous acid ; common caustic, or pure kali ; ci- ther of which are daily and success- fully used, especially for extirpatr ing fungous flesh, removing warts, &c. See CAUTERY. The causticity of bodies depends, principally, on the state of the sa- line and acid matters which they contain. When the latter are con- centrated and attached to the sub- stances with which they are com- bined, the)' possess great activity, H h 3 **4 4/o] C AU and are corrosive or caustic. In this manner, both fixed and volatile alkalis, though already caustic, ac- quire that property in a far great- er degree, by being mixed with qxiick-lime j as this substance de- prives diem of a portion of un6tu- ous and inflammable matter, and divests them of all their fixed air, which binds and restrains their sa- line principle. The late Dr. BL A.CK, when treat- Ing on this subject, observed that the compounds produced by the union of metals with acids, are in general corrosive. Many of them, when applied to the skin, destroy it almost as soon as mineral acids ; and some of the most powerful cau- teries are made in this way. Others are supposed to be more acrid than the pure acids themselves, and produce apparently more powerful effecls, when taken internally. Thus, a person may swallow ten or twelve drops of spirit of salt, without feeling any inconvenience; but the same quantity of acid, pre- viously combined with silver, quick- silver, copper, or regulus of anti- mony, will throw the whole body into violent disorder, or even prove fatal, if taken in one dose. Caustics arc not at present in general use; they are, however, npplied occasionally in abscesses, to produce an orifice, and to give vent to the suppurating matter; as likewise to make issues in parts where incision is difficult, or dan- gerous, on account of the cpntigu- ous blood-vessels. CAUTERY, a surgical term given to substances which corrode or burn any solid part of the body ; they are divided into two classes, ai>tai, and potential. By the for- mer are understood red-hot instru- ment^, which were much in use among the ancients, and are still employed by several barbarous na- tions, as their almost only means of curing diseases ; but, in the mo- dern practice of Europe, they are seldom resorted to, except for die firing of horses and cattle. Some practitioners, however, cauterize with burning tow, others with cotton, or moid (particularly the inflamed part of a toe, for pre- venting a fit of the gout) ; others again with live coals, Spanish wax, pyramidal pieces of linen, :c. But of all actual cauteries, the most ex- peditious and least painful, is that of strewing on the wound a small quantity of the finest gun-powder, and then setting it on fire ; a me- thod which, particularly after the bite of a mad dog, has generally been attended with the happiest effect, while it always renders the operation with the knife unneces- sary. Potential cauteries are those which we have already explained under the head of CAUSTICS. In this place, therefore, we shall only observe, that one of the most effec- tual methods of cleansing foul, in- dolent ulcerations, and checking the progress of mortification, espe- cially in the legs, is the cautious application of the following lotion : Take thirty grains of lunar caustic, dissolve it in a pint of the purest spring, or twice filtred water. If it produce a burning sensation which continues too long for sus- taining the pain in the part affect- ed, wash the ulcer with pure wa- ter, and make the solution weaker every time it is applied. Although this, in general, proves an excel- lent remedy in those cases, yet as it is a powerful caustic, we do not advise an indiscriminate u 5 e of it, without consulting prof* s- C AV slonal men. See ULCERS, and C AV [47 * CAVADILLA, a plant but little known, though its seeds have long been applied externally to destroy vermin ; as they produce a con- siderable irritation in the skin. Lately, however, the celebrated SCHMUCKER has successfully ad- ministered these seeds internally for the same purpose, in the fol- lowing manner : Half a dram of the powder mixed with honey, was ordered to be taken, on an empty stomach, for five successive morn- ings : after which he prescribed a brisk laxative. By this treatment, the cavadilla has, by several Conti- nental physicians, been observed to expel the ver-solitaire, or.W/ , a species of tape-worm extremely difficult to be removed. It is far- ther affirmed, that in a variety of cases it uniformly produced that eft'eft. CAVIAR, a species of food chiefly imported from Russia : it is made of the hard roes of the stur- geon, formed into small cakvS, about an inch thick, and three or four inches in breadth ; but some- times the whole is loosely packed up in small kegs. It is prepared by taking all the nerves or strings out of the spawn, washing it in -white wine or vinegar, spreading it on a table, then salting and press- ing it in a fine bag ; after which it is put into a vessel perforated at the bottom, to allow the moisture to run out, if any should remain. From the latest accounts pub- lished by Professor PALLAS, in his Travels into the Southern Provinces of the Russian Empire, in the years i;p3 and l/p4 (an English tran- slation of which, by the editor of this iR,cyclopaedia, is now in the press), it appeal's that caviar is made of the following three species of fish, caught in the river Volga and the Caspian sea: I. Belugas, or the great sturgeon, of which there are taken annually 103,500 j each fish being worth, upon an average, two rubles and a half, or from six to seven sliillings sterling : the roe, or caviar, of 1OOO stur- geons weighs 4OOO Russian pound*, so that this number yields 414,OOO pounds, and the value of each pnml, or forty pounds, is generally com- puted at three rubles and a half; 2. The little sturgeon, of which there are taken every year 302,000, yielding 724,8OO pounds of the roej and 3. The Scvrugas, or Acipenmir sL'Llntus, L. the annual produce of which is not less than 1,345,OOO, caught in the different fisheries ; and from which 3,228,000 pounds of caviar are obtained : or from the whole number of 1,750,500 fish, 4,36(3,800 pounds of caviar. See aJLso ISINGLASS. PALLAS observes, that it would be difficult to find in the whole world, a fishery more productive to the natives, and advantageous to go- vernment, except that on the banks of Newfoundland. During the long Lent of the Greek Church, and the weekly fast-days, which together are at least four months in the year, this fishery affords the prin- cipal food to the whole European part of Russia, and its populous capitals. No caviar was exported in British vessels till the year 1/81, and only 1040 pounds (Russian weight) of that commodity wen: sent to England in 1782; but the increase of this trade ivas so rapid, that in the following year, 46,/ nf' the Sciences,), who caus- ed a vaulted cellar to be constructed, without stone or lime : instead of the former, he employt d charcoal, placed in tiu manner of brick- work : and, as a substitute for the latter, he used a cement, consisting of clay, kneaded with charcoal dust. The.-e brittle mat-, rials were employe. l, because they attract no moisture, or acidity, either trom die air, or earth; a circuai.->taiu-e which renders them even more dur- able than stcr.e. Another method, is that fre- quently practised in Germany, where the vimiti are so construct- ed, that a canal, or passage of com- munication, is opened fron: IT to the principal chimiit-y <> the hou-e. By this means, th Jars may be continually vent:,, so as to expel the damp and iu . vapours, which are usually co cd in them: while the draught of the chimney is, in a ci degree, promoted. 'ihc dangers arising from the sudden, or frequent inhalation <>t such air as is often general- close, and damp cellars, have al- ready been stated} togttlier with the n-.ost proper method of obviat- ing its deleterious effects. See A IK, p. 23. CEMENT, generally signifies any glutinous matter, capable <>f uniting and keeping substances iu close cphcsion. It principally de- notes .compositions employed tor holding 476] C E M Fielding together broken glass, &c. For this purpose, the juice of gar- lic is recommended as exceedingly proper ; for it is very strong ; and, if the operation be performed with care, leaves very little or no mark. This is also effected, by a prepa- ration of fresh cheese cut in thin slices, which should be boiled in different waters, and continually stirred : thus it is converted into a very tough and elastic mass, which will not incorporate with li- quids. After being sprinkled with a little boiling water, and worked upon a hot stone, a small quantity of unslacked lime should be added, and the whole beat into the con- sistence of a paste. This compo- sition will prove a strong and dur- able cement for wood, stone, earthen ware and glass: when thoroughly dry, it resists every ef- fect of water. There is a cement for joining gfass and ikiriu, used in Germany, and which appears to be preferable to th:it above mentioned. It is prepared as follows : 1'ake, by measure, two parts of litharge, one tif unpacked lime, and one of flint glass ; let each be separately re- duced to the finest powder, and worked up into a paste with old drying oil. HOCHHEIMER asserts, that this compound is very durable, and acquires a greater degree of hardness, when immersed in wa- ter. Another composition, which is successfully employed by the Ger- mans, for cementing mood, is pre- pared from pitch, mixed with bul- locks'-blood, linseed-oil, and tur- pentine. The whole of these must be put over a fire, in an iron pan, and as much brick-dust added as v ill make them of (he consistence of a thin paste. The tub, or cask. to which this preparation is to b applied, must be perfectly dry be- fore it is laid on ; and the chinks or crevices filled up with tow, while the cement is warm. Some melt a due portion of colophony with the other liquids, previously to the adding of the brick-dust j by which means the composition is said to be much improved. CEMENT, in building, is used to denote any kind of mortar, which is stronger than that usually employ- ed. The cement commonly used, is either cold or hot. The former is the second above described, for ce- menting china, &c, which is some- times, though seldom, resorted to in the erection of walls. The hot cement, in general use, is made of resin, bees-wax, brick- dust, and chalk, boiled together. The bricks to be conjoined are heated, and rubbed together, with cement between them. If the as- sertion of foreign writers be well- founded, there is a much superior composition for cementing stones prepared on the Continent. It con- sists of eight parts of pitch, tour of colophony, two of minium, or very- fine litharge ; two of white lead ; and one of brick-dust, melted ta- ge.ther. Sometimes, however, tho following materials are substituted, for those last mentioned : Take pure quartz, reduce it to a fine powder, by means of the same free- stone, to which it is to be applied j add one third part ofunslackedlime, and work the whole into a paste with the whites of eggs, just be- fore it is wanted. So effectual is this preparation, that in a few mi- nutes it will acquire the compaft* ness and solidity of iron. A cement of tolerable firmness may be obtained, by a mixture of gypsum and quick-lime, with tha CEM addition of \vater : this compound may prove of considerable service in making troughs for holding wa- ter, or lining small canals. A cheap mortar, or cement, that xvill not crack, may also be procur- ed, according to M. WIEGLEB, by mixing three parts of the thin re- siduumafter slaekingthe lime, with one of powdered gypsum ; but he adds, that it can be used only iu dry situations. A peculiar kind of cement is pre- pared at Madras, with which most of the buildings erected in that In- dian capital, are cemented. It consists of sarrd and lime, with the addition only of a small quantity of water, in which a proportion of coarse sugar has been previously dissolved. The quick -setting of this mortar, and the great hardness it acquires, can, as Dr. JAMES AN- DERSON has observed (in his Re- creations in Agriculture, vol. i.), only be attributed to one of these tv.'o causes, namely, either the su- gar added, or the quality of the lime-stone employed at Madras. . There are some kinds of lime-stone in Britain, which afford a much better mortar than others ; and this also may be the case in India. Most calcareous earths are blend- ed with sand and other pa; tides, in various proportions ; the quality of the mortar or cement will con- sequently vary, according to the nature of these different ingre- dients. It has lately been discovered, that the scrapings of certain roads, consisting chiefly of levigated lime- stone, which is impregnated in a greater or less degree with the dung and urine of animals, form ah excellent cement. For ordinary walls, these scrapings alone are frequently used j and, according CEM [477 to the account of Mr. MARSHALL (in his Rural Economy of Glouces- tershire}, the proportion for the best building is about one part lime to three of those materials, collect- ed from roads composed of lime- stone. By the ingenuity of speculative men, however, several other modes of fonning cements, have been contrived and successfully em- ployed; but the enumeration of these would necessarily lead us to a greater length than our limit* will permit. We shall, therefore, only give an account of the prin- cipal PATENTS lately granted for the- iiiv. ntion of various cements. The Jl-rst, is that of Mr. JOHS WOKTH, chemist, dated the 28 rh of May 1771, now expired; fora " Preparation, or cement, for the purpose of preserving His Majesty's and other ships and vessels froia worms, &c. and for various pur- poses in agriculture and com- merce." This composition ccn- sists of fourteen pounds of powdered or small pieces of resin ; twenty- eight of sand, sifted and w;: clean from dirt or loam ; three and a half of red lead 3 r.nd one pound GII 1 three quarters of oil: the must be melted over a moderate fire", the sand and lead gradually put in, and then the oil ; oft re being taken, when they are boil- ing, to stir them constantly till they become cold, so that the mass may be uniform. When there is occasion to use this cement, the quantity required must be broken into small pieces, and a pound of what is usually denominated by the chemists, fat oil, mixed with every twelve pounds of it. As as soon as this is melted, it may be applied to the object, intended, either by pouring it on, or by 'a 4?S] CEM brush, while boiling. The quan- tity of oil to be added to the ce- ment must also be increased, or lessened, in proportion as the com- position is required to be of a greater .or less degree of hardness, or softness. The second, was granted to Dr. HtociNS, for his invention of a " Wat'-r cenv.-nt or stucco for build- ing, repairing, and plastering walls, &c." The component parts of this cement, are drift or quarry sand, cleansed by washing, and carefully strained from clay, salts, and cal- careous, gypsous, or other grains less hard and durable than quartz ; after which it is dried, either in the sun, or on nn iron plate in a fur- nace, in the manner of a sand heat. To this must be added, fourteen pounds of the newest lime-stone that can be procured; and which heats most in slacking, and slacks soonest when duly watered ; dis- solves in distilled vinegar with the least effervescence ; leaves as little ;s possible of an insoluble residuum, and contains the smallest quantity of clay, gypsous or martial matter. This must be previously sifted in a brass wire sieve, as finely as pos- sible, and slacked, by being re- peatedly immersed in, and quickly drawn out ,of, a butt filled with soft water, till it be made to pass easily through the sieve ; rejecting that part of the lime which is too coarse. The patentee direels to continue that process, till as many ounces have been passed through the sieve as there, are. quarts of water in the butt. The impregnated liquor, must stand in the vessel closely covered up, until it becomes cl var, when it should be drawn elf through wooden cocks, as fast and a-: linv as the lime subsides : being BOW: Dr. HIGGINS do- CEM nominates this solution, Me cement* ing lltfunr. 1'ittv-six pounds of lime, prepared in the same manner ns before, are next to be slacked, by gradually sprinkling on it the. cementing liquor, in a close and clean place. The .slacked part must be immediately :>ift<:d, and the lime, if not used instantly, kept in air- tight vessels ; care being taken to reje6t those pieces which do not pass through the sieve. This ri lime, the Doctor calls pun fled lime. Bone-ash is then prepared, by grind- ing the whitest burnt bones, which must be sifted much finer than that commonly sold for making cupel.-.. The principal materials being thus prepared, fifty-six pounds of. the coarser sand, and forty-two of the fine sand, are to be mixed on a large plank of hard wood, placed horizontally, and spread ^o that it will stand to the height of six inches, with a flat surface on the plank. This must be wetted with the cementing liquor, and what- ever superfluous quantities of it will not incorporate with the sand, must flow off the plank. To the wetted sand are to be gradually added fourteen pounds of the puri- fied lime, tempered in the same manner as fine mortar ; with this composition are, by degrees, to be mixed fourteen pounds of the bone- ash, and the \vhole beaten quickly together ; as the sooner, and more perfectly these materials are tem- pered together, and the quicker the cement thus formed is u^ed, the better it will answer the pur- poe. This Dr. HIGGINS calls the icatrr cement coarse-grained ; it is to be applied in building, pointing, plastering, stuccoing, &c. in a si- milar manner with mortar ; the principal difference being, that as cement is shorter, and d;ies much sooner \ CEM ooner than mortar, or common stucco, it ought to be worked ex- peditiously in all cases ; and, in stuccoing, should be laid on by sliding the trowel upwards on it ; and that the materials used with this cement in building, ought, when it is laid on, to be well moistened with the cementing li- quor ; which is also to be em- ployed, if necessary, in wetting the cement, or reducing it to a iiuid state. When such cement is required to be of the finer sort, ninety -eight pounds of the fine sand arc directed to be wetted with the cementing liquor, and tempered with the purified lime and bone-ash in the manner already described ; with this only variation, that fif- teen pounds of lime are to be used instead of fourteen, if the greatest part of the sand be as fine as Lynn sand. This is called water cement .fine-grained, and is to be used in giving the last coating to, or finish- ing, any work intended to imitate the finer grained stones, or stucco : it may, nevertheless, be applied to all the uses of water cement coarse- grained, and in a similar manner. Whenever, for any of the above- mentioned purposes of pointing, building, &e. a coarser grained and cheaper sand is required, fifty-six pounds of the coarsest sand, or of fine rubble well wash- ed, twenty-eight of the coarser, and fourteen pounds of the fine sand, are to be mixed toge- ther, and wetted with the cement- ing liquor, as above directed j to which fourteen pounds, or some- what less, of the purified lime, and a similar quantity of the bone-ash, are to be added ; and the whole tempered together in the manner already mentioned. When the ce- ment is required to be- whit'-, C E M" [479 colourless sand, lime, and the whitest bone-ash, are to be seleci- ed. Grey sand, and grey bone- ash, formed of half-burnt bones, are to be chosen for making the cement grey. Other colours may be obtained, by employing coloured sand, or by mixing the necessary quantity of coloured talc in powder, vitreous or metal lie po wders,or other durable ingredients,usually employ- ed in making paint. This water ce- ment, whether coarse, or fine grain- ed, may be used in forming artificial stone, by making alternate layers of die cement, and of flint, hard stone, or brick, in the moulds of the intended stone-, and by expos- ing the masses, thus formed, to the open air, in order to harden. When such cement is wanted for water-fences, two-thirds of the prescribed quantity of bone-ash are to be omitted, and an equal proportion of powdered tarras to be substituted : and if the sand be not of the coarsest sort, more tarras must be added, which should not exceed in weight, one-sixth part of the former. When a cement of the finest grain, and in a fluid form, is required, so that it may be ap- plied with a brush, flint-powder, pounded quartz, or other hard, earthy substance, may be used, in- stead of sand, but in a smaller quantity, and in proportion to the fineness of the flint, or other powder, so that it shall not amount to more than six times, nor less than four times, the weight of the lime. Ac- cording to die greater, or smaller quantity of lime, the cement will be moreor less liable to crack, by quick drying. Where the sand above de- scribed, cannot be conveniently procured, or, where it cannot be washed and sorted, that which bears the greatest resemblance to the CM fhe mixture of conrsc arid fine sand, mnv be selected ; provided clue attention be paid to the quan- tity of lime, which is to be increu-,- cd, when the sand is fine, and to be diminished, in proportion to its coarseness. In situations where sand cannot be procured, any dur- able stony body, or baked earth, grossly powdered, and sorted in a similar manner, may be substituted by measure, but not by weight, unless such gross powder be of the same specific gravity. Sand may be cleansed from softer, lighter, and less durable matter, and from those particles which are too fine, by various methods, preferable in certain circumstances to that above described. Water may be found naturally free from fixible gas, selenite, or clay; and may be employed in- stead of die cementing liquor; in xvhich state, the water will not require so much lime for its pre- paration. Where stone-lime can- not be procured, chnlk-lime, or shell-lime, which approaches near- est to stone-lime, may be substi- tuted, in the manner above direct- ed ; with this exception, however, that fourteen pounds and a half of chalk-lime will be necessary, in- stead of fourteen pounds of stone- lime. The proportion of lime may, -without inconvenience, be increas- ed, when the cement, or stucco, is to be applied, where it is not liable to dry quickly: on the con- trary, it may be lessened, and the deficiency supplied, with consider- able advantage, by causing an ad- ditional quantity of the cementing liquor to soak gradually into the work, so that the calcareous matter of this liquor, and the elastic fluid attracted from the atmosphere, may till and strengthen the wor) man- CEM ship. The powdef of almost eve- ry well-dried, or burnt, animal matter, may be substituted for bone-ash, and several earthy pow- ders, especially the micaceous, and the metallic, as well a? the calca- reous ashes of mineral fuel, and the elixated ashes of various vege- tables, the earth of which cannot, by burning, be converted into lime, will, in some measure, answer the purposes of bone-ash : in short, the quantity of the latter may be less- ened, without injuring the cement, particularly in those circumstances which admit of a diminution of lime, and where the cement is not liable to dry quickly. For inside work, it will be very use- ful to mix hair with the cement. The Last patent, which we shall notice, was granted in November, 1800, to Mr. JOHN BAPTIST DE- NIZE, chemist, for a cement, ap- plicable to various purposes. The basis of this is petroleum, or rock oil, in any form ; in which a small portion of sulphur is dissolved, by melting ; to which is added any- kind of vitrescible, earthy matter, such as clinkers, and scoria;, from iron, or glass furnaces; puzzolane, or any volcanic ashes, &c. These are to be powdered, and stirred in- to the melted sulphur-oil, till the whole becomes of such a consist- ence as to be easily spread with a trowel, and does not adhere to the lingers, when cool. This cement is firm, durable, and impervious to moisture. Those of our readers, who may be desirous of additional informa- tion, relative to this interesting subject, we refer to the translation of M. LORIOT'S " Pra&ical Essay o?i Cement and, Artifi.cial Stone" (8vo. Is. 6d. Cadell, 1774); and to Dr. HIGGINS'S " Experi- ments CEP C H A [ 4 Si W?;A>- a/id Observations; made icith with a" red plate ; in others, with A c. rieu' of Improving the Art of black; but tliev are distinct varie- Composing and Applying Calca- '"' reous Cements, and of preparing Quick-Lime, &c. (8vo. 5s. Ca- dell, 1780); in which the matter is fully and ingeniously discussed. See MORTAR. CEPHALIC, generally signi- fies whatever relates to the head. Hence those remedies that are given for disorders of that part, are denominated cephalic medi- cines. Under this description are comprehended cordials, and what- ever tends to promote a free cir- culation of the blood through the brain : thus cephalic snuff is taken with a view to remove pains in the head,, by occasioning the patient to sneeze, and, in this manner, per- haps, giving vent to obstructions in the smaller vessels. Such is the imperfect theory; of cephalic medi- cines ; and, strictly speaking, we are possessed of no specific remedy for relieving a common head-ach, unless the cause from which it pro- ceed, can be ascertained. Of the multiplicity of circumstances which may operate, to produce that com- plaint, and likewise of the most proper means of alleviating it, we shall endeavour to co?i\ince the reader, under the article HEAD- ACH. Cerufsa. See White LEAD. CHADLOCK. See CHARLOCK. CHAFER, COCK-CHAFER, May- bcetle, Jeffry Cock, or, in Norfolk, DOR, the Scaralceus Melolontha, L. is an insect belonging to a genus, which comprises eighty-seven >pe- cies. It has, like ail the rest, a pair of cases to its wings, of a red- dish, brown colour, sprinkled with a whitish dust, which is easily se- parated. The necks of tiie>c in- y.-v.: ::rc, in some years, covered ;NG. iv. VOL. 1. ties. Their lore legs are very short, and thus better calculated for burrowing in the ground, to which they instinctively retreat. Chafers are well known by the buzzing noi.se they make, in the evening, when rising in the air; but particularly for the irreparable mischief they occasion to the in- dustrious cultivator; having been found, in some seasons, so nume- rous, as to consume every vege- table production. These perni- cious vermin are generated from eggs, which the females usually deposit, about six inches deep in the ground. Three months after, the inclosed insects begin to break the shells, and crawl forth, in the form of small grubs, or mag. which feed upon the roots of what- ever vegetables they meet with. In this worm state, they continue for more than three or four years, devouring the roots of every plant they approach, and burrowing under the ground with the ut- most celerity for food. At length, they exceed a walnut in size, being large, white, thick mag- gots, with red heads, which are most frequently found in newly turned earth, and are much sought after by every species of birds. When largest, they are an inch and a half long, of a whitish, yellow colour, wiih bodies composed of, twelve segments, or joints, on each side of .which there are nine breath- ing holes, and three red feet. 'Ihe ;.-> larger in proportion to the body; of a reddish colour, with a forceps, or pincer before, and a semi-circular lip, with winch they cut the roots of plants, and suck out their moisture. They have no eves, but arc furnished wiu two ' I i kxla, C H A feeler?, xvhich serve to dire& their motions under ground. At the expiration of four years, these destructive insects prepare to emerge from their subterraneous abode. About the latter end of autumn, the grubs begin to per- ceive their transformation ap- proaching ) when they bury thetvi- selves deeper in the earth, some- times even six feet below the surface, where they form capa- cious apartments, the walls of which become very smooth and shining, by the excretions of their bodies. Soon after, they begin to shorten themselves, to swell, and burst their last skin, preparatory to their change into a chrysalis. This appears at first to be of a yellowish colour, which gradually heightens, till at length it becomes almost red. Its external figure clearly displays the characters of the fu- ture winged insect, all the fore- parts being distinctly seen ; while, behind, the animal seems as if wrapped in swaddling clothes. In this state, the young Cock- chafer, or May-bug, continues for about three months longer ; when, towards the beginning of January, the aurelia divests itself of all its impediments, and becomes a com- plete, winged insect. But it hns not attained its natural health, strength, and appetite : unlike ail other inserts, which arrive at their state of perfection as soon as they become flies, the cock-chafer con- tinues feeble and sickly. Its co- lour is much bright tr than in the perfecl animal ; all it* parts are soft, and its voracious nature appears suspended. In this state, it is frequently found, and is erroneous- ly supposed by those wiio are ig- norant of its real history, to be an CH A old onp, of the former season, which has buried itself during the winter, in order to re-visit the sun, the ensuing summer. The facl is, the old one never survives the sea- son, but perishes, in the same manner as every other species of insects, from the severity of the cold, during winter. Towards the latter end of May, these insects burst from the earth, the first mild evening that invites them abroad ; after having lived from four to live years under ground. They are the-n seen to emerge from their close confine* ment, no longer to live on roots, and imbibe only the moisture of the earth, but to choose the sweet- est vegetables for their food, and to sip the evening dew. An at- tentive observer will, at that time of the year, see every path- way strewed with them ; and, in warm evenings of May, myriads of them are buzzing along, flapping against every thing that impedes their flight. The heat of the mid-day sun, how- ever, seems to be too powerful for their constitution ; they, there- fore, conceal themselves in clus- ters, under the foliage of shady trees, but particularly of the wil- low, which appears to be their most favourite food, and which they seldom quit, till they have consumed all its verdure. In sea- sons favourable to their propaga- tion, they are seen in an evening, in considerable swarms; their dura- tion, however, is but short, as they never survive the summer. They begin to pair, soon after they have emerged from their subterraneous prison ) and the female then care- fully bores a hole in the ground, with an instrument for that pur- pose, with which she is furnish- ed CH A ed at her tail, and deposits her eggs there, generally to the num- ber of sixty. Destructive as these insefts, in their worm state, are to vegetation, they would be still more so, were they not destroyed by birds, and more especially rooks, which devour them in great numbers. Half a century ago, they were so exceed- ingly numerous in the county of Norfolk, that they destroyed not only the verdure off the fields, but even the roots of vegetables. One farmer, in particular, was so much injured by them, in the year 1/51, that he was unable to pay his rent. Many crops in that county, were then almost ruined by the devasta- tion.? these insects committed, in their worm state; and, when they took wing the next season, trees and hedges were, in many parishes, completely stripped of their leaves. At first, the people brushed them down with poles, swept them up, and burnt them. JAMES EBDEN-, a Norfolk farmer, made oath, that he gathered eighty luskeh; but their number did not seem much diminished, except in his own fields. Neither the severest frosts in our diniate, nor even water, will kill them ; as, on being exposed to the sun and air, for a few hours, they will recover, and resume their former lively state. One of the best rru-thods to be adopted for pre- venting their transformation, is, to plough up the land in thin fur- rows, to employ children to pack them up in baskets ; and then to strew salt and quick-lime on the ground, and harrow it in. We have but an imperfect know- ledge of the nature and history of the inseft, called by the French Finaigrifttr, and of other scarati- vorous animals, to avail ourselves C H A [483 of their labours. This, however, is clear, that if such inserts as de- vour grubs, should take possession of the soil where cock-chafers abound, they must, in a short time, destroy immense numbers of the latter ; and as they have five suc- cessive seasons to prey on them, till they attain their perfeci state, they may be entirely extirpated, before one fly can be produced. It is a circumstance well known, that the whole of the cwns, of crow, and pie-tribes, are exceed- ingly fond of chafers, and particu- larly at a season Avhen grain is scarce (i. e. from the end of seed- time to the beginning of harvest) ; they search for them with the ut- most avidity. These sagacious birds, having observed that the leaves of such plants as are attack- ed by the grub, appear withered or drooping, during the day, they fly to them, dig for it with their strong bills, to the very root ; and, if they do not find it, pull the plant itself out of the ground. It also frequently happens, that they mis- take the drooping leaves of plant? newly set, for those injured by grubs, and seize upon these ; thus finding no prey, they strike their bills into the ground, 'at their roots, puli them up one after another, and, if not watched, do great mis- chitf. Strawberries are particu- larly li"ble to the depredations of the grab : hence, sometimes, whole fields of strawberry-plants are spoil- ed by the rooks, immediately after they have been set. To prevent stich devastation, it is necessary to guard them, till their leaves assume aii upright position. Tliis damage, however, is but trivir.!, when compared with the real benefit occasioned by the rouks picking these vermin out of both, I i 2 grass 484] C H A grnss and corn land. Great care ought, therefore, to be taken not to disturb these birds, especially as in fallowed lands, where gru!; nerally abound, they are of infi- nite service. In this ease, the land should be stirred with the plough as often as the weather will per- mit ; for, if the rooks once find their way tliither, they will not abandon the plough, unless driven away by violence ; and each time the land is stirred., they will de- stroy multitudes of these vermin. Were this the only advantage to be derived from their destruction, it would amply compensate the far- mer for the labour and expence bestowed upon it. Independently of the beneficial effect, which this management produces on the ferti- lity of fallow -land, it may fre- quently be attended with the de- struction of a whole race of grubs, in die adjacent fields. But, as this method is impracti- cable in gardens, recourse ought to be had to other expedients. Gardeners have ob.served that cab- bnges, cauliflowers, strawberries, especially lettuces, are the fa- vourite food of the grub. In order to destroy that pernicious insect, they plant a row of lettuces be- tween the rows of strawberries, in v.hich case the insect will prel^ra- bly attack the former. Hence, they carefully examine the plants every day, walking along the rows with ;i trowel: wherever they observe lea res falling, they know their enemy is on the spot; immediately dig it up, and thus destroy the grub. The whole race of these insects may probably be extirpated in stiff soils, by long continued rains, dur- ing the winter. For at that time, they having descended deep into CH A the ground, the passage must be in some measure left open, so as to allow the water, if in abundance, to soak down to the bottom of their hole ; wan;!;, in a retentive soil, it will fill, and, if continued a suffi- cient time, infallibly drown them. Wherever irrigation is employed for other purposes, the extermina- tion of the grub may be effected by this method ; and there are many situations, in which water may be commanded in quantities adequate, to this important purpose. It is highly probable that, if a stream of water could be spread over the surface of a grass-field, only for a few days, during any of the winter or spring months, all the grubs might be drowned in their holes : and as water is most abundant in that season, a very small stream might be so conducted, in different directions, as to inundate a large tract of ground. The benefit of one irrigation, thus managed, would be felt for five years. We there- fore venture, with Dr. ANDERSON, to recommend this mode of de- stroying grubs, to those who have grass -lands infested with them -, especially when they are intended to be converted into corn-land ; for the injury done by grubs to the first crop, is often severely felt. It might even be safely applied to orchards, and wood-lands, p-ovid- ed that the water were not conti- nued longer than is necessary to effect the destruction of the worms. Having thus given a succin6t analysis of the different methods of exterminating the cock-chafer, in, its earlier stages of existence, sug- gested by native writers, we pro- ceed to lay before our readers the latest discoveries made on die Con- tinent, relative to this important subject. The C H A The Hamburgh Society for the Encouragement of the Arts and Useful Trades, has published the following methods of destroying this voracious insect, as communi- cated by different authors : 1 . In order to prevent the worm from changing into a chafer, it is advisable to intersect the fields with ditches : as this insert is con- tinually creeping about, it pene- trates through the sides of those trenches, falls into t ; e water which they generally contain, and cannot extricate itself from that situation ; but it is necessary to collect the worms every day ; for they will serve as an excellent food for sv/ine and poultry. 2. Take two ounces of oil (it is not stated what kind of oil) to every pailful of water, and sprinkle it on such places as are visited bv the worm : or bury twenty small pots, at equal distances, from S to 1O inches deep, and each contain- ing from 20 to 30 drops of sulphu- rated oil, or thick balsam of sul- phur, the exhalation of which ex- pels the insects. This expedient, however, can be practised only in gardens. 3. Another correspondent sug- gests the frequent hoeing of plants, or ploughing of the soil in the months of June and July, in < to bruise the insect, or to expose it for the prey of birds. He also ad- vises to pour boiling water on those less productive, or barren spots of meadows, which may be easily distinguished from others : this re- medy, however, appears to us ex- ceptionable- j because hot water would at the same time injure die Vegetating roots of grasses. 4. Previous to a shower of rain, the following powder strewed on the laud has been found of great C H A [485 service : nmrHy, two parts of pulverized quick-lime, tw;> parts ol sifted wood-ashes, and one part of pounded sulphur : the hepatic vapour disengaged from this mix- ture, on being moistened, is af- firmed to be effectual in destroying that pernicious grub. 5. The Rev. J. F. MAYER, an German clergyman, has, in a separate essay on this subject(1786") published the following method of extirpa-in^ the cock-chafer: he found from long experience, that irrigation of the fields towards the latter end of May, or in June ; al- ternate manuring of land with marl, street-dung, acrid and cor- rosive matters, such as quick-lime, gypsum, nitre, the Icy of wood- ashes, and of tanners' waste, &c. are the only practicable means of destroying that insect in a grub- state ; besides which, he ad\ ises to drive a flock of sheep frequently over such land as has been much perforated by this insect ; to wa- ter the meadows in spring ; to sow red clover early in March, or (in Germany), as soon as the snow is melted on the soil >. then to har- .1 the seed, to cover it thinly with a mellow dung, and to repeat the sowing in the first three or four years, as occasion may require. In the Memoirs of the Agricultu- ral Society of Pans (for 1/87, vol. iii.) the Marquis BE GOUFFIER has suggested a very simple, but, as he asserts, effectual remedy for preventing the depredations of this injurious grub, and consequently its progressive transformation into a chafer. He observed, namely, that turf or peat ashes, strewed on the fields, produced that desirable effect. Uses of the Cock-chafer. Al- though this numerous and voraci- ous insect is by no means calcuiat- I i 3 e-' -ich, 'lh podded tare, or tine ' . L. toge ther with poppi- i hop-c: -.icceed o:\ sort, the b j he ires for this species of . old rags, and the left after folding sh^ep ; a fnl here, and which, we i Ci : .in medicine, is an appellati, quid. : water, ir ed with particles of iron or s 1 . C.':. like other preparations of i, o.i, both, as aperients and as astringents, the only differenc e. -opposed, to dif- .ng to the nature of the acid united with the metal : thus, vegt - ituparl i detergent . .;-nt virtue ; > when combim-d with vhe vitriolic acid, they operate on die first pas- as powt rful aperients ; the nitrous acid renders them very styptic, and the muriatic produces the same- effect, in the highest de- gree. The use of chalybeates has, oc- casiona.ly, been attended with great success, when united with cathartics, especially in cases of chlorosis, pains of the stomach, and palpitations of the heart; but we think it our duty to caution thu reader against resorting indiscri- minately 490] C H A rninately to remedies which arc extremely preeariou.; for plethoric, or very irritable constitutions, and sometimes productive of dangerous effects. Hence females, in parti- cular, ought never to take them, without proper advice. CHAMBER, in building apart of a lodging, or a partition of en apartment, usually intended for the accommodation of beds. We can- not enter into an explanation of Privy Chamber, Chambers of Jus- tice, Commerce, &c. as these are unconnected \vith our purpose : hence \ve shall only observe, that w; have already given a few direc-' tions for correcting a vitiated at- mosphere, particularly that of be.d- chamhrs (see AIR, p. 22 ; and BED-ROOM, p. 211); so that \ve may conclude this article with a short account of a curious mode of cooling the air in rooms, frequently practised by the Germans. In the hot days of summer, es- pecially in houses exposed to the meridian sun, a capacious vessel -filled with cold water is placed in the middie of a room ; and a few- green branches (or as many as it will hold), of a vigorous lime, birch, or willow-tree, are plugged with their lower ends into the fluid. By this easy expedient, the apartment will, in a short time, be rendered much cooler; as the evaporation of water produces lias desirable effect, in sultry weather, without any de- triment to health. Besides, there can be no doubt, that the exhala- tion of green plants, under the. in- fluence of the solar ray.s, greatly tends to purify the air j and conse- quently deserves every attention of persons liable to pulmonary, or other complaints, in which the organs of re.spinm'on are aiTtcted. L. a genus of plants comprising 2t species: of these, five only are indigenous, the principal of which are the three following : 1 . The nolilis, or common cha- momilc, also called sweet-scented, or Roman chamomilo, growing in sunny meadows and pastures, most plentifully in Cornwall, and also, in other parts of England. Its creep- ing stalks shoot forth branches, and these again strike root: the leaves and flowers have a strong, though not ungrateful, aromatic smell, and a bitter, nauseous taste. They afford an essential oil. An infusion of the flowers taken luke- warm, is antispasmodic ; and cold, a stomachic. In large quantities, the former is apt to excite vomit- ing. Dr. WITHEJKIKG asserts, that the powdered flowers have cured agues, even when bark had failed, but ought to be taken ia considerable doses ; we suppose from one to two drams every other hour, to be repeated six or eight times during the remission of the paroxysm. Both the leaves and flowers of the ejiamomile possess remarkable antiseptic properties, and are therefore used in fomen- tations, and poultices. From their antispasmodic powers, they are fre- quently found to relieve pain, espe- cially in complaints of the kidneys, and in childbed. 2. The Cvtula, fetid chamomile, May- weed, or Mathen; which grows in corn-fields, on road sides, and borders of dung-hills : it is a troublesome weed in tilled lands, very ungrateful and disagreeable to bees, and not relished by either horses, cows, sheep, goats, or swine 5 but toads are said to be fond of ifc. By ite uncommon acrimony, it frequently blisters the skin of reapers . Not vvi th^taading its CH A its very pungent taste, it has often been used with advantage in dis- eases peculiar to females. BECH- 6TEIN. In dying, a decoction of the whole plant, when in flower, im- parted a permanent citron colour to wool prepared in a solution of bismuth. DAMCOURY. 3. The tin6luna, or ox-eye ehamomile, grows on high sunny pastures, but is rarely to be met with in Britain. Mr. DICKSON found it in Essex. Formerly, it was discovered by RAY, on a bank near die river Tees, not far from Sugburn, Durham. This plant has doubly winged, serrated leaves, cottony underneath, and its stem supports a corymbus, or flowers pro- gressively standing each on a pro- per fruit stalk ; attains the height of about eighteen inches : spreads out its branches ; and bears yellow blos- soms in July and August. It is eaten by horses and goats ; but not fondly by sheep, and refused by cows and swine. The flowers of die yellow ox-eye afford a remarkably clear and good yellow dye. WITHERING. If the root of netdes and a little alum be boiled together with diis plant, a most beautiful yellow maybe given to wool. LINNAEUS. None of these colours, however, is perma- nent. DAMBOURNEY. CHAMOMILE, the Wild. See Common FEVERFEW. CHARCOAL, or Carton of the French chemists, a sort of artificial coal, or fuel, consisting of half- burnt wood. It is chiefly used, where a clear and strong fire with- out smoke is required ; for die hu- midity of the wood is dissipated by tu.' fire in which it was prepared. The art of making charcoal is very ancient; for even SOLOMON C H A [491 (Proverb xxvi. 21), distinguishes, that kind of fuel from common rire- wood. Among the Romans, it was held in great estimation, and /EMI- LIUS SCAURUS, the conqueror of tlie Ligurians, was a charcoal-mer- chant. PLINY describes the piles of wood erected by the manufacturers of this article, and observes "that the blocks ought to be placed in a pyramidal form, coated with clay, and a hole left on the top for con- dufting the smoke, when the wood is set on tire. Thus, it would be unnecessary to desL-ribethe process, for those who employ themselves in the preparation of this article. Properties. A surprizing num- ber of pores have, by die micro- scope, been discovered in charcoal. Dr. HOOK counted, in. the 18th part of an inch, 15O, so that in a piece of an inch in diameter, there; will be upwards of five millions. To this circumstance must by ascribed the blackness of charcoal, it the rays of light striking on it, are received and absorbed by its pores, instead of being reflected ; consequently, the body of coal ap- pears black, a colour arising from tiie want of reflection. Charcoal may be preserved to an indefinite length of time, and in (he ancient tombs of northefii nati -us, entire pieces are frequently disc** vered. It is, therefore, deserving the attention of those, who wish to preserve valuable records from the "destructive tooth of time;" for there yet exists, according to DO- BART, charcoal made of corn (pro- bably in the days of CJKSAB), which is in so complete a state, thai dr.- wheat may be distinguished from the rye. This substance is not soluble in any of the acids, but may be dis- solved in considerable quantities, by 49*] C H A hv plunging it in a solution of the liver of sulphur, to which it imparts a cm-en colour. Melted with co- lourless frits, or glasses, it gi\ pn!e, dark yellow, reddish, brown- ish, or blackish colour, accordingly ns the inflammable matter is in greater or less proportion. Fresh charcoal made of wood strongly at- tracts the air, and will absorb it for a considerable, time ; but Dr. PRIESTLEY uniformly obs< that, after submitting it to distilla- tion, the expelled air was less pure than that of the atmosphere, and part of it was , fired air. Hence it may occasionally be employed in a dry and powdered state, for damp and foul habitations. Lastly, Dr. PRIESTLEY has discovered that sevc ral of the metals, such as cop- per, iron, silver, c. may be con- verted into charcoal, by passing the steam of either spirit of wine or turpentine, over them when red hot; and this, by way of dis,tin6liorr, he calls the charcoal, of metals. As charcoal has been separated from the purest spirit of wine in the pro- cess of making sether, M. LAVOI- SIER is of opinion, that it is one of the constituent parts, or elements, of that volatile liquid. Uses. Besides the great advan- tage which charcoal affords to the artist and manufacturer, it has lately been employed with consi- derable success. 1. In correcting the burnt or empyreumatic taste of ardent spirits ; 2. In depriving rancid oil of its disagreeable fla- vour ; and 3. In restoring putrid meat. For these useful purposes, however, it is fit only when kept in close vessels, immediately after it has been prepared, so that it may absorb no acidity, or fixed air, from the common atmosphere. When employed in the two nrst-mention- CH A e 1 crises, it should be previously reduced to powder, a very l.irgo quantity of which is required fop the rectification of distilled liquor j but a smaller proportion, for puri- fying animal or vegetable oil, so .ie common tra ; n-oil may be ivndt-n-d lit f;>r being burnt in chamber -lamps. Sevcnil manu- factories of this description have lately been established in the vici- nity of London, of which we shall only mention that carried on by Mr. JOSHUA COI/LIEK, of South- From the great attraction which charcoal possesses for any kind of- oily matter, or for that inv; something, formerly called / gistrm, it is e\ eijently adapted to become an extensively u^;ful agent in various bran ties of the ;\rt.s. We shall therefore communicate the following abstract of the late discoveries made on this subject, ch.efly by Prof. LOWITZ, oL St. Petersburgli, This philosopher found, that charcoal rendered t ,e crystals of tartar very white and pure, when employed in preparing them ; that the marine and nitrous" aci is are decomposed by being d.s- tilled upon it ; that the red juices of vegetable frui:s are deprived of their colour, without losing part of their acidity ; that brown, rancid oils are rendered sweet and clear, by agitating them for some days with charcoal in powder ; that it changes the smell of putrid vege- tables to that of a pure volatile alkali, and produces the same erfect on fresh meat. By boiling coals in powder, with honey, the pure sac- charine parts of the latter are said to be separated, and the honey to become a well-tasted sugar. Vine- gar concentrated by freezing, and distilled from a large portion cl powdered^ CH A fx)wdered coal, is extremely strong; pure, and fragrant. Corn-spirit, merely shaken with coal, loses its bad flavour; and, if honev be add- ed, it becomes a sweet and &;:i;t liquor. Even the tainted fla- of ardent spirits, when im- pregnated with any veg^tr.bb oils, may in a similar manner b: stroved ; and, if die spirit be dis- tilled, the residuum is said not to be bro\vn ; so that no inconveni- ence will arise from carryin distillation too far. These e- were produced by every kind of coal, whether fossil or charred ve- getable substances ; though the latter appear to us, in many re- specls, preferable to coke. There are considerable d- ences . iii the coals of various ve- getables, with respect to their ha- bitude to fire : the very light coals of linen, cotton, some i'uns^i, &:c. quickly catch fire from a spark, and soon consume : the more dense ones of \mod,-, and roots, are set on fire with greater difficulty, and burn more slowly; the coals of the black berry-bearing alder,, of the hazel, willow, and lime-tree, are the most proper for making gun- powder, and other pyrotcchnical compositions. For the reduction oi' metallic calces, those of heavier wood, as oak and beech, are pre- ferable ; because these appear to contain a larger proportion of the inflammable principle, and perhaps in a more fixed state. Considered 3s common fuel, those of the heavy woods afford the greatest heat, and require a most abundant supply of air, in order to keep them burn- ing; on the con/rary, the coals of the light woods retain a glowing heat, till they are consumed, with- out a strong draught of air ; the bark usually crackles vhile burn- C H A [ 493 ing, which U seldom the case with die coal of the wood ; ; Charcoal is 1. : ohMiing brass and co plates, ail ; u i)_ bed clean wit:: pcnvd.'tvd pumice- > may be po- a in a similar manner, and a ,'n th;m with tripoli. Coals of different stances are also use.! Ivnce the kind are not only but also posse O f a full colour, ai, : ;., all i he forms, where powdery pig- ments are employe.!; but ought to be carefully prepared, by thoroughly burning the substance in a close ves . - re- ducing the coal to a fine powder. In drawing outlines, the artist avails himseif of pieces of < coal, die in.nks oi y be easily rubbed out. Fur this pur- pose, die smaller branches of a tree, such as the willow and vine, are usually preferred; and whkh, after being freed from the bark and pith, afford the best drawing pencils. Dr. LEWIS remarks, that the si -tones of fruit \ielded co..ls, so hard that they would with difficulty mark on pa- per, while those of the truit were very soft and rneliow. All these experiments must becuii- ducted in proper vessels, closely covered (die barrels of old gun.-,, or pistols, may occasionally : as substitutes). The Do gated various coals in; .> der, mixed tlum with gum-water a 1 .o$ed individuals, the ability of contri- buting their mite towards the relief of distressed objetts; having, per- haps, large families to maintain, as well as heavy taxes and poor-rates to defray ; yet we venture to re- ply, that prudence and frugality will always enable them to adjust their domestic economy ; so that, after satisfying even- natural find legal demand^ they may have a small overplus to spare, for the as- sistance of those who are destitute of human aid. There are many other objections to ihe indiscriminate giving of cha- j-itv, which our limits will not permit us to discuss : and though it may appear a bold assertion, yet we pledge ourselves for the truth of it j namely, that it is chiefly pride and indolence, or some other equally disgraceful motive, which keeps the one half of the world in a C H A [ 495 state of ignorance, with mpeft to the wants, distresses, and suffer- ings of the other. CHARLOCK, WiLDMusTARD, CHADLOCK, or CORN-GALE, the Sinapis arvensis, L. an indigenous plant, which grows in corn and turnip fields. It is a very noxious weed, especially among turnips, to which it bears so great a resem- blance, that it is said, instances have occurred, of hoers taking up a whole of turnips, and leaving the charlock. To obviate this evil, it has been recommended to turn a tfock of sheep into a field abound- with this weed ; for, during the early period of its growth, they will prefer it to the crop. Some lands arc exceedingly liable to be over- run with the charlock, particularly when they have been manured with cow-dung alone, as that is very favourable to its growth. Expe- rienced farmers-, in general, are so well convinced of this efte&, that they always mix horse-dung with that of cows, for manuring arable land. When barley is infested with charlock, to such a degree as to en- r the crop, that weed ha* been mowed down with success in the month of May, while in flower j but care should be taken to cut off, r.t the same time, the tops of the barley leaves. Thus, the latter will shoot up above the weed; and it is a remarkable lacr, that four quarters of grain have been obtain- ed from such land as, without this expedient, would have been almost unproductive. The most effectual method of extirpating the charlock is, to sow arable land with grass-seeds, and thus convert it into pasture; be- cause the former never grows where a coat of grass covers the ground. Wheu ci \VhmthisphMarriTesaimata- , it produces yeflow flowers, iaj seed, wluch is commonly sold In Ireland, and the northern. parts of Europe, tnicpbnt is boiled, and eaten La the same manner as cabbage. It is also refisbed bj cows, goate, and swine j sheep are fondof it ; but it is gene- by boises. Bses de- miich nourishment Jfroen its flowers. Instead of beii^spurionslyvead- e-i :"::_. " "-'" - '-'-.--'-'. df teas piant might be rendered more pro&tabie, by expsnea-yaBg tbe flKceittat oal wish wJbkii they Abound. His eas been anempied -.:.. : . . . - - ... - .".-'."-- '--'- are issfonssei by B*.CMSTEIS , that V,7 .;- . . i :.. :: - ::' :.: .. : _r= lamp-ficl* ftum ossae 2ioniiBd pounds we^fct o* tae Atied. C&A&i.oe^ && Jousted, aen : 3ule Jhaetn.'d. See Wiid EJU>ISH. CHAfiB, tfce Rw>, or CASE- , Saimo alfmaa:, tsf tOukla, r, a species of i&& bnt sei- in tise colder ones of t{fae Lajwand Alps. It deSights in dtear asad pme waters, and randy -:..::..,:- ;:.: : _i_" .~.~ '.: -:.-.- -jonSaag ti. Mr. Pts x AXT, the largest and most beasaalul of these &Jk ate 'caog^at in the Ja&eof Win- It spawns about Mwfariinraas, and ciaefiy in the iOT.tr Brel&aj, wiadi fosms a .::._.: .-. :. :: : . .. ''.'-.-., .:--.- :.- Juftctke^f when, fectai disgorge tbzsiii*e ioco the lake. The .BMT has a isladt nxkj bottom; but (C-aat of the HaOcr, a laight sand, viudt is E*TCT Tinted bj the chair. TSaese ^-"^ are iakl to be jn the highest perfection about May, .apt* to continue so the whole sunr-. .-- . yet are seldom caoght ^ In the spawning seasoa, they take bait, but at no other time, and are oommodlj caagbt ia b: nets, about twenty-four taibom? long, and ve bnoed. They are likewise taken, though in siialkr - quantities, ia lakes or pook at the foot of MooiDt Saowden, ia V. where this &h is called forgertf , and esteemed a greater deficacr than the trout. The flesh of the charr b very red, and, when potted, deficioas eadcg; heoce, numbers of them :~r ;:.:"..: r-r.:". ". !;.:::.. CHEESE, a specks of solid food, prepared from curdled miik cleared of tbe whey, and after- waids dried for use. As this arti- cle constitutes a rnytmal part of domestic consumption, we find in almost every country, one or more places celebrated tor the superior Duality of their cheese. Hence, we propose to enumerate tbe prin- cipal sorts of this iriaaotacfcarc, both at boose and abroad ; intro- ducsng also an account of ttte mode in which they aie prtparei I. Sr!t.ToxCa2,E.ai;.L produced in the town of thM name, in the county of Huntingdon ; and from its peculiar richness, and flavour, is sometimes caOed EngGsh Pcrmf- S/SOK. The process of making it U as iblllows : the rigi.i"> cream is put to the morning's milk, with the rennet ; whea iLe curd it come, it ts not brioatx;, as is Bsuaily dene with oifcer cbeese, bEi.lakea oat whole, aisd pot is io order to dcain graaaaDiy. " drair pressed till it be- come nrm acd dry - t wtec. placed ia a wooden Loc, or made i&utit. as it . -IE " :rj bonds, and -ri-tb dbt - TTtecij are tigfateaerl as -p T the dbee*e arr c'.. 1 port it-elf : wten these dotbs are earii cieese is nAiiied .-?:.= '.r::v-:. 1- : - ;.--:" ~ :-:-=. :: : ::":>,-:--:.: v^r oist, twice a- 3 " ! ~ ; ". 7 - " " " : '. ' -"' '-.'-' - rr. -~ ^ ~- -~~ - ~. ! rr ither so good, nor ted, as lisose pre- .i... r. - r . ~r . ." r ir- " " - ----- - --.- -. :itdepaim with -. csrt ::o the m2k; and, : it, so that the btEsed. We TCO- - jat their - ' - - ~ "--- . - - - - - ^ - ihe TrH, ncrw,. or CWIp LLuvl O --" - " --- :-" " " " - ""* - Jit . .t Toa goatlr, tSI theftfoorir --_-. . . - - ,- _ . .. . iisocM be tikCT tfet k te not - sswfeel Tfee- spuaat AatsAA nest be ?traara?d cBcaft, aasJ the Sqcuf > . i * ~ i ' _ " '- i tie vcfl, or nsair . A loam naay titen be sficed into it, and the* -whcfe stand at rest for a dzr or- t0| after wfeirfi it sbooM tie "- r " - : ~. i ";.'_ t : - .. :i- . V"" ,i ,i > = _ na _ji v _ ..--_. . . _ i : : : : i . > . _ : : -.--?*- ~: ^ : : :: . " rtr. c>- "'- - ~- ~ : ~^~~ ','..: .'i - '. .',2. . ~.~. : ' ."". _ : i" .-. : : _.t ni : be oofioDied, asoaaft : : : : _:- : - ~.~ ~.~ i~ - -- sion of raagqgolds, or cenra*; . . ... __j miowhidh briar. is stinted tegrsher, and, besng o- . : . - - - : _ : T"_IC i about fcatf an honar,, or tiB k is ca*- gsdued: wfceo k is first toned offer with a bowi, to - :- : : r.:-;,- scoa after ioio very sasal paitkues: :.r. - .-.-:- :.L :::------ : ' -.. -- 498] CHE ing some time, is taken from the curd, which sinks to the bottom, and is then collected into a part of the tub, provided with a slip, or loose board, to cross the diameter of the bottom, for the sole pur- pose of effecting this separation ; on which a board is placed, weigh- ing from 60, to 1 20 pounds, in or- der to press oat the whf-y. As soon as it acquires a greater degree of solidity, it is cut into slices, and turned over several times, to ex- tract all the whey, and again press- ed with weights : these operations may consume about, an hour and a half. It is then taken liom the tub, and broken very small by the hand, salted, and put into a cheese vat, the depth of which is enlarged by a tin hoop fitted to the top. The side 5s then strongly pressed, both by hand, and with a board at the top, well weighted ; and wood- en skewers are placed round the cheese, at the centre, which are frequently drawn out. It is then shifted out of the vat, a cloth being previously put on the top of it, and reversed on the cloth into another vat, or agnin into the same, if well scalded, before the cheese be re- turned to it. The top, or upper part, is next broken by the hand, .down to the middle, salted, press- ed, weighted, and skewered, as before, till all the whey is extract- ed. This being done, the cheese is again reversed into another vat, Jikewise warmed, with a cloth un- der it, and a tin hoop, or binder, put round the upper edge of the cheese, and within the sides of the vat ; ihe former being previously inclosed in a cloth, and its tilg s put within the vessel. These va- rious operations are performed from about seven o'clock in the morn- ing till CKC at neon., The ;. CH E ing of the cheese requires about eight hours more, as it must be twice turned in the vat, round which thin wire skewers are pass- ed, and shifted occasionally. The, next morning it ought to be turn- ed, and pressed again, as likewise at ni~ht, and on the succeeding day ; about the middle of which it is removed to the salting-room, where the outside is salted, and a cloth binder tied round it. After this process, tl e cheese is turned twice daily, for six or seven days j thr.n left two or three weeks to dry, during which time, it is once turned, and cleaned every day ; and at length deposited in the common cheese-room, on a board- ed floor, covered with straw, where it is turned daily, till it ac- quires sufficient hardness. The room should be of a moderate warmth, but no wind, or draught of air, mast be permitted to enter, as this generally cracks the cheese. The outsides, or rinds of them, arc sometimes rubbed with but- ter, or oil, in order to give them a coat. III. GLOUCESTER CHEESE is ma.:e of milk immediately from the cow ; but which, in summer. is thought too hot, and is, there- fore, lowered to the requisite de- gree of heat, before the rennet ii added, by pouring in skim-milk, or, if that will not answer, by the addition of water. As soon as the curd " is come," it is broken with a double cheese knife, and also with the hand, in order to clear it from the whey, which is laded off. The curd, ben:.:; thus freed from the principal part of the whey, is put into vats, which are set in the press for ten or fifteen minutes, in order to extract all the reruain- ..[\\id. Ii is then turned out of CHE of tli-3 vats into the cheese tubs again; broken small, and scalded with a pai.ful of water, lowered with whey, about three parts water to one of whey; and the whole is briskly agitated, the curd and wa- ter being equally mixed together. After having stood a fe\v minutes, to let the curd subside, t .e liquor is poured off; and the former collect- ed into a vat, the surface of which is, when about half full, sprinkled with a little sah, that is worked in among the curd. The vat is then oiled up, and the whole mass turn- ed two or three times in it, the edges being pared, and the middle rounded up at each turning. At length, the curd is put into a cloth, and placed in the press, whence it is carried to the .shelves, and turn- ed, generally, once a day, till it has acquired a sufficient degree of com- pactness, to enable it to undergo the operation of washing. IV. WILTSHIRE CHEESE. The milk which produces this cheese is run, as it comes from the cow, or as it happens to be laicered, by the small ^ quantity of skim-milk mixed with it. The curd is first broken with the hand and care being taken, in first crushing the curd, to let the whey run oft" gradually, to prevent its carrying ;uvay with it the f ',/.'" cf the cowl. For thin cheese, the curd is not broken so fine as in Glou- cestershire; for thick cheese, it is crushed still liner ; arid, for what is called loca a, it is, in a manner, reduced T strong, or mild. This part of the process is called " skin- ning," or moreproperiv, mellowing.} because it undergoes the putrid stage of fermentation, and acquires a coat, or skin, on the top, before it is ta-en out of the vessel, and led into balls, or cylinders, with the addition of a considerable .portion of caraways, salt, and but- ter ; or, occasionally, a small quan- tity of pounded pepper, and ci' But, if it be too far advanced in the meliowing process, a third part of fresh curds, likewise crumbled into small pieces, is superadded, to prevent, or correct its putrid ieu- dency. la short, the whole mass requires a powerful hand to torm a complete union of parts ; for it is very apt to corrupt, when irnper- C H E '[501 feclly kneaded. As the pieces, whin moulded, are of small size, nut exceeding three or four ounces each, in weight, they soon dry in the open air, and are then fit for use. It ii, lij\vc\ cr, necessary to tarn and clean them, as weft as to shift their places every day upon a bo.;rd, in order to promote their maturity. After being nearly dry, they are sometimes (for the palate of epicures) suspended in a wood- fire chimney, by means of a net, for several weeks, or months : and both tht.ii- taste r.r.u flavour, are said to be remarkably improved, whether kept in a dry air, or sub>- jected to the action of smoke. 5. POTATOE - CHKESE. There are three varieties of this curious article prepared in Germany : we shall, however, describe only that sen which appears to us the most plausible. T:ie best mealy pota- toes ere selected, and half-boiled in si by bursting, their rhvour and efficacy are diminished. When nxA, they are peeled, and finely grated, or beat into a pulp with a wooden pestle. Three parts '.> parts of sweet curd, ail ing all its , are kneaded together, and allowed to stand two or three days in warm, and four or rive days in cold, weather. The mixture is then formed into small pieces, like those of Westphalia cheese, arid dried in a similar manner. But, says M. HOCHHEIMEK, if you wish to procure a more deli- c'wus potatoe-chetst', take only one part of potatoes, and three of the curd made of sheep's milk ; let the kneaded mass remain three or four days in a vat, to become mellow ; thun put a stratum of it, one inch high, into a small firkin, strew a few lilac flowers, or caraways and K k 3 CHE CHE mace, over it ; spread a little fresh butter, about the size of a walnut, over these aromatics ; then form another l?yer, repeat the same mode of seasoning the cheese, and pro- ceed in a similar manner to the top of the vessel. When this cheese has been kept for some days, in a dry, airy place, without being ex- posed to the sun, it is said to excel in taste the best sort made in Hol- land ; and to possess the additional advantage, that it improves with age, and generates no vermin. We have had no opportunity of ascertaining the truth of this boast- ed superiority, and candidly sub- mit the process to the decision of our economical readers. Preservation of Cheese. Among the various pioluUions of the ve- getable kingdom, there are perhaps none better calculated for this pur- pose, than the following: 1. The leaves of the Yellow Star of Bethle- hem, Ornithogalum luteum, L. ; 2. The Tutsan, or Park-leaves, cricum dndroscemum, L. ; and 3. The tender branches of the corn- won birch tree, Betula alba, L. The two first of which, in particu- lar, have from experience been found to possess considerable anti- eepric properties. They ought, however, to be employed only when moderately dry, in which state they should be placed upon, or at the sides of the cheese, in an airy situation. The twigs of the birch are especially useful, in preventing the ravages of mites. Hard and spoiled Cheese may be restored in the following manner : Take four ounces of pearl-ash, pour sweet white wine over it, till the mixture ceases to effervesce. Filtre the solution, dip into.it clean linen c'ofhs, cover the chee.se with them, pnd put the \vholr into a cool place, or dry cellar. Repeat tbi? process every day, at the same time turn- ing the cheese ; and, if necessarv, continue it tor several weeks : thus, the hardest and most insipid cheese has frequently recovered its former flavour. Although we have devoted much room, and attention, to this im- portant subject, considered in an economical view, we shall be very concise on the physical properties of cheese. This substance, being the coarsest and most viscid part of the milk, is digested with diffi- culty 5 and therefore calculated only for the more vigorous stomach of the healthy and laborious. Hence, persons of a delicate organization, as well as the studious and v tnry, ought c:irefu'-ly to abstain from its use ; for, when eaten ncic, for instance cream-cheese, it is apt to disagree, produce rancid eructa- tions, and impair the digestive or- gans : when old, it has a remark- able tendency to putrify, and taint the brea'ih, even of the healthful. After dinner, a very small quantity of sound, old ; nay do no injury ; but it neither assists the digestion of food, nor produces any additional nutriment, when the vessels already abound with ali- mentary matter. Lastly, we ; those who know the value oi health, and are enabled to ; runue salutary food, never to make a meal upon bread and cheese alone. CHEESE RENNET, or YEL- BED-STHAW, (!ali-:-,! vsrum, L. is a native plant growing on the sides of fields and roads. It has a firm, erect, square, stem ; short branches, terminating in spikes of small yellow blossoms, appearing in July and August. The flowers of this plant coagu- late boiling milk ; and it is, we. ap- prehend CHE prebend erroneously, supposed diat the best Cheshire cheese is pre- pared by their influence. When boiled in alum-water, says Dr. WI- THERING, they tinge wool yellow. The roots dye a very fine red, not inferior to madder. They also im- part a similar colour to the bones of animals fed upon them. Ac- cording to the experiments related by Succow, the German chemist, a deco6tion of the whole plant, when in blossom, on adding vi- triol of iron and spirit of salt, pro- duced a fine green colour, which was likewise imparted to wool and silk. Sheep and goats eat die yellow bed-straw ; but it is refused by horses, swine, and cows. In France, the flowers are prescribed in hys- teric cases. The juice of the plant has been successfully used in Bri- tain ; and, from an account given in the Edinburgh Medical (.'.//- mentaries, it appears to be an effi- cacious remedy for die cure of scorbutic complaints. CHELTENHAM WATER, a mineral spring, rising in the town of that name, in Gloucestershire, and celebrated for its medicinal properties. This spring issues slowly, and in a scanty stream, from a bed of sand, intermixed with blue clay. The well is sunk about six feet deep, and excluded from commu- nicating with the external air : its sides are covered widi a yellow ochre, which indicates the nature of the water. When tV'-sh drawn, Cheltenham water, though tolerably clear, is not perfectly transparent. It be- comes more turbid by standing, ajid produces a small quantity of air-bubbles, emitting a slight, but easily perceptible smell, which in- creases op the approach of rain, is CHE [503 divested of any briskness, or pun- gency, but has a brackish, some-, what bitter, and chalybeate taste. Its temperature is, invariably, from 53 to 55 degrees. The sensible effects produced by this water, when first taken into the stomacii, are, generally, a degree of drowsiness, and sometimes head- ach ; which, however, dissipate spontaneously, before it operates on the bowels. A moderate dose acts speedily as a cathartic, causes no griping, and leaves no languor : for this reason, and likewise on account of the salutary operation of the chalybeate, and, perhaps, of the carbonic acid, or fixed air, Cheltenham water may* as Dr. SAUXDF.RS has remarked, be pre- served for an indefinite length of time, without being produttive of any inconvenience to the body ; and die use of it may improve the appetite, strengthen the organs of digestion, and invigorate the whole constitution. This medicinal spring, when ju- diciously resorted to, has proved of considerable benefit in a variety of diseases, especially those of the chronic kind; in removing glan- dular obstru&ions, particularly such as affect the liver, in the restora- tion of those persons, whose bili- ary organs are injured by a long residence in hot climates, and who are suffering under the symptoms, either of excess, or deficiency of bile ; and lastly, in dispelling some of the most distressing, and painful cutaneous alie&ious, of the species usually denominated scorbutic erup- tions. Cheltenham water ought, how- ever, to be taken with due pre- caution; for, though its ferrugi- nous ingredient probably enables die constitution to support, without K k 4 debility, CHE debility, a longer course of evacu- ation, than most other medicines of this kind, yet it cannot be used in every case, where a simple cha- lybeate is indicated. There are constitutions naturally languid, or debilitated by disease, so that they may be materially injured by a long- continued operation on the bowels. These saline waters, nevertheless, possess the peculiar advantage, that they may be used without any pre- paration. No other medicine is required, during their use, except the occasional addition of crystal- lized salts, of the same nature, where the water is not sufficiently laxative for costive habits ; and likewise -the use of the warm bath, particularly in cutaneous dis- orders. The season for drinking Chel- tenham water, is during the sum- mer months ; and, if possible, it should always be taken at the fountain head, and never kept long exposed to the air. It -may, how- ever> be cautiously warmed in close vessels, if, in a cold state, it should be offensive to the stomach of the patient. Different circum- stances will necessarily vary the extent of the dose : for which, half a pint of water is generally suffi- cient ; and, if repeated three or four times, at proper 'intervals daring the day, ii. seldom fails to produce an a'perient effecl. Arnong the separate treatises published on this subject, we be- .lieve tl;e most complete, though, perhaps, not the latest, is, Dr. J. nMiTtTs'" Qhervat'or-j r,n the use and. abuse of the Cheltenham Wa- trrs^ with remark's on different- sa- fcne compositions;" published in 1784. CHEMISTRY, is one of the fhost important branches of Phy- CHE sics, or Natural Philosophy ; and, though not easily defined, we shall attempt the. following short ana- lysis : The science, of chemistry implies the knowledge of the com- ponent parts of bodies, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral; that is, the art of decomposing compound substances; re-producing them, if possibly; and ascertaining their physical properties, and relations to ea.-h other, as well as of deter- mining, with accuracy, the affinity subsisting between simple earths, metals, ore. Others have defined chemistry to signify the study of such phenomena, or properties of bodies, as are discoverable, by va- riou-ly mixing (hem, or by expos- ing them to different degrees of heat, in order to enlarge our know- ledge of Nature, and improve the useful arts. There is no doubt that the changes taking place in bodies, are caused by motion, which, particularly by means of heat, is infused into, and perpe- tually agitates, the vast corporeal system. The chemist, therefore., in- quires into the causes of this motion,, and by what means it may be ge- nerated, diverted, or checked. But, as these impulsive powers are not within the reach of reason unas- sisted by the observation of effects obvious to the senses, he endea- vours to ascertain (heir nature, by carefully attending to the different action of bodies, when placed ir contact with others, either in a dry or fluid state, or submitted to the operation of jl.rc ; from which he has discovered, more by accident than design, many hidden processes of Nature. The extensive utility of chemical science, to a commercial and manu- facturing nation, in almost every branch of trade, must be evident to CHE to the most superficial observer ; for this knowledge essentially con- tributes to the improvement of all the productions of Nature a:id Art. Thus, the husbandman, the anisan in general, the bre\vor, distiller, soap -manufacturer, -nay, even the baker, and the cook, may avoid many errors and disappointments, if they are but tolerably acquainted with the rirst principles of an art, which daily administers to our comforts and neces.s' The history of chemistry is in- volved in obscurity : HERMES TRISMEGISTUS, a nuble Egyptian, who lived IpOO years before the Ciiristian'zei'a, is said to be its in- ventor ; though MOSES, the legis- lator, probably possessed some knowledge of this captivating science. Previous to the time of ROGER BACON, an English Friar of the 13th century* the whole was involved in mystery, and alche- mical jargon. L;ke a bright star in a dark hemisphere, this genius de- monstrated to his superstitious bre- thren, that, by studying Nature, and reducing her powers within the rules of Art, he could produce effects, which far surpassed tie miracles of vaunting magicianj, while, they dispelled die whole tribe of charms, sorceries, and in- cantations. Nay, it is admitted, that he invented, but carefully con- cealed, the composition of gun- powder. But his deluded cotem- poraries were not to be rescued from the grossest superstitious no- tions, till the way had been paved by the reformation of LUTHER ; and anodier luminary arose, who was placed in circumstances more favourable to excite attention, and ensure respect to his doctrines. This was die illustrious HOOK, ~vho laid the foundation of chemj- CHE [505 cal science in Britain. Others, indeed, on the Cutitinent, such as PAKACELSUS, VAN HELMOXT, and Sir THEODORE JMAYERNE, the last of whom afterwards spent thirty years in England, had suc- cessfully laboured lor the improve- ment of chemistry ; but tlu riV was an impudent juggler; and the second, a credulous votary of die ParaceUian s.-steru. HELM o NT, however, must ben: ed to be i . vr of gaseous, or a triform bodies; for \va3 caliei a magician, anu u a by die dark tnbunal of the inquisition. Dr. HOOK proved, 1. That the air in wliich we live, move, and breathe, is the universal soivc.it of does not perform thi.^> acti body be rirst surficiendy heated ; 3. That this process of dissol. generates a very great heat, or \vhat is called tire ; 4. That light is ako produced from this action ; 5. That these phenomena do not arise from the : i de- ment, but from t 'tat hart of the air v.'hich is inherent in it, ; if not the very same, as that winch is fixed in salt-petre. Thi> lind that the foundation was laid for the subsequent discoveries of BOYLE, MAYCW, and HALES, rirst ascertained the exact quantity of air, or an elastic fiuid analogous to air, either produced or absorbed by die burning of sulphur, or of candles, or by the respiration of animals. Hence, the last men- tioned philubopher compares ths air to " a true Proteus, now fixed, now volatile, entering into the coin- position of bodies, where it exists in a solid form, deprived ot elasti- city, and of those properties which formerly distinguished it, adding gravity 5 o6] CHE gravity to these bodies, and under certain circumstances, alone capable of recovering its elasticity, and be- coming again an elastic, thin fluid, and therefore well deserving to be adopted among chemical principles, and to possess a rank which has hitherto been .denied it." In his admirable work, entitled Vegetable Statics, we perceive the first traces of the existence of air in those wa- ters called acidulous ; and he not only remarked that they contain four or five times more air than common water, but also conjectur- ed, that they owed to it their sparkling and briskness. The truth and practical application of this dis- covery to medical purposes, were vigorously enforced by the immor- tal BOEKHAAVK, whose reputation, both as a physic.an and a philoso- pher (two great qualifications, not always united), had resounded to the remotest parts of the globe. Previous to his time, the illustrious BECHEK first began to colled and compare the immense store oi mical facts, and arrange their rela- tions towards a new system. Per- secuted and despised, like most be- nefactors of mankind who forsake the beaten track, he fled from his native country, retired to Eng- land, and died of a broken heart at London in 10'S2. His theory, however, was adopted by the saga- cious and intrepid STAHL, then first physician to the King of Prussia. In the opinion oi: these two au- thors, Jirc enters into the compo- sition of all inflammable bodies, into metals, and most minerals ; and in that condensed and fixed state, they called it phlogiston, or latent fire, to distinguish it from its condition, when in a free state. They farther believed that phlo- giston is a dually, a iuutevi:u body,. CHE liable to be modified and influ- enced by circumstances ; and that consequently all metals were com- pounds; and water, as containing no phlogiston, a simple body. Al- though this vague theory has been strenuously maintained by nearly all the chemists of Europe, for up- wards of a century, and is still sup- ported by Dr. PRIESTLEY, and many of his followers in tlu's and other countries, yet, to the honour of our age, and we venture to sar, the credit of that voluntary exile, the doctrine of phlogiston is nearly exploded. To proceed in this ex- planation, according to the order of time in which the leading fa6ts were ascertained, we shall first mention, that Dr. BLACK, our late illustrious professor of chemistry, in the University of Edinburgh, about the middle of last century observed, that certain substances, such as marble, chalk, and lime- stone, when submitted to the pro- cess of fire, lost half their former weight: and, when treated with acids, the compound weighed le^s than before. Hence, it became evident, that something was lost} and, from a stri6t chemical ana- lysis, he proved this something to be a permanently e'astic fluid, which he termed t fixed air de- prived of which, the residue was caustic, or guickrline, capable of corroding all animal and vegetable substances. Hitherto, the exist- ence of fixed air, and its combina- tion with bodies, was only conjec- tured, and no philosopher, siace\ AN* HELM o NT'S time, had adopted this opinion. Tims, new views were opened in the examination of all matter, and the attention of expe- rimental inquirers was principally dire6ted to die decomposition of solid bodies. Dr. HUTHEKFORD extended CHE this inquiry, and deter- mined the difference between fixed and azotic air, another species of or.tive gas, which cannot be ' - ed by animals, nor is it inisci- ble with water, and therefore by some called mephitie, or phli is azotic air consti- tutes abc -t\vo parts in ..undred of the common atmo- sphere, and therefore deserves ticular attention : it was discovered bv Dr.I'EiESTLEY, and arises from the changes which atmospheric air undergoes in every proc -ss of com- bustion, putrefaction, and respira- tion ; in short, it is of the same nature as that contained in the air- bladder of f.he carp, and other fish. Being much lighter than the air of the atmosphere, the azote instantly extinguishes burning tapers, and rapidly destroys the life of animals immersed in it. The most splendid and important discovery of Dr. PRIESTLEY, how- ever, is that of vital air, or oxygen, to which he was accidentally led, in August 17/4, and which will transmit his name to posterity. This aerial fluid, which he deno- minates dephkgisticated air, be- cause he supposed it to be deprived of ail its phlogiston, also forms a considerable part of our atmo- sphere, fo t at it has been a eld, by experiment, to there in the proportion of about 2/ or 28 parts in 100. Thus, the composition of that bou. element in winch we breathe and move, was, at length, discover- ed, and though BERGMANN and SCHF.ELE, in Sweden, as well as LAVOISIER, in France, claimed an t-qual or coeval merit with Dr. PRIESTIET, having, about the same period, in their experimental re- searches ou this subject, observed, CHE [507 vimlb.r phenomena ; yef, we be- lieve, the last mentioned phi: pher is justly entitled to the honour of being called the author of this great annex in which it was made, is fon.-ign to our purpose ; and we shail thcre- fore brief- that the inge- nious and noble LAVOISIER, why fell a sacrifice to the ambition an J tyranny of Robespierre, of infa- mous men Wished a r,e\v and mure plausible system of che- mibtry upon tiie ground -work of this contested discovery, by v. the component parts of the atmo- sphere were clearly and indubitably determined. In contradistinction to the exploded doctrine of phlogis- ton, the theory adopted by LA- VOISIER, and supported by BEK- THOLLET, MoRVEAU, AnET, HAS- SEXFRATZ, DE LA PLACE, MONGE, CHAPTAL, FOURCROV, and others, was now termed the Antiphlogistic System. The principal feature at the new French system is, that the air is a compound bodv, and that metals, in general, are s'rmpie sub- stances. AVe cannot, in this place, enter into farther particulars ; and therefore only recommend to the juvenile reader, the perusal and study of such elementary work-- as ait'ord a ;.lain and accurate expla- nation of that admirable and highly useful science ; without a compe- tent knowledge of which, lie will ever remain in a state of infancy, at least with respect to the num- berless phenomena taking place in the physical world. V'e regret, however, that a publication c. lated completely to answer the ex- pectations of an ordinary read still a desideratum ; though there have been published within the last twenty years, a ireat vark-ty of instructive books ou this subject. The 5 o8] CHE The principal difficulty appears to arise from the ur :te of chemical nomenclature, which has lately been, in a great measure, removed by the praise-worthy la- bours of Dr. PEARSON, Dr. DICK- SON, and Mr. PARKINSON; y:-t, whatever merit these introductory works may ppsssess, there is still wanted a concise, perspicuous, and syst/matic analysis of the s. of chemistry, such as could be read, with satisfaction, by e\ . possessed of ordinary talents. GIR- TANXER and SCHKKKK, in Ger- many, have attempted sura works; but their manuals abound in too abstract propositions, and are writ- ten in a a! rather than narrative style, that may tend to .entertain the reader, and imper- ceptibly . lead from the more simple to connected proposi Although it be perfectly consist- ent witii .scientific arrangement, to begin the explanation of a system \vith general faiths, and then de- scend to particulars ; yet we iu- .duie to think, that the young stu- dent, as well as readers in genera], would. acquire a more correct iuea of a subject, by commencing the series of principles with such ii- lu trations, as would render < j very term, involved :n the first deiini- Uon, pert' ct.y ck,-r and familiar to their urn'. _'. Thus, the immortal UACON was peculiarly happy in ueiining simple ideas, be- fore he proceeded to reduce them under general heads, and draw the .ace, or exhibit the result, by the most unequivocal process of lion. Instead, however, of following the footsteps of this lity genius, mos) of our modern physical writers, either begin the .-is of the subject \\ith gene- r.ii maxims; or they dissect and CHE divide the whole into dl\'. and fatigue the reader with c repetition, without affording him a view of the si/nth,' x.<>, or co: tore of members (if that expression be allowed), which, alone couki enable him to connect the several causes and effects, of which tlie whole is composed. In justice, however, to I, \VOISIER, t>e 1. un- der of the new system, we shall observe, that his " Efeinc/ils nj' Chemistry " possess, in this re- spect, uncommon merit; though he dwells too long upon the ra- iiftnale, without exemplifying the principles, jn such a manner as to impress the mind with ser objects, which alone can perma- nently fix the idea, and connect every link of the proposition, claim the indulgence of oar read- ers, for this ^voluntary digression ; and though we cannot, in truth, exclusively recommend any work, published in the form of a popular, or familiar intro chemistry, yet we shall me. ul valuable (.realise:;, that have successively appeared, and ar till' d to attention. The air! translations from the. French of LAVOISIER, CH.U-TAI,, and FOUR-I CKOV, ar.-'. eg y that of the last, by Mr. JOHN THOMSON, de- serves to be read, and diligently studied ; that from the German of Professor GREN, is likewise a work of merit, for professional readers ; and among the original English works, we shall point out Dr. HIGGINS'S " Vieiv of the Ph'o^ and Antiphlogistic Theories" (8vo. 7s.); Mr. NICHOLSON'S " First Principle <>f C I- ministry (S\x>. 6s. 6d.); and Dr. GARNETT'S "Out- lines tif Lectures of Ckctnhtnj (Svq. 4s.): besides tliese, there are .se- veral smaller tracts, among which we CHE we remember, with satisfaction, the perusal of that written by Mr. HF.XRY. of Manchester. CHERRY, a species of the Pm- nus, L. or plum-tree, a ger.us of plants, comprising fifteen species, originally natives of IV/.-.U ; whence they were introuuoed into It::ly, as v.-r/ll as other parts of Europe ; and are supposed to have been brought from Flanders into England, in the reign of HENRY the Eighth. The principal species, growing in cur rlimatv. are the following ; 1 . The Padus, or bird cherry, or '.vild cluster cherry, a shrub v. Hourishes wild, on almost any soil, if not li'ct (WITHERING); end is found chiefly in hedges and woods. It bears lopping, and does not stifle the growth of grass. Sheep, goats, and swine eat the leaves, but they are not relished by cows, and re- fused by horses. Its fruit is nau- seous; but, when bruised, and in- fused in wine, or brandy, it im- parts an agreeable flavour. Its smooth and tough wood is made into handles for knives and whips. The inner bark is said to afford a fine green colour, on boiling it with alum. BECHSTEIN observes, that this dwarf tree, when transplanted into a rich soil, attains the height of forty feet, and two feet in diame- ter ; and that it thrives most luxu- riantly near hedges and waters. As its abundant white blossoms, in May, present a picturesque view, it deserves to be cultivated on the borders of parks and gar- dens. HOLMBERGER, a Swedish author, remarks that the dried kernels of this cherry are equal in taste and flavour to almonds, and yield, on expression, a line and plentiful oil. A deception of the C H E [ 509?- berries is sometimes successfully given in the dysentery. 2. The Cerasus, or common wild cherry tree, which is fre- quently found in woods and hcd_;c^ but is probably produced from the stones of the garden-, irop- ped by birds. It in a sfi:;dy soil, and an elevated situa- tion, and often grows from fi; to thirty feet in height, but is sel- dora irore than nine inches in dia- meter. It flowers iu the month of May ; its sour fnvt is country pcopl . !i or dried, and is frequently ir: in brandy, on account of its aro- matic flavour. Cherry-trees require to be plant- ed from twenty to thirty i'eet distant, and to be set deeper in the earth than apple-trots : u itli the management of which, in < respefts, they correspond. Their , growth is said to be uncommon]/ promoted, by laying a compositii :> of lime and night-soil on their young stems, with a brush, which operation has a similar eifett on apple-trees. The best method of raising cher- ry-trees is, to plant them among hops, in alternate rows with apples, and with two rows of filberts be- tween each 5 by which means they arrive veiy speedily at peitection, and thus amply repay the expencc and labour bestowed on them at first. The proportion (in the coun- ty of Kent, where this species is. principally cultivated) is usually, to an "acre, 800 hop-hills, 200 fil- berts, and 40 cherry and a: trees. The hops will stand about twelve years, and the filberts about thirty, by which time the d and apple-trees will occupy thft whole, land. 5 io] CHE Tins species of the Prunus is, according to LINXJEUS, the parent- stock, from which many of the cul- tivated varieties are derived : there are many different- sorts, which are known nnder the names of Black- lieart, White-heart, Flsmis'i,, or early Kentish, Courone, and Hert- fordshire black, Cherries. All these have been raised originally from stones, and afterwards preserved by budding, and grafting on stocks of the wild black and red cherry, reared for this purpose. In order to ensure a luxuriant vegetation, and a delicious flavour, to these varieties, the stones of the black cherries should be set, or sown, in autumn, to raise stocks ; and planted cut, the second year after they conit- up, in lines at the dis- tance of about two feet. Cherry-trees prosper best when grafted; and, exclusive of their delicious fruit, afford, by their plentiful leaves, an excellent article of food fcr fattening hogs. They also exude a gum in every respect equal to gum-arabic ; and \vhich is so extremely nutritive, that, ac- cording to HASSELauisT, above 10O men were kept alive, during a siege, for nearly two mouths, with no other sustenance than that pro- duced by gradually dissolving a little of this gum in the mouth. The wood is hard and tough 3 it is used by turners in the manufacture of chairs, and stained to imitate mahogany. From the ripe black cherries of the second species, the Swiss distill a very agreeable liqueur, or ardent spirit, by th" sale of which, to the French and Germans, they annual- ly derive considerable profit. For preserving this fruit during the winter, we communicate the fol- lowing recipe, inserted in HOCH- CHE HEIMER'S German work on Do- mestic Economy. Take, in the proportion of two pounds of sour cherries, half a pound of fine loaf sugar, and a pint of white wine vinegar ; boil the two last, and skim off the impurities from the top ; then let the liquor stand, till it become lukewarm. Meanwhile, prepare a coarse powder, consisting of two drams of cinnamon, and one of cloves ; break the stalks of the cherries in the middle, so as to leave half of their length for the jar, into which they must be care- fully put in layers, strewing a little of the spice between each stratum, pouring the liquor above-mention- ed on tiie top, and securing the wh')!e From the access of air, With respect to their physical effects, cherries may be divided into sweet, sub-acid, and p, The first kind, though the most palatable, are the least wholesome, as they readily ferment, and pro- duce flatulency in weak stomachs ; the second are the most antiseptic ; and the third, the most nourishing, but digested with some difficulty. Hence \ve would preferably recom- mend the sub-acid cherries, as an excellent article of 'domestic medi- cine in the true scurvy, in putrid fevers, and the dysentery ; as like- wise to those persons, who are liable to obstructions in the alimen- tary canal. With this intention they may be eaten in considerable quantities, and frequently from half a pound to a pound each time, but particularly on an empty stomach. Nor will they be found less salu- tary to constitutions whose bile is vitiated, whose stomach is troubled with foul eructations, and who are afilicled with an offensive breath : all such persons should eat them freely. For similar reasons, diied cherries CHE cherries form an excellent article of diet, in acute or inflammatory dis- orders : where they should be used both in substance, and in decoc- tions, which are equally cooling and antiseptic. CHERVIL, or Charropkyllifm, L. a genus of plants comprising se- ven species, two of which only are indigenous, namely, 1. The syLvestre,- or wild cher- vil, or smooth co\v- parsley, cr cow- weed chervil, which thrives in hedges, orchards, and pastures. It has a woolly striated stem, ere6l umbels, and white flowers, -which blow in the month of Ma}-. The umbels of this plant afford nn indifferent yellow dye. ; the leaves and stems a beautiful gre: n. Its presence indicates a fruitful soil, but it ought to be enui from all pastures early ia tie spring, as cows, rabbits, r.ncl are the only animals that will eat it. LIXN.EUS informs us, that the roots, when eaten r,s parsnips, have been found poisonous ; yet, accord- ing to Mr. CURTIS, they were in some parts of Britain, during of scarcity, eaten as a pot-herb. 2. The teimdcnfuni, rough cow- parsley, or rough chervil, growing in hedges, and bearing ilowcrs in the months of July and August. It possesses no peculiar properties. CHERVIL, the GREAT, or Shep- herd's Needle, the Scandix odorata / v. Cerefolium. See Sweet CICELY. CHERVIL, the NEEDLE, or Ve- nus Comb, the Scandix i j ' See Common Shepherd's NEFDLE. CHESNUT, or Cusfanca, L. is a species of the Fagus or beech- tree, a genus of plants comprising three species. It flourishes on poor gravelly or sandy soils, and will thrive in any but moist i>r marshy situations. Those trees, GHE however, which are intended for fruit, should be raised in nurse- ries from nuts, removed at least three times, and have the tap-roots cut oil", in order to facilitate their growth. There is no plant cultivated in England that is more valuable than ':esnut ; as it grows to a con- siderable height, and its wood, if kept dry, is extremely durable. This ornament to the country is, at t)u' same time, of great utility for domestic purpose^. It exc Is the o::k in two respects, namely, that it grows faster, and that the " sap-parts" of the t. :nore firm and less liable to corruption. The shoots from tl.t .M,.:).S being numerous . it makes and is of ic\: for hop-poles, as it '.ecutwh'- Ji teen or twe . continue productive ibr nearlv thirty years. Being greatly superior to elm for door jambs, and several other pur- poses of house-carpentry, it is con- d as n. ;. ,o the oak itself ; but, on account of its pos- sessing a prc littleness, which renders it unsafe for beams, it ought not to be employed in any situation, where an uncertain weight is sometimes to be sup- ported. It has been much questioned, ; is indigenous, tic. There is no doubt, that it was industriously cultivated by our ancestors ; and this circum- stance, together with UK- CM,!. -nee of the celebrated chesnut :ix Tort- worth, in G !;:re, has been urged, v ' ;obabi!ity, as a j a native. That stuj. 52 feet ill circv. ;!iidhas, according to authentic records, stood there CHE f rer since the ye?r 1150, whrn it i remarkable, as to be called " the Great Chef nut vfTrtrt worth." It fixes the boundary of the manor, and is probably not less than 1O90 years old. On the contrary, it has been asserted, th^it from its being called the Spanish Cherix!, it is a nrnive of Spain, and was introduced from that, country, at some distant period. However the question may be decided, it will be generally ad- mitted that, in this chmitc, there is no plant which so fully merits the creat attention which has of latr years been paid -to its growth. "We, therefore, cordially join in re- commending it to those who intend to form plantations, whether for ornament or use, as a tree which for durability, beauty, and stature, will amply, and in a very short time, repay all the labour and ex- pence that may be bestowed upon its culture. All writers agree that the wood e chesnut is peculiarly excel- lent for casks, as it neither shrinks, nor changes the taste, or colour, of tine liquor. It i.s also converted into various articles of furniture, and when stained, may be made to re- semble in beauty and colour the r.y : this improvo- rriT.t i> levied, by rubbing it over, first with alum water, then laying on with a brush a decoction of logwood-chips ; and la.-.t!y, a decoction of Erazil-wood. Besides these various uses, to which this tree may be applied, its fruit affords an agreeable addition to our winter rt. If properly managed, a sweet and nutritious bread may be prepared of it, especially when mixed with a small proportion of ttheate.n or oth:r flour. In its wild state, it is ca'led the knrsc- ckesnut, and, independently of its CHE beauty as an ornamental tree, it; me.ily nuts supply not only an rat food for fattening deer and hogs, but are likewise of great service in whitening cloth, and the manufacture of starch. For this, latter purpose, a' patent was granted to Lord "WILLIAM MURRAY, March 8, 1/.Q6, of whose process we join the following account. The nuts must be first taken out of the outward green prickly husks, and the brown rind carefully pared off, so as totally to eradicate the sprout, or growth. They are next to be rasped, or grated fine into water, and the pulp thus produced should be washed, as clean as possible, through a hair sieve. This wash- ing is repeated twice through fine sieves,constantly adding pure water, to prevent any starch from adhering to the pulp. The last process is, to strain it with a large quantity of water (about four gallons to a pound of starch) through a fine gauze, muslin, or lawn sieve ; in order to clear it entirely of all bran, or other impurities. As soon as it subsides, the water is to be poured off, and the remaining substance mixed up repeatedly with clean water, tiil the latter becomes per- fectly colourless. It should then be drained oft" till it is nearly dry, nnd set to bake, either in the usual mode in which starch is baked, or i out before a brisk fire; care being taken to prevent it from ning," or tunurg into a paste: 6r jelly ; which, as soon as it be- comes dry, acquires the solidity and hardness of horn. V.'e have mentioned the particu- lars of Lord W. MURRAY'S patent, not indeed to induce our readers to encroach upon his exclusive privi- f making starch ; but merely for ehfollng tl >.jipare 'die* above- above-Stated process with the fol- lowing ingenious, and easy, me- thod of converting ttorse-cfiesfifits hito a good and wholesome l-rcad: M. LALEYRIE, a few years - directed his countrymen, in 61 the Paris Journals, first to peel the chesnuts, and to dry them either in the open air, or in a room. When pert'evlly dry, they should be grated nnd pounded. The sifted flour is to be passed into a vessel conUvn- hig water, and there strongly agi- tnted. After standing at rest for an hour, the water is carefully poured olf, to prevent the loss of .'.diment. This infusion should be repeated eight or nine different times, \virh a proportionate quan- tity of water, till the liquor be- come-; co! :.l insipid. The ?utv.i and occasionally taking gentle laxatives, when diey are disposed to become costive. All diese precautions, however, will be attended with no benefit, if young people are suffered to re- pair to the fire, immediately after coming from die most severe ex- ternal cold. In the commencement of diis painful complaint, the cure is easy: immerse die part affected, several times a day, for a few minutes, into cold water, and guard against sudden vicissitudes of heat and cold; as either are equally hurt- ful. But, if simple water procure no speedy relief, dissolve an ounce of salt-petre in half a pint of vine- gar and an equal quantity of wa- ter, and foment widi it the part atfc&ed every night. When the tumors will not yield to diese ao- plications, and still remain in a swelled and painful state, widiout producing ulceration, a few drops of die pure tindure of benzoin may be. rubbed occasionally on them; and the parts should be defended against the external air, by soft linen clodis : from tins simple treatment, we have experienced the best efiefla. CHILD, a term of relation to parent; but also metaphorically applied to adults, expressing either simplicity, or imbecility. We shall consider it only in die former sense. LI 2 As 5 1 6] CHI As the physical education of children, in its different branches, would require a greater portion of room, than can he devoted to it in an alphabetical -work ; and as this subject has been amply discussed in a work, just published from the German of Dr. STRUVE, we shall, in this place, give a few hints, rela- tive to the tonral duties of chil- dren to their parents. Having in- cidentally treated of various sub- iefts, not less connected with the bodily prosperity of youth, than that of adults, and resuming others in alphabetical order, we venture to hope, our readers will approve of this arrangement. The obligations of children to their parents, arise from a prin- ciple of natural justice and retri- bution. To those who gave us 1 existence, we instinctively owe submission, and obedience, during our minority, is well as gratitude and reverence ever after 3 those who protected us in the weak state of infancy, are justly entitled to our protection in the infirmity of their age: those who, by nurture and education, have enabled their off- spring to prosper, ought reciprocally to be supported by that offspring, if unfortunately they should stand in need of "assistance. ' Upon this self-evident principle are establish- ed all the filial duties enjoined by positive laws. And, although by ihe statutes of th : s country, an illegitimate child appears to be exempt from such obligations u - wards its parent ; yet we find, that, in cases of legal issue, the tie of nature is not dissolved by any misconduct of the parent > and consequently a child ought equally to defend the person, or maintain the cause, or suit, of a bad parent, a* of a virtuous one; and is- alike CHI compellable, if of sufficient ability, to maintain and provide for a wicked and unnatural progenitor, as for one who has shewn the greatest affection, and parental piety. It does not behove us to comment upon the consequences of these injunctions, nor shall wt- attempt to reconcile them to gene- r ;il principles of equity, but submit this arduous task to the wisdom of oar legislators. With respect to the manage- ment of children, in the early stages of life, we refer to the article 1\7 ANCY. CHIMNEY, in building, is that part of a house, where the fire is made, and which is provided with a tube, or funnel, to carry off the smoke. Notwithstanding the magnifi- cence of the Grecian and Roman architecture, it is very doubtful whether their common dwelling- houses had chimnics ; for they made use both of stoves, and holes cut in the roofs of their houses, to admit the free egress of smoke. But a.-; VIRGIL mentions chimnies, we may infer, that they were not wholly unknown to the ancients. Method of Building Cklm tries, that -it-ill jwt ymukc : Mason- have adopted different methods of draw- ing up the funnels of chimnies, generally regulated by their own fancy and judgment, wliich are of- ten influenced by local customs : hence they are seldom directed by sound and rational principles. It frequently happens, that the smok- ing of chimnies is occasioned by their being carried up narrower at the top than below, or in a zig-zag form, or in angles 5 indeed, in some instances, this is owing to ac- cidental causes ; but, for the most part, it must be attributed to those above CHI above mentioned. When chimnies are constructed in a pyramidal or tapering form, especially if the house be of a comiderable height, there is much reason to apprehend that they will smoke : die air of a room being rarefied, is forced into the funnel of the chimney, and re- ceives from die tire an additional impetus to carry up the smoke. Thus it is evident that, as the smoke ascends, the impelling force is les- sened ; it moves slower, and con- sequently requ res a greater pro- portion of space to circulate through ; whereas, in the usual way, it has less room, from the sides of die chimney beinggraduallycoatr; Although diis method of con- structing chimnies may not meet v/ith general approbation, because it is supposed that the wider a chimney is at the top, die more liberty the wind has to blow down ; yet, on the other hand, it is obvi- ous that, from the structure of the chimney, and from other causes, the wind, having no resistance to overcome, must necessarily itturn, and thus facilitate the free egress of die smoke. In the usual man- ner of building pyramidal chimnies, when a current of air rushes down- wards, the wind and smoke are in a manner confined, and as the resistance is less from below, the smoke bursts out into the ro;>m. Hence the reverse method bdbre suggested, has proved effectual, after every other expedient had failed, and even in a house, stand- ing in the most disadvantageous situation, namely, under a loity mountain to the southward, from which blasts were blown down upon it. A vent was carried up widiout angles, as perpendicular as possible, being made several inches wider at the top than at the bottom : the CHI [5,7 funnel was contracted in a throat directly above the fire-place, and widened gradually upwards. Since that time, the house has not only ceased to smoke, but, when the. doors stand open, the draught is so strong that it will carry a piece of paper up to the top of the chim- ney. The advantage of erecting chimnies after this mode, are so evident, that we venture strongly to recommend its adoption ; for, independently of their being ex- empt from smoking, and contribut- ing to purify the atmosphere, by the rapid current of air continually circulating through the apartment, It will prevent large quantities of soot from accumulating, and con- sequently remove every apprehen- sion of their taking fire. Various other experiments have been made, with a view to prevent or cure smoky chimnies : of these we shall enumerate only die two following, which deserve particular notice. The first is, not to aufrcr the height of the mantle to exceed one-third of that of the room, and to carry the jaumbs and breast up- right, at least to the ceiling, when they should be turned or sloped as easily and gradual'}- as possible. The jaumbs from the heardi to the mantle should describe the form of a curve ; and die luwrr part of tlu- mantle, a broad hon/ontal plane : the distance from the mide of the breast to die back, on each si.. the throat, being from ten to four- teen or sixteen inches, according to the size of the chimney. , mo.le of reducing smoky chim; .re informed, has repeatedly been found successful. Anodier method, which is at- tended with but little expence, consists in setting the grate, if a Bath stove, eleven or twelve inches LI 3 -taut 5i8] CHI distant from the fender; and in cutting away the back of the chirn- pey, so as to leave a space of two inches between the back of the grate, and that of the chimney. If the grate be of the common form, the sides should be filled up with brick- work, and faced with Dutch- tiles. By this construction, the ait that passes behind the back of the grate will impel the smoke with &n increased velocity, and thus pre- vent it from bursting into the room. Smoky chimnies are frequently occasioned by their being so very narrow as scarcely to admit the children, usually employed for the purpose of sweeping them, to reach properly to the top. This evil may be remedied, and that inhuman practice rendered unnecessary, by adopting the following mode, which has been used for time immemorial in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and other cities in the North ; and which ef- fectually answers the end intended. Procure a rope for the purpose, twice the length of the height of the chimney, to the middle of which is to be tied a bush (of broom, furze, &c.) sufficiently large to fill the chimney. Put one end of the rope down the whole passage ; and, if there be any windings in it, a bul- let, or round stone, is to be tied to the extremity of the rope, and the wood-end of the bush introduced after the rope has descended into the chamber, where a person must pull it downward. By the elasti- city of its twigs, the bush sweeps the sides of the chimney as it de- scends, and carries the soot with It. Should it be necessary for the man at the top, who has hold of the other end of the rope, to dra\v the bush up again, the person below must turn the latter, so as to send die wood-end uppermost, before CHI he gives notice to the assistant at the top to pull it upwards. Chim- nies thus cleaned, never require one-tenth part of the repairs, ren- dered necessary where they are swept by children : for, as these are obliged to work themselves up, by pressing their knees and feet on one side, and their backs on the other, they not unfrequently force out the bricks that divide, the cbim- nies. This is the chief cause why, in many houses of the metropolis, a fire in one apartment always fiils the adjoining ones with smoke, and sometimes even the neighbour- ing house. JFJiole buildings have- often been burnt down, from this concealed cause ; as a foul chim- ney, taking fire, communicates it by these apertures to empty apart- ments, or to such as were filled with lumber ; and in which it was thought unnecessary to make any search, after the fire had been ex- tinguished in the chimney where it first began. "We, therefore, se- riously recommend this practice to be universally adopted, as an object of interest, not less than on account of its humane tendency. It would, farther, be no detriment to those who procure their subsistence by the sweeping of chimnies : for, if this plan should be countenanced, they would be as necessary, then, for the convenience of the public a.s they are at present ; and those very persons would be unavoidably in- duced to provide themselves with ropes for tluit purpose. lastly, such a beneficial change might af- ford the only practicable means of rescuing many unfortunate children from their degraded situation; pre- vent many accidents by \vhich they become deformed; and obviate the evils attendant on a premature old ae. tHI ,Among tlie treatises published on tliis subject, besides those con- tained in Count RUMFOKD'S Expe- rimental Essays, we shall mention only Mr. DAVID PORTER'S Consi- , derations on the present State of Chimney-sweepers, published some years since; and Mr. THO. DAN- FORTH'S pamphlet, entitled The Theory of Ckimnies and Fire-places Investigated, &c. (8vo. is. 1796.) The latter is an ingenious, but the former is a pra&ical and valuable essay, which, together with ano- ther on the same subjeft, Mr. POR- TER has printed at his own ex- pence, and distributed gratis for the bench' t of the public ; a libera- lity not common to authors. China: See PORCELAIN. CHINCOUGH, or Hooping- cough, a contagious disease, which at first resembles a common cold, though it is from its commence- ment attended with a difficulty of breathing ; and the eyes are pro- truded from their sockets. It ge- nerally attacks children ; to whom, if mismanaged, it frequently proves fatal. Those who breathe an im- pure air, live upon poor susten- ance, or are indulged in large pota- tions of warm tea, and do not enjoy sufficient exercise, are most subject to this convulsive cough, in its ut- most severity. Hence the neces- sity of parents to pay unremitting attention to those circumstances \vhich aggravate t!:e complaint. But, if the cough become so violent that respiration is occasionally sus- pended, and when the patient breathes again, is accompanied with a shrill hooping noise, no time should be lost to remove him to a different air, whether it be more or less pure, provided it is at some distance from his former residence. The diet in this disci der should aV CHO [519 ways be light, but nourishing ; and if no fever prevail, white meat may be allowed in very moderate quan- tities, so as to divide ihe usual din- ner into three or four different por- tions, and to give neither cold nor hot drinks, but toast and water, with a little white wine, of which the chill is taken off; gruel; de- coctions of sago, tapioca, arrow- root, &c. If the cough be attend- ed with febrile symptoms, medical advice should be procured ; but in ordinary cases we would advise a gentle emetic, made of an infusion of chamomile flowers, gradually administered ; and afterwards to apply the following liniment to the pit of the stomach : Take one scruple of tartar emetic, dissolve it in two ounces of spring water, and add half an ounce of the tincture of can tharides . This embrocation was originally prescribed by Dodor STR u v E, and has, from experience, been found of superior efficacy to the patent or quack medicines ad- vertised in the daily papers. A tea- spoonful of it ought every hour to be rubbed on the lower region of the stomach, with a warm piece of flannel; and the wetted part should likewise be covered with flannel. A gentle previous vomiting, how* ever, is necessary to promote the absorption of the liniment. In the beginning of the hooping- cough, especially after a change of air, great advantage has often been derived from the application of the juice of onions, horse-radish, or other stimulants, to the soles of the feet. See BLISTER. Chfarusis. See GREEK Sick- ness. CHOCOLATE, in commerce, a kind of cake, prepared principal- ly of the nuts of the cacao, or Co- COA-TRP.F, to which we refer. Li 4 la 5 2oJ C H O In preparing these cakes, the cocoa is properly roasted, and well cleaned, before it is pounded in a mortar to reduce it to a coarse mass, \vhich is afterwards ground as finp as possible on a stone. As soon as it is sufficiently triturated, it is put quite hot into tin moulds, where it congeals in a very short time. This is the common chocolate, as prepared in England from tb,e co- coa alone, without any other ingre- dient. Sometimes, however, a small quantity of sugar, or of va- nilla, i added, for improving its taste. As these cakes are very liable to contract good as well as bad scents, they should be careful- ly wrapped up in paper, and kept in a dry place. ^Good, unadulterated chocolate, ought to possess the following pro- perties : a brown colour inclining to red, and rather lively than faint ; a smooth surface not aftected by mere contact of the hand ; a fine and uniform consistence on break- ing it, without any granulated par- ticles, which arise from the addi- tion of sugar, employed by the ma- nufacturer to conceal still baser ingredients ; lastly, it should easily melt in the mouth, and leave no roughness or astringency, but ra- ther a copling sensation on the tongue. This last quality is th most decisive criterion of genuine chocolate. Among the various experiments made with the view of discovering substitutes for the expensive nut of the cocoa, in the preparation of chocolate, none has hitherto com- pletely succeeded. The Germans employ sweet almonds, as well as the blanched, dried, and roasted kernels of thejiuzrl, and wall-nut, for this purpose; and M. MAR- FF procured -a quantity ci oil CHO from the fruit, or kernel, of the lime-tree, which he formed into a paste, resembling chocolate, but it differed much from it, both in taste, and flavour. Chocolate, ready made, and co- coa-paste, are prohibited to be im- ported, on penalty of forfeiting the same, and double the value : 1O GKO. I. c. 10, sec. 2. We under- stand, from the " Encyclopedia Britannica," though we cannot find it in " Steel's Tables of the Custom and Excise Duties," that chocolate, made and sold in Great Britain, pays an inland duty of Is. 6d. per Ib. avoirdupois ; that it must be inclosed in papers, con- taining one pound each, and pro- duced at the excise office, to be stamped. (It is, nevertheless, ge- nerally sold in papers, containing, four ounces each.) On giving three days notice to the excise, private families may make their own chocolate, provided not less than half an hundred weight of nuts, be employed at one time. Considered as an article of diet, chocolate is a nutritive and, in general, wholesome food, well adapted to die rveak stomachs of invalids and valetudinarians. If duly prepared, and not too much roasted in the nuts (which imparts a dark, rather than reddish colour to tl e cakes), it is easily dissolved in a liquid state; and, being quick- ly : s-imilatcd to alimentary matter, it is less flatulent, and oppressive, than most vegetable di>hc;s of a viscid, and oily nature. To pro- mote its digestion, it ought not to be used without the. addition of aromatic spice, such as cinnamon, cardamoms, vanilla, Sec. which last, however, must be sparingly employed, as it is one of the i ngj and stimulating drugs. ' CHR C/wiera Morlus. SeeDiARRHOEA .itld VoMITIXG. CHRISTOPHER, the HERB, or Acicca spicata, L. is an indige- r.ous plant, growing iu woods and shady places, and is found chiefly near Maibam - Cove, Ciapham, Thorpe Arch, and other places in the north-west ot" Yorkshire. It is perennial, attains the height of about 2y feet; flowers in the .months of May, or June; and produces black, shining, pulpy berries in autumn, about die size of peas, which are considered as poisonous. On account of its fetid smell, this plant is said to be frequented by toads : it is, nevertheless, eaten by sheep and goats, but refused by cows, horses, and swine. The dry leaves are extremely sharp and rough, so that they may be usefully employed for polishing hard wood and ivory. The berries, boiled with alum, yield a deep, black dye; and THIELBEIN, a German writer (in Cu ELL'S " Chemi<:nl Discoveries, vol. ii.), asserts that the red berries of the Actcvu spicata, give a beautiful dye, equal to that obtained from cochineal; after boiling them with cream of tartar, and dropping into the decoction a solution of tin in aqua fortis the colour became permanent. "\\ e believe he alludes to the berries produced by another species of this herb, either the Act^n // of North America, or ii-.e limidfugu, of Siberia (which is aa :ii.-nt preservative against ihe worm in paper, motlis, and bug* ) ; because oar native *pccics gcu ly produces black IXT. CHRONICAL D1SKASKS nrr, in general, neither attended with fever, nor any other symptoms por- tending a speedy lenni nation of the CHR [ 5 2i complaint ; and, iu this sense, th-y are opposed to acute, or hiiiarnm.i- tory disorder.-:. Physicians rind no small dirfk-ulty in drawing a pre- cise line of distinction between these atfecticiis; as the Ltu-r dfteii ciiange into those of a dirunic na- ture. TISOT derives tlie origin of in- veterate diseases from the roll;* sources : 1 . Debility of the solid pans of the bod)-, either heredi- tary, or induced by adventitious causes: '1. Defective digestion, and weakness in the stomach; 3. im- proper treatment, and imperfect n-sc Nation, of acute diseases ; and 'O great irritability, and oth-r arreclions, of the iiervou.i system. From this view of the causes, an.l the correspoodaDg evidc-n medical j)ractitiontTs, it cannot be doubted that chronic maladies are not only the most complicated, but also the *most difficult to be. P-- niDVcd: Proteus-like, they appeal- under a thousand diltlrent form-;,, often exhaust tlu: fortitude o< most patient, balile ti:e united ef- forts of the i'ai ally, throu tine un- happy person into a state of de- spair, and deliver him over to all th,-. rmilices, and cunning of ignorant pretenders, who in:; credulous \u-;ini, and ck wliich ma\ be attained by 5 22 1 CHR by art. But, in chronic affec\ions, medicines generally operate slowly, and often in a manner very diffe- rent from what experience entitles us to expect. Hence the preca- rious nature of drugs has become almost proverbial ; not because they are in themselves inert (which v.'ould involve a contradiction) ; but because they were improperly, or injudiciously, applied. Such being the case in all those inveterate afte&ions, which tor- ment mankind, it is matter of just surprize, that the attention of the afflicted, as well as the scientific, has not been more generally directed towards discovering effectual means of relieving the unhappy, instead of such as have but too often eluded the most sanguine hopes of the patient, and detracted from the reputation of the physician. If it be admitted that, in chronic dis- tempers, the whole animal frame is under a sloiv, though certain, influence of disease ; that the sys- tem, in all its functions, requires a very different aclion, or stimulus, from that generally produced by medicines, on particular organs ; and that so favourable a change can be effected only by operating on the d.frerent processes of diges- tion, assimilation, absorption, and respiration, not separately, but conjointly; then we may venture to affirm, that the prevailing plan of treating those obstinate maladies is established upon a very precarious basis. Novel as ihis assertion may ap- p; ar to many of our readers, it is nevertheless true ; and though it may, at first, meet with opposi- tion, like most of those general truths which all acknowledge, but f t w will defend or practise, there ;s every reason to trust to the good CHR sans' 1 of mankind, that empiricism and knavery will gradually vanish-* from the tablets of history. In order to approach with our labours towards a plan of so bene- ficial a tendency, we have, on all proper occasions, inculcated the ne- cessity of attending to that most important department of medicine, which treats of diet and regimen. From these alette, the most c tial advantages may be derived in ALL chronic diseases, especially such as cannot be traced to their sources, or the predisposing causes of which cannot be discovered, either from an intentional conceal- ment of the patient, his want of resolution and capacity to disclose them, or other reasons, chiefly arising from the present imperfect state of the healing art. Hence, the writer of this article has, for many years, been sedulously em- ployed in collecting and arranging tacts, towards a new work, iu which he proposes to lay before the public an outline of the treatment to be adopted in a diseased state of the body 3 and which will form a counterpart to his former " Lec- tures on Diet and Regimen." At present, it will be sufficient to point out the principal rules, by which the conduct of such persons, as are the victims of inveterate afflictions, ought in general to be guided. 1 . When the patient is not con- fined to his bed, gentle and Jrc- fjuent exercise wiilbe salutary ; but all violent commotions, whether of mind or body, are extremely pre- judicial, and cannot fail to retard his recovery. 2. The sick-room ought to be lofty and capacious, frequently ven- tilated by opening die door or win- dows, without admitting a draught of air ; and, in damp weather, llu- apart- fcHR "apartment cleared of foul, mephitic vapours, either by mild aromatic fumigations, orrnore effectually, by the steam of vinegar. For the same reason, all soiled linen, as well as the night-chair, &c. should be im- mediately removed ; the bed fre- quently made ; and an assemblage of persons never suffered to vitiate the atmosphere of a patient's room. 3. Let the temperature of the air be cool rather than warm; yet this general rule may admit of excep- tions in particular cases : only a moderate degree of warmth should, Jikewise,be allowed with respect to the bed-clothes, and especially the covering, which ought to be soft and light. When the strength of the patient permits, he should be encouraged to rise, and spend ] art of the day, sitting either in bed or on a chair ; but carefully avoiding a draught of air, or taking cold : hence he should not too suddenly venture to leave the house. 4. In regard to food, lie must abstain from crude and heating ani- mal flesh, such as bacon, ham, boiled beef, hard eggs, &c. from dry, flatulent, acrid, salted, and such provisions as increase the bulk of feculent excretions . Thus, white meat in the most frugal portions, blended with vegetables of a mu- cilaginous and nutritive kind, such as cau.iflower, asparagus, parsnips, scorzonera, &c. as well as light dishes of rice, barley, or oatmeal, in a liquid rather than solid form, .and particularly baked or roasted apples, will be found the mo-t .conducive to health. In certain cases, however, raw fruit may be abundantly allowed ; but the pa- tient must never c.it ;r y rood against his appetite ; and if, during the crisis of a disease, he should esi strong tksire for a parti- CHR. cular dish, no prudent physician will object to the gratifying of this natural inclination, unless the sub- stance claimed be obviously pos- sessed of hurtful qu- 5 . In the article of drink, a chro- nic patient cannot be too cautious. In general, he ought to give thi preference to simple, pine water, or ptisan made of pearl-barley and currants ; or whey ; toast and wa- ter; or this fluid acidulated \vit!i the juice of lemons or vinegar, and sweetened with sugar or honey. All spirituous liquors are. in gene- ral, unnecessary and detrimental, unless required from particular cir- cumstances. 6. The important process of per- spiration also deserves to be duly regulated : every time the patient has profusely perspired, lie ought to change his linen, which should be previously warmed} and, if there prevail no peculiar irritability in the system, flannel will always be found the most beneficial dress next the skin. In short, every objeft, tending to alarm or disturb the patient, should be carefully removed ; his sleep rendered as quiet and com- fortable as possible ; and, if his strength and appetite begin to im- prove, he ought to redouble his attention, both as to the time and m;;ni;cr of taking muscular exer- cise, not less than to his mental e:.- ertibns, as well as with regard to the gradual c! ange of the quantity and quality of his aliment. CHRYSALIS, or AUUEMA, in natural history, is :i term express- ing that form of butterflies, moths, chafers, ;md oilier insic'ts which they assume, while in a state of rest and apparent insensibility; before they arrive at their winged or most pertVa itatc. Thi- transformation, says 5*4] M ft f-ays HERDSR, a celebrated Grr- man author, affords a beaut irul i Liiblem of man's passage to a fu- ture; life. The form of the chrysalis gene- rally approaches that of a cone : while the creature is in this state, it appears to be destitute both of legs and wings, to have scarcely power to move. ; and, in short, to be almost devoid of life. It takes no nourishment, nor has it indeed jjiiy organs for that purpose : its posterior part is all that seems ani- mated, which has the power of motion, in a very slight degree, The external coat of the chrysalis is cartilaginous, of a considerable size, generally smooth and glossy, though some of them have a few hairs, while others are as hairy as the caterpillars from which they ;ur produced; and again others are rough, and in a manner shagreen- t-d. When first produced, the chry- salis is soft, and die front of it moistened with a viscous liquor, which surrounds the wings, legs, &c. as it hardens almost imme- diately, all those limbs that were before separated, are consolidated into a mass. Having undergone its change, in this state, it perforates the shell with its head, and bursts forth into day, in its winged form. See BUTTERFLY. As this admirable part of the animal creation has, hitherto, been almost entirely negleeled by econo- mists, though it has always excited Die attention of the curious natu- ralist, we have inserted the preced- ing concise account, to remind the ingenious inquirer, that even these apparently useless creatures may, perhaps, at some future time, be- come. subservient to important pur- poses. See CATERPILLAR, p. 456. CHIT .cr Ccphalus, L. is a spe- cies of t' Cijprinus, a numerous genus i . ,".sh.. It is mostly found in ho 1 ."- overshadowed by trees, whcr 'Jie.se fish are seen floating duri warm weather, in great . being very full of bones, afr'v.d but an indifferent dish ; yet they furnish considerable amuse- ment to anglers, as they may be easily taken. The best mode of fishing for them is the following : Prepare a very strong rod of suffi- cient length, and fix to the hook a grasshopper, beetle, or any other large fly. This must be dropped gently at a small distance from the fish, which will bite immediately, if it does not see the angler, who should take the precaution of con- cealing himself from it ; as, being extremely timid, this fish sinks to the bottom, on the slightest alarm, and not unfrequently at the passing of a shadow. In March and April, it may be caught with large, red worms ; in June and July with flies, snails, and cherries ; but in the months of August and September, the proper bait is good cheese pounded in a mortar with some saffron, and a small quantity of butter. The best season for this fish is winter, as the flesh is then more firm, and better tasted. Dur- ing cold weather, the angler should keep his bait at the bottom, when it will be eagerly seized. CHURN, a vessel in which but- ter, by long and violent agitation, is separated from the serous part of milk. The inferiority of the churns in common use, has induced several ingenious mechanics to exert their skill in contriving others, that would render the process of making but- ter less tedious and expensive. Of these W ' / '/f,ff/,f,,f/.j these, we shall give a succinft ac- count. The first is an improved butter churn, constructed on a new prin- ciple, by the ingenious Mr. C. HAR- L A ND , of Fenchurch-strcet.London. The BARREL CHURN, delineated in the Plate annexed, is moved by the 'intervention of a multiplying wheel, to moderate its too violent motion. The head of the cran'; in the mortise (in the handle) effects the rotatory motion of the barrel with great facility. Apd,_ if the bar- rel bejtxed, and the axis (in the in- side), to which the dashers are at- tached, be made to turn, the butter will be mere specdilyformed. A fly- wheel is also affixed, by means of which the agitation of the cream is necessarily performed in a more uniform manner ; and, consequent- ly, the butter will be more perfectly separated from the whey. The seco n d i s M r . W i L L i A >i B o w - LER'S improved CIIUKX, for which the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Com- merce, liberally gave him thirty guineas, in the year 17Q5. This chum is of the barrel kind, being a cylinder, 18 inches in dia- meter, and 9 wide ; the sides are of wood, audthe rim a tin plate, which has two openings ; one 8|- inches in length, and 4 in width, through which the cream is poured into the churn, and the hand introduced for cleaning it ; the other, a short pipe, one inch in diameter, by which the butter-milk runs out of the churn, when the operation is linish- ed. The first of these openings has a wooden cover, fastened down by two screws ; and the other a cork fitted to it, while the butter is churning. There is farther, near the larger opening, a small vent- hole with a pB, to admit th* pas- 1 C H U sage of any air that.' may -be 'dis- charged from" the cream, at the beginning f the operation. An axle also passes through the c}\um, terminating in tvo gm'geonrs, on which it hangs ; its lower part be- ing immersed in n trough, in . to i^old occasionally t or cold water, according to the season of the year. On the inside of the rim, are four projecting pieces of wood, with holes, serving to agitate the cream by the motion of the churn. This movement is c: by a pendulum 3 feet 6 inches long, t'. at has an iron bob, weighing lOlbs. and at r nd a turn- ing piil'cT- 10 inches in diameter, 1 j a rope goes twice round another p":!r;y about 3 inches in diiur.euT, ii>:^d <>n the axis of the churn, which it ca; .ke a partial revolution, by each vibra- tion of the pendulum. There are likewi.se sliding rovers to the machinery, and also another to the water trough : in ord'T. win u hot water is used, to secure thr. steam, and keep the cream in a proper degree of warmth. The motion of the peiu'r. 'ven, andcontinuedjbym; odea rod, about 3 feet 9 inches iu length', which turns on a p:n :j iucl-.?o above the bob of the pendulum. Explanation rij'; represent Mr. in i Ham Btnufofa improved Churn. A. A. The body of tlie churn. B. An opening, by which cream is put in. C. The cover of the -large open- ing. The small hole on the site side cannot be'dclinc print. D. The axis, or gudgeon, on which the body of the churn is sus- pended. E. The 526] C HU E. The upper, or large pulley. F. The smaller pulley fixed on the axis of the churn. G. G. The rod of the pendulum, hanging from the upper pulley E. H. The bob of the pendulum. J. I, The handle, moveable on the pin at a, by which the pendu- lum is moved, making a traverse in the form of the dotted line K. K', L. The trough for the hot or cold water. M. A projecting piece of wood, with a shoulder, which supports the handle I. when the churn is not at work. As butter is often made in small quantities, and the vertical motion of the common churn is extremely fatiguing, we consider those me- thods of applying the powers of mechanism, as valuable improve- ments. Hence we presume to re- Commend the preceding improved butter-churns to' be generally in- troduced ; for the facility and ex- pedition, with which butter is thus obtained, will amply compensate the additional cxpence. CHVRNIXCJ. As we have already diseu-x-u tin subject of butter* and treated of the management of the dairy as connected with il,we shall only offer here a lew supplemen- tary remarks. If a pump- churn be employed, It may be plunged a foot deep in a tab of cold water, and remain there during the whole time of churning; which will harden the butter in a considerable degree. This operation, as we have before objened (p. 403), may be much facilitated, by pouring into the churn a small quantity of distilled vinegar, which will produce butter in the course of one hour. Those who make use of a pump-churn, should endeavour to keep up a re- c H y gular motion of .the machine.; and by no means admit any person to assist them, unless .from absolute necessity : for, if the churning be irregularly performed, the butter will in winter go Lack; and, if the agitation be more quick and violent in summer, it wiH cause the butter to ferment, and thus to acquire a very disagreeable flavour. Where there are many cows, a barrel-churn is preferred ; but un- less it be kept very clean, the bad effects of it will be soon discovered in the butter. Particular care should also be taken, to place it in a pro- per temperature, according to the change of the season ; that is, to fix it in a warmer situation in the winter; and, in the summer, to expose it to a free current of air. CHURN-STAFF. See WART-. WOKT. CHYLE, in animal economy, is that white fluid, produced from the nutritious part of the food, in the first passages, after the fibrous or feculent matter has 'been separated: it is chiefly generated in the milk- vessels of the mesentery, whence, it passes to the receptacle of the' chyle, situated under, the left kid- ney, and is conveyed to what is called the thoracic duc~t, or the ca- nal of the chest, from which it en- ters certain veins, where it is mix- ed with the blood; in short, it i.s the only supply of that vital fluid, and hence the great importance of wholesome food, from which alone a salubrious blood can be prepared, will be easily conceived. In this- view only, we have introduced the word c hy lc: a liquor which resembles m:lk; has a sweetish- saline taste; easily coagulates ; and consists of a mixture of oily, watery, and lym- phatic parts (see LYMPH) ; its milky colour arises from the com- bination CIC bination of oil with water ; an in- stance of which occurs in the milk of almonds. As the chyle is, by Nature, in- tended to form the blood, to supply the body with nutritious juices for the daily loss and waste it sustains, it is obvious that this salutary pro- cess ought not to be interrupted by violent exercise after meals ; be- cause the chyle is supposed not to be completely secreted, till about four hours after the food has been taken. Dr. DARWIN observes that, tho' the chyle, from different kinds of aliment, is very similar, and all the various constituent parts of animal bodies are ultimately produced from the chyle, by sanguification and secretion, yet it happens, that some kinds of aliment possess a greater quantity of these particles, than others : such materials, for instance, as already contain much sugar, mucilage, and oil, as the flesh of dead animals, or the fruits and seeds of vegetables. CICELY, the S \VKET, or great chervil, or shepherd's needle, the Scandix odoratu, L. is a native plant, growing in orchards, hedges, and \\aste places, but generally near houses ; and is chiefly found in the counties of Westmoreland, Cumberland, Lancaster, and Wor- cester. It is perennial, produces white flowers, which blow in the month of May or June, and seeds of a sweet and agreeable taste. The whole plant has an aromatic scent, and its seeds are used in the north of England, for polishing and perfuming oak-floors, and furni- ture : they also yield an essential oil, similar to that obtained from anise-seeds. The fresh leaves and stalks of the sweet cicely impart to trooj a fine citron yellow dye, when CIN [>7 prepared in a solution of bismuth 3 as asserted by DAMBOURNEY. CICHORY. See Wild SUCCORY. CINNABAR, in natural his- tory, is either native, or factitious. The former is an ore of quick- silver, moderately compact, very heavy, and of a beautiful striated, red colour. The latter is compos- ed of six, or eight parts of mercury, to one of sulphur ; the whole is sublimed, and thus reduced into a fine, red glebe. The best is cf a high colour, and full of fibres, re- sembling needles : the chief use of cinnabar is for painting. Formerly, the native cinnabar was much employed in medicine, as a sedative and antispasmodic powder, which is still vended ia Germany, for the use of the igno- rant, who take a dose of it after every alarm, or fright. But as this metallic substance contains arsenical particles, of which it can- not be cleared by repeated ablution, it frequently occasions nausea, trembling, and anxiety j which, however, subside after vomiting. We should not have mentioned this substance, had we not learnt from a pamphlet, published by Dr. LETTSOM, mat a late famous Quack (whose son and widow now con- tend in the newspapers, for the authenticity of his prescriptions; and still trifle with the lives of un- wary persons), administered the native cinnabar, in red powders, of which he kept six kinds, containing different proportions of this pig- ment, in order to deceive the pa- tients by agreater variety of colours, When will this outrage on hu- manity terminate? CINNAMON, is the bark of the true cinnamon tree, or Laurus cinnumomum, L. but an inferior sort, which is often sold for ge nuiiae. miine, is collefted from the base cinnamon, or Lauras Cassia, L. See BAY-TREE, p. 201. Cinnamon is one of the most agreeable, and useful aromatics : it is more grateful both to the palate an 1 stomach, than the generality of spi'vs. It cannot, however, be dotted, that it is more heating and stimulating, than its common substitute, cassia-bark : hence the latter is better adapted to culinary uses, especially for the young and plethoric, than the real cinnamon, which deserves the preference in medicine : and here it is of con- siderable service in alvine fluxes, arising from relaxation, and other imm "-charges. ClNQUBFOft, or I,, a g:':ms of plant-;, com;--' -.--five species, of which only eight are indigenous; the principal of these are: 1. Thefruticosa, or shrubby cinquefoil, which is set with fine silvery hairs, has reddish st- rns. and yellow blossoms, that ir in the month of June: the flowers are conspicuous for tlieir number and beauty. This plant has been usr employ c-d on the Continent, in tan- ning i it is als.; >ws, ho'>; . .:ad sheep ; f :sed by L. 2. The ariss!-; or goose-grass . See S 1 1. v p. n - w i: F n . 3. The a ' hoary cirujue- foil, which grows or. meadow - res, in a gravelly soil. r> in June. The whole may >cd for tanning, and d;. . as it is not touched ?]<. BKCHSTKIN. The rtfrfnns, or common ing cinquefoilj whicli grou-j in a moist, clayey soil of meadowy pastures, and by road-sides. It is perennial, and flowers from June to August. A fine-grained calf- leather has, likewise, been prepar- ed from this plant, on the Conti- nent. The red cortical part of the root is mildly astringent, and antiseptic : a deco&ion of it has been found an excellent gargle for loose teeth, and spongy gums. CiNauEFoiL, the MARSH. See Purple MARSKLOCK.S. CIRCULATION. See TRANSFU- SION. CISTERNS are vessels employ- ed for the reception of rain, or other water, either under ground, such as those of navigable c.. &c. or above ground, for domestic and other purposes. In this \ I we shall treat only of the latter. As the water collcfted in leaden cisterns is apt to cor- ier by -iting for several ti- the pipes happen to be t obstructed, or by the deposition of feculent matter, as well as the incrustation formed in such vessels, it follows that they ought to be freqiu cleansed of the copious contain. This attem; the more necessary, as lead is a metal liable to be dissolved by acids ; and, in that state, proves a slow, but fatal poison. Although the acidity contained in stagnant water which has, in its co been impregnated with animal a;ii ible particles, cannot be very considerable, yt-t it will be more and prudent, to prevent the foi -.nation of such acid?, by an i attention to the purity of the water. . y . END OF VOL. I I >jw-sireet, C iM-ttJttMIU iped below. UNIVEIiS! LY Oi^ CALIFORNIA G llich- '67 d The domestic muni nil inn IP i""" o c v.l