EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation ^ n ^ http://www.archive.org/details/educationpersonaOOwilsric n EDUCATION. ='ERS0NAL1TY & CRIME Ia practical treatise built up on scientific details, dealing with difficult social problems BY ALBERT WILSON, M.D., Edin. *• London LONDON GREENING & CO., LTD 1908 ^^ BUTLBR & TA^fVER, THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS, FROME. AND LONDON. DeMcateO BY PERMISSION TO DR. HUGHLINGS JACKSON. THE FOUNDER OF THE SCIENCE OF NEUROLOGY, PHYSICIAN AND PHILOSOPHER, LEADER OF THOUGHT AND RESEARCH, HONOURED AND BELOVED BY ALL WHO KNOW HIM. 270674 I PREFACE Science has till recently been regarded as the fad of a few, but, now that its commercial value is being appreciated, it is rising to a place of recognition. Biology and Psychology are, however, still regarded, especially by the legal profession, as essentially mythical. There are many burning questions, as education, marriage and crime, which are in a chaotic condition, the subjects of party strife ; and yet there is only one way in which these difficulties can be met. That way is by bending to the laws of science, of biology, of physiology, and psychology. The questions of life, growth, and heredity concern every one, and, with a proper understanding of their merits, we can foretell and avoid many individual and social calamities. The subjects especially treated in this book are education, character formation, marriage, and crime. Personahty is a large question and many cases of dual personahty are recorded. They indicate a spUtting up of the Ego or self or consciousness. Heredity, including our up-to-date knowledge of fertilization and germ plasm, will prove interesting to many ; while Responsi- bihty appeals to all, and merits more attention from the lawyer. Is there such a thing as Free Will ? Empire building is the theme of the book, not by dislocation of industries, nor by aggressive attacks on other nations, but by accumulating our intellectual forces so as to be equal to any effort or to resist any strain. Individuals must be dealt with. It is not the pohtical orator alone who is the builder, but also those who, " unhonoured and unsung," toil deep down in the dark quagmire of poverty and immorality. There are appended to the accounts of those institutions where I had the opportunity of visiting, statistics of physique and cranial measurements (psychatrie), which will interest a few, vii viii PREFACE and require close comparison and examination ; otherwise they may be ignored by the general reader. The criminal is by no means neglected in this book. He is an important and fascinating member of society who has his merits, and whom I classify either as a pervert or invert. I cannot help making many attacks on that unseen per- sonaUty, the State. None of these intricate problems can be explained without a clear, even though it be an elementary, knowledge of the laws of Hfe and living matter. I therefore propose to deal with the subjects in the following order. First : A section of biology, deaHng with the simple cell, its structure, growth, and evolution into higher forms. This leads on to fertilization, which prepares the understanding for the great problems of heredity, and how we are affected by them. Second : The physiology and structure of the nervous system and brain. The third section naturally in- cludes education, which should be contrasted with the present methods, that have proved such a failure. Then naturally follows a discussion on the Ego and dual personalities, illustrating the composite character of our mental machinery. I will also discuss diseased or degenerated physical states, which opens the way for understanding mental and moral degeneracy as seen in our criminals. This will be illustrated with interesting accounts of some of the criminals I have known, and at once raises the question of responsi- bility. In a closing chapter, which I term Empire building, I give a resume of some of the conditions met with in our large cities, which if fully understood would soon be remedied. The Appendix contains tables of measurements, which form a little study on craniology, and psychatrie, including several records of criminals. ALBERT WILSON, M.D. 22, Langham Street, London, W. CONTENTS Preface CHAP. (i BIOLOGICAL I To TBB THOUQHTFUIi .... n Vegetable and Animal Forms m Fertilization ..... ^^■IV Development — Intlxtencb op Environment ^^B V Prepotency ...... ^H VI Heredity — Views of Gregor Mendel ^^^1^^ SECTION II I^^^Hr PHYSIOLOGICAL Vn Reflex Action .... Vm The Brain ^^HlX The Grey Matter of the Brain ^™ X Automatism and Consciousness XI The Minute Structure of the Brain Xn The Functions of the Cortex Xm The Influence of Environment on the Brain XIV The Relation of Physiognomy to Brain Cells XV Physical Degeneracy, Seen and Unseen PAGB vii ■ 1 6 10 20 36 ^ 44 ' 09 70 78 86 94 102 108 114 120 ' I CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE SECTION in SOCIOLOGICAL XVI Education 134 "^ XVII MuiiTiPiiE Pbbsonaxity and Crimk . . 148 XVIII Personality and Sub-Pebsonality . .170 XIX The Moral Invalid and Mental Cripple . .181 XX The Cbiminal 189 XXI Ex-Criminals I have Known . . . .207 XXII Responsibility ....... 228 XXIII EaiPiRE BinLDiNG 237 Appendix and Tables 261 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Blood Cells 7 ^11 Division in Growtli . .12 Section of Ovary ........ 13 The Grerminal Chain ........ 13 B\ision of Ovum and Spermatozoon .15 Grroup of Underfed Boys, with Measurements .... 24 Brain Cells 60 A Purkinje Cell 61 The Reflex of Salivation 62 The Spinal Reflex 62 Nerve Terminals in Skin and Muscle ..... 63 Motor Cell, Normal 64 Spinal Ganglion Cell in Fatigue ...... 65 The Skull 70 The Brain Areas 70 The Embryo Brain 72 A Normal Brain Pattern ....... 72 Brain Pattern of Ungulates (a Pig) ..... 74 „ „ Carnivora (a Civet) ..... 74 „ „ a Lower Ape ...... 75 ,, ,, a Human FcBtus ..... 76 Photo of tho Smallest Human Brain ..... 76 Photo of an Imbecile Brain ....... 77 „ „ ,, Ourang's Brain ....... 77 The Brain Cortex Mapped out ...... 79 A Doment's Brain for Comparison. ..... 79 Sensory £ind Psychic Arecw in Diagram ..... 80 The Mechaiiism of Thought 83 Brain Colls in Health and Disease ..... 95 Diagram of Nerve Fibrils ....... 96 Sketch of Cells and Fibres 97 Dr. Watson's Diagram of Relative Development of the Cortex . 99 Nerve Fibres 100 Insulation of Fibres in Foetus ...... 100 xi xu LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Embryo to show Neuroblasts Neuritis ...... riechsig's Association Areas Wasted Lunatic Brain for Comparison . Microscopic Appearance of Visuo -psychic and Slummer's Brain .... „ „ Cortex (microscopical) . The Drunkard's Brain Cortex, a Drawing Large Motor Cells and Fibres Neuroblasts in the degenerate Versus Pyramidal Cells in the Normal Writings of Mary Barnes as B 10 „ B 3 „ B 9 Sensory Are?ii>ft . Drawing »y if »» 9* f Writing i» f >» ** ft »> f» »» PAGE 101 101 103 103 104 108 108 logl 116 132 132 160 160 161 162 163 163 164 165 166 177 , 191 193 199 207 21« 219 220 221 222 223 224 226 227 231 231 245 Mr. Wheatley's Lads 247 Diagram of Nerve Supply to Arteries Diagrams of Arterial Supply to the Brain „ „ the Sympathetic Nerve System The ex-Laziest Man in London The Cortex in the Normal and the Insane Normal and Diseased Brain Cells A Group of City Lads .... The Author and Brigadier with your Unfortunate Brothers The ex-King of Burglars ...... The Brains of the Insane and the Degenerate (a Murderer) . The Brain Layers of the Alcoholic, Insane, and Criminal . Sketch of Normal and Degenerate Brain Cells The Murderer's Brain . . ..... „ ,, „ Frontal View, Layers and Cells „ „ „ Occipital View, Layers and Cells Drawing of Infant, Normal, and Degenerate Cortex . The Murderer's Cortex versus that of a Mangaby Normal Brain Cells ....... Normal and Imbecile Cortex Compared .... Working Lads in Group ...... 190, 192, CHAPTER I TO THE THOUGHTFUL Tie sum of twent^ve years' busy life — The social canker affects all THE CHAIJpgS OF TIME : Formerly we were plethoric— Now ast — The key^pl prosperity — Comparison of extremes SOCIAL PRO BLEMS INVjOLVED : Double consciousness — Abnormal humanity — We are all potential criminals— THE LAWS OF BIOLOGY RULE US : Nature allows no privileged class THE BREAKING POINT : Over- strain : the danger zone — The criminal drawn from every class — Society lowers the moral code— SIN VERSUS CRIME : The neglect of the State — All depends on individual effort — The community — Effect of luxury — The neglect of the poor. After twenty-five years of very busy life in a varied medical practice, it may not be out of place to sum up for the use of the thoughtful the pith of my labours. All through a medical man's career, if he take life seriously, he meets mental suffering, in addition to, and often entwined with, physical disease. Nor can a doctor separate himself from the social side of Hfe, for he sits daily in the confessional. While it is his delight to join in the joys of the few, his sympathies are constantly invoked for the mass of humanity groaning in sorrow and travail. The social canker does not afflict the poor alone, it chooses its victims equally among the rich ; the babe that is born to the wealthy or to the good, may bring sorrow instead of joy. In some cases this is unavoidable, but usually it is preventable. It is therefore my earnest object to address myself to all mothers and fathers, to all young men and maidens, on whose health and integrity the next generation is cast. The mission of the physician is not to correct outward disease alone, but also to observe brain and nerve defects, which too often are the basis of disease and unhappiness, present or yet to come. Some say the world seems off its hinges, but the doubt is The , if it ever were on, for we are in process of evolution. Times ^f j^^ L 2 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME 6.1so cliange very much. Fifty or a hundred years ago we were plethoric and sthenic, or, in simple language, full- blooded and strong. Instead of thinking slowly, we now work and live at high pressure ; we fly across England in six or seven hours, whereas our forefathers spent two days in coaching, or a week in riding. This healthy open-air life, with plenty of plain food and home-brewed ale, engendered the race which built up England's power. But after years of easy travelling, telegraph and telephone, cheaper and richer food, and warmer clothing, we have become an asthenic people. The full hard pulse has become soft and compressible, the type of disease has changed, the nervous system once strong is now vulnerable at many points ; we have improved intellectually but have Iosl5 ground physically and in endurance. Mens Sana in corpore sano is the key to happiness and pros- perity. As it concerns all and must interest many, no further apology is required for compiling this treatise. In deaHng with such an extensive and complex subject, it makes more impression to compare and contrast the extremes of intelligence, character, and morality. Thus we have to choose sanity and insanity, describing the physical condition of the brain in each ; how to retain the one and avoid the other. Similarly we have to contrast the highest morale with the lowest, which we style criminality ; as to material or organic basis in each there is much to be said. Nor can we leave out heredity, with its subtle influence. Finally external mundane conditions may oppose Nature's efforts ; this imports many social questions, which it is the duty of the physician as a citizen to emphasize. There is a very curious condition of mental instability called double consciousness, in which the same individual leads two lives. It is a mystery not yet solved, and one to which I was specially attracted, having had the opportunity of watching a case which led ten separate lives. As every composer has a thread round which he weaves his effective music, so I am compelled to weave my theme around abnormal humanity. The criminal will appear so often in these leaves that it may look as if he were the subject. It is not so ; but he is a type of what any one may sHde down IF 1^" ^b, unless 1 TO THE THOUGHTFUL unless bolstered up by favoured surroundings, and guided by healthy mental powers. It is necessary for me at once to press home the solemn fact that we are all potential criminals, but saved by our heredity, education, and environment. Change any one of these factors and we are at once on the edge of a precipice. We need not therefore be proud of our virtues, but thankful that we are permitted to have them. --^ We have yet to learn that the laws of Biology,^ which govern The lower forms of life, apply to ourselves. Nature has no favourites, Biology nor does she allow a privileged class. By comprehending Rule us these matters we can deal with the pressing social problems of the day, and, where we cannot benefit a class, we can at all events help individuals. We are a motley crowd, one halt, another bUnd, and a third dumb. The blind can carry the halt, and the halt may guide the bUnd. In this way only we get along, carrying one another's burdens. PB 1^ les There is a breaking point to every human mind, as there The is to sohd objects in the organic world. But this breaking p^^^^^ point varies in individuals, and seems to rest with the person- ahty or ego. A large number of folk live constantly under overstrain, and in proximity to the danger zone. What the result of the catastrophe will be, depends on many previous conditions. What in one is a nervous breakdown, in another is insanity, and in a third is crime. Every rope will yield to a certain pressure, but the poorer the quahty of rope, the less weight is required to break it. Nowadays, with competition, stress, and the wrong form of civilization, instruction instead of education, class against mass, we are surrounded by sad cidents. Lunacy is rapidly increasing ; poverty does not essen ; while degeneracy and crime have got entirely beyond control. If tho criminal were drawn from the poor, we who are in a better position might selfishly leave him alone ; but the ^ criminal, as much as the insane, comes from every class, so that no family can afford to neglect this inquiry. Bio8y Life ; Logos, a discourse. 4 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME In dealing with the higher mental evolution we have to regard morality and rectitude as the duty demanded of normal man. Society in its evolution has not attained to this ; on the plea that might is right, it lowers the code of morality and duty to one's neighbour, and substitutes convenience for conscience. Hence we find that sin and crime run on quite different lines. What is a small sin like poaching, becomes one of the most flagrant of crimes ; whilst he who ruins a girl in the poorer ranks sins under the protection of the law, and does not lose his place in society.^ When our rusty old law machine finally tumbles to pieces, crime and morality should be arranged in inverse proportion. Then, and not till then, will Law and Justice be co-related. The State is at present unmindful of the sufferings of her children ; she performs little in the way of sympathy or goodness, leaving all charity and assistance for the needy to the efforts of private individuals. After a careful study of the human organism, we shall under- stand more clearly the various social problems, where the defects lie, and how to remedy them. It is quite evident that individual effort is necessary for national progress. Nations and individuals run on parallel lines ; what is right for the one is good for the other. A community is made up of personal units, while each of us is made up of several communities of complex living cells ; each group of ceUs, with its special duties, is co-operating for one object, setting before us a plan of what a normal and per- fect nation should be. There are factors which threaten us at the present epoch ; luxury and over-indulgence, which ruin the human organism, canker and penetrate to the heart of the nation, producing lethargy and inefficiency.^ The second cause of our national decay is the neglect of the poor and help- less, who should be a source of constitutional wealth and ^ I recall one of the brightest little fellows in the Working Boys' Home, who is the son of a domestic servant. The father was a " gen- tleman," as his son's face and manners show. The lad barely escaped being absorbed into the criminal ranks. If he had been so absorbed, how is the matter of responsibility to be divided up amongst the three parties concerned, father, mother and State ? * Read Arnold White's work on Efficiency and Empire. \:^ TO THE THOUGHTFUL growth. The disaster which this brings is not a curse from God, but a logical sequence of the infringement of the laws of biology and sociology. We are very near a precipice, requiring only a *' heave over " 'to go to pieces, and our only salvation Ues in a return to healthy and normal conditions. CHAPTER II VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL FORMS RELATION OF ANIMAL TO VEGETABLE LIFE: Some natural laws- Man is only an animal — Plus will-power — Man a machine — Represented in the lower creation — Animal kingdom built up in progressive series — The amoeba and leucocyte — Teach children the truth, or they resent it later. EVOLUTION : Lamarck's theory, Adaptation to Environ- ment, Wrong ; Darwin, '* Survival of the fittest," or " natural selec- tion " — Prof. W. Bateson on " Discontinuous variation " — Shirley pop- pies — Examples of discontinuous variation — De Vries' experiments with Oenothera. THEIR APPLICATION TO MANKIND : Promiscuous marriage — Continuous variation, or minor individual differences — Our duty toward " the unfit " — Mai thus* warning. Relation The animal world is very closely interwoven with the veget- ^mal *^^^ kingdom. The same general laws and principles govern to both alike, so that no study of the human race would be V^etable successful or complete, without a full understanding of plant life. Man is an ordinary animal, with its instincts, feelings, and impulses ; but he has something in addition, a mind, and perhaps a soul. He is therefore not subject to his impulses and instincts, but is provided with a force or will power to direct and control his desires. It has taken many hundred miUions of years to build him up ; structure has been added to structure, until he is a most elaborate physico-chemical machine. When his various parts are taken to pieces, and examined, often with the aid of a microscope, sometimes with the test tube, we find that they are all represented in what we call the lower creation. We see the crab is made up of twenty- four segments, the worm is also divided, so is the butterfly. Man likewise is made in spinal and other segments, and resembles the lower forms of hfe in that each segment is provided with its own nervous mass and mechanism. We observe also nerve masses, or ganglia, in insects and snails, that have their counterpart in the human species, controlling the organs of digestion and circulation. The animal kingdom then has been built up from very simple Leucocytes, or colourless blood cells. They are round cells with nuclei. Nature's policemen. Similar cells, scavengers, 2 destroying tubercle bacilli from a human lung ; the other full of dust particles from the breath. A double nucleated phagocyte, or scavenger cell, from a case of advanced neuritis, removing dead particles, which stain black. (Drawn from the microscope, oil immersion, by Miss B. Wilson.) Facing page 7. VEGETABLE forms, by little additions to each progressive series. Perhaps the simplest form of animal life is represented in the ponds by the amoeba. This is a transparent piece of protoplasm, which looks under the microscope like a bit of jelly, having the power of movement, and altering its shape so as to include smaller particles which it digests as food. The same kind of animal exists in our blood as colourless corpuscles, on which we depend as scavengers and policemen. If we get a fever, local inflammation or poisoned wound they muster in thousands and millions, devouring the poisonous germs which have attacked us. Though they are a necessary part of our system yet they can Uve outside our bodies, as, for example, in a test tube which contains a weak solution of salt. Every child ought to be taught the truth, and ought to know that man was not suddenly created, but evolved gradu- ally from the lower creation. Nothing is to be gained by prac- tising deception on the young, and much may be lost, as it leads later to a general scepticism and " criticisms." ^ There has always been great speculation as to how this Evolu- evolution of different species came about. Early investigators °^ thought that the gaps existing between species were brought about very gradually. Lamarck who wrote on this subject in 1801 and 1 80 9,^ originated the theory of "adaptation to environment '* as the cause of variation. Thus the giraffe, which has no more bones in its neck than has a rabbit or man, was supposed to acquire its long neck during many generations of stretching upwards to eat the palmleaves. Similarly the flamingo was supposed to have developed its long legs and neck through its habit of wading and reaching out among bulrushes. Likewise snakes were supposed to have lost their legs from their habit of crawling into narrow crevices. All this we know to be wrong. Darwin in 1859 3 introduced the theory of the "survival of the fittest " and " natural selection." Darwin, the pioneer, * Many " learned " and " higher " criticisms are valueless for want of accurate scientific data. These clever men have been brought up on dogma and tradition instead of solid fact. « Philosophie Zoologiqice. The Origin of Species. 8 EDUCATION, PEESONALITY AND CRIME however, could not in a lifetime complete his work. He attri- buted too much importance to minor differences, thinking the gaps between species were gradually formed, and handed on from one generation to another, until a new type or species was formed. We now know that this is not so. Nature can and does take jumps. Professor W. Bateson,^ of Cambridge, applies the term " discontinuous variation " to this process. Thus he points out that a tulip, which normally has three petals, may have offspring with four perfect petals which is a new and total variation from the parent : not three proper petals and one small imperfect petal, for such would be considered a malformation, or, more correctly, a " continuous variation." Then we have the case of the Shirley poppies. The Rev. W. Wilks, vicar of Shirley, near Croydon, observed white rimmed poppies growing among a mass of wild poppies (Papaver rhoea). He kept the seed of this sudden or discontinuous variety, and with skiHul horticulture started the new species called after his parish. There are abundant records of several new species, or as Bateson terms them, " discontinuous variations." As com- mon examples we have the long haired cats and guinea-pigs. Pug dogs, and buU dogs, are variations depending on arrested growth of the upper jaw. The same happens among carp and pike, so that the lower jaw protrudes. A few cases are on record of ordinary mice with no fur, naked mice, whose offspring also is naked. One of the most applicable instances is recorded by the Dutch botanist, De Vries.^ He found in a potato field several varieties and species of Oenothera Lamarkii growing wild. It is an American plant, and he attributed their variations to the differ- ence in cHmate and soil. However, he cultivated from seed and seedlings 50,000 plants and observed among them 800 abnormal forms, or as they are termed mutations {mutare, to change). These 800 mutations showed 16 varieties or new species, which, in some cases, would flower and seed true to their new types, thus making distinct species, and receiving fresh Latin names ; in other cases the new species or seedlings * Materials for the Study of Variation^ p. 15. « Nature, 1901, vol. Ixiv, p. 208. VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL FORMS rere very delicate, and either died before reaching maturity, or were only reared with the greatest care. Thus some of the varieties formed new and stable species, and some were unstable. This instructive experiment applies forcibly to the lower Their vegetable and animal forms, and also to our own human and ^^^ ^^^ social organizations. As the result of promiscuous marriage Mankind we see a motley group of offspring, some good, some medium, others weak and sickly, and a few bad. This leads us on further in the inquiry as to the unseen causes and forces at work. In every human family we observe individual differences or peculiarities amongst the children. These are minor variations, or individual traits, and are termed " continuous variations," because they cannot be perpetuated into new forms. If we however can fathom the why and wherefore of the more definite and abnormal variations, we will have a clearer perception of the continuous examples. It will carry us on to the question of marriage and inheritance, and also of our higher duty towards the unfit. Are we to look on unconcerned ? In 1798^ Mai thus gave a warning to the world when he pointed out, that the human population in- creases in geometrical ratio, therefore the less gifted must suffer in time from the stress of poverty, due to more com- petition and less land to occupy. Infant mortality from the weakened race must therefore increase. We now reahze the truth of his prophecy, but what about the future ? * T?ie Principle of PopulatioUy 1798. CHAPTER III FERTILIZATION THE SIMPLEST UNIT IN BIOLOGY : Definition of a cell— Protoplasm- Nuclei : Illustration — Variety of cells — Mono-cellular structure. REPRODUCTION : By simple division — Diagrammatic representation of cell division — Condition of each daughter cell. BY TWO PARENT- AL ELEMENTS : Studies in lower forms of life — Observations in worms and starfish. DEVELOPMENT OF GERMINAL CELLS. Four stages. THE OVUM : Its structure — Chemical composition — The storehouse — ^The nucleus — Chromatin — Polar bodies — The fertilized ovum a perfect cell — How disease and alcohol affect the ovum — Stunted children. THE SPERMATOZOON : Chromosome and centrosome — Fusion of sperm and ovum — Function of each. THE SEX QUALITIES : Re- versal of sexes — Mental hermaphrodism — The fusion of, or third, sex. THE CHANGES IN FERTILIZATION IN THE SEA-URCHIN : En- trance of sperm — Sperm divides — Nucleus in ovum divides — The two pronuclei fuse and rods of chromatin form — Unequal division of ovum suggested where disease misses a generation. TWO KINDS OF GER- MINAL CELLS : Reproductive and body cells — Reproductive cells not from the parent — Observations to prove that reproductive cells continued from germinal cells — Professor Balbiani's observations on the reproductive cells of a fly — Beard's observation on the skate — First division of cells, asexual, the Phorozoon — Then embryo appears and reproductive cells remain— Resemble the runner of a plant. MOST IMPORTANT BEAR- ING ON HEREDITY IN THE HUMAN RACE : The old teaching incor- rect — Haeckel's view — Darwin and Huxley — No inheritance of acquired characters — Weissmann's theory of Germ Plasm — Beard thinks embryo owes nothing to parent except shelter — The case of the hen and the egg — Mammalian ova — The higher the organization the greater the risk — Practical application of our knowledge — Causes of variation, latent characters — Delage regards environment as cause of variation. The Simplest Unit in Biology The cell is the simplest unit in life. Every animal and veget- able tissue is composed of masses of cells, which are specialized in form and function in the different parts. A hving animal cell consists of a body of protoplasm/ usually enclosed in a wall or membrane, with a nucleus in the centre. This is a work- able definition, considering the hundreds of different sorts of cells. Protoplasm is an exceedingly complex and unstable compound of an albuminoid character, and forms the physical basis of animal life. Its composition varies according to the kind of cell in which it occurs. The nucleus is the vital part 1 It is doubtful if the nerve cell has any membrane. 10 FERTILIZATION 3ry cell and contains a different complex substance, called nuclein. The nucleus is superior in structure and function to the other contents of the cell. Thus in the brain of the human embryo, the nuclei of the cells are all laid down at an early stage ; as growth proceeds each nucleus builds up its own cell-body, out of a special neuro-protoplasm. In plants we find starch cells ; pith cells ; those of woody fibre in which lignin is deposited, giving the characteristic hardness ; while green chlorophyll cells in the leaves carry nutrition for purposes of growth. In the animal there are blood cells of five or six different kinds, each with special life-protecting functions (some non-nucleated) ; also muscle cells with the power of contractility ; in the skin horny cells which protect the body externally ; and bone cells which contain lime, in order to give a substantial framework. In the electric eel, there are electric cells, a unique and marvellous formation, for the purpose of paralyzing by shock the fish on which they feed. The highest are the nerve cells, which generate different forms of energy, from growth to muscular movements and finally to complex thought. These are examples of composite cell masses, but there are simple ceUs each with a separate existence, such as spores, and the germs of disease, amoebae, yeast cells, and various microscopic infusoria, which are so abundant in pond life. Reproduction, in its simplest form among the unicellular Repro- organisms, consists of simple division. Here the cell divides *^"^**°" into two, the daughter cells growing to the size of the mother cell, and in their turn each dividing again. This process, which continues with great rapidity, furnishes miUions of organisms in every few hours. The processes of fermentation and putrefaction are results of the cell multipUcation of yeast cells and bacteria. Somewhat similar conditions occur in infectious diseases. The diagrams opposite, copied from Boveri,^ explain more fully the division of the cell in the higher forms of animal life, during growth or as it is termed karyo-kinesis. In the resting condition of a cell there is the centrosome ^ *' Zellen Studien," Jena Zeit. f. Nat, xxi, xxii, xxiv. 12 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME of a radiate appearance, and a nucleus containing wavy threads or filaments of chromatin. When division or regeneration begins, the chromatin forms up into rods, the number varying according to the species, and there form also two asters or centrosomes, each of which sends threads to the rods of chromatin. In the third stage the wall of the nucleus disappears and the chromatin rods arrange themselves in opposite halves of the cell. The rods and asters having assumed positions in the separate halves, division gradually follows. A nuclear wall is again formed and encloses the chromatin in the daughters and finally takes on the resting stage as at first. We are, however, concerned with the higher form of repro- duction by means of speciaHzed germinal ceUs, where two parental elements are involved, which are represented in plant life by the pollen and ovule ; and in the animal world by the spermatozoon and ovum. These have been studied in the lower forms of life, as the worms and sea urchin, in order to get at the foundation of the subject. Observations have been made among the ova of fish and frogs, so that con- firmation among the vertebrates is assured. It is reasonably inferred that similar conditions are observed amongst the mammals. The development of the germinal cells has been described by Boveri,^ from observations on parasitic worms (e.g. ascaris megalocephala) and Echinodermata, as starfish and sea urchins ; also among flies and other animals. It would appear as if the germinal cells in both male and female organs go through the same processes and in the early conditions bear a close resemblance, as though male and female originally started from the same cells. In each sexual organ, male or female, the germinal cells lie in tubes, and pass through four stages, before reaching final development — (1) Division or multiplication ; (2) Growth ; (3) Reduction ; (4) Maturation. The In principle the ovum is the same all through the animal ^^^°* kingdom right up to the human species. * Sitz. Ber, Oes, Morph. Phys., Munchen, II. I V (From Boveri.) C. Centrosorae. N. Nucleus. Cr. Chromatin rods. A. Asters with threads to chromatin rods Facing page 12. GE Section of ovary. G E germinal epithelium. F follicles in which ova are developing, O ripe ova. SC GC (After D^lage). G C The germinal chain which is continuous, three generations. S C The somatic cells, which form the body, or environment of the germinal cells Facing page 13. I FERTILIZATION e human ovum is surrounded by a more or less porous rail, containmg a nucleus suspended in the protoplasmic r ubstances. The cell body or cytoplasm is rich in albuminous naterials, lecithin or animal phosphorus, yolk, neurin, and I' ither properties not yet determined. The egg is the storehouse jfcthe full development of the future embryo in birds, but n the case of the mammals it only carries the embryo through .he first stage till the placenta forms. The nucleus is the centre of vitaUty and sometimes shows lucleoU. It always contains threads in coils or short masses. ks these stain easily with aniline dyes, they are termed chro- natin threads, or rods, or chromosomes. They assume .•od-like shapes during the division which follows fertilization. Each species has its own particular number of chromatin rods, varying from two to more than one hundred. The chromosomes are the very essence of vitality. The mammahan ovum develops from a deHcate structure called the germinal epithelium in an organ termed the ovary. As the ovum develops from a specialized structure, ger- ^—minal epithehum, which obtains its nourishment from the ^p blood and lymph fluids of the maternal body, there is an ^^ inevitable danger of the diseased or drunken mother poisoning her offspring, and arresting the normal evolution and matura- tion of the ovum. The ovum stimulates nutrition, while the sperm lends capability of construction and growth to the em- bryo. These functions stand in great danger where unfavour- able influences exist, and explain the stunted appearance of the offspring. Reference to my observations on the working homes for London boys aptly illustrates the diminutive proportions of these poor children, due in many cases to their alcoholic parentage. H { The spermatozoon differs from the ovum in size and mobihty , The being small and very active. It consists of a head and a tail, ^P^"^a- ■ very much like a tadpole. The nucleus is at the tip of the Ihead, being composed of compressed chromatin threads, or chromosomes. The rest of the body behind is called the centrosome. It is small, containing no storehouse of nourish- ment Uke the ovum. Its function is to cause division of cells, and to be a stimulus to increase of size. lU 14 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME The fusion of these two opposite bodies makes a complete and perfect ceU, capable of division, multiplication, and growth. The sperm cannot nourish, but gives to the ovum the power of cell division ; the ovum having remained quiescent and conservative until the sperm entered. It, however, supplies what the sperm lacks, namely, nourishment for growth. The Sex It is interesting here to observe that all through nature * ^^ the two sexes depend upon each other to supply the corre- sponding deficiencies. The female is always passive, restful and conservative, storing up energy ; whilst the male is active, restless, expending energy for family life, either to produce or protect. Something has gone wrong in the last generation, for these qualities are changing or fusing amongst the civihzed races. There seems occasionally to be a man's soul in a woman's body, just as female deer may bear horns. Too often the reverse happens. The woman should be mother and help- mate, balancing the male and not competing with him. The dislocation of Nature's laws is developing a form of mental hermaphrodism . In true hermaphrodism, the utmost difficulty may occur in determining the sex. Mentally the inclinations may be for the male, and females then are uninteresting, or vice versa. These cases are too technical to introduce in a popular treatise, but shed great light on " the fusion of sex " with mixed instincts. There may be " mental hermaphrodism " without external changes, and it furnishes a key to many social problems of serious import. After a full generation of over-strain there is much instabihty of sex in body and mind, and the deUneation of sex is not so clear as it should be. This is due to the fact that the sex gland (Woolfian body) before birth represents unity, and it is only shortly before birth that duality of sex appears, and there is an element of chance about it. Nature sometimes leaves her task unfinished. The It is so important to realize the delicate and minute changes in FeftT- ^^ fertiHzation, that it is advisable briefly to describe this lization stage more fully. When the ova and spermatozoa of the Urchfn ^* ^^^ urchin (strongylus) are placed in sea water, there is observed N ^'^ Fi6l nj^ >i^ Fi^.3 ^' r«^ 4- Fig. I Ovum with spermatozoon (s) entering. V Vitellus or porus wail. N Nucleus. C Centrosome. SC Sperm centre. MP Male pronucleus. OC Ovo centre. FP Female pronucleus. Cr Chromatin nuclei or pronuclei. A Asters. Fig. 4 (after Boveri). Facing page 15. FERTILIZATION 15 ^ ,ttraction between the two, so that eventually a sperma- ozoon comes in contact with the membrane or vitellus of ihe ovum. At this point a cone is formed on the vitellus or wall, in rhich the sperm buries itself and is drawn into the ovum eaving its tail, for which there is no further use, outside. The sperm head makes for the nucleus of the ovum and separ- ites into its two parts, the centrosome or sperm-centre, and ihe chromatin nucleus or male pronucleus, which latter now ihows its chromatin rods. The nucleus of the ovum also swells and separates into in ovocentre and female pronucleus. The two nuclei attack each other, and form one mass, though the chromatin rods keep apart. Two asters and two pronuclei now appear, the second a^ter being made of the centrosome of the sperm (fig. 2). The stage advances as in ordinary cell division, but the chromatin rods of the zoon and the ovum keep apart, so that in the division each daughter cell has equal portions of sperm and ovum, and when the division is complete, each daughter cell has the same number of chromatin rods as the parent cell. It has been argued by Delage,^ that where disease misses one generation there has been an unequal division of the ovum, and one of the daughter cells from which the embryo came has lost these particular quahties. Gout or whatever disease may be suggested passes by the other daughter ceU to form the ovum of the next generation. The theory is so ingenious that it is worth considering. Bo veri, studying the egg of the worm (ascaris megalocephala), Two observ-ed two kinds of cells result after the division of the (^^JJ^ ° ovum. In one kind of cell the chromatin rods were preserved Germinal completely, as in the ovum described ; while a second type sSnjatic of cell appeared in which some of the chromatin material was pushed out of the cell. These latter formed the embryo while the former continued the race as the future ova or germinal cells. But the discovery of these two kinds of cells is probably 1 UherHite. 16 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME due to S. Jaeger,! in 1878, for he described Phyllogenetic or germinal or reproductive cells, and Ontogenetic or somatic or body cells. Previous observers thought that reproductive cells were formed from the body of the parent. Jaeger's view is now accepted and has been confirmed by many observers. Thus in the case of the fertilized eggs of insects, in which during the germinal segmentation, a few small cells separate from the main cluster to form the repro- ductive cells. In the Daphne, a freshwater crustacean, after about thirty divisions of the germinal cells there is a separation of the reproductive cells from the embryo. 2 Professor Balbiani made a very original observation on the fly, Chironomus, which clearly demonstrates the isolation of germinal matter. At the earliest period of cell division of the ovum, two special cells remained distinct from the mass. As development proceeded these two ceUs remained unaffected, and were gradually enclosed to form the future reproductive organs. The body cells are then distinct, while the reproductive cells pass on the " family traditions " from generation to generation, independent of their host as long as normal conditions obtain. Professor John Beard (in America) made important observa- tions in the development of the skate, which being a vertebrate, strengthens all previous observations.^ He called the early division of the fertilized ovum by the term Phorozoon, or asexual cells. The ovum divided nine times, producing 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, and finally 512 cells. At this stage there was a re-arrangement of the cell-mass, and the embryo developed from one of the cells, whilst the remaining mass continued as germinal or reproductive cells. The germinal cells continue the race, while the embryo is an incident occurring in an uninterrupted chain. It has been compared to the runner of a strawberry plant, which continues the life of the parent or species, while the young plants or buds appear at intervals, and separate when mature. The simile is quite applicable. 1 Kosmos, ii. ^ Zoolog. Anz., 1881. ' Anatom. Anzeiger, Bd. xviii, 1900. Anatom. Anzeiger, Bd. viii, 1902. I FERTILIZATION 17 his idea must then be carefully remembered in studying Most heredity, that the germ cells form one uninterrupted line ^°^' of succession, and the embryo or individual is an offshoot Bearing from that Une. Heredity This is the scientific expression of the conception of a family in tree, only we are buds rather than branches. Race^ The hen and the egg stand before us in quite a new light. The hen does not form the egg, as popularly thought, but is an offshoot, and only serves to enclose the germinal chain of the succeeding generation. The human parent is the trustee, rather than the testator of its offspring. There is then a complete revolution from the former teaching ; which, however, deserves notice. Haeckel ^ propounded the theory that reproduction was an overgrowth of the individual. Darwin formulated the following theory of Pangenesis in his work, The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domes- tication (vol. ii, chap, xxviii). He considered that every cell of the body throws off particles or gemmules, which collect in the reproductive cells. He conceived inheritance to be the development of the parental gemmules in the offspring ; whilst variation is the commingling of the gemmules of two parents, modified either by use or disuse. Huxley 2 thought that all the tissues of the parent contributed towards the formation of the germinal cells. Huxley said the germ was " simply a detached living portion of the sub- stance of a pre-existing living body." In this way they accounted for the resemblance of offspring to parent. Every part of the body was supposed to despatch infinitesimal molecules to build up the germ cells. If this were so, acquired characters would be transmitted, which is abundantly proved not to happen under any circumstances. If a man be undeveloped from malnutrition or disease, his offspring does not share that deficiency, or if he loses a limb or an eye the child is in no way affected. Weissmann was the founder of a new theory of the " Con- tinuity of the Germ Plasm." ^ He held that the germ cell * Gen. Morph.y 1866. Die Perigenesis der Plastidtde, 1876. * Huxley, EvohUion, p. 296. Enc. Brit., 1878. ' The Oerm Plasm, 1895, pp. 192-193. "The ancestors of these germ cells €tre somatic cells." O 18 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME came directly from the parent, not as Huxley and Darwin con- sidered, as an extract from the tissues, but as a transference from one generation to the next of a definite molecular sub- stance which he called determinants or " germ-plasm." He thought that at each formation of an embryo (ontogeny), a portion of this " germ plasm " is not used up, but reserved for the reproductive cells of the next generation. He said that " the germ plasm passes over unchanged into the organism which is undergoing development, and that this part represents the basis from which future germ cells arise." " It is therefore clear that all the cells of the embryo must act as somatic ceUs, and none of them can be reserved as germ cells and nothing else." So far Weissmann added an important feature to research ; the separation of the germ cells from the body cells. He also was the discoverer of the value of the chromatin rods in the transmission of parental characters. If Weissmann's view were correct, growth, nourishment and disease would act not on the embryo alone, but on the contained germ-plasm and so affect heredity. In scientific parlance, environment of the parent would affect the offspring directly. This appears probable to some observers, especially to the layman, and as so many are acquainted with Weissmann's writings it is important to refute them. Beard ^ goes quite to the other extreme, and in my opinion too far, stating that the individual or embryo derives nothing from the parent except nutrition and shelter. There is, however, distinct evidence of inheritance of mental traits and peculiarities. This, of course, is applied to mammals or viviparous animals, which are necessarily of higher organization than oviparous, which, like the common chick, derive all their nutrition before birth from the egg. The egg is then built up around the germinal matter, the blastoderm or " tread," the white spot which floats on the top of the yolk. This " tread " corresponds to the ovum in mammals. In it may be seen the germinal cell or spot which is the part which subdivides on fertiHzation. The mammaHan ova are smaller ^ and unprotected, and rely for tbeir development and nutrition on the maternal blood. Hence the embryo is exposed to risks and dangers which ^ John Beard, " The Germ Cells," Zoolog. Jahr., Bd. xvi, 1902. " The human ovum is ttjj oi an inch in diameter. FERTILIZATION 19 not occur when it is comfortably encased with its store- house of food inside a shell. The higher the organization in the scale, the greater its risks and the more unstable it becomes. Thus there is actual necessity for the psychologist, or even for the philanthropist, to have some general knowledge of the laws of life and development. The practical application of these scientific details is the object of this treatise, and to an ordinary thinker these facts apply themselves in various ways. We have studied the fusion of the male and female nuclei, the retention of the chromosomes of each, and their equal division into two daughter cells and then further. If then, as Strassburger pointed out in 1884, each sex furnishes aU his or her nuclear chromatin, all the characters of each parent will be represented in the offspring, and if certain features are not evident, it is because they are latent. The future generation have to contend with external influences and changes of nutriment, which may lead to variation or degeneracy. Delage does not agree with this view of latent characteristics. He says the egg has a complex physico- chemical constitution, which confers individual properties on the resulting cells. It is not the egg, but something out- side it at a later stage of development which conditions the future characters. He expresses the general characters which develop as " tous ensemble le resultat de I'ensemble de la structure." Thus he would undermine our belief in the unfathomable molecules and potentialities of the Germ-plasm. CHAPTER IV DEVELOPMENT— INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT HERBERT SPENCER ON PREVENTING EXTINCTION: Adaptation and genesis — Competition and starvation — Self-preservation inverse to reproduction — In the " lower creation." TWO PROCESSES AT WORK : Anabolism and Katabolism — State education upsets the balance — Bankrupt brains and moral ruin. ARNOLD WHITE'S OBSERVATIONS : Nature's cure for the hooligans and Appaches— The connexion of Sociology with Biology — Fertilization — The forming of a perfect cell — Germinal elements form one continuous chain — The embryo, or individual, an offshoot — Pre-natal conditions — Composition of the hen's egg which feeds the chick — The mammal feeds the embryo through the blood. THE BAD INFLUENCE OF CIVILIZATION : Malnutri- tion — Cases among poor boys — Duty of mothers toward offspring — Experiments in horse raising — Malnutrition due to tubercle — Or specific disease. IMPROPER MARRIAGES : Age — Consanguineous mar- riages — ^The island of Uk, in the Zuyder Zee — History of Pitcairn islanders — Terrible list collected by Bemiss — Lessons from Nature — Experiments by M. Maupas with infusoria. ALCOHOL : Attacks every tissue — Science supports temperance — Necessity to teach temper- ance to the young — ^Alcohol starves the child before birth — The alcoholic father — Case to illustrate — A woman with two husbands, alcoholic and teetotal — Idiocy and alcohol — Cases — Experiments on animals — Alcohol on brains of pups — ^Theory applied to criminals. VARIATION : Its causes — Continuous, Discontinuous, Adaptation to environment — Environment constantly changing. THE HUMAN " PLUM- PUDDING " SIMILE : Too salt water causing degeneration in a crus- tacean — Parallel to slum life — Effect of nourishment on birds and moths — Climate — Darwin's observations on rabbits — Variations only continued in same environment — Encouragement to regenerate mankind — Naegeli on variation due to climate — Tendency to sterility in variations — Influence on vegetation. SIMILE TO OUR STORM-TOSSED CRIMINALS ; Restore criminal to normal surroundings — Regeneration of offspring by dilution in healthy marriage. DR. DELAGE ON REGENERATION : Great importance of environment — Haeckel's view — Transmission of disease — Haeckel's homochrone law — Some variations persist as a species — Examples : Hornless bulls, Thornless acacia. ARE MENTAL CHARACTERS TRANSMITTED ? : Transmission of psychological characters — Changes in the body influence heredity — Case of inherited alcoholic craving — Collateral heredity — Cases — Archibald Reid's views on heredity. Herbert Spencer stated that to prevent extinction two conditions were necessary : — 1. Adaptation to surroundings, and 2. Production of new individuals to replace the old (Genesis) 20 1 I INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT 21 [e pointed out how the forces of destruction and preserva- tion were in continual antagonism amongst all living forms, the perfect balance being difficult to attain. When applied to the human race it is evident that too great a production produces competition and starvation. If from these causes self-preservation or adaptation fall too low, the race would die out unless the preserving factor be increased. Self-preservation and reproductive power are therefore in inverse proportion. Thus excessive fertility by causing starvation and com- petition leads to self -extinction. Something of the same kind we observe among plants and animals, but the factors are very complex. For instance, the object of manuring a field is to increase the fertility of the crops. Again, in the case of sheep on a good pasture, the first object is to supply the food necessary for life, but perhaps the main object is to give extra nutrition to be expended on reproduction. Conversely Spencer pointed out that high- feeding and obesity favoured sterility through imperfect assimilation, which we know causes degeneracy of tissues and blood, thus starving the germinal elements. There are two physiological conditions constantly at work Two IT Processes m our bodies :— ^t Work |( Building up and Burning up. The first, which is rest, nutrition and growth, enjoys the Greek term of Anabolism, while Katabolism represents the chemical change due to work ; whether the muscular energy of the athlete or the functional work of the brain in thought, or the reproductive energy. For vigour and health these must be evenly balanced. In our State methods of education the expenditure or katabolism is in excess of the nutrition or anabolism, and so we flood the country with bankrupt brains, which spell moral ruin for the 1 1 next generations. In normal life the generative organs do not reach full activity till these nutritive conditions are perfectly fulfilled in adolescence. 22 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME There should be a vegetative or anabolic period preceding the reproductive or katabolic activities. Too often these conditions are interfered with by civilization, and then we get abnormal oJff spring as the punishment of offended Nature. When the reproductive period is reached the nutrition must be limited to avoid obesity in animals or too much vegetation in plants, as both of these decrease fertility. Hence we see the reason of root-pruning in fruit-trees. Arnold Arnold White, in the Problems of a Great City, observes White s . Observa- t/hat " The fecundity of starving people is notorious, and has tions again and again been exemplified in famine districts in India." It is very difficult to explain this " output " when anabolism is at a low ebb, unless it is the attempt of expiring Nature to hold her own. On the other side, we see the object for snipping off flower- buds when growth is wished, or for castration in the capon and other animals. This would also be the proper remedy for the aggression of the hooligan and of the Appaches among the French; the uncurbed katabolism would yield to a peaceful, vegetative anabolism in a hornless hooligan. I have considered it necessary for an intelligent view of the situation to go into some detail on the subject of fecun- dation. It may be regarded as impossible to connect poten- tial or actual criminals with the reproductive processes of the worm, the insect, or the fish, but the relationship is closer than appears. The same laws, however, apply to mankind as to the lower " creation," and if normal conditions were observed, there would be few criminals ; whereas diseased actions totally alter Nature's plans, and allow of the social product which is dealt with in this work. If we can ascer- tain the guiding principles of evolution and development, we may assist and no longer oppose the great Architect of the Universe. Moreover, Sociology must come to Psychology in order to unravel its conundrums, and the latter has to build on the foundations of Biology and Physiology. Resume In the previous chapter there has been a short resume of f ^.. the mode of development of the germinal units, and the tiwi ^^^' formation of the highest type of cell by their conjugation. 1 I INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT 23 is perfect cell is composed of two bodies, one with the power to divide and cause growth, namely, the spermatozoon ; while the other, the ovum, has the abihty to absorb the nourishment necessary for such increase. The germinal elements form one continuous, double-linked vital chain, which represents the persistence of the race. The embryo, even before it develops into the adult form, acts as host to these elements. The host or parent passes on the guests or germinal elements to the next generation, and now we ask him or her to account for their stewardship, as in this we find the root of the whole subject. ^ Environment is commonly regarded as the important factor after birth, but there is a pre-natal environment which is of l the highest importance and has an indirect bearing on heredity. \ As soon as the embryo gets its start from the primitive cells it depends entirely on its environment. In the case of the chick its storehouse is well stocked with all it requires. It has in the yolk proteids and albumens, nuclein, fats and animal phosphorus or lecithin ; grape-sugar ; iron and the same salts that occur in the blood corpuscles. In addition, the white part of the egg provides albumen, fats, grape-sugar, extractives and salts for the blood-serum. We see therefore what a perfect food an egg is. In the case of mammals the embryo, through the placenta, absorbs all it requires from the maternal blood. It is here that the demands and penalties of civilization The Bad interfere with nature's programme. On this account many l^^^^^e unfortunates arrive in this world without a single chance, civiliza- and it seems severe to put them in prison when for pity's ****** sake we ought to shelter them as compensation in some quiet refuge colony. When these penalties of nature occur amongst the rich they are protected, but these masses of unprepared ones, either deficient or degenerate, should enlist our deepest sympathies. The ante-natal causes of these social weaklings may be gathered under the few headings of malnutrition, disease, or accident. Malnutrition necessarily affects the poorer classes, where food is diflficult to obtain, but it may also visit the homes of 24 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME the wealthy, where high Hving occurs, which is stimulat- ing rather than nourishing, and ends in degeneration of tissue. The reader would appreciate more fully the effects of malnu- trition if he were to study the cases I have reported (chap, xxiii.) in the" Homes for Working Boys in London," which contain many instances of alcoholic starvation. It is the duty of every pregnant woman to do the best for her future child, in the way of nourishment and the avoidance of alcohol, stress and over-fatigue. We know only too well of the infantile mortality and degeneration where the mothers have to work in factories. We have to learn in these matters much from the less-neglected lower creation, and in this connexion it may be mentioned that in South America the breeders of a small race of horses {la camargue) always feed the pregnant mares more liberally, and obtain thereby an increased height in the offspring. My experience can recall many very fine infants from parents who were delicate or physically weak, merely by observing rules as to generous diet and proper rest during pregnancy. The offspring are not benefited merely physically, but mentally, and in later life morally. Malnutrition may occur indirectly as the result of disease. Tubercle is the most formidable enemy, for where its toxin exists the blood and the tissues are starved. In spite of com- bined philanthropic effort tubercle has come to stay. It is a parasite, natural to the *' creation,'* invading weakened organisms. We may check it, but we shall never extinguish it. There is another constitutional taint — syphilis, that attacks the race often in most unexpected quarters, especially affecting the children. Probably it is the origin of scrofula two or three generations previously, and not improbably we shall discover it to be the remote ancestor of tubercle. This is quite theoretical, but the special structure of tubercle (giant cells) also occurs in some syphilitic growths, where it is called pseudo-tubercle . These two toxins are the enemies of the race, and act directly on the germinal units, by depriving them of nourishment and injuring the structures which support them. Ages i6J§ Facing pa^e 21. From left to right. Heights Weights 4ft. 7in. ; -yiin. 5st. 41b. ; -2st. 5ft. 3in. ; normal 7st. 41b. ; + ist. 41b. 5ft.; -7in. 7st. i2lb. ; -ist. gib. 4ft. 7in. ; -iiin. 6st. lib. ; -jst. 2lb. I INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT 25 longst accidents we classify improper marriages. Thus Improper ige has great influence on the ripeness and fertility of germ jells. Experiments have been made which support this 3xperience, both by Vernon ^ with Echinoderms (sea-urchins) ind by Cosser Ewart ^ with pigeons and guinea-pigs. Age seems of less importance as regards the maternal unit, but it is quite otherwise on the paternal side, where vigour and activity are essentials. How often do we see infractions of this law, and how unstable are the offspring ! Consanguineous marriages are in these days of increased stress to be discouraged, lest in the ancestry there is some taint, such as tubercle, insanity, or neurosis, which might thereby be doubled in the offspring. Intermarriage affects the higher neurons. I once visited an island, about a mile long, lying in the Zuyder Zee. It is called Uk, and packed in very small cottages are 3,000 inhabitants. There is no crime, no alcohoUsm, and no venereal disease. There is a governor ; one poUceman ; three churches — Reformed, Staats, and Christian ; and a doctor. The doctor told me that nerve diseases are very rife through intermarriage ; idiocy, hysteria and neuras- thenia are the chief troubles ; there is only one case of tabes, as organic disease is rare. Some authorities hold the opposite view, that consanguinity does not result in steriHty or degeneracy, and give similar illustrations of other islands where the inhabitants have inter- married for generations. Thus on the island of Batz, half a century ago there were 3,000 inhabitants, where intermarriage prevailed for generations, and yet there was no crime or degeneracy, and the number of births was above the average. The history of Pitcairn Island is well known, and is often quoted as an example of intermarriage amongst a limited few without degeneracy resulting. But the events have only lasted 120 years, and the original start was from such opposite races that it cannot be used in support of the healthy results of consanguineous marriage. In 1789, nine sailors landed on the island from a shipwreck. There were then six male and Marri- ages I * Variations in Plants and Animals, 1 903, and^ Variations in Plants and Animals, Roy. Soc. Proc, 1898. Nature, September, 1901. 26 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME fifteen female Tahitians. As the result of fighting, four years later there were only four sailors and ten Tahitian women. These multiplied to sixty-six people by the year 1825, and to 87 in 1830, and have advanced numerically since. At the present time they are absorbing fresh blood, so it must be banished as a classical test case. Bemiss,^ of New York, has collected 833 consanguineous marriages with their results, and they are very melancholy : — 10 were brother and sister, or parent and child. 12 were uncles and nieces, or aunts and nephews. 61 were blood relations. 27 were double first cousins. 600 were first cousins. 120 were second cousins. 13 were third cousins. The number of children resulting was 3,942. Of these 1,134 were defective, f ¥2 145 were deaf and dumb, 85 were bUnd, 308 were idiots, 38 were insane, 60 were epileptic, 300 were scrofulous, 98 were deformed, 833 died in infancy. 3,001 Thus nearly 75 per cent, were practically murdered in utero. We get much practical help in all these questions by seeing what happens among lower forms of life. Nature makes the same laws for us as for them. Consanguinity of marriage, in the animal and vegetable world alike, tends toward steriUty and degeneracy of stock. It does, of course, take several generations to produce any marked effect, but conversely we always find a race improved by adding fresh blood. In order to illustrate how low down in the scale nature's laws apply, I will quote the observations of M. Maupas in 1885 and 1886. He selected a water animalcule, an infusorian (Stylonicha pustulata) which breeds by ordinary division. He watched one for five months, and in that time it executed 215 genera- tions, when it became sterile and ceased to divide. Previously * Bianchi on Psychatriey p. 111. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT 27 ^ere removed to another basin, where were also added ;ome infusoria from another stock. These conjugated, and started again dividing for another five months, and then ceased ifter about 150 generations. How much more must the aigher forms of life depend on fresh stock or strength for successful multiplication ! One of the most powerful agencies towards race degeneracy Alcohol is alcohol. Alcohol, by its very active poisonous properties, has been found to arrest the early development of the germinal cells. F6r6,^ in 1896, found alcohol injected into hens' eggs resulted in dwarf chicks. Reitz 2 found that if young dogs and rabbits were treated with alcohol daily, they lost in weight and size and were less resistant to disease. Ballet and Faure^ made experiments for four years with five couples of dogs. These were treated with alcohol at different intervals, and of different strengths. When alcohol was freely given the pups died early, and the litters were small in numbers. Where moderate drinking was imitated the pups appeared normal, but had a high mortaHty. Even after the alcoholism was stopped, the mortality among the new pups was still high, with many cases of arrested develop- ment. This experience coincides with what we find in the human race. Carrara * subjected pregnant guinea-pigs to a treatment of alcohol, and found degeneration in the brains of the pups. This insidious degeneration is known to exist in the criminal, I but unfortunately we cannot demonstrate it until too late and he has passed beyond the period when one might show him practical sympathy. The list of drunken ancestors in my collection is so long that I need not now quote cases, but it is interesting to note that skilled criminals are sober men, , and some few have been abstainers. Alcohol, in addition to its direct toxic effect, acts in diverse * F6r6, Joum. de V anatomy et de la phya., 1895, t. xxxi. * Neurol, Centralblatt, 1901, p. 542. « Revue Neurolog., 1902, No. 12, p. 662. * Riv. SperimenL di Freniatria, 1902, p. 696. 28 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME ways, for it attacks every tissue. It destroys the protective epithelium of the stomach, and thus removes one of Nature's most important barriers against disease. It also permanently impairs liver and kidney, and winds up by destroying the brain cells. Thus no organ can escape, and its direct action on the germinal epithelium must be included, whilst we can see how every tissue, including the embryonic, is starved beyond repair, owing to the deterioration in the nutritive value of the blood. Thus temperance work has a scientific basis, in its object of race improvement, and with so much evidence on the post- mortem table of alcohoHc degeneracy, it is difficult to explain how any medical man can sanction, or justify, the use of alcohol as a regular article of diet. Every woman in the kingdom should be well informed on this subject, and it ought to be included in the education of the young. The alcohoHc mother may start with a normal ovum, but starves and poisons the embryo in utero. How hard it is then to attach responsibility to one with such a history ! The medical man is constantly confronted with these melancholy cases, but the law at present refuses to recognize them. AlcohoHc environment on the father's side has long been considered of less importance, but the subject cannot be scientifically considered, except with full knowledge of the conditions of fecundation as described in the previous chapter. There we see that the ovum is anabolic and supplies the tropho- plasm which has nutrient powers, whereas the sperm, which is katabolic, contains cinoplasm, whose function is to promote active growth and development. In my early days of practice I had a striking example illus- trating this defective development. The mother, who was very delicate and starved, was a teetotaler and the father was a very heavy drinker. All the children were affected in development. One was bHnd, two were deaf mutes, three were deformed, two were idiots, and two or three had died early. Not one of the children was normal. Selvatico Estense ^ mentions a healthy woman who was married to a drunkard and had five delicate children by him ; * Riv. Speriment. di Freniatria, 1902, p. 698. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT 29 ; .11 of these died in infancy. She married later a sober husband, ..nd had two perfect, healthy children. Idiots are commonly supposed to be associated with alco- lolism in the parents. Bourneville^ pubUshes 2,554 cases of idiocy and epilepsy, md beheves that alcoholism in the father was the most potent ind frequent cause of these calamities. Sabraze and Brengues^ in the case of a family of three idiots, found the fathers were drunkards for five generations oack. The mothers were sober, and the rest of the stock w^as normal. In order to form a more perfect picture of the artificial effects Variation of civilization upon mankind we must study the causes of varia- tion, of sports, mongrels, and hybrids, amongst plants and animals. I do not suggest that the two run on the same lines, but there is a parallelism between abnormal man and variation in the animal and vegetable world. There are two kinds of variation : Continuous and Discontinuous. Continuous variation is the term applied to the small differences in individuals which do not become fixed characters for trans- mission to the next generation. Thus in any family we see how each child varies ; perhaps not one is alike. The differ- ences are those of degree. The term continuous variation may hbe applied to improving a breed of animals, such as the race- horse, or cattle, rabbits or poultry. It is necessary, then, ^^ to employ selection and keep up the same environment in ^ order that the variations may continue. ^t On the other hand, where the differences are in kind or specific, the variation is termed discontinuous, and indicates ■ a new and distinct species. f Such frequently are adaptations to environment. As Bateson ^ describes it, " Diversity of environment is the ultimate measure of diversity of form." Though this law is more evident with plants and animals, yet by closer study it sheds much Ught ttions of psychology. * Archives de Neurologic, 1901, No. 70, p. 330. * Ecvue Neurologique, 1898, No. 22. * Materials for the Study of Variation^ p. 15. 30 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME Nature is never still. What happens to-day, or under present conditions, may never be repeated. We do not realize how intimately the human race is interwoven with its surroundings, making us to-day a variation upon what our grandparents or even our parents were. Our children and grandchildren will differ likewise, and the organic world around them wiU be different. If we go further back, each century would differ, and yet through all these periods the same old-fashioned criminal law has been in force. Nothing more unscientific can be imagined. The intellectual or deficient neurotic sports of to-day require different treatment from that given to the physically fit, rough and ready, criminals of a hundred years ago. The body of the child has never been the body of the parent. It is a new body, built up from different surroundings ; hence it is quite clear that as the environment varies so does the individual. Changes may also occur from ante-natal causes, such as unequal division of the sperm and ovum. This may act either quantitatively or qualitatively and is of wide appUcation psychologically. ^® A human being resembles a plum pudding in which the "Plum flour and butter are contributed by one party, the spice and Pudding " fyyj^ }jy another. How the pudding turns out depends on a variety of conditions ; one ingredient may be in excess and another deficient. Throughout the process the pudding is a victim and not a free agent. We find an exact explanation of the criminal in what takes place with a pudding which evolves differently from what we expected. The pudding has turned out an anomaly, like a cat without a tail, or like a rabbit with one ear lopped, or a flower with a double crown. The analogy may be extended further, for there is the structural or anatomical part of the pudding ; in addition there are latent or chemical and, we might say, the functional parts also. So the form and character of the pudding is Hke the human offspring, largely a matter of luck and chance. Such causes as soil, climate, nutrition, and domestication act upon plants and animals, as new conditions through fresh IF INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT 31 binations. I will cite a few well-conducted experiments in i lustration. Schmannkewitch ^ thought he had produced a new species ( f the crustacean, Artemia salina. A dam broke at Odessa, ; nd some of these animals were washed into a very salt pool ; 1 he futiwe generations became diminished in size and in their II ail appendages. They then resembled a species called Artemia Muhlhausenii, which are only met with in very salt 7aters. Bateson showed this to be a variation, and not a eparate species, for when they are put back into ordinary sea rater they resume the larger size. Is there not a parallel lere between free country hfe and slum life ? The effect of nourishment is shown by the custom of certain 5outh American natives who feed their green parrots on the fat of arge Silurian fish, with the result that the plumage changes from j;reen to brilliant red and yellow. Those who are accustomed to breed caterpillars can cite several cases where diet and cHmate affect the colour of moths. In the case of one of the Chdonia^ lettuce makes them white ; belladonna leaves, on the other hand p make the upper wings black or white, whilst the lower become ^Bblue or yellow. ^" Coste observed that if the eggs of salmon trout were devel- oped in waters which nourished the ordinary white trout, they changed to a paler colour. I Climate everywhere affects both plants and animals. Dar- win records finding rabbits at Porto Santo much smaller than jbhe European types. They were supposed to have been carried there in 1419 a.d. He brought some to the Zoo, and in four years they grew in size and colour like the ordinary grey wild rabbit of this country. Lamarck and Darwin considered that variations produced by conditions of life were passed on to future generations. It is not found to be so, unless the same conditions are continued. From the facts just quoted we derive practical encourage- ment to place degenerated man under regenerating conditions. Though Darwin, Huxley and others laid a very secure foundation on which to build by further more prolonged investigation, we often have had to differ from their inferences. ^ Bateson's work on Variation, p. 96. 32 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME Naegeli ^ upset the former opinions as to variation. He collected from the mountains, for thirteen years, different varieties of Hieracium (2,500 in all), and sowed them in or transplanted them to the Botanical Gardens of Munich. The forms, which were diminutive owing to their harsh surroundings, at once developed, growing into larger plants which showed good flowers. When variations occur due to surrounding conditions, there is a great tendency to sterility, as if nature desired to have a clean slate. The higher the organism, the more sensitive it is to variation, and the more unstable, hence the more likely to get destroyed and thus end the variation. In the human race natural sterilization would produce visible effects in time, were it not for the persistence of the cause of such an endless supply. We observe how pines, which are giants in the Swiss valleys, gradually decrease in size as we ascend to the 8,000 feet level. The same tree, instead of rising 80 to 100 feet, will only rise to 5 or 10 feet. Again, far north in Norway, the silver birch, such a favourite to artists, grows no larger than a currant bush. Reverse the conditions, and you regain the normal size, form and beauty. Simile to It is exactly the same with a large number of our criminals. ^ They cannot stand the storms and stress of life, and are there- Tossed fore stunted morally. Many of those who have fallen would Criminals jjg capable of occupying positions of trust, if other conditions had been properly adjusted. These conditions are not easy to fulfil. The Salvation Army are nothing if they are not practical, and they feel that there is great danger of many of their converts falling if they communicate with their old *' pals." Some may use this as an argument against the genuine- ness of their conversion, but it only demonstrates the great weakness of human nature, from which, unfortunately, not one of us is exempt. Therefore it is that when the Salvation Army restore a man to his own normal self, they find that in this convalescence from crime he must be cared for as much as a convalescent from disease, or a storm-beaten shrub. Their principle of restoring the criminal by giving him more 1 Bot Zeit. 1885. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT 33 lormal surroundings is the facsimile of Naegeli's experiments ust quoted. Ordinary conditions of marriage do also help by dilution X) regenerate the race, efface taints, and correct errors. Dr. Yves Delage expresses his views well in the following Dr. sentence : " Regeneration does what it can, how it can, and ^^^^® o" with whatsoever it can. It is neither a repetition nor a tion special force in certain elements to meet certain accidental wants. It is only the manufacture of the forces of growth of an organism, which deploys its energy according to the con- ditions which it meets at every point and at each moment." ^ It seems as if environment were more important than heredity in the life of the individual. Haeckel attributes resemblances to heredity, and differences to environment. The all-important question is in relation to the transmission of characters acquired by the parent. We have seen that they continue, if the same conditions endure, and that is as far as we can go. Mutilations, such as amputations, or blindness, are not transmitted, but diseases may be, especially where the nervous system is involved. The tendency to certain diseases is also transmitted, through some inherent weakness in the germ plasm. Haeckel formulated a law which he entitled ** homochrone," by which certain changes occurred at certain periods during hfe-time, as in the parent. This is a matter of common obser- vation in the plumage of birds. Amongst ourselves we see certain mental, nerve, or physical diseases, as insanity, paralysis, gout, phthisis, apoplexy, or heart disease, occur at the same age as in the parents. The wheel of misfortune turns auto- matically, and beyond individual control. We have, however, much to learn, and observations are i supplied as abundantly by the laity as by the speciahst. We cannot explain how some variations persist so as to become a species. As an example there is the peculiar crest of the Houdan fowl, which appears with certain regularity. So also as to many other breeds of animals. In Paraguay there are ' buUs without horns, and Haeckel traced them to a common HI ancestry in 1770, from one soUtary hornless bull whose parent Ht * UHiridite, p. 110. m i 34 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME had horns. This hornless bull was evidently a sport, similar to many criminals, genii and others, desirable and undesirable, who crop up unexpectedly in families and are also sports. Their Uke may be as unknown in ancestry as the hornless bull or the thornless acacia. The latter is also a sport, but unstable, as it can only be propagated by grafts. If its seeds be raised the plants revert to the thorned acacia (Rohinia psevdo-acacia). M. Descemet in 1803 found in his garden at St. Denis a solitary thornless acacia growing amongst many ordinary trees with thorns. Let us fully realize that if such happens in every department of nature there is nothing very remarkable in the occurrence of these accidents in human families. This thornless sport was unstable, forming only a variety. It was called Rohinia spectabilis, and never made a species, thus differ- ing from the hornless bull. Our sports, good and bad, by healthy marriage on the same lines ought to have normal offspring. This is just what we find, and is our hope with criminal sports, if we at the same time can change their sur- roundings. They are unstable varieties, and not stable species disjointed from their ancestors ; hence our hopes for their improvement. It concerns our subject more to ascertain if mental characters are transmitted. We know that nerve diseases appear in certain families with great precision. ,' It is generally admitted, though denied by some, that psy- chological characters become hereditary, such as the degree of intelligence, artistic aptitudes, and various vices and virtues, as if they had their molecular equivalent in the germ plasm. It does not follow that a naturally vicious parent, who by effort becomes virtuous, will hand on his virtue to his progeny. Probably it is otherwise, which explains how often apparently good parents have bad children. The converse unfortunately does not so often appear, as the natural tendency of man is downwards. But we get encouragement towards self -improve- ment, if the opinion of my old anatomy teacher. Professor Cossar Ewart, is correct. He says that " Changes in the soma (body), beneficial as well as injurious, are reflected in the germ cells, and thus indirectly produce variations." I watched for some years a case of inherited craving for beer. K INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT 36 ^rSther was a chronic drunkard for thirty years ; the I lother, a well developed woman, was an abstainer. The hildren, three girls and one boy, were brought up abstainers. ' .Vo of the girls when in the vicinity of pubHc houses felt the -^ trongest desire to taste beer. The other two children escaped 1 his inheritance. Fortunately, through the father's desertion md the mother's personality, all grew up and led proper and Tegular Hves, and continued abstainers. The three girls were Fell developed like the mother ; but the boy, who was the ^ungest, was stunted, which corresponds with the experiments dready reported. Cases of collateral heredity are very striking, and fall under the experience of us all. Thus I know of a young man, an actor, bo the grief of his parents, who during his childhood carefuUy guarded him against any such tendencies. I found on inquiry that a paternal uncle is an actor, but the youth had never met his uncle ; also when very young he used to build and decorate a stage and perform with dolls on it. His father is an artist, and a paternal uncle and grandfather were likewise artists. We can only infer that he had an inherited artistic tendency. There are many other cases where genius, tubercle, insanity or amorality is hidden in a parent but visible in an uncle or great uncle or cousin, possibly not in the grandparent. This shows that the taint is somewhere in the blood, or more correctly in the germinal matter, and occurs as a pathological accident. Archibald Reid says the child is a recapitulation of the parent, but may add or subtract. He terms it progressive or regressive variation. Progressive is a divergence from the ancestral type, while regressive is a reversion towards the ancestral type. He is also a supporter of dormant tendencies, which both Darwin and Gal ton have disproved. Reid says ancestors are not represented en massej but in orderly succession from first to last. While he does not believe in discrete ancestral units, he considers that dormant tenden- cies explain reversion to a remote ancestor. Though Reid is opposed in many important matters by recent research, his opinions and writings are very interesting on many of these obscure subjects. Emerson arrived at the same opinion by observation, for he said '* every man is a quotation from his ancestors." lU CHAPTER V PREPOTENCY DEFINITION : Increased by inbreeding — The Jews — Their foresight and wisdom —The Quakers— The Gipsy race. GALTON'S RESEARCHES : Sports or variations — Romanes' theory of physiological selection — Old English families — Aristocracy — Classes and masses — Must have classes PRE- POTENCY ACCENTUATES DISEASE OR DEGENERACY : The race- horse too much inbred — Other examples of inbreeding — The foxhound — The hog : Mr. Low's observations — The purer the parent the more prepotent — Cossar Ewart's experiments with dogs — Sir E. Mil- lais' experiments with dogs — Experiments with ducks. THE MASSES MORE BLESSED THAN THE CLASSES : Nature dislikes inbreeding and ends it by sterility — Experiments by Vernon with sea-urchins — Cossar Ewart's case of a rabbit with young — Nutrition important in human race when inbreeding. Prepo- Prepotency is the term applied to that increased power of Defini- transmitting the peculiarities of the parent to the offspring, tion It applies to either male or female parent, and in the human race probably to mental qualities. It is a subject which has at- tracted much attention among biologists. Darwin recognized its complexity, and we are but Httle further enlightened. Darwin ^ also noted a prepotency in sex qualities. This seems justified by the predominance of sons in one family and of daughters in another; or the special traits and features of one parent may be more frequently transmitted. Some species of animals are more prepotent than others. Thus the ass when mated with the mare passes its characters to its offspring, the mule; the prepotency runs more strongly through the male than by the female ass. Cossar Ewart ^ and others maintain that inbreeding in- creases prepotency, whilst inter-crossing diminishes it. For this reason the Jews as a race are more prepotent than the Gentiles. The Jews are inbred for some thousands of years, whilst the British and Americans are the grossest mongrels of any race. What large f amiUes the Jews have is conspicuous, * The Origin of Species, ch. ix. * The Penycuik Experiments, 36 I I PREPOTENCY 37 considering the care and wisdom shown even amongst 1 he poor Jews in family matters, it is little wonder that they ook as if they would re-people the earth. Prepotency was a marked feature among the Society of Mends, amongst whom there was a great deal of intermarriage lue to their social isolation, and large famiUes of ten or twelve vere quite usual. Now that they are mixing with the world, ;hey are much less fertile. The gipsies afford an interesting example of prepotency ; seldom marrying outside their own caste, they seem to retain their special characteristics even though scattered all over the world, often in small isolated groups. There are more than half a million in Europe. They first appeared in West Europe in 1418. Mr. Charles Rolleston informs me that he has resided in South India, in a district where gipsies mustered in large numbers. He held an appointment in the Sundoor terri- tory in the Deccan and had the opportunity of studying their ways and their dialect. He regards them as representing a " degenerate heredity." Bom among rocks and thickets, they are wanderers, nomadic, without ambition, energy, or even moral sense. Nor have they ever produced a statesman, artist, soldier, sailor or merchant, although they have had the same chances of advancement as the ordinary population among whom they Uved. Though devoid of all moral obhga- tions to those outside their caste, they have very strict rules regulating their conduct and deahngs with each other. In whatever part of the globe we meet them, their pecuharities, due to their inbreeding, always persist. This is so conspicuous that " gipsy- blood " can always be detected, even amongst the well-to-do classes ; which occasionally occurs where individuals abandon their gipsy customs and pursuits, and blend with the ordinary population. I Galton considers that very high prepotency is not normal, Galton's r* but must rank as a heritable sport or aberrant variation." ^^ches (See Nature, July 14, 1898.) Some sports or varieties, however, must be prepotent in order to survive : otherwise, by intercrossing, they would revert to the type from which they had sprung. Wild animals especially are liable to inbreeding ; yet those HI wua a 38 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME which roam and fight are liable to be broken up into smaller companies, and receive fresh blood in consequence. Mr. Romanes considered that, in addition to natural selection and the survival of the fittest, there must be something in the nature of " physiological selection " by which new species or variations could isolate themselves from the general mass, and resist the effect of inter-crossing which would tend to throw them back to the ancestral type. A somewhat similar process must occur among the different human races in order to build up some of our important families, to whom have been allotted the terms " old " or " aristocratic." There is then a law of nature, or of physio- logy, at the back of the " Classes " ; hence, the " Masses," in seeking to destroy the select few, are fighting against nature, which is always a losing game. The only method which has proved successful has been by massacres or revolutions, and there is no country which has benefited by the experiment. The result of such operations has been in every case a steady national degradation. In modern times we have the several Royal trees in Europe, some more durable than others, and some degenerating. Prepo- While prepotency is necessary for ensuring a pure race A^^^tu ^^ stock by stamping special characters, it also accentuates ates weaknesses and lowers the vitaHty. This is very conspicuously Disease or ^^^^ • j^ ^^^ ^^^^ q£ animals, especially the race-horse,^ which racy is a delicate animal and only equal to occasional outbursts of energy. It is seen also in dogs, where often the purer the race the less is the intelligence. Mr. Low, in his work on the domesticated animals of Great Britain, gives many illustrative cases. The Foxhound is an example of inbreeding. He has indicated also the evil effects of too much inbreeding in the case of hogs. Their bristles became hair, the hmbs short and feeble, the mothers could not raise their young, which were often monstrosities, and finally Nature protested by rendering them sterile. The purer, or more inbred, the parent, the more prepotent that parent will be. ^ Cossar Ewart demonstrated this fact 1 Sir Walter Gilbey On Breeding Carriage Horses and Race Horses. * Loc. cit. I PREPOTENCY ^WBT 39 ijy an experiment in crossing a Dalmatian with a pedigree lollie bitch. Dalmatians are inbred, and the sire cast his jeculiarities into his offspring, for the three pups had large blotches on a white ground, and the coUie was not even represented. Sir Everett Millais ^ Ukewise crossed a bloodhound with a tricoloured basset. The offspring were bassets in form, but not in colour. Crossing these by male bassets, which resembles a first cousin marriage, the offspring returned to pure bassets. But another experiment shows how the offspring may- cast back to the grandparents. A duck, the offspring of a black Cayuga drake crossed with a common wild duck, was mated to a common wild drake, and had seventeen duckhngs. Of these seven were Hke the more prepotent sire, but ten were thrown back to resemble the grandfather, who was a black drake. We can apply these results practically in study- ing any family tree. It is seen, alas, in the human race, where insanity, or some special disease comes as a bHght in a good stock. In some of these prepotent families, especially where cousin marriages prevail, we can foretell in the younger members the develop- ment of certain diseases, usually nerve troubles. It is not all bhss to be an aristocrat, or rich in this world's The goods. The masses are more blessed than the classes, but they jnore" do not know it. Nature, whilst permitting, does not prefer Blessed prepotency or inbreeding, and by crossing she brings things Qasses * back to mediocrity. Crossing, or new blood, gives vitaHty and strength to body or mind. This is demonstrated in plant and animal life beyond all question, and socially gives the masses that strength of which at present they are too conscious. But inbreeding has its advantages by way of selection, varia- tion, and species. If it be fortunate it perpetuates in the human race some of the best families, but where it is carried too far and ends in degeneracy, which is too conspicuous in much of our aristocracy. Nature tries to curtail the series by sterility. No family then, can inbreed beyond a certain number of generations, any more than the simple infusorian mentioned in Chapter III. Fresh blood must be added * Two Problems of Reprod. Our Dogs, 40 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME from time to time to give vitality and vigour. This is aptly demonstrated in the family tree produced, where cousin marriages breed idiots, albinos, and neurotics, while fresh blood produces children who rank intellectually with any. Both in the animal and vegetable world nutrition is a very powerful factor in heredity. Experiments were made with Echinoderms, or sea urchins (Strongylus), by Vernon, in which two species, A and B, were crossed. At the beginning of the season one species, A, was unripe, or, in other words, its germ cells had not received their full and complete nourish- ment. The hybrids then resembled B, which was ripe. As the season advanced, and the germ cells of A ripened, the hybrids got more like A. The same applies to horticulture, when the seed must be fully ripened for successful prepotency. Cossar Ewart ^ reports an interesting observation, where he found a doe rabbit with twelve foeti. The uterus in the rabbit is like a double horn, and four of the young were in one horn and eight in the other. The four weighed as much as the eight, showing that, as each horn has its own artery and arrangement of placenta, the same amount of nourish- ment was divided among the eight as among the four. In consequence, each of the eight weighed half that of any of the four occupants in the next compartment of the womb. Nutrition is a factor of some importance where inbreeding is concerned in the human race. Stress, hardship, poverty and the storms of life would very soon wreck the prepotency of any good family. ^"« About 200 years ago there was a union between a lady of an old noble birth, A, and a man of an old family, B. Family The issue consisted of five children — Tree A son, who was born an idiot. A son, who married into another county family with benefit to the nation ; and A daughter, who married a first cousin, which resulted in a series of disasters. Two did not marry. ^ The Penicuik Experiments, PREPOTENCY 41 us note that the idiot was the first mishap in B's family ; a ; id as insanity and nerve tremors were very rife on the female si ie, A, there was no question as to its source. The son, who married a healthy girl, was ancestor to 121 a ^erage or normal children, without any insanity and very f( w cases of nerve tremor. There were — I 10 children . . . .of whom 7 married, 33 grandchildren . . .of whom 20 married. 66 great-grandchildren . . of whom 9 are married, and 12 great-great-grandchildren. We now pass to a black page of human wreckage. Nature's t )11 for infringement of her laws is very heavy, and she shows ro favouritism. By the consanguineous marriage there was a preponderance of the wife's family germ plasm, and there- fore of insanity and tremors. There were 10 children. Nature's toll was — 2 insane. 5 with tremors. Only 3 were normal. (6 married.) ^^laternal tree, A, with disastrous results. Thus — 1. Eldest son married a cousin. Prepotency by in-breed- i ig was exceeded by nature's toll, for there were 14 children, ut all abnormal. 4 were insane. 4 had tremors, 1 committed suicide. All were eccentric, and mostly genii. There were 60 grandchildren, and 50 great-grandchildren. In all 124 descendants. They are all more or less tainted — some very clever and jood — some very bad. 2. A son also married into a branch of the family A. !3ere again we meet disaster. The first brood was again con- iipicuous for numbers, namely, thirteen children. Of these Only 3 could be passed as normal. All were unstable. 5 had tremors. 4 were insane. I 42 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME There were 36 grandchildren. Note the decrease of fertility. There were few really normal specimens amongst them. Many of them acquired wealth by means that were subtle rather than shady. There were 22 great-grandchildren. In all 74 descend- ants. 3. A normal daughter married into a normal and aristocratic family. All blemishes were expelled. There were 5 children, 16 grandchildren. Observe the decrease in fertility. 4. A daughter doubtfully sane marries into a family with insanity. Here again we meet disaster — 12 children. Nature's toll — 2 idiots. 1 imbecile (alas, he married). 2 had tremors. 3 very unstable. One who was unstable married into a healthy family, and had 10 normal children. The imbecile married into a branch of the family A, with increased ill-luck, including : — 1 idiot. 1 dumb. 7 vmstable. There were 16 in all, and not one worth anything. 5. A son with tremors marries into a neurotic family. There were 11 children, with 5 insane; 12 grand- children. 6. A daughter with nerve tremors marries into another aristocratic family. There were 12 children. 1 an idiot. 3 with tremors. Otherwise they were normal. There were 28 grandchildren, and about 22 great-grand- children. PREPOTENCY 43 To sum up (as far as they can be traced). The original fiiat cousin marriage resulted in — 10 children with a toll of 67 grandchildren „ „ 168 great-grandchildren „ „ 94 great-great-grandchildren. 7 disasters. 36 disasters. 6 known disasters. » otal 329 Note how much more prolific and prepotent the cousin E larriageship became (329 against 126). It has been impos- s ble for me to collect all the facts as to grandchildren ; there a re very many unstable specimens amongst them. This is a clear demonstration against the policy or profit cf inbreeding. CHAPTER VI HEREDITY— VIEWS OF GREGOR MENDEL Gregor Mendel, the abbot of Brunn. SPECIAL ADVANTAGE OF THE SWEET PEA FOR EXPERIMENTS : Peas selected with opposite charac- ters — In first generation, offspring intensify one of the parental characters — Dominants and Recessives — Second generation — Third generation of self-fertilization — Recessives breed recessives — Dominants breed both. PROF. BATESON'S RESEARCHES : Gametes and Zygotes— Hybrid of tall and short pea — Experiments with peas with three pairs of opposite characters — Further possibilities in hybrid variations — Men- delism not universal. REVERSION : Germinal units — Each being is a living mosaic — The blue Andalusian fowl a hybrid of black and white — Experiments with coloured stocks. SPORTS : Chances for offspring. HUMAN MONGRELS : Our ancestral units from ten generations — Gametes vary, so the progenitor cannot be accountable for his descend- ants— Bateson's illustration as to pedigree. RESULT OF GAMETES UNION : (i) Resemblance to parent ; (2) Something intermediate ; (3) A new form may appear. As example, the cross between white and piebald mice. HUMAN SPORTS : De Vries' experiments with the evening primrose — Case of mixed pairing, spaniel and setter — A family with malformed fingers — Cases of congenital cataract. ADVANTAGE OF HEALTHY MARRIAGE : As shown in cases of disease and immunity — The case of yellow rust in wheat — Experiments by Mr. Biffen — Applica- tion to sociology — Cause of degeneracy — Criminal often a sport — Compare with experiments of the stock. GALTON ON AVERAGES : The tendency to mediocrity — Sir J. Paget' s analysis supports the law of mediocrity — Law of regression — Parental gifts rarely transmitted — In stature regressive — Dame Nature throws off defects. STABILITY IN NEW VARIETIES OR SPECIES : Sports— Stability of type necessary to be transmitted — Value of good stock for breeding purposes. IS ALL MANKIND ONE SPECIES, OR SEVERAL ? : Three clear types— Variety among white races— Families differ. HYBRIDS AMONG SPECIES— Mongrels among races — Reversion in cross breeding — One of the ** bloods " expelled — A new or disordered variation — Hybrids tend to sterility and require replenishing — Example in cross between sheep and goat — Man is a mongrel — Fertility increased by crossing — Cross with negro — Atavism — The pervert and invert due to atavism — Darwin's observations on crossing fowls. No essay on heredity would be complete without referring to the researches of Gregor Mendel, the abbot of Brunn. He was born in the year 1822, the son of Silesian peasants, and became a priest at the age of twenty-five. He carried out a series of investigations in the gardens of the cloister, and read important papers in 1854 and 1855 before the Botanical Society of Brunn. These works were brought before the HEREDITY— VIEWS OF GREGOR MENDEL 45 8( ientific world by Professor WiUiam Bateson of Cambridge, a id more extensively elaborated.^ [enael experimented chiefly with sweet peas (Pisum sativum), Special fi iding them less liable than most flowers to contamination tagTof V ith foreign pollen, as the keel of the flower covers in the the Sweet a ithers, and excludes the entrance of most insects. As the Experi- j ollen falls on the pistil, there may be an eariy self-fertiUzation ments 1 3fore the flower is fully opened. Mendel selected peas which had opposite characters in c 3rtain details. Altogether he selected seven such pairs, or, £ 3 he called them. Allelomorphs, and they were as follows : % 1. Shape of the seed, round or angular. 2. Colour of the cotyledons, yellow or green. 3. Colour of the seed skins, light grey or dark. 4. Shape of the seed pod, inflated or constricted. 6. Colour of the unripe pod, yellow or green. 6. Inflorescence. Flowers terminal or on the axis of the stem. 7. Length of stem, long about 6 feet, short ^ to 1^ feet. Mendel crossed two varieties of peas which differed in respect of one of these pairs of characters. In the first genera- ion the offspring always showed the character of one parent oauch intensified. Thus where they were long and short varieties, the offspring would be 7 to 8 feet long instead of 6 feet. He therefore called the prevailing character, domin- ant, and the absent, non-appearing feature, recessive. He next crossed these hybrids, and in the second generation there appeared with constant regularity 3 dominants to 1 recessive. I 3 D. + l R. He carried on the self-fertilization of the hybrids to a third generation, and always got a different but uniform result, namely : — H| 1. That the offspring of the recessives continued pure "Tecessives in all future generations. They had thrown out the dominant characters. ■| 2. The offspring of the dominants are split up into : — (i) Pure dominants which only breed dominants, (ii) Mixed offspring, though with dominant characters, which breed Hlike those of the second generation. I * MendeVs Principles of Heredity. 46 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME The third generation yields per cent: — '■ -^ 25 Pure Doroinants. „ D D R^ 1r^ ^^ Mixed Dominants. ^ -^ 25 Pure Recessives. The mixed — work out again in the same fashion, throwing Xv out pure recessives and apparent dominants in the proportion of IR to 3D. In other words, in each generation half return to the pure parental forms and half are mixed in character. Prof. Professor Bateson,^ having regard to our present know- Bateson's \Q^gQ of fecundation, expresses the subject diagrammaticaUy searches by means of black and white squares to represent dominant and recessive qualities. One can attain the same object by the use of Roman capitals. Referring to the Chapter III on Embryology it will be seen that when ovum and sperm unite, or as Mendel styles them two gametes, they form a zygote which divides into two daughter cells. Therefore each germinal unit is expressed in pairs, thus — , in which the upper letter represents the apparent character. We can represent this fertiHzation of peas in the following picture : — D R D D 1st Greneration ~^^~p~ ^ . D . , D D R 2nd Generation pure ~^ -f mixed ^ + -^ + pure -^ The pure continue to breed pure — D D The mixed ^5- ^ ^- repeat in the D . D D R 3rd Generation pure -^ + mixed ^ + -^ + pure -^ And so on. Pure dominants and pure recessives breed pure. 1 Address to Neurolog. Soc, Brain, cxiv, 1906. ^m I HEREI ^^ m applied HEREDITY— VIEWS OF GREGOR MENDEL 47 applied practically and a tall variety is crossed with a sli )rt sweet pea, then the first generation is all tall, showing tli it tallness is dominant, — -. R rhe second seK-f ertilized generation shows three tails to one d^ arf . The dwarfs or recessives RR when propagated produce n( more tails, whilst of the three tails, one is pure produc- in r no more shorts ; the other two are mixed,—-, the recessive R qi aUty R being latent or covered. The same process con- ti lues ; so that the pure forms return to the parental type. Mendel crossed plants having 2, 3, or more pairs of o iposite characters, but the result is too intricate and long t( quote. As all this bears directly on the variation of indi- V duals and families in the human race I will mention that fi om 24 hybrids raised from peas having 3 pairs of opposite cJiaracters he got 687 seeds and in the following year 6 {9 fruited plants. There were among them 27 combina- tiDns, some very comphcated. I copy the table from Bateson's work, merely to impress the imagination with the kaowledge of such complex arrangements of characters in oirselves, with the suggestion that it has a psychological aopUcation. The letters Aa, Bb, Cc represent the opposite cliaractersor allelomorphs; for example, Aa long versus short, a: id so on. Three characters : 8 ABC 114 ABc 9 AbC 11 Abe 8 aBC 10 a Bo 10 abC H 7 abc The characters A and B in gametes may blend in a zygote, or one of the characters, as A, may in the presence of B spUt up into minor integral characters (hypallelomorphs) A^ A^ Four char€icters : Five and Six Charac 22 A B C c ters : 17 AbCc 45 A B b C c 25 a B C c 36 aBbCc 20 a b C c 38 A a B C c 15 ABbC 40 AabCo 18 ABbc 49 A a b B c 19 aBbC 78 Aa Bb Cc 24 a B b c 14 AaBC 18 AaBc 20 A a b C 16 Aabe Tjip mto n I. ^ftPin. ■ 48 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME A3 A*, so that the compound resultant cannot be foreseen.^ One gamete might be B and the other AS B A\ or B A* A2, or B A 4 or B A^ A^ A^, presenting endless possibilities. This we may safely anticipate occurs pretty frequently in^ the complex mysteries of humanity. m Mendel's theories are not universal in their application, but there are other more recent experiments in support of^ it which are worth quoting. fl C. C. Hurst 1 records the results of breeding black and white rabbits. Here black was dominant (D). In some of the hybrid families of the second generation he obtained the usual number of : o D D D 3gray^+^ + _ and 1 albino ^^ While in other families he obtained — mixed -^ 9 gray (pure) -^ 3 black (pure) -^ 4 albinos. This works out at 3D+1R R , D , D , D or + + R D R ^ R 1 which falls in with Mendel's law. But some of the blacks may contain white or recessive germs and thus throw off some more albinos. The casual observer would be struck by apparently pure individuals throwing off impure (white) descendants ; the way in which each reader can apply this to human families of his acquaintance must afford the very greatest interest. Rever- In these cases there appears to be a union of a latent invisi- ^°" . ble character from one parent, perhaps from each parent, and we may regard these hidden units as ancestral. Or reversion may be due, according to Bateson, to meetings of complementary pairs of factors, which at some time of their ^ Journ. Linn. Soc, xxix, p. 283. ■ ■ HERI HEREDITY— VIEWS OF GREGOR MENDEL 49 ustory have lost their complement. It emphasizes the unit i ormation or division of apparently simple characters or erties, and it changes the old ideas of heredity, treating Jn^ individual as a unit. Naudin put forward the theory hat each individual is a hving mosaic, which gives great lupport to the view that the Ego or PersonaHty is also I mosaic. Punnett ^ made some useful investigations concerning the jlue Andalusian fowl, and proved the blueness to be a heterozy- rote of pure black, and white with black splashes. The blue Andalusian fowl never breeds true, but their offspring yield : — I pure black, which breed pure black. J splashed white, which breed pure splashed white, and J blue. The blacks, and splashed whites, are then pure or homozy- gotes, and when they are paired they yield the blue Andalusian fowl. Thus — H. Black X White (homozygotes) ^H^^^^K Blue Andalusian ^^^^^^Hi (heterozygotes) \W_ H 1 Black \^m pure Blue X Blue I 1 Black Blue x Blue 1 White pure pure „ ! 1 1 1 I Continues Pure 2 Blues Pure Continues B Black Black Mixed White White or (heterozygotes) The experiment of Professor Bateson with coloured stocks will appeal to every student of sociology. He made a hybrid of the two following stocks : — a red stock which had — (o) Red sap, (6) Colourless corpuscles. tm stock which had — (c) Colourless sap, (d) Yellow corpuscles; * See Punnett on Mendelism, 50 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME The red was proved in the first generation to prevail or be dominant. The second generation by self-fertiHzation showed : — D (1) -j^ or Dominant 9 reds — pure a b (a) Red sap. (b) Colourless corpuscles. D (2) ~D~3 red cream. (a) Red sap. (d) Yellow corpuscles. R (3) -^ or Recessive 1 pure cream — pure c d (c) Colourless sap. (d) Yellow corpuscles. (4) 3 new variations or whites. (6) Colourless corpuscles, (c) Colourless sap. or 3D to IR as before. ■ These white varieties, perhaps due to non-development of pigment, might be called " sports," but they may be a rever- sion to some ancestor. We have already seen in plants and animals, and have no reason to exclude man, that heredity may produce offspring like one or other parent, or a blend of each, or a new form, or a reversion to a former ancestor. In this way by a study of parents we may form some idea of what the children's prospects are, for they are in one sense as helpless as the plants we have been discussing. Human Are not the Britishers the greatest mongrels in existence ? Mongrels Qq\^q^ Normans, Romans, Saxons, Danes, not to mention the foreign invasion now commencing of Germans, Swedes, Russians, Italians, French and others. The potentiaHties of mixed molecules in the germ plasm exceed the imagination. Let us see what may happen to each individual in regard to his ancestry. The first generation travelling backwards represents our parents. The second generation backward represents 4 grandparents. The third generation backward represents 8 great-grandparents. The fourth generation backward represents 16 ancestors. The fifth generation backward represents 32 ancestors. The sixth generation backward represents 64 ancestors. The seventh generation backward represents 128 ancestors. HEREDITY— VIEWS OF GREGOR MENDEL 51 The eighth generation backward represents 256 ancestors. The ninth generation backward represents 512 ancestors. The tenth generation backward represents 1,024 ancestors. JfWe must apply these facts to our population in order to unravel the question of individuality and personahty. Mendel says the gametes or germinal units of hybrids are different at each successive generation, and therefore the progenitor cannot be accountable for his descendants, and applies this to the laws of ancient heredity. Bateson compares the formation of new varieties to the chemical union of sodium and chlorine making common salt, which is a new body in no way resembling its " parents." By the union of different gametes (perhaps characters), Result of one of three results may obtain : — Union*^ (1) Something may appear like either parent, as in the cases where the dominant theory applies. (2) An intermediate form may appear. Thus Mendel found that hybrids flower at the intermediate period when their parents flower at different times, eariy and late. (3) New forms appear, which are quite different from the parent, as in the case of a cross between the magenta Chinese primrose and the clear white variety, resulting in a " washy " magenta. This last condition specially appeals to Anthropology or Criminology. Variation may be due to some putative ancestor, and thus correspond to Darwin's theory of reversion. As an instance, if the tame white (albino) mouse be crossed with the piebald Japanese, the result is the grey " wild " form. These reversionary greys produce : — (a) The parental tame types. (6) Reversionary greys, (c) New types. We can infer then what chances there are of some putative Human human ancestor asserting himself in a new combination as a Sports . sport. This theory is rejected by many as incapable of proof, but surely what has once entered " the blood " can only be eliminated by dilution, not by extinction, and it is a recognized fact that whatever variation has once appeared may appear in any future generation. 52 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME In support of this idea De Vries ^ sowed a wild specimen of (Enothera Lamarkiana (evening primrose) in the Botanical Gardens at Amsterdam, and obtained no fewer than 9 varia- tions, all of which must have been represented in a latent form. Some of these varieties were stable and formed new species, which Bateson terms " discontinuous variations." Others reverted to the parental type and were unstable. A few were so sickly and weak that they could with difficulty be reared. Again in the " International series " there is mention of a cross between a setter and a spaniel. A male, which resembled the setter, was paired with a pure setter, and the offspring were spaniels. This case appeared as a reversion, but with Mendel's law it is easily explained. Similar occurrences frequently crop up in the human race. Farabee ^ quotes a family in Pennsylvania where several members had 2 phalanges instead of the normal number (3) in the fingers and toes. This malformation was a dominant char- acter. Those with normal fingers were recessives and their offspring were likewise normal ; while the dominants alUed in marriage to normal individuals produced some recessives or normals and some dominants. The summing up of the offspring showed : 36 Dominants or abnormals and 33 Recessives or normals from 14 abnormal parents. This shows that marriage so far corrects defects as to give equal chances for normal results. Mr. Nettleship ^ reported three famiHes affected with con- genital cataract, and the offspring of the abnormals yielded : 26 affected with cataract, and 29 not affected with cataract, showing again even chances for the future generation. Advan- The inference is that if physical defects are thus cut out Healthy ^^ ^^^ offspring there is hope for nerve and mental defects, Marriages * Die Mutationstheorie, 1901, H. de Vries. « Papers Peabody, Mtcs. Amer. Arch.y 1905, p. 69. • Rep. Roy. Lond. Ophth. Hosp., xvi, pt. iii, p. 23. I I H i HER HEREDITY— VIEWS OF GREGOR MENDEL 63 perhaps vices also, being reduced in the same ratio by healthy marriage. Probably the ratio will be more favourable if the environment be carefully studied, which is a scientific argument in favour of suitable emigration As regards disease and immunity from disease, we can bring forward cases by way of illustration. Consumption enters a family, say by the mother, and carries off those children which follow the maternal type. The same apphes to mental disease, and, though we cannot always trace it, perhaps also to moral disease. This method of examination is but very seldom resorted to. During many years of general practice I was struck with this fact, and while giving comfort and assurance to the one type would carefully guard the children built after the style of the affected parent. Though I style it as inherited disease, it may be more correct to say an inherited tendency to disease. Here again we fall back on botany and biology for a basis on which to rear the Temple to Hygeia. Thus some kinds of wheat are hable to attacks of yellow rust (Puc- cinia glumarum), other kinds are almost immune, although they may grow side by side. Here we have two MendeUan allelomorphic characters : 1. Predisposition to rust, and 2. Immunity therefrom. Let us substitute the word tubercle for rust, and see if it does apply to the human family, for with this knowledge by careful intermarriage we might improve the race against tubercle. At present we are in a state of confusion and can only think of isolation with a view to extermination of individuals. In this matter a State Marriage Bureau would greatly assist. The experiments of Mr. Biffen^ at Cambridge have not as yet been encouraging. He crossed two wheats, one which was quite immune from rust with another which was very liable to rust. The first generation were all rusty, showing that rust-weakness was the dominant character. The breeding of these hybrids produced in the second generation just what one would predict, namely, three rusty plants to one immune. Immunity was the recessive quality and remained pure. These experiments are capable of enlargement, and may then enhghten * R. H. Biffen, Jour. Agric. Sci., 1905. k 54 Education, personality and crime 1 us on the subjects of tubercle and insanity, suggesting artificial selection in marriage. This is a most useful illustration for sociology and crimino- logy of how two unharmonizing units may come together, and produce degeneracy, or even lay the seed of the criminal or the insane. I have so frequently found the criminal to be a " sport "; the only one out of a large family group, and no special cause to be traced. Supposing we hken a father to the red stock and that he be intellectual, but " naturaUy " lazy : this last quality to correspond to the colourless corpuscles. He may by the instinct of seK-preservation rise to a good social position- The mother let us say is vain amidst many fine quahties which conceal the defect. The vanity corresponds to the colourless sap in the cream stock. Nothing therefore can be even whis- pered against the parents, yet a son may be a criminal. The Judge would consider he merited more punishment than a simi- lar criminal in humbler circumstances. But the psychologist, who builds on natural sciences, views the subject from a totally different standpoint. Many cases of this character are constantly passing before us. Sir Francis Galton has written a very interesting book on Natural Inheritance. It is full of statistics, tables and mathe- matical calculations as to averages, but it is not biological. He has made a large number of observations and has formulated various laws and general conclusions. He finds there is in famiUes and groups a tendency to mediocrity. Thus if one parent be very tall and the other very short, the offspring will not be either very tall or very short, but the majority of them will be of average height. As an example Sir James Paget investigated the careers of 1,000 of his pupils and divided them into five classes, thus : Distinguished Considerable attainments Moderate or mediocre Very limited success . Failure 28 80 616 151 125 Galton formulated a law of Regression, which puts HEREDITY— VIEWS OF GREGOR MENDEL 55 "*• succession tax " on offspring, and tells heavily against the transmission of any hereditary gift. As we often observe, the more bountifully a parent is gifted the more rare it is for him to beget a child equal to himself. The children of gifted parents may, however, be more gifted than those of mediocre parents. Galton says " the ablest of all the children of a few gifted pairs is not hkely to be as gifted as the ablest of all the children of a very great many mediocre pairs." In matters of stature Galton finds there is a regressive tend- ency from parent to child, and the same as to finer qualities. But Nature is just, and on the same plan tries to throw out defects and badness in the progeny. Cancer, tubercle and mental disease, may be taken as types of this, for in families so affected the offspring are either badly affected or throw it off altogether. ^■Galton insisted that stability is the factor in new ^iaiieties, or as Bateson terms them " discontinuous varia- tions," which in reaHty are new species and therefore do not apply to the human problem. Bateson invented the term " continuous variation " to describe the individual differences, or characters, observed among the members of one family, or if speaking of the lower creation among any particular species. Where a new variety or species appears, if it be stable it will not blend easily with other forms. " Sports " are found to be unstable, but are " often trans- mitted to successive generations with curious persistence," due, as Delage says, to the same environment continuing. Anything that deviates from the central type, or typical centre, is in proportion unstable. Stabihty of type is an important factor in the general theory of heredity. Mediocrity is however the commonest condition, and as applied to humanity we see that all children tend to it. Galton illustrates the value of good stock to breed from in this way. He suggests two couples naturally alike, one couple is made of two gifted members of a poor stock, while the other is quite ordinary but belongs to a gifted stock. The children of the former couple will regress, whereas those of the 56 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME latter will not regress. Galton thinks that ancestors contri- bute very little to the individual. He takes as example the descendants of " pedigree wheat." The first generations are large, but after a few generations the wheat loses all the ancestral quaHty of largeness, but this has been explained by the MendeHan theory already described. Is all Many who are interested in this question will inquire whether Mankind Mankind now represents one original species or several species. Species or There used to be two schools, those who beheved in the former Several ? theory, or Monogenism, while the second supposition or Poly- genism has still its supporters. There certainly seem to be three clear types among the human races : The black or negroid, The yellow, and The albinos. It is doubtful if external or geographical conditions will change a negro to a white, or a white to a yellow man, or vice versa. By artificial means the black pigment melanin can be bleached in the negro : while if white skin be grafted on a negro it turns black and vice versa. The Jews, I am told by one of the fraternity, develop a re- semblance to the people they settle amongst. Thus there are negro Jews, Chinese and Japanese Jews, and European Jews and so forth. In Europe they certainly become national- ized if they dwell long enough, as we observe in travel. Since I received this information I have noticed many Jewish ladies, who have ordinary EngUsh features and seem to have lost the Jewish type. As the Jews have come to stay, it would be of great advantage to both parties, but especially to the English, if they would blend in marriage. The globe is peopled with varieties of these types according to the older investigators, but the modern ethnologist is pursu- ing research by more subtle and deHcate methods. If we take a flock of sheep, to us they seem alike, but to a shepherd each is different. If we could look on all the white races collectively from a balloon they would appear alike. How different is the reality! What resem- ■ HERI fflmce is tl HEREDITY— VIEWS OF GREGOR MENDEL 57 ice is there between the French and the German and ,he Russian, or between either the English or the Scots ? !lnd when we take our own people what difference there is )etween families ! What variation also we find in families : iome become sterile in one or two generations, others can •aise only sons or only daughters ; and few can show a tree )f more than 300 to 400 years duration. Thirty years ago it was considered that the term hybrid Hybrids jhould be apphed to crossing between species, and the term |^°^|s nongrel when the cross was between famihes or races of the jame species. We have seen how the crossing of hybrid plants (peas) tends X) a partial reversion to the original parents in each gener- ation. There appears a complete rupture between the physio- ogical connection of the two species in some of these descend- mts, and one of the two "bloods " is expelled. But some of the lescendants of the hybrids persist, while others differ from :he hybrid parents. This was styled by M. Naudin ^ as * disordered variation," and the fact may be well apphed to ^hat occurs in the human race in explaining degenerate stock. In animals there is a tendency to sterihty amongst hybrids, and this factor is seized by older writers in order to distinguish mankind as made up of races and not species. Thus the nule is a sterile hybrid, while other experiments show that liybrids if replenished from one parental stock keep up fertiHty. In South America, for the sake of procuring a better fleece, ohe goat and sheep are crossed, and the hybrid must be re- orossed to keep up the breed (chabins). To be successful :here must be J paternal and f maternal blood. But man is a mongrel spUt up into races, consequently when ihe races are crossed fertihty is increased. The British nation thereby gets more backbone, and though we may deeply 'egret the present foreign invasion, our descendants may profit by it a few generations hence. Many observations have been made in America of crosses between whites and negroes with a resulting increase of fer- oihty. If the negro were a different species the hybrids would be more or less sterile. There is then in the mongrel a physio- » Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot.y xix, 4. 58 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME logical union of all the germinal parts of one species. If there is a throw back to an early ancestor we call it " atavism." It is not a complete reversion, as in the above case, to a perfect sheep or perfect goat. There is a general resemblance to the one species, but a variation in some special detail. Thus we can explain the moral and mental pervert, or invert, as a throw back or atavism on our more savage ancestors. Darwin observed a case where the crossing of the Malay fowl had been pursued for forty years, and yet after that long period pure Malays were occasionally thrown out ; so it is not much wonder if some of us throw back to what our ancestors were five, ten, or even fifty generations ago. CHAPTER VII REFLEX ACTION Ai element of inaccuracy in all physiological experiments. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, CELLS, AND FIBRES : The cells vary— Microscopic— Grey matter — Insulated Nerves — Nerves in all animals — The sea anemone — Reflex action defined — In the worms — Sensory cells, motor cells — Resemblance to the telephone— The spinal cord. THE SCRATCH REFLEX IN A FROG : Cells in spinal cord to connect up sensory and motor groups of cells — The antagonism of muscles as in drawing up the leg or foot — When flexors contract the extensors relax — Tonus — Walking movements — In the scratch reflex in a dog while one limb scratches, the three other limbs rigidly fix the body — Comparison with telephone sys- tem. THE NEURON : At least three neurons in reflex action. A neuron includes cell, dendrons, and axon — Grey matter in spinal cord — Sensory cells or receptors — Motor cells — Neurons not connected — Ter- minals may be in membranes — Terminals may have amoeboid movement — Synapses cause a delay — The delay in the grey matter. REPEATED SLIGHT STIMULI ACCUMULATE IN INTENSITY : Many stimuli enter, but only one exit in any reaction — Therefore more sensory or afferent nerves than motor or efferent nerves — Example in writing — Or in skilled acts — Inhibition — One reflex may oppose another — As in walking where opposing muscles are inhibited — The nervous system is one mechanism — Sympathetic pains — Fatigue — Occurs in reflex nerve centre, not in the muscle. BOTH WE AND THE LOWER ANIMALS ARE BUILT IN SEGMENTS : > Example in the divided bee— The frog and its matri- monial choice — Lower consciousness in insects, etc. THE SEAT OF _. THE EMOTIONS : Removal of cerebral hemispheres — Emotions are W^^ primarily stored in mid-brain or stem — Emotions at first reflex for sudden ^H calls of defence — And on a lower neural plane — Must be reinforced from ^^M the upper brain or cortex — The philosopher's view of emotion confirmed ^^m — Emotion not visceral — Happiness in the higher cerebral plane. ^m THE OBJECT OF A NERVOUS SYSTEM. INSTINCT AND INTELLI- ^H GENCE : Four degrees : (i) Innate instinct without experience ; (2) In- ^H stinct and slight experience ; (3) Instinct with capacity to learn ; (4) In- ^H telligence. i 'o make the most complex subject in science intelligible the laity is so difficult, that I must plead for toleration rom the physiologist and ask to be spared from harsh criticism 1 1 the free handling of abstruse technicalities. The physiolo- ^ ist must not forget that the accuracy of many of our most careful observers has been found wanting in a large number c»f cases. So much is this the case that experiments on animals I 1 60 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME hardly merit the importance that has been attributed to them.^ They carry us only part of the way and no further, for there are so many subtle factors which cannot possibly be discounted. The personal equation in all physiological experi- ments makes or mars the result. If a thousand observers a-dd a solution of common salt to one of nitrate of silver, there can be but one result, whatever the dilution or environment of the substances, whether single or in combination. Far different is it where a galvanic instrument is placed on a particular convolution of the brain, or if a portion of the brain be removed or destroyed. There is much source of error from the fact that the convolutional pattern of the brain varies even in the same species, while one operator may be less skilful and damage parts of the subtle machine without being conscious of it. Above all things, I have from observation been struck with the difference in descriptive powers of those anxious to portray successful results. I have, however, selected very carefully from both experiments and observations, and am confident that the material collected will be as good in twenty years as to-day. The The nervous system consists primarily of cells and fibres. In Astern ^ this it resembles the Telegraph and Telephone systems. Cells and The cells vary in shape and size and function. Some are Fibres , round like granules, some are pyramidal looking, triangular in section, others take on various angular processes. They are all quite microscopic, invisible to the naked eye, but when collected in masses cause a buff colour, which we call the grey matter ! The fibres like the wires of the telegraph conduct nerve motion. ^ It is unfortunately necessary for physiologists and pathologists to resort to experiments on living animals. It is, however, quite unjustifiable to perform experiments for purposes of demonstration in girls' colleges, as happens in London ; where operations are per- formed anaesthetics must be used, and animals need not thereby suffer. The statements by anti-vivisectionists are mostly untrue or contortions of what may have occurred years ago in Continental laboratories. It is inconsistent for an anti-vivisectionist to hunt and shoot for sport poor innocent animals which have a right to live, and this is of frequent occurrence. Such is actual cruelty. The physiologist is working for humanity, not for personal pleasure. In daily practice we save lives by the knowledge so gained. I A Purkinje cell, illustrating the receivers or dendrons branching above, and the axon or single fibre of exit below. Kindly lent by Ur. Mott, Facing pagt 60. To illustrate nerve cells and fibres. Kindly lent by Dr. Mott. Facing page 61. 1^ ^M Thev are inf REFLEX ACTION 61 They are insulated, probably to avoid confusion or leakage ol nerve motion, but principally because the insulating material is rich in phosphorus and keeps the fibre in healthy vitaHty. T! le fibres carry impressions to and from the nerve cells ; some C( Qvey impressions from the outer world, some from other C( lis, others, as a result, carry motor impulses to various p; rts of the body. Even the lowest animals are believed to be provided with n< rves. Wherever muscular movements occur we would logic- al y expect to find nerves directing those muscles. Every one n: list know how the sea anemone at the slightest touch with- di aws its beautiful petal-like tentacles and closes up. This si nple act exempUfies all nerve mechanisms and is the fore- n nner of the intricate processes of thought in man. We caU tl is action reflex. In the sea anemone it occurs from an impulse carried by a nerve fibre along a feeler or tentacle to a central nerve C€ U, thence to the muscles, which in turn contract the tentacles and close up the anemone. This is the meaning of the word re flex ; nerve motion which is bent back or reflected within tl e body. The reaction is not quite so simple, as wiU be se en, in higher animals. In the worm, which is covered with a tlin coating of homy material, there are deHcate nerve fibres and " terminals " which carry sensation to sensory cells. These latter send out impulses to motor cells, which cause the muscles tC' contract. Thus at once we begin to speciaHze between cells varying in function. We depend on reflex mechanisms for our very existence. Tbus if dust impinge on the sensitive surface of the eye, the n.uscles of the fids are called upon to close tightly and with n.pidity, squeezing the tears from the lachrymal gland to ^ ash away the particle. Again, when food reaches the back o: the tongue it is beyond control, and the act of swallowing is then reflex. So is the secretion of saHva. Stimulating impulses of taste aid smell travel to the blood-vessels of the gland, causing a flow of saliva, which is prepared from the blood by the gland colls (see diagram). 62 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME 1 Jlie Let us as an example consider the scratch reflex. Thus Reflex in if ^ decapitated frog were tickled on the left flank, it would a Frog raise the left hind leg to scratch, but if the irritation were continued, it might raise the opposite or right foot, bringing it across to scratch. It would even scratch with its forefeet if the irritation continued. In this comparatively simple process, the tickling sensation of the flank is carried to sensory cells, at the hinder part of the spinal cord. Here the nerve fibre breaks up into branches and gives stimuU to other " con- necting " or " reflex " cells in the cord, which caU into play certain groups of motor cells. These latter send impulses to the muscles which perform the complex act of scratching. Thus the thigh must be flexed or drawn up ; the leg, likewise, is flexed and rotated, while the muscles to the toes also have their duties. But if that foot cannot remove the irritation of the skin, the intensity of the stimulus causes an increase or overflow of nerve energy to cross to the opposite side of the spinal cord, and invoke the motor cells and muscles of the opposite leg. The excessive nerve impulse continuing may overflow still further and travel up the cord to the foreleg^BI or arms. ^' This complex muscular action demands further explanation ; thus, if the left hind toes of the dog be tickled under certain conditions it draws up the leg ; but as there are two important systems of muscles, those of flexion or bending and those of ex- tension, each opposing the other, one can imagine a constai antagonism between the two groups of muscles. Therefoi before the dog can draw up or flex its leg, which act is perf orme by the hamstring muscles behind the knee, it is essential thi the extensor muscles which end at the kneecap in front shouU give way. This is exactly what happens. It is such beautiful contrivance that it is worth considering. Whel the tickHng message arrives at the spinal cord, the refle^ operators, or connecting cells, simultaneously inhibit shut off the action of the extensor motor cells, and then thej call the flexor cells into action. These simultaneous but antagonistic movements are coi stantly in play, for in man the natural condition require " tonus ", or activity of the extensor muscles, to maintai^ the upright position of the body. The reflex mechanism of salivation. M The taste impulse passes from "taste cells" on the tongue (M) to the nerve centre (TC), which sends a message by the secretory nerve (SN) to the gland G, and also to the sympathetic nerves on the artery (B) to supply the salivary gland cells more freely. To illustrate the reflex spinal mechanism. The arrows indicate the direction of the nerve current from skin to muscle. Note the reflex or associating nerve cell in the centre. This is quite diagramatic. Facing page 62. 3 Nerve terminals in muscle fibres. (A) from above ; (B) in cross section. (C) a touch receiving corpuscle in the skin showing the terminal of a sensory nerve. (D) motor terminal in muscle fibrils. Facing page 63. REFLEX ACTION 63 ] f then we wish to walk and flex the thigh on the body and the leg on the thigh, the opposing extensors must relax at tht exact moment before flexion. lb is important to understand neuro-mechanics before we The cai realize what complex thought may be reduced to ; there- for ) we must further examine the spinal mechanism. ' 'he reflex action engages at least three neiu*ons. A neuron CO] iprises a nerve cell, which at one end has receiving fibres, tei ned " dendrons," because being so numerous they resemble th( rootlets of a tree ; and at the other end one " axon " or fibre for emitting the special nerve motion from the cell. In the centre of the spinal cord there is a collection of grey mf tter which in transverse section is not unlike a butterfly ; th( large, anterior wings correspond to the anterior motor ho ns, and the smaller posterior wings to the posterior sensory ho -ns in the cord. This grey matter is surrounded by long bu idles of insulated fibres which run between the head and the foot. The skin contains receiving or sensory cells of vaying kinds in shape and function. Some cells react to touch, some to temperature, some to pain. The stimulus is cairied by an afferent ^ nerve fibre to the posterior part of thf Professor Sherrington to elucidate this, and he found the lite to be in the reflex centre ; that is the connecting-up leuron in the grey matter of the spinal cord. This was irrived at in the following manner. If a dog got tired of iexing or bending its leg in response to tickling the toes, its oauscles were still quite equal to respond vigorously to the scratch reflex, excited by tickling the flank. The leg muscles were not tired, but the nerve potential in the reflex neuron was fatigued, and readily made way for another reflex arc. In oiu* daily routine, we know how restful change of work is by amploying fresh neurons. We now can understand the mystery of writer's and other trade cramps, without wasting of muscle. By a clear conception of the spinal neuro-system we can Both we understand the Hves of many of the lower animals, most ^^^^ of whom are built in chains or segments ; for instance, Animals the worm is in rings and each ring has its own nerve ^^j^ .^ ganglia. So it is with the lobster, the fly, the beetle, and Segments us ourselves. Each joint in the spine contains a nerve seg- ment connected with the trunk and limbs, while the face and head were built up during the embryonic state in seg- ments also ; yet all these segments are united in one complex system. The higher we ascend in the animal scale, the greater the risk to life. Experience and education become necessary to adapt the individual to the environment. While the lower torms, as the invertebrates, those without a spine or backbone, act hke automata, the higher forms exhibit a consciousness which at first is machine-hke but gradually rises to the highest form of intelligence. Thus the busy bee is an automaton. Taste or smell guide * Amer. Textbook of Physiol. P 66 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME its choice of food, whilst sight directs its flight, and perhaps hearing warns it of danger. Yet you may cut it in two with- out at once killing it, and if you touch the hinder end, in reflex response it stings you. Similarly, if you place food to its jaws, it will seize and devour it. All this is due to segments of the reflex neuro-mechanism, without inteUigence and consciousness in the ordinary sense. If we take, as another example, a male decapitated frog, he will clasp his arms as if in embrace, if the skin of his chest or bosom be stimulated ; yet he is unconscious, being without his head. It is a reflex movement, similar to that of the divided insect. If, however, a gentleman frog with his head on be so stimulated, he resents the interference and thrusts away any object other than his spouse laid on his bosom. This opens up the question of several degrees of consciousness. The bee, the ant, and the million creepy things each may have a consciousness of their own, having nerve gangUa masses which resemble minute brains. They are however hardly equal to the stem or base of the human brain. The Seat Some light may be shed by experiments done by Professor Emo^tions Sherrington,^ Golz, Schafer, Mott, Terrier, Rutherford and several other professors abroad on the seat of the emotions. These consist in removing the upper part of the brain hemi- spheres from the dog or cat, which portion is concerned with what intelligence and higher consciousness they possess. There remain then the spinal cord and the base of the brain or stem. We now have in action the receivers or receptors from the skin, as well as from all other sensory organs. These include the eye and ear, also the sense of taste and smell. If anything be done to annoy the animal, as holding its leg, or hurting it in any way, it puts on aU the expression of anger, snarling, growHng and spitting. Yet there is no upper con- sciousness or sense of pain. (Nothnagel considers the optic thalamus as the seat of the muscles of expression or emotion.) These experiments are mentioned to show that the emotions of anger and passion are reflex, and at the onset have nothing to do with the upper consciousness. The angry dart of the serpent, the attack of the tarantula, perhaps even the first * Loc. cit., p. 265, ch. vii. '^ REFLEX ACTION lap of the dog and the spit of the cat, are thus on a lower physical plane of subconsciousness. But this neural plane tires out and does not continue its emotion. If the emotion is still further provoked, then the upper brain or cortex comes into play, involving the field of consciousness and intelligence. Darwin, Spencer and others considered the emotions as inherited ancestral instincts, and this almost appears confirmed by the experiment on the dog. Emotion is on a lower physical plane than intelligence, which may explain why the more intellectual folk have less emotion, while our poor degenerates, especially if enfeebled by alcohol, give way so easily. Sherrington by further investigation proved that emotion has nothing to do with visceral or internal sensations, for these sensations, in heart, bowels, stomach and other internal organs, are the result of emotion and not the cause. He says that in this condition neither cat nor dog can be induced to show pleasure, as though happiness belonged to a higher plane, the cerebral cortex, while these emotions are reflex for protection, defence, selection of food, amorous instincts, etc. These experiments give us a valuable insight into every- day occurrences which are not appreciated by the lawyers or the laity. We know also how the higher plane of thought can inhibit or control the emotions, yet in such conflicts we are conscious of effort and the necessity sometimes of strong effort. How many crimes and rash acts are committed by the overpowering, reflex, but irresponsible machine ! We must treat our difficult social problems with all the knowledge that science gives us. Quite recently a man was hanged for the murder of a woman who threw a pot of beer at him in an alehouse. The total scene between the woman's act and the death-blow was ten seconds. Considering the probability of the man's brain being out of action from alcohohsm, it might be described as a reflex act, as in the experiment just described. There was barely enough time for mentation in such a brain. The whole idea of a nervous system is to protect against The Ob- enemies as well as to direct us to food, and finally it exists if* °^ ^ r f . A ..1-11 Nervous tor purposes of propagation. As we nse m the ammal scale System there is a continued addition of superstructures. 68 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME The dog perceives danger and uses some intelligence to get out of the way. Not so the fish, for its optic nerve is closely connected with the long nerves of the spinal cord directing rapid flight from danger. Birds are Hkewise constructed for rapidity of action, and excel in their powers of vision also. They have a higher type of brain than that of the fish, a brain which somewhat corresponds to the base or stem of the human brain. When we reach the mammals or animals that suck in infancy, we get a still higher order of brains than in birds, a new superstructure of the same type as in man, but very rudimentary, steadily rising in complexity till the anthropoids or apes are reached. Instinct There are then grades of intelUgence and instinct, but it is telligence almost impossible to say where the one begins and the other ends. The subject of instinct versus intelligence has engaged observers since time immemorial. It now seems elucidated, especially through the researches of Romanes, Dr. G. A. Watson, and R, Lloyd Morgan. There seems however to be a gradual dawning from the lower to the higher. We might treat it thus : — a. The instinct of the lower animals which requires no experience or education, and which is said to be due to " inherited habits." It appears to me that the early nerve structures are thus reduced to simple mechanisms. We see this in the proverbial busy bee and wiseacre ant. Among vertebrates the building of nests by sticklebacks and the similar interesting ways of birds form abundant illustrations. 6. Next come the ** incomplete instincts "of Lloyd Morgan or the mixed instincts of Romanes, which are shown by so many animals and have much to do with their practical animal behaviour. These have a very large " innate " basis, but require some individual experience to set them agoing or to perfect them. Such examples may be seen in what we would popularly call the inteUigence of birds in their relation to man ; the way in which the rooks follow the ploughman and the various tricks they learn ; the " ancestral " fear which fledg- lings show towards man. KEFLEX ACTION 69 c. The intelligence that individual animals show in being able to acquire the capacity for learning new acts is a much higher development. In this way animals can react to new surroundings. This is daily exempUfied by domestic animals, especially the dog and cat. It marks an advance in brain structure. d. Intellect stands at the zenith and belongs more especially to the Anthropoids, of whom the apes are lowest, and rise by the chimpanzee, ourang, and lastly gorilla, to man. Here there is an association of ideas and the capacity of abstract thought. CHAPTER VIII THE BRAIN GENERAL STRUCTURE: The skull— The membranes— Cerebrum— Cere- bellum — The spinal cord below — The medulla or bulb — The function of the cerebellum. THE CEREBRUM COVERS THE CEREBELLUM IN NORMAL MAN : but not always in idiots — A reversion to animal type. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN: The central canal— Hydrocephalus — Symptoms. BRAIN WEIGHTS : Normal adult — Child's — Let young brains lie fallow — National decay due to education — Smallest brain — Brain weights in insanity — American and Negro brains — Cause of large brain weight in animals — Whale and elephant — Man and gorilla — The association centres. THE BRAIN PATTERN : Simple to complex — Herbivora versus Carnivora — Apes and monkeys. THE HUMAN PATTERN : The cause— Convolution and grooves— The areas — Simple patterns in the less intelligent. -MICROCEPHALIC IDIOT : Dr. Watson's unique case — A revert to the felines— The key to criminology — A new standard of measurement suggested — Details — A "beast" — Second case of Dr. Watson's — A revert to the ape. We can only demonstrate the brain and nervous system by reference to a diagram or photograph in the absence of actual specimens. The brain is protected by a strong bony case, the skull, which in the infant is made up of several pairs of bones. These bones, which in the embryo have been developed out of mem- brane, unite in infancy, but are not firmly welded together till early adult life. A dense fibrous membrane, the dura- mater, encloses both the brain and the spinal cord or marrow, which latter receives protection in its canal from the vertebrae or spinal bones. A delicate membrane made of bloodvessels, the pia-mater, closely covers the whole surface, and fulfils the purposes of nourishment. The higher brain or cerebrum occupies all that portion of the skull above the level of the eyebrows and ears. The smaller brain or cerebellum lies below this level, posteriorly just above the neck. We have then the big upper mass or cerebrum, which is connected below and continuous with the spinal cord. The connecting part is of the greatest vital importance. It is 70 The skull, with large veins or channels (V), which may be relieved in congestion by bursting of the veins in the nose (VN). A, is an airspace in the brow called the frontal sinus. The skull has two layers, inner (I) and outer (O). Diagram to illustrate the cerebrum, with the cerebellum (Cb) below. The medulla (M) and the spinal cord (Sp) below. Facing ffuge 70. 1 THE BRAIN led the medulla oblongata or bulb. It is a continuation of the spinal cord broadened out, and receives all the fibres en route to and from the head and the body. It also contains the breathing, heart and digestive nerve centres, as well as the roots of other nerves for taste, tongue, face, hearing, etc. An injury here is fatal. It is the position in which cattle are struck. The cerebellum lies behind and above this part. It might be well now to dispose of its function. It has never been clearly elucidated. Phrenologists thought all sexual desires sprung from this region, and therefore gave a bad name to any one who was fully developed at the back of the head. Its true function has been largely elucidated by Dr. Mott. It is a large sensory organ for the whole body, keeping all the muscles in a condition of healthy tone and tension. It also has to do with steering. Thus the inert frog and tortoise have hardly any cerebellum, while active fish, as the herring and whiting, and birds in proportion to their rapidity of flight, have well developed cerebella. It is the cerebrum that interests us chiefly. The base and middle part are occupied by large nerve gangha or centres, which are " way stations " between the upper surface and the spinal cord. There are in reality two brains, right and left. They are convex on the outer side and flattened in the middle line, where they are joined together by fibres so as to produce co-operative action. When we speak of the upper brain, as the cerebrum, we The include both halves, right and left. In man the cerebrum covers "™ overlaps and hides the cerebellum, being due to the larger the Cere- development of the areas which concern intellectual operations ; Normal ^^ whereas in the higher apes, through this want of development, Man the cerebellum is slightly uncovered. In all the lower animals the cerebellum is also much uncovered or placed quite behind : see figs, (pp.74 and 76). It has been observed in some cases of idiocy that there' is in this respect a reversion towards the lower animals, and Dr. Watson's interesting cases, to be described later, show this very clearly. 1^ 72 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME The The brain develops in the embryo from a hollow tube of menf *of" ^^^^^o^s matter, which becomes constricted into five masses, the Brain and passes through an intricate course of enlargement and development. Yet in aU this there is a resemblance to the brains of the lower animals, even of the fish, illustrating the evolutionary process in the " creation." Man is then a repetition of what has gone before in the lower animals. Though the tiny tube becomes a mass weighing at birth almost a pound, yet it retains the central canal as the repre- sentative of its embryonic state. These form cavities or " ventricles " inside the brain, which in the normal state contain a small and negligible amount of fluid. But in some diseases of a tubercular character, the fluid accumulates, dilating these cavities considerably. This condition is termed Hydrocephalus, or water on the brain, and may be fatal in infancy, while many of those who recover are well represented in asylums and among degenerates. The skull is then large, broad, flat and the forehead overhangs the brows. I think in some cases a little hydrocephalus proves useful by expanding the skull and giving more room or area for the outer surface, and it is a fact that many people of extraordinary intellect are slightly hydrocephalic. The brain may be likened to a telephonic or telegraphic system, as in the case of the spinal cord, only infinitely more complex. Brain Weights It will be convenient here to consider some brain weights. Comparison of the weights of wholehTams is not very scien- tific, but as most of the records are in such terms one must quote them. The adult male brain weighs about „ „ female „ The brain at birth „ 1st year „ 2nd „ ,, 5th „ „ 10th „ „ 15th „ Oz. 50 44 14 30 31 36 45 49 Grms. 1,416 1,246 396 850 878 1,018 1,275 1,388 The practical side of this table is that until a child is five its brain may safely be allowed to lie fallow and gain in weight and growth. II Diagraraatic representation of the embryo brain developing. I, the forebrain. 2 and 3, the midbrain. Cb, the cerebellum. M, the medulla. Sp, the spinal cord. E, the optic nerve and retina budding out. N, the nerve of smell A, becomes the labyrinth or nerve mechanism of hearing. tt A normal, well-educated brain, to show the pattern. I am indebted to Dr. Mott for this valuable photograph. Most so-called normal brains are either out of asylums or hospitals, and therefore on a lower platform of intelligence. Facing page 72. I Tl D< m th THE BRAIN 73 ^Little can be done before the age of seven or eight ; after ten it becomes efl&cient. One sees here the explanation of the national decay through the thousands of dullards whom the State creates by enforced education at the age of three, four, or even five. The brain weights of notable men give striking results thus : — Oz. Grms. Cuvier's brain weighed 58 or 1,643 Napoleon's ,, „ 53 „ 1,501 Gambetta's „ „ 41 „ 1,167 Turgenieff's,, „ 71 „ 2,011 (A Russian novelist) Cromwell's brain weighed 78 „ 2,210 Byron's „ „ 79 „ 2,238 Abercrombie's brain weighed 63 „ 1,786 Goodsir's „ „ 57^ „ 1,629 Sir Jamesi Simpson's brain weighed . . . 54 ,, 1,530 Dr. Chalmers' „ „ ... 53 „ 1,501 The lowest brain on record is in the possession of Dr. Watson. It belonged to an idiot woman and weighs only 8 oz. or 227 grammes, and is described at page 76. An adult's brain should not fall below 40 oz. in the case of a man, or 35 oz. „ „ woman. On the other hand many common labourers have very heavy brains, going over 2,000 grammes. Mass without quaUty ! Sir James Crichton Browne ^ has recorded several weights of the brain among asylum patients. Those of idiots range from 40 oz. or 1,150 grammes downwards among males; while in females they vary below 35 oz. or 1,000 grammes. Imbecile brains are a little heavier ; In males 44 oz. or 1,246 grammes ; and In females 41 oz. „ 1,167 „ The brains of melanchohcs are not under weight, while senile brains lose about ^^ of their value. Those suffering from delusions or mania show no alteration in weight. Mr. Hunt and others ^ have recorded interesting observations on American and negro brains. ^ Brain, 1880. * See Quatrefage on Social Evolution^ ch. xxx. 74 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME The average weight of 24 American white soldiers was 48 oz. or 1,360 grammes ; the maximum 64 oz. or 1,814 grammes, while the minimum was 44 oz. or 1,247 grammes. Compared with the above are 141 negroes, whose average brain weight was 47 oz. or 1,331 grammes. The maximum was 53 oz. or 1,501 grammes, while the minimum was 38 oz. or 1,176 grammes. The effect of half-breeds was very striking, for the more white blood the heavier the brain. Thus out of 240 crosses with negroes where there was : — Oz. Grms. f white blood, the brain weight was . . . 49 or 1,388 i » „ „ „ . . . 45 „ 1,275 44 „ 1,246 One Hottentot brain recorded weighed 50 oz. or 1,430 grammes. In connexion with the brain weights of the lower animals, the size or weight of any given animal depends largely on the extent of the sensory surface such animal possesses. This accounts for the very large brains in the whale and elephant, whose large exterior body surfaces require a huge number of sensory points and afferent nerves to carry the impressions and likewise an increased sensory area on the brain. But when we compare man and the gorilla, which are about the same size, we find an exception in man, whose increased brain surface is due not to more sensory representation, but to the enormous relative development of the areas set apart for the grouping and analysing of these sensory impressions. These newly evolved areas are called Association Centres. The Brain pattern is the term applied to the outer surface PattS-n ^^ *^^ cerebrum. It is a very apt term, as the pattern is quite decided and representative in different classes of mammals. This subject has been worked up by Sir Victor Horsley, D. J. Cunningham, Elliott Smith, G. A. Watson, and others. The general results show that complexity of pattern in- creases as we ascend the scale. This is apparent even in any one group, as, for example, the Carnivora, where the ferret, which is a low class brute, has a much smoother brain as compared with a cat or dog who hve in a much more intel- I Type of Ungulate brain. {Sus salvanius) a pig. 3:l-A/oS Type of carnivora brain. {Viverra civetta) a civet. Facing page 74. Brain of a lower ape. {Cehus hinatus) a capuchin. Brain pattern of a human being about four months before birth. Only the chief fissures are represented. The actual brain is much smaller than the diagram. Facing page 75. THE BRAIN "■"■■ 75 environment. The Carnivora, which require increased nstincts to survive, have a better pattern than the hoofed lierbivorous animals, the Ungulata. They have no mental lomestic strain for their food, it hes like a carpet in front -rf them. When we examine the Primates, or Quadrumana, which ncludes apes and monkeys, there is again a vast difference. Che smaller or lower class monkeys have poor intelligence ;dth a corresponding simple brain pattern, whereas the ourang md gorilla very nearly approach man in the complexity )f their grooves. The pattern of the human brain, failing actual specimens, is The best understood by photographs, of which there are many in p^^J^ the book. It is very complex, and is subject not only to ^oss variations, but also to minute differences which can only be detected by the few experts in this subject. The cause of the pattern is the infolding of the surface, an effort of Nature to secure a larger superficial area in the compressed non-expanding skull. We call the raised portions convolutions, and the depressions grooves or sulci. The surface in man is divided into frontal, behind which is the parietal area, at the posterior pole the occipital, and above the ears the temporal area. The pattern is simpler in the less intelligent human beings and races. The convolutions in these are larger, fewer, coarser, less wavy, and the grooves may be wider apart. Some of the Italian school profess to have seen a simpler pattern than normal in the criminal's brain. The laity should not rest content until we have a large collection of criminal brains with a reliable scientific description so as to compare them with the normals. The criminal, I find, is not sane, and yet admittedly not insane. He has his own territory, and I may prophesy it is one of simple brain pattern (see p. 225 for report on murderer's brain, examined by my- self). I am indebted to Dr. G. A. Watson for the following inter- Micro- esting photographs of the smallest adult human bram on i^^^^^^ record, and the notes thereon. I am sorry that it is not K record, £ 76 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME suitable to show the face, as it indeed suppHes the equivalent of the " missing link." Here is demonstration and proof that the human race can revert to the type, not only of the lower apes, but far below to the cat, or carnivora, and even lower to the ungulates, which include the cloven-hoofed animals, as pig and cow. This is no theory or speculation. We have also to remember that there are all grades of degeneracy, and the slighter forms will explain the types which we call incorrigible, or born criminals. The point to remember about these microcephalic brains is that they are not diminished men, but reverts to the lower beasts. Arrested development accounts for many degenerates, and these facts open up a new method of dealing with them, and present a fresh standard by which to measure them. Of the four photographs, two are of the smallest brain, one of an imbecile's brain, and the highest developed specimen belonged to an ourang.^ The female died when 44. The weight of her brain was 250 grammes, or 8f oz. The circumference of the skull was 15 in. Her height was 4 ft. 5 in., the body fairly proportioned. The small head and long nose gave her a bird-like appearance. Mentally she was an idiot. She never understood any verbal communication from the outer world, and never uttered any articulate sound, nor made any intelligible sign ; nor did she ever know, recognize or remember any one. Sometimes she smiled feebly to herself, but she would grin and make grimaces, and also express her emotions by hideous sounds. If vexed she would spit like a cat. She had a big appetite, and when the bell rang for meals, clapped her hands and uttered frightfi4 screams, and always had to be served first. She had to be fed on mince and soft food, or she might have choked, as she bolted her food like a dog. She was so greedy that she would grab food off other plates. After a meal she would remain lethargic like an ordinary beast. * Dr. Watson and myself are indebted to the Zoological Society for much material, and especially to Mr. Beddard, F.R.S.,forhis assist- ance and courtesy. V V7 The smallest idiot brain on record, 8 oz. Lent by Dr. G. A. Watson. The same brain from above — note that the cerebrum does not cover the cerebellum. racing page 76. Brain of an imbecile, aged 40. Lent by Dr. Watson. The brain of an ourang, for which I am indebted to Mr. Beddard, F.R.S. Facing page 77. ^» The brain resembles the type of lower mammals, in that t le cerebrum does not overlap the cerebellum. THE BRAIN * 77 Grms. Oz. Normal. The cerebellum, pons and medulla weighed 56 or If 5 oz. The cerebrimi weighed . . . . 194 „ 6| 36-38 oz. ^ In the normal state the cerebrum is seven times heavier han the cerebellum and pons ; here it is about three times. The cerebrum is smaller than in a new-born child. As will be observed, the pattern of the convolutions is nuch simpler than that of the ourang. Dr. Watson points )ut that it is not simply or solely a case of arrested develop- nent. It is not Uke the brain of the unborn child at any Deriod, not even at the 5th month. It is reaUy a very complex Drain, and the analysis is not yet completed. It partly resembles I brain of the lower apes, and in some points resembles the Felidae, or cats, and yet the cat has a much better cortex. The student can compare the diagrams, and will find a fathom- less mine of interest therein. Microscopically, the pyramidal cells were few and badly formed, and fibres deficient. The second photograph is of the brain of a male imbecile who lived to forty, and facially was not unlike the many low degenerates we meet in the streets. His brain weighed 660 grammes, about 23 oz. The circumference of his skull was 18 inches. He had very little intelligence : he knew people, and had a few articulate words. The chief interest is that his brain conforms in some respects TO the ape type. Microscopically, there were more pyramidal ceUs laid down than his intelligence would warrant, but then these cells were badly formed. CHAPTER IX THE STRUCTURE OF THE GREY MATTER OF THE BRAIN THE BRAIN CORTEX : The grey matter— Motor areas— The three motor planes — The motor area — The five sensory areas — Brain reflex — The silent non-responsive areas. ASSOCIATION AREAS : Resume of cor- tical areas— Sensation — Mind— Will. " SMELL " : The intellect of the lower vertebrates — Technical detail — Their application in psychology. • THE SENSE OF SIGHT : Analysed— Must understand the brain to appre- ciate thought and character. BOLTON ON THE PYRAMIDAL LAYER : The prefrontal varies in normals according to will power and control and vice versd. FUNCTIONS OF THE CORTEX : Memory— Example of the cortex in action — How an imbecile would compare with normals in thought processes — The mentation of the music player — A complex reflex act — Automatic by repetition. THE MECHANISM OF PRO- CESSES OF THOUGHT : Memory— Processes of mentation— Percep- tions — Associations — Motions — The advantage of education. SUB- CONSCIOUS MENTATION : Mnemonics— Illustration. The brain has a buff colour outside to the depth of | of an inch. This is styled the cortex or the grey matter. It is the most important part, not only of the brain, but of the whole body. In this thin coating are contained thousands of millions of microscopic ceUs, which are concerned not only with the necessities of our present environment, but with our happi- ness, and perhaps with our future in the next world. It was discovered by Hitzig and Flechzig, and later experi- ments by Ferrier, Mott, Schaf er, Sherrington, and many others proved, that if a galvanic stimulus were applied to certain portions (precentral convolution) of the frontal lobe that certain muscular actions occurred (see diagrams). In this way aU the muscle groups of the body were accounted for, beginning with the foot and leg above, and ending with the lips and speech muscles below in the region of the temple. We have already studied the motor centres in the anterior horns of the spinal cord, and the higher reflex centres in the stem or midbrain. We now see a third motor plane, the cortex. This is the highest and most perfect, because these motor cells may be called into action by thought, from remote stimuh, such as the eye or ear or distant touch, taste, or smell. 78 To illustrate sensory, motor and association areas. The last are clear. Lent by Dr. Mott. M PF PO O The brain of a female dement, aged 53, which shews much wasting, chiefly in the prefrontal association area (PF), while the motor sensory areas (MS) stand out distinctly. (T) is the temporal association area ; (PO) the parieto occipital association area, and (O) the occipital pole. Compare with the diagram above. Lent by Dr. Bolton. Facing page 79. I THE GREY MATTER OF THE BRAIN 79 Che broad convolution (post-central or ascending parietal) be lind the central sulcus or groove is sensory and represents th'» terminal cells of these nerves from below. rhe eye and face muscles are governed by the frontal con- vc lutions, which occupy a position in the region of the forehead. The centre of vision is at the posterior pole of the brain (t! e occipital lobe), while the taste and smell centres are in til 3 temporal lobes, in front and above the ears. The important sense of hearing is also in the temporal lobe. The simplest brain mechanism consists in receiving impres- si- 'ns from the outer world by these sensory centres, and calHng fc •th some muscular action from the motor areas. It is a re lex, though somewhat complex process. There is however a large area in the human brain which d( es not respond to galvanism, and was originally called the silBnt area. To the great Flechzig^ belongs the honour of solving this mystery. These areas lie between the sensori-motor, sensory visual, The aid auditory areas. This large surface is called the parieto- tion°£^ occipital, and below it is the temporal area, and another siialler one (the insula), while just in front of the eye centres at the extreme front of the brain, above the eyebrows, is a silent aiea, called the prefrontal. These are the Association Areas b u O o >s u s IV and c V. ^ o .22 White Substance or Medullary portion. .X400. It IS clearly recognizable where these two differently functioned areas meet. The visuo-psychic on the left has a deep layer of pyramids, and a single row of granules. In the centre of the plate the latter splits into two, an outer shallow granular layer and an inner deeper layer. Between them is the line of Gennari. This is the visuo-sensory area of Bolton. This is from the cortex of a Mangaby which died of tubercle of the brain. The tubercle invaded the white substance only, whereas the more vascular grey substance resisted the invasion of the bacilli. I am indebted to Mr. Beddard F.R.S. for facilities in his laboratory and for the specimen. Facing page 104. i ^ FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN CORTEX 105 •or two years he had shown loss of attention in business, )ausing much inconvenience to his customers. There was also a great change in his disposition towards dis family and friends. His whole intellectual sphere and 3ven his personaUty were damaged, while at the same time he showed no care or trouble for the distress his family laboured under, nor could he locate himself as the cause. One cir- 3umstance which especially tried them, was that he could Dot read correctly, nor would he conduct family prayers, and while his son performed that ofl&ce he went on indiffer- ently with his breakfast. How often do similar symptoms appear, without tumour. It is then probably want of develop- ment or of use. We may from many proofs safely declare the prefrontal to be the highest brain association centre : the leader of the house : the commandant, and director of the other association areas. We know anatomically that it has fibres going to every part of the brain ; so that it can command or originate brain action or thought in any centre. We have seen in a previous chapter that it is the last to develop or ripen, for at birth it is only half its adult thickness, and this corresponds with observation, for wisdom does not belong to youth, nor always to adults. It depends on phys- ical evolution, aided by the continued efforts of perception and attention. So we cannot become wise, which includes the higher moral Seat of qualities, as self-control, unless we exercise all our faculties. 5^^^" This is one reason why the uneducated poor are at such a disadvantage and often become criminals. Who can blame them, when they have had no chance of mental improvement ? What will happen when we banish all reUgion from the State schools ? Dr. Bolton says (in Brain, 1903), that the great anterior association centre is undeveloped in all grades of primary men- tal deficiency, and undergoes wasting pari passu as dementia occurs. Would that these words could be remembered thoughtfully by every criminal lawyer and judge. It is on this knowledge a great error to send a man to prison for horse-stealing at the age of 84, as senile dementia may be in progress, while on the other hand a very heavy percentage of 106 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME our gaol-birds are partial aments with undeveloped cortex, and yet the State insists on hunting them down. Whenever we are consulted by the poorer classes we must feel struck with their helplessness and inabihty to focus their attention, or arrive at wise decisions. It is not right to despise or neglect them. On the contrary they require our patient sympathy, to assist in putting some of their prefrontal neurons into activity. We see fortunately the reverse condi- tions where some of the poor are self-educated and very capable, and there is no reason why knowledge, intelligence and moral control should be the privilege of the rich. The prefrontal represents the activity or personality of the Ego, which is the highest form of consciousness. From this we descend to states of motor and sensory conscious- ness, until we reach a plane for automatic actions and subconsciousness, which subject has been dealt with in Chap. XI. The posterior association area, the " silent " parietal lobe, non-responsive to galvanism, is one of the finest concepts of the Great Architect. It gives width and size to the back of the head, and has been observed in great thinkers, as Helm- holz, Liebig, Dollinger, Bach, Beethoven, Kant and many others. It is the seat of the intellect, and hence belongs to man, though it is represented feebly in the apes. It associates man's environment with the direction of his actions. It switches on his visual cortex behind, to his sensori motor cortex in front, including hearing and speech. Dr. Mott in his classical Bowman lecture, 1904, on the " The Evolution of the Visual Cortex in the Mammalia " points out the relation- ship of this area, the parietal lobe, to the area of vision, the occipital pole {see Fig. p. 79). In apes the sensory visual cortex lies partly on the outer surface of the occipital pole ; but in man through the increased development of his parietal lobe, this visual cortex is pushed back, round the corner into the middle line. But in some human beings, of low intellect, and consequently a smaller parietal lobe, this has not happened. There is in them a set back or reversion towards the ape. Dr. Watson showed me some years ago an imbecile's brain, which in this respect resembled an ourang's brain which we were then examining. I THE FUNCTIONS OF Tl IRTEX Elliot Smith has described a similar condition in some I gyptian Fellaheen and Soudanese brains. Dr. Mott has 8 ISO described in his lecture similar conditions in natives of ( hina, the Congo, and even in some Europeans and British, i] ad in about twenty per cent, of the insane. Clearly then 1 lan is liable to a set-back in his brain architecture, and if it 1 e lowered towards the status of a gorilla or ourang, it is in ( ae sense a reversion. Surely then we need not be too { nxious about forcing education on the coloured races. Mr. ( harles Rolleston, who has travelled much, has observed that t le negro can be educated only to a certain point, and that 1 ot very far. Similarly amongst our dullards and defectives, ve can safely surmise that in some cases there is structural ( efect, and in consequence *' education " as now administered ii hopeless, nay, more, destructive. It also supphes a key 10 the Uves and pecuUar actions of the criminal masses, and < xplains why many drop out of good surroundings into their lanks. I will allude again to this subject in the description (p. 224,) of a murderer's brain in Chap. XXI. CHAPTER XIII THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON THE BRAIN ENVIRONMENT : A slum infant's brain — Action of disease on cells. ALCOHOL : Deeper cell layers older in development — Superficial cell layers recent and unstable — Alcoholic poisoning of these, and the results morally — Cases of alcoholic dements treated as criminals. ALCOHOL A BRAIN POISON : The condition of the slightly damaged brain— Early loss of control with unfortunate results. LAW AND MEDICINE SHOULD JOIN IN PROTECTING SUCH : Case to illustrate— Senile devolution. FAILURE OF MENTAL POWER : Its effect in Parlia- ment — In senile decay the reflection of childhood. INCIPIENT MEN- TAL DECAY : Symptoms — Improvement of the fair sex through occu- pation — Frequency of arrested development in childhood. LOWER POTENTIAL IN STARVED CHILDREN : Treatment of weakened brains. ANTENATAL CONDITIONS AND PROSPECTS— POSTNATAL EN- VIRONMENT AND ITS CONSEQUENCE : Illegitimacy. Environ- Few people understand the correct application of the term ™®°* environment. It is not limited to our outward surround- ings in this world. It actually commences before birth. Thus to the chick the contents of the egg form its environ- ment ; and so with the human family, a great responsibihty rests with the mother in paying due regard to the environment of her unborn babe. No one knows the quaUty of brain, even in a child, what- ever the external appearance is Hke, therefore it behoves all to raise the brain potential to its highest development. I examined the brain of a prematurely born infant from a Westminster slum, which was so highly developed in all areas, and very rich in its embryonic nuclei, that it was intended by the Great Architect for a position of eminence and usefuhiess. Yet one could not regret its demise, for the slum life and the mill of civihzation probably would have ground down the normal Ego to a degraded subpersonality. I felt constrained to offer a short prayer for the offspring of the slum dwellers. I have met them at the Salvation Army bureau in the adult form, as social derelicts, yet not of their own making ; as we have seen, unwholesome sur- roundings cause alterations in the cells of the brain 108 d A slummer's brain, one month before birth (Westminster). A well-patterned cortex. This IS a section of the infant's brain, showing the dip (D), of a sulcus ; at the foot of which there are an excess of nuclei and an absence of pyramidal cells. Observe the nuclei at the surface (N) ; (P) is a well-packed layer of pyramidal cells, normal ; (G) is the granular layer, and (Pol.) the polymorph. Compare this cortex with that of the murderer, insane and alcoholic, pp. 220 to 227. Facing page 108. I i t i <.i " <.'v^v NFANT Br HE V/^J n NORMAL m ^ 12 •"<;.' 1 *> DRUNK^RD >i'|,'^,0« Drawn from the microscope to show the brain cortex in the above three conditions. Note the great shrinkage from chronic alcoholism in layer II, the pyramidal, or layer of intellect. How then can a drunkard be responsible ? Facing page 109. I iUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON THE BRAIN 109 Thus in acute alcoholism they are swollen and the nuclei p ished aside ; while in old standing cases of alcohoHsm they a -e shrivelled up beyond repair. Through the courtesy of I r. Mott I examined in his laboratory at Claybury Asylum t le brain of a patient in whom alcohoUsm had persisted for } 3ars. So many of the pyramidal cells were destroyed t lat the cortex was very much diminished in thickness. This c )11 destruction is quite sufficient to explain the want of will J Dwer, vacillation and irresponsibihty in the drunkard. As evolution or development is from within outwards, it c in be plainly realized that the deeper layers of the pyramidal c 3lls are more educated, while the more recent superficial c 3lls are less stable. These less stable external layers are the f rst to disappear in alcohoUc decay,and we can safely infer £ re the first to suffer in mild intoxication. Among those not ^ ^ell equipped in morals or inteUigence, when the higher control 'S'^hich society demands is weakened by alcohol, we get not 1 lerely silly actions, but crimes of varying degrees of gravity. ] lere is a wide field for discussion with arguments and evidence 1o fill many volumes. The jurist will not absolve the mildly iutoxicated from responsibility, or make any allowance for 1 he temptation he is exposed to. Those who imbibe mUdly, {iter a certain period of brain damage lose their power of 1 esistance to the drink craving. It thus forms a vicious circle from which there is no escape, so long as the drink traffic remains in its present condition. Imagine the absurdity, as I fell as the injustice of sending a woman, of 74, to 3 years' lenal servitude for stealing about lOs. worth of material ; "or she was an alcohohc dement and the fact that she was i petty thief all her life shows that she has been mentally deficient, and years ago should have been protected from lerself.^ I ^ In The Times of June 20, 1907, a c€ise is reported of an old man aged 85 being sent to prison for 18 months with hard labour for stealing a horse. It is not the first crime of the kind, and he had spent altogether 41 years in prison. Has his mental machinery ever been normal ? Is it ignorance, stupidity or culpable neglect on the part of the State ? '* A curious-looking woman," aged 74, was recently sent to penal servitude for 3 years for stealing a pair of shoes. The detective li 110 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME Alcohol Alcohol is the most powerful brain poison we have in use. —A Brain j have referred to its influence on the race by heredity, but this seems a fitting place to give caution to young people who have a healthy desire as to their future prosperity. Many young men imbibe not only wine but also spirits, and think the small quantities they take can do no harm. It is not a question of no damage to the brain, but the ratio of injury to other cells which are awaiting development. It simply means that young people who indulge deprive themselves of attaining their fullest mental powers. In every walk of life the young should aim at success and rising to a higher plane, which becomes impossible with a weakened or impaired brain, for it is just this slight damage which takes off the keen edge of the intellect, and destroys the power and finer perceptions. A distinguished physio- logical chemist says that, if he has any delicate work to do, his mental machinery is unreliable if he partake even of lager beer. We must also realize that this damaged condition of the brain is often the cause of the dethronement of the Ego. The brain being the most delicate part of the human machinery, it is necessarily unstable, and the more likely to suffer injury, and it is only its great recuperative power which saves us from disaster. As the more recently evolved or highest brain cells in the association areas ^ are the first to suffer, so patients who have had long, wearing illnesses, and have little recuperative power or are in the early stages of insanity, or whose neurons are unstable through weakened control, occasionally come within the grip of the law. When this happens in respectable described her as a dangerous West-End thief. To get such a character at the age of 74 showed a rather valuable personahty hidden somewhere but probably distorted by circumstances, as in 20 years she had been convicted 10 times for shoplifting. Though she had £200 in the savings bank, the stolen property at home showed 22 gloves, 13 pairs of stockings, 84 separate ribbons, 7 lace scarves, and endless other things. If she had been an American it would have been called kleptomania. 1 Dr. Bolton has shown that the cissociation areas are the first to disintegrate microscopically, and Dr. Watson has demonstrated the same macroscopically. Both facts were discovered independently, which gives great value to the work. I nTFLUENCE of environment on the brain 111 f , milies it causes a great shock, and is just a case where ;^ edicine and Law should fraternize in order to relabel t le supposed criminal as a " mental invalid." n I In many of these cases juries will not admit mental decay Law and cause they see no signs of physical decay, as if one could ^0^1^*^^ s )e the delicate workings of a watch through its case. Quite join in 1 jcently a worthy clergyman was sentenced to five years' "ot«<^ti^ ] enal servitude for an assault on a child, in spite of one of ( ur best alienist's statement, that he was suffering from i icipient general paralysis. Time will prove the diagnosis, 1 ut nothing will heal the social wound. As age approaches devolution follows the reverse course ( f evolution. Some men are old at 45, some at 60 and some weather the storms tiU riper years. The brain loses weight t oon after 50, and as age advances the trusty brain cells yield 1 p their service and fall out of action. Memory fails first, the hand becomes shaky, lastly the Failure of jeet drag and shuffle along, indicating the failure of the func- p^!^^ lion of association, before that of the sensori-motor areas. Likewise as the deeper layers of pyramidal cells are the oarUest educated, so the more superficial cell layers degenerate lirst, and with them pass away the more recent and complex visual memories, leaving the deeper or more ancient memories of childhood. These facts are of value in the practical life of every social community. This soUd fact is worthy of national consideration in the election of members to Parliament. The very serious and inxious duties of governing the Empire falls into the hands of inexperienced amateurs. It would be wise at all events bo place an age limit, as in the case of the army and of con- sulting surgeons to hospitals. If the Empire is to keep pace with other nations it must be controlled and guided by younger and more active brain cells, and the senile cells must retire to their normal and well earned condition of rest. Thus senile decay like a mirror reflects youth and infancy. Sound training in these early periods is of great importance, for if neglected one gets in seniHty much waywardness and many other faults more or less serious, which are not new, 112 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME nor do they belong to old age, but are the uncovering of the long buried past. Incipient Mental Decay When the brain deteriorates, the effect is so gradual that it easily escapes recognition. The father who has conducted a model home gradually loses his parental interest, causing his family distress. The thrifty man becomes extravagant, while the honourable and moral show unusual frivolity and tend to stray. Friends say he is quite altered, and so he is, for the machinery, which can only last a certain time according to stress, is wearing out. It is time for the doctor, lest there be social trouble and disorder. These cases increase in number, for there is now greater stress, through more rapid methods of business and keener competition. Ease and luxury are also in themselves powerful aids to degeneracy. We see the converse where young women have in late years gone in for sports and also for business and abandoned their former inactive methods. Their diseases have in consequence visibly decreased, but their type is altering and they become sHghtly masculine. It requires no power of imagination to realize the thous- ands of children growing up with slightly damaged brains, who attract no special notice from the casual observer. It is, however, just the httle damage, sometimes curable, which turns the scale against an individual in the struggle for exist- ence. He never reaches the proper level of development that God originally equipped him for. If such belong to the poorer classes they naturally tend to swell the numbers of the sub- merged, or of the criminal masses. Lowered Potential in Starved Children If the brain potential in children be lowered, they cannot be forced to intellectual effort, as we see daily demonstrated in the State schools, the condition being frequently aggravated by starvation. I maintain that these weakly, ill-nourished children have no business at school, and would be better with no strain from education of that kind. Where damage to the brain has occurred much ground may be regained by suitable nourishment, and by gently stimulating processes of thought, not by constant pressure, nor dry-as-dust methods, but by placing a variety of subjects I IVELUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON THE BRAIN 113 1 efore the child, so as to brmg out observation and mentation, a ad probably fix on some hobby or faculty capable of further c evelopment in a useful direction. to I I The antenatal conditions must not be overlooked. Given Ante- tlie prospects of offspring, we must do everything to make 2hJ^**"* t lieir journey a success. and Pros- There are according to Dr. Ford Robertson 3,000,000,000 P^^ ( ells in the brain, all of which are foretold in the embryo in 1 he form of small round nuclei or neuro-blasts.^ These nuclei absorb nourishment from the blood, and upon this maternal nvironment hangs the future fate of the child. It is a terrible Bsponsibihty and one which is so lamentably neglected by many. Poor are our chances where the mother's blood may con- iain gouty, phthisical, syphilitic, or alcohoUc toxins, or be ieficient from anaemia, and malnutrition. During develop- ment these nuclei absorb leicithin, which is rich in phosphorus to build up the body of the surrounding nerve cell, and later shoot out the nerve fibres, dendrons and axons. It is quite evident that many a child is ruined in utero, and its miserable fate decided before birth. I Postnatal precautions may undo some of the unfavourable Post- antenatal conditions, and every new-bom infant should be vironment regarded as a valuable asset to the nation. If we ever do and its become truly civihzed, this will be the first care on the part qu^^ of the State, and the infamy of treating innocent babes of obscure origin as offenders against society will be removed. It is in infancy that the Uttle life can be specially moulded, for good or for evil. No success in mind or morals can be expected, unless due regard is paid to physical health and nutrition. Our poor boys, degraded unjustly in prison, are mostly victims of neglect and heredity from unwholesome marriages, while the melancholy histories I have recorded show how many of our criminals were ill-fated from infancy and some were doomed before birth. Can it be wrong to control and forbid marriage in certain cases, or are we sinning against God and humanity in per- mitting such unwholesome mixtures ? * See fig. pp. 101, 108. I I CHAPTER XIV THE RELATION OF PHYSIOGNOMY TO BRAIN CELLS Popular phrenology, or bumpology. PHYSIOGNOMY : A counterpart of the brain — The development of the eye — Facial muscles and expression. RELATION OF BRAIN CELLS TO MUSCLE FIBRE : Muscular repre- sentation on the cortex — Paralysis — Muscle tone. DEVOLUTION : General paralysis : its course — Expressionless boys — Climate and charac- ter—Brain is the central authority. THE INFLUENCE OF MARRIAGE ON CHARACTER : Marriage— A bureau desirable— Misfits— Small families desirable. TEMPERAMENTS : The nervous ; The bilious ; The sanguine ; The lymphatic ; Marriage. It would be of no practical value to discuss seriously the subject of " Popular Phrenology," described by Sir William Turner " Bumpology," as it has no foundation in fact. True phrenology which has a scientific basis, being always con- fronted with the quack, has no opportunity of declaring itself under that title. Otherwise much could be written under that heading in regard to cranial measurements, anatomical and racial pecuHarities, and other details. The surface of the brain is mapped out into areas, as already described in previous chapters representing Sensation, Motion, and Association. The description of the skull for different " faculties," as music, colour, destruction, amativeness, combativeness, and so on, is purely imaginary and founded on fanciful and fallacious observations. It is, however, only just to observe that many phrenologists are earnest philanthropists, not working for gain, and many do very useful educational work. Physiog- But there is another art, "Physiognomy," which appears ^^"^^ to rest upon a scientific basis. We are all aware that some carry their characters in their faces, but it is probable that all do so if we only understood how to interpret the manifesta- tions. It is therefore important to examine this direct associa- 114 RELATION OF PHYSIOGNOMY TO BRAIN CELLS 115 tion of the brain with physiognomy. The result suggests indeed that they are counterparts. In such research one must always go back to the early development in the embryonic state. For example, the eye is an outgrowth from the forebrain of the embryo (fig. p. 72). There is first a stalk, which becomes the optic nerve, and then a cup at its termination which develops into the retina. The whole is covered over by a horny cap, the cornea. Every one knows how the eye expresses the degree of intelligence, both active and passive, while we have in the Old Book the following scientific declaration, which appeared long before mankind was ready for it : " The light of the body is the eye." The word " light " implies intelligence. Thus the mental relationship of eye to mind, so long known by observation, has a true physical basis. Examining in a general way, we observe that the facial expressions are entirely due to fine muscular movements, which show anger, pleasure, pain, sorrow or mirth, correspond- ing to the mental associations. Most animals are devoid of facial expression ; but many, as birds and lower mammals, have powers in this direction through the eye and scalp by means of the surrounding muscles. When we consider the cat, dog and ape tribe, we find a decided advance in facial characteristics. The cells of the brain cortex are in communication with Relation the skin and all the muscles of the body. One might almost Qi?^f^ suggest the muscle fibres as the terminals of the motor cells, Muscle for when a central group of motor cells is destroyed, paralysis ^*^® and wasting of the particular muscles occur. In cases of infantile paralysis, of an arm or leg, the corresponding motor cells are diseased or dead. The muscles consequently never develop, and the skin over that part shrivels from want of stimulus and nutrition. When a limb is amputated its special motor area on the cortex atrophies. Though every muscle and group of muscles is represented on the cortex of the motor area, yet its quantitative degree varies as stated in Chapter XII. Thus the coarse leg muscles require less representation than the finer muscles of the hand, which is capable of skilled and complex acts, and therefore the hand has more cells and a 116 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME larger area in the cortex than the leg. In the same way the motor cells of the muscles of speech occupy a larger area on the cortex than those of the hand, as representing the crowning skill of the human species. The motor functions are chiefly in the frontal region. That which represents the facial muscles is entirely in the upper part and side of the forehead ; the speech centre residing at the left temple.^ When destruction of groups of brain cells occurs, as from haemorrhage or tumour, there follows a paralysis of the muscles so affected. From other pathological conditions we know also that tone and vitality of muscle de- pend entirely on the healthy state of the central nerve cells. Thus brain cell and muscle are counterparts of one system, of which the cell may be likened to master and the muscle to servant. Devolu- In general paralysis of the insane, which has been alluded to, one can see the muscles gradually fail as the motor areas are invaded by the disease. After the association areas degenerate, the speech fails, because it is the last muscular function to develop, and therefore the most unstable. Almost concurrently, the facial muscles lose tone and become flabby, which results in apathy and loss of expression. A placid calm, betraying neither interest nor emotion, reigns over the faces of these deeply afflicted ones. This expressionless face from devolution has unfortunately its counterpart in some of our youths from want of evolution, being noticeable among the insipid youths who aim at snobbism, but though a type of mental enfeeblement, it is in most cases curable. This type of young man is supposed to look bored if any intellectual subject is brought to his notice, and it would be incorrect to be interested in his surroundings. His chief interests are his clothes and his complexion. He is, alas, an invert, and is found in those walks of life where industry is discouraged and honest work despised. These young people are of no value to the commonwealth until they have recovered. Many, per- haps most, of them are the fault of their parents, while some are imitative weaklings, trying to resist their normal mental 1 In left-handed people the speech centre is supposed to be in the right temple. This beautifully stained diagram has been lent to me by Dr. Mott. It shows the cell body and dendrons. The axon is faint and comes off the hillock at the base. It also demonstrates a neuron. Facing pagt 116. 1 I ILATION OF PHYSIOGNOMY TO BRAIN CELLS 117 development. They are very largely the product of ease, and consequently are met with among the wealthy more than the aristocratic classes. Their counterparts in the lower ranks occur among the poor wastrels and unemployables. CUmate and general surroundings have much to do with energy and character formation, as one may reaUze by comparing the hardy Scot and his stern countenance with the soft lined ItaUan whose needs are liberally suppUed by nature without much effort on his own part. The brain then is the central authority of the body, govern- ing and directing all details. In one sense it would appear as if the body was built on the brain or attached to it in order to subserve its purposes, while in no part does the brain manifest itself more clearly than in the physiognomy. It is the object of all to get the best value out of every brain, and try to improve all future stock. Here comes in the importance of wise and wholesome marriage. Selection in marriage would undoubtedly raise the standard of individuals. It would not make a new human species however, for De Vries, in experimenting with sugar beet, found that " selection " gave phenomenal results only for a time. The same happened with cereals in producing large and heavy grain. After a certain period there was a higher average standard. Karl Pearson in biometry arrived at the same result. Malthus expressed the same opinion in his Essay on Population, ii, p. 11. But while perfection is beyond any dream, what a grand thing if we could be permanently raised on to a higher platform socially, morally and intellectually ! The greatest boon to the nation would be a Marriage Bureau, J^« ^"- scientifically conducted under Government control. Wise Marriage supervision is to be desired for the young to prevent foolish ^ and thriftless unions, while many valuable members of both sexes are yearning, in a state of bitter disappointment, for a healthy offspring. On the other hand the vast number of misfits in the present speculative methods of marriage is the cause of much domestic misery and crime ; whereas in our modern civilization, marriage is a duty requiring much judgment and very careful selection. 118 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME Ignorant marriage is largely responsible for the heavy burden of disease, lunacy and crime. The benediction of the Psalmist on large families does not apply in these days of overcrowding and competition. Few people can now afford to be generous to the population, as long as generosity spells poverty, discontent, and crime to the offspring, not to mention the drain of health on the mother. We have also very carefully to mate suitable temperaments. We usually recognize four temperaments : — 1. The Nervous. 2. The Sanguine. 3. The Bilious and 4. The Lymphatic. The Nervous Temperaments. — These are active, rapid thinkers, intellectually fertile, and adventurous ; but also sensi- tive, excitable, irresolute, and secretive. Being very persistent they often exceed their power of endurance. Most genii and reformers belong to this class. Physically they are fair, and of spare form, with finely-cut features. In morals they are apt to go to the extreme of what is right or wrong, and whilst usually lively, are subject to unreasonable depression and despondency. The Bilious temperament contains those who are of dark eyes and hair, broad and thickset. Mentally they are serious, and slower in thought and action, than those of the former temperament. They are good in business, not rash in specu- lation. They are apt to be spiteful and not very wiUing to forgive. They are very domesticated, good to their famiUes, and being incHned to selfishness accumulate wealth. The Sanguine folk are ruddy in complexion and hair, florid, blue eyed and broad in build. Whatever troubles come they are cheerful, impulsive, and never lose hope. They are also emotional and energetic, but changeable. They are just as happy over trifles as over big things. They are frank and outspoken, never spiteful or secretive. They are too super- ficial to be great students, and too happy-go-lucky to be disagreeable. The Lymphatic or Lethargic people are fair, fleshy and heavy in build, often with brown eyes. They are mentally slow and careful, very thoughtful in arriving at conclusions, and ready to forgive, being too lazy to be wicked or to cherish un- kind feelings. They are never brilliant or active but plodding, and with great power of endurance. They spend little, and are very self indulgent. It is dangerous for two of nervous temperament to marry, as the offspring may be neurotic in high degree. In any case they will probably be unstable, and are therefore liable to deviations in any direction, either good or bad. A nervous temperament should be alhed preferably to a lym- phatic. One then gets stability of character from the latter, with the finer perceptions of the former. Nervo-bilious alliances are passable, and nervo-sanguine are good, lethargo- lethargic combinations are very bad, producing the lazy beings who block all progress, and also inverts, who so com- monly become criminals. CHAPTER XV Few Human Beings are Normal Specimens PHYSICAL DEGENERATION AND DEFICIENCY, EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL, SEEN AND UNSEEN (A) EXTERNAL STIGMATA.— FEW HUMAN BEINGS ARE NORMAL SPECI- MENS : The criminal not a type — Lombroso's work — A broad middle line necessary — MacAlister on brain — Lunatic skulls. ASYMMETRY OF SKULL AND FACE : We are two-sided and unequal — Abnormal skulls — Transverse diameter in normal skull — The palate — Thickening of the skull bones — Asymmetry of features — Lombroso's statements not quite trustworthy. ABNORMALITIES AMONG GREAT MEN. INFLU- ENCE OF ENVIRONMENT ON DEGENERACY : In Ireland : Juvenile adults— City lads CRIMINALS' SKULLS— {J5) CRANIAL MEASURE- MENTS : A TECHNICAL APPENDIX : Cranial index— Very mislead- ing : cases— No guide as to size. DR. SUTHERLAND ON CRIMINAL HEADS : Circumference of skull — Two arches : anteroposterior and lateral — Family types — Ford Robertson's measurements. ABNORMAL CASES : Idiots — Sir J. Crichton Browne's cases — Difference in area of sur- face of skull according to rank and education — Head measurements open to fallacies. (C) SKULL DEVELOPMENT AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. THE NEGRO SKULL: Our skull quite different from the ape's— The missing link — D'Aubenton's and Soemering's observations — Corrected by M. Broca— The facial index. INTERNAL CAPACITY OF THE SKULL : Skull comparison open to great fallacies.— ARRESTED EVO- LUTION IN LOWER RACES : The skull of pre-historic man. DE- GENERACY NOT A REVERSION TO PRIMITIVE MAN : Due to unseen causes— Changes in germ-plasm. {D) INTERNAL, UNSEEN DE- GENERATION : Destruction, or arrested growth of nuclei in brain — Infantile type of nose — Precocity among genii — Precocious children must not be forced — Observation by Robert Knox, the Edinburgh anatomist. " Deflciunt Vires " (Ability is wanting) (A) EXTERNAL STIGMATA Too much importance is attached to external malformations, deficiencies and asymmetries. Few of us could pass as perfect specimens, whilst many with marked stigmata of degenera- tion have shown not only superior inteUigence, but also high morale. On the other hand a number of criminals are manifestly of very low type, showing every variation of irregular and mal- formed features, and arrested development. In them we find 120 I SICAL DEGENERATION, SEEN AND UNSEEN 121 I I many cases arrested physical growth, combined with eeble intellect, and, as a rule, absence of moral sense. The ItaUan Professor Lombroso has written very exten- dvely and rather dogmatically on this subject, carrying his jonclusions far beyond legitimate bounds ; nevertheless, his ;^orks are now classical. They contain a collection of facts ind evidence, not too compHmentary, concerning every world-known character, for even if a man is too tall he is labelled by Lombroso as a degenerate. Morel and Fere (La famiUe neuropathique) have written a good deal on the subject of degeneration, but they go too far as they include every malformation to which the human body is Uable. In summing up physical abnormalities, we must make a broad middle line, and only regard as degenerate characters those very far removed from the common or average type. Too much importance has been attached to the size or shape of the head, nose, ears, palate, and even to the irregular colour of the eyes. Too large a face in proportion to the cranium is usually considered degenerate, but here again we often find ourselves in error. Professor MacAHster pointed out, in 1898, that the " Brain shape determines the skull shape," and is the mould on which the skull is developed. But for results we have to depend on brain contents, and we often observe very large heads in idiots, yet they may be very deficient both in quaUty and quantity of nerve cells. The average size of lunatic skuUs is below normal merely on account of the number of small- headed idiots, otherwise the ordinary lunatic's skull pre- sents no variation from the normal type. Any who have visited asylums must have been struck by this fact. Lombroso finds in asymmetry a profitable field for his Asym- theories of degeneracy. He is very unyielding, for we must sESfsmd remember that we are two-sided beings. We have in our Face bodies a strong right side controlled by the left half of the brain, and a weak left side governed by the right side of the brain, therefore some observers maintain that the left half of the skull is normally sHghtly larger and longer. The difference is however so small that we may dismiss it. Bendedikt attaches no importance to the greatest asymmetry. Giuf- 122 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME frida-Ruggeri ^ on the other hand says the normal asymmetry merely consists in a little extra prominence on the left side of the forehead, and posteriorly of the left occipital bone.^ The midway opinion is probably correct, namely, that excessive asymmetry of skull is more frequent among the criminals and insane, if we include idiots, than amongst normal persons, and is evidence of some degree of faulty construction and degeneracy.^ On the other hand some of the worst criminals are of perfect exterior ; while many individuals who are externally degenerate are almost incapable of evil. Lombroso describes skulls as abnormal if they are dome- shaped, keel-shaped, flat, narrow, broad, high or low, so that we all come somewhere within the category. Rather is it to be suggested that these variations occur as family types, and constantly interbreeding intensifies any variety. We know that in the normal skull the greatest transverse diameter is behind the centre. If it occur in the anterior third, it is called " the insane type." The palate is considered by many as of great importance as an indicator of physical degeneracy. It is generally con- sidered that if the palate is very high, narrow, irregular or deformed, it is a sign of bad or neurotic heredity, while others maintain that they find many well-shaped and broad palates among idiots. Among inteUigent criminals I have usually found broad palates, except among the neurotic ones, when they are narrow and high. It seems probable that people with narrow oval faces and higher skulls, lend their cranial architecture to narrow palates, and vice versa. Thickening of the skull occurs in about 25-50 per cent, of the insane according to different observers ; so that the bosses and irregularities, being due to excrescences of bone, have no connexion with the brain, but are due to faults in development and primary malnutrition. The skull has been known to exceed one inch in thickness (Professor D. J. Hamilton). There are, however, great variations among the sane ; thus a navvy may have a much thicker skull than an artist or * Journal of Mental Science, 1888, and Diet. Psych. Med. 1892. * Riv. Sperimentale di Freniatria, 1899. * Read Sir Greorge Humphries' notes on skulls in Joum. of AncU. and Phys., vol. xxix, 1895. I ^SICAL DEGENERATION, SEEN AND UNSEEN 123 '• iterary man, and a larger, heavier brain also. We can there- i ore make no law in these matters ; the question is one of types, md perhaps adaptations to surroundings which have taken ;everal generations to build up. Thus though a navvy might nake an artist as a great exception, it would take several generations before a sensitive hterary man, such as Ruskin, )r a family of that kind, could produce a navvy. Those wishing to follow up this subject cannot choose better w^orksthan those of Lombroso,^and Dr. Barr of America, and Dr. Bianchi. How Lombroso's information is gathered is a mystery, but it cannot carry much rehabiUty, for how does he authoritatively know that Socrates was a cretin, or even that Rembrandt and Pope were such ? How did he get access to their skulls ? Carlyle and Darwin are also described by him as cretinoid. Among the long and interesting list of abnormal men, I Abnor- have picked out the following. among* Dante had an irregular left parietal skull bone. Great Meo Robert Bruce's skull was after the type of prehistoric man. Kant's head was too broad. Volta's skull was too heavy, and of aboriginal type. In Byron and Humboldt the sutures or joints ossified too soon. Descartes, Guido Reni and Schumann had small heads. Milton, Linnaeus, Cuvier and Gibbon had hydrocephalus, or water on the brain, and so on. With an apology to the friends of a great Nonconformist preacher, I must beg the right to make free with public men. I never saw any one who could sum up so many stigmata of degeneration as in his case. There seemed nothing left out, and yet how the light of his eye and his superior personaUty came out in expression, so to as draw more men to him than any before or since ! The mental and moral quahties were all of the finest, but he was quite conscious of the way in which nature had neglected him physically and treated it with humour. La Roche consoles the great by saying : — II n'appartient qu'aux grands hommes d' avoir de grands defatUs. " It is only great men who can afford to have great defects." * Uhomme crimind p. 142. 124 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME Influence Dr. Pritchard, an eminent psychologist, in his Physical ronment History of Mankind, gives a remarkable illustration of the on De- influence of environment on degeneracy. In the seventeenth in Ireland century, conflict and oppression drove many finely developed Irish peasants into the mountains of Sligo and Mayo. Here they were exposed to great privations and starvation, which brutalized them, and their progeny degenerated. He reported on them as of small stature, averaging 6 feet 2 inches, bow-legged, high cheek bones, depressed noses, projecting mouths, prominent teeth and exposed gums. There is no reason to doubt the accuracy of the observer, and, if true, we ought to endeavour to restore Nature's gifts where " hypocritical civilization has interfered." Among the "juvenile adults " in prison, many of them only 16, a great amount of deterioration in physique and form is to be seen. Their skull measurements are quite up to the average, as compared with lads of the upper class, showing that nature has started them fair in many cases. They are just at the age when healthy exercise and occupation might restore that which nature demands, but what civilization has robbed them of. Examining the younger city lads, rescued and sheltered in homes, we find great diminution of stature and weight. Their intelligence is low, but they are without a marked excess of " stigmata " about the face and head. They likewise show a fair average in skull measure- ments. Malnutrition is their ruin. CriminalsS Amongst criminals I find quite average-sized skulls, as may be readily seen by referring to the cases described. Com- paring these with prosperous and upright city merchants there is no difference. It is, however, only fair to say that many prison doctors do not agree with this statement. Thus, Dr. Wilson, in 1869, read a paper at the British Association in which he gave the results of 460 head measurements. He said they were cranially deficient, especially in the anterior lobes. Often there was a real physical deterioration, and 40 per cent, of the convicts were invahds. IMTSICAL DEGENERATION, SEEN AND UNSEEN 125 I I I {B) CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS ^ A TECHNICAL APPENDIX. have collected a few cases recorded by Ireland and Crichton Browne and others, which might suitably be compared here with normals. In order to increase the interest of the subject, which to 1 few will be fascinating, I will give a sketch of the methods Df measuring the skull. One finds with a pair of caUpers the greatest width and length, and from this calculates the ^r Cranial Index This is a comparative measurement, irrespective of size, and therefore appears devoid of scientific merit, as I will presently show. The Cranial Index is found by multiplying the width of the skuU by 100, and dividing by the length. The figures work out usually between 70 and 85. 70 to 75 represents longheaded people (dolichocephcUic), 75 to 80 are medium (mesaticephalic). 80 to 85 are broadheads (brachy cephalic). Outside these figures are extremes. Intellectually, longheaded people are thought to be more impulsive, and carry less ballast than broadheads. This view is, however, very misleading, as some examples will show. Nevertheless both primitive man and the negro races are longheaded, whilst the tjrpe of the European is brachy cephalic. I selected a merchant prince in the city with an enormous head, 8| long by 6 J wide (Case 133). His cranial index, 7 4 J, appears below the average. I compared this with another equally intellectual city merchant, and a conspicuously large head. The latter measured 8 J by 6f with a cranial index of 82 (Case 135). The two heads are, however, of about equal internal capacity. Place alongside two young offenders : one that of an intel- ligent poor lad, charged with *' sleeping out," aged 18, with a cranial index of 74^, whose head m easures 7} by 5^ ; the other * This may be omitted by the lay refikder, resuming again at C. 126 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME 1 youth, with a cranial index of 82f , measures 7 by 5| ; he is also 18 and not only a thief, but a middle grade imbecile. Selecting from some other cases, I know of a poor murderer with an index of 7 4 J, whose skull measures 7| by 5 J and he is also mentally deficient. On the other side, out of 26 active who were ex-criminals of all sorts, I have 9 who vary between 80 and 86|, which shows a larger ratio of broadheads than is normal. The index 86f belongs, how- ever, to a German ex-criminal, and the Teutons are broader in the head than their Anglo-Saxon cousins. The cranial index is no guide as to size or intelligence, or else the young and deficient criminal would equal the capable city merchant. Dr. Dr. G. H. Sutherland, Commissioner of Lunacy in Scotland, f^d^on ^J'om a large number of statistics finds a difference in size of Criminal skull in different classes of criminals, but the variation in size ^^^^^ is small, and from my measurements I cannot formulate any similar conclusion. I find a most dangerous man is the possessor of the largest skull, 8| by 5| with the lowest index 70f . One sees by these many cases or by a glance at the tables, that the cranial index or head measurements are absolutely of no value in the study of this wide question of criminality. The other ex-criminals run chiefly from 7 J to 7i in length, and about 6 in width, which are quite average sizes. One would expect some definite results from closer measure- ments of the skull, and I have made a table of both normals, exceptional, criminals and " embryonic " criminals, if I may so term the youngsters whom we are steadily pushing into that "class." The circumference of the base is taken just above the brows and round the occiput. There are then two arches : — (1) Antero-posterior, from the glabella, or prominence above the root of the nose to the occipital point behind : and (2) The transverse or lateral, from the upper border of the auditory meatus, or orifice on each side. Family configuration causes a certain amount of variability, so there is always a margin for inaccuracy. bBrSICAL DEGENERATION, SEEN AND UNSEEN 127 Ford Robertson^ gives the average measurements of >rmal male British skull as — Mesaticephalic — 78 cranial index. Inches. Millimetres. Circumference . . . 19^ to 21 — 495 to 545 Length 7J —186 Width 5| —144 I have been unable to find observations on the arches, but ;hey seem to vary from 12 J to 14 inches — 320 to 355 miUimetres [including boys). It is most interesting to notice in the tables fchat the two arches are very often equal in the same skull. These should of course be mesaticephaUc, but the indices do Qot always corroborate this. Millimetres. . 510 . 320 . 330 With these brain weights and skull measurements we Abnormal might now consider some extreme abnormal cases. ^^ (1) A paralysed idiot of 10. The skull- Inches. Circumference . . . . .20 Antero-posterior arch . . . .12^ Transverse arch . . . . .13 The brain weighed 48 oz. (Cerebrum, 42 oz. ; Cerebellum and medulla, 6 oz.) Here then we have an idiot with a small but normal skull and a brain slightly above normal weight. (2) An epileptic idiot. The Skull— Inches. Circimiference . . . . . 18f . . Antero-posterior arch . . . . llf . . Transverse arch . . . . . llf . . The right half of the brain (cerebrum) weighed 21 oz. The left „ „ „ „ „ 16 oz. In this case the two should have weight 42 ounces. (3) Hydrocephahc idiots. Average of several cases of both sexes — Skull— Inches. . 20-24 . . 15|-16i . Millimetres. . 480 . 300 300 Circumference . Antero-posterior arch Transverse arch 151-16 Millimetres. 510-630 400-420 400-410 ^ Pathology of Mental Diseases. * See Ireland's work on Mental Affections of Children. 128 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME These are collected from Dr. Ireland's writings, he being one of the greatest authorities on this class of mental disease. Lombroso furnishes five cases of Microcephalic idiots. Case. 1 2 3 4 5 Age. 10 13 21 Arches. Size of Skiill. Circ. Ant. Post. Lat. .5^x4 . . 16 . 9 8 . 5 X4 . 16 . . 10 8 . 6 x4i . . 17 . H 9 .5^x4 . 15 . — — . 4ix3| . . m . • 7} 7i The fifth case was the celebrated idiot, Antonio Grandoni, who was hke a mischievous brute. His brain weighed only 289 grammes, or 10 J ounces, and the convex surface was 11,310 square millimetres, which is about 2V of the aver- age. Middlemass recorded in the Lancet, June 1895, an idiot's brain weighing 65 J ozs., or 1850 grammes. This idiot lived to 70. On microscopic examination the cortical cells were very few, but the non-active supporting tissue was in great excess. Walsem in Germany published an account of an idiot's brain which weighed 2,028 grammes, or about 72 oz. This man only lived to the age of 22, and was an epileptic. He had a very small complement of active brain cells. Sir J. Crichton Browne ^ has made a large collection of brain weights in the West Riding Asylum. (1) Idiots — averages. Oz, Grms. Males .... . . 40| . . 1,156 Females .... . . 34 . . 1,019 Cerebrum only in males |-|^* half half . 18i . . in . 618 490 „ in females l-^' half half 15f . 14f . 446 415 (2) Imbeciles — averages. Males .... 46J . . 1,282 Half -cerebrum onlyjj^ 20 . 19^ . 563 562 Females .... 42| . . 1,211 CR Half -cerebrum only j^' 18 . 533 525 » Brain, 1880. K [YSICAL DEGENERATION, SEEN AND UNSEEN 129 {) Melancholies — averages. Males . Half -cerebrum -j j ' Females Half-cerebnmi | ^ * (4) Senile decay — dements — averages. Males Half-cerebnmij ^ * Females Half -cerebrum j j ' 49| . . 1,410 22i . 630 22i . 630 43 . . 1,220 m . 550 m . 640 46i . . 1,320 20i . 576 20 . 670 41 . 1,180 18 . 615 18 . 510 These researches were reported in Brain in 1880 and show an amount of very accm*ate and valuable research. It shows that melancholies are about average weight ; while seniles lose about y^ in brain weight or 7 per cent. Epileptics usually have large heavy brains, and thick skulls, of rounded shape. It would seem as if the fits represented explosions from high tension of accumulated nerve force. In general paralysis, as disease advances the brain falls in weight, in some cases very rapidly. This is due to wasting of the cortical surface, especially in the association areas, as well as to the decay of the fibres in the white substance underneath ; the space thus produced in the skull is then filled up with clear fluid, almost like water. Lombroso^ has observed amongst five persons having the same brain weight, that there is a difference in the superficial area of the head between the educated and the uneducated. He gives four cases to illustrate this : — Brain weight. Head surface. (1) Fuchs, a physician 53 oz. or 1,499 grms. 221,005 sq. cm. (2) Gaus, a mathema- tician . . 52f „ „ 1,492 „ 219,588 „ (3) A common woman. unknown . . „ 1,492 „ 204,115 „ (4) A common workman „ 1,492 „ 187,672 „ This subject requires many more cases, but seems to suggest that given equal weights, the intellectual brain is more spread out in its cortex, which is the intellectual region. It is certainly more correct to measure the surface of the * L'uomo dilinq. K 130 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME head than guess its size and capacity by merely measuring the length and width, for the dome varies greatly in height, as my measurements show. (C) SKULL DEVELOPMENT AT DIFFERENT PERIODS In regard to the general outline of the skull at different periods of life, it is seen that in the infant the skull is chiefly developed behind in the occipital part. During the childhood the tem- poral area develops, while as adolescence approaches the skull develops frontally. This was pointed out by M. Gratiolet, who also observed that in woman the elongation of the head was due to development in the temporal region, and so nature has placed her midway between the child and adult man. If this be so, it gives food for solemn reflection to the modern women, who wish to change their place in nature with the stronger sex. The A negro, being on a lower plane of evolution, is developed SkST ^^ ^^^ occipital region rather than frontally, which latter marks the white races. The negro, therefore, presents the in- fantile type of mind, which explains their servile position, and would justify slavery if it could be combined with humanity. Some who are keen on evolution suggest that we are descended from the apes. But M. Broca and others have shown by careful skull measurements, in relation specially to the distance of the projecting upper jaw from the foramen magnum, that our skull bears no direct relation to that of the ape. It certainly may cause anxiety to some, to be deprived of a supposed Simian ancestry, but it rather sets at rest the missing link which never existed except in the imagination of its author. Aboriginal man undoubtedly came from man and not from monkey, but there are many other anatomical facts and relationships, including the evidence of embryology, which indicate evolution. Of special importance is the idiot's brain in Chapter V which reverted to the carnivora. That case shows there is a link. The link is not missing but invisible. D'Aubenton ^ said the foramen magnum (which is the opening at the back of the skull through which the spinal cord passes ^ See Quatrefage's Social Evolviion, Chap. XXVI. I PHYSICAL DEGENERATION, SEEN AND UNSEEN 131 on to the brain) was further back in animals than in man. Soemering also thought that it was placed further back in the negro than in the white races, which would look as if the negro was more closely related to the ape than we are. The error arose from measuring the skull as a whole. The negro's upper jaw is prognathous, that is, projects further forward than what is normal in white races. Broca corrected this by measuring from the anterior margin of the foramen magnum to the alveolar or posterior border of the upper jaw, which prevented error from the variable prognathism. M. Broca compared 60 European with 35 negro skulls. If 1,000 repre- sents the total projection, a negro's is 498 and a white man's 475, only a difference of 23. Therefore, the foramen magnum is more forward in negroes than in whites, whereas it is the reverse in apes, which cancels any resemblance between the ape and the negro. In comparing individuals of lower grade. Camper sugges- ted the facial index as a measurement. This angle is found by taking the length of the face from the tip of the chin, to the tip of the nose where it joins the forehead, multiplied by 100 and divided by the greatest width between the cheek (malar) bones. This in white races works out about 80°, in yellow races about 75°, in the negro 70°, and in the higher apes 65°. But all these measurements are subject to much error. The internal most accurate is that of the internal capacity of the skull, oMhe obtained by filling it with shot, which of course cannot be ^^^^ practised during the lifetime, so that it is not a present help. The European skull varies from 1,200 cubic centimetres to 1,900 cubic centimetres in its capacity. Broca, however, considered that if the cranial capacity of the aboriginal Austrahan were 100, that of the African negro is 112, and of the fair European 125. Careful measurements by Broca place the Italian and the Maori on the same platform, likewise the Parisian and the Malay, the German and the Annamite, the Jew and the native of New Guinea. None of the superior races can be grateful for the compUments. Such comparisons show that external manifestations cannot carry much weight. 132 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME Arrested Broca thought that the lower types in the coloured races laLowec^ were due to arrest of evolution, and I think we may also safely Races look upon the so-called physically degenerate as examples of arrested development during the infantile or prenatal conditions as stated in the previous chapter. Some describe such as a reversion to primitive ancestry. We have not enough information on this subject, and what Httle we have does not support this view ; for though the Neanderthal skull found in Germany is of low tjrpe, yet the Cromagnon skull found in France, in the valley of Vezire, in 1858, was of superior type. M. Larlet described it as having a large open forehead, and an aquiline nose, with a capacity of 97 cubic inches, or 1,590 cubic centimetres. The cranial index was 74, which is quite respectable and long-headed. These people stood about 5 feet 10 inches ; they were, therefore, superior to our poor degenerate brothers. Degen- External physical degeneracy then is probably not a rever- TRever^ ^ion to primitive man, but due to internal unseen causes, such sion to as arrest of development, or of natural evolution. In this l^an treatise the probable causes are put forward, especially in the part given up to heredity, hybrids, and to environment, such as poverty and alcoholism. There is an alteration of the germ plasm, and while some of the variations are downwards, others, as genii, are upward. (D) INTERNAL UNSEEN DEGENERATION Destruc- Referring to Chapter XIV the lay reader will see that I Arrested advance the theory that the nuclei of the brain cells are laid Growth of down before birth and are called neuroblasts, and form the Brain main factor in growth and development. If any of these are destroyed, loss of function in the part governed at once occurs. Conversely, if they are arrested at certain stages of develop- ment in childhood or youth, there would be a corresponding under development of that part (figs. pp. 101 and 132). This explains how many adults retain infantile types such as we see more frequently among the poor, who are ill nourished, and especially the syphihtic. The infantile type of nose, hollowed at the bridge, persists with many adults. These instructive and practical photographs show the extreme outer or upper surface of the pyramidal layer in (A) a normal man, and in (B) a degenerate. In the former, there are well-developed though small pyramidal cells. In the latter, a murderer, there are undeveloped cell nuclei or neuroblasts, and below, badly shaped imperfect pyramids. This lends support to my theory that the degenerate lives in a realm of his own. He is not insane, for he has never been sane or normal as in A. Nor is he an araent or imbecile, for their brain cells and nuclei are absent ; whereas in B the nuclei are laid down abundantly, but remain undeveloped as in infancy. Hence the criminal has the will or control of a child. Facing page 132. I TSICAL DEGENERATION, SEEN AND UNSEEN 133 Precocity is considered a form of degeneracy, being a Precocity process of over-ripening, with the natural consequence of premature deterioration. These are cases in which it is wise to hold back the brain until the body matures. Unfortunately parents are sometimes so pleased with the extraordinary talent of the child that they press him on, adding to the evil. Some break down early and occasionally become permanently damaged, whilst others are dullards when they reach their teens. It is far safer and wiser to restrain children and allow their brains to grow with and not before their bodies. There are of course exceptions, where great men have been precociously intellectual from childhood, but they are in the minority. As examples of precocity, Lombroso mentions : — Dante at 9 wrote a sonnet to Beatrice. Goethe at 10 wrote in seven languages. Victor Hugo composed a novel at the age of 15. Pope wrote an ode to Solitude at the age of 12. Raphael was famous when 14 and Byron was a writer when 15 years old. He supports the view that " a man who is a genius at 5 is mad at 15." The reason is that precocious children are unstable, and with deficient nutrition superadded, they often break down about puberty. Those who wish to pursue the whole of this subject further should read A Manual of Artistic Anatomy ^ by the great anatomist Robert Knox of Edinburgh. Speaking of the malformed ear, he says, " the lobe is pecu- liarly human, and when wanting in man or woman causes the ear to resemble the ear of the ape. When the helix is wanting and the ear is spread out it resembles that of the ass or dog." Knox formulated a new law by stating that all such varieties, or as we now call them, degeneracies, are comprised in " the law of unity of the organization," which we call atavism or reversion. On the other hand, when beauty and perfection of form and development obtain, it is the carrying out of " the law of speciaHzation," or, as Darwin termed it, " natural selection." CHAPTER XVI EDUCATION Scotch versus English. — EDUCATION AND CRIME : Decrease of crime due to social improvements — Crime changes with the times — Increase of lunacy since education. EDUCATION BILLS : Scotch methods — The railway porter and Greek Professor — The city sparrow versus public boy. ENGLAND UNPREPARED FOR EDUCATION : Philanthropic enterprise killed — Compulsion and starvation — Delayed mental develop- ment of the poor— Free meals— DIETARY FOR THE POOR. THE CARE OF THE JEWS FOR THEIR CHILDREN : The poor healthier without shoes. OVERCROWDING OF CLASSES : Practical com- ments from a teacher — Tendency for State methods to improve. WHAT EDUCATION IS : Parents' duty— Education begins in the cradle — Sights, sounds, muscle training, touch — Faculty of speech : the highest motor act. STIMULATE AND GRATIFY INQUIRY IN THE YOUNG : The storage in the sensori-motor area — For reference by the association processes.— NATURE STUDY AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF LOGIC : Induction and deduction — Common sense or intuition. CONTRAST BETWEEN THE UNEDUCATED AND THE EDUCATED— LANGUAGE : In the lower animals and savages — Monosyllabic — In infants — The dead languages — The growth of language — Due to science. DEFICIENT CHILDREN : Must make haste slowly — Symptom of deficient children — Phenomenal memory in imbeciles — Zerah Colburn, the lightning cal- culator. TREATMENT OF DEFICIENT CHILDREN : Results : many recover — Cause of anxiety — Become inverts — The higher morals — Imitation the key of training children. PARENT IS TRUSTEE : Fashionable women and nursing. THE SIN OF THE STATE IN DE- STROYING PRIVATE SCHOOLS : A model private school— Science and school. THE PERSONALITY, THE SECRET OF A SUCCESSFUL SCHOOL. THE STATE METHODS DESTROY INDIVIDUALITY : Early memories blotted out by State education — Board school children cannot remember before the age of five as a rule — and start life handicapped — They have no energy left to learn skilled trades — Not " born tired," but " made tired " by the State — Mr. Llewelyn's report to the Government on the flourishing condition of the barge children. STATE RELIGION : Church schools. RELIGIOUS TRAINING VERY IMPORTANT : No dogma — The Bible quite safe — Singing religious and moral songs — Children pliable like clay — Encouragement to teachers. THE THREE R'S HAVE FILLED MANY A PRISON : Instructed degeneracy danger- ous — Bad literature — The prevention of crime by education. MUST TRY TO UNDERSTAND THE POOR : Desire conquers will which is stunted — Juvenile prisoners. ** Ignorance is a heavy burden." — Gaelic Proverb. The evolutionary process of the brain depends on education ; whereas the devolution of the mind is fostered by unwise 134 EDUCATION 135 methods of instruction, an error which the State has steadily pursued since the seventies, when England made the effort to become educated as a whole. Before then it seemed as if Scotland were a foreign land, for, being accustomed to meet hundreds of adults in England who could neither read Ktior write, it was strange to find the poorest children over ^he border fairly well educated. The rivalry, or jealousy, of the two lands perhaps prevented England from following the example of Scotland : a great pity, for in matters of education, law, and whatever requires brains, the Scotch always excel. The Scotch children are educated, and now after more than thirty years, our own poor remain uneducated. They can manage the three R's, and are so far instructed, which is an advance, as it opens the portal for those who are keen to improve themselves. But instruction is not education. Several members of Parhament are fond of stating that Educa- education has diminished crime. Whilst admitting that °" ^ Board School teaching has improved the morals of the poorer children, yet no account is taken of the great strides of Temper- ance reform and the many social improvements. Moreover, crime is always changing with the times, as are also the indict- able offences, and the quantitative and quahtative methods of administration. As crime is a more variable quantity than insanity, we might at all events see what the ratio of insanity is during the stress of education. The numbers of lunatics per 10,000 were : — Crime England . 1- \ and Wales. Scotland. Ireland. In the year 1871- . „ 18^^ . . . 30-4 . . 34 . 30-5 . . 32-6 . . 385 . . 35-6 ,. 1891 . . . 33-6 . . 384 . . 45 „ 1901 . . . 40-8 . . 450 . . 56-2 Crime has its fashion and must be up to date, or it would die out. Crime aims at being a science as well as a refined art ; the older clumsy and often brutal methods are passing away, and this alteration, one freely admits, is due to modem education. I am not in a position to argue as to the technique and Educa- merits of the various Education Bills, but, Uke many others, **°" ^^^ 136 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME feel competent to express an opinion on the results. In Scot- land there is every variety of educational institution open to any child. Whatever is required to enable the bare-legged Scot to become superior to his Southern rival is ready to hand in profusion. Fancy a railway porter attending University lectures, and obtaining a degree in Arts. Of course many will say it shows the ease with which such honours can be obtained in Scotland, for it would seem to many that a railway porter's brains could not equal those of our well groomed 'Varsity men. The only answer is, that the railway porter was taken on as professor of Greek at one of the Oxford colleges. Such things continue . because the Northerners have more grit in them. Observation shows that some of the poor city lads and juvenile offenders have as much intelligence, which only requires developing, as the average public schoolboy. We are killing mentally and physically hundreds and thousands of our best national assets. England England was unprepared for such sudden universal and OT^g^ed wholesale education, yet things were in a very unsatisfactory forEduca- condition. The event of the seventies was a political earth- quake, in which the children have been the sufferers. Free and charitable schools, worked for the love of the children, were exterminated, and many teachers, who fulfilled their trust faithfully to the children and the nation, were ruined by competition. The compulsion to attend school tells very heavily on the starving poor, and the injury to the badly nourished and defective children spells ruin for their future careers. Such children should not be at school, or working their brains. They are far better playing about the streets, so that their intelUgence may gradually evolve. These children at the age of 8 are only equivalent to well-favoured normal children of the age of 4. Hence these " city sparrows " should be treated on different lines. I attribute the extreme intellectual dullness of these waifs to this system, which leads to mental confusion and brain exhaustion for life. There is a great deal of philanthropic agitation in favour tion EDUCATION meals for starving school children. It is as hopeless bo expect mentation and brain development from a starving 3hild, as to move the Cornish express if there is no fuel under- aeath the engine boiler. On the subject of dietary I might perhaps make a few Dietary helpful remarks. The poor, under the instinct of imitation, pj^^ ^ think they can only Uve on the same dietary as the rich. They therefore aim at a meat dietary. This is expensive and not as beneficial as other ^oods. Milk is expensive, but cheese is cheap and one of our best foods. It contains casein, albumin, fat, lime, phosphates and leicithin. This last, a phosphorus compound, is of great value in building up the nervous system, and encouraging physical development. Potatoes are very wholesome, containing 20 per cent, of starch, beside albumin and salts which improve and purify the blood. This fact is well appreciated on saiHng ships in order to prevent scurvy. Wheat, maize, oatmeal and rice are all cheap and rich in starch, moderate in albumin and fats. Most valuable are peas, beans and lentils, being equal to meat in albumins, and twice as nutritious as wheat. Those interested in the poor should endeavour to educate them on these lines, and devise palatable methods oi cooking cheaper foods. The Jews set us a good example in domestic life, which is The Care the chief reason of their durability. They are most careful je^s^fo^ of their children in matters of feeding ; it is a common sight their to see the Jewish mothers giving them food boluses or tit bits ^^^^ during the intervals of school. There is a great desire on the part of the county councils to see poor children weU shod. It is a mistaken sympathy, for children are stronger without either shoes or stockings. The money spent on cheap shoes and stockings would be better used for food. Bare feet a^y quickly, whereas feet in wet boots lower the vitaUty. I In State schools the overcrowding of classes, in order to Over- spend less on salaries, is an effectual block to educational ^/^^f progress. The rules Umit each class to sixty, but th« uiimbers frequently reach three figures. One teacher told me she ^ i 138 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME had 120 in her class. They were under four years of and had to be taught the alphabet, and to speU words of two letters. I have some notes from an intelligent teacher, who writes the following about examinations : — " Some years ago, to satisfy the Inspector's requirements, cramming had to be resorted to," but now the aim is to examine " the nature of the teaching itself. Specific knowledge of the children is not so much examined now, as their abihty to use their own common sense, to find out things for themselves, and to lay the foundation for an active mind rather than a passive receptacle for dates in history, lists of rivers and towns, etc." I quote these remarks in fairness to show the recent tendency to improve the past injurious methods : but I feel sure that a great deal of excessive cramming and examining still con- tinues. I find that these excessively large classes of over sixty in number still continue, and that the pupils receive httle if any personal attention or influence in consequence. No class should exceed thirty, and the younger children should be limited to groups of ten. Individuals could be studied, the clever children sent forward, and the slow or deficient ones allowed to lie fallow. As things are, children are often pushed up one standard higher than they should be. This is confirmed by Mr. Wheatley, who says few of his lads are equal to the standards they are in. A teacher tells me, the deficient children are numerous, and are pulled along in the crowd comprehending little of what surrounds them. What Having satisfied my conscience a little by unpleasant tion is' remarks as to the present woful measures in education, I will call the parents' attention to what education really is. The State instructs, but parents can never shift their own responsibihties to other shoulders. Education commences in the cradle, at which period the little life must be joy. A child is not fractious if in health, and therefore the physical cause of a bad-tempered baby must be traced and removed. Everything around a child must be bright in colour and clean. Physical cleanliness paves the way for mental purity. The sensory centre of hearing must be educated to pleasant sounds ; the soothing voice during suffering : in health the ■> EDUCATION "■" 139 il lively tones : and above all, much singing of simple hymes and tunes, which should be accompanied by muscular novements of the limbs as the basis of harmony, which is :he secret of contentment and prosperity later in life. The centre of touch is the one which appeals to the infant first by way of encouragement and self-control, which are the two most important functions in forming the basis of character. How distressing it is to see short-tempered parents handUng their children roughly ! How surprised the children sometimes look ! The parents however are really to be pitied, on account of their depravity. From its cradle the child appreciates gentleness, and what soothes the little broken heart more than the mother's hand ! When the speaking stage commences great attention should be paid to the proper pronunciation of words ; or, to put it differently, the correct muscular action involved. No less important is correct breathing. The old idea of silence in children is as much to be discouraged as sitting in a chair all day instead of romping. Children should be brought up to express themselves intelligently and without nervosity. As vision is the highest sensory function in man, so is speech the highest motor act, and therefore merits its full complement of attention. There is no greater pleasure or privilege than the daily stimulate care and education of one's children. Inquiry should be q"*^^£ stimulated and always gratified. Any object that is being inquiry examined should be dealt with to the minutest detail, so as 1" *^® Young to fix as many brain impressions as possible. If we take an apple or an orange there are the shape, colour, taste, odour and composition to be examined ; the demonstration that the real fruit is in the pips, and that we only eat the pulp or covering ; the nature of the seeds, the countries the fruit comes from, the subject of tree grafting ; the commercial values, and other endless details with allied interests. The education of the sensori-motor centres consists in the storing up of facts. These facts are not to be left Uke dusty volumes in a Ubrary. They are for reference and for comparison through the medium of the higher processes of association. n 140 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME 1 Nature Study and the Develop- ment of Logic Contrast between the Un- educated and the Educated Study will become pleasant and attractive the more the child is drawn towards the works of Nature. Perception increases, accuracy of observation leads on to comparison between objects, classifying resemblances or differences. It will not be difficult to develop the powers of reasoning or argument, following up first the inductive, and later, the deductive methods. It is the former, or method of induction, which develops the child's brain. Here it proceeds from the mass of individual facts which it observes to find out some general law or principle. Induction is a process of analysis. Later on, from the more general knowledge, the child will argue to particular cases, after the deductive method or synthesis. Deduction consists in examining general principles to find out a particular truth, sometimes a theory or hypothesis. As mentation increases many facts and associations become so impressed that they pass more or less from consciousness to subconsciousness, forming the basis of what we call common sense, or more correctly intuitive perception. Some call it the subjective mind. A poorly educated person thinks slowly and with effort, but a brain well stocked works with rapidity, and acts partly subconsciously. There is more expansion, or as it is termed in logic, extension in the meaning of words, in the educated mind. What does any flower convey to the mind of an ordinary person as compared with a botanist ? " A primrose by a river's brim A yellow primrose was to him. And it was nothing more." — Wordsworth. Who reaps in one of Turner's paintings so much intellectual pleasure as an art critic ? Or what does the word " book " imply to an EngHsh ploughman as compared with a student ? Languages One of the evidences of intellectual growth in the human race is the expansion of language. The monkey tribe have eight or ten different vocal symbols. The lower animals, cat and dog, have only expressions of their emotions, as pleasure and anger. The Bushmen and savage races have feeble and limited vocal development : and most of the I I EDUCATION 141 /frican and some of the Asiatic races depend entirely on r onosyUables. Infants likewise begin by using sounds to express their e notions, and later employ monosyllables, which require ^ 3ry simple muscular movements. I The dead languages are very Umited and would be no use ) us now. The Persian vocabulary reached 379 words in t leir cuneiform inscriptions, and the Egyptians only got to ( 50 words. To illustrate the growth of language amongst our- g 5lves : the Old Testament contains about 5,600 words, while ^ hakespeare has 15,000 different words. Webster's dictionary, ^ hich at first contained 40,000 words, has now grown to *; 0,000. The Germans, who are very prolific, can count { 4,000 words in Fliigel's dictionary. Though there are only r bout 500 root words. Max Miiller estimates the Enghsh I inguage to contain about a quarter of a miUion words. Science i ; responsible chiefly for this rapid development. Children mentally deficient are usually poor in language ; Deficient their ideas, being necessarily hmited, require Httle expression. I I rests largely with the parents to help on the mentally weak, I ut where the parents have no time to bestow, then institutions 8 re second best. Children not actually deficient, but back- A^ard, are very numerous, and they must make haste slowly, "^'he more anxious parents or teachers or county councils are to push them forward, the more they stumble and the more »ermanently they are damaged. A deficient child, according to the degree of deficiency, 3 slow in its movements ; lacks initiative ; stops too long over one subject ; and is dull in perception or recognizing ])ersons or objects. Eyes and ears are there as receptacles, but there is no analysis of the sensations, and no recall or memory of past impressions. Such a child looking at a picture fixes its attention on one object, and cannot make a concept of the whole. As a rule their memory is very poor, many rge as to prevent individual interest and supervision. The Schools t jachers must attain a high degree of culture and refinement. 1 hirty years ago, classics and mathematics were greatly over- c one, but more recently science has been introduced. Science I rovokes observation and reasoning, and is the greatest stimulus t) mentation. The success of a private school depends entirely en individual efforts, which in turn stimulate healthy rivalry and competition. n The personality of the staff is of immense importance in The Per- lie character formation of the scholars. This is difficult the^^ t3 obtain by state methods, for the teachers are underpaid Secret of and overworked, while the children are all cast in one mould, fi^^c*hool i idividuality perishing at its birth. In my examination of criminals I was struck by the fact that few can remember any event in their lives previous to the age of five. When I found the same among Mr. Wheatley's first offenders and again among the poor lads at the " Homes," 1 put it down to malnutrition. But when the sturdy, well nour- ished country lads in Cornwall and elsewhere exhibited the i ^ I have before my mind a society lady, who is so busy attending f arties and giving dinners that she often does not see her seven months c Id infant for ten days at a time. Fortvmately the old nurse is capable nd kind. 144 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME same deficiency, I saw that lack of food could not be the only cause. Frequently I have found children who have reached the sixth and seventh standards unable to go further back than the ages of 6, 8, and even 10. The Council schools insist on children of 5, whatever their condition, passing into the thought-destroying machine. Some go at 3. God help them ! At the age of 5 the brain weighs about 32 ounces, which is f its full weight, the latter being attained at the age of 10. Though the weight and material be prepared, its evolution or functional development is a gradual process occupying years. If the child be in good health, the state method of overpressure is wrong, but if the child be starved, delicate or neurotic, the state inflicts untold mental suffering and injury, which may wreck the future career, and even thereby make criminals. At this stage of half-way development, the pressure of instruction is forced on the young brains, amidst unhealthy surroundings. A subtle tissue like the brain is unequal to the stress, and past growth or evolution is damaged perma- nently ; hence the absolute mental blank of early life. Never- theless the State continues to drive in its instruction for another 7 years, and then when the mind should be rapidly evolving, the child is cast out on the world with a damaged organ. Damaged, nay ruined ! The early evolution up to 5 is de- stroyed, and it requires neither persuasion nor argument to convince any one of the futility of success by building on a damaged foundation. ^ What does the State do ? " Hundreds and thousands of its young victims are annually cast on the world with damaged brains, and therefore inferior mentation and lowered morale. There need be no surprise that they have no brain energy with which to tackle skilled occupations. Their brains are worn out, and they can only undertake easy jobs and unskilled labour. They are more inclined to loaf or even pass into the shady avenues of crime. I was much struck by a sturdy lad of 17, who asked me if I knew of a situation, stating conditionally " there must not be much work in it." One might blame him for laziness, I EDUCATION 145 but one must not be too harsh on these State-crushed innocents. It was not that he would not ; he could not apply himself to work ; he was not a " bom tired " but a " tired " of state manufacture. We must not then be siuprised if there come a gigantic revolution of these damaged brain machines, who have nothing to live for. They make up the mass of that large army of lower socialism which is anxious to wreak vengeance by destroying everything that can be called Eng- lish. The following, copied from The Times in December 1907, is very serious and profitable reading to those who think that modern education is all in all. In the report of Mr. Llewellyn on the canal population no attempt is made to estimate the number of persons dwelling on the habitable barges, of which about 12,000 have been registered, and half that number are believed to be still in use. Each boat appears to have been inspected by local authorities on an average about half a dozen times in the course of the year, and in 45 cases legal proceedings were taken for some breach of the regulations. As regards two of the most important matters, however, namely, overcrowding and indecent herding together of men, women, and children, we are told that it is often impossible to obtain satisfactory evidence, since inspection is allowed only by day, and it is of course at night that these particular offences would be discoverable. As to the education of the children, the Act seems to have done very little ; for Mr, Llewellyn finds that they seldom attend school, where indeed it is not easy to deal with them, since usually, whatever their size, they are mentally capable of instruction only in the infant class. Despite their lack of education, the inspector considers that they are superior to land children in honesty, manners, and physique, and that they " grow up to be better citizens by reason of their training to face hard work and to fight life's battles on their own account." Yet, if means could possibly be devised for their purpose, perhaps their good qualities would not suffer materially if some instruction were given in the R's. Any state religious tests would be very unsound in principle. State In these days of independent thought and rising intelligence, ^*^P<^^ any such foohsh autocracy could only end in disaster. The tendency now is to beUeve in nothing or to be absolutely sincere in devotion, for it is no longer necessary to be religious for the sake of respectability. At the same time I have been very fortunate in my acquaintance with Church schools. The influence of the clergy over the staff and the children has been of that character-moulding kind which could only result in L 146 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME raising the morale to a high level. I also find that the children of the Church schools have better infantile memories than those of Board schools, going back to the age of 3. These infants have not been pressed to learn, but had kindergarten and games, etc. The former Church school methods illustrate another principle, namely, the invisible but powerful influence for refine- ment of the educated gentleman over those of humbler rank. That is often lost in the state school methods, and there is nothing to take its place. The school boards or councils are seldom composed of gentlefolk, but usually of successful trades- men who have somewhat risen. As a class they have neither sympathy nor broad intelligence, and therefore their influence cannot be elevating. Their sporting instincts find full vent in quarrels over religion and politics, and the sufferers are the poor children. Many of the teachers might be improved, for too many of the same class qualify for these posts, and too few, if any, of the gentry ever engage in this holy occupa- tion. Religious Training very Im- portant I very strongly hold, from years of observation (and every doctor occupies a confessional), that chfldren should have a sound religious training. I do not advocate sectarian dogmas nor men's traditions, described by the psychologist Saint Paul as old women's fables ; for I find the nearer the religion keeps to the simple Bible truths, the more stable is the result in the individual. Another form of useful training is the free and constant habit of singing simple hymns, or songs with a moral. If the tunes are musical and agreeable, they are easily remembered, or stamped on the sensory centres. It is an easy and practical method of " rubbing in " good, sound, guiding principles. Children are pliable like potters' clay, and should be shaped into beautiful forms by those in charge. But if those responsible are passive and unsympathetic chances are lost which will never again be offered. No teacher should feel discouraged by occupjdng a humble post, for no one can render better service to the Empire or to the Great Architect. What opportunities teachers have to train the young minds ! How to learn and observe ; how to be happy, how to be good, and why to be good ! EDUCATION 147 a critic of state methods, I should say that the three The Three R*8 have filled many a prison. Most of the criminals examined fj^g^ ^^ have passed average standards ; some have done well. In many a none have I found school influence producing any valuable *^" effect. Had they been in good private schools some would probably have been saved, and the others would have been better without the three R's. Instructed degeneracy is a formidable weapon against peaceful communities. In olden days the illiterate used their intelligence or associative powers with more useful results, and were far happier ; whereas now the same class fill their minds with penny dreadfuls and improper subjects, and suffer from a mental auto-intoxication. What will become of us if the religious and moral training is expunged from the already imperfect, undeveloped system ? Crime is not lessened by teaching that it is wrong to steal. It is the effect of reasoning and demonstration which prevents crime. We must associate on the mental screen pictures of the horrible nature of such actions and of the dangerous consequences. When the temptation arises in the sensory centres, and desire is followed by choice, the well stamped moral and religious " associations " may dictate a choice which is at the same time prudent, wise and righteous. If we realize a Httle of the brain machinery, it is so easy Must to understand how and where the poorer classes go wrong. u^/° They know as facts, or one might say like parrots, what is stand the right and what is wrong ; yet their higher association fails ^^^^ and desire conquers will. Will is to them as a withered plant, that might have developed, but has died of starvation soon after birth. It seems hard that our prisons are full of boys some of whom are th^ pick of the land, but have been placed there by the over-weighting pressure of civihzation, and failure of courage on the part of the state to do what is right and just : class against mass : one law for the rich and another for the poor. CHAPTER XVII MULTIPLE PERSONALITY AND CRIME THE PHENOMENA OF DOUBLE CONSCIOUSNESS, OR ALTERNATING PERSONALITY : Somnambulism — Mental confusion, or aberration — A case of post-epileptic confusion — Risk of illegal acts occurring during this state. CASE OF A MURDERER WHERE ALCOHOL PRODUCED A VIOLENT SUB-PERSONALITY : The ego seems to be only present during normal consciousness — ^A sub-ego rules during alcoholic intoxi- cation — Certain drugs dislocate the ego : alcohol, Indian hemp, opium. NECESSITY TO MAKE EACH CRIMINAL CASE A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY. CASES ILLUSTRATING DOUBLE PERSONALITY: Case of Mary Reynolds — A French seamstress, R. L. — A soldier, F., caused by a bullet in the head — A Frenchman ruined by his B personality — Felida, watched for many years — An Italian : wicked when normal, A, good in character as B — At Naples — At Palermo, abnormal personality superior to normal. Tomassi's case at Rome. Case described by Dr. Lewis Bruce, Welsh and English States. Dr. Hyslop's cases. Case in the United States related to me. CASE OF MISS BEAUCHAMP. MY CASE OF MARY BARNES : ten sub-personalities. Her ego may never return. Sub-personalities Bi, B2, B3, Bio, like a criminal — Each sub-personality has a different handwriting. The way in which M. B. changed her personalities : Transition types EXPLANATION OF MARY BARNES' CONDITION. THE CIRCULATION OF THE BRAIN : The sympathetic nervous system — Cases of vascular spasm — Hysterical paralysis — Sick headache. spasm of retinal arteries. SPASM OF BRAIN ARTERIES IN ALTERED PERSONALITY: In B2, In other conditions — The blindness was physical, not psychical — The concentric stratification of the brain cells — Disturbed circu- lation in the brain of M. B. DISEASE MAY ALTER THE PER- SONALITY : We frequently observe two personalities in the same in- dividual — The mystery of eleven separate lives in one body. THE MIND IS COMPOSITE : Evidence from this case— Case of Miss Beau- champ. THE LEGAL ASPECT OF THESE CASES : Crime during hypnosis. INFLUENCE OF SUGGESTION AND IMITATION : Like sowing seed — A case of kleptomania cured by suggestion — A born thief — A lust to steal. The Phe- In order to trace the relation of Psychology to criminal and nomena allied abnormal cases, it is necessary that there should be Double taken into consideration the remarkable phenomena of double Conscious- consciousness, or alternating personality. Those who know Alterna- R. L. Stevenson's account of Jekyll and Hyde will understand ^'^J!^" the type I am alluding to, in which the subject exhibits two dijfferent personalities. These appear alternately, living and acting quite unconsciously of each other. 148 MULTIPLE PERSONALITY AND CRIME 149 is possible that Jack the Ripper was an example. He aay have been in one personality a good citizen, and without vny power of control have changed unconsciously into the nurderer, prowled the streets, perpetrated his dreadful crimes, ising elaborate precaution against detection, and then have )assed back into his normal state. Some might call it som- lambulism. The true Ego or person seems to be asleep, ^hile a subpersonaUty takes possession for a time. There 8 no stupidity imphed in these conditions, for the mind lets with intelligence according to the personality it is serving. Jack the Ripper may have been an honest workman, and tnay be alive now, quite unconscious of his somnambuHstic periods. Mental aberration of a similar type occurs in epilepsy, and is in some cases termed pdit inal to distinguish it from the convulsions or grand mal. I have watched for about four years a young man so affected. He was cured of the f/rand mal by hjrpnotism, but the petit mat persisted in a curious form. In these attacks, which would occur anywhere, ^^ his facial expression and manner changed. If thwarted he ^P would hit out, and sometimes did personal injury. Once ^' on his way home in this condition he was robbed of a parcel of new clothes, which he was carrying. He remained at home two hours in this state of unconsciousness, or sub- personality, before he came to himself, and discovered that his parcel was gone. The last thing he remembered was looking into a shop window in Commercial Road. On another occasion, he left chapel during the Sunday evening service. Some one who knew his complaint followed him, and, sus- pecting one of these fits, interrogated him, but as he answered quite rationally and seemed normal, allowed him to leave. Two or tliree hours later he returned to his proper state and was surprised to find himself four or five miles from home. One might give many such stories of this and similar cases with an apparently clear understanding, in illustration of this alternating personality, which we call post-epileptic automatism. There was no connexion with hypnosis, for in the hypnotic state my patient had no knowledge or memory of his post-epileptic wanderings. We can easily see the awk- 160 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME 1 wardness of his position, if he had committed a breach of the law in the subconscious state. Case of a Murderer where Alcohol Produced a Violent Subper- sonality I have found an illustration in a criminal case where a man was addicted to alcohol, and received five years' imprisonment for a very serious offence. Some years later a sentence of death was passed upon him for an actual murder. This case is of medico-legal interest, for he was abnormal from his youth, being subject to a violent and impulsive tem- per. He was in fact homicidal from his boyhood, though now a quiet harmless-looking individual. When I examined him he wept over his past ; yet, if not under kind but firm control, he might easily repeat the offence on but sHght pro- vocation. As a boy of fourteen he would have killed a care- taker, who rightly interfered with him, if the man had not hastily retreated. He was a country lad and sportive, but when annoyed became like a wild beast, and always sought for revenge. He used to " drive himself mad " by drinking spirits, illustrating the lamentable want of supervision over young and unformed men which often obtains under present licensing regulations. When in this drunken condition he appeared to change to another subpersonaHty. His Ego, a poor one at best, seemed at such times to vanish, for he was quite ignorant of these many serious actions. This case lends support to the idea that the Ego is only present during normal consciousness. He was arrested in a murder- ous assault on his employer in the nick of time, and solemnly affirms that he is even now quite unconscious of this particular act, for which he received five years in prison. Very soon after his release he actually killed a man. He had been drinking spirits for two or three days, and he was quite confused, yet his sub-ego directed him to hide for the first three or four days after the crime. This appears contradictory to his tale and my theory ; but he always knew after these occurrences that he had been in a row. He did not, however, know that he had committed murder until charged by the police. One would in reality expect the alcohohzed sub-ego, B., to possess some seK-protective instincts, as shown by his hiding after the murder. At the trial the details of his crime ^^ Vere qmte MULTIPLE PERSONALITY AND CRIME 151 quite a revelation to him in his normal or A personaUty. About eight months after the event, when in prison, the whole picture of the murder gradually unfolded before him. This may have been because he heard the story at the trial, or there may have been some subtle psychological awakening from a long somnambuHsm caused by alcohoHc poisoning of the brain cells. The brain must have taken in the whole picture at the time, but the alcohohc poisoning may have paralyzed the mental associations which would connect up his memory of the event. It seems that under the injurious action of alcohol the normal Ego is disjointed, and a fractional sub-personality appears to rule under those circumstances. Similar toxic effects are observed from the use of Indian hemp, where delirium and vivid hallucinations occur : or from opium, as is evinced in the writings of De Quincey, R. L. Stevenson, _ and others. In this particular case, the murderer was ordered to be hanged Necessity for a crime of which he was ignorant, and he feels somewhat j^^j^ ® aggrieved that no excuse was allowed for his drunken state. Criminal This of course is a one-sided aspect of crime, but the moral p^cho- is, that every case should be regarded as a psychological logical study, in order that both the criminal and the long-suffering *" ^ pubUc may have their claims fairly adjusted. If such a process had been observed after the first murderous assault, it would have been seen that the killing instinct in this man was so pronounced as to be an incurable disease. He would have been permanently located, after a term of punishment, in a refuge colony, there to be supervised and protected for the whole of his natural life. I Double personality is not a new phenomenon, though it Cases may occur more frequently with the strain of advancing tin'g ^^" civihzation. In searching records the first case that I can Double find occurred in the early part of last century. Ilit^°"" (The subject of our inquiry was one Mary Reynolds,^ born in 1791 in Birmingham, and who emigrated with her parents to the far west of America in 1795. She was " uncom- monly well-balanced " though rather low-spirited. When * See The Occult Review, January 1907. 152 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME about 18 she became subject to hysterical fits, and was found one day lying m a field where she had been reading, unconscious, and in convulsions. When she raUied she was blind and deaf, but recovered in a few weeks. Three months later she was found in a profound sleep which lasted about twenty-four hours, and when she awoke she had lost all recollection of her former life, nor did she know her rela- tives. She was precisely like a new-born infant, except for the faculty of pronouncing a few words. She rapidly learnt to read and write, and would argue as though her intellect were fuUy developed. One morning five weeks later, she awoke in her original state, as if nothing had happened, and took up her ordinary life precisely where she left it when she became abnormal. She was surprised at certain new arrange- ments of things around her, occurring in what she thought was one night. In a few weeks the deep slumber returned, and on waking she took up her second life precisely where she had left it off. These alternations continued for about fifteen years. When about the age of 35, she settled permanently into her second state, and so remained for the last twenty-five years of her life. The periods of the normal, or A, condition gradually grew shorter, till A disappeared, while the abnormal or B state varied in time from a few hours to several months. She passed easily from B to A, but only after prolonged sleep from A to B. She stated that previous to her transition from A to B she had a terrible fear as of death upon her, lest she should not return. Each period was unconscious of the other, forming corresponding blanks in her memory of the nding period. Dr. Dufay de Blois reports the case of a seamstress, R. L., who became subject to momentary unconsciousness, and thus passed into a second personahty. The normal A had defec- tive vision, whereas B could see perfectly. The abnormal B was more active mentally and talked of herself in the third person. The condition lasted two or three hours, the normal A knowing nothing of the second personahty B, and vice versa. I MULTIPLE PERSONALITY AND CRIME 153 I W. Mesnet reports the case of a soldier, F., wounded in t le head during the Franco-German war of 1870. He made }i^ living in Paris by singing in cafes. He entered a second j 3r8onahty, B, after a transitory unconsciousness, during % hich there is very little change except that he becomes a t lief and is anaesthetic.^ He knows nothing of this change, \ hich occurs every two or three weeks. M. Tissie published the case of a man aged 30, who was i neurotic, and occasionally had dreams directing him to go 1 certain places in quest of work. He would rise in the morn- i ig in another personahty, B, and obey the dream. In this ' ^ay he lost his proper work, and was reduced to poverty. '. le was often robbed in the B state, and might tear up bank )iotes in mistake for ordinary paper. He was also frequently ])ut in prison for tramping. He was specially interesting, 'or though A the normal knew nothing of B the abnormal, vet B knew of both states and happened to be the more inteUigent of the two conditions. MacNish reports a case in the year 1812, which is apparently :he second on record, but not of much interest. I Professor Azam of Bordeaux watched a case from 1858 mtil his death in 1899. A girl FeUda, aged 15, and very aysterical, would develop neuralgia, and faU into a state of mconsciousness for about three minutes. She would awake in a very merry mood, singing and joking. In this abnormal B state she was more inteUigent and active, and the neuralgia never affected her. The normal. A, does not know of the second personality B, whereas B knows of A. B came more frequently and lasted longer, extending her visit for three or four months. In 1891 FeUda suffered from an ovarian tumour, and I hear from Dr. Camille Julian of Bordeaux that she is still ahve enjoying a simple old age (1907). Camuset in 1880 reported a case in Italy in which the normcd * Anaesthetic means insensitive to touch. 154 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME A was wicked, and the abnormal B was good. V. L., the son of a drunken prostitute, was a beggar and a thief, in con- sequence of which he was sent to a reformatory at St. Urbain. Here one day whilst working in the fields he disturbed a snake among some faggots, and fell down in convulsions from fright. After this he became altered mentally ; paralysis of the legs with wasting developed. He was therefore sent to the asylum of Bonneval, where he was regarded as a respect- able, well-behaved boy, and was gentle and grateful. On account of the paralysis he was employed in the tailor's shop. A year later he had a fit of hysteria which lasted sixty hours, and when it passed off he got up quite weU, free of all paralysis, and wished to join his old companions of the reformatory in their field labour as before. He did not recognize the doctors or nurses of the asylum, or know anything about the tailoring, while his kind, gentle nature was replaced by his old ruffianly manners and vicious instincts. The question is, whether the abnormal B was what nature intended, and the normal or degenerate, A, was the product of an alcoholic and depraved parentage ? Bianchi ^ reports other cases. A Jewish girl in Naples, who, without any external manifestation, changed her personahty from A to B. If she were conversing, she would stop ; or if doing embroidery, she would leave it and go to something else, as house or kitchen work. When she returned from B to A, she would be quite surprised to find she had left her embroidery, or whatever she was engaged in, and quite ignorant of all that had passed in the interval. A girl in Palermo every day about four o'clock changed from a sad, fastidious, torpid individual to a lively active state (B). In the morning she was normal (A). One evening, as B, she was very lively and pleased to have a visit from her brother. In the morning, however, as A, she was surprised to see him, and was ignorant of his visit the previous evening. Similar occurrences were frequent. * Psychairie. !■• MULTIPLE PERSONALITY AND CRIME 155 ofessor Tomassi gives a case not unlike the recent notori- ►U8 " Koepenich " case in Germany. A young man in ilome called on a policeman to assist him in searching the louse of an advocate, at the same time representing himself 18 a superior officer. After the visit and search, he dismissed :he civil guard and mingled with the crowd on the Piazza. A legal process followed, when it was found that the accused knew nothing of the event, and that he had many gaps in his memory or consciousness. Dr. Lewis Bruce reported a case of dual brain action in the year 1897,^ and he attributed the cause to the right and left brains alternately exerting a preponderating influence. He calls attention to " spurious duaUty," where a patient thinks himself inhabited by another individual, or when other similar delusions exist. Such appear to occur where a patient carries on a conversation with his supposed internal lodger ; a casual listener would fancy two different people were conversing. The patient described by Dr. Lewis Bruce had an English stage and a Welsh stage. In the English stage he was right- handed, and the subject of chronic mania. He spoke EngUsh, but understood Welsh. He was restless, destructive and thievish. He was in touch with his surroundings, but his memory was a blank to the Welsh stage ; he was, however, in touch with the previous English periods. He wrote in the ordinary way, but could also write backwards, mirror writing. In the Welsh stage he was demented, left-handed, and spoke Welsh. He could not understand English, either spoken or written. He did not know the doctors or attendants, and could only write with the left hand, from left to right. Once, when he wrote with the right hand, he wrote backwards. He was therefore quite out of touch with his surroundings as a Welshman, but normal as an Englishman. In 1899 Dr. T. H. Hyslop, Medical Superintendent of Beth- lem Hospital, read a paper on this subject at the British I lb * In the Scottish Medical Journal. 166 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME Medical Association. He makes seven different types associ- ated with night terrors, somnambuHsm, loss of memory, epilepsy, insanity, hysteria or mediumship. The interest of his paper consists in the demonstration of the instabiUty of character and the moral perversions which occur, involving questions of criminal responsibility. S Thus, Case 1 was a boy of 14, with night terrors and a™ propensity to steal money and stamps from other boys at school. When convicted and reproved, he was much distressed, but appeared to have no memory of the circumstances. Similar events are of daily occurrence in our poHce courts, but no allowance is made for the accused. Case 2 was a precocious boy of 14, who had attacks of stupidity at school, and was found one night sharpening a knife with intent to kill a schoolfellow. He was with some difficulty overpowered. Most of the cases were on the border Hne of insanity, thus differing from Mary Barnes, and especially from a very remark- able case in America, the account of which was recently given to me by her cousin. Mrs. W., of M , related to me personally a remark- able instance of double consciousness which has lasted over thirty years. It is the case of her cousin who resides in the United States, and is married and mother of six children. No cause can be traced. Every evening about eight she has a slight twitching, sometimes a convulsion, or perhaps turns her head round and looks strange. She then enters into the abnormal state B. B knows everything about A, and has a better memory than A : whereas A knows nothing of B. B goes to bed and changes during sleep back to A. B is very clever and witty, but also very religious, reading and expounding the Bible better than A, and writes beautiful letters. The state B is always a mental blank to A. B is very restless, and gets out of bed in her nightdress, and may walk out of doors, and has been known to walk miles along the railway track, avoiding express trains. This has been proved by information received from tramps and others who are startled by her appearance, for in addition her facial expression alters. H ■ MU] ^BrB her ey MULTIPLE PERSONALITY AND CRIME 157 her eyes are only half open. Sometimes she may go ( own to the cellar, procure the ingredients for a pie or cake, . nd bake them in the dark in the kitchen before morning. i can read print, but she cannot recognize photographs or »eople. She is conscious of the presence of any person near, )ut does not recognize the person whom she knew in her lormal state A until she approaches and grasps the hand »r touches any other part ; recognizing by touch alone who It is. This appUes not only to acquaintances and friends, )ut even to her husband, whom she would not otherwise mow. As soon as she touches or feels a person, she begins i suitable and inteUigent conversation. Sometimes the family ret B to promise not to go out, and this especially when she B at hotels, for she travels a great deal. She seems to have I power of thought reading, for they may lock the outside ioors and hide the keys, but she always goes straight to the place where they are concealed whatever precautions may be taken. She is now 56 years of age. She has never had good health, and her chief anxiety is lest she becomes in- sane. The following incident occurred in which the normal person- ality A was conscious of an act performed by the abnormal B. Though the story is gruesome, I must repeat it, for it throws hght on the case of the murderer who was ignorant of his crime during the trial, but remembered the details some months later. Mrs. W. told me that once, when she stayed a night at her cousin's house, she slept in a wing extending from the main building. She awoke during the night to hear approach- ing footsteps. The person slowly entered the room and came so close that she could hear the breathing. She was in great terror, fearing a robber. Presently the person as slowly retired. Nothing was said about it next day, for apparently A did not know what B had done. A few months later, H(A in ordinary conversation referred to it. She spoke of visiting Mrs. W. in her bedroom, and said that she did not speak lest she would frighten her. There is no ques- tion she was that night in the B state, and it appears to I, be the only time that A remembered or knew of the acts r 158 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME NuS ^^ "^^^ classical case of Miss Beauchamp has been very fully Beau- published by Dr. Morton Prince in America, in his book on champ Dissociated Personality. Miss Beauchamp was a single consciousness or personaHty until 1893, when a psychical catastrophe occurred in the shape of a serious family trouble and illness. As a result of disintegration of the personality or conscious- ness of Miss Beauchamp, a new sub-personality Bl arrived. Bl was serious and rej&ned. She went to college in 1898 and then came under Dr. Prince's observation. From exces- sive study she became neurasthenic and unstable, although to outsiders she would appear quite ordinary. Another sub-personality appeared which called itself Sally. Dr. Prince called her or it B3. These alternating personahties would change about without apparent rhyme or reason, possibly several times a day. SaUy was lively, reckless, saucy and mischievous, teasing and playing tricks on Bl. She would write abusive letters to Bl and leave them where Bl would find them later. When Bl realized the presence of SaUy, she became depressed and thought she was possessed of an evil spirit. Sally knew everything that went on in the life of Bl, but Bl was ignorant of SaUy's life. Thus Sally claimed a concomitant existence for herseK, with a double mental condition for Bl. Sally had her own thoughts, perceptions, and will during the time Bl was in existence. At the same time Sally did not partake in the higher education of Bl. Thus Bl knew French and shorthand, but Sally knew neither. SaUy was strong and healthy, and would sometimes walk a long way from home, and disappear, leaving Bl, who was easily fatigued, to struggle back. When Bl was tired or poorly, Sally dominated and led her a fearful life, but if Bl were well and strong, it was more difficult for Sally to get the upper hand. Once when Bl was in exceptionally good health, SaUy expressed herself as feeling " squeezed out." This phenomenon sheds very great light on our own individual lives. It seems to explain the dominance of the evU sub-ego within us. It often happens that a person goes wrong, in some cases to an alarming degree, during periods of physical or mental iU-health. One can ir. I MULTIPLE PERSONALITY AND CRIME 159 tr vce the cause to neurasthenia, or some sudden excesses w lich have exhausted the nervous system. Under suitable ti jatment and often by suggestion the healthy, normal condi- ti'»n is regained. There is however always the risk of social di iaster during these wanderings, and such events may, in w ecking a career, postpone or even prevent a return to normal. T lis is demonstrated daily in the instances of good people g dng wrong, as it were running off the tracks which they h id previously followed in exemplary lives. Bl in a measure illustrated this when Sally made her tell 1) 38, or act rudely and foolishly to her friends, or do anythmg r spulsive to her ordinary ideas. Bl was thereby much dis- t 'essed, but unable to help herself. A third sub-personahty B4 appeared on June 7, 1899. B4 knew nothing of Bl orB3, nor did she know Dr. Prince < r the other friends. Her character was different ; for she was combative, and inquisitive as to her new surroundings, '.'"hough Sally knew all about Bl, she knew nothing of B4, < xcept what an outsider could observe. B4 had a hatred for {Jally, and contempt for Bl. B4 also shared the accomplish- luents of Bl, as her knowledge of French. Dr. Prince at first thought B4 was the original Miss 3eauchamp, for B4 knew her whole life previous to the shock in 1893 and the appearance of Bl, but knew nothing of ihe six years until 1899, when Bl reigned. Dr. Prince, how- k Drawn by M.B. when B3 or " Old Nick. Lent by the Med.-Psych. Association. Facing page 160. Drawn entirely by touch by M. B. when blind, as B9. Lent by the Society for Psychical Research. Facing page 161. If! MULTIPLE PERSONALITY AND CRIME 161 de ective. B2 bore a close resemblance to Mary Rey- no ds. 33 was a mischievous romping girl. In this condition she w< 3 taken to the seaside, and though in her normal state she kii 3W the sea yet now as B3 she beheld it for the first time. W len she revisited the same place the next year, in a different p( :^onality, as B6, it was again to her as a new sight. She learned to swim in one personaUty, B3, but later could n< t swim in the B6 condition. In another phase, B9, she was blind and developed a new f£ 3ulty, perhaps a legacy from some remote ancestor. This i!v is the power to draw ; drawing entirely by touch, even to t] e detecting of colour. B9 was also imbecile. (Study the d -a wings of B9 and compare with that of B3.) This case o M. B. is of value to our present subject because one state, i 10, was of criminal appearance. As A, or normal, she was a girl of the very highest morale, and the simplest wrong-doing V as an absolute horror to her. Yet as BIO she was a thief, and only by chance saved from murder. The theft was a \ ery ordinary one, from a shop door. On seeing a policeman ghie ran back, replaced the article, but justified the theft on he same lines of thought as in the criminal's mind. " If you rant a thing and can't get it, why nick it. No harm if you «je not found out." A very striking feature in this case was the different hand- ^mting in each personality. The most curious part was the ilhterate scrawl in BIO, the degenerate state ; and the badly iormed letters in B2, which were written quickly and without Iiesitation from right to left, instead of from left to right. H The account of Mary Barnes would not be complete The way unless I describe the way in which she changed from her normal JSa^^^ Ego, and how the sub-personaUties shifted about. Barnes The first sub-personality Bl, which exhibited mania, coma, ^^p^_ and trance, was supposed to be an acute and severe illness sonalities of ordinary brain type, and was not properly recognized at the time. In the sixth week of this condition B2 appeared as an ignorant child, cHpping her words and unable to associate the names of things correctly. Thus she did not know what her foot was called, or would call her mouth her eye, and i 1 162 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME so forth. She also reversed colours, calling black white, green red, and vice versa. It was considered a loss of mind following on the acute illness. But one day during an apparent relapse of the Bl state she appeared dazed, pushed things away, and suddenly turned a somersault on the bed. She at once assumed the B2 characters, but later relapsed to Bl. This happened again and thus attracted close observation though the facts were impossible to explain. In this B2 condition she com- menced scrawling with a pencil and it was noticed that she wrote correctly each word backwards, that is from right to left, beginning at the tail, with as much ease as in the ordinary way. It was not mirror writing. Interchanges occurred quite irregularly between her normal self A, and B2, from the last week of May 1895 until July 24, when a new sub-person- ality, B3, appeared. Bl having completely gone for a time, B2 was up and dressed, and on July 24, 1895, it was observed that her mental attitude was quite di£Ferent from before. The transition was marked by the appearance of mental con- fusion with flushing. When she changed to B2 she usually fell to the ground, because B2 was paralyzed at the ankles. This fact was of great assistance to me in unravelling the cause, as it pointed not only to a paralysis of that motor centre in the brain, but also to the particular artery of supply (the anterior cerebral). The transitions might be extremely rapid, lasting two or three minutes, or drawn out for days, leaving us in anxious doubt as to what might happen. As an illustration of rapid change she was in a comatose condition on Sunday April 4, 1897, and seemed to be dying ; suddenly she jumped up with a clear mind and called out, " What am I in bed for ? Don't you know I am Nick ? " Nick was the name we gave her as B3. She had been very ill for three weeks, fed by spoonfuls, and now she demanded a good meal. Our predicament can easily be imagined. B3 had been absent for six months, having left on Sunday, September 20, 1896, at dinner time, and now B3 wished to dress and go downstairs, as she supposed, to finish her former dinner, it being again a Sunday. It was a difficult case to treat, as there was no similar one on record to guide us. Writing of B2. Each word was written from right to left. Lent by the Society for Psychical Research. FactttK page 162 1 IP ^ ^^n^^^Lu^^^4^ "^-zr^ Written by Bg in the blind and imbecile stage. The "dear voice" was the name she gave, when Bg, to the author. ^ ^cxxjo -^9^ r(,UA,^rYV ^ .1 CX/rw Written by B6, the nearest substitute to normal. I am indebted to the Medico-Psychological Association for these prints. Facing page 163. B r MUL' ^» Piiminor fro MULTIPLE PERSONALITY AND CRIME 163 ruming from the purely psychical aspect of this interesting The Phy- ca e I wish to offer an explanation based on our knowledge Explan^ of the manner in which the blood vessels act, and also on the tion of ai itomical conditions of blood supply to the brain. p^lon-^ [t will serve a useful purpose towards unravelling some of ality tl 3se temporary mental aberrations which so constantly pissent themselves, if I apply this technical knowledge to tl e case of M. B. to explain her varying personalities. We have not so far considered the mechanism of the blood The Cir- s pply of the brain. The vast system of blood canals all o^^he" o 7er the body have a special nervous system, almost entirely Brain g ven up to them, which is called the Sympathetic nervous s ;^stem. It sends deHcate branches along the vessels, causing t lem to contract, in which case there is a pallor, and a sense c f chiUiness, whilst if the blood vessels dilate there is flushing a Qd heat. An example of both conditions is seen in nettlerash, \ here toxin from the stomach, or formic acid from the nettle, eaters the blood and causes both conditions, namely, a pale centre from contraction of the blood vessels, or anaemia; £nd a red periphery, from dilatation of the blood vessels on congestion. Chilblains or numb fingers are also examples of spasm of the arteries. These arterial contractions may last a few hours or days or extend to weeks and months. In Raynaud's disease the arterial spasm of the fingers or toes may continue until there is ulceration and gangrene. Since advancing the theory, some years ago, of arrested "unction being the result of arterial spasm, depriving the area iffected of its chemical nutrition, certain cases of spasm of fche retinal artery have been reported, which support this doctrine to the point of demonstration. ■ I W. Tyndall Lister, of London, described to me a case, not yet "published, in which a man complained of sudden attacks of half blindness or darkness. During one of these attacks Mr. Lister was able to show his students a condition of complete spasm of certain branches of the retinal artery. After a period of perhaps half an hour, these pale contracted arterioles relaxed, filling with blood and shortly after vision was com- 164 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME Drs. C. E. Beevor and Marcus Gunn describe the case of a man/ aged thirty-four, who had attacks of headache with bHndness in the right eye since childhood. One attack con- tinued for nine months, on which account he sought special advice.^ It was diagnosed as recurrent spasm of the central artery of the retina. In the same journal, J. B. Story, of Dublin, recited two similar cases. One case, a man aged thirty-five, was attacked suddenly with blindness on December 28, 1898, and the condition lasted till the middle of April, 1899. This very much resembles the period and character of the blind stage of BlO. The second case lasted ten weeks. In both, spasm and contraction of the retinal arteries were observed. In vol. 26, p. 282, of the above, Lundie publishes another case in which he watched the spasm of the retinal artery ; and Hartridge of Philadelphia, reports a case in which the blindness, lasting a few minutes, was due to contraction of the larger vessels outside the skull, namely, the temporal and nasal arteries. Dr. Arthur H. Benson, of Dublin, also published a case of " Temporary visual obscurations from retinal vascular spasm " (Trans, Internat Opht. Cong, 1894). If such disturbance of the circulation occurred in the brain, important mental phenomena must result. In what is wrongly termed hysterical paralysis and anaesthesia, there is reason to beHeve that the particular brain cells involved are for the time deprived of function, and the cause is probably an arterial spasm such as this. In the condition termed sick headache, or megrim, there is a spasmodic contraction of the carotid artery so that it may be felt hard in the neck Certain of its branches in the brain are thereby deprived of their normal blood supply, and this leads to confusion, sometimes deafness, and great irregularities of sight, by throwing particular groups of brain cells out of action. The brain receives its supply of blood from two large arteries iOphih. Review, 18, 1899, p. 204. * In this condition there was blindness of the superior half of the field of vision with spasm of the lower branches of the central retinal artery. He had occasional attacks in the left eye, losing the lower half of the field of vision. Photograph of arteries and arterioles, with delicate fibres (probably sympathetic nerves) running along their walls. These regulate the supply of blood by causing the vessels to contract or relax. Prepared by a special process and kindly lent by Dr. Ford Robertson, of Edinburgh. Facing page 164 I ^ r Sketch of a branch of the middb cerebral artery supplying the motor centres. Diagraraatic sketch of a section ot the brain to shew how the cortex gets its blood supply, and to demonstrate how spasm of a branch of an artery may arrest its function in any part. PC A sketch of the arterial supply of the brain. AC— anterior cerebral artery. PC — the posterior cerebral, which supplies the visual area. MC — the middle cerebral artery supplies the clear part. Spasm of AC would account for B2, by shutting off the higher association and the motor centre of the foot. Facing page 165. IP V IF MI] ^W n front, th I MULTIPLE PERSONALITY AND CRIME 165 Q front, the right and left carotids, and two smaller arteries >ehind, the vertebrals. These are connected up inside the ^ kull to form a beautiful system of vessels, so as to ensure a teady and regular supply. From ofE this system on each ide, right and left, arise three arteries, the anterior, middle, md posterior cerebral arteries. These inter-communicate )y their smaller branches to ensure still further a steady flow. But if any important branch be shut off permanently, as by i clot or a rupture, as in apoplexy, there results a permanent paralysis of some part of the body according to the brain area attacked. Whereas if an artery be in a state of spasm as just described^ the particular group of nerve cells supphed will for so long be put out of action. I contend that this offers a reasonable explanation of these extraordinary psychic phenomena. In my opinion the spasmodic contraction of certain arteries Spasm of in the brain might account for loss of the corresponding yj^^s mental functions in the case of Mary Barnes. Thus the B2 in condition, in which there was a complete loss of association p^^^^ between objects and their names, was always associated with ality inabihty to stand, as she lost the use of her ankles ; contraction of the anterior cerebral artery would account for both phenomena, as it suppUes the prefrontal association area, which guides the processes of thought, and also the motor centre of the foot, which was always paralysed. The paralysis of speech, hearing and bHndness are likewise easily accounted for, but the blindness was more complicated, as it was physical, not mental. The physical blindness was probably due to spasm of the branches of the middle cerebral artery, which supphes some of the way stations between the retina and the cortex (the geniculate bodies). Sir John Tweedy testified to the normal state of the eye. Psychical vision, or ideation, is situated at the posterior pole of the brain, and from this area were evolved, during the physical bhndness, a wonderful group of drawings. We know that the bUnd are very sensitive to touch, and M. B. during her bUnd condition guided her pencil solely by touch, even in the matter of colouring. M. B. had her brain stored with mental pictures which she had " gathered " during 166 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME The Con- centric Stratifi- cation of the Brain CeUs her lifetime, whereas by contrast those bHnd from birth or infancy have not had the opportunity of collecting visual impressions. It will be remembered that the pyramidal or intellectual brain cells are in layers and develop into activity from within outwards.^ In this way we may say they resemble the concen- tric layers seen in the section of a tree. Supposing there are fifty layers of pyramidal cells, and that ten layers are educated by the age of 3, if the circulation of the blood was shut off all the upper layers, then the individual would become childish, as in the B2 state. Again if the thirty deeper layers were educated by the age of 10 and the circulation were shut off the upper twenty layers, we could account for the character B3. B6 was like a good child of 12 or 13, about as high a level as M. B. attained normally. She has continued as B6 with some slight advance, and this might be explained if the embry- onic nuclei were permanently damaged. The disturbance of the circulation might impair the remaining higher layers from their further normal evolution. Such would appear to have happened in this case, for though about 23 she is mentally on the plane of a girl of 16 to 18 years of age. If we apply the lessons of this unique case we see that the degenerate, and perhaps criminal, sub-personality BlO, suggests the possibiHty of a similar condition in some of our criminals, where from disease or accident, probably in childhood, the original self is disintegrated, and the lower nature takes charge of the individual. We must have observed with some acquaintances a complete change of character or per- sonality after a serious iUness. We are apt to say, " So-and-So is a changed person, quite different " since some trouble or illness. In reality the personality has been attacked at the foundation, and the dissolution of the Ego has resulted in a sub-personahty assuming control. There are also many apparently normal people who show two distinct natures or sub-personalities. For example the same person may show the mother's sweetness and the father's temper, or a peculiarity which does not occur in a parent but in an uncle or aunt or even cousin. Here we have a 1 Fig. p. 108. Diagram of the sympathetic nervous system Which lies in ganglia or chain masses in front of the spinal column. There are 3 chief masses : over the heart and lungs (Ca), another plexus for the stomach and viscera (So), and third for the reproductive organs (H). They are intimately connected with every nerve and blood vessel, and when out of gear produce functional diseases. Facing page 166. 1 MULTIPLE PERSONALITY AND CRIME 167 >ersonality from each parent or from some more distant relative, n such cases one encourages the good sub-ego while endeavour- ng to postpone the visits of the unpleasant sub-personality. The case of M. B. showed eleven separate lives in one body, ind is fuU of unravelled mystery. We cannot call them jleven minds, nor yet ten aberrations, but ten fragments of the i^hole or perfect mind. I call them ten sub-personalities, and I compare mind to The Mind a piece of fine architecture which is composed of so many posite ' structural parts. If an earthquake shake the structure beyond the point of stabiHty, there is an internal dislocation, so that the whole shape is altered and hidden parts are seen. But these are only substructures, however complete in them- selves they appear. In B2, who was like an ignorant infant, the mental fragment was very small. She had to be taught or retaught the application of every name, yet she could express herself in writing. BlO was full of wicked thoughts, and showed an intelligence much below the average. She had no moral sense in this state, for though she knew she was doing wrong, she had neither shame nor sorrow. This condition is a repHca of the criminal mind. Such indisputable evidence shows the mental states of the crimi- nal as being abnormal to the true Ego. The most inexpHcable feature was that in every sub-person- ality she knew her parents, although she gave them the nicknames of " Tom " and " Mary Ann." The previous case. Miss Beauchamp, was under the hypnotic influence and single control of Dr. Morton Prince, and thus differed from my patient, who resisted the strongest attempts at hypnotism. Moreover my case was critically examined by the highest mental experts to eliminate personal error on my part. Amongst them were Drs. C. Mercier, Robert Jones, T. Hyslop, Outterson Wood, T. Savill, Sir Thomas Barlow, Drs. Milne Bramwell, Lloyd Tuckey and others. She was also twice shown in the abnormal states to the Clinical Society of London, with Dr. Buzzard presiding. The Legal i It would be a very serious matter if such a case came under Aspect of 1 the operations of the law. As Dr. Mercier pointed out, this c^ 168 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME case showed the possibiHty of a person committing a crime in one sub-personaHty, and being punished in another phase, or in the normal state. Such might have happened with BlO if a desperate act had been done, and no one could have shielded her. From the sudden manner in which she changed her personalities it is quite possible that the trial would have been of a sub-personality other than BlO, and totally ignorant of Bio's actions. It is at least possible that such things occur, and is a strong argument for modifying the law of capital punishment. In this case we had to protect BlO against herself. It is right for the public to be protected from the criminal classes, but it is equally just to demand of the law the institution of machinery for protecting the criminal from himself. It is just possible that some crimes committed by neurotics have been committed in the hypnotic state, and it is worth while to try the experiment of regenerating some such criminals by wholesome suggestion during hypnosis. Influence of Sug- gestion and Imitation Nearly aU influence resolves itseK into either imitation or suggestion, and the power, effect and duration of suggestion can never be fathomed or estimated. The evil suggestion of a bad companion may be compared to a draught of disguised poison. It is like the insect's sting in the young oakleaf, which ripens into the gallnut when the leaf is mature ; or the sowing of seed which may not bear fruit for an indefinite time. Yet there they both are, absorbed and buried, for good or for evil. Conversely the usefulness of the preacher depends on his power of suggestion. The conversions of criminals by the Salvation Army is due to the same cause, aided by imitation and the hypnosis of music. I once cured a girl of kleptomania by suggestion. Her condition was undoubtedly criminal and she had been a great trouble to her employers. She could not resist piKering, but was sharp enough to take precautions or guard against detection, for if there was any chance of being caught she controlled her desire. This to many would appear simple wickedness, but it was not so. She was a moral cripple, and was cured by sympathetic supervision. Nevertheless my patient was a born thief, for she told me that if alone in ■r^ MULTIPLE PERSONALITY AND CRIME 169 n f other room and a lady's bag were on the table, she could n 't resist stealing from it. It was not the value of the object, b it a lust to steal. Many of the criminals have used the same e pression. As all these abnormal people take precautions a ainst detection, the law cannot reaUze that it is an obsession, o possession, and deal with them as if they were normally C" uipped in intelligence and self-control. There is indeed nothing externally visible to separate BIO, o this other girl, from the common thief ; and this suggests a 3loser relationship between crime and mental dislocation than s< ciety is at present prepared to admit CHAPTER XVIII THE EGO AND SUB-EGOS OR PERSONALITY AND SUB-PERSONALITY THE EGO : Spiritist's opinion — No sub-personalities, but many personalities — Possession and control — Science refutes spiritism. ONLY ONE EGO IN EACH PERSON : A perfect child as example — " Born saved " versus " Born lost "—A sub-personality. WHAT THE EGO MUST BE, A NORMAL PERSONALITY : Sub-egos in all of us— The ego of M. B. gradually disappeared after two years — Now B6 requires care against mental fatigue being unstable. M. B. ONLY A PART OF HERSELF NOW : Proof that M. B. is only a fragment of her original self. CRIMINALITY VERY RARELY DUE TO DOUBLE PERSONALITY : Case of No. 3 — The criminal abnormal from childhood — Poorer classes more liable to mental instability, and perhaps to sub-personality. CASE OF TOTAL DESTRUCTION OF THE EGO : How to treat and save these cases. HUMANITY ON AN INCLINED PLANE : Average egos subnormal — Causes of sub-personality — Environment — Heredity and conditions at birth. CONSTANT CAUSES WORKING AGAINST THE EGO : Treatment of brain cases where damage suspected — The dethroned ego — Definition of the ego — What is sleep ? SCIENCE ADMITS UNSEEN FORCES : The spirit— The subnormal ego and the spirit — Influence of religion and ethics — On abnormal types — A converted criminal. CONTRAST OF THE LAW AND SALVATION ARMY IN IMPROVING THE CRIMINAL : A sub-ego reviving under the S. A. influence — ^The case resembles somnambulism. RELIGIOUS CON- VERSION EXAMINED SCIENTIFICALLY: The distorted ego— My conversion under Lister — Stages of conversion — Brain the physical plane of the higher spirit, and mind the psychical plane — Body, brain, mind, spirit or ego. ETHICS VERSUS RELIGION : Knowledge always interesting. We cannot busy ourselves in tradition — Cannot limit or define the horizon of science. THE AGNOSTIC : We only see results, not the how or why — Vita, Life — Anima, the soul. MAN LIKE A MACHINE : May be bad— May wear out— Duty of the State — Cases. The Ego iji^E Ego is a subject of great discussion, and must be regarded as undefinable by psychologists. Spiritists, however, are more decided, and say there is not one Ego but many to each individual. They therefore dismiss the terms sub-ego or sub-personahty, and regard the human frame as a tenement, which may be occupied or *' possessed " by several personaUties or Egos. These invade, one at a time being in control, and direct the thoughts and acts of the individual. They claim scriptural support in the parable of the man who had seven devils, but J^^] PERSONALITY AND SUB-PERSONALITY 171 jhey do not appreciate that biblical spirits were regenerate IS well as degenerate, whilst modem spirits never do anything that is useful or sensible. My case (M. B.) has been selected IS the most illustrative of their theories, but unfortunately I do not agree that M. B. was possessed by ten different personalities, and explain the phenomena of mental dislocation on purely physiological conditions. I consider it possible on scientific grounds to refute spiritism, whilst charitably ignoring the fraud and humbug which attaches to it. The basal theories of spiritism, which are non-proven, are put forward as facts ; but if common sense decUnes them, the whole fabric faUs to the ground. Nevertheless there are many phenomena difficult to explain, which suggest a future state. Surely there can only be one personaUty or Ego as repre- Only One sentative of each individual body and brain. To illustrate ^h*" this practically, take a handsome weU developed child of fine Person perception, thought, and control. Such a one represents a perfect and normal Ego, which is single and complete, with every mental part properly adjusted and balanced. The future of that child is assured, or as some might put it he is " bom saved." Alas ! the converse is too often apparent, and the child is ' ' bom lost.' ' The former starts better equipped than most for the struggle of life. But if that child suffer at any period from a severe illness affecting the brain or nervous system, it is probable that a change will be observed in his demeanour or character. Such a change indicates a damaged Ego, or shattered and altered personaUty. The damage might be sHght and with care recoverable, or it might be permanent, and even though he or she might mix with the world, it would no longer be the original Ego which the child possessed at birth. I should regard this as a sub-personality of the true Ego : a part only of the whole. Surely the Ego is what Grod made and intended each individual to be ; which is a normal personahty, or a perfect mind. One might also define the normal Ego as the most perfect What the balancing of all the mental parts. There must be good and b(f°a"^ active injteUigence, with full control of all lower instincts : Normal instincts which have remained with us during the countless g^^ "" 172 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME ages of past evolution. We see that the normal Ego or person- ality is absent in many people. We cannot believe that God intended to place an imperfect mind within the human frame. Nor can we raise up an imperfect Ego as a standard for com- parison. When abnormality of body or personaHty occurs, it is the result of disease, accident, or environment. Are not these sub-egos or sub-personalities fragments of the true Ego ? We know by our own lives that while there is the true Ego in which we find peace and power, we are subject to sub-personaHties which are less perfect than the normal and possibly of overpowering strength and influence. The Ego in its normal state has great power of control to expel these sub-personalities, which appear to us like foreign invaders. It is only when the Ego is weakened by any physical or moral cause that it is possible for sub-personaUties to control us. In the case of M. B. influenza had so weakened the brain, that her normal intervals got fewer and shorter, until after three years the true Ego entirely disappeared. For the last nine years she has remained in one of her sub-personalities, B6, which fortunately is a very healthy sub-mental condition, and one in which she is intelligent, industrious, and of high morale. She not only supports herself, but is able to do something for her family. But when she is fatigued, the mind shows threatening symptoms : headache, malaise, loss of memory, depression and a weakened will power. I have therefore found it necessary two or three times to advise change of occupation or complete rest. ^ Mary It is difficult to realize, but nevertheless a fact, that M. B. only a is not her original self. She is mentally only a part of her part of Ego ; much of the Ego having been shut off. She now only now remembers the events of the B6 periods. Thus, she remembers Dr. Lloyd Tuckey, for he visited her as B6, but she does not remember Dr. Savill who saw her as B2. As at present B6, she is also ignorant of the periods of the other sub-personaHties, and cannot in any way fill up the gaps or blanks in her chain of memory. In consequence her normal ^ life has been forgotten, and she does not remember going to fl school, nor her teachers. She has to be reintroduced to her old schoolmates and other friends, for she thinks she has 1^ ■ 9 PEF PERSONALITY AISTD SUB-PERSONALITY 173 aever seen them before. It is therefore possible for any one bo be only a fragment of the normal or perfect Ego, and this may account for the many variations in character which we meet. In searching for sub-personalities amongst criminals, I have Crimin- gone carefully into their past lives, to see if I could trace any ^aielj^^^ gaps of memory. In the case of a man who is undergoing a life due to sentence for attempted murder, I foimd his memory far from per^on- a continuous chain. He can hardly give any account of his ality childhood, nor can he recall his marriage day. He with difficulty remembers the birth of his first child, and cannot say whether he or his father went for the doctor. Surely amongst the 150,000 criminals in London there must be a few illustrative cases. I find the criminal usually occupies the position of the soHtary black sheep in the family, and differs from the rest of his own folk. His personaHty has probably appeared abnormal even before the wrongdoing commenced. He seems to have been labelled from his early days. Is it not possible that some sub-personahty has been at work from childhood, and that he starts ill-balanced ? There are more opportunities in the humble walks of life for such defective states to occur, as they are especially prone in infancy to tubercular diseases, and to brain affections, being thus vulnerable at many points through malnutrition. There- fore, if nature at birth had equipped them like others, there would still be all these and other subtle forces working against them : forces which no human being is strong enough to withstand. Though we cannot always demonstrate these, yet abnormal sub-personaHties may often be in possession where least suspected. To demonstrate this I will give an instance of total destruc- Case of tion of the Ego or Personahty. D°*^u A boy, bom of very healthy parents in good social position, tion of started fair both physically and mentally, until the age of ^® ^® 4, when he had a sunstroke in India. This accident retarded mental development, while physically he grew into a fine athletic young man. He was backward at school, dull, irritable, and suffered from night terrors. In his teens he was pressed 174 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME in study and consequently broke down under the stress. The free use of beer and tobacco hastened the end, which necessi- tated placing him under care before he reached the age of 20. The Ego is in this instance totally and permanently destroyed, for the body exists without the mind. He and many similar cases might, if taken early, survive mentally under modified conditions, by relieving the stress of competition. Such do well in the country, or in situations which do not require much responsibility. This case is a sad transition from good heredity and sanity to complete dementia, but between these extremes there are many stages. Such conditions are mdre easily brought about by poverty, with the increased struggle for existence ; or by the opposite, overstimulating diet among the rich, not to mention the baneful influence of alcohol, tubercle and other serious constitutional diseases. Human- With these tremendous opportunities, possibilities, and incHneT c^ances, we see that humanity rests on an inclined plane. Plane At the top in the region of perfection we find sanity, intellect, moral control, and wisdom, which represent the normal Ego. At the bottom He the hopeless mental and moral wrecks, " the submerged tenth." Between the good and the bad some are slipping down, while many are struggling up. If we realize what this inclined plane means to ourselves and to others, it ought to stir us to do our duty. The fact that many of us appear normal but are only average is no argument against the perfection of the normal Ego, for everything human tends to mediocrity, by the law of averages. It is our business to trace the cause in what appear to be abnormalities of the Ego, or sub-personalities. Environment strikes us as the most frequent cause, when we daily witness the great disadvantages which attend the poor in slum life : or in higher walks, where parents fail, through ignorance or sin, in the care and education of their children. How many bairns are unnecessarily soured and rendered peevish and irritable ! Their tempers are permanently broken, when they might have been happy and loveable. It is just the same, as we observe, with a horse badly broken in by an untrust- worthy groom. Other cases seem to be abnormal from birth. The brain PERSONALITY AND SUB-PERSONALITY 175 ] Qay be injured at this period by prolonged or difficult labour, e alcoholism, tubercle, or syphilis, in one or both parents. Too rapid childbearing may have exhausted the maternal nutrition. In all these cases the physical habitation of the Cgo is damaged, so that the normal Ego cannot develop. Ve see the counterpart of this, where an arm or leg never comes iuto use because the motor cells thereof are damaged. - There may be endless causes at work against the develop- Constant Qent of the Ego, so that the shattered Ego, which we see in ^o^^g Qany, is but a part of the original, and this accounts for against nany of the weaklings and degenerates. It also illustrates * ® ^° he compound nature of the Ego, or the division of the person- i .lity into parts. In isolated cases when the brain is attacked, ' 76 should do our best to restore the health, as there is no part ( 'f the body more capable of recovery than the brain and nervous i ystem. It has a large reserve stock of *' embryonic " brain nuclei or ceUs awaiting development. The results of careful j.nd necessarily prolonged treatment and supervision are in a 1 urge measure successful. Many, however, are never the same {iter a serious nerve illness. If recovery be imperfect, the lesult is a changed disposition. Those who were bright and (heery may become dull, peevish and irritable.^ Some lose their memory, or their appUcation and mental vigour, others are affected in their sense of morals. The true balance of the Ego has apparently been disturbed and not properly readjusted, so that new sub-personahties, previously under guidance, lead and direct the individual. The Spiritists, in iiy opinion, wrongly describe it as the personality under control of an alien spirit from the outer world. It is I think the true Ego, the highest mental concept, dethroned, and a sub-Ego in control. But we are confronted with the difficulty ( f finding a limited definition of the Ego, or personaUty. Some speak of the Ego as consciousness, but is the Personality destroyed by death, or even absent during sleep or anaes- thesia ? No scientist could admit of such an opinion so long zs the laws of conservation of energy rule the universe, lilnergy, muscular and nervous, are transformed from chemical » Read the cases for actual confirmation. See fig. p. 108. II 176 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME energy ; but the subtle psychical forces which reign in or through mind are beyond our powers to measure. Surely they cannot be lost, but how they may be transformed will probably always remain a mystery. If we move from this position and allow that death ends all, we reduce the brain with its psychic functions to the position of a gland such as the liver ; only instead of secreting a chemical substance, as bile, it secretes something we know not how to analyse, namely, mind. Science There is no scientific objection to an eternal force or power admits higher than mind, or above human conception or measure- Forces ment. It is the experience of many that such an influence actually exists, and is no delusion. It follows likewise that the *' Fruit of the Spirit " should blossom and ripen more fully in intellectual soil. Such we see in comparing the lives of intellectual men " spiritually minded," with those at the oppo- site pole, such as our poor *' converted " criminals. The Ego or personality, even when shattered or poorly developed, is receptive of this higher influence. Perhaps the normal Ego presents variations, as in the case of man, betwixt giant and dwarf forms, with corresponding differences in strength and stabiHty. This seems the only way of explaining the diffe ent effects of rehgion or ethics in different individuals, apart from evidence or suggestion of abnormal or sub-personalities. It also furnishes us with an explanation of reformed life in the illiterate, or the criminal, which may be regarded as a dwarf form in most cases, and answers the objection as to the genuine- ness of their conversions, and the permanency thereof. The Salvation Army and similar agencies experience many relapses, and consider it necessary to protect and hedge round these stunted growths. They might be called subnormal Egos, as contrasted with abnormal types and sub-egos, and furnish a correct basis for this part of the science of criminology. We must, however, on the plea of brotherhood, sink all social distinctions, or else cast rehgion to the wind, for a converted criminal is a valuable asset to society, and on practical grounds, apart from humanitarian principles, the work of the Salvation Army and other socio-religious bodies merits liberal support. J I Assuming his former nightly attitude for sleep. Facing page t77. PERSONALITY AND SUB-PERSONALITY 177 ^■p P As an extreme contrast to the intellectual leaders of Contrast social reform, I might mention the case of one of our Law^Lid most dangerous burglars who received 400 lashes with the SalvaUon cat, and 40 years in prison. What the law could not ^"J^^" improve or soften the Salvation Army accompUshed by the reaching his Ego or inner self, though it considered it necessary ^'■*°""al to watch over him till the end of his earthly career. Many of these converts, whom I have examined, have been physically degenerate, and some mentally weak, but rehgion appealed to the subnormal or stunted Ego which remained. The following is a case of a stunted Ego reviving under conversion — a male, aged 40, who had been a lazy man all his life. He is a typical invert, passive, not energetic enough to do wrong ; also he admits never having done a day's work before his conversion. AU he aimed at was enough to pay for a bare allowance of food, and if possible a bed. He had, however, so often to sleep on a stair, that he lost the habit of assum- ing the horizontal position, and after his conversion for some time always slept on the bed in a sitting posture, leaning against the wall. He is rather a curiosity on this account. The Salvation Army were the means of his con- version, and his stunted Ego when roused exhibited new and more normal tendencies. He now works hard all day and ■ feels happier than before. I regard this as a very practical conversion, for his work consists in scrubbing, which can afford no pleasure. It represents the awakening of a stunted uneducated Ego, which had loafed the streets for thirty years, in what some may regard as a form of somnambulism. Com- I paring his religion and ethical condition with that of the average man is like comparing the difference between a tallow candle and an electric light. It would take a volume to explain, so I can add no more, except that the hght of a tallow candle is of use in some places. Conversion, then, requires no premium of intellect, but Religious resolves itself into a choice of two conditions ; ^ and the resulting Conver- ^ potentiahties must depend upon the ability of the individual. Examined We are aU daily passing through minor conversions, which ^fji^**^ tin comparing mental pictures of past and present * *• Therefore choose life and good." — Deut. xxx, ■ cally 178 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME circumstances with future prospects and possibilities. A conversion from one creed to another may be slow and require deliberation, whereas a conversion from evil to good should be decisive and rapid. We are aware that such is not always the case, when the distorted Ego cUngs hard to the distorting influences on the physical plane. As an example I might instance my own conversion to antiseptic surgery, when a fresh unbiased student, under the teaching of Professor, now Lord, Lister. It was decisive and prompt, whereas some of the mature and skilled surgeons resisted conversion for years, finding it so difficult to leave their old habits, and open up fresh channels in their mental neurons, much to the loss of their patients. In religious conversion there must be several stages, as contrition and sorrow, followed by hope, with new desires and ideals. I take it that as brain is the physical basis of mind, so mind is the psychical plane in which the higher spirit manifests itseK ; and as before said, the extent of the spiritual manifestation must bear some ratio to the amount of mental power and development. The order seems to be body, mind and spirit. The body is governed by chemico-vital forces : the brain evolves nerve force and mental energy : whilst the undefinable personaHty or Ego is in relation to the higher spirit, which we call God, and other races name Allah, or Great Spirit. If this view be correct, it is some plea for leaving other races to enjoy their own deities a little longer, until we get our own house into order. Ethics In the disputes between ethics and religion, the latter Reunion ^^^ higher claims, being more expansive, as it allows for the existence of an unseen power. Science in every decade unfolds knowledge of fresh forces, and we cannot regard poor human intelligence as the acme of the * Creation.* We are only on the edge of these great mysteries. To limit the conception of God is to place narrower limits to human understanding than should exist. To deny the influence of this Spirit on mind and character is to limit science. We know mind by its intellectual manifestations, how can we refuse to acknow- ledge the manifestations of the Spirit, which exists on a higher and non-material plane ? It is only a few years ago since PERSONALITY AND SUB-PERSONALITY 179 we thought that wood was opaque and glass transparent ; now we find the reverse is equally true, in relation to X rays. Knowledge and discovery are ever on the increase. We look on the past generation as behind the times, but I fear we shall be regarded in a similar unsympathetic manner by future generations. Therefore to suggest a present finahty to know- ledge, or to define the horizon of our mental operations, is a presumption which cannot be tolerated in any discussion on the subject of unlimited unseen forces or powers. Let me ask the physicist to extend and define the etheric vibrations beyond the red and violet in the spectrum or rainbow, and he shrugs his shoulders in despair. Twenty years ago he would have said that nothing existed beyond the red and the violet, but now we know quite differently. At the former time his intellect and imagination could not conceive the then hidden heat and light rays. At the present time he has no instrument by which to discover further new vibrations, 80 the attitude assumed is " agnosis." ^»: The same position is taken up in reUgious matters by the The Agnostic, who talks as if one should measure the vital forces ^8"^***^ with a perfect standard before he can believe in them. Each science has its own formula for making estimates, and the psychical phenomena, bearing on the existence of an unseen power, are in one aspect a closed book. We are allowed to see the resultant manifestations, but the how or wherefore we cannot solve. The scientific man cannot define life, except in common- place and unhelpful terms. Yet he admits this unseen vital force in plants and animals, and in their seeds and germs. In like manner, there is no reason why there should not be another form of life associated with the mind which we call the soul. Though we can measure nerve motion, and the rapidity of sim- ple thought, or the delay and disturbance of thought by emotion, yet we have no apparatus that can disclose or explain mental energy, or its effects and changes in the cells of the brain. How then can we hope to acquaint ourselves with the soul ? We all know too weU the limitations of power and existence Man to the human mind, and so far we may compare man to a {jj^^i^ ii 180 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME machine, like, for instance, a watch. There are many watches which appear normal, but the machinery oft goes wrong as with many of us. Nor is the perfect machinery able to work beyond a certain time. Some are old at 50, while others last to 70 and 80. These facts are not sufficiently considered in dealing with human wreckage, or we would make more allowance for bad machinery. Certainly we should cease from punishing old dotards of 70 or 80, whose "grinders are few." Instead of casting them into prison, with its shame and horrors, the State should care for them in homes, remembering in many cases they were useful and faithful citizens till they passed the stage of repair. a CHAPTER XIX THE MORAL INVAUD AND THE MENTAL CRIPPLE NECESSITY OF BEING ACQUAINTED WITH THE BRAIN MACHINE: Criminal types — Object to analyze the criminal physically and mentally. MENTAL INVALID OR MORAL CRIPPLE : Education has changed the criminal type — My experience at Dartmoor. Deterioration now going on among the upper classes. BORDER-LINE CRIMINALS : ParenUl duty— Don't force children or youths. SHIELD THE CHIL- DREN FROM THE KNOWLEDGE OF EVIL : The effect of evil sugges- tion — Auto-suggestion — Cases. BAD LITERATURE : Need of press censor — Duty of Government — No one can take the parents' place. DESIRE FOR WEALTH WITHOUT WORK : Cases to illustrate the loafer — Bad companions — Laziness and drink — Lazy tramp — Lazy and gambler — Sad case of neglect : saved by good influences at pauper school — Knowing the difference between right and wrong. CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY : Dr. Mercier's writings— Criticized. TO THE MORAL INVALID THERE IS NO FREE-WILL : Compare with a phy- sical cripple — Responsibility clear in complex purposive actions — Allowance for impulse — Correct for normal people. THE CRIMINAL MIND ABNORMAL : Like an overgrown baby — Requires protection and compulsion — Follows the way of least resistance — Instincts of primitive man. THE COMMON THIEF A MORAL CRIPPLE: Has never t learned the principles which must govern Society. SALVATION ARMY f GIVING THE EDUCATION THE STATE SHOULD HAVE GIVEN : The legal profession is now sympathetic. MORAL SPLINTS REQUIRED : The medical man required to elucidate these psychological problems — Ci'me like a moral cancer — We must aim at the cure of crime. Buskin said that '' Punishment Is the last and the worst instrument in the bands ol the legislator for the prevention of crime.*' A CLEAR understanding of the physical action of the brain ought to form part of the education of every criminal lawyer and jurist. Some of the mysteries otherwise unappreciated by the layman are thereby unravelled and explained. Every intelligent parent can appreciate the importance of information concerning brain and mind with a view to the proper training of the young, for under better auspices many actual criminals would never have developed their evil ten- dencies. Some of those I have examined expressed a thirst for crime, usually theft ; some are attracted by the excitement of the life. In the former type we see rudiments of the unscru- 181 182 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME pulous acquisitive financial adventurer ; in the latter a per- version of the spirit of adventure and sportsmanship of which the Briton is justly proud. It is the object of this chapter to ascertain the physical and mental basis of the criminal. Is the defect in the associa- tion areas, so that he never sees life in the true perspective ? There might be two causes ; structural underdevelopment or decay, in which case he would be more or less insane, either ament or dement ; or average structure might exist, but want of education would deprive him of the opportunity of distinguishing right from wrong, and giving each its proper value. In these circumstances the criminal becomes a moral invaUd, or a mental cripple. From whatever standpoint we view the criminal, we do not at present see him on his " native heath " in situ. We so abhor him as a species of leper that we are only too thankful to hand on our responsibilities to some one else, not grudging the big bill of costs necessary for imposing a barrier between him and us. But the criminal demands special treatment, first for the safety of the public, and secondly for his own protection against himself. The question is too serious to be ignored or pushed aside. Thirty years ago our prisons were occupied with much rougher men than now. Education has made the lower orders a little smoother externally, but more cunning, whilst the pace at which we live and the neglect of nature's laws has produced more pseudo-criminals or borderline cases among the respect- able classes. I was struck, when going over Dartmoor, by hearing the chief warder speak of the prisoners as " gentle- men." He was describing the facilities of the library, and said, " A gentleman can get any book he wishes to read or study through the chaplain." Our prisons have quite as many gentlemen as rough men. As the former are educated there must be some atavism or degeneration going on apace among better-class families. This is no imaginary picture, as every medical man of experience can testify. There is so much luxury, alcohol, and high living, plus a tremendous stress on the nervous system, that the marvel is there are not more degenerates. I ■■IP ^m Vthe m ^B I There MORAL INVALID AND MENTAL CRIPPLE 183 There are, however, many more on the borderUne than is suspected. They are weaklings, or mental cripples who will drift, if neglected, either towards insanity or crime. Their relations may not be aUve to the danger imtil a catastrophe has happened, but often it is their indifference and lack of courage that prevent them from seeking advice in time to avoid such an event. If parental duty be observed and each child educated with due care, then if a catastrophe occur, it is modified. Medical men have occasionally to rescue unfortunate youths from the clutch of the law, or to place others of the same type and social condition in asylums. On the first there necessarily rests a shadow, whilst on the latter there is no dishonour to embitter the affliction. The difference would probably be due to environment, to the primary parental care. In order to avoid these social shadows parents must devote their lives, as a rehgious, moral, and social duty, to their children. They will in later years possess the fiUal affection, which is worth more than all the flattery of society or the fawning of inferiors. It is a very great error to ripen the children too soon. Let them enjoy childish innocence and simpUcity, until they are quite strong enough to bear the yoke of youth, and allow them to enjoy the vigorous pleasures of youth, manly sports, brisk studies, and healthy hobbies, until they are equal to the burdens of adolescence. Life will then be a success to them, and what is worth more, an honourable happiness and satisfaction. While some parents shield their children from all knowledge Shield \ of evil, others seriously maintain that it is better for children *h^C^<* •1 f 1 11' irom tne to know the evil of the world, m order that they may the more Know- easily avoid it. But when a child is famiUarized with wicked- g^* °^ ness the brain is furnished with a series of evil mental photo- graphs. However forcibly the evil may be denounced, the poisonous seed has been sown and may, nay will, probably germinate. On the other hand restrain such knowledge, and place life with its nobler aim in the true perspective before a child or youth, and all that is wrong or unworthy can only be reached by the pathway of a new experience. What is injurious or unwholesome is better kept out of the mind,* * Read T^ Hygiene of Mind, by Dr. Clouston. / ' ; 184 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME lest it acts by suggestion as a stimulus to unwholesome acts. Many of the criminals I have examined attribute their downward course to suggestion from bad companions. But they probably saw, even in infancy, a good deal more evil than people in higher walks of life. These influences would tend to lead them downward by suggestion, acting powerfully on their imagination. A burglar says he associated with bad boys on the street and was a criminal at 15. He paid the heavy penalty of thirty years' penal servitude. Another says he went wrong before 15, through bad com- panions. He had twenty convictions for stealing. A third man, a receiver, had every chance in life cut off by bad companions leading him to gambling. Bad It is too well known how many lads are now suffering the terature i^eartaches of prison, through reading polluted literature, in which every vice is suggested with stimulating and literary effect. There should be a Press Censor for the protection of the unstable, who are unable to choose wisely. A powerful Government control is urgently required. Surely it cannot be right for a Government to hang or imprison young people so long as it views complacently the wicked trash which it allows to be placed before them. If Government has the right to punish it has likewise the duty to protect the weaklings ; otherwise its inaction degenerates into culpable ignorance, for the State has no excuse if it do not keep up with the times. Nevertheless we are brought back to the fact that it is the parental duty to educate and equip the child mentally and morally. No State or institution can absolve parents from their responsibility. As things are, in all walks of life, parents, rich and poor alike, seem to neglect their duties. Those of us who realize this fact ought to lend our aid where possible. Grand opportunities arise for those who are charitably and devoutly disposed, by giving practical advice and keeping an eye on the children, watching and guiding them in youth and adolescence. Above all things lead them on to industry ; discourage idleness and the desire to get money without labour, which is a fertile cause of crime among all classes. THE MORAL INVALID AND MENTAL CRIPPLE 186 Htake for instance the case of a man who is not a criminal, but an idle degenerate. He says he became a loafer at 24, but he got among bad companions at 17. Though under the care of the Salvation Army he has no desire to improve his condition. He is unconverted. Another man got among bad companions when 21. He never kept a situation because of his laziness and drinking habits. He is now converted and his laziness has left him. Another case was deserted by his drinking father when he was 8 years old. He was brought up by the Guardians. He became a lazy, obstinate tramp, but since his conver- sion is happy and enjoys working. Again a young man was born in good circumstances. As a lad he was lazy, which led to a gay, gambhng life. He h£wi bitter experiences, and two imprisonments. He is now con- verted and hopes to work into a respectable position. And so on. I had recently such an interesting case illustrating the opposite condition that I must quote it. A man 32 years of age, with tubercle of the larynx, was anxious for permission to marry. By the time he was nearly cured I gave my con- ditional consent, because he said he had never known what the word " home " meant. His mother died when he was an infant, and his drunken father left him in the street at mid- night, when he was about 6 years old. He has been in one situation for eighteen years, and holds an excellent character. To what can this success be attributed ? With such odds to fight against, one would have expected him to have joined the criminal ranks. He told me it was due to the splendid influence during the eight years that he was at the pauper school at Han well. He was there from the age of 6 to 14, and the education, though simple, was thorough. The reUgious training was good ; they were taught prayers, hymns and the Scriptures, everything being carefully explained. Would he have received the same good influence in an ordinary non-religious State school ? I was much struck by D saying, *' I knew the differ- ence between right and wrong." The same expression is often used by the poorer folk, but they mean something more, namely, " I have a correct appreciation, or power of choice. 186 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME of good and evil, through my association centres." Reduced to simpler terms the meaning is, "I am a responsible being " or " My voHtional power is normal, my powers of choice are equal to the forces of my desires, and I am capable of responsi- bility." Criminal Dr. Mercier, in his classical work on Criminal Responsi- Respon- HUty^ has cleared the pathway of many of the weeds which obscured it, but I wish to pull up some more, which he purposely left behind, as his subject is strictly legal. I wish to have this subject of free will and responsibility valued on a basis of common humanity. To the Cripple there is no Free Will I venture to say that the mental cripple has no more power to go straight than the paralysed child, who can- not raise a foot or an arm. Nor can the moral invalid be upbraided for his degraded position, any more than the patient with locomotor ataxia for tumbling down in a crowded thoroughfare. Each of these can live under certain condi- tions, but neither of them is equipped for the battle of life as civilization has made it. Dr. Mercier says (on p. 150) : "In proportion as the will is engaged in that proportion is responsibility allotted,"- and (on p. 152) : " Responsibility is the more undoubted, the more closely, the more dehberately and the more frequently the will is concerned in the act." The legal tendency is to lessen responsibihty, when an act is so sudden and impul- sive as to diminish the opportunity of the will to intervene, and direct a different course of action. Dr. Mercier supports this theory, and points out that where a criminal act is per- petrated after many successive minor acts, there are so many opportunities for the criminal's wiQ power to have called a halt. He says later : "At each stage the exercise of will is necessary to carry him on to the next." Though correct with normal individuals, I think it will be generally admitted that " obsessed " lunatics (paranoiacs), or what may later be called " possessed " persons with fixed delusions of perse- cution, will effect their purposes, whatever complicated obstacles may be opposed to them. THE MORAL INVALID AND MENTAL CRIPPLE 187 Instability of purpose fortunately disarms most lunatics. P»c . ..,,.«. .. 1.1/. 1 • ' A 1. J. Criminal Jut the cnmmal diflFers from both, for he is persistent, yet i^ji^d ( f times quite as irresponsible. The criminal's mind is so Abnormal ; bsolutely different from the normal that he should not be jUdged by the same principles. Whatever the cause, he lives on a distinctly lower plane. The mental association is crippled, perhaps never developed, rhe average criminal is like an overgrown baby, without »ower to use his knowledge to his own advantage. He may late punishment and wish to do right, but like a naughty hild must not only be protected, but forced to do what is )roper. To will is present with him, but how to do he knows lot, as St. Paul the psychologist wrote long ago. As there 3 no one to help him, he goes the way of least resistance, ^hich is downhill. His instincts are those of primitive man, intirely egotistic, or, as we term them, atavistic, hence the 3thics, and altruism, which are the development of rehgion and jivilization, are unknown quantities in him. In pursuit of lis selfish purposes he focuses his attention on civil law, leaving out of focus a blurred picture of the higher social ind moral duties. Hence I contend, that many of these 3riminals as mental cripples cannot be held responsible, or sredited with either clear judgment or free wiU. What I have observed in the " up-to-date " criminal does not tally with the criminal of fifty years ago. Times change, 30 do environments, and so the law of adaptation alters the personality. The great Quaker philanthropist, William Tallack, has enrolled some interesting personal experiences. He says that in the United States the prison authorities are too lax, while in our country there is an inconsiderate severity and uncertainty. It is his opinion that the uncertainty and one-sidedness of British law are due to exaggerated caste and class distinction, and the survival of the military feudalism of the Middle Ages. My observations among criminals seem to strengthen this ^^ view, that many of them are moral invalids and as such they Thief a must be treated. Even after their conversion they seem in J??*"** no way anxious to compensate the owners for the property stolen. To us that would appear the first step, but in these have given 188 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME moral invalids there is a failure to appreciate properly the problem and principles of society. In fact, nearly all the burglars seem quite satisfied that they have only robbed rich houses, and left the poor alone. They also consider that their term of imprisonment pays oQ the debt, and therefore restitution is not required of them. f Salvation The Salvation Army and similar religious bodies are now eiv^g the S^^^^g these poor criminals the education which the State Educa- should have given them in their childhood. The State denied Stote* ^ them this armour against crime, and now punishes them. B should We have the sympathy of a large number of the legal pro- fession, for they also look upon these social derelicts as moral invalids and cripples. But the profession cannot help as they would, for the cumbersome State machinery is so rusty and old, that no amount of oiling will make it move straight. We must have new State machinery and let the old be destroyed. Moral These moral cripples require moral splints, as much as do reqtdred physical cripples ; they demand suitable treatment and pro- tection. There is great room for practical psychology, and in these matters law and medicine should stand shoulder to shoulder. The medical man can trace subtle mental degen- eracies and aberrations, which require his technical knowledge. The doctor has no proper place in a trial as partizan, his high calling and technical knowledge should place him as an unbiased consultant. Should there be room for diversity of opinion, then a medical council should be held. A crime is hke an abnormal growth, a species of moral cancer. While using the most vigorous measures to destroy it, the criminal should not be discharged uncured. At present nearly all cures are eiBFected by religious bodies. Among many of those I have examined, the greater percentage could have been re- formed at earHer stages. Meanwhile criminals and wrong- doers are very expensive to the country, as they stumble along the thorny path ; many of them waiting for years, till the Salvation Army was permitted to hold out its helping hand. I CHAPTER XX THE CRIMINAL /irchow : quotation — Criminal masses rather than classes. UNABLE TO DEFINE THE TERM CRIMINAL : Many sins or crimes protected by the law — Crime and privilege — Law versus justice. THE CRIMINAL — CLASSI- FICATION OF CRIMINALS— I. INSANE : Mentally weak ; the term criminal lunatic is contradictory. 2, BORDERLAND CASES : Equally among the rich ; Often the result of dissipation in parents ; Treatment ; Many are imbeciles. 3. SPORTS : Genii ; Family taints. 4. ACCI- DENTS : Y.M.C.A. and the Polytechnic — Perverts active — Inverts pas- sive — General Booth's treatment — Compulsory measures required — Mugs. THEIR REPLICA AMONG THE RICH : The criminal a sportsman — A-social, the enemy of society — His social rights — Recog- nizes no private rights— Never grateful. CRIMINAL A SOCIALIST : The iUicit financier versus burglar. ONLY TWO KINDS OF CRIME : Illegitimate gain and illicit lust — Violence usually secondary — If primary due to perverted lust— Missionaries of empire. OBJECT OF PUNISH- MENT : Revenge and reform — Revenge of society — Reformation from prison methods nil. THE INDETERMINATE SENTENCE : Later supervision advisable — The prisoner to determine his own sentence by I his conduct — Probation, not freedom — Some convicts quite incurable — The Borstal system — Half of the boys should never be in prison — Punish the parents. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT : Navy and Army should be open to these lads — Reformatory with indeterminate sentence — Re- move the prison label. " JUVENILE ADULTS " DWARFED IN PRISON : Better class of warders required for juveniles — Prisoner should pay expenses. AN AFTER-CARE ASSOCIATION : Crime a parasite on society— Social dross. MAN NOT FALLEN BUT RISEN : Quaker doctrine of the soul — Corroborated by Nature — Civilization still low down —The desire for wealth without labour. THE LIBERTY OF THE SUBJECT IS A POPULAR DELUSION : Cases to demonstrate this fal- lacy — Inverts — State should be parent and guardian. FERTILITY OF THE UNFIT : National protection — Cases — Sterilization the cure — Arnold White the pioneer. THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE BRAIN IS THE KEY TO THIS GREAT PROBLEM: Defective construction in prefrontal area — The moral centre — The surface of the brain mapped out— Habit. THE CRIMINAL MIND : " Long timers " quite *' broke." TREAT THE CRIMINAL SCIENTIFICALLY: Who is he? and why is he ? His history before birth — His environment — Case — The poor want our personal interest — The criminal summed up. WE ARE ALL POTENTIAL CRIMINALS : Fundamental criminals. ADULTER- ATION OF HONESTY A FORM OF COMPETITION : Reactive criminals. A Biological Problem in an Everchanging Environment. A treatise such as this would be incomplete without a chapter on the criminal. Virchow wrote in 1892: " Every deviation from the type of the parent animal must have its foundation 190 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME 1 in a pathological accident." Is not the criminal a psychological accident ? As before stated, they do not form a species, a race, not even a class, but being drawn from all ranks should be spoken of as the " Criminal Masses.'* Their masses are so numerous that they are often described officially as the " criminal population." ■ Unable to Define the Term Criminal At the outset I am disturbed by my inability to define the term " Criminal," because sin and crime do not run on parallel lines. ^ Much of well-recognized wrong-doing does not come within the power of the law, as in the wrongs done to young girls or children. Other sins are protected by law. Thus in the company promoting business false and misleading statements, other- wise called lies, are permitted by the courts. The court allows guUible people to be deceived ; but siu-ely it ought to attach responsibility and Hability for published statements ; it also permits barbaric cruelty and oppression in connexion with money-lending and the **hire system." Conversely, many crimes are technical and can hardly be called sins. Poaching is an example of this. Formerly the tenant-farmer had to submit to his landlord's game destroying his crops or food without redress ; and if he destroyed the depre- dators, worth a few shillings, he was liable to penal servitude. Crime too often indicates privilege ; wealth, power, and class operating against the poor. It almost suggests that the law makers have in bygone days built up for themselves a heritage of ever-flowing wealth, when they enacted the various laws which make up the British Constitution. All we can say is that law and justice pursue divergent paths as a rule, but occasionally converge and even meet. Law represents the will of the strong and too often leads to crime. Justice we can barely hope for, as it is a divine attribute. If true justice were dispensed by the State amongst^ her children, there would hardly be any place for the criminals Classifi- cation of Criminals I suggest the following classification of criminals : — 1. The insane and the mentally weak. 2. Those on the borderline. * Krimen ; kri, to do. Sanscrit. Prefrontal cortex of an imbecile. ♦A. > • * . ** • .• . *' • • 'V .. • -; * ' *•• '' ' ' % r , ' . * » • • • » ■. »< ' * * « •« t ■ * • , V-. - • (. '.-•.., \ . •; .'< ' or, TL M ---- J- Prefrontal cortex of a hopeless idiot {micro-cephaliej. • '^ -..••'ix- ' Ji nr / ' - .• * - --..'-^ v- Note how very shallow the 2nd or pyra- Note that the 2nd layer is only § of the midal layer is (often found in dangerous normal depth, criminals.) I anv indebted to Dr. Bolton for these photographs. Facing page 190. 1 Prefrontal cortex of a dement. Prefrontal normal cortex. K ■ A * T n Observe the wasting in II., the pyramidal layer. II. III. IV. ' ^-""i^- -^"l * * ^ : •". .'- *! • " ♦ . *" * ' » * ' * 4' '- ' • .'»,■' '*% . '•.' ' ' ...»*,. t ' . ~ ' •I'.V 4 * * *t 1 / . ** *' * "St • 1! II. is the layer of intellect con- taining the pyramidal cells. Facing page 191. 1 ^It THE CRIMINAL 191 3. Sports or variations, due to heredity. 4. Accidents, due to environment. e cause in the first three is internal while in the last it is al. I . The relationship of insanity to crime is the happy hunting- i- Insane ground for specialists. As yet only gross cases of insanity are r jcognized by the law, although in doubtful cases the judges find the jury are usually sympathetic. There are, however, 1 lany cases of incipient insanity, or loss of control, where the f ite of the accused depends on the judge, and some judges £ re not educated up to psychology and deal with these cases c Q the theory of original sin. The hundreds of prisoners, who are certified as mentally A 'eak and are turned out on the streets, should for their own sikes and ours be collected into asylums or colonies, if they 1 ave no proper homes and no responsible relatives. Our I ledical officers are very much hampered in this detail. The 1 3sults are very serious. As soon as insanity is diagnosed the stigma of crime should be removed, and the contradictory term ** criminal lunatic" abandoned. Insanity frequently is not recognized at the time when a c rime is committed. Among the more usual " insane " crimes, i' I may use that expression, are those of sudden impulse, cften aimless, and also of extreme violence. Epileptics are liable to these explosions or nerve storms, but epilepsy may not be in evidence. Such might be described as suppressed epilepsy, and usually some neurosis or insanity will be found to have occurred in a branch of the family. A few years ago the Lancet reported eight murders in one year by lunatics 1 ecently discharged from asylums under an unfit Act of Parlia- jnent. These cases might however have been criminals before iheir mental diseases had developed. One unfortunate man, who murdered his Uttle daughter, and was reprieved, a year later in prison developed insanity which <;on tinned for many years ! Other forms of insanity are often passed over in dealing with a crime, especially imbecihty and delusion. Of the atter, delusions of persecution obsess many an unfortunate jeing and end in serious crime. 192 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME 1 One poor fellow is packed so full of delusions and clairvoy- ance that I can hardly understand his repeated convictions as an expert thief, and his fifteen years in prison. Now he is rescued by the Salvation Army and is a quiet, harmless delusional lunatic. He has no stigmata of degeneration, being a tall, broad, handsome man. Another, a man of 30, should have been marked off as a lunatic during his fifteen years in prison. He is a middle- grade imbecile, but in spite of that, having escaped the destruc- tive power of the School Board, can remember his life to the age of 4. If the School Board had captured him his memory would only have gone back to 10. He was trained very thoroughly in a thieves' den and was a pickpocket when 7 years old, and was first charged in a police court when 8 years of age. This educational estabHshment is still in existence. Saddest of all such cases are those of incipient general paralysis, when there is a great tendency to indecency, and this happens in the lives of those who normally would abhor such actions. mA 2. Border- 2. Borderland cases form a difficult class, both for diagnosis landCases ^^^ treatment. They are as abundant among the well-to-do as among the poor, but are kept out of harm's way in the former. They are not insane enough for asylum treatment, but are so unstable and neurotic as to be a continual source of anxiety to their friends. Among the rich their misfortune is often due to a parent's dissolute life. The same appfies to the pauper cases, but here the dissipation and alcoholism continue, so that there is no proper home life, and they become wanderers or criminals. If these cases are sent to ordinary prisons they are almost certainly doomed. If they have not entered manhood they may be rescued by the Borstal method, and they have a still better chance if placed in such homes as those conducted by Mr. Wheatley of the St. Giles Mission. Mr. Wheatley tells me that very few of these " first offenders " run away. The reason is, that they have good shelter, nutritious food, and above all, sympathy ; they realize that they could not improve their 4 Betz or large motor cells, from the normal case. Observe the pattern. •% « t>m •^ « ^ d The same motor cells from the idiot. I am indebted to Dr. Shaw Bolton for the above 8 photographs. Facing page 192. ■ vt ^ *>■ ^ 9 ^ . K m^ %. ■m m .m _J^3^ .' \^ in*- 4 Normal pyramidal cells from the prefrontal (the area of control). For a more correct idea of the normal cortex as regards the number of cells see p. 231, and compare with murderer's cortex, pp. 223 and 224. Pyramidal cells from the prefrontal area of the idiot. These two photographs are lent by Dr. Bolton. Facing page 193. THE CRIMINAL 193 position ; they do not commit crime for pleasure, but for a living. Most of these poor lads are quite willing to earn an honest livelihood if they are given the opportunity, although 3ome of them are really ** feckless " imbeciles. As a result of deprivation and want, their intelligence is poor, their memory is unreliable and does nor extend far back, their tempers are very uncertain, and habits of cleanliness, indus- try or perseverance do not exist. They are fitted for outdoor work, or where Uttle skill is required. If they be put in positions of trust, or are subjected to competition or strain, they are very liable to fail and to come within the grip of the law. It is often difficult to classify this group, so for temporary purposes I would suggest that imbeciles be divided into three grades. (1) Low grades, practically brainless, which are obviously mentally deficient and also very depraved and vicious, with less intelligence than the brutes. (2) Middle grade imbeciles, who cannot support themselves and require to be kept in institutions or under private care. Their brain cells are far below the average, and the convolution pattern very simple. (3) High grade imbeciles, who may learn trades and be self-supporting, take their position in family life and society, and even rule kingdoms. This large class is the cause of much social disorder and they are uncertain on account of their instabihty. They are abundant among the leisured classes, being the product of dissipation and idleness. The influence of their wealth and position makes them a pecuhar social danger, especially if they have power. While we have seen some on thrones causing international friction, at the other extreme we find our prisons half full of them, when they are the result of poverty, stress and too often enforced idleness. 3. Sports form the third class, and their origin has been fully 3- Sports discussed in Chapters II, III, IV and VI on variations and heredity. It would be well carefuUy to peruse the cases illustrating this class. Human sports are found either high above the line of medio- o 194 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME crity or else at very low levels. The former are mostly genii. Many genii are topheavy or unstable, and no event in their lives need occasion surprise. There are many sports amongst criminals, and this is sug- gested by the fact that there is usually only one criminal in a family group. In some cases there is a visible family taint, some of the children being insane or eccentric, while another perhaps differs in being a criminal. Occasionally the whole family appears normal and one cannot trace the cause of the criminal. If we could ascertain more about the previous generation, we would probably find some evidence of instabihty. 4. Acci- Accidents form one cause of many falling into crime. Too dents often a child of good heredity is left an orphan and friendless, or placed in unwholesome surroundings and drifts into crime. Case 6 is a very good illustration. Many young men who are obliged to live from home fall into temptation for want of interested friends. The Y.M.C.A., the Polytechnic, and similar institutions may take credit for having saved thousands of young men from ruin. The ultimate classification of criminals must be on simple, broad lines in the way I have indicated, but those who know more of them than I do will doubtless improve on my simple classification of Perverts and Inverts. iple 4 The term pervert is to be applied in its widest sense to all who misuse or misapply their normal faculties. A pervert is necessarily anti-social ; the idea of " commonweal " never presents itself to him. The ultimate goal of selfishness for every wrongful action is a perversion of rectitude. The invert is a passive wrong-doer, lacking energy, a sort of " born tired," or " can't worker," often " won't worker," and deficient in intellect. He is a bud that does not flower, some- times cannot, usually will not. General Booth sums up the correction and cure, by sug- gesting he should have a meal given him to start with, and a second one promised when a certain amount of work has been performed. If he does not work he must starve, and if he does not earn it for dinner let it wait for his supper, and if he J THE CRIMINAL 196 does not win it by the evening postpone it till breakfast-time next morning. Mental evolution and physical energy can only be forced out of such by compulsory measures. The State should have the power to seize all loafers and " ne'er-do-wells " and force them into labour colonies until their reform is completed, and effectively restrain them from multiplying. They comprise a mass of unskilled criminals who are despised as " mugs " by the skilled upper-class of criminal. These lazy and criminal inverts have their rephca in the Their aristocracy and wealthy classes. Among the pure aristocracy among intermarriage, indolence and dissipation have produced a large the Rich proportion of degenerates, whilst excesses among the nouveaux riches seem to result in rapid deterioration of their progeny. The sociaUst, of course, objects to see the pauper invert *' moved on " from the street corner, whilst the wealthy invert *' sweUs round " the parks. Though the wealthy invert does not annoy society by coming on the rates yet he may be a more dangerous criminal, for he often uses the power wealth confers for very evil and grossly selfish purposes. In whatever manner we classify the criminal, we are always ' brought back to the fact that he is a " sportsman " ; if I might be allowed a little extension I should say " the sporting gentle- man." Some have told me that there is a real sport in crime i and avoiding detection ; that they had a genuine pleasure in \ the excitement. If we study the criminal as he is, we not only get to like him, but desire to help him. A criminal usually takes a good deal of making ; sometimes it is a laborious process. People apparently good do not suddenly go wrong ; in their case the complaint has usually" been in the blood." If I risked a definition of the term " criminal," I should style it as " a person deficient in stereoscopic moral vision." The criminal sees life as on a flat plane, and his perspective is focussed on self, and self alone ; the absence of stereoscopic relief debars him from comprehending the weU-being of his neighbour or appre- ciating the result of his acts. Being anti-social, the enemy of his fellows, the criminal considers he has fuU claims on society generally. If he is 196 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME caught and punished he boldly says that on his freedom he is entitled to make " his own back." These are his social rights, for he never realizes that he is a parasite on society ; nor does he recognize the claims or rights of ownership, even when property is acquired by personal toil. On this account the criminal seldom feels gratitude for any kindness shown, nor does he consider it disloyal to injure those who help him. Crimi- The criminal is a pure socialist, for he regards all earthly Socialist possessions as open to competition by fair means or by foul. In principle the skilled burglar does not differ from the astute and dishonest financier, some of whom are now hoarding up wealth in our land under the shadow and protection of the law, and moving in polite society. The burglar is superior to him, for his boast is that he never robs the poor, whereas the illicit financier goes for rich and poor alike, widow and orphan. Of the two criminals I prefer the burglar for sturdy manliness and a certain sense of honour, having had acquaint- ances among both classes. What then do we expect to find in a criminal ? Is he to be tall or short, of good or poor physique, handsome or ugly, attractive or repulsive ? The criminal world is full of surprises and you find what you least expect. Usually he is below the average in size and physique and shows many stigmata of degeneration ; but the same may be found among non-criminals, even in the professions. Is he repulsive ? I don't think so. In meeting them both in and out of prison I see in the criminal eye deep-seated agony, despair, cunning, hopelessness and remorse ; as the ofiicial approaches he takes on the character of a beast, fury controlled by fear. How different he looks when the doctor approaches, his chief friend in prison ; but what a change over his whole expression when he spies the uniform of the Salvation Army ! I have seen him cry with joy and the higher Ego, or what remains of it, comes into evidence. Yes ! poor fellow, he is a degenerate ; often so in body, always in mind, and therefore we may safely infer in mental construction and brain pattern (see Chap. XXI). The criminal is often deficient in the finer perceptions of colour, touch, or delicate muscular movements. After all he is by Jt THE CRIMINAL 197 no means a bad sort, if handled with sympathy and love ; but don't expect too much of him or compare him with normal standards. It is his very instability which makes him a criminal. He is not necessarily insane, and certainly he is not sane. He enjoys a territory of his own, midway, in the regions of degeneracy. Don't blame him because he won't work. He may have tried honesty, but certainly he finds " dishonesty the best policy." He has not got it in him to do a full day's work ; appUcation and industry are wanting. For his benefit the State should open self-supporting factories, compelling him to work on his release from prison, but giving wide latitude to a slow and uncertain rate of work and energy. He certainly should not be cast on the world in a mind- exhausted neurasthenic condition. All crimes seem to fall under two headings : — j^^ Illegitimate Gain and Illegitimate Lust. Kinds of Crime If one consults a book on criminal law, the numerous titles will adapt themselves under these two headings. Violence is frequently only a secondary crime depending on the above, and necessary for success. But cruelty and violence may occur primarily ; they are then perversions of depraved lust. This is a subject which cannot be pursued ia a popular treatise, as it is too revolting a subject. As the empire is made up of individuals good and bad, those who devote their time to good works among the latter are the true " Missionaries of Empire," a misused term, lately introduced for poUtical purposes. We have in London 150,000 recognized criminals, which works out at nearly 2 per cent, of our metropolitan population. The stream flows on. Private charity cannot stem it, and the State refuses to aid these disinterested institutions, and when individual Home Secretaries do grant financial aid, it is done under cover, as if they must not make it pubhc. The punishment of the criminal has two objects : — Object of Revenge and Reform. ment Many will object to the former as too strong an appellation ; however, it is not the revenge of the individual, but the vindi- 198 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME 1 cation of the rights of society. It is the vengeance meted out to the offender, in the hope that fear of the same will be an example to others as well as a future deterrent to himself. It is a poor form of revenge, as it accomplishes so little, while it fails in permanent improvement, for the reformation of criminals through prison discipline is practically nil. The Inde- Prison would be curative if the indeterminate sentence Sentence^ were adopted, followed up by wise supervision. All hope of success, however, rests in that one word — wise. Most super- vision is more or less of a terrorizing character, and in no way assists the criminal, but drives him to desperation The ex-king of burglars, whose knowledge of criminals is very far-reaching, and who has tasted the bitter experience, says that when a prisoner is convicted the judge should say to him that no limited term of imprisonment shall be assigned, but he goes to prison to arrange his own term of penance. Thus prison would not be so hopeless, for the convicts would work out their own salvation, which would give them the impetus to reform. He also suggested the importance of the convict being liberated on probation, and only being declared a free man when he convinced a committee of supervision that he was capable of leading an honest life. Some men, he thinks, should never regain their liberty, being incurable, although from observation, I should regard no case as hopeless until the Salvation Army methods have failed. Under the Borstal System much improvement occurs among the class of juvenile offenders. The Borstal Committee rescue or cure about 50 per cent, to 60 per cent, of these young con- victs. This makes the work appear in glowing colours, but without detracting from their noble efforts, I suggest that at least one-half of these lads should never have seen the inside of a convict prison. ^ When poor boys allow their exuberant spirits to run riot they should have a little of the same for- 1 Quite recently, 1906, two very decent lads were sent to one of our largest prisons in London for playing football on a highway. About the years 1890-2 two boys, eleven and twelve years of age, were sent as convicts to Dartmoor. They were serving five years for incendiarism. The governor, Colonel Plummer, got them removed to a more suitable institution. 4 A^es I2.f 22 16 From left to right. Heights 5ft. ; —y'm. 5ft. lin. ; -yin 4ft. iiin. ; +2in. 5ft. ; ~8in. 5ft; -4in. Weights 8st. ; -ist. i2lb. yst. 31b. ; — 2st. 41b. 6st. ; —normal. 8st. 61b. ; -2st. 6st. ylb. ; — 2st. n Facing page 199. I Pt ^B THE CRIMINAL ^"^ 199 trance as is shown to " gentlemen's " sons. It must by- force of circumstances be differently applied, for in the first hlace parental control must be insisted upon to the extent of punishing those parents who fail in their responsibiUties. The second stage for continued petty boyish offences, or p^n^sJ- even small crimes, should be corporal punishment, prompt ment and sure, without confinement. The navy and army should offer special advantages to lads who are forced to the border- line of crime, for they improve rapidly and straighten out under discipline, and, I am told, make brave soldiers. For third convictions an indetermininate sentence to a eformatory or farm colony should be resorted to on the Borstal system, the label " prison " being removed. Poverty is hard enough to bear, and crime embitters the whole life, but to stamp out hope and self-respect by convict garb and harsh prison rules is the essence of inhumanity in the cases of developing youths. PIN Let us imagine the mental states of the*' juvenile adults " ]^7^^ as these youthful gaol-birds are called. A lad from sixteen to Dwarfed twenty -one is bursting forth into physical and mental energy in Prison in the same way as all nature blossoms out in spring. These ortunate victims are cramped in every direction. Their mental ideation, which might be led or directed, has little chance of running on right lines, for the supervision of the present class of gaolers is not mentally refreshing or morally refining, but unfortunately much the reverse, while the hours they sit alone in their dismal cells sometimes only 5 ft. x 10 ft., is most pernicious. In order to educate these boys we must lead them out of themselves to higher spheres and levels f thought and ambition. To effect this the care of these lads should be entrusted to men of a much higher grade, both intellectually and morally.^ Oh ! that an enhghtened government would hand them over * At one of my evening visits to a London Mission I found a boy in their chfurge, who was one of a very dangerous gang of hooligans. Dame Nature equipped him for the honest toil he is now pur- suing. He is rapidly improving under the treatment of the Mission ; where€is his mate, after lying in prison for ten years, will be turned out a hopeless derelict, cmd will then have cost the country about £500. 500 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME to socio-religious agencies, or to the Salvation Army, which has come to stay. A far better system than the present is to place the boys out on farms singly. There are many farmers who would be wilHng to take these boys into their families, and the lads could be passed on to our colonies. A small fraction of our heavy taxation might be very usefully spent in this direction. Juvenile criminals are often mere social dislocations ; when matters are properly readjusted, the term criminal no longer applies. In all prison systems, the prisoner should be detained till he has paid for his maintenance, including the proportion necessary for administration expenses. William Penn started this system in Pennsylvania, and the effect was very deterrent. If every man knew this system to be enforced, he would think twice before committing crime, as it would be too annoying to him to help in the support of even the Governor and his family ! For all prisoners, from juveniles to chronics, there ought to be provided an After-Care Association. At present the Salvation Army, the St. Giles' Mission, and several other philan- thropic bodies fulfil these requirements. It should be worked by the State, and every prisoner on his discharge from gaol should be compelled to pass through such an institution till his character is thoroughly established and he is saved socially. Society never faces this parasitic disease of crime. It is ac- cepted as a part of our civilization, and the purer (?) or higher (?) this becomes, the more dross or scum is to be thrown off. Yet all scum carries away with it a certain amount of good material, and if we examine oiu* social scum we can pick out much which is there by accident. Man not The popular view with some is that man has fallen ; whereas but Risen he has risen stage by stage from the lower creation, hence his fallibility and perversity. This evolution is clearly set forth in the first chapter of Genesis, and has since been confirmed by Darwin, by Hugh Miller, and many other scientists. Nevertheless some theologians see Christ in every fallen woman and depraved man, which is improbable for the many I THE CRIMINAL ^""^ 201 8 given in this paper. Doubtless the Quaker doctrine is the more probable : that every man contains the germ of spiritual life in a dormant or latent condition. The natural seed requires warmth and moisture to germinate, and, after sprouting, light to favour growth. Plants grown in darkness are pale and weak, like our slum children. Does not the spiritual germ in the human " heart " require the warmth of love and charity, and the Water of Life (Isa. Iv.) and for growth the Divine Light ? We cannot cure om* poor dear waifs and heal the sores our methods have caused in any other way. Even the hardest and most dangerous of criminals wiU soften, as in the instance of Case 6, the most dangerous criminal of the Victorian era, whose conversion is recorded. If law, punishment and treatment were built upon this know- p ledge, we should at once successfully grapple with crime. At present civilization has not reached a level of godliness, purity, or altruism. There is a warfare between the classes and the masses. The desire to grow rich without honest toil is a form of involu- tion or inversion, which both encourages and is encouraged by the system of speculating and gambling, ruining hundreds of thousands every year, and drawing much money from the nourable pursuit of commerce. i The liberty of the subject is a popular delusion, fostered The by pubhc opinion. Does a man with small-pox enjoy this of Sie liberty, so that he may walk the streets ? No, because he is Subject a danger to the public. Why then do the degenerates and popular inverts have the same liberty as the thrifty ; their unwholesome Delusion lives and acts spreading more ruin and disaster than any epidemic of plague 1 Why is this liberty extended to the *' can't worker " and *' won't worker ? " They ought to be deprived of their Uberty, as they are social outcasts. It is the duty of the State to collect them as dereUcts for special care and treatment at the outset of their career. They are suffering from disease of intellect and morals, requiring as much attention as do wandering lunatics. The time has now arrived when Intelligence should replace Sentiment, and the State should act as parent and guardian rather than as policeman and gaoler. 202 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME ^f^" T^ Are we not wicked and heartless in calmly watching the Unfit " prolijfic increase of unhealthy beings ? Is it right to allow the starved and stunted offspring of the drunkard to arrive ? Is it not our higher and Christian duty to prevent these lives of misery ? If the public knew what it meant, they would insist on ''National Protection," for the numerical growth of inverts and unemployables is a problem which must be faced sooner or later. Here are four cases, not specially selected — 1. A feeble-minded man at the age of thirty-eight was father of nineteen defective children. 2. A father, who was in reality a high-grade imbecile, was father of twelve deficient children. 3. A feeble-minded maternal grandmother, an epileptic mother, and a shiftless father, are responsible for seven idiot children. 4. The famous Jukes family in 100 years produced from five degenerate sisters no fewer than 1,200 descendants, in whom degeneracy and criminality preponderated. There are also on record alarming accounts of the large families criminals have. There is no question that a number of crimi- nals' children might be saved,^ being manufactured by their surroundings, and as alcoholism enters so largely into the question, the State could quite well dispense with these families. Hence sterilization is the wisest, most economical, and most righteous procedure. Certain States in America are making it legal and compulsory, subject to a civil and medical advisory committee. It should be applied to both sexes, for the opera- tions are safe. The results in America amongst deficient, quarrelsome, lazy and epileptic individuals give encouragement. It is the cure for hooliganism, lust, and laziness, without impairing energy or mental stability. The effect of castration on bulls is known by all ; and in the case of stags, the horns do not grow after the operation. We could tolerate the hooli- gan without his horns. ^ Dr. Lojacono, of the hospice of S. Martino in Palermo, has fol- lowed for twenty years the careers of 400 children whose parents were *' criminally insane," brigands (who are but sportsmen), or belonged to the worst class of criminals. Almost all of them through healthy environment are doing well. — Bianclii on Psychiatrie. J I mW^h THE CRIMINAL 203 t is frequently practised on women for medical reasons, and only in a few cases is there any mental impairment. The national ability and quality would improve by throwing out unwholesome breeders. The country, however, does not yet appear ripe for cures. The subject was, however, fully discussed in " The Problems of a Great City," by Arnold White, in 1886, and he was the first to apply the term " Steri- lization of the Unfit." There is little to add to what he has already written, except in the way of accumulative evidence. What he prophesied twenty years ago we are now realizing as painful facts. The key of the situation in the case of the ordinary criminal The Know- is to be found in the study of the brain. In a previous chapter the^ Brain I have given a short account of some of Shaw Bolton's researches is the where he has proved beyond all doubt the deficiency in pyra- this Great midal cells in aments or defectives, especially in the pre-frontal Problem association area. This is the seat of control or inhibition, and therefore what we may call the moral centre. It is also the commander or general directing all the mental operations. We can reahze the disorderhness of an army under an incom- petent general, and that is exactly what we have going on in the brains of the criminal and the degenerate. We have already read in earfier chapters that the surface, or the cortex, is mapped out into districts or areas — 1. Sensory. 2. Motor. 3. Association. The sensory stimulate the motor, and the association area switch up endless communications between the two. When the current of thought runs continually through one set of neurons, the route opened up is easier to travel along each time. This is the explanation of the power of habit, the ease with which it is pursued, and likewise one can imagine the difficulty it is to switch off. Knowing this, we must not expect too much of the habitual "^^.^ , criminal, whose whole mind lies in one bent, Hke the crooked Mind tree leaning in the direction of least resistance. It shows also the advantage of sheltering the criminal, and hedging him 204 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME round as the Salvation Army do. It is the only way, for he cannot go straight if left to himself. The ex-burglar king tells me that men who have been seven and ten years in prison are quite " broke." They lack enter- prise, intelligence and guiding power, being partly demented by prison life. But, he says, they are so used to prison that they do not dread it, and many men, after ten years, would as soon stay on another ten years as go out and face the world. What opportunities are lost, and how many souls forced on to perdition and destruction, by the thoughtlessness of the rulers of the Empire ! Treat the When a criminal is caught, he should not be treated like Scien- a hunted animal, but Hke a diseased organism, or even as a tifically psychological problem. His case should be sifted from before the time when he saw daylight. It matters little if a man has had fifty convictions or none, or even if he has been in prison twenty years. The questions to settle are — Who are you ? How are you ? Why are you ? What are you ? We have to see where Nature handicapped him before birth ; what civilization did to prevent his normal development ; how society tried to crush him and tread on him. We cannot blame him for being anti-social and a parasite, as it is a matter of reciprocity ; but we should assume control in such a way that he would no longer annoy society, or injure himself, or leave a legacy to the population. Some will willingly go to honest toil, some must be forced to it, while many who do not like to soil their fingers and hang back, will have to be segre- gated. I recently got employment for a young man who had been in prison for a year for obtaining money by false pretences. His employer, who is much interested in social work, found him satisfactory at first, but after a time he flagged in interest, and required some rousing. He was partly a *' born tired " and his undeveloped cortex lacked application. This is the great difficulty with that class, but there is a physical cause J I THE CRIMINAL 205 for this incapacity. At first he gave satisfaction ; but, ala^, the bad brain machinery could not hold out long, to our bitter disappointment. We can often act for these people, whether criminal or other- wise, in advising them. The poor are conspicuous in their lack of judgment, which is due to the want of proper edu- cation. It is within the opportunity of all of us to supply their need with our better intellect and mentation, and help those with whom we may be brought into contact : and very frequently we may keep one or another from taking the wrong turning. To sum up, the criminal has the body and physique of a man, the impulse and disregard of consequences which belong to the period of youth, whilst their control and inteUigence date back to childhood. We can from these facts clearly see that the term *' Potential WeareaU Criminal" is appUcable to each of ourselves, so that we must criminals not despise the fallen ones. Sin is universal, but crime is a manufactured article, not for the benefit of the masses only, but also for the convenience and pleasure of the classes. Cleariy this should not be so. Unrighteous power and class legislation have resulted in what might be termed " Fundamental criminals." They are all respectable, and their crime is avarice, the undue hoarding of wealth, which in a wholesome community would be handed round. Vast sums of money and property are acquired by skill, and more often by dishonesty. It is against God's law that the strong should override the weak or live on the mis- fortunes of the poor. Yet such is in strong evidence to-day, so that the poorer middle class are jammed tight between monopoly above and trade union tyranny below. It all comes back, however, to " the sporting " instinct, which began in the Camivora. The noble career of John Bright is marked by only two incautious statements, and these were the result of his com- mercial education. The one referred to child labour, and the other was involved in his statement that " adulteration is a legitimate form of competition." His eyes were fixed on his carpets, which would be as durable but cheaper, with a little 1 206 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AOT) CRIME more cotton. Neither he nor others could fore teU how chemistry would open the door for adulteration of food. V Adultera- Adulteration of honesty is, however, a form of competition Honesty a which has been forced upon the poor by the powerful class Form of of " Fundamental criminals." " Action and reaction are tioiT^^**" equal and opposite " is an old law in physics, and it has some truth in Sociology. Consequently, at the opposite pole of fundamental criminality we have "Reactive criminals"; those to whom crime is almost, if not quite, a necessity. We are trying to cast out the latter, which is an impossi- bility as long as " fundamental crime " persists. Democratic Socialism is no assistance, as it levels down, confiscates, and encourages lawless idleness, in addition to ignoring all religious truths and moral ideals. Success can only follow strict Biblical lines, and that wiU never be attained. We must therefore be content to work on the fringe of crime, saving and helping a few. If we choose to be practical, we must fall back on the sport- ing British instinct and look on passively, watching class tread on mass, and ocasionally a smart contre-coup from mass to class. But it is very sad that things should so remain. God help the poor ! II The Author, Brigadier Playle and their friends who have been sentenced to 96 years in prison. Facing page 207. I I CHAPTER XXI » EX-CRIMINALS I HAVE KNOWN [A) The haunted murderer — {B) Birdie : the little born criminal — (C) Joe Smith : the king of burglars : a social accident and a fine personality. His conversion in his own words — The murderer's brain. [ WAS led into the investigation of the criminal mind by the remarkable changes of personality shown by Mary Barnes, and reported in the Journal of Mental Science, October, 1904, and briefly alluded to in Chapter XVII. I anticipated find- ing some cases amongst criminals, but was disappointed, after examining more than 200. I visited the Salvation Army Bureau in Whitechapel, and was most courteously received by Commissioner Sturgess, who gave me every facility. I was fascinated by the work, and saw the criminal to the greatest advantage. The criminal is so cunning and so deceptive that those who naturally have to do with him, from pohceman to judge, can never get at his real nature. Far different is it when he tastes the genuine sympathy of the philanthropist. The Salvation Army suppUed me with the best material for my purpose, because they take men of any age, and however helpless in body, mind or spirit. The Army throw a bridge across that fathomless abyss which separates the fallen from the fortunate. It is a noble work, which does not require a long experience to arouse enthusiasm and a desire to assist, however feebly, in helping this class. It is very curious that the two extremes of society are seldom traversed by the average man. The one is the upper ten, and the other is the submerged tenth. Though so much apart, they have much in common. They each receive notice of their movements from the daily press, and feel neg- 208 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME 1 lected if such do not occur. Both classes are remarkably selfish and self-concentrated, and each are well supplied with " inverts," and their intelligence is low. The aristocrat speaks of himself as " we," while the criminal speaks of him- self as "us." Thus every class in Society has its special features, but the submerged tenth is not so depraved as is commonly supposed. Poverty and immorality are not always companions, and there are some crimes, common in high life, which are unknown even among the ordinary criminals. The emotional criminal is very good to his pal in trouble, even though, as often quoted, there is no honour among thieves. It must not be thought that rescue work is easy or even hopeful. The disappointments are very great, and until a criminal reaches a certain stage or experience, reform appears to be out of the question. I daresay it would be quite differ- ent if they were treated more sensibly from the commence- ment. It seems as if the starting of a criminal, his departure from the ranks of Society, only commences when he loses sympathy with his environment. It then becomes very difficult for him to get into touch again with normal sur- roundings. The formation of the criminal from the cases to be quoted now show four causes. These are, the culpable indifference of the State ; the neglect of parents ; the callousness of Society ; and the loneliness of city life. Though the State is more than indifferent towards her children, yet those who are actually in power, from the Home^i Office to the constable in the street, are very considerate toBI the criminals. Whilst improving legislation on this subject, the State should show some courage and make the parental I responsible for their children's conduct. Not only shoul(™l the parents be punished for their children's sins, but if they cannot offer better material for the next generation, they should be further punished by losing their voting privileges. It is to be hoped that Society will no longer withhold its interest from this vital and national question. Let us join in a campaign for the cure of crime, and treat this social plague as we have already treated epidemics and pests which attack large communities. iic * 3ic ♦ ♦ I^^B EX-CRIMINALS I HAVE KNOWN 209 "Blood, blood, blood." " There's no blood, man. What are you talking about ? They'll send you to Parkhurst if you go on like that." The first speaker was a man of slight build, nervous and restless. He was always looking at his fingers, as if he saw something that should not be there, and thon rubbing them hard on his convict garb. Now and again he would repeat I the above words, and would rub, rub, rub, but still the blood would not come off. He suffered agony mentally. The casual onlooker would pity him ; but how often we pity those who are reaping from the whirlwind what they have sown to the wind. Looked at in this way the sympathy seems misappUed, and ought rather to be replaced by indifference, or still better by an effort to prevent the continuance of these things. We are all to be pitied at some period, and usually for the fruit of our own folly, or error. " Give me a large stone. I can do it. It will make me forget myself." I" What do you take on hke that for ? " Aside in a low whisper, " Did you ever do a murder ? " "No, but I was very close to it." " I dun un," was the barely audible reply. This unique episode happened in the stone-cutting yard on Dartmoor, where the material for some of our handsome Government buildings in Whitehall was being prepared. The actors were convicts. One was in charge of a small gang, a tall, fine-looking man, born for a general, but his social evolution had " missed fire." Still he was a commander intellectually, and in some respects morally ; though a social dislocation, as much as geologically were the granite tors and twisted rocks amongst which he was compelled to dwell. The ordinary reader may protest against such a blood- curdling story ; yet much of the popular taste is for novels Hfof a worse description, while to this there is a moral, nay, several. This terrible man in the seventies had for the purpose of robbery, murdered a helpless old lady, and to avoid detec- tion, committed a second murder of her daughter, equally brutal. The author of this double tragedy was in a convict prison to hide from the poUce, and they never traced him. I 210 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME I It may seem strange, but nevertheless it is true, that after the murder he committed a crime, knowing that with his previous record he would get penal servitude. What the cause of this inhuman disposition was I could not trace. The punishment was severer than human law could mete out. His life was ever haunted and hunted, for he never could wash those cruel stains off his fingers. The awful fear pursued him relentlessly, lasting for years, to end in insanity ; but still the cry for vengeance continued, and the last words as the troubled soul tore itself from its "earthy" tenement _,, were, " Blood, blood, blood." i f | Could hell be worse ? Or could any hell be bad enough for such a demon in human form ? Amidst just wrath and vengeance we must be fair. If we reflect that this man had a drunken father, which is all the history I can obtain, then we have a scientific explanation for this painful and shocking Incident. It is hardly necessary for me to repeat what I have written ; but it demonstrates that a new era of treat- ment is necessary. We must isolate degenerates as soon as they are diagnosed, and not wait for a tragedy. In other words, do to them as we do to lunatics who may become dangerous. B i Birdie is a bonny bairn, but alas ! she is a born thief. Fancy a child of 7 as a criminal ! Such she undoubtedly is, and this fact being known, she has been turned away from the social work of the Mission on account of others, and has to be regularly searched at school. When she grows up, she will probably pursue an evil course, and make the acquaint- ance of Hollo way prison in her teens. It is a very sad thing, and it is difficult to help in any way, for the State gives full 1 This man committed a double murder, an old lady and her ser- vant, in Hyde Road, Hoxton, in the early seventies. No one was ever prosecuted for this crime. For years, when not in prison, he used to visit the street daily, and stand for hours looking up at the windows of the rooms where the awful deeds were perpetrated. He was sen- tenced to ten years' penal servitude for burglary, but before the period expired he was the most pitiable object Joe Smith ever beheld d EX-CRIMINALS I HAVE KNOWN 211 liberty, and visits her vengeance after the event. The State never inquires as to previous history, or seeks to prevent or anticipate these social catastrophes. The State says she must not interfere with the sacred hberty of the subject, but it is her duty to protect the young, as the hen does her chickens. This Uttle person is bright and pretty, has refined, dehcate features, but a cunning, alert expression. The father is supposed to be a good man ; but the mother not only has a shady past, but condones the offender. Hence a new element is brought in, namely, surrounding influences. The sins of the parent are often transmitted in the shape of arrested development. A person may be morally bad, but if he is physically fit, there is a reasonable chance for the offspring. If alcohol and dissipation have sapped the nervous system of the parent, then may God have mercy on the child. Birdie stands 3 feet 2 in., which is 2 in. above the average, and her weight is 2 stone 5 lb., which is 1 stone below normal. We cannot put her down as degenerate in form, for she can see and observe better than most children of her age, but when it comes to choice she fails. We have seen in Chapters IX and X that one part of the brain serves perception ; another part is connected with the desires and lower instincts ; whilst a third part analyses or chooses, and compares the present with past experiences. The defect lies here. It may be rectified by careful education ; gaining the child's confidence and affection ; teaching her wisdom ; dragging her gently up the hill out of the mire ; and starving the ideas and thoughts which are of a selfish character. Common sense dictates that as soon as a school finds a child like this, a thief, she should be removed to an industrial home for the sake of the other children. If by the age of 15 she is normal, let her take a situation under the supervision of a committee. If she is not cured at 18, keep her till she is 20. If she is an incurable criminal, it is kinder and cheaper to detain her always than to have her hunted about the streets, alternately in crime and misery, in workhouse or in prison. But what committee exists to help ? Ah, reader, we are on the eve of a grand social earthquake. The change in thought is chiefly due to the personaUty of the late Queen, 212 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME her sympathy with suffering, whether moral or physical, for when she ascended the throne the criminal was sport to layman and lawyer.^ Society is at last ready, and now waiting, for Science to elucidate the whole subject, and dictate treatment. Case 6 (Joe Smith). " Quite right, doctor, I see your point, the pubHc don't Uke us chaps in their houses at night. Crime must be punished. I quite agree. But let me teU you, doctor, the pubHc have no sympathy for criminals, and it is society what makes us poor fellows." So spoke the king of burglars, a fine-looking man, standing erect, six feet, with a weU developed head, good features, and powerful frame. " I was the strongest man that ever went into her Majesty's prison. They tested me in the granite quarries at Dartmoor, and I did more rock-drilHng than any one else had ever done." Twenty years at one stretch is a big hole in a lifetime, and now he is broken down with heart disease, partly due to his life of romance, and partly to the hardships of prison. He would have gone straight once, he says, after a seven years' sentence ; only when he called for help on a well-known missionary, he was repulsed and advised to commit another crime, and get a longer sentence. This may seem strange, but the missionary was probably very despondent through his many disappointments during a long record of patient and useful service. I quite believe the burglar's story. He was so upset that it stirred up the devil in him, and though just out of prison that day, he went straight off to commit another bm'glary the same night. It so happened that the governor of X Prison was unduly severe, and owing him a grudge, the burglar determined to wipe off old scores. Purchasing a " barker " (revolver), he went off by train at 11 p.m. on his lonely mission. The circumstances leading up to the incident are very pathetic. Whilst serving his sentence in X Prison, he was occu- pied one morning painting in the governor's house. The pretty 1 Captain Griffiths records the case of a girl aged 9, who was hanged in the year 1833 for stealing two pennyworth of paint. 1 I> 1 XH 511. Joe Smith. The most notorious and dangerous burglar of the Victorian Era, with the brain of a Cabinet Minister. The Nation's loss. Now an author and a religious man. Well preserved for 56. Facing page 218. ^" flaxen-ha EX-CRIMINALS I HAVE KNO^VN 213 flaxen-haired daughter, fourteen years of age, asked him to carve her something out of bone. This request was fulfilled, and brought a severe rebuke from the governor, her father. A httle later the sweet child, pitjdng the prisoner, got cook feo give him a nice meal. Being discovered, the poor man was ordered forty-two days bread and water, which includes one dinner every fourth day ; a terribly severe and unjust sentence. A third time the little maiden met the prisoner and spoke to him. The warder interfered, but who can resist an innocent child of angeUc purity ? On hearing this cruel sentence, she burst into tears and spoke to her father about it. This harsh man confined the prisoner to his cell for fourteen months, till he was removed to Dartmoor. No wonder military men are sometimes unpopular as governors. Now the burglar was going to settle matters with his old enemy. He arrived outside the house about midnight, and timed the sentry's march round the prison. Selecting his opportunity, he got in by a small window, and went straight to the daughter's bedroom. The gas was sufficiently alight to allow him to gaze in reverent worship on the beautiful face of his little friend. Her gold watch, chain and jewellery were within his grasp, but too sacred to be touched by him. He then pro- ceeded to the governor's room, intending to shoot him if he made any resistance. Having closed the door behind him, and raised the gas, his " barker " ready, there he saw a corpse on the bed, and raising the coverlet he recognized his oppressor.^ Sentiment accompanies adventure. He gazed on the face and thus addressed the corpse, " You treated me most brutally when I was in your power, but death covers all animosities." Replacing the sheet, he took £14 in money, and the governor's gold watch, and made his exit. This happened at an unlucky moment, for his foot caught in the ivy, and he fell. The guard was opposite and fired, he replied, and the fusillade awoke other warders, but he escaped into the woods and was never caught ; some years later he met the same warder at Portland, and discussed this incident. *' Never shot but two pohcemen, sir, and a buckle saved one and the other recovered in a few weeks. I am very * See Manchester Umpire, 1906. 214 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME sorry I hit him, as he was not chasing me." Joe was always quite cool, giving good warning, and usually found that when the " barker " came out, aU opposition disappeared. He never was without his loaded revolver, and was regarded as one of our most dangerous burglars. Being of a fine appear- ance, he improved it by wearing evening dress, as most of his burglaries were in the houses of the wealthy. He often went in by the roof, and out by the front door. His adven- tures would make a romantic novel, and he has published a few of them.^ Our young friend was by no means a " mug," and received part of his professional training under the notorious burglar, Charlie Peace, who was finally hanged for murder. He was cleverer than Peace, more sporty, and at the same time more generous towards his fellow-men. {;. Listen to one story. ^ Peace and Joe Smith were to do a " job " together at a wealthy nobleman's, 200 miles north of London. The mansion was well protected against intruders, yet the two divined a novel mode of entry, by climbing a tree and dropping from a projecting branch to the roof. The return journey was along another tree. They studied the house for weeks before effecting their purpose. Having secured a valuable haul, they hid in some woods, and Charlie suggested to his younger mate to depart for the sake of safety, after showing him a spot where the stolen treasure should be buried. Burglars never trust each other, and Joe stealthily returned, to ascend a tree and watch operations. Not at all surprised, he saw Charlie busy at an adjacent pond, and, as may be imagined, de- scended when sure that he was alone, and got all the treasure out of the water. This in his turn he hid again, and for perhaps the only time in his life Peace met his match. Needless to relate, some time after CharHe asked Joe to go with him to dig up the " oof . " CharUe feigned great surprise that it was apparently gone, and so did Joe. But Joe kept his eye on CharHe, and a few nights later followed him into the wood, and from his tree watched with much merriment how CharUe almost dragged the pond without any success. The situation 1 See The People, 1906. EX-CRIMINALS I HAVE KNOWN 215 was comical ; Joe let the subject drop, and Charlie dare not allude to it, for the slightest suspicion of treachery meant a duel, and for one of them to " go under." Joe is a good man now, and does much to help his class. His mind is well balanced, and he has a fine personahty. He would have made a good Prime Minister, or General, if society had given him the opportunity. I asked him how he came to be a criminal, and he replied that he began when he was thirteen. His history was shortly this. His father, bailiff to Lord K. in the Midlands, was killed when he was three months old, and his mother died when he was seven. God help the orphans, for mankind too often neglects them. How often I have been moved at a mother's death-bed, thinking of the future of the young children ! Our poor friend was taken charge of by his grandparents. The grandmother was good and kind, but the grandfather was a brutal drunkard, and this poor fellow's limbs and wrists are covered with broad white scars where his grandfather thrashed him. One day his grandfather behaved extra cruelly, and the child jumped into bed beside his grandmother, who was powerless to assist, having been called to another world. He as a child " did not understand death," and one of the blows fell on the face of the corpse. This was too much for Joe, and he attacked his grandfather, knocking him down and breaking his leg. He then belaboured him, leaving him apparently dead ; and taking £75 and a gold watch, started for Liverpool at the age of thirteen on a long criminal career. He received one sentence of seven years and another of twenty years, but he was never caught by the poUce, being always " given away " by " pals." He has been out of prison seven years, and is converted, and the chief loser by his mistaken career has been the British nation. Listen now to the history of his conversion in his own words. " After hearing me speak, a gentleman asked what I meant by conversion. The question is best answered by an account of my own. " Nine months subsequently to my life sentence, I was reputed the most dangerous criminal aUve, and sent to Dart- moor with especial regulations for my treatment. An at- 216 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME tempted suicide in Newgate, an endeavour to escape from Portsmouth, and many acts of violence towards officials induced the Home Office to direct that every opportunity of communi- cating with any fellow-prisoners should be guarded against, and no warder should enter my cell alone. " Deprived of human intercourse, my soul became that of an animal, untamable, yet powerless to burst the bars of its cage. Often seven or eight times a day I was stripped to the shirt and rubbed down by two men. The degradation brutalized me. " Three years passed. A new deputy governor. Colonel Plummer, was appointed. One night, to my amazement, he entered my cell unaccompanied. He spoke of religion. I retorted that he should practise the gospel of love before preaching it. I denounced him as a hypocrite. I poured forth a flood of grievances. My outlook was hopeless, an unvaried round of misery. Nobody else, even in that wretched place, was treated as badly as I was. Why, my name had been down for work in the cook-shop for two years, but dozens of prisoners had been passed over my head, and there was no chance of my getting there. " My visitor reminded me that my position was not his fault, nor that of the other officers, who must act under the Home Secretary's instructions. Despite myself, the gentle- ness of his demeanour impressed me. He promised to see what he could do about the cook-shop. " When he was going out, he could not find his key to unlock the door, and I asked mockingly, " What if you should lose the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven ? " He replied, pleasantly but seriously, " Oh, I cannot do that, however clumsy I am, because Jesus keeps them for me." He turned and quoted two verses from the Bible, which from that date have never left my mind. *' * Verily, verily, I say unto you, the hour is coming and now Is, when the dead shall hear the voice of the Son of God, and they that hear shall live.' — (St. John v. 25.) " * Marvel not at this, for the hour is coming in the which aU that are in their graves shall hear His voice.' — (St. John V. 28). " I went to work in the cook-shop, but the knives were EX-CRIMINALS I HAVE KNOWN 217 kept out of my way, and the head cook, not Uking the trouble of a dangerous prisoner, incited a man called D to provoke a row with me. One day he suddenly without a word struck me a violent blow in the face, and I retaUated by throwing him into the steamer, where we had been boiling puddings. But, the truth becoming known, I was not removed from the cook-shop nor severely punished. " In the autumn of next year, my conduct continuing good, I was shifted to Portland. There, while cutting stone, God's message to me, through Colonel Plummer, frequently recurred. But I was as yet far from conversion. Being tempted, I joined with others in a plot to escape ; we were detected, and I got the credit of being the instigator. Back I went to Dartmoor with a worse record than ever. " From the isolation and despair which followed this episode sprang the greatest blessing of my life. I began to see what it all meant — how I was spiritually dead. The better thought, which I had entertained but stifled at Portland, returned with renewed force. Conversion ensued, and, upon an announcement of the approaching visit of the Bishop of Exeter, I applied to be confirmed by him. " The greater part of my life sentence was yet to run, but in retrospect it seems immeasurably shorter than that which preceded it. Conversion alters everything. I no longer felt rebel at heart. Whether in prison or elsewhere I must work with God and not against Him. I had my work to do ; life seemed no longer aimless. Many a time I sinned and repented, but that did not change the attitude of mind which constitutes the converted as opposed to the unconverted state. Allevia- tion of the lot of the criminal is good. My own conversion was due, under God, to Colonel Plummer' s behaving to me kindly instead of with the harshness to which I had become inured. But whatever the means, conversion is the end. *' The permanent reform of the criminal can be attained only by the death unto sin and the birth unto righteousness, which we name conversion." 218 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME The Murderer's Brain Hark ! What is that troubled sound ? Listen, it is the wail of the murderer. What agony and disappointment it expresses ! There it is again. It cries for vengeance on society, who wronged him by misinterpretation of facts, and *even killed all hope before he saw the light of day. Nevertheless he was a sheer brute. The judge had pity, but no compassion. The foreman of the jury said it was the most brutal crime he ever heard of. Another juryman longed to hang him. There was no disagreement ; if ever a man wanted hanging it was this man ; Only one juryman con- doled, saying, " Poor devil, the odds were against him." How true this was death alone could reveal. Yet the Good Queen, who loved her sinners as well as her saints, reprieved him. For some years he passed twenty-three out of the twenty- four hours in a dark dingy cell 6 feet by 12 feet (some were 10 by 5 at Dartmoor). No wonder he thought he " was going dotty," and after some years the doctor marked his card, •W.M. (weak-minded). He never complained of those in charge. The governor was always jolly, and at times slipped " a chew " into his hand ; while the doctor made the most of all his ailments, and the warders almost petted him. Years slowly rolled on, five, ten, nay twenty before he saw the world again as a free man. The old world was, however, all changed, and he felt lost, and longed in misery and lone- liness to rush back to his dismal cell. But he had not many months to wait before death released him. Behold now the key to the problem ! Here is his brain. To the casual observer he was an ordinary man with average shape and size of head. But to those who study these matters there were sundry indications during life of an abnormal evolution. He was a short, broad man, good-looking but with small irregular and somewhat asymmetrical features. The ears I ji L Right hemisphere. The brain of an insane woman, aged 56. There is slight wasting. The con- volutional pattern is below the average, but much higher and better than that of the murderer. The brain of a degenerate. Observe the plainness of pattern, the absence of secondary and tertiary grooves, and large coarse convolutions. For microscopic structure see pages 222 to 227. Facing page 219. EX-CRIMINALS I HAVE KNOWN 219 were large, fleshy and spread out. The forehead was square, ind the skull rose to a peak behind, after the Mongolian type. The facial architecture being broad, the palate, so often ■osed as a test, was normal. His father, and father's father were both heavy drinkers ; thus nature was thwarted and deviated from her plans. We have here a clinical study which should have been placed before a medical council. But what revelations from the brain ! The skull is normal, but its lining membrane, the dura mater, was adherent by old inflammation, dating from childhood, perhaps related to a period of cruelty and neglect. The brain was large, full weight, 49 oz., but the pattern was plain, showing a poor intellect, enough perhaps for lowly surroundings, and probably more adapted to country than to town. There was, however, one very marked defect, enough to bring disaster. The two halves at the posterior poles, instead of meeting in the middle line, were separated by nearly two inches, exposing the cerebellum below. More- over, these occipital lobes mainly devoted to sight, are small and shrunken. This condition is described by many as of imbecile pat tern. ^ We might express it thus in Biblical language as, " Seeing he could not perceive." He could not mentate or analyse what he saw ; therefore he was at once out of joint with his environment. As an example, if you or I see any one in distress or trouble, we hurry up to aid or rescue. But if a low-grade, such as this man, be similarly placed, it expresses to him an opportunity to attack, rob, or slay, just as we see in the brute world. Nature then was cheated in her materials and so she could not construct this brain, as she had intended. His ordinary (sensory) vision was normal, (the calcarine fissure) : but his mental vision, or as we call it his visuo- psychic area, (the surrounding occipital convolutions,) was extremely deficient. His parietal association area which represents intellect or intelligence was fairly developed ; but what service could it render to him ? The man started always on wrong premises, through the above structural defect, there- * See Ireland on Mental Diseases. 220 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME fore his conclusions or arguments must always be wrong. This is self-evident, and I trust that this brain may be the apex of a vast pjrramid of research in criminology. May the legal profession, and all who have to do with criminals, seriously take this lesson to heart. Clearly all our present legal machinery which we have accepted from the Persians, through the Romans, ought to be swept away. The system evolved by semi-barbarians 5,000 years ago cannot apply now. If this man had been hanged, we should have slain a mental cripple. Is that justice, revenge, or sport ? Without going further we have enough to account for any crime, although in addition his prefrontal cortex, or seat of control, was of very lowly structure. But for a more technical, scientific description, including my examination of the cell layers microscopically, I must refer the interested reader to the smaller type. ) : — ' Civilized ' Humanity can be divided into three distinct classes, which however shade off into each other. They are :- A. Normals. B. Insane. C. Degenerates. A. Under this heading one must make a broad middle line to embrace all those of average intelligence and morale. But we must recognize that really normal beings are super- average ; whilst there are numbers below the average who do not fall into either of the other two classes. B. The insane may be most easily summed up under Bolton's ^ classification of aments and dements. jH C. The degenerates demand some special description. To commence with, this term is applied in a very loose manner to all who are cast down in mind or morals. This is wrong. A normal may fall into the lowest social ranks from ill luck or from his own indiscretions, but he is not therefore a degenerate. He is a dereHct. If his proper environment were restored, he would again demonstrate his normal characters. This is 9 IS M\ Cortex of Drunkard. Cortex of Murderer. Cortex of Insane. A dement. Compare the pyramidal layers in the three states. Each from the 2nd frontal. The degenerate (the central column) is very deficient, as he was built; whereas the dement represents destruction of cortex, as does the alcoholic in lesser degree. J'iUtng f>,ige JJO. h Microscopic representation of the pyramidal layer. • • • • 1 k 9 « • • k k The central column is from a normal brain, on each side from the murderer's brain. Observe the great deficiency in pyramidal cells; in the left column above are numerous undeveloped nuclei as seen in the new born infant. Tliis arrested development and deficiency forms the physical basis of degeneracy. Drawn by Miss B. Wilson. Magnified about 300 times. Facing page 221 . ■r EX-CRIMINALS I HAVE KNOWN 221 abui dantly seen in rescue work, chiefly amongst the young but also among the aged. E eternal stigmata help us a Httle, but only a Httle, in diag- nosi ig a degenerate. Lombroso greatly exaggerates their imp »rtance. As before said, external stigmata are probably due to maternal malnutrition ; though the nose may be mal ormed, yet the ribs may be normal, and so if the skull var^ from the usual type, still its contents may be good, and via versa. T le degenerate represents a piece of bad cerebral architec- ture ; whereas the insane may have good architecture which dec; ys, or a throw back towards the higher apes, or absence of par 3 as in aments. I must, however, acknowledge a difficulty in s iparating the degenerate from the imbecile. At present we describe the insane and especially the imbeciles as degen- eral 3S. Scientifically, this is wrong ; and this murderer's braia, with its massive weight and plain pattern, its large con solutions with very shallow grooves, and its shrunken visi al cortex, supports my statement. I: erein lies the key to the criminal problem and its treat- mei t, which must be on a rational and scientific basis, with due regard both to the offender and those who have been injired. In this particular case, ought we then to swing hin by the neck, suspended to a beam, into mid-air, or is sucli treatment as barbarous as it is unscientific ? Permanent isolation for all degenerates, as for chronic lunatics, is the only correct method. Destruction, as a matter of economy and utihty, may be considered, but the proiess should not partake of the nature of cruelty, sport, or ]"evenge. What are you going to do in this pressing and important ma :ter ? 222 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME Report on the Murder- er's Brain Though this report might have been placed in a purely scientific journal, yet I feel to omit it here is to impoverish this work, which I trust may be interesting to many of the medical profes- sion. The skull measured 7| x 6, cranial index 80, circumference of base 22 in., lateral arch 12^ in., antero-posterior arch 12|. Shape, square, MongoUan, rising upwards almost to an angle in the parietal region. The skull was of average thickness. The dura mater was adherent over the fronto-parietal vertex and thickened. The falx cerebri diverged at the occipital pole for IJ inches. The pia mater was shghtly adherent over the right parietal region. The brain weighed 49J oz. The following notes were made after a careful examination of the brain in the fresh condition ; and later after hardening it in 10% formol :— The striking feature of this massive brain was the plainness of its pattern ; and the left side plainer than the right. The convo- lutions were large, broad, coarse, while the sulci or grooves were shallow, and in the fresh state gaping and wide. In this early condition when the pia mater was stripped, the grooves or sulci opened out so wide that I thought the brain would become one plain smooth surface. This is clearly represented in the first photo- graphs, where I had indeed to prop it with pads of wool to show the convolutions. I have observed that in the normal infant's brain, the sulci are excessively deep in proportion to the external surface of the gyri or convolutions. Moreover the sulci contain a shallower layer of pyramidal cells, but a greater depth and number of nuclei, or neuroblasts. Hence we may infer that as growth proceeds these sulci come up to form a larger external surface, affording room for the neuroblasts to develop into neurons, other conditions being favourable. This poor man had shallow sulci, and a deficient reserve of neuroblasts when he began hfe, hence he is a degenerate, or a mental cripple. He is not a lunatic and he is far remote from the normal standard. Dr. Watson, an authority on lunatic brains, says he should not have looked upon this man as a lunatic degenerate, for there is no cerebral wasting such as one would expect from a lunatic degenerat^ of his age (62). j| On further examination it was at once evident that the occi- fl THE MlRDEl Resting on the frontal poles ; observe the small shrivelled looking occipital poles, which also diverge from the centre. The plain pattern of the convolutions is well demonstrated. Observe the large coarse convolutions, the shallow grooves and the plain pattern with very few secondary or tertiary markings. Facing page 222. rtll III IV. & V. The prefrontal cortex which under the low power appears fairly good ; but the high power (fig. on the right) shows a great scarcity of pyramidal cells and many undeveloped nuclei. The layer of pyramidal cells. II. (according to Bolton), the seat of control is of good depth. But what is the value of control when his first ideas or premises are contorted? see the shallow occipital cortex layer II. and the scarcity of cells in the plate to the right (page 224). Dr. Bolton's photographs (page 191) are magnified about | to | more. I THE MURDERER'S BRAIN 223 p tal lobes were smaller than normal and out of proportion, so as t( present a shrunken appearance. The two poles did not lie p trallel to each other in the middle hne, but were separated by a g ,p of nearly two inches, exposing the cerebellum below. The c rebrum, however, covered the cerebellum ; there was no want E lapping as in some idiots and in the ape tribe. In spite the occipital lobes were somewhat complex in pattern, jh the convolutions were very small. Taking another look over the pattern, the frontal lobes seemed I ainer than the parietal. The latter are almost normal, showing t lat the intellectual faculty of analysis or thought was provided f r architecturally in this parietal area. The suggestion of a very L aaited visuo-psychic region was evident to any expert by the s irunken appearance of the occipital cortex. The calcarine fissure \ aa normal, so his visuo-sensory faculty was not interfered with. I ,e saw but perceived not. The Sylvian fissure is short and the angle is acute. Technical The fissure of Rolando is also short and bifurcates on the right Details 8 de at the lower end. The Frontal region. Left hemisphere. The precentral sulcus is in three simple civisions. The sulcus rectus of the inferior frontal is very simple, lifurcating anterioriy, while in front of it the lateral fronto- riarginal is long and simple. The superior frontal sulcus is Hkewise long and simple, in two civisions, with but few secondary sulci. The region between this and the mesial edge is simple. The paramedial sulci are shallow. The mid-frontal sulcus is ^ ery poorly represented near the anterior pole, by a very shallow simple groove or sulcus, which bifurcates anterioriy. The fron to- marginal sulcus of Wernicke, which Dr. Bolton regards Cfi constant and uses as his guide for prefrontal measurements, (onsists of two shallow sulci. So the criminal at once presents a ^ variation from both the normal and the lunatic. The Right frontal region shows much the same type as the left, l)ut the mid-frontal sulcus is longer and more complex. There are lather more secondary and tertiary sulci. The Prefrontal is very simple on both sides, but more so on the ]eft. The Parietal region is more complex than any other part of the Drain, the right side being the better of the two. The secondary ind tertiary sulci are more in evidence and deep, but not so deep .IS in normals. 2^4 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME The rami ascendens, descendens and horizontalis are separate and split up on both sides. The Occipital regions present striking abnormaUties, the key to this criminal's mind, one of the reasons why he was a criminal. The whole region behind the parieto-occipital fissure is imper- fectly developed. There is a shrunken appearance, for the cortex hes below the general level. The pattern is fairly complex, more so on the left side, but the gyri are small and the sulci shallow. The calcarine fissure, the area of sensory vision, is normal, ending within the mesial aspect and not passing on to the dorsal surface, as in the higher apes or in some insane. This latter condition is fully described by Dr. Mott in the Bowman lecture for 1904 (see Archives of Neurology^ 1907). On each side there is a sulcus lunatus (EUiot Smith). In addition the arrangement of the parieto- occipital fissure extends far on to the dorsal surface as described by EUiot Smith in aboriginal races low down and Egyptian, Chinese and others, and even in 20 per cent, of the insane (Mott and Watson). I give Dr. Watson's description of this fissure in his own words : — " The region of the parieto-occipital fissure, a late development in the primate brain, is of great interest. '* On the left side its dorsal portion (i.e. the ramus parieto-occi- pitaHs sulci intra-parietaUs) extends for a European brain for an extraordinary distance on to the dorsal aspect. *' On the right side apparently both the dorsal and ventral por- tions of this fissure extend over the dorsal surface to a lesser degree. Between them there is a large widely exposed arcus occipitahs (arcuate gyrus). The latter in most well developed brains is deeply hidden in the Hps of the fissure." I find the following abnormaUties of brain recorded by Lombroso (Vhomme criminel, 1887). In the case of Guiteau, the assassin, there were irregularities of the fissure of Sylvius, the transverse occipital and interparietal. There was atrophy of the right parietal area, and the paracentral lobule was very small. The postcentral convolution was shrunk to a quarter its size. The island of Reil showed seven grooves on the left and five on the right (Mendel, Nevrol. Centralhl. 1882). Broca {Bulletin de la Societe d'Anthrop 1880) found in the assassin Prevost, that the first part of the occipito-parietal fissure was deep on each side ; that the internal occipital sulcus was continuous with the external : also the occipital lobe was more separate, as in the apes, in the form of a " calotte," thus somewhat resembUng my murderer. On the left side, the second temporal and the third occipital sulci formed one sulcus without interruption right across. 1 t I The Murderer's Brain. The occipital pole. It has a shrivelled appearance and the lobes diverge. Low Power. High Power. Sections from the occipital region. Note the shallowness of layer II. (intellect) and the increased depth of layers IV. and V. (instinct). The fi^ on the right shows the paucity ol cells. Compare it with the Mangaby's occipital cortex (page 227). Facing page 224. n THE MURDERER'S BRAIN 225 Buschke found in a ferocious murderer that the left anterior p rietal convolution was interrupted in the middle by an osteoma. P ofessor VilHgk (Viert. Jakreschr., Prague, 1876) found in a Jew, w lo was robber and murderer, and who " finit pendu," that the c rpus callosum was shorter than normal ; the first frontal con- V ilution was increased in width in front, narrower behind ; nor d d it join with the second, as is normal, thus resembling, accord- ii g to Ecker, the cercopithic monkeys. The calcarine fissure also \\ IS abnormal. Hanot (Gaz. Med., 1880) found a doubhng of the D iddle frontal convolution in four out of eleven criminals. Benedikt {Anat. Stud, an Verbrech. Geh., Wien, 1879) found an ii creased confluence or anastomosis of fissures in criminal brains ; f< ur convolutions in the frontal lobe occurred in twenty-seven it of eighty-three criminal brains ; six times he found the cere- 1 jllum uncovered : once the calcarine fissure was after the ape t 'pe. But Giocomini {Var. d. circonvol. cereb. 1882, p. 133) upsets E ost of these ideas by showing a number of anomaUes in those V ho were not criminals. Thus, in 164 brains of honest folk, he d3scribes 47 abnormaUties of the frontal lobe against 8 in 56 c 'iminals' brains. It is only fair to seek adverse criticisms, but these honest people iiay have been degenerates, though not criminals. A degenerate E lay exist honestly amidst simple surroundings. It is the complex c f civihzation that makes him a criminal. Max Nordau {Degenera- t on) describes degenerates among artists, literary and other in- t?llectual men. I imagine he is deahng with what I term sports, f )r degenerates appear to five on quite a lower plane intellectually. Ferrier {Arch, neurol, 1882) describes the brain of a woman vho was criminal and " trabadique," who had the right hemi- sphere smaller than the left, and doubhng of the left internal frontal fissure. The fissure of Rolando was also deformed : other 8 bnormalities in fissures were present. Benedikt in 1883 describes abnormahties of the left parieto- occipital fissure in the assassin Dobrowicki. Clearly again, Hke my murderer, the architecture of his intellect was at fault. Anomahes of the cerebellum are also described by Lombroso I p. 192). Microscopic examination of the cortex. — I was placed at a disadvan- :age, being unable to remove the brain until forty-eight hours ■lad elapsed. On this account allowance must be made for absence of Nissl bodies in many of the cells. But it makes no difference to Q 226 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME the number of the cells, which is of the very greatest importance. In broad outUne I may state that the sensori-motor areas, ascend- ing frontal and parietal convolutions were practically normal, whilst the other areas were very deficient in the shapes and numbers of the cells. But the most striking feature was the number of undeveloped nuclei at the cortex of which I have made some diagrams and for comparison drawn an intermediate column from the second frontal convolution of a normal and very intellectual man. What I have described is at once apparent. I have added an infant's cortex before birth. One would expect the prefrontal cortex to be specially affected, but here the cells were better shaped and more numerous than in the other areas to be described. Nevertheless, the depth of the cortex was about f of the normal, while conspicuous on the surface was the number of undeveloped nuclei, showing an arrest of development at, and possibly before, birth. It is a scientific corroboration of my dictum that the criminal has only the control of a child. It gives a physical basis for the estabUshment of the degenerate as a class, distinct from the insane and the normal. ■ The first frontal was particularly barren of pyramidal cells. In one field, using an J power of lens, there might be only five or six pyramidal cells, whereas in the corresponding normal there were at least twenty cells. There were many undeveloped nuclei, lying chiefly near the surface. The thickness of the pyramidal layer was |- to I that of the normal. Curious to relate the fourth and fifth layers (Bolton) polymorph, or layers of instinct, or Watson's infra- sensory layer, was much thicker than the average, and its cells appeared normal. The man was well provided as regards instincts, but his psychic machinery was affected. The pattern of the parietal area was the best of the whole brain, therefore one would look for an approach to normal. Such was not the case. There were more pyramidal cells, and better shaped, but again nuclei were too abundant. hi The second occipital, or visuo-psychic area, was the most unde-( veloped, and likewise | of its normal depth. Even the granular, third or sensory layer was thin. The number of pyramidal cells in layer II was very much reduced. Nature had left him almost untouched on this part of his architecture ; hence he was a de- generate, and society made him a criminal. To sum up, what is the general inference and how much import- ance must we attach to these nulcei ? We recognize them in the. I The Cortex of the Degenerate. Drawn with the camera lucida, i obj.. from diflferent parts of the murderer" brain, with a normal in the centre and unborn babe on the left. Facing paee 226. The Murderer's Cortex, Parietal. ^ The parietal might be termed the area of intellect and here it is remarkably poor. The occipital cortex of the Mangaby. Compare with the degenerate (murderer) on page 224. Facing page 227. THE MURDERER'S BRAIN 227 fcBtal brain as neuroblasts, the forerunners of the neuron, and we meet them later in the infant's brain, chiefly at the surface of the pyramidal layer. In this brain, however, we meet them both at the surface, as on the day he was born, and also scattered throughout. It is a condition of the natural development being arrested before birth, and we know that this is caused by the toxin of syphiUs and tubercle, or by malnutrition. The bodies of the cells, or cytoplasm, are also deficient in amount, showing that the neuroblasts of the foetus were unable to build up the nerve cells. It is remarkable, however, that the layer of instinct and the sen- Non- sory layer, both very ancient in time, are well developed. ^d Im- The storm has blasted the psychic or mental machinery, and portant put him on a level far below the average man, or even the insane. Degener- He might have been able to hoe potatoes, and it is notorious how ^^ many country labourers are on his level ; but when he comes to the city, with its whirl, its drink saloons, the changing of night into day, the struggle for the bare necessaries of hfe, he falls to pieces as a mental wreck, frequently becoming what society terms a criminal. In any case he is a degenerate, a bad machine from the very beginning. He never could have been normal, but he is not insane ; he has a psychic territory or position of his own. The microscope shows that his cortex has fewer cells than a normal unborn babe ; that the cells are less perfect in form ; that the nuclei placed in reserve for further evolution have continued in that undeveloped condition. Would you call him an agenerate or a degenerate ? He has degenerated from the normal standard, but is an agenerate from the individual standpoint. I think we had better not load the English language with a new term, and I have no vanity to gratify ; but let it be distinctly recognized that the degenerate is as separate from the normal as the insane ; and we must not speak lightly of individuals as degenerate any more than we should of insanity. Unfortunately, if a man be degenerate he is hopeless, as there is nothing to work upon, but we must not mistake a normal gone wrong for a degenerate. ^^ The only righteous procedure for a degenerate is a simple environment or, if trouble- some, painless extinction. We are now faced with a new biological problem. Is the degeneracy transmissible to the offspring ; or is the degenerate a sport, whose germinal units will return to medio- crity under favourable conditions ? If the former, he is like a permanent variety, and the only correct treatment is sterihzation or extinction ; if the latter, Society is failing in its responsibilities towards this large and increasing class. CHAPTER XXII RESPONSIBILITY Ruskin's misconception. LIBERTY OF THE SUBJECT AND RESPONSI- BILITY : Dr. Mercier's writings — Desire and conduct — One primitive craving — Instincts and lower cortical brain centres — Conduct satisfies desire — Volition — All connected in the higher association centres — Choice determines responsibility. THE OBSTRUCTING "IF." PHYSICAL SEAT OF WILL : The prefrontal cortex : Bolton's researches— The last to develop — Explains late arrival of wisdom — Refutes the theory of " previous existence " — The only layer which varies in ordinary brains — Disease and failure to live properly. THE UNDEVELOPED OR UN- EDUCATED PREFRONTAL : Case to illustrate. DR. MERCIER ON SELF-CONTROL. MORAL INSANITY : The criminal is bad through- out. PHYSICAL RELATION BETWEEN MIND AND BRAIN : Desire and subsensory cortical layers — Choice and the association centres — Volition and inhibition : I will and I won't — Prefrontal and senile decay in disease or alcoholism — Slight alcoholism in the young — Deficient brain cells or amentia. FREE WILL : NON EST. But he that knew not And did commit things worthy of stripes, Shall be beaten with few stripes." Christus. 4 When a leader like Ruskin writes, " The plea of ignorance ^ will never take away our responsibilities," it becomes necessary to correct the inferences and opinions which might arise from such gross error, especially when applied to the poorer classes. A Spanish proverb which says that " Every one is the son of his own works," falls into the same mistake. Un- fortunately we are all, without exception, primarily the sons of our ancestors for many generations back, and according to their legacies and our later environment after birth, so is our capabiUty for undertaking the responsibilities of life. The responsibilities of a general could not be undertaken by a subaltern, however well instructed in military duties the latter might be. And so in the warfare against self and sin, mere knowledge gives no responsibility, nor yet experience without the psychic equipment behind it, which has been so ^ If the term " neglected opportunity " were used instead of " igno- rance " I think we might agree. RESPONSIBILITY 229 poetically described by the psychologist, Saint Paul, as " the whole armour of God." But apart from the spiritual or higher responsibihties, there are those of a somewhat lower grade in our every-day social and moral duties. Few attain to the spiritual, though unfortunately many profess to do so ; but the lower duties are expected of all, and if not acted up to result in the curtail- ment of Uberty. The question of the hberty of the subject brings up that of Liberty responsibihty, which has led to many lengthy volumes, subject Responsibility involves self-control, wherein may come a and Re- conflict between morality and intellect. biU^" I should like to quote from the work of one of our greatest writers, Dr. C. Mercier, on Criminal Responsibility ^ in which he analyses the subject more scientifically than most. He has so fully digested the classical writers who preceded him, that it is unnecessary for me to prolong the discussion by referring to them. He describes (pp. 104-5) the human mind as "an incident in, and a means toward the achievement by man of his purposes." Or is mind the man himself, the captain of the ship, or the general of the army, dictating the purposes to be achieved ? If the mind be associated with purpose, then the body is the means of achievement. " Man is ever striving," and the fundamental attitude of mind is called desire. Desire is the motive of all conduct. " Inherent in human nature are certain deep-rooted desires whose derivation may be traced to one primitive and funda- mental craving,]which lies at the root of all human, as of all animal dispositions." This is a most important statement, so often overlooked, although expressed long ago by Schopen- hauer as the will to Uve. It is represented on the physical side by the term instincts, in the lower subsensory stratum of the cells of the brain cortex, the polymorph layer, as proved by the researches of Dr. G. A. Watson, who compared the brains of animals with humans. {See diagram and Chap. XI.) " Conduct is the means by which we satisfy desire. All conduct is the production, the modification and the preven- tion of movement." Mercier describes the interchange of movement between the individual and the surrounding 230 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME world, which consists in receiving sensory impressions, arrang- ing them or sorting them by the lower and higher association centres, thus distributing and emitting motion, which in its finality involves volition or the will to act. It is my opinion that Dr. Mercier and others do not seem to attach suJBficient importance to the power, influence and education of the association centres. To my mind it is the pivot round which these psychic problems revolve. They consider that following on desire comes choice, whether to do or not to do, and what to do, and that if the choice is wrong or evil, respon- sibility attaches. To this I will make objection later on. On page 147, Mercier writes : '^ Desire antecedes choice and a fortiori antecedes volition." " On this showing there can be no responsibility for desire . . . but only with the means for giving effect to it." The Obstruct- ing ♦♦If" " If there be responsibility it arises at some stage of choice, intention, or act, subsequent to desire. If there be no disorder of will or intelligence, then I think responsibility attaches as soon as desire obtains the sanction of the will." This is a very clear and fair exposition of the case. Where delusions, fixed ideas, or obsessions exist and are distinctly evident, propelling to illegal acts, there can be no doubt or hesitation in arriving at a fair judgment. But Dr. Mercier is dealing with two distinct factors, inteUigence and will. Intelligence is represented by the associations of the sensori- motor mechanism, probably the adjacent centres, parieto- occipital and temporal. Physical Seat of Will Will stands on a higher plane from the physical aspect. Experiment, pathology and evolution afford strong evidence of its origin in the prefrontal cortex. If this be correct an entirely new opinion "must be held with regard to ethical or moral qualities. Dr. Shaw Bolton has added to our knowledge of the function of the prefrontal lobes. The research was carried out in the laboratory of Clay bury Asylum. Dr. Shaw Bolton observed in the early stage of general paralysis wasting of the anterior two-thirds of the first and second frontal convolu- tions, and the anterior one-third of the third convolution in the Normal brain cells. The axon or exit fibre below. The axons below, am indebted to Dr. John Turner, of Brentwood, for these beautiful photographs. ,-->^ ■^^^ "^ •*"''' w The lower photograph represents the supply of brain cells in a normal cortex, while the upper shows the supply in a case of juvenile or inherited general paralysis of the insane. Kindly lent by Dr. Mott. Facing page 231 . RESPONSIBILITY 231 same lobe. The actual location in the popular mind of this important area is the anterior pole of the brain, or that part immediately above and behind the eyebrows. It is at this stage of general paralysis that so many good people go wrong. They become vain, or quarrelsome, or extravagant, and too often immoral. There is a close physical relationship of cause and effect which, alas ! has often brought ruin instead of sympathy. ^ J. Shaw Bolton says — f '* In all cases the depth of the pyramidal layer of nerve cells in the prefrontal region varies directly with the mental powers of the individual." " The pyramidal layer of the prefrontal is the last cell layer of the cortex to develop during the process of lamination, and it is also the first to undergo retrogression in dementia." This declaration as to development is the explanation of the proverb " Old heads are not placed on young shoulders." It explains how and why judgment, control and wisdom come in adolescence and not in childhood. It also refutes the doctrine of " previous existence." Bolton adds concerning this layer — "It is the only layer which appreciably varies in depth in normal brains." The prefrontal association area " is the region concerned with attention and the general orderly co-ordination of psychic processes." These soUd facts are the key to the variabiUty of normal persons in their higher mental functions. All other layers in the brain have their average thicknesses, which are much the same in every one. One object is black to all, another is white, one line is straight and another crooked. Every one sees and infers or judges aUke. There is no room for opinion or doubt. But when we come to ethics, we all know how moral strength and vision vary in different persons, even of the same family. Bolton tells us why. The depth of their pjrramidal layers in the prefrontal varies, and " the co-ordination of their psychic processes " depends upon the thickness and stability of the former. We now understand the good clergyman assaulting children when his prefrontal cortex was decaying from dementia during 232 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME the early stage of general paralysis. We also understand the brutality of the rough and ready degenerate whose prefrontal cortex has never developed. The former has lost what he once had in abundance, namely, power of will ; while the latter never possessed the machinery whose product is moral control, I will or I won't. In the study of responsibility, these facts must be closely applied to every problem ; such knowledge is the true measure of morality. When the steering gear of the mind is gone, then many sad episodes follow. Integrity, probity and virtue slowly disap- pear, instinct and desire being unopposed. The pubUc look on aghast, the jury follows in ignorance, and the judge often reluctantly condemns. The Un- But we have another class to deal with. Let us call them or Uned^ hooligans. They are devoid of all moral sense, lustful, cruel catedPre- and avaricious. Many of these are partial aments. A few frontal ^^ them reach the asylum, and after death the prefrontal area is found very deficient in cells and fibres.^ The equipment of these people is far below the average, though a few may be normal ; but both have been reared under such unfavour- able surroundings that their association areas have never received even the rudiments of moral education. This class is more correctly described as amoral, though the results may be immoral. Morality is to them an unknown quantity. These people may know right from wrong, and the consequences of evil acts by observation and experience on the sensori-motor part of the brain, but be quite deficient in the higher association areas, and therefore in all ethical knowledge, or inhibition, and consequently their choice is wrong. This lengthy explanation is but an extension of Dr. Mercier's " If." Thus, when I asked a lad why he stole a bicycle and sold it for half-a-crown, his answer was : " Dunno." Asked if he knew it was wrong, he said " Yes." His sensori-motor and lower association areas were in working order, but the 1 Vide Bolton's writings on Amentia in Journal of Mental Science. I ^i RESPONSIBILITY 233 ligher association which should direct his choice was unde- ^-eloped, so that he could not appreciate the importance of crime. Dr. With this preface Dr. Mercier continues on pp. 194 and herder 195:— onSelf- " By self-control I mean the power of foregoing immediate ^^'^^^^ pleasure for the sake of greater advantage in the future. This is not a power of the intellect. It is often possessed in large measure by the dull, and may be wanting in the briUiant. It is a moral, not an intellectual quahty. It is a matter of wdll, not of reasoning." I think that this statement is misleading, for want of defini- tion of the term intellect. We must admit that intellect may be a quahty rather than a property. One may own pro- perty in the shape of a knife, but unless it has the quahty of sharpness it is no knife at all. The steel may be soft, incap- able of sharpening, or it may be structurally deficient in the process of manufacture. If we follow on these Unes, the brain is but a machine which may be perfect, imperfect or de- ficient. I can only suggest by way of explanation that the dullard probably has an all-round poor brain machine of low potential, but in proportion has just enough prefrontal to guide him straight. He, moreover, may not be persecuted by too strong desires, and probably has no ambitions. This is corroborated by what we see amongst the educated who have good brain machines, at high potential. In some cases their desires are so strong as to get out of hand : their ambitions are for the present, trusting to their abilities in the future if cornered. Behind all there may be a deficiency in the small prefrontal cortex. In this way only can I explain the erratic progress of many great and noble men, and of the few pubhc men who finally fail in their trust ; though with some their errors may be due to senile decay. These suggest to me the powerful battleship from which much is expected, but which in the hour of trial disappoints all our hopes, simply because its steering gear, through one small flaw in construc- tion, is unreliable. Like the prefrontal area the steering gear is but a fraction of the whole. 234 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME Moral Dr. Mercier describes moral insanity as a degree of vice, Insanity piighe(j to such an extreme as to become evidence of insanity (p. 198). Such exaggerated degrees of amorality or degrada- tion would probably reveal a decided amentia or deficiency in the higher association centres. One gets support for this idea from Dr. Mercier' s earlier chapter, where he ignores the theory of partial insanity, which is an epoch-making sugges- tion, as it clears the air in appreciating criminality — and it is to be hoped that the state will some day wake up to its re- sponsibilities, and rely on knowledge and not on tradition. He says a delusion is the symptom of insanity of the whole individual. I must add that the unstable and uncontrolled, or immoral, are not partly bad and partly good, Hke a mental mosaic, but bad throughout. Many persons like to regard themselves as moral mosaics, casting up the whites against the blacks, and thus permit themselves a few sins. The intellect may be very good, as with expert criminals, including the kings of ilHcit finance, but the higher associations must be wrong, as they show direct evidence of an absence of moral sense. A moral insanity is perhaps a diseased or deficient prefrontal. The world loses a great deal by clipping the wings of the medical profession. We ought to have every criminal brain to examine. Fancy what we might find in the hands of experts. Some perhaps perfect structure, till we got to the prefrontal, and then found a shallow layer of cells and fibres, when all is explained ; supra-ability — infra-morality. ^i Physical We have, therefore, three mental states with these physical between representations in the brain cortex. Mind and (1) The lowest is desire or animal craving, which is repre- ^'^" sented in the subsensory or polymorph layer of brain cells. As we would expect, it is as well developed in some of the lower Ml mammals as ourselves. Its use is self -protection and propa-"l gation of species, while its abuse is selfishness and viciousness in various ways. Its existence in the human brain is proof of our evolution from below, as is indicated in a previous chapter, and a complete refutation of the opinions of somej that man is potentially divine, and came from above. (2) Choice, as Mercier points out, foUows desire. Choice] RESPONSIBILITY 235 i^ not a character of the lowest animals, where the immediate g atification of desire or impulse is constantly observed ; y )t in the higher mammals, especially the domestic dog, choice d )es obtain in a large degree. Choice is represented in the h iman cortex at the association areas ; and these are being d scovered in some mammals. It consists in the comparison of experiences or memories. 1 he primary object of choice in the human family is chiefly f ir self, and we see this manifested among the savage races a id the degenerates, who seem like brutes when compared T ith civilized mankind. (3) The highest mental conditions are voHtion and inhibition, I will or I won't ; which in other words is self-control ; and 1 ere must rest the faculty of responsibiHty. Its physical counterpart is in the highest association centre V hich we may consider as now proved to be the prefrontal. Its r ^presentation in the higher mammals must be very rudimen- t iry, if it exists at all, and its existence is not yet proven, i-ccording to the physical condition of this prefrontal area, s ) is its energy indicated in the degree of wisdom or folly, self- cDntrol or responsibility. In the senile condition the brain is shrinking, and the ceUs are slowly dropping out of action. Hence the scientific objection against old men being placed ii control of national affairs. They are useful as critics, and \ aluable for experience, but in a measure irresponsible. This J artly explains our many blunders. Where disease invades this part in younger brains or in slight forms of alcoholic poisoning, the more vigorous sensori- r 10 tor area being uncontrolled, deviates from rectitude ; and again justice ignores the cause. It is demonstrated else- ^/here (Chap. XIII) that in alcohoUsm the deUcate machinery cf the prefrontal is the first to be paralysed. When this (►ccurs people make mistakes which they regret later. There is, however, the other condition of want of development ; ihe brain cells never having had an existence, or their num- bers being reduced. We call this Amentia. (Fig. p. 191.) In I, TOSS cases, where the whole brain suffers, we have speechless idiots ; in minor states we have imbeciles, who are often (Timinals and unjustly punished. I 236 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME Free Will If these facts be true, and they are supported by observation **" ^ and experiment, there is for some people no such thing as responsibihty or free will. Normals, who are few, have it, as their brain machines are perfect. The deficient are, how- ever, more numerous than would appear, and require careful examination when in trouble, not by the police, the lawyer, or even the judge, but by the expert psychologist, to see exactly what amount of workable machinery they possess. Till then many will be incorrectly credited with free will and punished, where will paralysis, or absence of will, robs them of place of responsibility. The terms free-will and responsibility must be considered in the light of fresh knowledge. We are but machines, of varying potential endurance and capability, and according to the quality of the mechanism so we should be judged- 1 CHAPTER XXIII EMPIRE BUILDING A nold White's dictum on the future — Simile of the Empire to a sick man — The Colonies his children— The Empire's heart. EMPIRE BUILDING : What is it ?— Altruism. BRITON A SPORTSMAN : Lower brain cortex — In evolution pyramidal cells control — Sport in politics. LAW IS AN INTELLECTUAL SPORT. SPORTING INSTINCT ANCESTRAL FROM INSULAR BRITONS : Division of labour, hunters and warrors, or army and commerce — Each keep to their own speciality. CON- SCRIPTION : The nation : its available energy dealt with numerically — No energy to spare from science and commerce for military purposes — Military spirit a lower instinct — Our empire too intellectual to foster the lower instinct. THE NATION BLEEDING TO DEATH : The neg- lected " Juveniles " — The future results from these 16,000 " juvenile adults " — The State as " guardian " : a new role — Surround the juveniles with motives, not^alls — The shameful neglect of the poor. THE TRUE VALUE OF THE BIBLE : Charitable works— Salvation Army— A SKETCH OF SOCIAL WORK AMONGST YOUNG PEOPLE : Deserted children- Good Magistrates — Stratford, E. — The phases of child life — Neglected infancy— The value of good milk. A TYPICAL SLUM FAMILY : The early teens — Overstrain — The poor look-out for girls. THE BOYS, WHEN HOMELESS, AS SEEN IN INSTITUTIONS : Mental and physical condition of these lads — Very poor memory as in criminals also — School standards. ST. GILES' MISSION : The first offenders— Have been driven into crime— Alcoholic parentage. THE EFFECT OF STATE ♦• EDUCATION " : (A) The uneducated rover develops normally— (B) The best educated boy, the more stupid and immoral. DEFICIENCY IN WEIGHT— REPORT OF BOYS IN WESLEYAN HOMES— REPORT ON WORKING LADS IN THE VICTORIA CLUB, WHITECHAPEL— THE DIFFERENT TABLES OF PSYCHIATRY AND COMPARISON WITH NORMALS— CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS: No difference outwardly between merchant prince and criminal — But between the better class lads and young criminals, there is physical deficiency in the latter — Growth of skull — Cases to illustrate — Is the rising generation inferior ? — Skulls in family groups — Effect of deficient physique. SIDELIGHTS FROM THESE FACTS ON THE PROBLEM OF EDUCATION : Starved body, starved brain — The effect on intelligence. and on morale. THE NATURAL TENDENCY IS ALWAYS THE WAY OF LEAST RESISTANCE. THE PREDICTIONS OF MALTHUS A CENTURY AGO ON OVER-POPULATION : Of Darwin ; of Herbert Spencer- Two kinds of check : Natural and artificial selection — The question presses us now — John Stuart Mill's dictum — Lord Derby's sayings — Positive and preventive checks — Eight children weigh 21 stone instead of 31 stone : A social crime. THE CRY OF THE CHILDREN : Against parent, society, and State— INFANT MORTALITY, NATURE'S TOLL : There is no true love in our hearts, only " sentiment."— THE STERILIZA- TION OF THE UNFIT, SUGGESTED BY ARNOLD WHITE, IS THE ONLY CURE — Those who require and demand sterilization — No inter- 237 238 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME ference with the liberty of the subject until it be forfeited. BERNARD SHAW'S OPINION : Social happiness would result. AN IDEAL COMMONWEALTH : Males, females, neuters — No more classes against masses — Mental disease less — Then Euthanasia — Neuters will decrease — Normal family life. Arnold TWENTY years ago, Arnold White wrote : "As the rich grow Dictum ^i^^®^ ^^® P^^^ grow poorer. Between Dives and Lazarus on the the great gulf fixed becomes deeper, wider and blacker, month Future j^^ month and year by year." As Empire builder, he wept over the coming decay, which was most evident in the large cities. The process steadily continues. The rich do not feel it, for they can still feast upon the ruins with the power and opportunity that wealth confers ; but the middle class are now feeling the cruel chill blast which has worked wreckage at the base of the Empire. It may seem feeble to resort to simile for descriptive purposes, yet one can of ten drive a truth home with more clearness in this manner. The Empire is like a prosperous man whose end is drawing near. His children, the Colonies, are floated and self- supporting. Serious indeed is the condition of the heart of the sick Empire. The life ^ stream is oozing therefrom, and if it continue must hasten the end. The head ^ is clear and the arms ^ are strong, and so a false security exists, but the body appears to be failing fast. n Enipire Empire building is the main object of every true Briton, Building ^^^ ^^j, j.jgjj^g generation must be educated up to it. What is Empire building ? Is it Conscription ? or Protection, or Education, or Religion, or Emigration, or any other " ions " ? These are but feeble tonics, of which none cures. There is only one way of Empire building, and that is altruism * toward the masses, instead of the egotism of the classes. The increased Empire wrecking is due to egotism, and that alone. 1 The starving poor, the future strength of the nation. 2 Science. ' Commerce. * Alter t another. The thinking of others ; loving our neighbours.! I EMPIRE BUILDING 239 As already pointed out the Briton is essentially a sports- Briton a n an, retaining an ancestral instinct, necessary to primeval man ; ^^^' J' jrhaps inherited from the carnivora ; and engrained, in I Dth, in the lower cortical strata of the brain. It rests with t le evolution of the higher cortical layers, the pyramidal cells, t ) control and guide this dominant killing instinct. Is not this sporting instinct the source of all political passion { ad strife ? It is the essence of courtship, marriage, com- e, and efficiency. ^r should be very sorry to stir up the wrath of the legal Law is an J rof ession at a period when we want their sympathy and ^^^ p^^^ £ ssistance, for we are entirely in their power, and absolutely of Sport i t their mercy. Nevertheless, if I quote one of their noblest 1 lembers. Sir Edward Clarke, I shall obtain support for the ( ourse I am taking. ^ At a dinner of the Medico-Legal Society ( 1907), he compared the doctor, toiling for love in the slum, with t ae barrister at work in his luxurious chambers ; and further e nlarged on the disappointment that a sensitive and honourable I iwyer must feel at the results and character of legal methods. I I is, however, only an excess of the sporting instinct, perhaps I nguided by and beyond the control of the true or higher Ego. There is constant evidence of this instinct in the desire of counsel to win their cUent's cause, whatever justice demands. I^he same temptation to err from rectitude does not obtain £ mong the ordinary pursuits of the doctor, for, as Sir Edward ('larke said, he " was always on the right side, working for the cause of suffering." The lower hunting instincts of the doctor J re, however, painfully revealed when he is drawn into legal ^voTk, and the way in which two doctors will swear to diametri- c ally opposite opinions is a mystery to the intelligent public. The late Lord Brampton, Sir Henry Hawkins, was a keen sportsman, and I observe a quotation from his Reminiscences , "vhich demonstrates how this ancestral hunting instinct may dominate the Ego and subjugate the higher morale. " One of the least known stories, but at the same time one )f the most characteristic, was recounted by him in his Reminiscences. Hawkins had made a touching speech, and had succeeded in getting a prisoner acquitted on a charge ^ See Transactions of Medico-Legal Society, vol. iv, p. 107. 240 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME of murder by exhibiting in court the children of the accused dressed in black clothes, and sobbing as though their hearts would break. The sequel is thus described — " * You made a touching speech, Mr. Hawkins,' said an old inhabitant of the village. " ' Well,' I answered, ' it was the best I could do under the circumstances." " * Yes,' he said, * but I don't think you would have painted the little home in such glowing colours if you had seen what I saw last week, when I was driving past the cottage. No, no ; I think you'd have toned it down a bit.' " * What was it ? ' I asked. ' Why,' said the old inhabi- tant, ' the little children who sobbed so violently in court this morning, and to whom you made such pathetic reference, were playing on an ash heap near their cottage, and they had a poor cat with a string round its neck, swinging backwards and forwards, and as they did so they sang — This is the way poor daddy will go ! This is the way poor daddy will go ! Such, Mr. Hawkins, was their excessive grief.' " ' Yes, but it got the verdict.' M As this is but a type of what occurs in our Courts of Justice, ™ one can only deplore the want of relationship between Law and true Justice which includes truth, righteousness, and the public " weal." Considering that the legal profession always includes some of the noblest and most intellectual men of the age, it is extra- ordinary that such conditions continue. Let us, at all events, hope that the sporting pendulum does not swing too far in the opposite direction, to the danger of the innocent. ■ Sport thus uncontrolled and unguided, tends towards^ depravity and inefficiency in rich and poor aHke.^ Sporting It is often asked why the Franks, Latins, Russ, or Teutons, Ance"b:af have nothing equal to the Briton's sporting qualities, from The reason is clearly the isolation of our ancestors ; which Britons insularity sharpened their propensities for protection and 1 For further light on this subject read Arnold White's book, The Problems of a Great City, which ought to be carefully studied in the hope that the next generation will get the Empire on its feet again. II I I EMPIRE BUILDING 241 pi jservation. Whereas on the vast continents, if food failed in one area the tribes could wander to another. They were lil e the less energetic herbivora ; whereas we were obUged to be always on the look-out, Uke the carnivora. Such was evidently our type, and being conquered, we a) sorbed the better qualities of our conquerors, but this ai cient instinct continued to assert itself. Ancient Britons would by division of labour necessarily fo "m two classes ; the warriors, and the suppliers of food, hi nters and pastoral workers. We have built our social 8} stem on the same plan. We have our army and our com- n 3rce. Even the scientist is a hunter, seeking for useful k: lowledge and truth. In ancient Britain there were many clans, and if the hunters w mt to war famine followed ; or if the warrior left to hunt, tl e internecine enemies invaded their territory. Hence each had his ofl&ce, and so it should remain. The h inters of commerce and science build up a complex system, wiiich to be prosperous requires all their time and energy. T le warriors quite justly receive a liberal portion of what the h mters acquire in return for peace, protection and opportunity fcr progress, or even for stealing their weaker neighbours' U rritory. But the warrior must not hunt, lest the enemy attack us ; Conscrip- nDr can the hunter leave his work to do what faUs to the lot o • the warrior. This principle must guide us in national pohtics, aid if followed might save us from panics. As with the body we have head, arms, legs ; so the nation in health reHes upon science, commerce and stability ^ which cinnot be parted or separated. A human being is capable of a certain or limited amount of energy. If, byway of illus- tration we represent that energy as 1,000 units, a conscript fitthe *'foot" of the Empire will use up 600 units to become B reliable soldier. If, on the other hand, we take the same number of units from the brain worker, who requires that £ mount for his own purposes, the loss falls on the nation. {Similarly the nation's hands, as types of her commerce, cannot epend two- thirds of their energy on mihtary affairs without losing in skilled industry. M 1 242 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME The military spirit, essentially sporting, belongs to the lower instincts. Far preferable is the activity of the upper cortex, which would queU jealousy, and lead to friendly intercourse amongst all peoples. Our Empire is the highest amongst nations, and its fighting instincts have in recent years wasted in consequence ; we must not now stoop to others, but rather draw them up to our level. The Where we are gradually bleeding to death is in our neglect Bleeding ^f the poor, especially the children. There pass through our to Death prisons every year more than 16,000 bright, intelligent* promis- ing young lads. These are the future hope of the nation, perverted and perhaps aUenated, but yet capable of salvation by wise methods. It is not their fault. It is your fault and my fault. We are the criminals, they are the sufferers. Perhaps it would be more correct to lay the chief blame on the State, which is paramount to saying that it is the chief offender against j, justice and humanity. U We cannot ignore the very simple arithmetical facts that the boys of fifteen lying in misery in our gaols will be twenty-five in ten years. They will then reach maturity and the stage of pro- creation. Let us make the modest calculation of three children to each grown up man, and we have 50,000 British subjects of a soiled and probably soured inheritance from these 16,000 young convicts. It is clearly an unwise policy to grind the poor, and such a policy must bring a reaction. What a differ- ent feeling these young convicts would bear towards the State if they were sent to reformatories in serious cases, and in minor cases to institutions which might be called " National Schools," and carry no stigma. The state as guardian would be tied by no limited period, and be bound to apprentice them, guard- ing them tiU at the age of twenty-one their intellectual neurons were developed. William Tallack, the prison reformer, would surround these poor boys " with motives, not walls." ^ The nation is undoubtedly on a downward track if it per-™ sists in this shameful neglect, and allows the good Samaritan to work unaided ; it now even puts obstacles in his way as he endeavours to rescue the perishing. EMPIRE BUILDING 243 mm up, humanity in ancient days received a chart to The True guide a clear course over the troubled ocean of life. Some th^ mble 3ay this chart was inspired, as it has stood the test of time and criticism, for it is as apphcable to-day, as when it was written. Man has not changed. His cortex was the same in the days of Moses as now. He was as capable of wisdom and altruism then as to-day. Let us turn with more hope and cheer to see what the lovers of mankind are doing for the Master's sake. Conspicuous among all stands the Salvation Army. Some don't like their ways ; I am always glad to hear people run down the Army, because it is opposition which gives strength, and helps to show the enormous work they are doing. These operations and methods wiU stand the closest inspection. The more the blast rages, the tighter do the mountain pines cUng to the rock. Among the other numerous agencies and individuals hard at rescue work of all kinds which attracted me, and which I shall now describe, were the Homes for homeless lads in London ; the St. Giles Mission, which takes juveniles from the poUce courts and prisons ; the Wesleyan Homes for orphans ; and, finally, the work of the Jews amongst their own juveniles. They are aU Empire builders, and those of us who love the Empire must not forget them. Few people have any idea how many children are deserted A Sketch by their parents. The cases are very seldom brought to Hght, ^ Social for the children are oft-times absorbed by other famihes of among the same class, or at once commence a career of their own in p®"",^ the tender teens. If thoroughly down on their luck, the state thoughtlessly charges them with the crime of poverty, or with wandering. Many cases are sent to prison, sometimes several times over, and the evil associations inside the gaols usually end in an apprenticeship to some hardened criminal. Many of these children are rescued by the court missionaries and placed in homes, where they settle down contentedly, are found situations amongst kindly disposed employers, and turn out remarkably weU. There are many courts where the magistrates have sym- pathy with the poor. Conspicuous amongst these is that at 244 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME Stratford, where the magistracy has been for long years inoculated with Quakerism. I am told that for many years no boys have been sent to prison at this court ; the magistrates deal with them on humane lines, and seek normal shelter and healthy influences for them. Among the poor, child life passes through many phases ; some are brought up on gin, others on beans and bacon. When attached to a children's hospital as physician, I found the usual answer of mothers as to dietary was, " Baby has the same as we have." As a consequence of the deficient supply of milk, rickets and tubercle are very common amongst them. In Chapter IV development and growth are referred to as depending on the healthy nerve nuclei of the brain. These nuclei take up soluble phosphates and leicithin ^ from the milk, just as the chick absorbs it from the yolk. No leicithin, no growth. In America they are now trying to cure rickets by the employment of leicithin. The poor, therefore, should have the opportunity of getting good milk and plenty of it. A Typical Slum Family The children of the poor are horribly neglected. How they struggle through their first dozen years is a mystery. Take one typical family under my own observation, honest, but terribly poor. Here is the list of the eight children, who with their parents sleep in two small rooms. The family consists of three boys and five girls, as follows — Sex. Age. Height. Deficient. Weight. Deficient. ft. in. ins. St. lb. St. lb. 1 F. 14 4 9 2 4 10 2 2 F. 13 4 7 2 4 2 3 3 F. 11 4 2 3 3 10 1 2 4 F. 9 3 9 3 3 2 12 6 M. 6 3 3 4 1 12 1 4 6 M. 4 2 9i 4 1 8 1 1 7 M. 3 2 5 6 1 4 1 2 8 F. 6 months 2 3 — 9 5 27 11 2 ft. 21 1 10 1 From these figures it is apparent that there is not enough * Leicithin is a complex neuro-phosphate. J From left to right. Ages 15 Heights 4ft. 7^in. ; - Sin. 5ft. 4in. ; +3in. 5ft. ; -6in. 4ft. 6in. ; -Sin. Weights ^st. lolb. ; -3st. 81b. 8st. i2lb. ; +ist. i2lb. 7st. gib. ; - 2st. 5st. ; -2st. 51b. n Facing page 245. EMPIRE BUILDING 245 to go round, and only two thirds of the children should lave been born. Don't let us, then, fight the Almighty on the question of infant mortality. A second period of helplessness seems to occur in the early teens. By that time they have almost finished their " educa- tion," and with what little inteUigence the overstrain has left they are cast out to seek their fortunes or misfortunes, which- ever may come first. In this second period you meet the boys in the many " Homes " provided for them by free offerings. There are not so many facilities for young girls, who usually go out as drudges, or into factories, or make their living on the streets, as we in hospitals know too well. I will give details of a fair sample from the Homes for The Boys, Working Boys in London. Homeless There are about seven of these, accommodating sixty to as seen in ninety boys in each home. Specially interesting is the home {|Jf^*^" life in Haddo House, 88, Blackfriars Road, under the anxious and loving care of Mr. and Mrs. Harrison. It does one good to see the happy faces, however grimy, after they have had supper, and are seeking some innocent fun. These poor lads are picked off the streets, being usually too microscopic to attract the attention of the police, and are of very poor physique, frequently of very low morahty. I examined fifty-six boys. Of twenty- two boys aged 15 and under ; I found the weight deficiency to be 22 per cent. The deficiency among twenty-eight boys aged 16 and 17; was 23 per cent; while six boys ranging from 1 8 to 20 ; showed a loss of 20 per cent. Compare these with the Jews. Their intelligence is low, and I have been specially struck as to their memories. Few can remember any event before they were 5, and many can only remember to the ages of 8 or 10. This same mental oblivion is very conspicuous amongst criminals, and has been fully discussed in Chapter IX. A few may have had sober parents, but the rule is drunkenness in one or both parents. At school very few got beyond the fourth standard. (See Tables IV.) Another typical institution is St. Giles' Mission, which has St. Giles' been conducted by Mr. Wheatley for many years. Few people *^^*°" 1^ 246 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME can estimate by reports the valuable work done here. In the department I examined there are about 100 boys, well fed, clothed and housed. This is the physical side or attraction to the boys, let us call it the practical method of reform. The boys, formerly outcasts, appreciate these healthy sur- roundings ; therefore, there is no difficulty in detaining this body of " juvenile or first offenders," as they are called. They have been driven into crime ; some are only charged with the crime of poverty or " wandering," the causes of which are bad homes, cruel step-parents, fathers, or even mothers. Alcoholic parentage figures largely ; and syphilitic in a few. The table of twenty-five cases which I have submitted must be a study for any thoughtful reader. {See Table III.) The Effect Let US here consider State Education, and see how it acts. ?i Educa- ^^^^ — ^^® ^^® least educated, only reaching Standard I, tion" which means simply infantile spelling and monosyllables. This boy, a rover, freed from the exhausting state method, attains normal height and weight. He was driven to thieving by starvation, and received a month in prison. He, alas ! never knew a father, and his mother had left him. He is described as intelligent, that is, though deficient in " education," his association, or higher intellect, has evolved by environment. Let us go to the other extreme, and take Case — , who rose as far as was possible, learning science in the Ex- VII Standard. This boy was handicapped by the ante-natal poison of syphiHs from one or other parent, and presented many stigmata of degeneration. He went wrong, having robbed his employer ; but Mr. Wheatley saved him from prison through the kind intercession of the injured employer. Intellectually he is duU and deficient, having evidently poor association centres. He is like a sponge, absorbing knowledge quickly, but unable to use it, and not necessarily retaining it. Deficiency These unfortunate lads show great deficiency in weight ; in Weight ^j^gjj. bodies are unable to nourish their brains. The worst specimen. Case 55, at the age of 17 was 4 J stones too light. Nature resents civilization and pays back tit for tat, turning him into a degenerate and deficient. These juvenile first offenders afford a most interesting I a ^From left to right. Ages Heights Weights I2f 4ft. iiin. ; +2in. 6st. ; normal i7is 4ft. 7in. ; -ift 6st. iilb. ; -3st. i5f 20^ 5ft. 4in. ; normal t 8st. 41b. ; normal 5ft. yin. ; average j gst. 2lb. ; — ist. 2lb i6ii 5ft. 2in. ; — 4in. 8st. 5in. ; - ist. Facing page 247, EMPIRE BUILDING 247 >ject lesson, for they show that want of nutrition and evil nature go together. Thus the twelve worst, really bad boys, should weigh 109 stones, but only weigh 86 J stones ; showing a deficiency of 21 per cent. The thirteen less criminal, some of them " good " boys capable of improvement, should weigh 117 J stones ; but only weigh 98 J stones ; showing a deficiency of 16 per cent. When the twenty-five are put together they show a deficiency of 18 J per cent. The same class of boys among the Jews, due to family care and religious training, do not sink into this state of immorality, and their weight deficiency is only 8 J per cent. The Children's Home and Orphanage. This institution, whose headquarters are at Bonner Road, A Short Victoria Park, shelters and protects 1,860 children in its ten oMhe"* branches. The Principal is the Rev. Dr. Gregory. Having Wesieyan been consulted professionally many times during the last vv^k^ twenty-five years, I am competent to criticize their methods. They are, to my mind, perfect Empire builders, for they take in children at any age, and never leave go until they reach adolescence and are able to stand alone. They are homes in the best sense of the word. The sexes are not separated ; the children are clean, well clothed, and have close personal supervision. Body, mind, morals and rehgion all meet with close attention. No happier children can be met with. They have many invalids and cripples, but it is home for them ; they know they will never be turned out. The sisters are refined ladies of various Protestant denominations. The rehgious training is strictly evangelical (Wesieyan), and the results seem good, for they effect cures among many *' born " criminals. The clever boys are taught trades, according to their abilities. Others are emigrated to Canada, and carefully guarded there imtil estabhshed. I examined thirty-one boys out of 300 children at Bonner Road, and asked for the best, the worst, and a fair sample. 248 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME The girls do well there, up to their teens ; they are stronger, healthier, and plumper than the boys. The material is extremely valuable as a fair test for board school methods. Those so educated show less of infantile memory, whereas those taught in private and Church schools, on more reasonable, humane, and intelligent lines, retain infantile memory to the ages of 3 and 4. Ten of the worst boys ranging in age from 9 to 20 weigh collectively . 52 st. 1 lb. Instead of. . . . . . 66 „ 11 „ Showing a deficiency of . . . 14 „ 10 „ or about ^ (20 per cent.). Only one boy was normal weight; none were above normal. One boy, aged 14, was 2 st. below normal. The inference is that three too many came into the world. In regard to intelligence, eight were called dull, but were in reahty middle grade imbeciles, and if cast on the world must become criminals. Four were of weak morals, but are recovered or recovering under the reHgious influences, which include sympathy. There was no necessity for them to pilfer, as amongst many of the poor, hence their pilfering shows an inborn instinct. The starving poor have of course a moral right to pilfer the necessities of life, as long as superabundant wealth is per- mitted. Memory : Only one boy can remember to the age of 4, but he was brought up at a Church school. He is the most intelligent of those examined, but also weak morally. The other nine were all State educated, and the abnormal pressure on their weak brains had destroyed their little intelli- gence. One boy, aged 15, can only remember to 9. Another, aged 17, can only remember to 12. Their parentage was not so bad as in other homes I visited. Many of their parents had been good, but were unfortunate in their worldly concerns. Eleven of the best boys give us more cheer. Their ages range from 14 to 20. They should weigh collectively 98 to EMPIRE BUILDING stonesTand reach 96 stones, showing only a deficiency of I to 3 per cent. None of these are deficient. They will compare with the most f woured middle class, either in mind, or physique, and probably I etter in morale owing to their religious training. The two 1 -oys who are the most underweighted are the illegitimate < hildren of a lady by different fathers. This group shows the advantage of private schools over l»oard schools. One, a country lad, remembers to 3, and three others, also ; .t private schools, remember clearly to the age of 4. Two boys, one a half negro, remember to 4 though at board ; chools. The other five go back to 5, and were board school chil- Iren. The ten of fair average range in age from 10 to 19. They veigh collectively 71 st. 4 lb., but should weigh 79 st. 4 lb. ; lence they are about ^ too light (10 per cent.). There are imong these three weak morally, all recovered, and three nentally deficient. Here again we see the effect of the intelligence-destroying Board School machine, for two of the boys, aged 17, having Deen to a private school, can remember to three, while it the other extreme one, aged 16, can only remember to sight. Space prevents more detail being given to this splendid work, but a further perusal of the notes will well repay the intelligent philanthropist. Barnardo's work is too well appreciated to require special Barnar- notice, and while he was perhaps the greatest Empire builder ^q^^ of his time, yet the nature of the gigantic work prevents us from gathering statistics for psychiatrie. It, however, emphasizes the fact that environment equals heredity either in the making or the saving of the criminal. As an evidence of his work, I append a letter, quite fitted Jn^^Her for a museum, from one of his lads in Canada, a young Empire of a builder working hard to rescue his four younger brothers 3^"^*^° and sisters — Canada 250 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME August 14, 1907- Dear Sir Mr. Albert Wilson, — I have resceved A letter from Mr. C. Harrisson, and he tela me that he took my brouther Edward to you exsamon to see if he was fit for Canada and you said he was OK, and I am pleased to here that nou Der Sir there are five of us and we are all alone in the world to get a home for our selves nou, our mother ran away from us when we were quite young and our father pade our way for two years, and then he went to and then I was put in Dr. Barnardoes Home and from there I was send to Canada and I was 13 years old then I have been out here 3 years last april, and I haye pade my sister way out last Oct. 1906 she is working at the same place as I am and I have got a good place for Edward when he comes out, and I have my outher brouther John in the English wafes and strayes and if I can get hem out here my Boos would be pleased to get hin for 3 or 4 years on reasionerbal terns and my sister lillie is som were else and I will get her out to because Canada is the place for a poor person I am trying to do the best I can and a httle help Meanes a lot to me and I thank you very much four whot you have don. I remain your furind ^ E.C., Ont. Canada, f Social The purport of this chapter would not be complete without Amone * ^^^^^ ^^ Whitechapel, where destitute Jews are so numerous, the Jewish The Jews by their intermarriage are the most prepotent P°°^ race in the human family. Their racial peculiarities or national characteristics are thereby strengthened, otherwise they could not have survived such ages of persecution. I am indebted to Mr. Stephany, Secretary of the Jewish Board of Guardians, for valuable information of the way in which they manage their affairs. The Board, which is entirely supported by voluntary effort, administers outdoor reUef. It is very rare that they have a case of poverty due to drink. Would that such an experience might be ours ! On the opposite side of the street was a long queue of destitute degene- rates waiting admission to the Salvation Army Shelter, and drink was plainly written on each face. The sin of the Jew is gambling, while the sin of the Gentile EMPIRE BUILDING 251 I might almost say the sin of the Christian, for nearly a 1 are baptized into the Christian Church, and much of crime a id wrong-doing is due to the apathy of professing Christians. The Jew is no lo\er of alcohol, and they tell me that the I ch Jew is no judge of good wine. He goes by the label. ] ut the Jews are fond of good eating, and blend a lot of fat 1 ad oil with their food. They are very particular about the meat, as a matter of ritual ; 1 «s so about the milk, which is just the opposite of our way of 1 linking. The poor also are more particular than the rich as to 1 he ritual. In addition to draining the blood, they have their ( wn inspectors, who cut out whatever is suspicious, or * blemished." In the case of our ordinary butchers, what is < bviously bad is removed, but that which is merely suspicious is 1 oo often left. The Jews do not specially partake of porridge 1 or of lentils or peas. The Jewish criminals are subtle and cunning, as contrasted ^fith the Gentile criminals, who are violent and sporty. The (Jentile acts as burglar, while the Jew will play the part of leceiver. There are very few Jews in prison. In 1905 there -"Fere only about ninety women in Holloway, and 400 men ia other prisons. This is a small percentage in so vast a < ommunity. It works out at i per cent., as compared with !i per cent, for all London. The Guardians regret that there are, as with us, so many oarly and thriftless marriages. Their poor, like ours, are also very reckless as to the size of their families. While we are struggling through entanglements of red tape x> obtain health inspectors, the Jews have for long had paid officials for this purpose, visiting the consumptives and others ind applying up-to-date hygienic methods. They endeavour to enforce inter-marriage, as they usually I suffer nationally by mixed marriages as the children go with ' the majority. From all I have seen I think we would profit by these mixed marriages ; we would gain in temperance and in intelligence, which would lead to a higher domestic ideal and thus a stronger race. I don't think they would suffer, but might gain in^ other ways. The religious and national feeling is, however, very strong among the Jewish people, who are a law-abiding, peace-loving folk. If their influence 252 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME was extended to other nations, it would all make for universal peace. ri^^h^°^^ My chief inquiry was in regard to the young, and I am indebted to Mr. H. R. Levinsohn and Mr. Ernest Lessor for affording me help and supplying me with cases from the Victoria Club for working lads. I was much struck with the very cheery and frank manners of these lads. There was nothing servile or degraded or slouching among them. They seemed more manly than the corresponding class amongst Gentiles, having all through been brought up better. To begin with, the Jewish woman is " lazier '* than the Gentile. It is very rare that they go out to work. The men, on the other hand, are much more industrious than the Chris- tians, and have always the desire to better their positions. The men are, in addition, very temperate. A Gentile workman getting 305. a week will often spend 55. or 65. in the public house ; nothing of this sort occurs among the Jews. As the mothers nurse the children and stay at home, there are fewer infantile diseases and a lower mortality. Jewish parents, like the Scotch, are very keen on education, and encourage the children at school. In addition they feed them during the play hours. In every way, then, the Jewish child at the Board school stands a better chance than the Christian. There are about 20,000 of their children at the Board schools, and about 6,000 at their own Free Schools. Appren- As soon as they leave school, they are carefully looked after. ^^^^ Both boys and girls are apprenticed, the Guardians have now about 800 lads and 200 girls, for whom they have advanced sums of £10, £15, or £20 each as premium. This is repaid by the lads or their parents. Both boys and girls are attracted to their clubs, of which the boys have four or five and the girls three in London. This healthy morale results in producing fine sturdy, yes, noble young men out of the same class which furnishes the hooligans and juvenile offenders among the Christians. There are very few degenerate, deficients or dullards among the young Jews, in consequence of the careful and practical home influences. This was so much of a surprise that I IF ^^Ural times EMPIRE BUILDING 253 l1 times asked for bad boys, but they could not supply tl 3m, nor could I find any. I carefully examined thirty-three lads, varying in age from 1 to 21. Some were born in England, most abroad. Nearly al were of foreign parentage, but none had drunken parents. T lere were several much under weight One, a dwarf (No. 254), b' t very inteUigent, weighed 4 stone 11 lb. too little at the a: e of 17. Many lads were over weight. The thirty-three lads should have weighed . 275 st. But actually weighed .... 252 ,, Showing a deficiency of . . . . 23 ,, Or only 8 per cent. This compares well with the lads in the Wesleyan Homes, v> 10 are exceptionally well cared for. The effect of the State " Education " is not so disastrous o I them as on Gentiles. The Gentiles have also to contend with malnutrition and parental alcoholism. Consequently o le-third of these children can remember to the age of 3, and oily one-sixth are so dull as to remember only as far back as 5, 6 or 7. In examining Table XI, one is struck with the comparative width of skull ; only one-fifth had a cranial index below 80. T bey average liigher than the Gentiles. On the other hand, the h<;ads are smaller, only one-fifth exceeding 22 ins. at the base. The skulls recede slightly, after the Eastern type. Rehgion plays a very important part in the child's life, and shows its effect later, especially in national unity and comity. \^'^e have a great deal to learn from this powerful people, and we 8L^e doubtless much indebted to them as Empire builders, for the young people are trained to loyalty to the British flag. I am providing four sets of tables : — The One (Series IV) represents 55 boys taken 6is a fair sample Tables of fiom different Homes for Working Boys in London. Psychia- Another (Series III) consists of boys, some of them in Mr. compari- Wheatley's home : all of these are first offenders technically, son with though some not actually criminals. They are a fair sample of the city sparrow in his upper teens. The third collection of tables (Series V, VI, and VII.) is for reference as to middle class averages met in e very-day life. Normals 254 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME As there have been no markedly adverse conditions, height and weight are not recorded. The fourth set (Tables I) shows delinquents and (Tables II) tramps and " drunks " for comparison with average middle class (Series V, VI and VII) in relation to cranial measurements. Tables VIII refer to the respectable poor. Tables IX show measurements under the age of 12. Tables X are taken at the Wesleyan orphanage, and Tables XI from Jewish working lads. Cranial Cranial measurements, like statistics, are of very little value. jj^^^' Statistics are like potters' clay, and can be moulded in any direction to suit any opinion. Cranial measurements cannot be moulded, but they are of some little comparative value. It is as if you had two boxes of different sizes, and had to say what the value in each was. One might contain gold and the other rubbish, but the size would not indicate anything. Thus it is that within certain limits size shows nothing. On the other hand, if the large box contained the gold and the small box the rubbish, the value would be enormous, and such may also happen with brains. As the subject is of interest to many, I have given a wide selection. If we compare these measurements of the merchant princes and successful city men with the adult criminals we find no difference. For further comparison I have placed good intelligent lads of the better middle class alongside the unfavoured poor. In cranial measurements there is nothing to choose, but the difference is very evident when we compare weights and heights. These are not recorded in the better class, but it is safe to take these as equal to or above the average, which is a low one. The poor lack terribly in weight, which shows brain starvation. What can we expect from such conditions ? There are five cases in one family of healthy boys where I measured the skulls seven years ago and again recently. It is interesting to observe the increase. It is the opinion of many that this generation and the rising one are inferior in limb, bone and skull to the last two genera- tions. The size of the skull is stated by hatters to be smaller now than thirty or forty years ago. The cause of such, if EMPIRE BUILDING 255 IS^xisf^ is easily explained as the degeneracy in physique B to the ease of civilization. It is, however, interesting to compare a few family skulls, ; nd so I have placed those I have collected in a separate table. Deficient physique impUes correspondingly less endurance. ] f this pass like a wave over the nation, as it must do, what i \ the outlook for our children and grandchildren ? We are trustees. k'l e mysteries of the education problem may receive some Side- i nportant side-hghts and shocks from these and similar J^^o^^hesc < ollections. Facts on Our elderly criminals present a better physique and cranial S^^,. } leasurements than those growing up to take their places, of Educa- ' ?his is a general statement with many exceptions, but I have ^^^ )een led to it by seeing criminals in prison and elsewhere. Wise education would tend to the decrease of crime ; but ! tupid laws, where creed and party squabbles overrule wisdom j.nd honour, regardless of the sacred trust, can only end in disaster for the children. See then the result. The poor nfant under 12 or 13 receives barely enough nourishment j or the body, as proved by the " short weight " in such a large ])ercentage of cases. What is the brain to do, which requires the best of subtle ood compounds ? Body first, then brain. Starved body, veakened brain. This is perceptible among the children after the State has :inished with them. What does the superintendent of the Boys' Home in Spital (Square say ? He says that these State-educated poorUngs vvould as soon group round a bed of thistles as a bed of roses, not appreciate the difference. [ow is the morale affected, and how will it be affected And on when Bible teaching is banished ? Think of a minister of ^ religion defending an atheistic father who claims the right tx> train his child to atheism. Give him the right to poison his child's mind, might he not equally claim the right to starve his child's body ? On the contrary, every child belongs to the aation, which should be best able to judge when parents 256 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME deviate too far from mediocrity. Already a very heavy percentage of these children pilfer at home, as well as outside. In their teens it is a toss up which way they go, right or left. It will be in the direction of least resistance, which is downhill, or down the stream, unless powerful social and religious agencies rescue them. The Pre- Malthus, in 1798, said that the increase of population tends MaJttms°^ to Outrun that of subsistence. Forty years later Darwin corroborated the above, and in 1852 Herbert Spencer came to the same conclusion. Malthus said that the increase was liable to two kinds of check, positive and preventative ; while Darwin pointed out the struggle for existence which was involved, and propounded the doctrines of Natural and Artificial Selection as remedies. Malthus saw the dangers then unborn, and wrote in 1806 that to a rational being the prudential check to the population ought to be considered as equally natural with the check on poverty and premature mortality. The practical object of Malthusian principles includes celibacy, late marriages, and self-control ; but experience shows that unnatural effort leads most certainly to vice. The question is too pressing to be delayed, and its growing importance is being recognized by the ordinary lay folk. In 1872, John Stuart Mill said that little improvement can be expected in morality until the production of large families is regarded in the same light as drunkenness, or any other physical excess. Lord Derby, 1879, suggested that it was better to have thirty-five miUions of human beings leading useful and intelli- gent lives, rather than forty millions struggling painfully for a bare subsistence. No thoughtful person can disagree with such simple state- ments, especially when we are now realizing the effects. Positive checks, such as epidemics, are now counterbalanced by medical science. Preventative measures are already being considered by sober-minded, thrifty people of the middle classes with visible effect. Look at the list of eight children on p. 244 ; they should weigh together 31 stone, but only reach 21 stone. It I EMPIRE BUILDING aeans that the environment, or surroundings, could only upport five children instead of eight. Consequently it is .)» crime against society, an injustice to the offspring, and sin .gainst God, to allow eight children to be born, instead of ive. The supply of food is not equal to the demand. It is not in ixistence, therefore infant mortality must continue, in spite )f philanthropic effort, which deals with effects rather than jauses. fc [ear ye now the "Cry of the Children." We clearly recog- The Cry lize a rebuke to the parents for their want of thrift, foresight chiWren md self-control. There is in that long wail a reproach to ;ociety, for not interfering earlier to prevent so many dis- isters. A stifled protest is raised against the state, which grinds the poor, punishes and tortures the weak and helpless, vithout providing facilities for rescue. The horrors of their )resent misery are as nothing to the criminality of their )rigin. ^£ fature endeavours to cope with the difficulty by means " infant ^hich bear the label " infant mortality." She does not intend J^^*,*" < )very seedling to fruit, nor every living thing to struggle through Nature's ihe storms of existence and arrive at maturity. In our efforts ^°^^ /O thwart nature we are more actuated by superstition and raise sentiment than by charity. If love prompted us, we would not rest satisfied at the mere prolongation of life, but lihould not cease until life was made worth living. " Infant :nortality " is Nature's toll on reckless over-production. It would be wiser to let it continue, and improve the condition of the juveniles who survive the struggle. The sterilization of the unfit, which was first advocated by The Steri- Vlr. Arnold White in the '' eighties," is a part of such prevention. ljf^*^?j" ?^ The pubhc flatly refuse even to consider this subject, as they Suggested io not imderstand either its appUcation or its limits. It Sj,^"?^^ should be employed only under the guidance of a select and the Only disinterested committee of medical and lay men. C^® To illustrate the types, knowing the effect of alcohol on the 8 258 EDUCATION, PERSONALITY AND CRIME offspring (Chapter IV), we would select the hopeless chronic alcoholics who loaf around the public houses. We should sterilize the hopeless ruffians and hooligans, who are a terror and expense to the community. Some of the insane, who are granted freedom, partially cured, would come under consideration. Chronic irrecoverable criminals would also receive sympathetic consideration. These finite measures would not apply as a punishment for poverty, for many of the poor are physically and mentally the finest in the race. But we must remember that among the poor the sports, perverts, inverts and all who make up the mass of degeneracy, tend to sink to the lower end of the in- clined social plane. There would be no need to interfere with the liberty of any man or woman, rich or poor, until their presence became a menace or a burden to their neighbours. When that happens, those who now have to submit tamely to the licence of a few should have a right to assert their power in the interest of the majority. Bernard Shaw's Opinion Bernard Shaw, in Man and Superman (Chap. XXIII) says that " being cowards we defeat natural selection under cover of philanthropy ; being sluggards, we neglect artificial selection under cover of delicacy and morality." Society would be happier. The hornless hooligan would be lovable, the lazy tramp would now be an industrious labourer. Degeneracy would in many cases be succeeded by regeneracy. Until the will of the people is in favour of limiting the output, let us deal more justly and sympathetically with those who should not have been born. Behold, a Commonwealth, or an ideal healthy Society, should consist of males, women, and neuters. The males would be tall, athletic, handsome, with strong features and good growth of hair. The women would be graceful, fresh, of perfect form and feature. The neuters would be a very heterogeneous group ; but, while docile and unassuming, they would not be cowardly ; EMPIRE BUILDING 259 ^™> >» Getting board and lodging by false pretences Coiner Murderer Petty thief . . Cranium. Size, 7ix6 7fx6i 7|x5i 8fx5| 7|X5| 7|x6i 7ix6 7^X6 7^x5f 7^x6 7fx6i 7fx6 7fx6 7ix6 7|x6 7fx6 7|x6 7fx6 7fx6 7|x6i 7|x6 7fx5f 7 x5f 7Jx5| 7|x5| 7|x6 7^x6 7fx5i Index 80 79 74i 70 77 80i 84 80 80 84 77^ 81 77i 78f 77i 79 75 74.^ 82 77f 75| 77| 80 71 Circ. 22i 22f 21i 23i 21f 22 21f 21f 22 21f 22f 23i 21| 21| 22i 21f 22i 22 22 22f 22f 21f 21 21 224 22 221 2 Arches. Ant. Post. 13 13| 12f m m m 13f m 12f 14 12f 14 m m m 12f 13| 13 13| m 13^ m 131 14 14i 12f 13i Lat, 14 Hi 12f I4f m 13| 13^ 13i 13 14| 14 14 14 14 13i 14 13f I3i 14 I4i 14 12f 13 14i 14 m 13| 'ABLE II. Some of the Drunkabds and Inverts under the Care of the Salvation Army. Many Cures. r Heredity. Ale. = Alcoholism. Tub. = Tubercular. Speciality. Cranimn. ^o. Arches. Size. Index. Giro. Ant. Post. Lat. ¥ Both grand- Alcoholism 7|x6i 79i 22i 14i 141 W parents and I F. drank % F. ale. . . 11x51 74i 22i Hi 14 27 F. and M. ale. 7fx5f 73 21i 13 13i 28 F. and M. ale. 7fx5| 75i 22J 13i 13 29 Grandparents and F. ale. 8 x6 78f 22i 14 14 30 Very good 7ix6 80 21f 13i 14 31 Good . . . 6|x6| 79| 20 12i m 32 F. and M. ale. 7|x5| 75| 22 131 14i 33 Good . . . 7|x6 67i 22i 14 14 34 Good . . . 8 x6 75 22^ 141 14i 35 Good . . . 7|x6| 76 22| 13i 14i 36 Good . . . 7ix6i 80i 22^ 131 13i 37 F. ale. . . 7ix6i 81§ 22^ 131 131 Inverts. F. ale. Pat. G.M. Tub. F. Nil . . . F. tub. and ale. Nil . F. ale. M. tub. M. and F. ale. | F. ale. . F. ale. • • Itszy tramp Laziness 7fx6| 7^x5 77 77f m 21f 141 13i Once the lazi- 6^ X 5 72f 20i 12i est man in London Tramp. . . Tramp . . Lazy invert- 7ix5f 7ix5i 7Jx6i 76§ 78i 79 21f 21f 22^ 13 13i 14 Invert . Lazy invert Lazy invert 7ix6J 7ix6 7fx6i 82i 80 80i 21 22i 22 13 13 14J 13i 13 121 13 131 13i 14 m 14 266 APPENDIX TABLE III. FmsT The first twelve represent a fair sample. Cranium. No. Age. Stand- ardat hoHc Parent- Length School. age. and Width. Index. Circ. 47 iH IV F. 7ix5f 75 21i 48 16 IV M. 7fx5| 78 2U 49 16f VI F. M. 7ix5| m 21 50 l^ VI F. 7ix5i 76 20^ 61 16 III F.M. 7 x5i 78i 20 62 17 IV — 7ix6| 79^ 21i 63 17 V F. 7^x5^ 76 20i 64 17 III — 7fx5f 72 19f 65 17 VI F. 6f x5| 79^ \n 66 17 VI — 7ix6| 76f 2U 67 18 VI F.M. 7|x5| 74f 2U 68 19 IV F.M. 7fx5f m 21f 69 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 The above were bad boys. 15 V F. 15 I — 15 VI F.M. 16 IV 17 VII — 17 V F.M. 171 III — 18 ni F.M. 18 VII(X) — 18 III F. 19 III F.M. 19 IV — 23 V F.M. 6|x5i 7ix5f 7|x5f 7ix5| 7|x5f 7^x5^ 7ix5f 7 x5| 7^x5^ 7|x5i 7tx5f 7|x5J 7|x6 74i 77^ 76i 80f 76^ 75| 77^ 82f 73i 74i 78 75f 78 19| 21 21 21f 2H 20f 21 20| 21f 21i 2H 22f 23 These boys should weigh 227 stones, but only weigh The 12 worst boys, mtirkedly deficient should weigh 109 st. 6 11 2 per cent. The 13 better lads should weigh 117 st. 7 lb. but only weigh 98 st. 9lJ N 267 OWENDEES. Ti e last thirteen represent the superior types. Cranium. Arches. Ant. Post. 13 m 12| m 12f 13 13i 13 111 14 14 13i Lat. 13 14 13 12f 13| 12f 12f 12 14^ 13f 12f Age limit of Mem- ory. 3 10 4 8 8 7 5 6 3 8 6 6 Height. ft. in. 5 li Those below are better boys. Ill 131 13 13 141 13 m in 13| m 14 14 121 4 131 5 m — 131 4 m 6 m 3 m 3 m 5 m 6 13 4 13^ 6 14i 8 14 6 H 1 li 2 6 6i 7 2i H 2 H H 7 1 3 8 Below Nor- mal. Weight. ''\%5 stones, showing a deficiency of 18^ per cent. St. lb. 6 10 8 6 11 11 6 5 10 3 8 11 7 7 6 7 2 6 10 10 2 4 4 10 9 8 12 9 5 9 11 Below Normal. St. lb. 6 1 2 7 2 4 6 9 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 10 1 7 10 bit only weigh 86 st. 8 lb., showing a loss of 22 st. 111b. or a ratio of sJ lowing a deficiency of 18 st. 12 lb., or a ratio of 16 per cent. 268 APPENDIX TABLE IV. Boys from Age. Stand- ard at Alco. holic Parent Cranial No. Length School. and Index. Circ. age. Width. ■ 72 13 VII 7fx5| 79f 20i 1 73 14 IV F. M. 7ix5f 73f 201 1 74 14 VI F. 7fx6 78f 21f 1 75 14 IV — 7^x51 76f 2U 1 76 14 IV F. M. 7 x6 85f 191 1 77 15 VII(X) 7ix5i 73f 20i 78 15 VII F. M. 7f x5i 71 21f 79 15 — M. 6|x5i 77f m 80 15 IV M. 6ix5J 80| 19 81 15 V — 7|x5f 7U 2U 82 15 — 7 x5i 75 20 83 15 VI — 7fx5f 76i 2U 84 15 VI M. 7|x6 8H 22 85 15 IV F. 6fx5i 76 19f 86 15 V F. 6fx5f 83 20 87 15 VII F. M. 7ix5| 81 21 88 15 IV F. 7 x5^ 781 20| 89 15 VI F. 7ix5| 80f 20f 90 15 IV F.M. 7ix6 80 20i 91 15 IV — 7fx5i 72i 21f 92 15 VI F. 7ix5i 73i 20f 93 16 IV F. 7^x51 76f 21| 94 16 VII M. 7|x5| 79f 20f 95 16 V — 7ix5i 73f m 96 16 TIT — 7 x5i 73i m 97 16 m F. 7|x6| 81 23i 98 16 IV M. 6|x5i 80 20 99 16 — F. 7fx5| 75i 22 100 16 V F. 7|x5| 77 — 101 16 — F. 7 x5^ 84 20| 102 16 Ill F.M. 7ix6 80f 21 103 16 VI F. 6f x6 91 19^ 104 16 VI F.M. 8 x5| 72 22i 105 16 III — 7ix5| 80f 21 106 16 ■-" — 7ix5i 76 20| APPENDIX 269 Dipt smcnt Homes in London. Mi ^urementa. Age limit Below Arches. of Mem- Height. Nor- mal. Weight. Below Normal. Ant. Post. Lat. ory. ft. in. in. St. lb. St. lb. m 13i 7 4 m 4 6 1 5 12| 12| 6 5 4i 7 4 8 2 m 131 2 4 9i 2 6 1 7 m 13 4 4 9 2 5 4 1 4 12| 14i 4 4 4 7 5 8 1 13 m 7 4 7 7 5 6 2 14 13f 6 4 9 5 5 6 — llf llf 7 4 U 13i 4 5 3 7 12 m 3 4 6i 8 6 2 4 131 14i 3 4 7^ 7 5 11 1 5 12| m 3 4 9 6 6 4 2 13 m 4 4 lOJ 4 6 1 1 3 131 14i 7 6 H — 7 7 3 111 12 3 4 6 8 4 11 2 9 12 13 3 4 4 10 4 8 2 12 13f 13| 6 4 3 11 6 10 1 9 m m 4 6 2 6 5 1 m 12f 5 6 1 7 6 — IH IH 7 4 9^ 6 6 6 1 m 12 7 4 8 6 5 10 2 2 13 13 9 4 11 3 4 6 3 13i 12J 5 5 3 — 8 1 6 12| m 3 6 4i — 7 6 1 m m 8 4 11 6 6 2 7 12i 13 4 4 9 7 4 11 3 10 14J 161 6 5 8 (+4) 10 12 (+2 6) m 16 4 4 IH 6 6 11 1 10 Ui m 8 5 n 4 7 11 1 — — 8 6 4i — 7 4 1 3 13 13| 6 6 2i 2 7 6 1 2 m 13| 9 4 6 11 6 3 7 12 12J 6 4 U 9 6 3 7 13i m 7 4 8i 8 6 2 2 6 13 13 11 4 7i 9 6 2 7 121 13 6 2 2 6 8 2 ■ 1 270 APPENDIX TABLE IV~ Stand- Alco. Cranial No. Age. ard holic Length at Parent- and Index. Giro. School. age. Width. 1 107 16 V 7fx5i 72 21* 108 16 VI F.M.? 7ix5f 79 20* V 109 16 IV M. 7ix5i 76 20| 110 16 vr — 7 x5i 78i 19| 111 16 VI — 7|x5i 71 21 112 17 VII M. Six 6 74 23i 113 17 IV M. F. 7ix5f 74 20 114 17 IV M. F. 7ix5| 77 21 115 17 IV F. M. 7ix5f 76^ 21i 116 17 IV F. 8 x5| 72 22i 117 17 IV F. M. 7fx6i 85^ 22 118 17 VII — 7ix5i 77 19| 119 17 IV F.M.? 7f x5| 77 22J 120 17 IV F. 7ix5| 76f 22i 121 17 VII F. 7fx5| 75^ 21 122 18 IV M. 7ix5| m 21f 123 18 VII F. 7ix6i 83^ 22* 124 19 VI F. 7ix5J 8H 2U 125 19 vri — 7|x6 8U 21| 126 20 II F. 7fx5i 74i 21* 127 20 VIII — 7ix5f 76f 2U 128 13 VI — 7fx51 79f 21* 129 16 (VII X) F. tub 6|x5| 78 20 15 AND UNDER. — They should Analysis of 22 Boys aged or nearly 22 per cent. ResumIj of 28 Boys aged 16 and 17. a loss of 23 per cent. Resume of 6 Boys aged 18 to 20. — They should weigh 60 st., of 20 per cent. weigh ; They should weigh 263 st. 12 APPENDIX 271 [eont^ lued) Vieasurements. Age Arches. limit of Mem- Height. Below Nor- mal. Weight. Below Normal. int. Lat. ory. 08t. ft. in. in. St. lb. St. lb. 131 13i — 4 6i 10 6 1 3 6 12J I3i — 6 4 6 8 2 12f 121 7 4 8| 7 5 1 3 6 12i m — 4 8i 7 4 10 3 11 m 13 9 4 lOi 6 6 1 2 6 m 13f 3 5 9 (+3) 6 3 3 2 12J m 5 5 6 6 3 6 m m — 6 6 6 5 3 I3i m 7 6 6 7 2 5 IH 14 5 5 llj (+5) 10 11 (xl 6) 13| Hi 7 6 2i 4 7 7 2 13 13i — 6 2 4 6 4 3 I4i 14 3 6 6 7 2 6 13 14i 4 6 2^ 3 8 4 1 I3i 13} 3 6 U 5 7 7 2 I4i 14i 6 5 4^ 2 8 2 1 9 13| Hi 6 6 7i — 9 11 I3i 13i 4 6 6 6 7 3 6 I3i 13i 4 5 4 3 7 12 2 4 I3i 13J 7 5 ^ 3 8 4 2 m 13} 4 5 4i 3 8 2 4 m 13} 4 4 11 3 6 8 1 9 I2i 13} 5 5 3i 2 6 2 3 2 67|8t. 2 lb., but do weigh 123 st. 3 lb., showing a deficiency of 34 st. 9 lb., ut a<:tually weigh 201 st. 9 lb., showing a deficiency of 62 st. 3 lb., or ctuaily weigh 48 st. 8 lb., showing a deficiency of 11 st. 6 lb., or a loss ■ 272 ■ ^ APPENDIX ^ 1 1 1 TABLE V. Good Middle Class From the ag Cranium. Arches. T No. Age. Heredity. Occupation. Size. Index. Giro. Ant. Post. Lat. 130 60 Good . . General 8^X6^ 75f 23i 13f 13| 131 60 »» Merchant . 8|x6| 76 23f Ui m 132 50 >j 8ix6f 77i 23i 14 m 133 70 Good . . Director . 8|x6| 74i 2^ 15 14i 134 40 » » 7fx6i 81 23J m 141 135 70 »» • • >» 8ix6| 82 24| 14 15f 136 20 »» • • Architect . 7f x6 77i 22 13i 13^ 137 40 >> Scientist . 7^x51 75 21| 131 13f 138 26 Neurotic Artist . . . — 20i 12| m 139 36 Good . . ,, ... 7fx6 78| 22i IH m 140 35 j> Manufacturer 7|x6 78| 22i m 14 141 34 Half German Good Banker 8 x6i 76i 23 14i 14 142 36 Tub. father Good Stockbroker's clerk 7|x6i 79i 22| 131 "1 143 37 Northum- brian — 8ix6 73| 23 14i uj 268 50 F. clergyman Good Critic and author 7ix6i 81f 22i 12| "* 269 50 Good . . S. A. officer . 7|x5| 76f 22i m 13i 276 60 >> • • Merchant . 7|x6 77^ 22| m 13i II APPENDIX 273 MOST! T OF Good Avbbaoe. of 25 %pwarda. CC Remarks. E iceptionally good positaon socially and in City. V try successful in life and supra-intelligent. See 2 children, 192 and 193. H id hydrocephalus as a child. A merchant prince. 5 ft. 4 in. 9 stone. 3 in. too short and 3 stone too light. Intelligent in his profession. Been in asylum. A 1 author and artist. R3member3 to 3. 5 ft. lOi in. lOi stone. (When 17, 6 ft. 8 in. and 10 stone). Tibercular disease of brain and cord (tabes). « f t. 11 St. 4 lb. (when 20, 11 i st.). Remembers to 2t [ Si ipra-intellectual. Intelligence above the average. Bemembers to 3. Father of Nos* 159 and 160. 274 APPENDIX TABLE VI. Family Group3 from Age. Heredity. Occupation. Cranium. No. Size. Index. 1 Circ. Arches. Ant. Post. Lat. 144 60 Good. Coun- try M. . . . Manufacturer 7|x6| 84i 23 15 15i 145 /18 125 — 7|x5| 7^x6 75f 76 22| 22| 14i Hi ft . < 146 fI6 [23 „ . . . — 7f x6f 83 1 22^ ik 15 1 15 1 ..... Manufacturer 7|x6f 82i 22f 14i 147 fl5 121 >> • • • — 7|x6i 80i 21 14 »» • • • Solicitor . 7fx6| 821- 2H 15 148 J 12 . 7ix5f 75 21f 14 14 ) 119 »> • • • Student of 7|x6i 791 23 14f Agriculture fl49 60 Bad . . Merchant 7^x6 80 21f m 13 1 h50 |16 121 »» • • Clerk . . 7^x51 76f 2U 13 13 \ I »» • • • . 7Jx6 80 m 13 ml 161 45 Good . . Scientific 7fx6i 80i 22J 13f 14 1 instrument 1 1152 maker ( 13 Tuberculous Son . . . 7ix5f 76| 20| m 14 J ri53 1 154 40 Good . . Merchant prince 7|x6 76J- 22i Hi "1 14lJ 7 »» • • Son . . . 7ix5f 79 20^ 12f 155 40 >» • • Merchant . 7fx6i m 22J m in r ^ »» Son . . . 6ix5i SH m iH 13 - 156 . il4 >> • — 7ix5| 79 20J m 13i (270 .271 43 Good Artist 7|x6J 80| 23i 13f 13} 17 »» Son . . . 7|x5J 77 22 13 13| ri34 40 Good Merchant 7|x6J 81 23J 13i 141 192 1 >» — 6f x5| 85 191 12| 13i 1193 7 >» — 7 x6i 87i 20f m 14* « (132 194 60 Good Merchant 8|x6| 77i 23J 14 14i 10 >» Son . . . 7fx5| 73^ 2H 15 14 /277 60 »» Merchant 7fx6 77^ 22| 13 13} , 159 /14 120 »» — 7ix6i 81f 2H 131 13i »» Med. stud. . 7|x6i 79^ 22f 14 ^ 1 An jl7 „ — 7ix6 80 m m 14 ^^^ 121 1 „ . . Merchant 7^x6 80 21| m m 11 Note the alteration of cranial indi( APPENDIX 275 Go D Middle Class. Remarks. Father. Intellectiial, but a bad memory for prose. All the sons clever. Eldest 1 5 ft. 7 in. (normal). 8 st. 121b. son / „ „ 10 St. Second \ 5 ft. 9 J in. (5 in. above average). 10 st, 1 lib. (2 st. above average), son J 5 ft. 11 in. (3 in. „ „ ). list. 41b. (Ist. „ „ ). Is ft. 6^ in. (4 in. above average). 9 st. (IJ st. above normal). Fourth 1 5 ft 9 ^ (2 in. above average). II st. 8 lb. ( 1 J st. above average). Father. Grandfather committed suicide. Father died in asylum. Eldest son [ Son imbecile, high grade araent. Mother consumptive before his birth. Starved neurotic, but intelligent. Very intelligent father. Son supra-intelligent, but not precocious. Married and three children. Bullet-shaped forehead. Head well developed. Successful city merchant. A middle grade imbecile. Supposed cause, bad midwifery. Forceps. Broken leg, etc. Could not walk nor talk till 3. 4 ft. 1 in. (2 in. too tall). 3 St. 8 lb. (5 lb. too little). When 14, 6ft. 2 in. (3 in. too tall). 6 st. 10 lb. (12 lb. too little). Both Bupra-intelhgent, but physically very inactive. Supra-intelligent. Broad head. Well developed. Mentally brilliant. Shrewd and unintellectual. Clever boy. Father intellectuaL Sons clover. Ditto. between youth and adolescence in the same subjects. 276 APPENDIX TABLE Vn. Fair Specimens prom Well-to-do Age. Heredity. Oooupation. Cranium. 1 No. Size. Index. Giro. Arches. Ant. Post. Lat. 157 168 169 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 278 19 18 (U 120 ri7 121 20 21 22 22 17 13 16 Cousins. Both good Good . . ft • • »» »» • • Gk)od. Ger- man Good . . f» • • »» . . If »» None . Architect . . Medical stu- dent See Father, 375 Merchant . Lloyds Electrician Accountant . Father barris- ter 7ix6i 8 x6 7ix6i 7fx6i 7^x6 7ix6 8fx6i 7|x6^ 7ix6i 7ix6f 7ix5| 7ix6| 7|x6 81f 75 81| 79i 80 80 73 74f 81f 93 79J 85 8U 21f 23 2H 22f 2U 211 23| 22^ 22i 22 21 22 21i 14 14i 131 14 14i 14 13 14 13 m 131 14 m ■1 14 13i 13i 13i 134 16 13J APPENDIX 277 Mi )DLE Class fbom Ages of 13 to 25. Remarks. Middle-grade imbecile, and dangerous. Unable to work. Good intelligence. Slow to learn. A litle above average height and weight. Brothers. Very intelligent. High morale. Medical student remembers to 2^. Private school. His skull has grown more than his brother's. Is this due to study ? Merchant, remembers to 3. Supra-intelligent. High moreJe. Largest head in the feunily. Typical fair North Germeui. Supra intelligent. Very intelligent. HydrocephaUc. Took 7^ size. Four years later took 8. Middle-grade imbecile, too neurotic to continue in business. Development arrested physically and mentally at 12. High-grade imbecile. 6 ft. 3 J in. (deficient 3 in.). 7 st. (deficient 2 st.). In one year height 6 ft. 6^ in., which is about normal. 8 st. lb. (1 st. 12 lb. deficient). Hydrocephalic imbecile. Supposed cause, blow on he€ul when 2 yeeurs old. Good disposition. Cannot be educated. 3 ft. 11^ in. (9 in. too short). 6 St. 12 lb., normal. 5 ft. 3i in. (1 in. above normal). 6 st. 8 lb. (Ist. 10 lb. below normal. Father very thin). Remembers to 2 J. 278 APPENDIX TABLE VIII. Fair Specimens froi No. 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 176 176 177 178 179 280 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 272 274 275 273 279 Age. Heredity. 13 16 16 16 17 18 20 21 21 13 19 25 50 24 19 20 26 28 40 50 17 19 30 52 39 13 Non ale. Tub. Good Bad Good No parentage Tub. . . Half German Good . . Father a carman Father £irt printer Good . . F. tub. and ale. M. ale. & prostitute F. ale. . . F. ale. . . Country Son of 273 . Cranium. Occupation. Slummer Hall boys in large hotel Postman . Elect, engineer Sailor in navy Porter . Shopboy . Clerk . . . Tailor . . . S. A. . . . Factory hand Zoological Gar dens Managing clerk Salvation Army Lab. assistant Groom in Sal- vation Army Clerk . . . S. A. officer . Prison warder Size. Index. 7ix5| 7 x5J 7ix5| 8 x6|- 7fx5i 8 x5| 8 x6 7ix5^ 7ix6i 7 x5f 7fx6| 7fx5| 7ix6 7ix5| 7ix6i 7-1 x5| 7ix6 7^x51 7ix6,^ 7ix6 7ix5| 7|x5| 7ix6f 7Jx6 7|x6J 7 x5J 77i 82 82^ 76i 72 73i 75 75^ 83 80^ 72i 73 82f m 77i 79f 84 76f 81| 82f 75 79f 85 82| 82 82 Circ. 21 20| 20| 22| 2H 22| 22| 20| 22i 19f 22| 21 2H 22i 2U 21| 22i 21f 22 21i 21J 21i 22 21 22^ 20i Arches. Ant. Post. 13 12 13 14 m m m m 15 13 14 13 m m 12| 12| 13^ 13 14 m m 14 m m 13 APPENDIX 279 OOBEB Class oveb 12. lieinarks. > li 4 ft. 5 in. (deficient 4 in.). 3 st. 10 lb. (deficient 2 st. 2 lb.). Miserable home. Supra-intelligent. A good boy. VIII Standard. Remembers to 2^. 4 ft. 7 in. (deficient 9 in. ). 4 st. 2 lb. (deficient 4 st. 5 lb.). Intelligent. V standard. Remembers to 4. 5 ft. (deficient 4 in.). 6 st. 10 lb. (deficient 2 st. 10 lb.). Poor intellect. VI standard. Remembers to 3. 5 ft. 3 in. (deficient 1 in.). 7 st. (de- ficient 1 St. 7 lb.). Neurotic and stupid. VII standard. Remembers to 2. 6 ft. 4 in. (deficient 2 in.). 6 st. 10 lb. (deficient 2 st. 9 lb.). Very intelligent. Good intelligence. High morale. Slight hydrocephalus. 6 ft. 5 in. (2 in. below average). 9 st. (11 lb. below the average), (jlood intelligence. Very stupid and deficient and ill-nourished but good morale. Not under developed. Dull intellect. Good morale. Cretinoid. 4 ft. 6^ in. (deficient 3 in.). 5 st. (deficient 12 lb.). Height, 5 ft. 7 in. (normal height). Weight, 8 st., 2 st. 12 lb. too little. Very well balanced mind. Good morale. Medium intelligence. Can remember to 3. Very intelligent. VI standard. 9 st. 6 lb. (d« ficient 6 lb.). 6 ft. 7 in. (normal). Been a sailor. Intelligence moderate. Remembers to 3. 5 ft. 5 in. 9 st. 12 lb. (was 9 st. 8 lb. when 20). He died shortly after from a nerve disease from overstrain. Medium intelligence. Memory poor as to childhood. Height 5 ft. 6 in. (deficient 1 in.). 8 st. 8 lb. (deficient 11 lb.). Very intelligent. Remembers only to 6. V^ery bad heredity, mentally deficient. 5ft. C in. 8 Bt. (2 St. too little). A degenerate saved by the S. A. Remembers to 3. Church school. Risen from lower ranks and unequal to the streun. Remembers to 4. Remembers to 3. Church school. 5 ft. 10 in. 14 st. 6 st 6 lb. (7 lb. below normal). 4 ft. ll| in. (2 in. above normal). Re- members to 2 (Church school). I^^^^g^^? 280 APPENDIX TABLE IX. AvEBA< Age. Heredity. Occupation. Cranium. No. Size. Index. Circ. Arches Ant. Post. Lat. 187 {.! Good . . r > 20i 13i 13 »» • • Father a 7|x6 8H 21i 13i 14 merchant 188 / 2 I 9 »> prince ISi 12 12 »> V. ^ 7ix5| 80| 20| 12i I3i 189 4i »» • • Daughter of 140 6ix5i 83 191 13 I3i 190 2i Tuberculous Father a clerk 6| X 5i 76 19 lU 12 191 7 mns. Scotch. Good Working class 5Jx4 76 16i 9 9 192 1 Good . . r Father a " merchant 6f x5f 85 191 12f 13f 193 7 »» 1 No. 134 j 7 x6i 87i 20| 131 Uf 194 10 f» • Son of 132 . 7|x5| 73 2\\ 15 14 196 7i »» • • Father a mer- chant 6f x5J 86f 19i 13i 14 196 5 6fx5i 77t 19i 13 121 197 {" Tubercular ( Parents of \ \ working I 7 x5| 82 20i 13f 14 Ui »> I class J 7ix5i 80f 20| 14 14 198 8 Bad . . A thief . . 7ix5f 801 20f 12i 131 APPENDIX 281 ChIL 'BEN UNDER 12. Remarks. ] iSrge hydrocephalic head. Very intelligent. '■ ft. 6| in. (normal). 4 st. 2 lb. (1 st. too little). Remembers to 2. Father large-headed. . v-ppears normal. ; ft. 11^ in. (2 in. too little). 4 st. 2 lb. (normal). Remembers to 2. ! nfantile paralysis of left leg, but supra-intelligent. A fine little girl, yidth of parietal region behind, 4f in. lead appears normal. Father No. 134. Tendency to hydro-A cephalus. Conspicuously large. Slightly hydrocephalic. Supra-intelli- VBrothers gent. 3 ft. 9 in., or 7 in. above normal. 3 st. 10 lb., or 1 St. above normal. j Both parents large heads and intelligent. Markedly hydrocephalic, supra-intelligent. Transverse parietal diameter, 6| in., anteroposterior diameter through frontal tuberosities, 6J in., ^ in. more than through brow. An idiot. Delicate, slight hydrocephalus, dull, neurotic. Brain crises with a temperature. 3 ft. 7^ in. (5 in. too tall). 2 st. 15 lb. (5 lb. too heavy). 4 ft. 2 in. (6 in. too tall). 3 st. 13 lb. (8 lb. above average). A slum child. Very intelligent, 3 ft. 11 in. (normal). 3 st. (about 101b. below average). 282 APPENDIX TABLE X. Boys from an Orphaitaoe No. 201 202 203 204 205 306 207 208 209 Ago. 12 Hi 12 9 10 14^ 15i 17 17 15 Parentage. F. syph. T . . Good . . . None ! ... F. a drunkard. M. died of tu- bercle F. soldier F. carman. M. washerwoman F. died of brain F. tubercular F. ale. and ihih. M. insane 210 15 F. tub. M. in- 10^ sane The above are the 10 worst boys in the Home 211 14 Good .... H 212 15 . . 11 213 15 Both dead . . . 11 214 15 M. and F. tub. . 11 215 ISi Good .... 9 216 m t» .... H 217 18 f» .... n 218 19 H Cranium. Years at the Homes u H 4 4 7 3| 7 4i Size. 6|x5J 7ix5i 7 X5f 7 X5| 7ix5| 7|x5i 7ix5f 71x6 7ix5i 7Jx5| Index. 82 76 80i 82 80f 7H 77i 81J 73i 79J ^ 20 20| 21 20J 20f 20| 20i 21| 20J 21i IH They should weigh 67 stones, 7fx6i 7 X5f 7ix5, 7ix6| 7fx5| 7|X5| 7Jx5| 7|x6i 84| 22i 80J 20| 76 22i 81 21i 79| 20f 79f 2H 79J 22 76i 20J f ND H APPENDIX 283 DBEN. Cranium. Arches. / it. I St. H 3 14 13 13| Lat. 13* 13 12| 13 13i 13i 14 12| 131 School SUnd- ard. I I n I III V III IV Mem- ory. 12 Weight. St. lb. 4 3 3 9 4 1 4 5 4 3 5 12 7 8 3 5 6 5 12 Deficient St. lb. 1 4 1 9 1 2 8 2 12 1 2 4 1 6 Height. ft. in. 4 1 4 * n 4 3 4 11 5 6 4 14 4 8 Deficient ft. in. 6 6 6 2i above normal 3 2 7 6 Chest Mea- sure* meat. in. 26 bu / actually weigh 63 stonee, showing a deficiency of about 20 per cent. ;: 13 14 VII 6 8 6 -fl 10 6 — 13 m VII 6 6 2 1 2 4 10 4 13f 131 VHx ** 7 3 — 6 3 — 12i 13 VIIx 4 7 4 — 6 1* — m 13 VIIx 6 10 1 xl 3 5 7i — 13 131 VII 4 9 4 8 6 3i 4 12i 14 VII 4 9 4 8 6 6 1 m 14| vnx 4 8 — 6 4 — 26 26 26* 26 29 29 34i 29i 32* 30 33 36 36* 34 371 33 284 APPENDIX Age. Parentag*. Years in the Home. Cranium. No. Size. Index. Ciic. 219 m F. W. Indian negro. M. white 7i 7|X6 76^ 22^ 220 20 m 7ix6| 74i 22 221 20 Good . . . 8 7ix6 80 21f These These boys should weigh about 96 stones, and actually weigh 94 stones, are the best 11 boys. Note the deficient weight in the 2 illegitimates. 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 11 10 14 14i 15 16 17 17 17 19 F. and M. negroes M. drunken pros- titute M. tub. F. tub. and ale. None ! ... Good . . . F. tub. M. tub. vant M. tub. and ale. as 324 Good F. tub. Same lOi 6 6 7i 7 4 7i Hi 7ix5i 7^X5 7ix6i 7ix6i 7|x5| 7|x6 7fx6f 7ix6f 7ix5| 71x6 79i 63i 79i 86 76i 8H 76i 77i 81 78t 20i 20i 20 21i 21i 21 22i 21i 21 22 22f II These are a fair average. They should weigh 77 stones, h\ii t APPENDIX 285 X — I ymtinued). Cranium. School Stand- ard. Mem- ory. Weight. De- ficient. Height. De- ficient. Cheat Mea- Archci. Ant. Pott. Lat. ment. U 13i 13J 14 14 VIIx vnx VII 4 6 3 It. lb. 10 5 8 4 9 12 at. lb. XO 6 2 6 ft. in. 6 6 6 2i 6 6 ft. in. 1 5 2 in. 36 33 38^ si owing a deficiency of only 2 per cent. a] K> observe the improved memories in 221 and others where no Board school 25i 22| 13i 13f IV 4 4 6 10 4 1 4 14 12 IV 6 3 6 1 6 4 0* 6 12f 13| VI 7 7 7 xO 13 5 2* 3 13 14 IV 6 8 4 xl 6 5 6* xO 6 12* 12| vnx 7 6 2 1 2 5 li — 131 131 vn 7or8 8 6 — 5 6* xO 1 13 13| VTTx 3 9 3 — 6 9i xO 3 14 13| vn 6 2 3 2 6 li 5 121 13* vn 6 8 2 1 3 6 4 2 131 IH vn 6 9 8 6 6 4i 3 32 32 33 33* 33 31* 32* 36 actually weigh 71 stones, a deficiency of 8 per cent. 286 APPENDIX TABLE XI. Jewish Boys from tbi School and No. Age. Parentage. Born in Occupation and Remarks. Standard. B. = Board. J.F. = Jewish Free. 232 12 F. English. M. Pole London — VII B. 233 14 Polish . . . Non-Jewish features Poland Errand boy . . . VI B. 234 14i English Aldershot . Office boy VIIx B. 235 14| F. Russian. M. Austrian France Compositor VII B. 236 141 Austrian. Features non- Jewish (Ger- man) Austria . Furrier VII B. 237 15 Austrian Austria Woodcarver VII B. 238 15 Poland. Fea- tures non- Jewish England . Photographer . Private & vri B. 239 15 Holland . . London Printer's reader VIIxB. 240 15 Russian . Russia Errand boy VII B. 241 15 Polish . . . London Furrier VII B. 242 15 Polish . . . London In second- ■ ary B. ■ school. ■ Won a ■ scholar- " ship 243 15^ Polish . . . London Compositor VI B. -j m 9 and fll ^eigner (Came to England wh< in 4 years though a foi reached VI Standj ird 244 151 Hungarian London Clerk VIIx B. 245 15| Polish. M. tu- bercular. No Jewish fea- tures London Teacher .... VIIxB. 1 246 16 Russian . London Shipping .... VIIxJ.F. ■ 247 16 Polish . . . Poland . Tailor VII J.F. ■ 248 16 Austrian . Austria Office boy .... VIT B. 249 16 German England . Ladies* tailor . VII J.F. 250 16 Russian . London Office boy .... VII B. 251 16 English. Not of Jewish type England . Packer "1 J APPENDIX 287 ;iA Club in Whitechapel. Mei or; 4 5 U Cranium. Sizo. 7ix6i 7ix5i 7ix6 7^x6 7 x6i 7ix6i 6JX5J 7|x6i 7 x5J 7ix6| 7ix6 7|x5j 7^x6 7Jx6 7fx6 7 x6 7ix5j 71x6f 6Jx6i Index. 81 87f m 82f 80 87^ 84i ^^ 83 82 J- 81 841 79f 82 1 m 85^ 82} 81! 72| Circ. Arches. 20| 2U 20} 2U 21| 21 21} 20J 22 20} 21} 2H 21| 20| 21J 22 21} 211 22} 19} Ant. Post. 12} 12| 13 12} 12} 12 12} 11} 13| 12 13 13 12 12 13} 13 12| 12} 14 12} Lat. 13} 14} 12| 14 12} 13| 13| 12} m 13 13| 13} 13} 13} 131 14 131 12| 14} 12 Height. ft. in. 4 11 4 7 4 7 4 9} 5 1 5 4 5 2 5 3 5 2 4 11 5 6 4 9 5 1} 5 1 5 2} 6 3} 4 10 5 2 5 4 4 9 Variation. in. + 4 -0 4 -0 3 + 1 + 2 + 1 -0 3 + 3 6 ■0 2 ■0 2 2 6 2 7 Weight. St. lb. 5 8 5 6 5 3 6 6 6 7 7 6 6 12 7 4 8 7 6 6 8 11 6 7 7 12 6 Variation. St. lb. + 2 4 8 7 + 2 -0 6 4-1 3 -1 12 + 1 7 -1 4 2 2 -0 3 + 9 -2 -1 4 -1 1 -1 3 lU !88 APPENDIX TABLS School am No. Age. Parentage. Bom in Occupation and Remarks. Standard. (B = Board. J.F. = Jewial Free.) 252 16| Polish. Not of Jewish fea- tures Poland Compositor. . . . V B. 253 17 F. Russian . M. English England . Tailor's cutter . . Second- ary VIIx 254 17 PoUsh . . . London . Tailor. A dwarf and hydrocephalic, but very intelligent VIIxB. 265 17 F. Roumanian. M.Pole. No Jewish fea- tures London Tailor VIIxB. 256 17 Russian . London . Photo-case maker VII J.F. & B. Jl 257 18 Polish . . . Poland Engineer (16 years in England) VllxJ.li &B. 258 18 F. Russian . M. English London Piano maker . VII J.F. Jl 259 18 M. Jewish prostitute London Won't settle to any industry. A degen- erate, not deficient. The only trouble- some lad VII bM 260 19 PoUsh . . . Poland Tailors' mechanic . VI B. 261 19 Russian . Leeds . Cabinet maker VII B. 262 19 Polish . . . London Tailor's machinist VEIx B. 263 21 Russian . London Wood carver . VIIx B. 264 21 German . London . Cabinet maker. Brother to 249 VII J.F. St. lb. 1 Total weight . . . . . 252 5 ^ RVinnlfl be. . . . . . 274 13 1 APPENDIX 289 XI — ( )orU%niied). Mer Cranium. Size. 7ix6f 7Jx6| 7 x5| 7 x6| 7fx6J 7ix6i 7ix6| 7ix6| 7|x6i 7 x5| 7fx6| 7 x6 7|x6i Index. Giro. 88 81 84 84 77 80i 79 80| 22 21f 21 20| 21J 22f 21 20i Arches Ant. Post. 81f 22J 80^ 20| 83| 22| 20J 83 I 2l| m m 13 m 12| 14 13 12f 13 12^ m 12f Lat. 14i m 13^ m 13 13i 13 13i 14 12i 14i 12| 12| Height. ft. in. 5 4^ 5 3 4 4 5 4 5 4 6 li 5 5J 5 3 5 5 6 6 5 8 5 3 5 4^ Varia- tion. ft. in. -0 3 -1 2 -0 2 -0 2 -0 6 -0 1 -0 4 3 2 6 4 Weight. St. lb. 8 5 7 6 4 8 7 12 7 13 9 9 8 8 7 6 11 7 10 10 6 8 8 10 7 Variation St. lb. -0 2 -2 -4 11 -1 7 -1 6 -0 2 -1 3 -2 6 + 1 7 4-0 6 -1 11 -fO 2 St. lb. 22 8 net below normal. Percent€ige — 8^ below the averetge. I GENERAL INDEX i bnorraalities, amongst great men, 123 i iter-care Association, iSUO . .gnostic, 179 . Jcohol, effects, 27, 109, 140, 150 Idiocy, experiment on animals, 27 . unoeba, 6 . inabolism, 21 Ante-natal conditions, 113 Vsymmetry, 121 Atavism, 58, 133 Automatism, 86, 90 Averages, 54 \xon8, 95 B Sfianardo's Homes, 247 Barnes, Mary, c€ise, 160 Bateson, Researches, 46, 49, 50 varieties of species, 55 Beard, on embryo, 18 on skate, 16 Bemiss, statistics by, 26 Bible, true value of, 243 Biffen, experiment rust in wheat, 53 Biology connected with sociology, 3, 10, 22 Birds, effect of nourishment on, 31 Bolton, Dr. Shaw, on pyramidal layers, 81, 97, 98 and prefrontal cortex, 230 Booth's, General, treatment of criminals, 194 Borstal system, 198 Boys, homeless, 245 Bulls, hornless, 34 Brain, association areas, 74, 79, 9 circulation of, 163 cortex, grey matter, 78, 82, 88 development of, 72, 100, 108 general structure of, 70 knowledge of, importemt to sociologists, 203 microscopic appearance of, 95 motor areas, 78, 102 murderer's, 224 pattern in man and animal, 74 sensory areas, 79, 80, 81 weights, 73 Broca, on skull, 131 Cell, 10, 11, 108 Prof. Balbiani's observations on, 16 in fertilized ovum. Ste, O, 16 germinal and somatic, 16 reproductive, 16 Cerebellum, in normal man, 71 Cerebrum, 71 Characters, latent, 19 transmission of, 34 Children, cry of, 257 deficient, 141 precocious, 133 stunted, 13, 112, 243 Choice and association areas, 284 Chromatin, formation of rods, 16 Civilization, bad influence of, 29 Conmionwealth, ideal, 258 Consciousness, double, and oases of, 2, 148 Conscription, 241 Cortex of brain, 78, 82, 88, 96 Cranial index, measurements, 126, 254 S91 U' 292 GENERAL INDEX Crime, three kinds of, 197 and privilege, 190 Criminals, classification of, 190, 195 I have known, 207-27 not a type, 3, 120, 151 potential, 205 a socialist, 196 Criminology, key to, 76 Cripple, moral, no free will, 182, 186, 187 Ewart, C, experiments, 38, 40 Extinction, Herbert Spencer on, 20 Family, sluna, 244 tree, a, 40 Fertilization, 14, 22 Fittest, survival of, 7 Flechsig's discoveries, 100, 103 Free meals, 137 Free will, 186, 236 D'Aubenton, on skull, 130 Darby, Lord, sayings, 256 Darwin, crossing fowls, 31, 58 Degeneracy, prepotency accen- tuates, 38, 132 Delage, on regeneration, 33 variations, 19 Dements, senile and prison, 105, 109 Dendrons, 95 Desire and conduct, 229, 234 Devolution, 116 De Vries' experiments, 8, 52 Dietary for the poor, 137 Disease, influence on personality, 166 Dominants and Recessives, 45, 46 Dreams, 88 E Education and Crime, 135, 147 State, 21, 144, 246, 255 What it is, 138 Ego, the, 150, 151, 170 causes working against, 17 of Mary Barnes, 172 sub, 172 Embryo of mammal, 23 Emotions, seat of, 66 Empire building, 238 Environment, 108 Haeckel on, 33 influence on degeneracy, 124 post-natal, 113 Evolution, arrested in lower races, 132 Darwin, 7 Lamarck, 7 G Gal ton's researches, 37, 55 Gametes, 51 Germinal elements, 23 Germ-plasm, changes in, 132 Weissmann on, 17 Gipsies' prepotency, 37 Habit, 203 Heredity, acquired characters, 18 craving for alcohol, 35 Darwin on, 17 Gregor Mendel, 44 Haeckel, 17, 33 Huxley, 17 Hermaphrodism — mental, 14 true case of, 14 Horse raising, 24 Hybrids, 57 Hypnotism, 93 Idiot brain weights and skull measurements, 127 microcephalic, 75 Illegitimacy, 113 Instinct and intelligence, 68, 97 Infant mortality, 257 Intuition, 92 Jews, care for children, 137 prepotency, 36 social work, 250 Juvenile adults, 124, 199 242 GENERAL INDEX 293 O Kxi >x, Robert, atavism, 133 Ka abolism, 21 La iguages, 140 La 7 and lawyers. 111, 177, 188, 190, 239 Le icocyte, 6 Li 3rature, bad, 147-184 Lc nbroso on asymmetry, 121 Lc V on prepotency, 38 Li sury, effect of, 4 M M cAlister, on brain, 121 M Ithus, predictions of, 9, 256 M Triage, 9, 25, 52, 117 mproper, 22 consanguineous, 25, 26 M lupas, experiments with infu- soria, 26 M jchanism, reflex, 61 M)dulla, 71 M )mory, physical basis of, 88 M )ndel, Gregor, on heredity and experiments, 44, 47 Mental cripple, 182 Mental power, failure of. 111 Mentation, subconscious, 84 Mercier, on criminal responsi- bility, 186, 229, 23b Mill, J. S., dictum of, 256 y'md and brain, 234 criminal, 187, 203 ^ission, S. Giles, 245 ft[ongrels, human, 50 ft[onocellular structures, 11 Ik [oral code, society lowers, 4 insanity, 234 invalid, 182 N ICaegeli, on variation, 32 : Nation, bleeding to death, 242 ^Nature-study, 140 Xeuron, in reflex action, 63 repeated slight stimuli, 64 >Jucleu8, 10, 132 Overcrowding of school cleisses, 137 strain, 3 Ovum, 13 effect of alcohol and disease on, 13 fusion of sperm and ovum, 14 Paget, Sir James, analysis on averages, 54 Paralysis, 116 Parent as trustee, 143, 183 Parents, dissipation in, 192 Personality in criminals, 173 double, 151, 157 double, a murderer, 150 multiple, 158, 162 multiple. Mary Barnes, 158 multiple. Miss Beauchamp, 168 Phorozoon, 16 Phrenology, popular, 114 Physiognomy, 114 Poppies, Shirley, 8 Poor, neglect of, 4 Prison, experience at Dculmoor, 182 Precocity, 133 Prefrontal cortex, 81, 103, 232, 235 Prepotency, 36, 38 Protoplasm, 10 Punishment, corporal, 199 indeterminate sentence, 198 object of, 197 Psychiatry, compared with normal, 263 Pyramidal layer, 81, 98 Quakers, 37, 201 Recessives and dominants, 45, 46 Reflex, action, 59, 62 Regeneration, Delage on, 33 by marriage, 33 Reid, Archibald, on heredity, 35 294 GENERAL INDEX Religion, conversion, 177 influence of, 176 state, 145 Reproduction, by simple division, 11 self-preservation inverse to, 21 Responsibility, choice determines, 230. criminal, 186 Ruskin's misconception of, 228 Reversion, 48 Robertson, Ford, skull measure- ment, 127 Romanes, theory, on selection, 38 S Salvation Army, bureau of, 207 and education, 188 Schools, private, 143 Segments, animals in, 65 Selection, natural, 7 Self-control, 105, 233 Sex, reversal of, 14 Shaw, Bernard, opinion of, 268 Sin versus crime, 4 Skull, 121, 126 difference of man from ape, 130 negro, 130 prehistoric man, 132 Smith, Joe, King of Burglars, 218 Social canker and problems, 1, 2, 99 Somnambulism, 149 Soul, 92 Spencer, H., on prevention of extinction, 20 Species, hybrids among, 57 Spermatozoon, and function of, 13, 14, 15 Spirit, the, 176 Sports, human, 50, 51 Sporting instincts, 240 Stability, 55 Starfish, observations in, 12, 14 Sterihzation, 202, 257 Stigmata, external, 120 Subconsciousness, 84, 87, 90, 106 Subject, liberty and responsi- bility of, 201, 229 Subjective mind, 91 Suggestion, influence of, 168 Sutherland, Dr, on criminal head, 126 Sweet-pea, Mendel's experimente on, 47 System, nervous, 60 object of, 67 Temperaments, 118 Temperance, science supports, 28 Three R's fill prison, 147 Thought mechanism, 82 U Unfit, duty toward the, 9 fertiUty of, 202 Variation, as species, 33 causes of, 19, 29 < continuous and discontinuous, ' 8, 29 Vegetable Ufe, 6 Vernon, sea urchins, 40 Victoria Club, Whitechapel, 250 Virchow, on the criminal, 189 Visualization, mental, 88 Xk Vivisection, 60 H Volition and inhibition, 230, 235 W of Watson, Dr., comparison brains, 229 on the cortex, 97 on idiocy, 75 Warning, Malthus', 9 Wealth without work, 184, 201 Weight, deficiency in, 246 Weissmann on germ-plasm, 17 Wesleyan homes, 247 White, Arnold, observations, 22, 238 on sterilization, 203, 257 Will, physical seat of, 230 Worms, observations on, 12 Worry, 87 Zygotes, 51 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES Izam, Prof., 153 B Baillarger, 97 3albi£uii, 16 3allet, 27 Barlow, Sir T., 167 Barr, Dr., 123 Bateson, 8, 29, 31, 46, 49, 50, 52, 53 Beard, 16, 18 Bedard, Mr., F.R.S., 76 Beevor, 164 Bemiss, 26 Bendedikt, 121 Benson, 164 Bianchi, 123, 154, 202 Biffen, 52, 53 Booth, Gtenl., 194 Bolton, J. S., 80, 81, 82, 93, 96, 99, 105, 230, 231 Boverie, 11, 15 Brampton, Lord, 239, 240 Bramwell, 167 Brengues, 29 Bright, John, 205 Broca, 130, 131, 132 Browne, Sir James Crichton, 125, 128, 129 Bruce, Dr. Lewis, 155 Campbell, 81, 104 Camper, 131 Camuset, 153 Cararra, 27 Clarke, Sir Edward, 239 Clouston, T. C, 183 Cunningham, J., 74 D Darwin, 7, 17, 31, 36, 36, 68, 133, 200, 256 61, 97, D'Aubenton, 130 Delage, Yves, 19, 33, 56 Derby, Lord, 256 Desceraet, M., 34 De Vries, 8, 52, 117 Donaldson, Prof., 66 Dufay, 152 Emerson, 35 Estense, Selvatico, 28 Ewart, Cossar, 25, 34, 36, 38, 40 Faure, 27 Fer6, 27, 121 Ferrier, 66, 78 Flechsig, 78, 100, 101, 103, 104 Galton, Sir Francis, 36, 37, 64. 66, 56 Golz, 66 Gratiolet, M., 130 Gregory, Dr., 247 ^3 GrufErida Ruggeri, 122 H Haeckel, 17, 33 Hamilton, Sir W., 92 Hamilson, Prof. D. J., 122 Hartridge, 164 Harrison, Mr., 246 Hitzig, 78 Horsley, Sir Victor, 74 Hunt, 73 Huxley, 17, 31 Hyslop, W. T. H., 166, 167 67, I Ireland, 128 296 296 INDEX OF AUTHORITIES Jaeger, 16 Jones, R., 167 Julian, Dr. Camille, 153 K Knox, Robert, 133 L Lamarck, 7, 31 Larlet, 132 La Roche, 123 Lessor, Mr. Ernest, 252 Levinsohn, M. H. K., 252 Llewellyn, Mr., 145 Lombroso, Prof., 90, 121, 122, 123, 128, 129, 133 Low, 38 Lister, Lord, 178 Lister, W. Tyndall, 163 Liindie, 164 Lunn, Marcus, 164 M MacAlister, 121 Macnish, 153 Mai thus, 9, 117, 256 Maupas, 26 Max Miiller, 141 Mendel, Gregor, 49 Mercier, 186, 229, 230, 232, 233, 234 Mesart, W., 153 Middleman, 128 Mill, John Stuart, 256 Millais, Sir Everett, 39 Miller, Hugh, 200 Morel, 121 Morgan, K. Lloyd, 68 Mott, Dr. F., 66, 71, 78, 96, 104, 106, 107, 109 N Naegeli, 32, 33 Nandin, 49, 57 Nothnagel, 66 Paget, Sir J., 54 Paul, St., 146, 187, 229 Pearson, Karl, 117 Penn, W., 200 Plummer, Col., 198, 222, 223, 229 Prince, Dr., 158, 159, 167 Pritchard, Dr., 124 Punnett, 49 R Reid, Archibald, 35 Reitz, 27 Robertson, Ford, 113, 127 RoUeston, Charles, 37, 107 Romanes, 38, 68 Ruskin, 181, 228 Rutherford, 66 S Sabraza, 29 SaviU, T., 167, 172 Schafer, 66, 78 Shaw, G. B., 258 Sherrington, Prof., 63, 64, 65, 78 Smith, Elliott, 74, 80, 107 Soemering, 131 Sojacono, Dr., 202 Spencer, Herbert, 20, 67, 254 Stephany, Mr., 250 Stevenson, R. L., 148, 151 Strassburger, 19 Sturgess, Comm., S.A., 207 Tallack, Wm., 187, 242 Tissie, 153 Tomassi, Prof., 155 Tuckey, Lloyd, 167, 172 Turner, Sir W., 114 Tweedy, Sir J., 165 Vernon, 25, 40 Virchow, 189 W Watson, Dr., 68, 71, 74, 75, 77, 807 96, 97, 229 Weissmann, 17, 18 Wheatley, Mr., 138, 143 White, Arnold, 22, 203, 238, 257 Wilks, Rev. W., 8 Wilson, Dr., 128 Wordsworth, 140 Wood, Outterson, 167 Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printbg Work*, Frome, and Londoit ^■>«i'-,'^^;.