MEMOIRS OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER VOL. IX. LONDON : PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE AND PARLIAMENT STREET '*' ' FOR THE HUNDREDTH YEAR OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER (1881) A CENTENARY OF SCIENCE IN MANCHESTER (IN A SERIES OF NOTES) BY R. ANGUS SMITH, F.R.S., Pn.D, LL.D. ^ OF GLASGOW AND EDINBURGH CORK. MEM. OF THE ROYAL BAVARIAN ACADEMY F.C.S. ETC. LONDON TAYLOR AND FRANCIS 1883 PREFACE. Centenary of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. WHEN the Society was near its Centenary it seemed good to the members that I should be requested to write some account of its doings. I said that I could not give time to write a history : it was well known that I was much occupied. I was told, how- ever, to do just as much or as little as it suited, since no one seemed inclined to take up the subject. I should have preferred to see the work done by one who had lived from his earliest years in Manchester, and whose romance of life was associated with the neighbourhood, as then the treatment might have suited more readers. My deepest local interests are still in Scotland, although most of my life has been spent here ; still I have of course no small pleasure in tracing the course of ideas in chemistry, and in vi Preface. looking at general progress amongst us and every- where. There are men now living who could tell much of the early members, and this volume may call them forth. I pretend only to give the origin of the Society and a sketch of its main work, and that to a large extent in the language of the writers, so that much of the book is made up of quotations from their sayings, to which I have at times amused myself by making replies as if taking part in a conversation. I have often looked to the red -book of the late Alderman Shuttleworth as a store of interesting matter. As a boy he paddled about Medlock Bridge, in Oxford Road, not knowing that it was a skew-bridge, a kind which was said to have been invented long afterwards ; and he climbed up trees in St. Ann Square for birds' nests, as I have heard him say. There are many persons in Man- chester well able to search and to obtain much infor- mation : I must be excused if I avoid almost all per- sonal history^ making a slight exception in honour of our founder, and in two or three cases where information did not cost research. The names of a few living men have been men- tioned, but no account has been given either of their lives or their labours, with an exception where the Preface. vii atomic theory was treated, since I hold that the work of Dr. Joule was a continuation of Dalton's ; and the works of Dal ton and Joule have given, and must continue to give, the main honour, and that is not a small one, due to the Society. Of Dr. Joule, whose chief discovery has here been spoken of, too slightly I believe, and who is the great successor of Dalton, and must stand as a prominent figure in any society of which he is a member, I would gladly have said more. Dr. Dalton filled up very fully a large portion of the first part of our history, and Dr. Joule has stood, and stands, the main figure in the second. We can claim only a part of the honour arising from Mr. Sturgeon's labours, since he came here after much of his work was done. I must especially thank Dr. James Bottomley for the trouble he has taken. A committee was ap- pointed to assist me, but a committee cannot write a book. I regret that I have been unable to devote more time and energy to the work ; it may appear ungra- cious not to have given it my whole heart. Had I the hope of a life as long as that of the Society, the result might have been more than these notes. There have been, mainly, two objects in the volume : first, to give a fair specimen of the spirit viii Preface. of the Society and its work ; and secondly, to show that it has done very valuable work for humanity. I should be glad if a third should be attained. The Society has made Manchester a scientific centre for a whole century, and has done much to dis- pose it to seek a University, and given it a right to demand one a right that has been conceded ; but at no time has it ever received the slightest assistance from without, and the world has allowed the scien- tific men within the circle to do their own work unaided. Of this no complaint has been made ; but now, from some change not to be discussed, it is con- sidered that investigators require external aid ; and I think it fair to say and I do so without consulting with the Society that the giving public would do well to consider the claims of this institution. The Society requires money for several purposes, and the account of its work is poor if I have not shown that from its beginning it has had among its leading men such as might be expected to be among the foremost to make good use of that kind of assistance. The chief demand at present comes to us from a want of room ; our books are increasing, and we can neither afford them sufficient shelter nor engage the services of one who can give enough of his time. Hitherto the work, and that not small, has been Preface. ix done entirely by honorary or voluntary labour, and Mr. Bailey and Mr. Windsor have done much, whilst we now claim very greedily a large share of Mr. Nicholson's time. There is another point of even greater import- ance. Our fees are two guineas per annum, besides an equal sum for entrance. This sum is sufficient to exclude many of the younger scientific men. It ought to be our aim rather to encourage such. Be- sides this, it would be much more honourable to be a member of a scientific society if no payment were requisite beyond scientific contributions, and I should be glad if we could rather show an example of elect- ing many ordinary members without waiting till they sought for admission, in addition to honorary members elected as at present, looking rather to the intellectual gain than the help to be derived from the revenue Of the younger men who are inclined to be original workers, we might wisely add a considerable number, and the community would receive more direct benefit from our work, and take more interest in it. I should be glad to see the Society able to aid those who show themselves able to originate ideas and ready to work them out. In any case it would be better if we could afford to lower the subscription. I have always had an x Preface. objection to the policy we have maintained, but the difficulty has been to inaugurate a more liberal one. R. ANGUS SMITH. MANCHESTER : May 9, 1882. NOTE. I have to thank my young assistant, Mr. Frank Scudder, for making a complete list of all the members and officers of the Society for the whole period of its existence, also an Index. The Society is not in the smallest degree re- sponsible for any opinion given in this volume. I am told of some grave errors (I believe about the Warrington and Manchester Academies) ; but as the same gentleman who complains refuses to point them out, I must leave them for others to correct, if they are worth correcting. CONTENTS, PAGE PREFACE v CHAPTER I. GENERAL ........... i II. ANCESTRY OF THE SOCIETY 6 III. DR. PERCIVAL 14 IV. THE BEGINNING OF THE SOCIETY, LAWS, AND FIRST MEMBERS 22 V. DR. PERCIVAL'S WRITINGS AND EARLY SANITARY WORK IN MANCHESTER 36 VI. MEMOIRS OF THE SOCIETY .74 First Meeting, 75 ; Dr. Bell on Animal Heat, 76 ; Address, by Mr. Thomas Henry, 78 ; Dr. Barnes on Affinity between the Arts, 85 ; Life in Northern Latitudes, by Dr. Aikin, 86 ; Taste and Morals, by Rev. Samuel Hall, 94 ; Bleaching, 98 ; Dr. Martin Wall, 99 ; Mr. Bew on Blindness, loo ; Longevity, 103 ; Economical Registers, by Mr. Wimpey, 105 j on Diver- sions, 1 06 ; Dr. Mainwaring, Dr. George Bell, 107. VII. THE THREE HENRYS DR. EASON THE MASSEYS . . . 108 Thomas Henry, 108 ; Keeping Water Pure, 109 ; Chemical Reasoning, on Dyeing, &c. ; Mortality in Manchester, by Thomas Henry, 115; Dr. William Henry, 123; Dr. William Charles Henry, 127 ; Dr. Eason, 127 ; James Massey, 130; Massey on Saltpetre, 131. VIII. ESSAYS AND LIVES IN VOLS. I.-IV 138 Sensation and Perception in Vegetables ; Dr. Percival, 138 and 141 ; the Physiology of Plants, by Dr. G. Bell, 139; Grada- tion in Man and Animals, by Mr. Charles White, 144 ; Mr. Charles White, 151; Subterraneous Cavern in Paris, by Mr. Thomas White, 154; Dr. Barnes; College of Art and Science, &c., 161 ; on Museums, 168 ; a Political Episode, 171 ; Dr. John Ferrier, 1 74 ; Electricity among the Ancients, by xii Contents. CHAPTER * PAGE Dr. Falconer, 180 ; Force of Steam,, by John Sharpe, 183 ; Vis Viva, by John Gough ; Rev. George Walker, 185 ; Fasting, 187 ; Perception of Colour among the Ancients, 188 ; Prehis- toric Cremation in Scotland, 191; Meteorological Tables, 192; A Universal Written Character and Visible Speech, 193 ; &c. IX. JOHN DALTON 198 Sketch of some Atomic Theories before Dalton, with notes, 207 ; Wenzel's Attempts to solve the Problem of Proportions in Chemical Compounds, 213; Bryan and William Higgins, 223 ; Richter, 224 ; Proust, 226 ; Dalton's System, 230. X. INTERMEDIATE EPOCH 233 James Watt and Smoke-burning, 236 ; Benjamin Franklin, Meteorological Conjectures, 237 ; John Kennedy, 240 ; Peter Ewart, 242 ; Sir William Fairbairn, 257 ; Eaton Hodgkinson, 258 XI. WILLIAM STURGEON AND OTHERS 266 J. F. Ekman, 287 ; Mr. John Moore, 288 ; The Potato Dis- ease, 291 ; Mr. J. C. Dyer, 298 ; Introduction of Steam Navigation, by J. C. Dyer, 299; Life, by his Son, 311; Richard Roberts, 325 ; John Blackwall, 329 ; J. A Ransome, 329 ; Thomas Tarrold, 330. XII. DR. JOULE 331 XIII. THE PRESENT TIME 349 Supplementary to Chapter XIII., 358. XIV. MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION OF THE SOCIETY . . . 367 Constitution, with Rules, &c., 373. XV. OFFICERS IN 1881 396 Officers and Members from 1781 ; Presidents, 397 ; Vice- Presidents, 400 ; Secretaries, 405 ; Treasurers, 408 ; Ordinary Members, 413 ; Honorary, 435 ; Corresponding, 442. APPENDIX A Marat and the Warrington Academy . , . 443 APPENDIX B Manchester Academy ....... 445 APPENDIX C E. W. Binney 447 APPENDIX D Dr. Lucas on Oxygen and Silver 465 INDEX 467 SCIENCE IN MANCHESTER, FOR THE FIRST CENTENARY OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. APRIL 1881. CHAPTER I. GENERAL. WE have lived as a society for a hundred years, and seen the early years of Steam, Electricity, and Chemistry ; we have heard our own words repeated by metals that had learnt our language, and the sound of our own voices carried forward by a beam of light as if we were at last having some promise of communicating with beings of other worlds and of other ages long gone by. It is natural at such a stage that we should look round and consider what we have done to assist the world in this great advance, and to seek to know if we have deserved to live in such an age. We are quite aware that we have been in a county which has shown us little sympathy by any of its acts, and that we are looked on as some old deserted church in a great city, or as a community united by an interest in a region of fancy or of thought, but not of action, and 2 Literary and Philosophical Society. scarcely conversant with the world around them. But it will not be difficult to show that these opinions are far from being correct, that thoughts have gone out from this society piercing far into the future, and that some have been sent here by nature from distant space ; and that instead of neglecting the world around them our members have been keen in detecting its requirements, and some of them far-sighted beyond the rest of men in seeing improve- ments. We have paid of late little attention to the his- toric past ; our past has been chiefly in geological eras. We must not be considered arrogant if we claim for our members to have finished two great stages of a course of thought with which the world long toiled, begun east of Greece and keenly contested and grown old, although unsettled in the times when the Greek intellect was most powerful ; and more than that, to have carried it beyond the farthest point which by them was seen or hoped for. We allude to questions regarding the constitution of matter, which is now generally considered proved to consist of definite particles forming at least one stage of existence, although it may be that these particles themselves are differently formed, leading us to the still unsettled portion of the atomic theory, a division unknown to the ancients. We have finished one part, we have cleared the ground for discussing the other. One of our members may be said to have established the great science of chemistry on this basis of the atom. He carried our thoughts beyond the stage of definite volume and went to the immediate consequences of its existence, namely constancy and exactness of composition in chemical substances, and we may say in all matter. Another of our members has led the world from atomic equivalents in chemical combinations to the equivalents of General View of the Society. 3 heat and other forces of the universe. Do not wonder then if we consider such men portions of that great race of thinkers which includes many of the finest names from Leucippus and Epicurus to Lucretius, and onwards to Newton and modern science ; we certainly may claim for them to be more than a link in the chain of thought, although we may be obliged to leave unlifted the very weight and precious burden itself which the chain was intended to bring up from the deep well of truth. It is well for us to see the relation in which we have stood to the progress of mankind ; but whilst we speak as if the town in which we live had little conscious sympathy with us, we must not suppose ourselves independent of it, or forget the strange rules of social progress, or the effects which great communities have upon individual efforts, unconsciously exercised by the majority and producing results the origin of which is quite unknown either to them or to the minority. This great subject we may leave for a time to the readers .of Lewes and of Herbert Spencer, ourselves however being convinced that the modes of communication are more observable in society than in the individual man, whose life comes out of an infinite darkness. Whilst few of the great community around this Society gave us any of its thoughts and none gave us any of its wealth, it is certain that without its activity the society would not have lived ; but as a living being sends out its energies to form a finger, a foot, or a brain, each of which may exist without either of the others, so in some more c?r less clear way the community of South Lancashire urged the thoughts which led to the establishment of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. The formal origin however is, well known, and has no more of the B2 4 Literary and Philosophical Society. mysterious than all nature shows ; it is explained in the first volume of the Society's Memoirs, and will be repeated here in due time. Notwithstanding this, the growth of such an institution, standing out by itself in provincial England, is a phenome- non which requires attention, because the city contained only 27,246 l inhabitants in 1773, when the Society was collecting its strength but had not yet assumed a name. We have many cities as large in our times, but we have few with the vigour of early Manchester, and that apparent prevision and real confidence in the future which men feel to be equal to a powerful argument and one that wins when reason fails. We remember being told of certain difficulties in managing the workers of a mill at Oldham, and it was asked why not have bought or built a mill at some other place, since you knew how difficult it was to begin at that town ? The reply was a typical one, ' The peculiar thread spun at Oldham can be spun nowhere else at present, because generations have grown into the habit.' And so the life of a place becomes characteristic because the early inhabitants had their peculiarities ; in the same way, when a little village of last century with an unusual sound of a letter or a word becomes in the course of less than a century a large city, it is observed that every one is subdued by the peculiarity of the early typical individuals, and follows the same occupation with the same speech and manners, and notably the same pronunciation of one specially marked letter. It matters not if people come from a different country, their children become initiated into the peculiarities of this 1 Percival's Works, vol. iv. General View of the Society. 5 spot, taught by the children of the place, which children are more powerful teachers than the wisest men or tenderest mothers, and so we have a burr in one place and aspirated vowels in another. Thus too, Manchester has in its modes of thinking grown by concretions so constant and regular that it resembles more the great crystal produced in a mass of incongruous matter ; simply because there was in solution sufficient of its own kind to prefer the original shape of the small accidental parent crystal, and to leave all the incon- gruity behind it whilst it grew in size and in precision of character more fully than the germ crystal itself, which however still kept leading the type. In following out the comparison we may wonder, exactly as young and even old chemists do, how much of the incongruous matter there really was to the small amount crystallised, so we must wonder how few in a great city cared for the Society, how many were suited for the peculiar trade and commerce of the place, how many business men were to be found in it, whilst few of them in a- whole century have cared for science by itself. No society has been more entirely dependent on the men who at the time formed its attending members. Whilst out of a great community these members must be considered few, of these few those who have attended have been, as is always the case, fewer ; and of these again the active have been only a small part ; but not the less there has been a law in the recesses of humanity which has caused the influence of the community to concentrate itself, first into the Society, and then through particular members, into the theory of chemistry, equivalents of atoms and their connection with mechanical force, the knowledge of which must influence mankind for ever. Literary and Philosophical Society. CHAPTER II. ANCESTRY OF THE SOCIETY. Warrington Academy. THE remote ancestry of the Literary and Philosophical Society itself passed through Warrington, and it may be unnecessary to trace farther back the lines of its descent. An academy for a small body of religionists was founded in that town in the year 1757, and several men of eminence took part in its classes. Friends of the scheme were present from Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Gatacre, Chow- bent, and Bolton. An interesting account of the academy of Warrington and its pupils as well as teachers by the Rev. William Turner was published in 1814, and republished in the ' Warrington Guardian ' by William Beamont, Esq., of Orford Hall. We are there informed of all the teaching staff, and of the influence which each exercised in the small community. The academy was projected by the Rev. John Seddon, 1 son of Mr. Seddon of Hereford, and was established for ' Protestant dissenters.' It does not seem to have been intended for Unitarians specially, and the writer is informed that if it became connected with the latter it was an accidental development. In that account we are told of Dr. John Aikin the younger, who has long been known to boys as having, along with his sister Mrs. 1 Mr. Seddon was educated at Kendal and Glasgow. Warrington Academy. 7 Barbauld, written the work called < Evenings at Home ; ' but in his many literary works he also taught men, and Mrs. Barbauld, with her feeling poems, almost upsets the Oldham theory. Dr. Enfield's life belongs also to the nation ; we must not forget him as one of those who taught at Warrington, although he came from Sudbury in Suffolk. Dr. Reinhold Forster and the Rev. Gilbert Wakefield need only be men- tioned as showing the rank of men who were teaching in this small academy at Warrington, even although the Rev. Dr. Enfield taught theology to one pupil. Roscoe, of Italian fame, as a young man visited the place, and was on friendly terms with the teachers ; and another friend and visitor was the benevolent Howard. The president of this academy, which might if it had persevered have risen to fame, was the Honourable Hugh Lord Willoughby of Parham, a zealous dissenter ; and the first tutor in Divinity was the Rev. John Taylor, D.D. When the academy opened on October 20, 1757, the name of Thomas Percival stood first on the list of students. Amongst the teachers who conducted the academy we find one who has often been taken for Jean Paul Marat, the victim of Charlotte Corday. The following note by Mr. Turner has given rise to inquiries, which seem to render the criminal portion impossible. 1 * It is known that he (Marat) was in England about this time, and published in London a philosophical essay on the connection between the body and the soul of man. He is said to have written a book on man and the mutual influence of soul and body, and to have had it published in Amsterdam in 1775. Mara, as his name is spelt in the minutes of the academy, very soon left Warrington, whence 1 w Appendix &. 8 Literary and Philosophical Society. he went to Oxford, robbed the Ashmolean Museum, escaped to Ireland, was apprehended in Dublin, tried and convicted in Oxford under the name of Le Maitre, and sentenced to the hulks at Woolwich. There one of his old pupils at Warrington, a native of Bristol, saw him. He was after- wards a bookseller in Bristol, and failed, was confined in the gaol of that city, but released by the society there for the relief of prisoners confined for small sums. One of that society who had personally relieved him in Bristol gaol afterwards saw him in the National Assembly in 1792.' From the account given of the social life at Warrington it must have been a very pleasing one for a time ; the usual envy and jealousy seem not to have troubled the nerves of the teachers, and malice seems not to have guided their tongues. How painfully these vices infect the teachers in colleges or universities we have seen or heard of in this country and on the Continent. But literature is exciting, and the love of fame produces sometimes sad results, as our magazines tell us with their strange discussions. We never heard of Shakespeare speaking evil of an actor, although some played much better than he did according to opinions, and might in a narrow mind have caused envy and malice. After all, the remark is too common, and com- plaints of the irascibility of poets and actors, or any other authors, scientific not excluded, are endless. But we must keep to Warrington. Dr. John Aikin the elder was one of these teachers, a name honoured everywhere in England, and he and his daughter, Mrs. Barbauld, have the affectionate regard of most educated Englishmen, whilst we cannot but wonder, when looking at the list of his works, at the great width of thought and of purpose which characterised his extensive ive o in- Dr. Priestley. 9 labours. His work is now old, but he raised up many on his shoulders. A greater and truly grand man, Joseph 7 Priestley, came also there a few years later, viz. in 1761, as r teacher of languages and belles lettres. There he obtained a taste for science, and projected and began his scientific work with a history of Electricity. Priestley's life is too valuable for us to allow any of it to be neglected, and a short notice would be scarcely respectful ; it is not need- ful here to do more than to show its connection with the early struggles of this institution. He seems to have stimulated Dr. Percival to the study of chemistry, and in duced him to encourage that interest in the science which he found beginning in Manchester, although we cannot suppose that Dr. Aikin was without a share in causing the stimulus, both with his example at Warrington and his influence carried on to the rest of Lancashire. We feel much pleasure in connecting ourselves with Priestley as an ancestor, and we certainly can do so to some extent, the Society having always felt his influence, both because of the exertions of his pupil and friend Dr. Percival, and its own attempt, however feeble, to assist him. 1 We might go farther, as he was an honorary member. Still, evil-speaking came at last, not with prosperity, but, as often happens, with losses. We learn from Mr. Turner : ' The society at Warrington was at this period singularly agreeable. The tutors lived in perfect harmony with each other, and with Mr. Seddon, the minister of the place and the original projector of the academy; who, therefore, considered the institution as his child, and, as 1 In Priestley's difficulties the Society sent him fifty pounds. There was an ordinary member in Manchester of the name also of Joseph Priestley. A t least we suppose that two individuals are indicated. io 'Literary and Philosophical Society. Rector Academiae, kept up a constant intercourse with both the tutors and the students, with the elder of whom he was very familiar, and was greatly beloved by them. The trustees also were perfectly satisfied with the general con- duct of the institution, and, in the year 1762, were encou- raged to build in a more eligible situation a common hall and library, on a very handsome scale, together with two good houses for Dr. Priestley and Mr. Holt, Dr. Aikin being accommodated with a third house in the neighbourhood.' Alluding to Priestley it is said : ' But notwithstanding these promising appearances, the prospects of the tutors were in several respects by no means promising. The subscriptions of distant contributors gradually fell ofT, and threatened a defalcation of the annual salaries ; and, the terms which had been fixed for the board of students being unreason- ably low (fifteen pounds a year), there was little room for a young tutor, with a lately married delicate wife and grow- ing family, to flatter himself that he should be able to make provision for them. Perhaps his apprehensions of a failure of the academy were more readily indulged than they otherwise would have been, on account of Mrs. Priestley's ill health, and the wish to make trial of a change of air ; but it is certain that it was, in other respects, with great regret that he determined to separate from colleagues with whom he had lived so cordially and to quit a situation which was in every respect agreeable to him, and which had now in a manner ceased to be laborious. To the great disappoint- ment, however, and mortification of the trustees, he accepted an invitation to become the minister of the congregation at Mill-Hill Chapel, in Leeds, whither he removed in 1767.' The rest of his active and eventful life forms no part of the history of our society or ancestry. Warrington Academy. 1 1 ' During the interval between 1761 and 1767, the subscriptions originally promised being found to drop oft gradually, partly, as Dr. Priestley states, 1 in consequence of the unhappy differences between Dr. Taylor and the trustees, partly through the natural apathy of a great majority of the subscribers, who, having never had a regular account-current of the annual expenditure presented to them (such as is every year furnished to each subscriber by the accurate and indefatigable treasurer for the York Institution), had no distinct idea of the object for which they were subscribing, and therefore, becoming weary of their subscription, were willing to lay hold of any pretence for dropping it. Various expedients were resorted to by the trustees. In 1762 Mr. Seddon was commissioned to visit London, Bristol, Birmingham, and other" places, in order to ascertain by a personal application how far the annual subscriptions were to be depended upon, and to endeavour to obtain new ones. This produced a temporary revival ; but the regular annual mode of distinct information of particulars continuing to be still neglected, the revival was only temporary. Another expedient was, to devise a means of increasing the number of students, particularly of lay-students, by accommodating those parents who injudi- ciously wished their children to resort to a place of educa- tion extremely unfit for them at so very early an age. For this purpose, they tried the experiment for a few years of taking boys under the age of fourteen, to be placed under the care of Mr. Benjamin Stapp, a divinity student of extraordinary promise, who, under the title of sub-tutor, was to train them in the Latin and Greek languages, and prepare them for the higher classes.' 1 Life, p. 50. i 2 Literary and Philosophical Society. After all they found at last something to quarrel about ; but it appears that one great reason was their miserable pay : they might have been expected to be attached to each other as men are when all are sinking in the same boat. It does, however, appear that want of attention to the formal and, as we may say, external business of the establishment was one main reason of the decay of the school, although the want of success which followed its successors in York and Manchester must prevent us from looking too much to unbusiness-like habits for an explana- tion of that occurrence. In after times Dr. Priestley remembered the happy days at Warrington, and wrote, ' In the whole time of my being at Warrington I was singularly happy in the society of my fellow tutors and of Mr. Seddon and the minister of the place. We drank tea together every Saturday, and our conversation was equally instructive and pleasing. I often thought it not a little extra- ordinary that four persons, that had no previous know- ledge of each other, should have been brought to unite in conducting such a scheme as this, and be all zealous necessarians, as we were. We were likewise all Arians, and the only subject of much consequence on which we differed was respecting the doctrine of the Atonement, concerning which Dr. Aikin held some obscure notions/ * Still the result was that in 1783 the academy was dis- solved. It is often said that it went to Manchester; and this is not far wrong, as a certain remnant of its organisation still exists there. Much of its spirit went decidedly, and some 1 From a paper by Mr. H. A. Bright of Liverpool, on the Life and Letters of the Rev. John Seddon, minister and tutor at Warrington. Christian Re- former, 1854, p. 224. War ring ton Academ persons connected with its first location ; and by degrees a new academy arose, not in its external matters much more prosperous than the first, although always having connected with it men of the highest intellectual rank : the Rev. John Kenrick and the Rev. James Martineau being enough to give it fame, and the Rev. J. J. Tayler to give it a place in the hearts of those who knew him ; these men being too great and good not to be admired even by those who have no sympathy with the same religious community. When people laugh at Chowbent as a rough place, it is not unpleasant to note that one of the earliest promoters of the Warrington Academy was from that town, as seen by a letter from Mr. John Mort, minister there, a friend of Priestley's, a man to whom Mrs. Barbauld addressed the following lines : Happy old man ! who, stretched beneath the shade Of large-grown trees, or in the rustic porch With woodbine canopied, where linger yet The hospitable virtues, calm enjoy'st Nature's best blessings all : a healthy age Ruddy and vigorous, native cheerfulness, Plain-hearted friendship, simple piety, The rural manners, and the rural joys Friendly to life. Oh, rude of speech, yet rich In genuine worth, not unobserved shall pass Thy bashful virtues ! for the muse shall mark, Detect thy charities, and call to light^ Thy secret deeds of Mercy ; The 'rude speech' may be considered as more per- manent than the ' large-grown ' trees. 1 4 Literary and Philosophical Society. CHAPTER III. DR. PERCIVAL. WHEN Warrington was making this bold attempt to rise, Manchester was really beginning to be important. Active minds grew in it, and far-sighted men flocked there, attracted by its decided advance just before the seventh decade of last century. Lookers on previously did not see which Lancashire city was destined to the most rapid increase ; some had believed the most promising to be Liverpool, others Ormskirk, but an influential class evi- dently supposed it to be Warrington ; and there the notable but short-lived academy was established. The men who taught and those who learned were scattered, but not before some of the spirit had passed on to Man- chester, and especially in the person of Dr. Percival, who had decided, after a very full medical education in Edinburgh, London, Leyden, and Paris, to begin practice in this town. He seems to have been a singularly pleasant man, and one wonders what sort of people his ancestors were at Thelwall near Warrington, when his grandfather left the old family house and chose no longer to help the inmates to farm their own ground. We have few dates, but this must have been about 1670 or sooner. He (the grandfather) studied medicine, and returned to practise at Warrington ; his name was Peter Percival, and he died in 1701. Martha Dr. Percival. 15 Worsley, his wife, was said to have been a woman of great talent ; her sister, Mrs. Mather, is better known on account of her theological correspondence with Bishop Burnet. There was talent therefore on both sides. The eldest of four sons became also a physician, and studied in Leyden, and we feel interested in thinking of him studying under Boerhaave, and learning from the lectures that animal heat was produced by the friction of the blood moving in the veins. This is a link of our society with an age which to chemists is as the history of Romulus to historians. Peter had a thirst for wide knowledge, and read much rather than worked at his practice, so that he was not so much known out of Warrington as it is said he ought to have been. The third son, Joseph, became a merchant in the same town, and had leisure enough, as it appears, to give himself only occasionally to commerce : a hard thing this management by fits and starts in these present days when it is a struggle difficult to begin and often as much so to end. However; he lived quietly in Warrington, where his son Thomas Percival of our society was born Septem- ber 29, 1740. Margaret Orred, the maiden name of the boy's mother, died early, and Joseph's elder sister. Elizabeth Percival, devoted herself to his training. To her he is said to have owed much. She was one of those women who cannot be too much admired, entirely unselfish, rejoicing in the happiness and fame of her brother. She lived till within a short time of his death, as full of goodness, intelligence, and truth as she ever was when she taught him his prayers and formed his gentle manners. When Warrington schools and home teaching had prepared Thomas Percival, he went to Edinburgh to study medicine, and there obtained the acquaintance and friend- 1 6 Literary and Philosophical Society. ship of Hume and of Robertson. This seems to have originated in a very simple way ; he was boarded in the family of Mrs. Symes, the sister of Dr. Robertson the historian ; much of his future success was probably owing to this accident. His manners and habits gave him a facility of taking advantage of the opportunity thus offered, and he was frequently a guest in Dr. Robertson's n house. When subsequently he went to Paris he did not forget to call on Hume, who was then secretary to the English Embassy, and by this means he saw a good deal of French society. Not much of his French correspon- dence is preserved, but there are a few admiring letters from Madame Neckar. There also it may be supposed, as it is not stated, that he met with Benjamin Franklin, with whom he afterwards corresponded. Lord Willoughby de Parham lived near Warrington, and thus Percival had an opportunity of cultivating an acquaintance, begun in London, and continued both there and in the country, when he became a decided favourite. It was by this influence that at the age of twenty-five he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society, Lord Willoughby being a vice-president. This was owing of course to the personality of the young man, not to his scientific labours. It would not be considered fair in these days ; still person- ality has too much influence even now where that society has an imperfect mode of election, difficult however to change ; it gives a conge cFtlire for certain persons, whilst money for investigation is given where we might fancy zeal would find enough ; but who can judge ? No one is elected a Fellow who cannot pay. Science is not enough even there where it is supposed to rule. If this latter be the fault of the constitution, it is a fault that could be altered. In Dr. Percival. 17 the same year, 1765, Mr. Percival went to Leyden to take his degree. It was the habit of Scotland to connect itself with Leyden, and especially at that time when some dispute had occurred in Edinburgh with the professors. Percival does not seem to have attended a course of lec- tures in Holland, because he received his diploma of M.D. on July 6, 1765, the year of entering Leyden. This was not got, however, without a fair struggle, as he defended his dissertation ' On Cold ' in the public manner usual in that and other continental universities. At these dis- cussions Latin only was spoken (we believe it is still so in Leyden) : this shows that at Edinburgh or at Warrington young Percival had been well grounded. His thesis ' De frigore ' is pointed to prove that cold has not a special existence, but is simply the absence of heat. If it does not show genius it displays at least the wholesome condition of mind of a well taught gentleman. When he returned home he married, and after staying two years in Warring- ton decided to live in Manchester rather than in London, as he at first intended. He seems to have come with a fame already made, a young man actually Fellow of such, a society as the Royal was ever anyone so young known to be elected ! One also who had written essays, medical and experimental, published during this year ! He came into a fine practice rapidly in Manchester, and began at once an active and successful public life. For a long time he had a summer house at Harthill on the old Eccles Road, three miles from the town, where he had a house in King Street. He moved about all day in his carriage, one of the only three in the town, and read until he injured his eyes too early in life. Perhaps the motion of the carriage was great and irregular on account c 1 8 Literary and Philosophical Society. of the roads being far from excellent in those days, as well as on account of the mode of swinging the vehicles. He soon began to think in a manner different from his fellows, and to attempt to clear up to his own mind the duties of all members of Society, towards themselves and especially the poor. His experimental essays on scientific subjects cannot be considered important. Most of them were useful only as being suggestive for the time, and the results have much of that indefiniteness that is found in the transition age of chemistry and medicine, with both of which studies he was industriously engaged. This indefiniteness is more provoking than even alchemy itself, in which one is scarcely disappointed when the process spoken of is beyond com- prehension. It arises from imperfect experiments the key to explanation had not come. But Priestley was working at the same time and in a very different way, showing that the mastery was not gained by opportunity in which Percival had the advantage. The earlier essays were published by different societies and in various ways, although afterwards collected. A second series of, essays was published in 1773, entitled ' Essays Medical, Philosophical, and Experimental/ which made his reputation wide. It is not intended to claim for him that all the ideas found in these essays were new, and it may be that none of them had the highest order of originality ; but it is clear that he came to Manchester with remarkably wide thoughts on medicine and on science generally, and on the state of the country and of humanity. It is true that Dr. White was earlier in Manchester than Dr. Percival, and his son, Mr. Charles White, the surgeon, a contemporary ; but Mr. White's mind was original in a different direction, and Per rival's Essays. 19 Dr. Percival had a wider sympathy and a greater command of the field of action. In the essay on ' The State of the Population in Man- chester and other Adjacent Places/ * we see our supposed modern sanitary laws announced clearly to the people of Manchester by Dr. Percival. Let us look at some points. He tells of the rapid increase of Manchester since 1765, that the births were more numerous than deaths, the first being as I to 25, the second as I to 28*4, and Liverpool increasing more rapidly, being multiplied by six since the beginning of the eighteenth century. He is astonished at ' the progress of trade and opulence/ and the expression ' so populous are the environs ' sounds strange now. Let us show some important conclusions. Half the children born in Manchester die under five years of age. Diseases are most frequent in January, February, and March. The difference between a small town, Bolton, and a county manor contiguous to it is held worthy of obser- vation. The quantity of rain at Manchester at some distance from the mountains is stated at thirty-three inches per annum (we make it a little more now). It has been observed (in Rutley's ' Chronological History of Weather') that moist seasons in Great Britain and Ireland are more remarkably free from epidemic diseases than the dry ones ; and that storms are attended with more health than calm weather. Elsewhere he mentions exceptions, when wet and heat come together ; advises an enumeration of the people in England similar to that lately undertaken in Manchester. 1 Vol. iv. of Dr. Percival's Works. C 2 2O Literary and Philosophical Society. Males die earlier than females. Great towns are in a peculiar degree fatal to children. The confinement of children in impure air, ' debarred from the free use of their limbs, cuts them off early in life.' The love of money stifles the feelings. On education, he says, ' Almost as soon as a boy has acquired the powers of speech, he is shut up many hours a day in a noisome school, secluded from the benefits of ex- ercise and the refreshment of the open air, and tied down to the severe drudgery of learning, what serves only, at such a period of life, to overcharge his memory, and to. destroy his native cheerfulness of disposition.' This will please Mr. Edwin Chadwick, whose labours in favour of the half- time system have been so long and valuable a small portion only, however, of the sanitary work of which he is the great hero. Dr. Percival speaks of the havoc produced in every large town by luxury, irregularity, and intemperance, and the pernicious influence of confinement, uncleanliness, and foul air. A note in the collected works adds, whether alluding to the time of republication or not, does not appear ; but probably it is so, namely 1807 : ' There are at this time in Manchester no less than 193 houses for retailing spirituous and other liquors- ; and sixty-four in the other townships of the parish. At Birmingham the number of public- houses is still greater than at Manchester.' ' A very ingenious friend of mine (probably Dr. Percival's son is speaking) in that place has computed, that the quantity of malt consumed there in the public-houses requires for its growth a compass of land which would be sufficient for the support of 20,000 men/ Dr. PercivaL 21 So many of the evils that every newspaper almost daily speaks of are thus shown to be old diseases of poor mankind. To call attention to such conditions was fine work for a young man to do. The immediate effects we cannot fully enter on, or rather we must pass over them, and we must neglect to allude to numerous influential essays which he wrote on various subjects, making only occasional allusions to some as occasion may serve. 2 2 Literary and Philosophical Society. CHAPTER IV. THE BEGINNING OF THE SOCIETY. THE step of importance which interests us now more directly is the formation of this Society. It clearly arose from the high social position which Dr. Percival took. As he attracted to himself all the talent of the town, and was sufficiently easy in circumstances to entertain its representatives at his house, these meetings became so pleasant, and the conversations so important, that many persons sought to attend, so that the resources of a private house were strained. Then the proposal was to unite in a formal manner so as to advance the ends which all had in view, the promotion of Literature and Science. Dr. Percival being thus able to collect around him men of influence, there came not merely such as were near him, and to whom his house became an intellectual camp, but men also from distant places, whilst others sent their opinions as to one who knew how to use them. A lady now living remembers Dr. Percival, and having seen the portrait of him when young lately presented to the Society by Mr. F. Nicholson, our Honorary Librarian and one of his relatives, considers that much as he had changed when she saw him, there was still on the canvas a trace of his appearance. We can imagine him still young, charming all these men, many of them older, by Commencement of the Society. 23 his conversation, and the mysterious power in one who had studied in so many universities, and corresponded with politicians in both worlds ; we must not forget too that other mysterious power which is supposed to exist in those who are in intimate connection with men of adminis- trative influence of the time. Of all these external influ- ences, unquestionably the greatest was his acquaintance with both men and women of literary and scientific fame, combined with his own charms of conversation, in which there must have been a confidence of force, and a feeling of superiority, not necessarily connected with actual mental superiority, but capable of putting into the hands of men of little more than average talent a power that quells for a time genius itself. Although Dr. Percival had shown more than ordinary talent, he could scarcely be said to rise to the heights of genius, unless it be in this very direction of knowing how to command the position or to attract to such an extent that men willingly left him to rule in his sphere. The formation of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester was an act of slow evolution. We may attempt now to bring it before our eyes more clearly, not merely as a meeting now and for a long time in George Street, but as a power active and beneficent, led for the most part by men who seldom interfered actively in public matters, but nevertheless guided when they were supposed to be idle, and who taught when they were supposed to be ignorant. It is certainly marvellous how much the usual authorities of the city have been influenced in early times by the Society ; we cannot say the same now ; if it be so it is certainly very indirectly, whilst many persons look on the members as a number of people amusing themselves 24 Literary and Philosophical Society. with harmless speculations. One account of them is curious enough ; it is thus : * We went into the Society and saw a number of old men sitting about a table talking about the moon.' We suppose they were looked upon by the very superior mind which gave expression to that sentence as a set of harmless lunatics. The weather (and with it in part the sun and moon) has received so much attention from Manchester, that it seldom failed even in late years to be the first object of conversation in every meeting, and there was at least room for a joke. But this city can bear such a joke when it remembers Dalton's meteorology. Dalton, no doubt, began the habit of talking about the weather. It was then in this house of Dr. Percival's that our Society virtually began, although it was not there formally constituted ; we shall give a copy of the * laws and regula- tions/ with a list of the first members. But before doing this it is well to give the preface to the first volume, as it tells more distinctly the views of the founders, although written some time after the volume itself. PREFACE TO VOL. I. ' The numerous Societies for the promotion of Litera- ture and Philosophy which have been formed in different parts of Europe, in the course of the last and present centuries, have been not only the means of diffusing knowledge more extensively, but have contributed to produce a greater number of important discoveries than have been effected in any other equal space of time. ' The progress that has been made in Physics and the Belles Lettres owes its rapidity, if not its origin, to the ^encouragement which these Societies have given to such The Society's Purpose. 25 pursuits, and to the emulation which has been excited between different academical bodies, as well as among the individual members of each institution. The collecting and publishing the more important communications which have been delivered to them, have saved from oblivion many very valuable discoveries, or improvements in arts, and much useful information in the various branches of science. These their modest authors might have been tempted to suppress, but for the respectable sanction of societies of men of the first eminence and learning in their respective countries, and the easy mode of publishing which their volumes of Transactions afford. ' Though, in France, societies for these purposes have been instituted in several of the provinces, in England they have almost been confined to the Capital ; and however great have been the advantages resulting from the re- searches of the learned bodies who are incorporated in London, it seems probable that the great end of their institutions, the promotion of arts and sciences, may be more widely extended by the forming of societies, with similar views, in the principal towns in this kingdom. ' Men, however great their learning, often become indolent, and unambitious to improve in knowledge, for want of associating with others of similar talents and acquirements. Having few opportunities of communicating their ideas, they are not very solicitous to collect or arrange those they have acquired, and are still less anxious about the further cultivation of their minds. But science, like fire, is put in motion by collision. Where a number of such men have frequent opportunities of meeting and con- versing together, thought begets thought, and every hint is turned to advantage. A spirit of inquiry glows in every 26 Literary and Philosophical Society. breast. Every new discovery relative to the natural, intellectual, or moral world, leads to a farther investigation ; and each man is zealous to distinguish himself in the interesting pursuit. ' Such have been the considerations that have led to the institution of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. Many years since, a few gentlemen, inhabi- tants of the town, who were inspired with a taste for literature and philosophy, formed themselves into a kind of weekly club, for the purpose of conversing on subjects of that nature. These meetings were continued, with some interruption, lor several years ; and many respectable persons being desirous of becoming members, the numbers were increased so far as to induce the founders of the Society to think of extending their original design. Presi- dents, and other officers were elected, a code of laws formed, and a regular Society constituted, and denominated the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. ' This Society now presents the first fruits of its institu- tion to the public ; and from the assiduity of the members, and the correspondence of others, there is reason to presume that a volume may be regularly sent to the press every second or third year. The selection of the papers has been made with as much impartiality, and as strict attention to their comparative merits, as could be expected in decisions of so delicate a nature. Yet the committee are sensible that a majority of votes, delivered by ballot, is not an infalli- ble test of excellence in literary or philosophical productions. This consideration, they trust, will give them a reasonable claim to the candour of the reader, if there should be found occasion for its exercise. And they hope that gentlemen who have favoured the Society with valuable communica- 7- r ^7 O ; Laws of the Society. tions, will deem it no injustice or disparagement that their essays have not been inserted, through the imperfection of necessary forms and regulations. They are preserved in the archives of the Society, and may again come under review, when subjects of a similar nature to those on which they treat are offered for discussion. 1 ' No systematic order has been observed in the disposi- tion of the miscellaneous materials which compose these volumes ; because such an arrangement would have required the completion of the work, before any part of it could have been committed to the press. ' The sanction which the Society gives to the work now published under its auspices extends only to the novelty, ingenuity, or importance of the several memoirs which it contains. Responsibility concerning the truth of facts, the soundness of reasoning, or the accuracy of calculation, is wholly disclaimed ; and must rest alone on the knowledge, judgment, or ability of the authors who have respectively furnished such communications.' Laws and Regulations for the Government of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, together with a list of the Members. LAWS. I. That the number of the members of this Society, in- vested with the privilege of voting, electing members, &c., be limited to fifty. II. That Honorary members, residing at a distance from Manchester, be eligible into this Society, provided no 1 * Several dissertations, by Dr. Percival, Mr. Henry, and others, enu- merated in the printed report of the Society, were published by their respec- tive authors, long before these Memoirs were committed to the press.' 28 L iterary and Philosophic a I Society. gentleman be recommended who has not distinguished himself by his literary or philosophical publications, or favoured the Society with some paper, which shall have received the approbation of the Committee of papers. III. That every candidate for admission into the Society, whether as an Ordinary or Honorary member, shall be proposed by at least three Ordinary members, who shall sign a Certificate of his being, from their knowledge of him, or of his writings, a fit person to be admitted into it ; which certificate shall be read at four successive meetings of the Society, previously to the election. Such election, with respect to an Ordinary member, to be void, if he do not attend within four meetings afterwards, unless he can plead some reasonable apology. IV. That every election shall be conducted by ballot ; that the majority of votes shall decide ; thirteen members at least being present ; and that the president shall have a casting voice, if the number of votes be equal. V. That two presidents, four vice-presidents, two secretaries, a treasurer, and a librarian, be elected annually, by the majority of members present, on the last Wednesday in the month of April : the election to be determined by ballot. VI. That a Committee of papers shall be appointed, by ballot, at the same time, which shall consist of the presidents, vice-presidents, secretaries, treasurer and librarian, together with six other members of the Society : and that this Com- mittee shall decide, by ballot, concerning the insertion in the register, or the publication, of any paper which shall have been read before the Society : and shall be authorised to select, with the consent of the author, detached parts of any paper, the whole of which may not be deemed proper Laws of the Society. 29 either for insertion or publication : but that the presence of seven members of the Committee shall be necessary for such discussion, or decision. VII. That visitors may be introduced by any member to the meetings of the Society, with the permission of the chairman. VIII. That the subjects of conversation comprehend natural philosophy, theoretical and experimental chemistry, polite literature, civil law, general politics, commerce and the arts. But that religion, the practical branches of physic, and British politics, be deemed prohibited ; and that the chairman shall deliver his veto whenever they are introduced. IX. That each member, who shall favour the Society with any interesting facts and observations, respecting philosophy, polite literature, &c., which may occur to him either from reflection, experiment, reading, or correspon- dence shall send his paper to one of the secretaries, the Monday before the meeting of the Society. X. That the secretary, to whom the paper shall be delivered, shall, with the approbation of one president or two vice-presidents, have the power of suspending the recital of it, if deemed improper to be read, until the pleasure of the Committee of papers be known, a meeting of which shall be called by the secretary to inspect it : and if the Committee disapprove of its being introduced to the Society, they shall be empowered to reject it. XL That all papers which shall be delivered to the secretary, and not prohibited as above, shall be read by him, or the author, according to the order of succession in which they were presented. XII. That each paper shall be read to the Society 30 Literary and Philosophical Society. without interruption ; and that more than thirty minutes shall not be allowed to the reading of any single paper : if more time be required in the delivery of it, the remainder shall, except the Society determine otherwise, be deferred to the succeeding evening. No paper, however, shall engage more than two evenings, without the consent of the Society expressed by a ballot. XIII. That a second paper shall not be read before the subject of the former one has been discussed. XIV. That the Society shall meet every Wednesday evening, except during the months of June, July, August, and September : and that each meeting shall commence at half-past six, and be concluded at half-past eight o'clock. XV. That each member shall pay one guinea annually, at half-yearly payments, into the hands of the treasurer, to defray the rent of the room, and other incidental expenses ; and also to establish a fund for the benefit of the Society. And if any member shall refuse or neglect to pay his sub- scription, he shall be excluded the Society. Each member on his election to pay his subscription for the current half- year, together with one guinea admission fee. XVI. That it be recommended to each member to enter the Society's room with silence, and without cere- mony. XVII. That no laws shall be enacted, rescinded, or altered, but at the quarterly meetings, on the last Wednes- days in the months of January, April, and October : and that notice shall be given, at least fourteen days, previous to those meetings. Laws of the Society. 3 1 REGULATIONS. I. That the Society shall publish a volume of miscel- laneous papers every two years : and that, at stated times, the Committee shall select from the papers, which shall have been read to the Society, such as shall appear to be most worthy of publication : but that no papers shall be published against the consent of the authors. II. That a library be formed for the use of the members of this Society ; and that the librarian be authorised to purchase such books as shall be ordered at the quarterly meetings of the Society : but that no books shall be taken out of the library, without a written order from one of the secretaries, limiting the time of keeping it to seven days. III. That the resolution to establish a library be announced to the Honorary members of the Society ; and that it be intimated to them by the secretaries that dona- tions of their past and future publications will be highly acceptable. IV. That a gold medal, of the value of seven guineas, be given to the author of the best experimental paper on any subject relative to arts and manufactures, which shall have been delivered to the secretaries, and read at the ordinary meetings of the Society before the last Wednesday in March 1786. V. That the adjudication of this premium be referred to the Committee of papers ; that their decision shall be made by ballot ; and that the medal shall be delivered by the president to the person to whom it shall have been adjudged, or to his representative, at the first meeting of the Society in October 1786. VI. That if the person to whom the medal shall have 32 Literary and Philosophical, Society. been adjudged, be not one of the Society, his name shall be enrolled in the list of Honorary members. VII. The regular attendance of members being essential to the prosperity and usefulness of the Institution, that if any member shall absent himself during the space of three months from the meetings of the Society, notice shall be sent to him, at a quarterly meeting, that the Society considers his absence as a mark of disrespect, and that a more punctual observance of the laws is expected from him. VIII. To encourage the exertions of young men who attend the meetings of the Society as visitors, that a silver medal, not exceeding the value of two guineas, be annually given to any one of them, under the age of twenty-one years, who shall, within the year, have furnished the Society with the best paper on any subject of literature or philo- sophy ; and that such adjudication shall be made by the Committee of papers. A LIST OF THE MEMBERS. 1 * James Massey, Esq. ^ * Thomas Percival, M.D., F.R.S., &c. ; S.A., ^Presidents. and Reg. Soc. Med. Par. Soc. J * The Rev. Samuel Hall, A.M. * Charles White, Esq., F.R.S., Honorary Mem. R.M.S., and Cor. Mem. R.S.A. in Scot- land,&c. * George Lloyd, Esq. * Mr. George Bew. * The Rev. Thomas Barnes, D.D. * Mr. Thomas Henry, F.R.S. 1 Those marked * are of the Committee of Papers. Vice-presidents. The First Members. 33 Mr. Isaac Mosse Treasurer. Mr. Thomas Robinson. *: ; .. . *v Librarian. Mr. Joseph Atkinson. Mr. John Barrow. Thomas Butterworth Bayley, Esq., F.R.S, *Mr. John Bill. Mr. John Birch. Mr. Charles Frederick Brandt, Mr. Ashworth Clegg. Mr. Robert Darbey. Mr. James Dinwiddie. Mr. John Drinkwater. *Mr. George Duckworth. Alexander Eason, M.D. Mr. Edward Hall. Mr. Richard Hall. *The Rev. Ralph Harrison, Mr. Samuel Hibbert. *Mr. Thomas Kershaw. Mr. John Lawrence. Mr. James Macaulay. Peter Mainwaring, M.D. John Mitchell, M.D. Mr. John Orme. Mr. George Philips. Mr. John Philips. Mr. Robert Philips. *Mr. John Leigh Philips. Mr. Thomas Philips. *Mr. James Potter. Mr. John Powel. The Rev. Frederick Robert Slater. Mr. George Wakefield. Mr. George Walker. Mr. John Wilson. Those marked * are of the Committee of Papers. D 34 Literary and Philosophical Society. HONORARY MEMBERS. John Aikin, M.D. Felix Vicq d'Azyr, R.S. Med. Par. Sec., and R.A.Sc. Sir George Baker, Bart., F.R.S. Medic. Regin. James Beattie, LL.D. Patiick Brydone, Esq., F.R.S. Mr. John Buchanan. The Right Rev. Beilby, Lord Bishop of Chester. Edwood Chorley, M.D. Mr. Thomas Cooper. James Currie, M.D. Erasmus Darwin, M.D., F.R.S. Edward Hussey Delaval, Esq., F.R.S. Reg, S.C. Getting., & Upsal. & Instit Bologn. Soc. The Hon. Sir John Talbot Dillon, Knight and Baron of the Holy Roman Empire. Rev. William Enfield, LL.D. William Falconer, M.D., F.R.S. Anthony Fothergill, M.D., F.R.S. Benjamin Franklin, LL.D., R.S. L. & R. Acad. Scient. Par. Soc., &c. The Rev. Frossard, D.D., of Lyons, in France. William Hawes, M.D. John Haygarth, M.B., F.R.S. Mr. George Hibbert. Thomas Houlston, M.D. Alexander Hunter, M.D., F.R.S. James Johnstone, M.D. Monsieur Lavoisier, Reg. Ac. Scient. P. Soc. The Right Rev. Richard, Lord Bishop of Llandaff, F.R.S. John Coakley Lettsom, M.D., F.R.S., & S.A. Mr. J. Hyacinth Magellan, F.R.S. & R. Acad. Petrop. and Paris. Corresp. Mr. Patrick MacMorland. Henry Moyes, M.D. The Rev. John Pope. Honorary Members. The Rev. Joseph Priestley, LL.D., F.R.S., Acad. Imp. Petrop., R. Holm. & Med. & Reg. Acad. Scient. P. Sc. Mr. William Rathbone. Mr. William Roscoe, Liverpool. Benjamin Rush, M.D., Professor of Chemistry at Philadelphia. Doming Ramsbotham, Esq. Samuel Foart Simmons, M.D., F.R.S., & R.S.M.P. Soc., & R.S. Monspel. Corresp. The Rev. William Turner. The Rev. George Travis, A.M. Mr. Alexander Volta, Professor of Experimental Philosophy at Como, &c. Martin Wall, M.D., Clinical Professor in the University of Oxford Mr. John Warltire. The Rev. Gilbert Wakefield, B.D. Josiah Wedgwood, Esq., F.R.S. The Rev. John Whittaker, B.D., F.S.A. D 3 36 Literary and Philosophical Society. CHAPTER V. DR. PERCIVAL'S WRITINGS AND EARLY SANITARY WORK IN MANCHESTER. HAVING given these necessary details it is now intended to say a little of some of the prominent members, and give an account of some of the papers which may seem most interesting ; and, however contradictory to this conclusion it may appear, it is intended to leave the society for a little so as to view Dr. Percival's work here more clearly, and to do this it is quite necessary to allude to his sanitary work, and to show that Manchester was then the great centre of sanitary knowledge and Percival the true apostle. A few remarks may come in here regarding his general literary work. For a man like Dr. Petcival, gentle and benevolent, with wide extent of reading, but with time chiefly occupied with his profession, it is not to be expected that, unless in cases where physical strength is great, any long-continued scientific investigation should be possible. And so we find in Dr. Percival's works much good sense, good lan- guage, and excellent arrangement, but a want of that power which sends words or works to a very attentive posterity. * A Father's Instructions, adapted to Different Periods of Life from Youth to Maturity/ consists of short tales, fables, Early Sanitary Work. 37 and essays, separate or mixed, sounding much like the style of the ' Spectator ' at times without its exquisite polish, and of ' ^Esop's Fables ' at other times without their telling terseness. A style admirable in idea because it mixes the useful and the pleasant, but in this case carried out with too much formality of language to suit children, and too much youth of knowledge to suit those who are grown older. The essays cannot be called highly success- ful, but indicate a refined soul. An exception may be made of the ' Medical Ethics ' of Dr. Percival, which can be treated of only by those who have read similar previous works, and this has not been done by the present writer, unless we consider the ' Religio Medici ' of Sir Thomas Brown to belong to them. There is no attempt in Dr. Percival's book to prove himself the wisest man under the sun and possessed of every virtue, but he shows himself a wise and a practical man, as his position in Manchester might be expected to prove him ; and he gives rules for the behaviour of medical men towards their patients and each other which are dictated by the highest feelings and the most refined perception and taste. So far as these are concerned, it seems scarcely possible to go beyond Dr. Percival, and we could imagine this treatise to be a code of morals and manners to all suc- ceeding generations. If there be a fault, it is one which naturally arises out of the difficulty of keeping out all feelings of envy and jealousy from the minds of profes- sional men. There is thus produced a code of etiquette towards each, which does not always sufficiently take into consideration the necessities of the patient. 1 In this way 1 Since this was written a remarkable instance arose in the case of Lord Beaconsfield, where one man would rather keep some formal habit than do his 38 Literary and Philosophical Society. delicate questions are often introduced, and these are treated in a beautiful spirit ; but there are always cases arising which are beyond advice, and such as must be left to the wisdom of the agent nearest to act, whilst blame will sometimes arise whatever he may do or leave undone. Late editions show that this work of Dr. Percival's is still valued. The beginning of Dr. Percival's sanitary work dates as far back as 1773, and must be described, adding also a communication by the Rev. Mr. Dade, of York, which was appended to his own. It takes us back to a time before the formation of the Society, but it is necessary to go so far, as the connection must be made with work earlier as well as much later than our first meeting. Proposals for establishing more accurate and comprehensive Bills of Mortality in Manchester 1 (before 1773). ' The establishment of a judicious and accurate register of the births and burials in every town and parish would be attended with the most important advantages, medical, political, and moral. By such an institution, the increase or decrease of certain diseases, the comparative healthiness of different situations, climates, and seasons ; the influence of particular trades and manufactures on longevity ; with many other curious circumstances, not more interesting to physicians than beneficial to mankind, would be ascer- tained with tolerable precision. In a political view, exact registers of human mortality are of still greater conse- quence, as the number of people and the progress of population in the kingdom, may in the most easy and utmost to preserve a life. In such things the profession frequently offends, as it finds a life, however important, difficult to separate from a mere case. 1 Dr. Percival's Works, vol. iii. pp. 428-435. Bills of Mortality, &c. 39 unexceptional manner be deduced from them. They are the foundation likewise of all calculations concerning the values of assurances on lives, reversionary payments, and of every scheme for providing annuities for widows, and persons in old age. In a moral light, also, such tables are of evident utility, as the increase of vice or virtue may be determined by observing the proportion which the diseases, arising from luxury, intemperance, and other similar causes, bear to the rest, and in what particular places distempers of this class are found to be most fatal. 'A few examples may perhaps confirm and illustrate these observations. In the Pais de Vaud, a district of Bern in Switzerland, and in a country parish in Branden- burgh, i in 45 of the inhabitants dies annually ; and at Stoke Damerel in Devonshire, I in 54 ; whereas in Vienna and Edinburgh the yearly mortality appears to be i in 20 ; in London, I in 2 1 ; in Amsterdam and Rome, I in 22 ; in Northampton, i in 26; and in the parish of Holy Cross, near Shrewsbury, i in 33. In the Pais de Vaud, the proportion of inhabitants who attain the age of eighty is i in 21 \ ; in Brandenburgh, i in 22^ ; in Nor- wich, i in 27 ; in Manchester, i in 30 ; in London, i in 40 ; and in Edinburgh, I in 42. These facts afford a striking but melancholy proof of the unfavourable influence of large towns on the duration of life. From the most accu- rate computation, London is found to contain 601,750 inhabitants; and from 1759 to 1768 the burials have exceeded the christenings every year upwards of 7,000, which is the recruit the metropolis requires annually from the country to support the present number of its people. In 1757 a survey was made of Manchester and Salford. The number of inhabitants then amounted to 19,839 ; and 4O Literary and Philosophical Society. the burials, exclusive of those amongst Dissenters, were 778. But since that time the populousness of Manchester has considerably increased. Half of all that are born in this town die under five years old. The island of Madeira is so remarkably healthy, that two-thirds of all who are born in it live to be married. Autumn is the most healthy, and summer the most sickly season there. The mortality of spring and summer is to that of autumn and winter as 115 to 1 00. In Manchester diseases are most frequent and fatal in the months of January, February, and March ; and least so in July, August, and September. The mor- tality of these two seasons is as 1 1 to 8 ; and of the first six months of the year compared with the last six months as 7 to 6, M. Muret, Secretary to the Economical Society at Bern, informs us that he had the curiosity to examine the register of mortality in one town, and to mark those whose deaths might be imputed to intemperance. And he found the number so great, as to incline him to believe that drunkenness is more destructive to mankind than pleurisies, fevers, or the most malignant distempers. 1 Such are the important uses to which Tables of Human Mor- tality have been applied. ' The following plan of a more exact and comprehen- sive register than has hitherto been kept, is submitted to the consideration and correction of those who undertake the charge of the Bills of Mortality in Manchester. ' I. Let a table of christenings, marriages, and burials be kept in every church, chapel, and place of religious wor- ship in the town, and delivered at certain stated times to the clerk of the parish church, to be formed into one 1 See a very valuable treatise on Reversionary Payments, by the Rev. Dr. Price ; fa& Bern Observations for the year 1766; Philosophical Transactions, vol. Ivii. and lix. j and Dr. Short's New Observations. Bills of Mortality, &c. 41 general bill, and quarterly or annually published. It is of importance that the still-born children, and those who die before baptism, should also be registered ; and the mid- wives should be desired to deliver an account of them. Perhaps the sextons may assist in ascertaining their number, as they are usually interred in churchyards, or other public burial grounds. * II. Let the table of christenings specify the males and females who are baptised ; and the table of deaths express the males who die, under the several denominations of children, bachelors, married men, and widowers ; the females who die, under the corresponding denominations of children, maidens, married women, and widows. * III. An observance of these distinctions will determine the comparative number of males and females who are born ; the difference between the sexes in the expectation of life ; and the proportion which the annual births, deaths, and marriages bear to eadi other. Thus by the Bills of Mor- tality which have been kept at Vienna, Breslau, Dresden, Leipsic, Ratisbon, and other towns in Germany, it appears that the proportion of males to the females who are born is as 19 to 1 8. But the proportion of boys to girls who die under ten years of age is as 7 to 6 ; and of married men to married women in Breslau as 5 to 3, in Dresden as 4 to i. At Vevey, in Switzerland, for twenty years, ending in 1764, there died in the first month 135 males to 89 females ; and in the first year 225 to 162. The same accounts show likewise that, both at Vevey and Berlin, the still-born males are to the still-born females as 30 to 21. In the parish of Holy Cross, Salop, an account was taken by the vicar, A.D. 1760, of the number of males and females of the age of seventy and upwards. 42 Literary and Philosophical Society. The latter amounted to 35, the former only to 8. At Paris and in Sweden it has been observed, that women not only live longer than men, but that married women live longer than single women. And in Switzerland it appears particularly, from the calculations of M. Muret, that of equal numbers of single and married women between the age of 15 and 25, more of the former died than of the latter, in the proportion of 2 to I. 1 ' Let the ages under 5 be specified by single years ; and afterwards by periods of five or ten years. ' IV. Let the Bills of Mortality contain not only a list of the diseases of which all die, but also express particu- larly the number dying of each disease, in the several divisions of life, and different seasons of the year. To accomplish this, it will be necessary for the physicians of the town to consider the present list of distempers ; to reject all synonymous and obsolete terms ; and to give a short and easy explanation of those which are retained. And whenever a person dies who has been attended by any of the faculty, the physician, surgeon, or apothecary should be desired to certify, in writing, the age and dis- temper of the deceased. * The additional trouble which this more comprehensive and accurate register will occasion to the clerks of the several churches, etc., may be compensated by distributing amongst them, at the discretion of any judicious clergy- man, the money which arises from the sale of the quarterly bills. If a hundred of these be subscribed for, or sold at the price of one shilling each, the sum of twenty pounds per annum will thus be raised, without imposing any new 1 Vide Dr. Price's Obse> vations on Reversionary Payments. Bills of Mortality, &c. 43 burdens on the town. Every second, third, fourth, or fifth year the bills may be collected into a volume and pub- lished, under the direction of two or more physicians, with observations on the state of the weather, the prevalence of epidemic diseases, their symptoms and method of cure, and the increase or decrease of population during that period. Such a work will afford the most important in- struction to the public ; and from the profits of it, a fund may be established for the benefit of the clerks, and the support of the institution. ' N.B. It is obvious that the plan here proposed is not local, and that it may be executed with equal facility and advantage in every town and parish in the kingdom. Bills of Mortality might be rendered more useful in a political view, by taking sometimes the number of houses and in- habitants, under and above particular ages, wherever such registers are established.' In connection with this paper there is printed in Dr. Percival's Collected Works, vol. iii. p. 438, a communication by the Rev. Mr. Bade of York, which gives something of the history of ideas on the subject and the condition of the question when Dr. Percival took it up ; but people must search elsewhere for the full details of its growth, which would lead us almost into a history of civilisation. How- ever, Mr. Dade's paper may follow Dr. Percival's here, as in the original. 44 Literary and Philosophical Society. ' Proposals for Establishing more comprehensive and accurate Parish Registers ; communicated by the Rev. Mr. Dade, of York> ' Ralph Bigland, Esq., Norroy King at Arms, observes, in his pamphlet published a few years ago, that " the neces- sity of proper records for ascertaining the marriages, births, baptisms, deaths, and burials of persons within their respec- tive parishes, is abundantly evident from a transient view of our ancient history, which for want of proper names, and real dates, and family connections occasionally to be referred to, is oftentimes rendered perplexed and unintelli- gible, and sometimes altogether inconsistent even with its own chronology." 'To remove this defect, Thomas Cromwell, afterwards Earl of Essex, being the King's Vicar-General, in the year 1538 issued out an order to the clergy throughout England that in their respective parishes a public register should be kept for the above purposes. 2 How far the intentions of that Minister of State are really answered is evident from the incorrect manner in which entries are too generally made. It has been long wished that the utility of parish registers was thoroughly investigated, that the defects in making the entries were pointed out, and such a plan laid down as might not only be useful, but easily applied to practice. ' Whether the present form, with the observations upon it, contribute to elucidate any of these points the public will easily determine. ' Each page is divided into six columns ; the first, in the register for baptisms, contains in large characters the 1 Dr. Percival's Works, vol. iii. p. 438. 2 Perhaps a year or two earlier. Parish Registers. 45 Christian name : in the second column is the surname and seniority of the infant, also in large characters. The utility of this disposition will appear to any person who has examined parish registers with a degree of accuracy. * Lest the object of our inquiry should escape us, how frequently are we obliged to undergo the toil of traversing every line in each page, written perhaps in small characters improperly spelt, and in a hand sometimes scarcely legible ; whereas according to the present form, the reader will be able, with one glance of the eye, to run over the several names in each page ; and will examine, in a few minutes, what otherwise would take several hours to accomplish. ' In the present form it is hoped that care has been taken to identify the persons ; for when we are told that Robert Lutton, James Creyke, and Elizabeth Dealtrey were baptised ; or that William Strickland, Mary Strangways and Richard Heblethwayte were buried on such a day, in a succession of years how shall we inform ourselves whether the parties were infants, adult or aged, married or single, of what profession, or how they stood related ; circumstances we are too apt, at the time of recording those particulars, to think of no moment, because their consequences are so remote. Nor are our inquiries more gratifying in finding John son of William Fairfax, Mary daughter of Thomas Beckwith, and James son of Robert Anderson, baptised ; or Mr. John Grimston, Mrs. Jane Turner, and James son of William Fountaine were buried on such a day. Was there no necessity for carrying our researches further than twenty or thirty years, the defect might be supplied by the testimony of living witnesses, though perhaps, even then, not without much trouble and inconvenience ; but where it happens that the 46 Literary and Philosophical Society. occurrences are not recent, and there are no collateral circumstances to assist us in identifying the parties, we must naturally be left in the dark. A gentleman in the West Riding of Yorkshire, some years ago, felt the full weight of this defect. Being desirous of forming a genea- logical account of his family, he applied to the register of the parish ; and though he collected nearly 100 baptisms and as many burials in the last century, there was not one circumstance that would enable him to digest them into any form, and to ascertain the respective branch to which each party belonged. Where families of the same name reside within the same parish, there will arise difficulties in pro- portion ; and after the expiration of half a century, it will be impossible to distinguish the descendants of one house from those of another. There lived some years ago, in the neighbourhood of Thirsk, three respectable families, nearly allied, of the name of Kitchingman ; and on examining the parish register, I find it verifies my assertion. ' Mr. Bigland had his eye upon these defects, when he observes, " It is of importance to every family, not excepting the least considerable, to pay some regard to their pedigrees, and consequently that every circumstance, whether of a public or private nature, that tends to illustrate genealogical intelligence, should be attended to with the most religious exactness." ' Let us then view the last mentioned names, registered according to the form, at the end of these remarks. With the addition of collateral circumstances, we shall easily distinguish the object of pursuit, whether it may regard the title of our property, or only the gratification of an inquiry natural to those who are desirous of knowing whence they are descended. We have therefore allotted the third D J S TT 7.J Board of Health, column to the 1 name, profession, and descent of the father, and the fourth to the name and descent of the mother, the particulars of which may easily be collected when the infant is baptised. Thus shall we hope, on trials of titles to estates, and genealogical inquiries, to raise a fund of intelligence to the industrious antiquary, as well as the gentlemen of the law ; and perhaps they may allow this scheme to bid the fairest for supplying the place of visit- ations or inquisitions post mortem. ' The fifth column shows the birth, and the sixth the baptism of the infant ; the entry of each being essentially necessary. When the age bears date from the baptism only, the child may become subject to great inconvenience. I have only to add, that the uniformity of the page has been consulted, and that the two last columns, in the register of burials,' are intended to distinguish places re- markable for longevity, or the reverse, and to acquaint us what disorders mankind is subject to under particular seasons and climates ; the use of which information is sufficiently evinced by Dr. Percival, of Manchester. ' Should this form meet with the approbation of the public, I can claim no other merit than having improved upon a hint, given to the community in the year 1715 by Mr.Thoresby,the ingenious author of " Ducatus Leodiensis," or the topography of Leeds, as proposed to him by an eminent antiquary, Thomas Kirk, Esq., of Cookbridge, near to that town.' THE BOARD OF HEALTH. We come to an important step taken by Dr. Percival and his friends, viz., the establishment of a committee for 48 Literary and Philosophical Society. superintending the health of the poor of Manchester and Salford. Dr. Percival was evidently the leading spirit, as may be seen from the earliest document describing the objects to be sought. It is interesting to see how much his exertions excited the activity of medical men in other places, and as usual the opposition of the short- sighted at home, the bigoted men, the intellectual descen- dants of the witch-burners, who were losing their influence. The account of this early sanitary movement in the history of this city is in an interesting little volume called ' Proceedings of the Board of Health of Manchester.' It contains a number of the original documents, and was published in 1805, to clear up the controversy which rose between the persecutors or opponents and the Board, nine years after the work was begun which was continued with success. The public were very much alarmed at the proposal to establish a house of recovery for fever patients, fearing it might become a centre of infection, and proofs of the contrary required to be given. These were partly found in letters from Dr. Haygarth of Chester, giving the expe- rience of that place, Dr. Bardsley, Dr. Currie of Liverpool, and a student who gave Edinburgh experience. Although the first meeting was in January, the report of The Strangers' Friends Society, was able to say on November 12 of the same year 1796, ' In our last report it was stated that the fever was raging with great violence in many parts of the town. Happily that scourge of heaven is now comparatively almost withdrawn. This important change we ascribe, under God, principally to the House of Recovery, to the salutary effects of which we wish in this manner to bear our public and grateful testimony.' Board of Plealth, 1796. 49 The discussion reminds one of that regarding a small- pox hospital in Hampstead lately, and leads to quote, from the same small volume spoken of, Dr. Currie's remark in his letter from Liverpool, ' If a building is to be erected for the express purpose, every one will agree that it is better it should be wholly detached from every other.' The struggle ended, but not until it brought out opinions also from Mr. David Dale of the Lanark Mills, Dr. Ferriar, Dr. Carmichael Smyth,, Mr. Thomas Henry, and Dr. Garnett, giving the essence of what was known on the air, disinfection and contagion. Copy of Dr. PercivaVs remarks, January 7, 1796. ' The objects of the Board of Health are threefold : ' i. To obviate the generation of diseases. ' 2. To prevent the spreading of them by contagion. ' 3. To shorten the duration of existing diseases, and to mitigate their evils, by affording the necessary aids and comforts to those who labour under them. ' Under the first head are comprehended : the inspection and improvement of the general accommodations of the poor ; the prohibition of such habitations as are so close, noisome, or damp, as to be incapable of being rendered tolerably salubrious ; the removal of privies placed in improper situations ; provision for white-washing and cleansing the houses of the poor twice every year ; atten- tion to their ventilation, by windows with open casements, &c. ; the inspection of cotton mills or other factories at stated seasons, with regular returns of the condition, as to health, clothing, appearance, and behaviour of the persons employed in them ; of the time allowed for their refresh - E 50 Literary and Philosophical Society. ment at breakfast and dinner; of the number of hours assigned for labour ; and of the accommodations of those who are parochial apprentices, or who are not under the immediate direction of their parents or friends ; the limita- tion and regulation of lodging-houses, or the establishment of caravanseras for passengers, or those who come to seek employment unrecommended or unknown ; the establish- ment of public warm and cold baths ; provision for particular attention to the cleaning the streets which are inhabited by the poor, and for the speedy removal of dung- hills, and every species of filth ; the diminution, as far as is practicable, of other noxious effluvia, such as those which arise from the workhouses of the fellmonger, the yards of the tanner, and the slaughter-houses of the butcher ; the superintendence of the several markets, with a view to the prevention of the sale of putrid flesh or fish, and of unsound flour, or other vegetable productions. ' Under the second general head are included : The speedy removal of those who are attacked with symptoms of fever from the cotton-mills or factories to the habita- tions of their parents or friends, or to commodious houses which should be set apart for the reception of the sick in the different districts of Manchester ; the requisite attention to preclude unnecessary communications with the sick in the houses wherein they are confined, and to the sub- sequent cleansing and ventilation of their chambers, bed- ding, and apparel ; and the allowance of a sufficient time for perfect recovery, and complete purification of their clothes, before they return to their work, or mix with their companions in labour. ' Under the third head are comprehended : medical Board of Health. x attendance ; the care of nurses ; and supplies of medicine, wine, approprite diet, fuel, and clothing. ' i. Inquire into the powers of the committee of police, and whether they be not competent both to originate and effectuate the proposed reforms. ' 2. Or whether a board of health might not with more propriety, because with more legal authority, be appointed by the committee of police, to act under their auspices, and to hold from time to time a communication with them ? 1 3. Or might not a board of health be nominated by the magistrates of the quarter sessions, and act under their auspices in connection with the committee of police ? ' Dr. Percival had written elsewhere, ' It has been found, by experiment, that .the fumes emitted by almost every species of burning fuel are fatal to animals, when applied in a sufficiently concentrated state. I have computed that three hundred tons of coal are every day consumed in the winter season at Manchester. The factitious gas generated by its combustion must amount at least to one-third of this quantity ; it is probable that the smoke proceeding from it constitutes another third part, and both together are capable of occupying a space of very wide extent. Now if it were not for the dispersion of these vapours by wind, the precipitation of them by rain, and the influence of other causes, which restore salubrity to the air, respiration could not be carried on under such circumstances. And we may observe that frosty weather, which is generally serene and without wind, always proves extremely oppressive, and sometimes even fatal to asthmatic patients in great cities. Indeed the rate of human mortality bears a pretty near proportion to their magnitude and population ; and I have E 2 5 2 Literary and Philosophical Society. shown in another work, 1 that there is an astonishing difference between the expectation of life in Manchester and the country immediately surrounding it, although the inhabitants of both are subject to the same vicissitudes of weather, carry on the same manufactures, are supplied with provisions from the same market, and by their free inter- course are almost equally liable to attacks of small-pox, fevers, and other epidemics.' We must also give extracts from Dr. Ferriar's remarks : - ' At the request of some of your number, who originally proposed this meeting, I submit to your consideration a few remarks towards the formation of a board, or com- mittee, for superintending the health of the manufacturing poor in Manchester and Salford. . . . ' Having already published my sentiments pretty fully on this subject, I shall remark, without entering into any previous reasoning, that the principal sources of fever among our poor are lodging-houses, cellars, cotton mills, and the incautious intercourse of the poor with each other in places infected. ' i. Respecting lodging-houses, I have observed else- where, that the most desirable means of prevention would be to subject them to licences, which would bring them under the control of the magistrate. At present, as the town is much less crowded than it was in 1792, the mis- chief arising from these houses is less ; and until the committee can acquire the proper powers, it would perhaps be sufficient to be at the expense of whitewash- ing such places as shall be reported to be over-crowded, to prevail on some of the lodgers to remove, which may be readily done. 1 ' Essays, Philosophical, Medical and Experimental. ' Dr. Ferriar on Health. 53 * 2. The number of damp and very ill-ventilated cellars inhabited in many parts of the town is a most extensive and permanent evil. . . . ' This deplorable state of misery becomes frequently the origin, and certainly supports in a great degree the progress, of infectious fevers. I have been able in many instances to trace the infection from cellar to cellar, and to say where it might have been stopped by prudent management on the part of the infected family. . . . ' In like manner, I conceive that by building a fever ward in each of the infirmary districts, and removing into them the worst cases from the worst houses, the progress of infection would be materially checked, and a great quantity of disease and mortality would annually be pre- vented. . . . ' More frequent changes of apparel, which conduce to health as well as to luxury, might perhaps be procured to the poor, by encouraging the establishment of clothes- clubs, which some of them have begun to form among themselves. . . . ' What I now propose to the committee can be regarded but as a measure palliative of the most urgent evils, for the only method of furnishing the poor with healthy habi- tations, which should effectually stifle the germs of infec- tion, would be that of erecting small houses, at the public expense, on the plan of barracks, or caserns, to be let at small rents or gratuitously, according to the circumstances of the persons applying. . . . 'The want of proper sewers in several of the streets and the offal of slaughter-houses left to putrefy before the doors in several places, are nuisances which deserve the serious attention of the committee. 54 Literary and Philosophical Society. ' On the subject of the propagation of infection in cotton- mills, it may be necessary to observe, that although it has been supposed that fever may be imported in the cotton, and though this opinion does not seem improbable in itself, yet no direct proof of fevers originating from this source has ever been obtained. . . . 'The great difference in the healthiness of different cotton-mills, which it would be invidious to point out here, but which may be easily learnt from the lists of fever patients kept at the infirmary for the last five years, suffi- ciently proves the benefits of care respecting the circum- stances I have mentioned, and the danger of inatten- tion. . . . * The practice of smoking tobacco has been sometimes recommended as a preventive of infection ; whatever may be the effect of the herb properly prepared, I am confident that the acrid, irritating composition used by working people is more likely to excite than to prevent disease ; and I am persuaded that I have seen complaints in the stomach and bowels repeatedly occasioned by its use. . . . 4 The obvious extension of the cares of the committee to a superintendence of the morals of the poor, as inti- mately connected with the preservation of the health, comprehends a variety of most important objects which cannot be obtained without application to the Legislature of the country.' Dr. Haygarth, of Chester, communicated his opinions to Dr. Percival. They were as follows : January 6, 1796. ' My dear Friend, You desire me to communicate some observations on the best means of stopping the progress of the low fever at present very prevalent in Manchester and its neighbourhood. Board of Health, 1796. 55 ' You may remember that in the Chester Infirmary we have, for the last twelve years, received all infectious fever patients that require our assistance into the fever wards, one for each sex, appropriated to this purpose. ' This institution arose from the speculations, which you know had engaged my attention, on the nature of con- tagion. Numerous facts having proved that a person liable to receive the small-pox was not infected by a patient in the distemper when placed at a very little distance, I next considered the nature of the contagion which produces putrid fevers ; I soon discovered that their infectious atmosphere was limited to much narrower ex- tent than even the small-pox. So manifestly I observed this to be the case, that in a clean, well-aired room of a moderate size, the contagious poison is so much diluted with fresh air, that it very rarely produces the distemper even in nurses exposed to all the putrid miasms of the breath, perspiration, faeces, &c. Whereas, in the close, dirty, and small rooms of the poor, the whole family generally catch the fever. Hence we may conclude, that in a well aired and clean apartment, the air is seldom so fully impregnated with the poison as to acquire an in- fectious quality. ' By taking out of a house the first person who sickens of a fever, we preserve the rest of the family from infec- tion, together with an indefinite number of their neigh- bours, who would otherwise catch the infection. At this very time, when the inhabitants of Manchester, and many other pkces, are afflicted with a fatal contagious epidemic, only two patients are now in our fever wards, and both convalescent : and the apothecary to the infirmary, who attends the out poor of the whole city, informs me that he has now not a single fever patient under his care/ 56 Literary and Philosophical Society. f On these considerations, I ventured to propose the admission of typhus fevers into the attic storey on one side of our Infirmary, to be separated into two wards. From the experience of a dozen years I am warranted to maintain the safety of this measure, if conducted under very easy practicable regulations. During this period it never was suspected that infection has been communicated to a single patient in other parts of the house. ' Farther, I maintain that an establishment of this kind is indispensably necessary in all infirmaries, to preserve them from what is called the hospital fever. You may remember that I have collected a considerable number of cases to prove that typhous contagion, in some instances, remains in the body many days and even weeks, in a latent state, before the symptoms of fever commence. Patients, ill of other disorders, are admitted into the Infirmary from infectious houses, where they have caught the poison. The fever begins after their admission, and frequently infects others in the same ward ; when there is not a due attention to fresh air and cleanliness, or when several patients, thus previously infected, are admitted into the same ward. But in the Chester Infirmary every fever patient, as soon as observed, is immediately removed into the fever wards, so as to preserve all the rest of the house perfectly free from contagion. ' During this war, Chester has been unusually exposed to the danger of putrid infectious fevers. Many new raised regiments coming from Ireland, with numerous recruits, taken out of jails, remained in Chester for a few weeks, after their voyage. Great numbers of these soldiers, and their women, were ill of putrid fevers, and were immediately received into the fever wards of our Board of Health, 1/96. 57 infirmary. If such contagious patients had been distri- buted in the public-houses and poor lodging-houses through this city, the consequences to many of our in- habitants must have been dreadful.' An extract from a letter written by a Medical Student in Edinburgh, whose name is not given, will also show the kind of advice given and the state of opinion in a promi- nent place. ' The establishment of fever wards has been opposed as if it were to give birth to a new evil, whilst it is obvious that we have only to inquire whether the baneful effects of a contagion that already exists will be augmented or lessened by the measures of the Board of Health, and our conclusion must be founded on a fair comparison of the present state of the diseased poor, as favourable or other- wise to the diffusion of febrile infection, with that which will be produced by their collection into a hospital. ' Contagious disorders, we all know, may be com- municated either immediately by the effluvia surrounding the sick, or by fomites. 1 Now will either of these sources of disease be rendered more destructive than at present by the establishment of fever-wards ? ' To the active virulence of the first, circumstances could scarcely be more favourable than before the institution of the House of Recovery. Confinement of the exhalations from the sick, the great origin of all contagion, was an evil which in many of their dwellings that I have seen could not be remedied ; and the foulness of the surrounding atmosphere gave additional malignity to their diseases, and strongly promoted the copious generation of this subtle poison. 1 * Fomites consist of the contagious matter from the bodies of the sick, accumulated and combined with the foul apparel, furniture, walls, &c.' 58 Literary and Philosophical Society. ' It may be apprehended, however, that the collection of a number of fever patients within the narrow limits of a hospital will give rise to an accumulation of contagious matter, and form a centre from which it will be diffused amongst all who live in the immediate vicinity. But bad management alone can render your establishment such a nuisance ; for, by proper ventilation, the effluvia from the sick may be removed before, by confinement, they augment so much in quantity or acquire such virulence, as to endanger the safety of the neighbourhood. That the sick do not surfer an aggravation of their maladies from being gathered together into a public receptacle, we have the testimony of Dr. Fordyce, who says expressly, that " in general more patients recover of fevers in the London hospitals than in private families, with similar practice." ' And the experience of the past winter in the clinical ward here clearly shows, that the wards of a hospital may be rendered harmless to all who enter them : for I am unable to recollect half a dozen who have caught the fever during their six months atttendance on the infirmary ; and Dr. Duncan's memory does not furnish him with so large a number, notwithstanding his extensive and almost universal knowledge of the students. He assures me, also, that more pupils receive infection by acting as nurses to their sick friends, than directly from the patients in the hospital. Of those infected in the latter way, many are known to have suffered by imprudently hanging over the diseased, rather than from any necessary exposure. 'A better instance could hardly be adduced of the limited influence of contagion, than is presented by the Royal Infirmary of this place. Most of your medical men must remember that it stands in a fully inhabited Board of Health, 179 part of the city, and that it is an asylum for those labour- ing under fever as well as under other diseases. Between the windows of the clinical ward, appropriated to the women, as well as a fever ward, and those of a neighbour- ing house, I am sure that thirty feet do not intervene, and a current of air must frequently be carried, when the wind is west, immediately through these wards, which have windows almost constantly open on each side, to this and other houses : yet no example, Dr. Duncan informs me, has been known, within his recollection, which extends many years back, of infection being conveyed to these houses ; and he is certain, that in the family of Mr. Alexander Wood, who inhabits one of them, there has not been a fever of many years. He is equally ignorant of any harm having befallen passengers in the street, or the chairmen who convey patients labouring under all the stages of fever, in sedans belonging to the hospital, and lined in the usual manner, though the men employed are not confined to this business, but are called, as for other purposes, off the common stands. It would, doubtless, be prudent, however, to avoid in the construction of your chairs all such materials as are known longest to retain the matter of contagion. 1 The quotations show how remarkably similar to the thoughts given to and extended by Manchester during the generation spoken of are the thoughts of the present, whilst misery is still unremoved. It is time that we learnt that it cannot be removed by the plans already tried ; it seems to be our system or want of system, as well as the innate help- lessness of men, which deposits dregs of humanity in our 60 Literary and Philosophical Society. cities and unfortunately carries some good men among them. It requires to be proved that the system is in- separable from our nature. The long struggle for a house of recovery resulted in success it is true, but the question in some new or wider form has risen again and again as population has increased, and we have not yet arrived visibly nearer to satisfaction, although we are probably much nearer. As it is curious to find that the old discussion last century in Manchester, ' Is the House of Recovery a nuisance ? ' rose but lately in London, so it is strange to find Lord Mansfield's opinion of a nuisance quoted in these Manchester reports, although still older, scarcely yet recognised. Speaking of an offensive smell, he is quoted as saying, ' It is not necessary that the smell should be unwholesome ; it is enough if it renders the enjoyment of life and property uncomfortable,' and this meaning we are only arriving at, having it perverted by our determination to follow reasoning only which goes in narrow lines instead of the broad common sense which guides even animals very inferior to ourselves. Our subtle reasoning certainly drives us far wrong, when it neglects our instincts. The mode in which sanitary ideas were recommended to be carried out is seen in the second volume of the Society's Memoirs, p. 501, and if we can greatly improve on it now I fear we have not done so. Yet there are some curious points, and especially the fumigation with tobacco, admired then by some of the medical men, which we can scarcely agree to. The Medical Board advises nervous persons to be careful in entering cotton works or mills, or in visiting mines, caverns, stoves, hospitals, or prisons. Houses and works A ir of Manchester 6 1 were smaller and more confined in those days, but there is at present far too much fear of the presence of close air for limited periods. People forget the meaning of its occasional use and its constant use. They will starve them- selves in a railway carriage in order to avoid what they suppose to be analogous to fever, but they forget that close air may take years to injure whilst cold air draughts kill with a blow. We can all give illustrations of this in every family, but we are nevertheless driven on by wild enthusiasts that break our windows in cold nights and send us supper- less to bed in the wind. It is a little amusing to listen to Dr. Percival's complaint of 300 tons of coal being burnt every day in Manchester, or about 90,000 tons in a year. Now, surely we must burn 3,000,000 per annum, but what a result : still not in pro- portion to the amount, as we do burn with a little, not much less smoke. However, the fogs at certain seasons are now so frightful, that we may use words stronger than Percival's oreven John Evelyn's. There have been many plans formed of burning the carbon so as to prevent fogs in London and elsewhere. It is easy to prevent black smoke when machi- nery can be used ; the evil of fogs lies more in the sulphur than the smoke ; but again we may say that the black part of the smoke is not carbon merely, although there is carbon in it. We require to remove the sulphur before we obtain pure air or wholesome fogs, but the removal of the carbon is of course a great improvement. In the fifteenth and sixteenth reports of proceedings under the Alkali Act, mention was made of the enormous value of the ammonia alone obtainable from the 15,000,000 tons of coal made now into coke ; if the process said to be so successful at Besseges should be found successful here, it would save 62 Literary and Philosophical Society. ammonia enough to increase our crops by eight million pounds sterling in value. If we were to treat all the coal used in the country in the same way, we should have above six times as much ammonia, which would be capable of increasing our crops by fifty millions sterling of value. The proposal to burn gas and coke instead of coal has been a frequent subject of discussion ; it may be difficult to treat all the coal so, but if coke can be manufactured as well by the Besseges plan of distilling as by our non-distilling pro- cess, then the application to the fifteen million tons is cer- tain, and it is well that some are trying it. But if we are amused at the anxieties of Dr. Percival, we may be more amused at some of our own cures and innumerable pro- posals. One is to buy land for parks to which the people may go and recreate themselves. A few people go into our parks, and it is well, but of the six hundred thousand in Manchester is there ever one per cent, in all the parks put together in the best weather and in the brightest season ? The parks we want are such as allow the wind to blow around us during the day, and to supply us also during the night ; for although we may not allow as much air to enter at night as during the day when we have fires, we want it to be good. We want the children to play before the doors in good air, and not to be taken once a month for an hour or two, or once a year at Whit-week, to see grass and to feel the pleasure of breathing the winds of heaven, instead of that which has swept the streets. Parks are good, but they must not be merely outside but inside a town. This, it is said, we cannot afford. You will afford it some day. Delenda est Carthago. An enor- mous part of Manchester and of all our great towns must come down before we have comfort. This cannot be House of Recovery. 6 3 done at once on account of the expense ; we need not attempt to prophesy the method, but one way may occur, the people may go and leave the present crowded land in such numbers as to render it cheap enough to be made into parks, playgrounds, gardens, or still better into deserts. When Ancoats and Hulme are made into parks, some fresh air may pass through the town. This may happen from decay, since the sheds in which the people live do not stand long. Sanitary literature has been fashionable for a full generation, and the writer of this has read much of it, and finds that the amount of rubbish he has been obliged to pass through his mind is appalling. He has long sought to avoid the bewildering babble. Yet two or three of the million haystacks have a needle in them. It was certainly interesting to the writer to inquire how far the members of the Society were acquainted with the laws of health, and it is hoped that it will be interesting to the Society, because this is the strongest point with which the intellectual and scientific life of Manchester began ; but in the lifetime of a man it was all forgotten, and we soon forgot that we in Manchester had once been great * sanitary' teachers. In 1843 a Royal Commission inquir- ing into the health of towns visited Manchester, and reported on its condition. The condition in which the town was found is one of the most melancholy proofs of that which many wise men have imagined that the human race is really incurable. Within a moderate lifetime the voluntary commission spoken of had sat in Manchester, and the pre- face to the volume from which we have already quoted con- tains the following, which it is also of use to remember: ' Painful to their feelings as were many of the produc- tions in the controversy respecting the establishment of a 64 Literary and Philosophical Society. House of Recovery, they have now the satisfaction to reflect, that in discussing the theory of contagious diseases the minds of their fellow-townsmen were relieved from many fanciful and absurd prepossessions ; that the propriety and urgency of the measures proposed became more generally understood ; and that a more powerful interest was exerted for carrying them into effect than could have been expected, had their merit been, in the first instance, allowed to pass unquestioned. The success which attended the execution of this scheme, and the important benefits which have resulted from it, having excited in the metropolis, and several of the principal towns throughout Great Britain and Ireland, a very general desire to promote similar establishments, an unexpected demand was made for the papers contained in the present volume, copies of which in a detached state have been long unattainable.' (1805) The following will also illustrate the state of knowledge in Lancashire, and opinions on the Manchester School of Medicine and Sanitary Knowledge. Dr. Campbell was one of those whose letters to Dr. Percival are preserved ; the following reminiscence of him by a townsman may take the place of his letter. Remarks on an Epidemic of Typhus, which prevailed in the cotton districts of Lancashire, and was described by Dr. Campbell, of Lancaster, in the year 1785. Read by Christopher Johnson, of Lancaster, at the meeting of certifying surgeons, Manchester, July 14, 1869. * Dr. Campbell, of Lancaster, published, in the year 1785, " Observations on the Typhus or Low Contagious Fever," in which he gave a description of an epidemic which pre- vailed during the two preceding years among the cotton- Dr. Campbell on Health. 65 mills in various parts of Lancashire, and more especially at Lancaster and at Backbarrow near Ulverston. ' This fever seems to have been so malignant as to have given rise to a panic among the operatives and the people among whom they dwelt. ' It was believed that the cotton was poisonous. Dr. Campbell succeeded not only in proving to the public the groundlessness of this opinion, and that the business might be safely carried on by attention to certain sanitary regula- tions, but by his very judicious management he saved what would be even now considered a large proportion of lives. ' Of the treatment adopted, time will only allow me to say little. Believing the disease one of debility, he Avoided the bleeding and lowering practice of the day, and em- ployed a supporting method. He refrained from purgatives, and checked the least tendency to diarrhoea ; he gave wine liberally, and bark and opium. In fact his treatment was similar to that of Dr. Graves, thirty years ago, and of many good practitioners of the present day. ' Like Graves, he fed fevers, and he anticipated that distinguished physician in the use of musk and other anti- spasmodics, and in the administration of tartar emetic and opium. ' He made a close examination of the mills and of the habitations of the workpeople, and paid great attention to ventilation, fumigation, disinfection, and cleanliness. 'He found at Backbarrow privies contiguous to the workrooms emitting a very offensive odour. This he remedied by a very ingenious contrivance ; having wide pipes made, so that the excrementitious matter fell direct to the bottom, he turned through them a stream of water, which washed all away as it came. F 66 Literary and Philosophical Society. 'The following are the results of his treatment at Lancaster and Backbarrow : Lancaster, 500 cases, 34 deaths ; Backbarrow, 180 cases, 7 deaths. Taking the cases at both places, there were Men, 206, of whom 25 died, rather less than I in 8 Women, 235, 13 I in 19 Children, 225, 3 ,, I in 80 Of these three cases of children two were doubtful. ' You will find on reference to an article by Dr. Gairdner, in the present number of " Braithwaite's Retrospect," that 9 per cent, deaths is much better than the average rate in London hospitals. ' About the same time he says " A contagious fever prevailed in so great a degree at Radcliffe, in this county, and in the cotton-mills there, as to become the object of the attention of some very respectable gentlemen in their capacity as magistrates. As these mills or factories are now becoming numerous in the county, and individually employ great numbers of persons, any circumstances which may materially affect the health of those who are concerned in them are certainly matters of public concern." ' Every praise therefore is due to the magistrates, who, in consequence of the representations that were made to them, have taken such rational and effectual methods to prevent the production and propagation of these diseases, by procuring several gentlemen of eminence of the faculty from Manchester (Drs. Percival, Cowling, Eason, and Chorley) to inspect the places where the sickness was most frequent, and who have, at their request, arranged such directions as, if duly observed, cannot but be productive of the best effects, not only in the particular place for which they were originally drawn up, and in similar manufactories, Dr. Campbell on Health. 67 but in every other situation where many persons are em- ployed in common workrooms.' The following is the report alluded to : ' I. All the casements of the windows and the three large western doors of the cotton-mills should be left open every night ; the same regulations should take place during the recess from work at noon ; and as many casements should be kept open in the hours of labour as may be compatible with carrying on the operations of the machinery. ' II. The casements are too small, being in dimension only one-sixth part of the window. They are likewise placed high, and parallel to each other, a position obviously unfavourable to complete ventilation, for the inlet of the air ought to be lower than the outlet. 4 III. Several fireplaces with open chimneys should be erected at proper distances in each workroom. The stoves now employed afford no sufficient passage for the offensive vapours generated in the rooms, and increase the contamina- tion of the air by the effluvia which they emit. Turf would be the cheapest, and also a very salutary fuel, for it consists chiefly of the roots of vegetables, and yields in burning a strong, penetrating, and pungent smoke, which is likely to prove as good an antidote to contagion as that of wood is found to be by long experience. ' IV. The rooms should be daily swept, and the floors washed at least once every week with strong lime water, or with water strongly impregnated with the spirit of vitriol, or the acid of tar. The walls and ceilings may be scraped and whitewashed at first every month, and afterwards twice yearly. Lime fresh burnt and as soon as it is slaked must be used for this purpose, and the wash laid on whilst it is hot. ' V. During the prevalence of the present fever, the F 2 68 Literary and Philosophical Society. apartments should be fumigated with tobacco. Brimstone might, perhaps, be more powerful, but in burning it yields an acid which would be injurious to the cotton. ' VI. Great attention ought to be paid to the privies. They should be washed daily, and ventilated in such a manner that the smell arising from them shall not be perceptible in the workrooms. ' VII. The rancid oil which is employed in the machin- ery is a copious source of putrid effluvia. We apprehend that a purer oil would be much less unwholesome, and that the additional expense of it would be fully compensated by its superior power in diminishing friction. 'VIII. A strict observance of cleanliness should be enjoined on all who work in mills, as an efficacious means of preventing contagion, and of preserving health. It may also be advisable to bathe the children occasionally. The apparel of those that are infected with the present fever should be well fumigated before it is worn again, and the linen, &c., of the sick should first be washed in cold water, lest the steam arising from the heat communicate the distemper to the person engaged in that operation. Croster's lye, when it can be procured, is preferable to water. The bodies of those who die of the fever should be closely wrapped in pitched cloth, and interred as soon as propriety or decency will permit. Smoking tobacco will be a useful preservative to superintendents of the works, and to others exposed to infection who can practise it with convenience. 1 IX. We earnestly recommend a longer recess from labour at noon, and a more early dismission from it in the evening to all who work in the cotton-mills. But we deem this indulgence essential to the present health and future Health of Towns Commission, 1843. 69 capacity for labour of those who are under the age of fourteen. For the active recreations of childhood and youth are necessary to the growth, the vigour, and the right conformation of the human body. And we cannot excuse ourselves on the present occasion from suggesting to you, who are the guardians of the public weal, this very important consideration : that the rising generation shall not be debarred from all opportunities of instruction at the only season of life in which they can be properly improved.' The remark as to bathing the children occasionally sounds as if it had been entirely neglected ; and even the Doctor was not fully alive to its importance. Mr. Johnson here remarks : 1 Had these men omitted the concluding paragraph from their report, we should even then have considered they had done the State good service, and conferred a benefit on the cotton trade at a critical period of its exist- ence. Its insertion gives no ordinary value to their work ; the document assumes a prophetic character, its authors seem to gaze into the far future, and to realise the times in which we now live. ' Here we have the bold outline of a complete Factory Act, the necessity for legislation demonstrated, the direc- tion and the extent clearly defined. ' " Brave men lived before Agamemnon," and brave and true men laboured in our profession for the best interests both of rich and poor, long before the names of Oastler or Ashley were heard amongst us.' Thus we see that in 1796 Manchester claimed to be, and 70 Literary and Philosophical Society. ( was acknowledged to be, a teacher of the nation on sanitary / subjects, whilst at least one of the medical men whose treatises or remarks are contained in the volume of Trans- actions and proposals was active in mind when the Com- mission came in 1843 with Mr. Edwin Chadwick and Dr. Lyon Playfair, although he had retired from practice. We find a short paper by him on the employment of children especially during the night, and the wane of attention in cotton-mills to ventilation and cleanliness. This was Dr. Bardsley, a very prominent figure in Manchester as he had been in 1796, a man with manners refined and elegant, having a memory of the earlier times, and reflecting favourably but without vigour its principles, habits and speech. At both these periods Dr. Samuel Argent Bardsley was put on committees of inquiry. He must be remem- bered by not a few persons besides those who knew him in private, as a frequenter of very agreeable meetings, lectures, and discussions which used to take place in the Royal Institution. In 1843 science had begun to be more widely spread than it had been, and the men interested in it could meet more easily than now, partly because there were not so many living out of reach, and chiefly because dinners of an expensive kind did not attract so many. These latter amusements have done much harm in destroying the calm reading evenings of scientific men in England and else- where, since people frequently feel obliged or inclined to give up or hurry their work for their pleasure, and some- times, like the famous broomseller, incline to steal it ready made. Dr. Bardsley showed his connection with the past in his appearance ; he was, so far as the writer knows, the last of those here who powdered their hair. He had but little to powder, and the white dust flowed over his shoul- Dr. Percival. ji ders and his dress, but it improved the appearance of a man of his years, as it gave a completeness to the white- ness and covered what imperfections might exist in the complexion of the head. His manners were exceedingly pleasing, easy, but formal ; recalling the past and con- trasting with the present hurry of business. He took us to the time of Percival, who again took us to the times of the old regime of France, a time when appearances were beau- tiful, however deceitful. Dr. Bardsley lived in later life in a house on Ardwick Green, at the north corner of Bruns- wick Street. He liked to recall old days, and to look also at new science, but especially to speak of all he re- membered. Sir James Lomax Bardsley, M.D., was his nephew, and till lately active among us. The sanitary episode, a very important one in Man- chester, has come in as a part of the life of Dr. Percival who began it. It is not our intention to give minute details of any life. We wish only to touch upon them lightly, and to show their connection with the Society. We shall meet the founder again when giving a short account of his paper on the perceptive power of vegetables, but we cannot leave this more formal attention to him without a renewed expression of a full belief, that Manchester had in him a wise and good man, who had a broad view of his duties and a true love of his fellow-creatures. And whilst he saw the greatness and oneness of Crea- tion in the present he was not narrowed even to that, but hid in his heart a large sympathy with the past and hope for the future. He was not a man who need be asked if he believed in God, because he lived so much and closely with Him that belief was not the term that could express the intimate faith and love. 72 Literary and Philosophical Society. Mr. Grindon informs us that : 'Dr. Percival's town house was in King Street. His country seat was Hart Hill, in the Eccles Old Road, nearly opposite Claremont. It was then an old-fashioned white stuccoed house. The existing pseudo-classical man- sion is comparatively new. Dr. Percival was one of the only three gentlemen in the community at the period in question who kept a private carriage.' From ' Man- chester Banks and Bankers] by Leo H. Grindon. The family name Percival has left, but as a Chris- tian name it is found in Sir Percival Heywood, whose grandfather married a daughter of Dr. Percival. In our Society we have kept it in our memory by a marble tablet behind the President's chair. Lately this has been covered by a portrait in oil taken from a miniature, and presented as said by Mr. F. Nicholson. NOTE. As it is not intended to return to the sanitary epoch if we can avoid it, we may say here that another movement is not well known to have begun in Manchester, namely, the use of carbolic acid in curing wounds. Mr. Alex. McDougall, when beginning the manufacture of disinfecting powder, used to have many people coming to him with wounds, and reported to the writer numerous cases of marvellously quick healing. We do not think that he ever published an account of the circumstances. Mr. McDougall was once desirous of forming a sanitary society. Every man was to have his house examined at suitable times. He wished the writer of this to put it in motion ; but it first required a man to rouse the public and make a commotion, and the invitation was declined. The public mind, too, was not then prepared as it is now ; but it is well to remember that these ideas A Sanitary Society. 73 existed in 1852. The general introduction of carbolic acid and carbolates, in which the writer moved, is not included here. The value of a smelling gas being driven into sewers as a test, was also found by Mr. McDougall in his valuable but little noticed experiment of disinfecting the sewage in Tottenham Court Road, when the smell of the carbolic acid was perceived in most of the houses, if not all, down to the Thames. Prof. Allen Miller then said, 'What a startling thing this is ; people complain of breathing poison, and murmur against the antidote.' This was in 1859 an< ^ 1860. Like many other things, it required to be red is - covered. The whole experience with carbolic acid was wider than it is now, that is, it had more applications in the minds or imaginations of Mr. McDougall and his colleagues. 74 Literary and Philosophical Society. CHAPTER VI. MEMOIRS OF THE SOCIETY. THE first volume of the Society's memoirs was published in 1785, and was dedicated by permission 'To the King/ ' with peculiar gratitude for his gracious patronage of the first fruits of their Institution ; ' no other mention is made of royal acknowledgments of the Society. This permission was obtained through the good offices of Mr. Pitt, to whom the Society sent appropriate thanks, as the minutes show. The volumes of the Society have not contained an account of the proceedings until of later years. This portion of the work of a society is often of great interest, and ought not to be neglected. It is proposed to look over the volumes, especially the earlier ones, and to extract whatever may seem characteristic of the men and the time partly showing the best or most interesting papers. This may be mixed up with some biographical details ; an exact separation of these departments is not essential, or rather is to be avoided. The early papers were copied by the secretary into volumes, and these are not all printed. The council, which was then called the ' committee of papers/ made its choice. Not much has yet been found concerning Mr. James ^/ Meeting of the Society. Massey, who was the first President of the Society, and stood alone according to the MS. books of the Society, although in the first list printed by the Society he is put along with Dr. Percival. In the MS. journal the first presidents are Dr. Mainwaring, and James Massey, Esq. In the ' Memorials of St. Ann's Church, by the Rev. Charles Wareing Bardsley, M.A.,' it is said, p. 93, that the Manchester Literary and Philosophical was founded chiefly through the exertions of the Rev. Samuel Hall, a very popular minister, and curate of St. Ann's, and afterwards first rector of St. Peter's, for whom especially we may say that church was built. This clergyman was an active man, and may have helped to bring the founders of the Society to a decision, but it has not appeared that there is any- thing to cause a change in the account of the source of the spirit which ruled in the Society, and Mr. Hall himself was not one of the original members, but was elected on April ii. FIRST AND SECOND MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY, FROM THE 'JOURNAL.' Officer s, February 28, 1781. Peter Mainwaring, M.D. 1 Presidents. James Massey, Esq. J Mr. Thomas Henry, F.R.S. 1 Sxntari*. Mr. George Bew J FIRST MEETING, MARCH 14, 1781. Present Dr. Mainwaring, James Massey, Esq., Dr. Wright, Dr. Eason, Dr. Bell, Mr. Charles Wright, Mr. William White, Mr. Richard Hall, Mr. Uniach, Dr. Drinkwater, Mr. Polier, Mr. Henry. Read an account of the Harmattan, by Dr. Dobson. 7 6 Literary and Philosophical Society. The second meeting was on March 21, 1781. Present James Massey, Esq., Dr. Percival, Dr. Eason, Dr. Bell, Mr. Edmund Hall, Mr. Richard Hall, Mr. Foxley, Mr. Reid, Mr. Oldham, Mr. Thomas, Mr. William White, Capt Robertson, Mr. John Massey, Mr. Uniach, Mr. Henry. This list is given in order to show those who took the first active interest. Mr. James and Mr. John Massey are both here ; they were among the most public-spirited of the population, as is shown by their benevolence and their munificence. The two meetings mentioned were attended by men who were not afterwards proposed as candidates, and must be considered originators, although not attending the first meeting ; also by Mr. Uniach, who does not seem to have become a member. They belong however to the ori- ginators, and he who brought them together it is believed was Dr. Percival, although he was not in an active condi- tion at the time, and did not attend the first seven meet- ings, and was not first President. On May 2, 1781, Dr. Percival and the Rev. Thomas Barnes, Thomas Butterworth Bayley, Esq., and Dr. Eason were elected Vice-Presidents. DR. BELL ON ANIMAL HEAT. The first paper published by the Society was read on May 1 6, 1781, by George Bell, M.D., and was simply called ' Some Remarks on the Opinion that the Animal Body possesses the Power of Generating Cold.' We are informed in the 65th vol. of the ' Philosophical Transactions, Royal Society,' that Dr. Fordyce and other gentlemen went into Dr. Bdl on Animal Heat. 77 a room the air of which was heated to a degree far above that of the human blood ; although they remained there sometimes for the space of half an hour, yet the heat of their bodies was not increased by more than three or four degrees. It is interesting to find that Dr. Bell, in criticising this paper, struck a right key, and gave a good tone to the young society. He says, ' We are compelled to refuse credit to the assertion even of Dr. Fordyce, that there was no evaporation. The evaporation must have been great, and would diminish the effect of the external heat by surrounding the surface with a cool atmosphere.' It is true that Dr. Bell says that ' the cause of animal heat remains unknown/ and he is not fully aware of the great amount of heat carried off by the evaporating water, still his mode of reasoning is sound. We see that, unable as he confesses himself to solve the whole problem, he succeeds in guiding out of the way of error, and as we may say, criticising with some vigour a publication sanctioned by the Royal Society. The action of oxygen was only beginning to be under- stood, and its name was not familiar to chemists ; heat was still a substance however subtle and strange, and phlogiston was a component part of metals, for some years after this, even to the mind of Cavendish. Notwithstanding this belief Priestley and Lavoisier were Honorary Members of the Society, and the former had in 1775 discovered oxygen, calling it pure or dephlogisticated air. Such a subject as heat was a fine key-note for the Society. The tune that followed has been played well, and the mechanical theory of heat has been developed by one of our still living members, and begun to change the face of the world by penetrating into most of its science and into 78 Literary and Philosophical Society. all of its mechanics. Enough for a Society if it had done nothing else. ' The child is father of the man/ a familiar quotation illustrated by knowing that the first paper is connected with the honours which have been brought to our Society in its later years ; and as Dalton made the first remarkable discoveries capable of making chemistry a science, so we find his great theories connected in an unforeseen manner by Joule, giving us the mechanical and chemical equivalent of heat, as a circle of completeness to the chief work of this our first century of existence. ADDRESS TO THE SOCIETY BY THOMAS HENRY, F.R.S. 1 Among the first members of the Society was Thomas Henry, one of the Secretaries, already made a Fellow of the Royal Society ; he shows to our mind the firmest hand in guiding the Institution, after it was begun, and the clearest view of the methods of research. He begins with an essay which one would think to be scarcely needed among such men as constituted the meetings, although it was of a kind not uncommon in these early days ; it is ' On the Advan- tages of Literature and Philosophy in general/ but it is a fitting address to a new society from one of its principal officers. Such essays were interesting to the Society, even when they only fluttered around truth without seeing much of it. But in him we have no merely sentimental love of science, literature, or philosophy, although such a love we by no means object to. The essay was written with a clear desire to draw the minds of the commercial class to the consideration of studies which might at first appear 1 Science and Taste, vol. i. p. 7. Literature and Commerce. jg foreign to their interests, but were in reality closely related. And how long it was before a School of Art was erected in Manchester, and this ultimately by pressure from out- side ! Only in this year 1 88 1 has Manchester been able to obtain a separate building for it. Mr. Henry admires science, history, and the useful arts, and he admires the ' polite arts ' because it is supereminent taste that has distinguished the productions of a Wedgwood and a Bentley above all their competitors in the same line of business. Such a taste would doubtless be equally bene- ficial to the manufacturer of the fine cotton and silk goods of Manchester, &c. (Vol. i. p. 28.) On the advantages of Literature and Philosophy in general \ and especially on the consistency of L iterary and Philoso- phical with Commercial Pursuits. By Thomas Henry, F.R.S. Read October 3, 1781. We quote only from the latter portion : ' The sciences of Natural History and Botany require so much time to be devoted to the study of them, and such minute investigation, that, however pleasing, they may be justly considered as improper objects for the man of business to pursue scientifically, so as to enter into the exact arrangement and classification of the different bodies of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. But reading and personal observation will supply him with ample matter for reflection and admiration. 'But several branches of Natural Philosophy seem peculiarly adapted to fill up the vacant hours in which the tradesman can withdraw from his employments. A general knowledge of all will tend to open and enlarge his under- 8o Literary and Philosophical Society. standing, at the same time that it affords him the most rational amusement ; whilst the study of some, in particu- lar, may not only tend to effect these desirable purposes, but supply him with a kind of information which may turn to good account, by furnishing him with the means of extending Jais commercial concerns, and conducting them to greater advantage ; of improving those manufactures in which he is already engaged, or inventing new fabrics, which may give additional life and spirit to trade. 'As Pneumatics, or the doctrine of the nature and properties of air, display an ample field of investigation to the philosopher, so will they also supply to the more superficial inquirer much instruction and entertainment. Every man is interested in the properties of a fluid to which he is so intimately related, and without which he cannot subsist a moment. Its various degrees of gravity, elasticity, heat, moisture, and purity, all affect the human race. Many of the most dire diseases which affect mankind are occasioned by noxious impregnations of the atmosphere, or cured by more favourable states of it. And many of the operations of nature and art are essentially influenced by the changes which are continually occurring in it. 'Philosophy has lately made most rapid advances in discovering the constitution of common air. The ingenious Dr. Priestley has even taught us the art of fabricating it artificially, of producing it in a degree of purity far exceed- ing that of the most salubrious climate, and of reducing it to the state in which we commonly breathe it when debased by exhalations from the various bodies which it surrounds. From him we have also learned a mode of judging of the different degrees of purity in air, by means of the eudio- meter, as of its gravity and heat by the barometer and Literature and Commerce. 8 1 thermometer. This excellent philosopher, to whom, as a learned foreigner has observed, " Nature takes delight in revealing her secrets," has also first discovered, and Dr. Ingenhouse, treading in his paths, has more completely demonstrated the method by which Nature makes use of the leaves of vegetables to purify the atmosphere, when contaminated with putrid or phlogistic vapours. When in this state, every leaf acts as a strainer to the air, imbibing and applying to the nurture of the plant such parts as are unfit for animal respiration, and throwing it out again, thus filtered and suited to act again as a menstruum for the phlogiston, which is continually evolving by the breathing of animals, the corruption of vegetables, and by the many various processes which are by nature and by art continually carrying on. ' Electricity is another branch of science which has afforded great light to the operations of nature. A know- ledge of its leading principles, and a dexterity in making a number of entertaining experiments, may be attained by moderate application, and thereby a field of amusement opened to the mind, at an easy expense of time and money. 4 To obtain a perfect acquaintance with the science of optics, much attention and close application would be re- quisite. Such a knowledge of it, however, as is sufficient for general purposes, is easily arrived at. The nature of the reflection and refraction of the rays of light, of vision, and of colours, the properties of lenses, are useful and entertaining objects of inquiry. But the very minute divi- sibility of the rays of light fills the mind with astonish- ment. When we are informed that there proceeds more than 6,000,000,000,000 times as many particles of light G 82 Literary and Philosophical Society. from a candle, in a second of time, as the whole earth con- tains grains of sand, supposing each cubic inch of it to con- tain 1,000,000 ; when we are told that light, in its passage from the sun to the earth, moves with the immense velo- city of 95,1/3,000 miles in seven minutes and a half, we are impressed with the most profound veneration for that Almighty Being, who has so wisely adjusted the propor- tions between the bulk and velocity of these rays as to make them answer all His benevolent intentions to man- kind ; whereas, an increase or decrease in the one or the other might have been fatal to the animal and vegetable world. * By the telescope and microscope our eye is enabled to reach far beyond the limits of our natural vision. By the former, objects at considerable distances are brought, as it were, within our grasp, and we can soar upwards into other worlds. By the latter, we are empowered to search into the minutiae of nature, to admire the delicacy of her oper- ations, and the wonders of creation, exhibited in the per- fect fabrics of the smallest animals and plants. ' Nor is the utility of chemistry more confined, or less connected with manufactures than mechanics. Indeed chemistry may be, not improperly, called the corner-stone of the arts. They not only are supported by her, but many of them derive their very existence from this source. She even furnishes instruments to every one of the branches of natural philosophy we have enumerated. The truth of this proposition will be evinced, when it is con- sidered that metals cannot be separated from their ores, nor glass produced without her aid. She supplies the as- tronomer with his lenses, and the mathematician with his Literature and Commerce. 83 instruments. The air-pump, electrical, hydrostatical and hydraulic machines cannot be constructed without her in- tervention ; and scarcely a piece of mechanism is formed to which she does not contribute something. < In the finer arts the influence of chemistry is very con- spicuous. To her the painter owes most of those colours by which he is enabled to give the resemblances of dis- tinguished personages to the inquiring eye of a grateful posterity ; to place before their view more clearly than words can express the martial deeds of the hero, and the firm virtue of the patriot ; and to represent those beau- teous scenes of nature, to the description of which lan- guage is inadequate. Without chemistry, the fine colour- ing of a Titian could never have delighted the enraptured beholder. Nay, even the works of the philosopher, the historian, and the poet, are indebted to her for their diffu- sion and permanency. ' To show the advantages arising from this science in all the arts through which they might be traced, would carry me far beyond the limits of my present design. It may be sufficient to point out the connection which sub- sists between chemistry and those manufactures which are the pride and glory of this respectable commercial town. 1 Bleaching is a chemical operation. The end of it is to abstract the oily and phlogistic parts from the yarn or cloth, whereby it is rendered more fit for acquiring a greater degree of whiteness, and absorbing the particles of any colouring materials to which it may be exposed. * The materials for this process are also the creatures of chemistry, and some degree of chemical knowledge is re- quisite to enable the operator to judge of their goodness G 2 84 Literary and Philosophical Society. Quick-lime is prepared by a chemical process. Potash is a product of the same art, to which also vitriolic and all the acids owe their existence. The manufacture of soap is also a branch of this science. All the operations of the whitster, the steeping, washing, and boiling in alkaline lixiviums, exposing to the sun's light, scouring, rubbing, and blueing, are chemical operations, or founded on chemi- cal principles. The same may be said of the arts of dyeing and printing, by which those beautiful colours are impressed on cloths, which have contributed so largely to the exten- sion of the manufactures of this place. How few of the workmen employed in them possess the least knowledge of the science to which their profession owes its origin and support ? If random chance has stumbled on so many improvements, what might industry and experience have effected, when guided by elementary knowledge ? The misfortune is that few dyers are chemists, and few chemists dyers. Practical knowledge should be united to theory, in order to produce the most beneficial discoveries. The chemist is often prevented from availing himself of the result of his experiments by the want of opportunities of repeating them at large ; and the workman generally looks down with contempt on any proposals the subject of which is new to him. Yet under all these disadvantages, I believe it will be confessed, that the arts of dyeing and printing owe much of their recent progress to the improvements of men who have made chemistry their study. Much, how- ever, remains to be done ; and, perhaps, in no respect are the manufactures of this country more defective than in the permanency of their colours. Sensible as our manu- facturers are of this defect, is it not strange that so few of them should attempt to acquire a knowledge of those Literature and Commerce. 8=; Vol. i. p. 72. 86 Literary and Philosophical Society. continents be discovered, and a new era opened, in the his- tory of the globe ! I was, a few days ago, greatly pleased with tracing the progress of an invention into several branches of art, with which, at first, it appeared not to have the remotest affinity. I refer to the cylinder, covered with wire-cloth of different fineness, originally intended only for sifting flour, meal, and bran, immediately as they come from the millstone. For this ingenious invention, Mr. Mills got a patent, the term of which is now, probably, expired ; for the person who showed it me, informed me, that he had himself applied the cylinder, with little varia- tion, in sifting gunpowder, snuff, tanner's bark, and sand.' The Rev. Samuel Hall, M.A., writes of ' An Attempt to show that a Taste for the Beauties of Nature and the Fine Arts has no Influence favourable to Morals.' This is in reply to a paper read by Dr. Percival to the Society, and published among his works. See p. 94. LIFE IN NORTHERN LATITUDES. The paper by Dr. Aikin on this subject might have been written for the present time. The advantage of fresh meat has been appreciated, but it has also been neglected without any good reason. Whether alcohol assists in deve- loping scurvy has not been brought out fully so far as the writer knows. The mode of obtaining a steady tempera- ture and even comparative warmth by burrowing under- ground is a good if not always a practicable plan. Living in High Latitudes. 87 Remarks on the different success, with respect to Health, of some Attempts to Pass the Winter in high Northern Latitudes. By John Aikin, M.D. Read January 16, 1782.' We extract the following (p. 90) : 'Towards the beginning of the last century, several voyages of discovery were made in the Northern Seas ; and the Greenland whale fishery began to be pursued with ardour by various European nations. These two circum- stances have given rise to various instances of wintering in the dreary and desolate lands of high Northern lati- tudes ; and the surprising difference of success attending these attempts must strike every reader. ( The first remarkable relation of this kind that I have found, is that of the wintering of Captain Monck, a Dane, in Hudson's Bay, latitude 63 20'. He had been sent on a voyage of discovery with two ships, well provided with necessaries, the crews of which amounted to sixty-four persons. The ships being locked up in the ice, they landed, and erected huts for passing the winter, which they occupied in September, 1619. At the beginning of their abode here, they got abundance of wild-fowl, and some other fresh provision ; but the cold soon became so intense that nothing further was to be procured abroad, and they were obliged to take to their ship-stores. The severity of the cold may be conceived from their seeing ice three hundred and sixty feet thick, and from their beer, wine, and brandy being all frozen to the very centre. The people soon began to be sickly, and their sickness increased with the cold. Some were affected by gripes and looseness, which 'jVol. i. p. 89. 88 Literary and Philosophical Society. continued till they died. At the approach of spring, they were all highly scorbutic, and their mouths were so ex- tremely sore, that they were unable to eat anything but bread soaked in water. At last, their bread was ex- hausted, and the few survivors chiefly subsisted on a kind of berry dug out from beneath the snow. When the spring was far advanced, no fresh vegetables could yet be found. In June, the captain crawled out of his hut, and found the whole company reduced to two men besides himself. These melancholy relics supported themselves in the best manner they were able, and recovered their strength by feeding on a certain root they discovered, and some game caught in hunting. At length they embarked in the smaller ship, and after undergoing numberless dangers and hardships, returned home in safety. 'In the year 1633 two trials were made by the Dutch of establishing wintering-places at their northern fisheries ; the one at Spitzbergen, the other on the coast of Green- land, in latitudes about 77 or -78. Seven sailors were left at each, amply furnished with every article of clothing, provision, and utensils thought necessary or useful in such "a situation. The journals of both companies are preserved. ' That of the men in Greenland takes notice, that on September i8th the allowance of brandy began to be served out to each person. On October Qth they began to make a constant fire to sit by. About this time, it is remarked that they experienced a considerable change in their bodies, with giddiness in their heads. They now and then killed a bear ; but their common diet was salt meat. In March they were all very ill of the scurvy ; and on April ] 6th the first man died, and all the rest were entirely disabled, but one person. This poor Living in High Latitudes. 89 wretch continued the journal to the last day of April, when they were praying for a speedy release from their miseries. They were all found dead. 'The journal of those who were left at Spitzbergen re- cites, that they sought in vain for green herbs, bears and foxes in that desolate region, and killed no other game than one fox the whole time. The scurvy appeared among them as early as November 24, and the first man died January I4th. The journal ends February 26th ; and these too were all found dead. . . . ' On the same side of Spitzbergen, between latitude 77 and 78, a boat's crew, belonging to a Greenland ship, con- sisting of eight Englishmen, who had been sent ashore to kill deer, were left behind, in consequence of some mis- take, and reduced to the deplorable necessity of wintering in that dreadful country, totally unprovided with every necessary. . . . ' The melancholy of their situation was aggravated by the absence of the sun from the horizon from October 14 to February 3, of which period twenty days were passed in total darkness, except the light of lamps, which they contrived to keep continually burning. With all this, it does not appear that any of them were affected with the scurvy, or any other disorder ; and the degree of weakness, which seems implied by the mention of their recovering strength in the spring, may be sufficiently accounted for merely from their short allowance of nutri- tious food. At the return of the ship on May 25 they all appear to have been in health ; and all of them returned in safety to their native country. . . . ' In the year 1743, a Russian ship of East Spitzbergen, in latitude between 77 and 78, was so enclosed with ice, QO Literary and Philosophical Society. that the crew, apprehensive of being obliged to winter there, sent four of their men in a boat to seek for a hut, which they knew to have been erected near that coast. The hut was discovered ; but the men, on returning to the shore, found all the ice cleared away, and the ship no longer to be seen ; and indeed it was never more heard of (P- 97). ' The flesh they eat almost raw, and without salt ; using by way of bread to it, other flesh dried hard in the smoke. Their drink was running water in the summer, and melted ice and snow in the winter. Their preservatives against the scurvy were, swallowing raw frozen meat broken into bits, drinking the warm blood of reindeer just killed, eating scurvy-grass, when they could meet with it, and using much exercise. By these means three of them remained entirely free from this disease during the whole of their abode. The fourth died of it after lingering on to the sixth year. ' In a note to the account of the four Russians, it is said, " Counsellor Miiller says, the Russians about Archangel should be imitated ; some of whom every year winter in Nova Zembla without ever contracting the scurvy. They follow the example of the Samoides, by frequently drinking the warm blood of reindeer just killed. The hunting of these animals requires continual exercise. None ever keep their huts during the day, unless the stormy weather, or too great quantity of snow, hinders them from taking their usual exercise." ' In a manuscript French account of the islands lying between Kamtschatka and America, drawn up by that eminent naturalist and geographer, Mr. Pallas, I find it mentioned that ' the Russians in their hunting voyages to Living in High Latitudes. 91 these islands (an expedition generally lasting three years), in order to save expense and room in purchasing and stowing vegetable provision, compose half their crews of natives of Kamtschatka, because these people are able to preserve themselves from the scurvy with animal food only, by abstaining from the use of salt.' 'Lastly, in the excellent oration of Linnaeus, on the advantages of travelling in one's own country, printed in the third volume of the Amaenitates Academicae, it is asserted " that the Laplanders live without corn and wine, without salt and every kind of artificial liquor, on water and flesh alone, and food prepared from them ; and yet are entirely free from the scurvy." l 'When we compare the histories above recited, it is impossible not to be immediately struck with these leading circumstances, that those in whom the scurvy raged fed upon salt provisions^and drank spirituous liquors ; whereas those who escaped it, fed upon fresh animal food, or at least preserved without salt, and drank water. . . . ' On the other hand it seems to be a fact, that several of the Northern nations, whose diet is extremely putrid (as before hinted with respect to the people of Kamtschatka), are able to preserve themselves from the scurvy ; therefore, putrid aliments alone will not necessarily induce it. On the whole, on an attentive consideration of the facts which have been recited, some of which are upon a pretty exten- sive scale, I cannot but adopt the opinion that the use of sea-salt is a very principal cause of the scurvy, and that a 1 ' In Lapplandia observabit homines absque Cerere et Baccho, absque sale et potu omni artificial!, aqua tantum et carne, et quae ab his prseparantur, contentos vivere. ' Quare Norlandi, ut plurimum, scorbuto sint infecti ; et cur Lappone?, contra, hujus morbi prorsus expertes ? ' 92 Literary and Philosophical Society. total abstinence from it is one of the most important means for preventing this disease. . . . ' In what precise manner these substances (viz., the fat and oil of fish and marine animals) act, is not perhaps easily explained ; but as the use of them would, doubtless, cause an accumulation of similar parts in the body, and as we find all animals destined to endure the severe cold of the arctic climates are copiously furnished with fat, we may conclude that it possesses some peculiar efficacy in defending from the impressions of cold. . . . ' Writers on the scurvy seem almost unanimously to consider a portion of these liquors as a useful addition to the diet of persons exposed to the causes of this disease ; and due deference ought certainly to be paid to their knowledge and experience : but, convinced as I am that art never made so fatal a present to mankind as the in- vention of distilling spirituous liquors, and that they are seldom or never a necessary, but almost always a perni- cious article in the diet of men in health, I cannot but look with peculiar satisfaction on the confirmation this opinion receives by the events in these narratives. . . . ' We have acquired, by association, the idea of opposing actual cold by matters potentially or metaphorically hot ; but this in great measure is a fallacious notion. On the contrary, it is found that the effects of excessive heat are best resisted by warm and acrid substances, such as the spicy and aromatic vegetables which the hot climates most abundantly produce, and which are so much used in the diet of the inhabitants. And if it be admitted as a general law of nature, that every country yields the products best adapted to the health and sustenance of its inhabitants, we should conclude that aromatic vegetables and fer- Living in High Latitudes. 93 mented liquors are peculiarly appropriate to the warmer climates ; while bland, oily animal matters are rather designed for the use of the frigid regions. . . . ' Another extremely pernicious effect of these liquors, is the indolence and stupidity they occasion, rendering men inattentive to their own preservation, and unwilling to use those exertions, which are so peculiarly necessary in situations like those described in the foregoing narratives. And this leads me to the consideration of a third important head, that of exercise. . . . ' The two companies of Dutchmen seem to have done little during their melancholy abode but drink brandy and smoke tobacco over their fires. On the other hand, Captain James' men were very sufficiently employed in the laborious task of building their pinnace, which, notwithstanding their weak and sickly state, they had nearly completed before they found the work unnecessary. . . . ' But it is to be remarked, that in these instances, what I consider as the most powerful cause of the scurvy, the use of salted provisions, did not exist ; and therefore less powerful preservatives would be necessary. . . . 'And the advantage of subterraneous lodgings is proved by the well-known fact of the unchanging tempera- ture of the air at certain depths beneath the surface. We turn now to a very different subject. . 94 Literary and Philosophical Society. An attempt to show that a Taste for the Beauties of Nature and the Fine Arts has no influence favourable to Morals. By the Rev. Samuel Hall, A.M. Read May 15, I782, 1 and extract the following : 1 The very ingenious author of the " Elements of Criti- cism " tells us, that there is a strong and close affinity between taste and the moral sense. " Taste," says he, " in the fine arts goes hand in hand with the moral sense, to which indeed it is nearly allied." 2 . . . ' " It is a remarkable circumstance," says Brown in his " Essay on the Characteristics," that, " in the decline of both the Greek and Roman States, when religion had lost its credit and efficacy, this very taste, this species of philosophy, usurped its place, and became the common study and amusement both of the vile and vulgar " (p. 230). . . . ' But we are further told, " that a taste for the beautiful scenes of nature, not only composes and harmonises the temper, but disposes the mind to acts of piety and devo- tion, by raising our ideas from nature to nature's God." 3 The thought is pleasing and ingenious, but must not be admitted without many exceptions (p. 233). . . . ' A taste for elegance was so universally diffused among all ranks of people (in Athens) that even a herb -woman, we are told, could detect a very small deviation from pro- priety of speech. 4 Taste could not possibly have a fairer field wherein to display its natural effects. But the history 5 of these times and the moral lectures of Socrates sufficiently evince, that the Athenians were a people 1 Vol. i. p. 226. 2 Elem. Crit. Introduc., p. 7. 3 Percival on a Taste for the Beauties of Nature. 4 Xenoph. Memorab., passim. 5 Rollin's Ancient History, vol. iv. UNIVERSITY The Fine Arts and jtforWs?*** 95 addicted to every kind of sensual pleasure, at once refined and voluptuous, licentious and effeminate (p. 236). . . . '"If," says Lord Orrery, in his letters from Italy, "you take a view of the princes of the Medici in a group, you will feel reverence and respect at one part of the picture, and be struck with horror and amazement at the remain- der. To revere and honour them you must consider their generosity, their benefactions to men of learning, their policy, and scientific institutions. To view them with horror and amazement, you need only listen to the un- doubted outrages of their private lives ; by which you will be convinced, that few or none of the whole race were endued with the softer passions of the human soul. I wish that in many of their group their love was not lust ; their good nature, ostentation ; their dignity, pride ; and their sense, cunning." . . . ' I wish only to disprove the affirmative of the proposi- tion, and show that taste cannot reasonably be considered as a moral principle of action : that, unassisted by reason and good sense, it becomes subservient to the purposes of folly and extravagance ; and that, connected with a base and sensual heart, it unhappily serves to embellish guilt and gloss over the deformity of vice (p. 238). . . .' Many people have reasoned on this subject, but history has never been brought to corroborate the idea that taste in the fine arts promotes virtue ; the finest taste seems to have come to a nation when the vigour of the nerve was gone, and refinement took its place along with weakness. It is to be hoped that we may find refinement and strength in combination and such does exist in individuals, show- ing its possibility. 96 Literary and Philosophical Society. But to teach virtue by taste in the fine arts is a desire never yet satisfied, so far as we can find, although the opposite result has often been attained, viz. the destruction of the character by a weakening refinement and a love of that which is merely beautiful externally, agreeable, and within reach. The reason is probably not far to seek ; we do not know what intellectual action is, and we can only guess at some vague idea regarding some of its laws. It may be that they are geometrical to a great extent, a strange mystic geometry played out by the mysterious atoms which constitute those organs that produce con- sciousness, a chemistry of the brain. The emotions of the higher kind, however, are far more obscure, and come from a more mysterious region of the soul, but the perception of beauty in music and in painting is more allied to mere external movement ; the musical instrument sounds the chords of the brain we may refer to Helmholtz's ' Tonempfindungen ' for this and a pleasure is felt which may be entirely unconnected with intellectual life, and enjoyed by persons whose characters have only this one touch of elevation, if it is elevation, in them. Indeed, we know that music is enjoyed by many of the lower animals, and paintings by many of the lowest men. Still there is a taste for the fine arts which refines some of the lower habits, but the beauty cannot be observed by all men ; whilst a taste which refines the higher does exist, that is, when it comes in connection with the higher gifts of the mind. This does not come either from the painter or the sculptor. We do not find their arts well fitted to develop minds. This explains why no amount of opportunity of seeing beautiful pictures and statues raised the popula- tion of Italy, or made it less of a land of robbery and The Fine Arts and Morals. 97 murder. The improvement is coming when the taste for the fine arts has left. The time will come when the two will unite, as in the case of the religious painters. Abstractly we think that good dramas must improve men, but the historic effect there also has been small, whilst the degradation attendant on, we do not say caused by, dramatic effects has been obvious enough. ^Eschylus alone might make a man think how lofty the drama might be. It was then above the age and taught ; now its advocates tell us it is a reflex of the age, yielding the point. Reflecting is not teaching. We may be excused for giving our own opinions here in corroboration of the views advocated by the Rev. Samuel Hall and Dr. Falconer ; it is a subject on which we have thought, seeking in history for a sure guide. Yet how frightfully men deceive themselves. They might read of the Greek character sinking when their best statues were made ; the same process had taken place in Egypt, the same took place in Italy. We might follow the same effect everywhere. We are not afraid to go to the frequenters of operas and of our best music cathedrals, to find a similar proof of deterioration in more cases than can give us elevation. Refined music of a class requiring great study as well as talent, seems to be enjoyed by persons of a character most intimately selfish and utterly devoid of the love of man or the fear of God. It may drive even intellect out of the man and make him a machine for the sensual enjoyment of musical vibrations, which, moreover, he cannot understand, because, although they are connected with intellect and character, they cannot take the place of either, and their language is in want of a definite grammar. This does not prevent us from allowing H 9& Literary and Philosophical Society. it to be possible that music may take the place of language some day, to guide man far beyond his present power of speech. There are even some souls who have this happi- ness in incipient revelation ; but to most men the indication is at most a very distant one, absolutely unheeded. So in painting : imagine men softened by attempts at faces, none of them ever so sweet as their own mothers have shown, although in form more beautiful ; how woefully behind are the best in feeling compared with the living face ; or imagine them made devoted by the faces of saints for whom, although the living human face was used as a model, the very best of painters have failed to portray well that piety which is supposed to be represented. We say this after some care. Imagine men civilised by pictures in galleries which try to imitate nature in landscape, when the inexpressible beauty of nature is unheeded be- fore them. Still, we yield here also something. The study of the works of men striving after the highest model is a great advantage to any one in a similar track ; he is shown the way by easier steps ; there is, therefore, a stage at which even the inferior works of artists, as much as the greatest of them, may turn out to be of advantage to thinking men. But strangely they seem never to begin civilisation, or to improve men who have not made some marked advance, whilst the subjects often produce degrada- tion by increasing the love of the external and un spiritual. The finest civilisations have begun in earnestness and force mainly, even if joined to violence, injustice, and cruelty ; not in anything refined. That is not the first stage. Bleaching. 1 A curious view of the simplicity of the times with 1 Vol. i. p. 240. Dr. Martin Wall. gg regard to the treatment of cloth, the most truly Manchester subject in the volume, is given by Dr. Eason on p. 240, vol. i. (Aug. 7, 1782). The author wishes to recommend the use of muriatic acid instead of sulphuric acid in the bleach- ing of cloth, after the alkaline treatment ; because not only is it cheaper, but when sulphuric acid is used ' the selenitic matter adhering to the threads of the cloth will injure it and make it feel hard to the touch, and probably is the reason why some linens wear so badly ! ' The present aim is to load the cloth to the utmost with extraneous matter, and if selenite is not used much at present, it is because another sulphate comes in more conveniently. An exporter of sulphate of magnesia in Stassfurt was asked rather in fun, if he did not think it a dishonest thing to sell that material to the Manchester people in order to enable them to adulterate their goods ? ' That I never do/ he said ; ' I sell this and know nothing of it after it leaves me. I would not sell it for such a purpose as you mention.' Men defend the custom by speeches and letters in newspapers, and defend their bad cloth by lawsuits, and put on an appearance of ill-usage when they lose the case. Wonders in nature we see and scan, But the chief of them all is man. Dr. Martin Wall. Dr. Martin Wall was Praelector of Chemistry in the University of Cambridge in 1782 ; we find him paying the greatest respect to the rising scientific authorities in Manchester, and writing with great deference. A gentle essay ' On the Use of Symbols' (chemical) shows his classical knowledge and tastes ; but we do not find in him either H 2 too Literary and Philosophical Society. depth of insight or deep classical knowledge ; and we are led to wonder much why such a university, with centuries of life and superabundant wealth, should have cared so little for the advance of knowledge in directions so distinctly pointed out by Nature as leading to the greatest regions ; and how different is Dr. Wall's knowledge of all that is done in chemistry from that of his contemporary, John Friedrich Gmelin, the author of ' Geschichte der Chemie.' Classical knowledge comes more suitably from Dr. Falconer when he speaks of the * influence of the scenery of a country on its inhabitants,' or on the * style and taste of gardening among the ancients,' and in vol. ii. ' On the knowledge of the ancients respecting glass,' but on these matters later inquiries have attained what could not have been anticipated even by genius. Mr. Bew on Blindness. The discovery of colour blindness has hitherto been given to Dalton, and unquestionably he first raised it into the region of science ; but it has not been observed, so far as the writer knows, that Mr. Bew or anyone else had observed the peculiarity. Here we seem to have the true beginning, on p. 182. An essay by Mr. Bew, read April 17, 1782, is entitled ' Observations on blindness, and on the employment of the other Senses to supply the Loss of Sight.' The Society unfortunately employs the term Mr. without the Christian name so frequently that it is not easy, even when possible, to identify the person alluded to. This essay has two re- markable descriptions in it, one is of Dr. Henry Moyes, who is worthy of being remembered, as he lectured on chemistry Bew on Blindness. 101 in Manchester before Dalton came ; the other is of John Metcalf, a man connected with the neighbourhood, and certainly wonderful as being a surveyor of hill roads, a blind man dealing with distances and precipices. The following is from Mr. Bew's paper, vol. i. p. 168, of the ' Memoirs of the Society.' ' I pass over a number of instances that might be offered to your notice, and proceed to give some account of Dr. Henry Moyes, the elegant reader on philosophical chemistry, whose lectures the greatest part of this Society had the satisfaction of attending, and whose personal ac- quaintance several of us have enjoyed. ' Possessed of native genius, and ardent in his application, he made rapid advances in various departments of erudition, and not only acquired the fundamental principles of mechanics, music, and the languages, but likewise entered deeply into the investigation of the profounder sciences ; and displayed an acute and general knowledge of geometry, optics, algebra, of astronomy, chemistry, and, in short, of most of the branches of the Newtonian philosophy. ' Mechanical exercises were the favourite employments of his infant years. At a very early age he made himself acquainted with the use of edged tools so perfectly, that notwithstanding his entire blindness, he was able to make little windmills ; and he even constructed a loom with his own hands, which still show the cicatrices of wounds he received in the execution of these juvenile exploits. 1 By a most agreeable intimacy and frequent intercourse which I enjoyed with this accomplished blind gentleman whilst he resided in Manchester, I had an opportunity of repeatedly observing the peculiar manner in which he IO2 Literary and Philosophical Society. arranged his ideas and acquired his information. When- ever he was introduced into company, I remarked that he continued some time silent. The sound directed him to judge of the dimensions of the room, and the different voices, of the number of persons that were present. His distinction, in these respects, was very accurate, and his memory so retentive that he seldom was mistaken. I have known him instantly recognise a person, on first hearing him speak, though more than two years had elapsed since the time of their last meeting. He determined, pretty nearly, the stature of those he was speaking with, by the direction of their voices ; and he made tolerable conjectures, respecting their tempers and dispositions, by the manner in which they conducted their conversation.' In the same paper we are told of another blind man. ' This is one John Metcalf, who, like the gentleman already mentioned, became blind at a very early age, so as to be entirely unconscious of light and its various effects. This man passed the younger part of his life as a waggoner, and, occasionally, as a guide in intricate roads during the night, or when the tracks were covered with snow. Strange as this may appear to those who can see, the employment he has since undertaken is still more extraordinary ; it is one of the last to which we could suppose a blind man would ever turn his attention. His present occupation is that of a projector and surveyor of highways in difficult and mountainous parts. With the assistance only of a long staff, I have several times met this man traversing the roads, ascending precipices, exploring valleys, and investigating their several extents, forms, and situations, so as to answer his designs in the best manner. The plans which he designs, and the estimates he makes, are done in a method Longevity. 103 peculiar to himself, and which he cannot well convey the meaning of to others. His abilities, in this respect, are nevertheless, so great, that he finds constant employment. Most of the roads over the Peak in Derbyshire have been altered by his directions, particularly those in the vicinity of Buxton ; and he is, at this time, constructing a new one, betwixt Wilmslow and Congleton, with a view to open a communication to the great London road, without being obliged to pass over the mountains.' Longevity. Dr. Fothergill gives us a treatise on Longevity, vol. i. p. 355, which would not satisfy Mr. Thorns, but one which is inclined to view with a somewhat broader mind the tales concerning age. He is a bold man who puts limits to life, and who asserts that he knows the causes either of life or of decay. It is in the nature of things that there should be exceptions and extremes, and it would be wonderful if when the natural life of a dog is ten, but of an unusual dog thirty, that man also should be found never exceeding in any case much more than his usual limit. Nay more, is it not natural to suppose that he too has specimens which double or triple the usual term of human life ? It is better to learn how wide nature is than to try to prove favourite points. It is remarkable how consistent with each other the conditions are of men who have lived above 100. Of those occurring several times annually in our own islands, all are poor the poorest are in Ireland among a race remarkably tenacious of life, men among whom usually lives are long, and where centenarians might be expected according to reason without even a grain of sentiment ; IO4 Literary and Philosophical Society. such classes are more likely to have exceptions of corre- sponding increase of tenacity, because of a fundamental characteristic being tenacity. It is true that Mr. Thorns does not deny the possibility, but limits himself to want of evidence ; but after all his exertions he can only show that men sometimes exaggerate, and this is true in all history. We must remember that Nature in her own way exaggerates a great deal more, and laughs at the feebleness and littleness of our incredulity. Our age is incredulous in some things, but frightfully credulous in others, superstitious to an extent previously unsurpassed regarding the power of nature, exactly showing the character of the men from whom it has sprung. The Saxon boor will believe nothing out of his sphere ; he will not believe till he sees it, that steam can drive a coach, but he knows that a bogle lives in the wood. We are not inclined to the bogle because we have not seen it, but we are inclined to think that men die about seventy, although perhaps we never in our lives saw one die whose age we knew exactly ; and if it be difficult to prove that any man is a hundred years old, we must remember that it is also difficult to prove any man to be sixty years old, when he is not a public character, or a man who has lived long with his early com- panions. Some people think that scepticism is a grand thing ; they boast of a want of belief in anything wonderful. How facts put down these men, accumulating wonder upon wonder, with exceptions, anomalies, and eccentricities ! There are unknown laws enough to account for all wonders. Registers of the Popiilation. 105 Registers of the Population, and its Work. Mr. Wimpey writes 'On Economical Registers/ and advocates a general directory of all the people in Great Britain, and that all people should have a medal about their person when twelve miles from home as a guarantee of their individuality. We should be as unhappy as a German who carries or must show when required, a Geburtschein, an Impfschein, a Taufschein, and how many more, to show his birth, baptism, confirmation, and all his petty history to a government which delights in small facts. We should like to tell Mr. Wimpey that we can run off a couple of hundred miles and still sleep at home at night. The article is curious in another respect because of a sentence on p. 14, vol. i. ' In a fertile country like England, which grows more corn than its inhabitants can consume and of course renders it a commercial article, it is of great importance to ascertain the following facts for the regulation of the exportation of that article. ' I. What is the annual average yield of corn in England for a series of years ? 'II. What is the average annual consumption in the same time ? ' And Mr. Wimpey has been found right in great part ; we make now a decennial census, and we seek to learn the amount of corn grown in England, although we have not yet arrived at the exactness he desired. On Diversions. One almost thinks on reading this first volume of memoirs, that the 'early man of Manchester had burst into the world from some previous cave-dwelling and then re- io6 Literary and Philosophical Society. veiled in the scenes put before him by the glamour of science. We find him inquiring if he does well to hunt and fish, or if he ought to live on pulse only, afraid to kill animals, and if there is reason to be afraid to kill even plants lest they should suffer in their sensitiveness ? We remember these fancies in our childhood. The unnamed writer ' On the Diversions of Hunting, Shooting, Fishing, &c./ considered as compatible with humanity, p. 341, has leapt bravely through the weaknesses of sentiment that keep us from the use of our nature in the direction of those healthy sports. He says, * It might then perhaps appear that amidst all the variety and eccentricity which the con- templation of a given character presents, the primary dis- position, the original nature, and springs of action are extremely few. If this were proved, the seeming incon- sistency between many of the actions of an individual must disappear, as it would be unfair to reason from any partial view of his character.' This seems true, even when character rises high the foundations are left : we stand upon the earth. This by no means shortens the height to which we may see, or dimin- ishes the world in which the mind lives. We must not forget that the universe of matter has an extension beyond all our conceptions, although we must equally remember that the space between the moving spheres contains power if not matter also, and is inconceivably greater than any space occupied by visible or known material. The materialist has been obliged so to extend his ideas of matter that it has grown into mind ; the visible universe with all its greatness has become too small for those who have learnt to look on the magnitude of that which is active but invisible. It will be seen that in the first volume we have certainly On Diversions. 107 some very varied information mixed with essays on subjects that in our time would seem better suited to a school for the young ; but society was consolidating itself. Education was in an earlier stage, and the demands were simpler than now ; old ideas had in many cases been forgotten for want of institutions in which to embody them : they lay en- tombed in books for want of a new body in which to rise ; whilst new ones came fresh into the world and began to receive that encouragement for which wise men and philan- thropists had waited in vain in former times. On careful consideration it will appear that such essays were required at the time, and their translation into continental languages with their general reception is a guarantee that they showed an advance on the age, notwithstanding what may have previously existed in more recondite volumes. Dr. Mainwaring. Dr. Peter Mainwaring is mentioned as one of the first presidents of the Society. He is also called an eminent physician and a magistrate of the town. He presented to the Royal Infirmary a small collection of books and a bookcase, forming the nucleus of the present library (Man- chester Historical Recorder). He lived in King Street. He died in the ninety-first year of his age in 1785. (Har- rop's Manchester Mercury) Dr. George Bell. When Dr. Charles Bell, a nephew of the famous Sir Charles Bell, M.D. Edin., came in 1847 to reside in Man- chester, he supposed Dr. Geo. Bell to be one of the family ; but Dr. Geo. came from Dumfriesshire. (See Currie's account in Mem., vol. ii., p. 382.) He died young. He deserves a longer notice. io8 Literary and Philosophical Society. CHAPTER VII. THE THREE HENRYS DR. EASON THE MASSEYS, ETC. WE do not know the ethnology of the Henrys, but from the name we may suppose them to be English, and probably Norman English. However, the family is said to have been in Antrim for several generations. The grandfather of our first Manchester Henry, namely Thomas, commanded a company of foot in the time of James II. ; and during the disturbed times which in Ireland succeeded the Revolution was shot by an assassin in his own garden. The son, Thomas Henry's father, was an infant, and was taken care of by a neighbouring nobleman and educated in Dublin ; afterwards he was brought to Wales. He married the daughter of a clergy- man and began a ladies' school at Wrexham, where Thomas was born. The school was subsequently transferred to Manchester. Thomas Henry, who was born on October 26, (Old Style) 1734, was educated at the grammar school of Wrexham after careful instruction from his mother. He was intended for the Church, but the expense was held to be too great considering the number of the family, and he was apprenticed to an apothecary, Mr. Jones, who soon died, and Henry went to another of the same profession at Knutsford. He studied ' Boerhaave's Chemistry/ and after his apprenticeship went to assist an apothecary at Oxford by Thomas Henry. name Malbon. He attended anatomical lectures, refused a partnership which would have demanded seven years of study for full medical practice, and returned to Manchester as an apothecary, practising in the manner usual at the time. This was a little before Dr. Percival's arrival. The paper read to the Royal College of Physicians on ' An Improved Method of preparing Magnesia Alba ' is the first mentioned in the life by his son. It was written purely with scientific interest, and the magnesia as medicine was not prepared for sale until Mr. Henry had been strongly advised, and had received the opinions of Sir John Pringle, Sir Clifton Wintringham, Dr. Warren, and others. This and some other essays were published in a separate volume. Mr. Henry was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, by the interest of Sir John Pringle, Priestley, and Dr. Franklin, and gradually rose into fame, whilst the family wealth was solidly founded. Mr. Henry introduced to the English chemists the works of Lavoisier up to the year 1776, and illustrated them with notes. He also first observed that a certain amount of carbonic acid in the air is favourable to the growth of plants, and these experiments were received by Priestley with great interest. His mode of keeping water pure at sea was an improve- ment on that of Dr. Alston, of Edinburgh. Dr. Alston had proposed the use of lime to prevent putrefaction, and when the water was required he proposed to precipitate the lime with carbonate of magnesia. This certainly unpracti- cal proposal was changed by Henry into passing carbonic acid though the lime-water and precipitating carbonate of lime. This is the origin probably of Clark's process of purifying water, and it is remarkable that such a simple no Literary and Philosophical Society. thing should have gone through so many stages. Clark added lime to water already containing carbonic acid, and this made a precipitate which not only consisted of the lime added but also of the carbonate which was previously in solution, added to a good deal of organic matter on certain occasions. The ' putrefaction of water ' at sea was at one time an alarming evil. People did not consider that pure water could not putrefy, they did not separate the idea of water from that of its contents. Henry's plan may still be used with advantage in many places where the wells require attention, although it is always better to seek a fresh supply purified by nature. Mr. Henry and Dr. Barnes were the first Secretaries of the Society, and in 1807 the former became President, retaining this position during life, or to the year 1816. He was a man of clear mind, as his papers testify, ready and practical. He read much, had a good knowledge of all the science known at the time, and gave much attention to history. His sympathies were active with his friends and with the struggling public, arid he was one of the early members of a society for the abolition of the African slave trade, showing himself a true man and enlightened thinker in his own house and active laboratory, as well as in the public work of the increasing town, and in his aspirations avoiding the narrowness of self by seeking liberty both in this and in other countries. On June 27, 1781, a letter was read from James Massey, Esq., to Mr. Bew, containing a new and simple method of impregnating water with fixed air, with a drawing of the apparatus, as well as for decomposing lime-water and rendering putrid water sweet. Probably the non-publication of the paper is to be Thomas Henry. m accounted for by the previous publication of Henry's volume. An admirable portrait of Henry, painted by Allen, hangs on the walls of the Society's rooms. It was painted when he was advanced in years, but still shows that calm power and activity of mind which Henry's life and writings evince. Clearly he was not a great philosopher, his educa- tion was imperfect and his disposition was more that of a worker than an abstract thinker ; but he was a good type of the practical race of Englishmen, or of people of north- west Ireland. Before leaving Thomas Henry we may bring together some further account of his more important work. We see the clearness of the man's mind in some very simple expressions ; -he quotes ' Baume ' (vol. i. p. 449) as supposing < that when calcareous earth is deprived of air and water it will return to its primitive state, viz. that of silicious earth.' Mr. Henry says, 'This theory is rather fanciful than just. The operations of nature, it must be allowed, are generally simple, but we may simplify too far ; and in forming systems we should not suffer our imagina- tions to carry us beyond those bounds which our senses and experiment warrant. ' Calcareous earth indeed, in the form in which we commonly find it, is a compound consisting of earth, air, and water, and is not considered as pure till it be deprived by fire of the two last elements. It is then properly pure calcareous earth ; but it does not appear that longer cal- cination, though it may divest it of some of the properties of calcareous, will ever reduce it to the nature of silicious earth. ' Every earth with which we meet and which when ii2 Literary and Philosophical Society. separated from those acids or other accidental substances that are combined with it resists every power we possess to produce any further decomposition, and yet differs in all or any of its properties from the other known earths, may be admitted to form a new genus.' But even he fails soon in his reasoning, and when discussing the production of sea salt and nitre forgets the strong individuality he has already given to the elements, and makes them grow ; at least, it is so of nitric acid and potash. ' But it may be said that, in the one both the alkaline and acid parts of the salt are formed ; whereas in the other the acid only is produced on the beds, and it is necessary to add an alkaline salt to constitute the basis of the nitre. I cannot, however, allow of the force of this objection. Though the addition of the alkali be necessary in these northern latitudes, yet in warmer climates, where nature is more vigorous and active, there is no doubt but the former one develops both the acid and alkali of nitre at the same time.' Dr. Wall, in vol. ii. p. 77, says 'that the vegetable alkali (potash) is produced by the operation of nature only in the putrefaction of vege- tables.' It is interesting to view this mode of reasoning. There is a clear idea of development in this case, or rather the passage of one element so-called into another, a thoroughly alchemistic idea, if not an idea common to Druidism, or of witchcraft, and the earliest magic, when the change of one thing into another showed that no exact idea existed as to the quality of matter or of any permanent nature of things. If, as in an Egyptian or an Irish tale, a human being can turn into a cow, a tree, or a splinter of wood, the essence of things is not in the matter but in the spiritual character. Things are viewed as we view the character Thomas Henry. 113 of a man who may be good and powerful whether he weigh nine stone or twenty. On the other hand, the idea of development of the world does not come into Mr. Henry's mind, but he agrees with the Bishop of Llandaff (see 'Watson's Chemical Essays,' vol. ii.) that the seas originally created salt. It was not customary at that time to view the universe as a whole, or to watch it gradually developing itself as we now watch young plants. Now it is common for man to view the growth of worlds, placing himself out of measurable time and sitting in fancy beyond measurable space, whilst the whirlpools of atoms waste their fury, coming from their impenetrable caverns still farther away than our imagin- ation can travel, and swinging into existence with an irregular force that gradually seems to learn its duty, and concentrates itself in a well behaved and regular sun or planet ; he watches over some stray piece which it may keep near itself as satellite, spending the fury of its youth, and learning to move with a regularity that makes it fit to be a time-piece for creation. Mr. Thomas Henry's clearness grows more observable as he goes on, and in vol. iii.p. 363, on * Different Materials as. Objects of the Art of Dyeing/ we find him coming to sound views as to the action of alum as a mordant. It is not always easy to obtain the meaning even of writers so late as Dr. Henry on this subject ; their ideas were loosely held, and their language was suitable, so that it is capable of different bends. Still one sentence by Mr. Henry may be considered sufficient evidence of originality and unusual distinctness : ' When cotton is to be dyed and some of these bases are requisite, not only the basis is to be pre- cipitated by the astringent colouring principle, but the T 114 Literary and Philosophical Society. attraction of the material to the basis is to be increased by other intermedia. The permanency of the extractive dyes therefore depends on the previous treatment of the cotton, and, where alum is employed, of that salt, so as to procure a more copious precipitation of its earth and to unite it by means of other substances to the material.' He observes, however, that Mr. Keir, the ingenious translator of Macquer's ' Dictionary of Chemistry/ appears to have been the first who suspected that the earth of alum was precipitated, and in this form attracted to the material. However, the full explanation seems to be Henry's ; and he also combats the ideas of Macquer on the subject, that chemist having looked to the influence of the alkali which is added, and supposed the alumina to be redissclved, and the alkaline salt with aluminous basis to be the real mordant. The idea of animalising cotton cloth to enable it to take up colouring matter with- out mordant as wool does, also occurred to Mr. Henry, but he acknowledges that Bergman had the same idea ; still it was only an idea, and even now but partially successful as a process of manufacture, although in use and growing. Melting of Platinum. At a meeting of the Society on Aug 13, 1789, a letter was read from a London chemist, Mr. Thomas Willis, giving an account of the melting of two ounces of platinum in a crucible 3 inches wide on a bed of powdered charcoal. Mr. Henry, junior, is mentioned as being present at some of the experiments mentioned. This must have been William Henry, who would then have been quite a boy, and is soon to be spoken of. Thomas MORTALITY IN MANCHESTER. About the middle of last century a desponding feeling rose in the minds of many persons, as it has often done, that all things were going to decay and the inhabitants themselves were decreasing. Evidently Manchester and Salford thought that they made a great community, and in 1773 a number of men who afterwards became members of this Society subscribed for the purpose of obtaining accurate statistics of the place. They found that it was actually increasing. In a paper 'On the Bills of Mortality for Manchester and Salford,' read by Mr. Thomas Henry in 1786 (see vol. iii. p. 159), we read, ' By casting our eyes on the bills of mortality for those years (intervening between 1773 and 1 786) we find the population of the towns greatly advancing, and what is a pleasing circumstance, especially considering the number of men of which they were drained for the supply of his Majesty's fleets and armies, we see a striking superiority of the births over the burials.' Observations on the Bills of Mortality for the towns of Manchester and Salford. By Thomas Henry, F.R.S., A cad. P kilos. Amer., PJdladel. ; Med. Lond. and Physic. Edinb. Soc. Read Jan. 18, I786. 1 'In the year 1773 several persons, many of whom are now members of this society, subscribed for the purpose of obtaining an accurate account of the state of the popula- tion of the towns of Manchester and Salford, 2 which should 1 Vol. iii., pp. 159-173. 2 ' Manchester and Salford, though distinct townships, are only separated by the river Irwel, and communicate by means of several bridges. In the year 1757 the number of inhabitants was no more than 19,839 ' I 2 1 1 6 Literary and Philosophical Society. contain the number of houses, families, males, females, &c. The result of this inquiry, which was instituted with a view to the opinion, at that time propagated, of the general decline of population in the kingdom, proved that instead of being diminished, as was supposed to be the case with the inhabitants of London, the number of persons residing in Manchester and Salford was greatly increased ; that the number of tenanted houses was 4,268, of families 6,416, and of inhabitants 27,246, or 6J to a house. But in this account, the number of inhabitants residing in the town- ships, almost the whole of which were then nearly contigu- ous with the towns, and now form a part of them, was not included. These districts contained at that time 311 houses, 361 families, and 1,905 individuals. This number added to the former, makes that of the inhabitants amount to 29,1 5 1. 1 ' Soon after the period at which this survey was taken, a very considerable increase of inhabitants took place. The spirit and ingenuity of our manufacturers made extra- ordinary and rapid improvements in our fabrics ; and the introduction of machinery, instead of lessening the number of hands, found employment for many additional people. The town extended on every side, and such was the influx of inhabitants, that though a great number of new houses were built, they were occupied even before they were finished. 'The progress of the trade and population, though certainly checked, was not wholly restrained by the unfor- tunate and ever to be lamented war which was waged, during a period of almost nine years, with our American colonies, supported by the immense and united forces of 1 Dr. Percival's Essays, vol. iii. Thomas Henry. 117 France, Spain, and Holland. Contrary to every reason- able expectation, the manufactures of Manchester were not affected by the war to any great and alarming degree, and they still found their way by various channels to almost every market where they had been usually sold. By casting our eyes on the bills of mortality for those years, we find the population of the towns greatly advancing, and, what is a pleasing circumstance, especially consider- ing the number of men of which they were drained for the supply of his Majesty's fleets and armies, we see a striking superiority of the births over the burials. ' On the happy event of the restoration of peace, the influx of inhabitants was surprisingly greater. Multitudes of men who had served abroad or in our provincial regi- ments at home, now returned into the country, and the success of the opposition which was made to the monopoly of the cotton machines, drew from various quarters large recruits of people. During the last three years the number of our christenings has been much augmented, but though they still maintain a majority, yet I am sorry to observe that the list of burials, when compared with those of the three preceding years, is more than proportionably en- larged. A contagious fever has proved very destructive, and its virulence has been probably increased by the crowded and uncleanly manner in which the poorer people have been lodged, owing to the want of houses to accommo- date them ; for though many have been erected, yet several causes have contributed to restrain the spirit of building. During the war, the high price of timber was a considerable obstacle, and since the peace, the frosts, which were for two years together very intense, and continued till the spring was far advanced, have prevented the making 1 1 8 Literary and Philosophical Society. of bricks, and, together with the tax, greatly enhanced their price. From these causes, I believe, were an actual survey taken at present, the number of inhabitants to a house would far exceed the amount in the year 1773.* But it is proper to observe that the devastations of this disease have not been confined to this place. Dr. Fother- gill, of Bath, informs me that all the manufacturing towns in the vicinity of that city have been afflicted by a fever of a similar kind. . . . 'In 1773 the total number of the inhabitants of Manchester and Salford, including the townships, was 29,151. . . . ' From all these different views we may, I think, be authorised to conclude that the number of inhabitants of the two towns cannot be much lower than 50,000, es- pecially as from a circumstance of which I shall hereafter take notice, it is probable that the annual number of deaths is underrated. . . . ' Dr. Percival, whose attention was some years since particularly directed to the subject of this paper, pointed out a plan of keeping the parish register, which, if it had been pursued, would have been productive of great advan- tages ; and he took pains to ascertain the proportion of deaths by the small-pox to those by all other diseases. In the course of this inquiry he found that in a space of six years, from 1769 to 1774 inclusive, the deaths by the small-pox were nearly one-sixth and a half of the whole. 2 I am happy to observe that in the last six years 1 ' I have too frequently had opportunities of seeing a man with his wife and three or four children, all residing in one small room, in which they dress their victuals, eat, work, and sleep.' 2 During the years 1772-3 and 4, the deaths by the small-pox in Liver- pool amounted, according to an account communicated by the late Dr. Dobson to Dr. Haygarth, to one in 5^ of the whole. ' Thomas Henry. 119 the fatality of this terrible disease has abated, for the deaths by the small-pox from 1780 to 1785 inclusive only amount to one-seventh and a half of the whole number of burials registered at the collegiate church. . . . 'Accordingly we find that, as our town has increased, the proportion of deaths at ages above seventy has de- creased. During two periods of five years each the number of deaths of persons above that age will appear from the following table. Table containing the different number of deaths of persons above the age of 'seventy -, in two periods of five years each. From 1776 to 1780 inclusive. From 70 to 80 212 ,, 80 ,, 90 101 ,, 90 100 j6 329 From 1781 to 1785 inclusive. From 70 to 80 . . . . 226 80,, 90 114 90 100 19 359" 'The number in the former period is as 1-7 to 9*3 ; whereas that in the latter is only as 1*5 to 11*5 of the whole of registered funerals. (This is not very clear, but the meaning is that the number 226 in the second era ought to have been 231. But observe the figure for 90-100; it is 19, whereas the number ought to have been 17*4 if the proportion had remained ; there is here an increase.) ' But injurious as large towns may be to the duration of life, and though it must be granted that by annually draining the country of a number of inhabitants, they consume many lives, which, in their original situation, 1 20 Literary and Philosophical Society. might have continued to exist for several years longer, but are cut off by diseases produced by vitiated air, by infec- tion, or by a change in their modes of living, yet, on the whole, they are not, perhaps, so unfavourable to population as they may, at first sight, appear. For in large towns, at least in those where extensive manufactures are carried on, the encouragements to matrimony are considerable ; and therefore, if life be more speedily wasted, it is, probably, produced in a far greater ratio. 1 A sensible, industrious manufacturer considers his children as his treasure, and boasts that his quiver is full of them ; for where children can be employed at an early age, the fear of a large family is not only diminished, but every child that is born may be regarded as an addition of fortune. ( A large and populous town, also, is favourable to population, by extending its influence to a very consider- able distance beyond its own districts. Manchester supplies employment to many thousand people resident within the country, to the extent of several miles, who gain a comfortable livelihood in different branches of the manufactory, without suffering the inconveniences which attend the town. The demand of this great body of people, who raise but a very small part of the provisions they consume, added to that of the town, has an effect upon a still larger tract of country, the inhabitants of which are occupied in agriculture ; and, being sure of find- ing a ready and advantageous mart for their products, they are encouraged to a better tillage of their lands, already in cultivation, and to the improvement of waste 1 ' That this is actually the case in Manchester and Salford appears from the registers: although during a period of twenty-one years the marriages and births have been more than doubled, yet the increase of burials is only as 29 toi6.' Thomas Henry. 121 lands ; and that cultivation and competency will increase population by removing the obstacles to matrimony, is an axiom the truth of which cannot be disputed.' To remove these evils we find that even then they were ' widening and providing for the ventilation of the streets, and that modern houses were made more commodious,' but notwithstanding this, as the town had increased, the proportion of deaths at ages above seventy had de- creased. Thus we see in Manchester the struggle against exces- sive disease and death by municipal changes is above a century old, and the battle is still against us. The condition of England, as of Europe, was long disturbed, and it is clear from the descriptions we have by Dr. Percival, Dr. White, and their friends, that the activity of men's minds was stirred not merely by physical want or by the imitation of France. The increase of trade and manufactures had been improving the condition of the people, and Manchester specially had begun to advance rapidly, giving opportunity to men to think when they were willing. As their minds became clearer, interrup- tions to their prosperity were more impatiently borne, and so we find that the very increase of intelligence caused misfortune to produce the greater commotions, whenever these interruptions began. We find a time of trial bring- ing poverty and disease, so that the necessity for public action was clear. The paper from which quotations have just been made was one of those which influenced strongly that movement which was the beginning of the Board of Health ; and as usual there were opponents, and the men of sense and goodness had to make elaborate explanations like apolo- 122- Literary and Philosophical Society. gies for attempting to benefit the people : the usual course of things. Similar causes stirred up the politicians, and thus we read of Thomas Walker, the Boroughreeve, chairman of a Constitutional Society which was raised up in opposition to the ' Church and King Club/ the true old Tories, the oppo- nents of Jacobites. We have no very favourable picture of Manchester society at this time. There were no reading- rooms, libraries, or clubs for the evening, and few houses which could contain invited friends as one must suppose, since 186 public-houses made a political proclamation, showing how much they owed to the discussion of politics taking place there. This will tell no matter on what side the proclamation leaned, although it is remarkable that only one, John Shane's back parlour, was left for Jacobins and dissenters. The great trial of Thomas Walker for sedition and the failure to convict was a remarkable triumph (see Prentice's ' Manchester ') of freedom, and the numerous arrests, as is well known, ended in showing how little judges know or care for natural law, and how much clearer are the heads of men who have not been misled by the study of the artificial devices too frequently passed by Parliament and called laws, and which pervert the minds of lawyers. Whilst we are told that some inhabitants went to Liverpool for peace, we learn that the opposition there stretched even to the Literary Society, and the author of the Italian histories, William Roscoe, and the writer of the ' Life of Burns,' Dr. Currie, were, with the Rev. William Shepherd and others, induced to give up their meetings. This political commotion can scarcely be said to have ended till the corn laws were abolished ; it existed, bursting William Henry. 123 occasionally into considerable violence, even after war had ceased. All this time there were men sitting in this Society's rooms or at the Academy, and as occasion required at the Board of Health, thinking of matters interesting to the world, as well as to themselves. We shall not say which were the greater men ; those who fought for freedom had the most painful struggle and required most courage ; those who sought science required the most careful thought, and in a public struggle they would have lost their peculiar value. The scientific man finds truth for all time, and thus he is put perhaps unfairly on a higher station ; the political struggle must be repeated for every nation, and sometimes it must be carried on in every town or country, and the village Hampden is often the most unselfish whilst ex- pending those qualities which might have governed a kingdom. He may be sufficiently appreciated to serve as an example to another ; but the work of the man of science is not merely an example, but a magic lamp that needs no fuel that famous lamp which burns for ever if not broken by violence. Still it is true that the scientific man may gain, by much less labour, that prominence which belongs rather to the truth he finds than the eminence of the qualities which find it. (See further p. 171.) Dr. William Henry, F.R.S. Mr. Henry's son, Dr. William Henry, born 1774, is generally considered the most eminent of the family. 1 He had more opportunity of learning than his father, and we may say the best opportunity afforded by the district, as 1 See vol . vi. Second series of Memoirs of the Society : Life, by Dr. William Charles Henry. 124 Literary and Philosophical Society. young men were sent to Manchester from a distance to learn at the Academy where the Rev. Ralph Harrison was classical teacher. Here again we find the influence of Dr. Percival, as we learn that soon after Mr. Henry left the Academy he became, as others also had done, a reader and assistant to Dr. Percival, whose weak eyesight prevented his activity. It was a great favour to be allowed to study with such a man ; Henry lived for five years in the house, having succeeded Dr. Holme who acted in the same capacity. We do not find that he went to any university until after being for some time practically engaged in the Infirmary, under Dr. Ferriar, another of those physicians who made Manchester famous. He went to Edinburgh in 1795, and a second time. in 1805 ; to what place could a man go in England to study medicine and receive a uni- versity education at the same time ? In Edinburgh he studied chemistry under Dr. Black, a man whose style of thought and of work was well calculated to produce enthu- siasm in a mind prepared by intimacy with Dr. Percival, a man of similar manners and elevation of character. Henry had the advantage when not too young, as many Scotch students are, of hearing other eminent men of that city. Playfair and Dugald Stewart took up much of his time ; whilst among the students he had such acquaintances as became well known to the world under the names of Marcet, Roget, De la Rue, Thomson, Allen, Scarlett, Jeffrey, and Lord Brougham. He was roused there to the highest enthusiasm, and quitted the place with regret, feel- ing long afterwards that all his time in Manchester was comparatively given to inglorious repose, active although most people considered him to be. He took his degree of M.D. in 1807, but ten years previously he had given William Henry. 125 to the Royal Society a proof of his activity, if not of ac- curacy, in his inquiry if carbon was an element, and in 1800 in his experiments on muriatic acid. He had ob- tained a facility of operating on gases, and by the electric spark decomposed that acid over mercury, obtaining calomel and hydrogen, or without the mercury, that which was in time called chlorine. It was, however, left to another to explain these results. In 1803, he- showed the effect of pressure on the absorption of gas by water, supporting the theory of Dalton that it was due to mechanical agencies. We may say that his care and his refinement contri- buted very much to the knowledge of the analysis of gaseous mixtures and compounds, and we especially owe to him the knowledge of the composition of coal gas and various methods of ascertaining it. His method of using chlorine was long employed, although bromine, &c., have now taken its place, and he applied also spongy platinum in a manner which for a while was considered the most convenient way of uniting oxygen with hydrogen and with carbonic oxide when at 340 Fahr. Dr. Henry's large work, a system of chemistry, had passed through eleven editions in 1809, and may still be consulted with advantage by those who wish to learn the history of the best method of operating with eudiometers. Although not strong, he both studied the science to which his father had introduced him, and practised medicine, whilst his active mind could not refuse to write papers on that subject also, and his general love of knowledge com- pelled him to attend somewhat to the progress of every other department of scientific inquiry. We may consider him as taking the place of Dr. Percival on the demise of that gentleman ; he had the same refinement of manner, 126 Literary and Philosophical Society. the same eloquence of speech, but with more self-con- sciousness and assertion in society. An accident in boyhood, the fall of a beam against his right side, subjected him to great pain, and stopped his growth, while it was suc- ceeded by attacks of neuralgia which occurred periodically during his whole life. He never yielded, nevertheless, to despair, and preserved at all times his love of superiority which distinguished him in conversation ; although we cannot hear that it was ever observed to an extent un- pleasant to his friends. On the contrary, his house was continually sought by scientific men, and also by other eminent persons visiting Manchester ; and he so far outshone Dalton to all appearances that it was said by some, ' Your great man here is Henry, and you do not know it.' How- ever, it was well known, as this expression shows, that Dalton was the true hero of the place, but the fame of the day and of the dinner-party belonged to Henry entirely, with a fair but comparatively simple share reserved for succeeding generations. Dalton was not visited much, because his house was incapable of hospitality, and he himself lived too much in himself to be capable of entertain- ing others. Probably some men of Manchester during the most of Henry's life held him as the greater of the two ; but comparisons are not always pleasant, and we end by saying that Henry was an accomplished and original man, one who advanced science, and took a prominent place amongst the chemists of the age, and one whose name must stand in the history of chemistry as for a time in the front place in his own department. We cannot take leave of these two men, the first and second Henrys of Manchester, without remembering how much they contributed to dignify the chemical arts Dr. Eason. 127 by an assiduous attention to their own manufactures, in the first place by manufacturing magnesia in such a con- dition that after a century it still stands .the test ; whilst, without going deeply into the history of artificial mineral waters and aerated drinks, we are inclined to believe that the elder Henry was the true inventor, or evidently con- sidered that he was first in the field. Dr. Henry sepa- rated from his partner Mr. Thompson, taking for himself the magnesia, and leaving the aerated waters to the latter. Three Henrys were mentioned. The third, Dr. William Charles Henry, being still alive, we shall not attempt to describe him. The wisdom and care shown by his father and grandfather left him entirely independent of his profession, and allowed him to live in affluence ; whilst the remarkable skill shov/n in dealing with the scientific life of Dalton has proved that the wealth which was given to him was loss to the scientific community, perhaps to himself also. Dr. Eason. Dr. Eason was an important member of the medical staff of Manchester at the time of the formation of the Society, and one of the proofs that medical and especially sanitary studies had made remarkable progress in Man- chester. He was descended from a dignitary of Dysart in Fife, a baillie, and a member of Parliament in 1703. The member's duties were important, as in the previous year, Alexander Swinton, M.P., is instructed by the town council to assert the independence of the nation, ' and that he shall be against the alteration of the succession till the union of England be consented and agreed to.' l The 1 From the Fifeshirt Advertiser, 1864, Oct. 15. ' Extracts from Ancient Records, &c.' This begins with an old phrase as motto, ' Up wi' the carles o' Dysart.' 128 Literary and Philosophical Society. meaning may not be clear, but it shows the importance of the duties. This M.P. must have been the father of George Eason, or Easson, who married Barbara, daughter of Alexander Aytoun of Inchdairnie. Dr. Alexander Eason was born in 1735, and he also married an Aytoun from the same house Inchdairnie, a cousin once removed. In Manchester Dr. Eason lived in Lever Street, Picca- dilly, next what was once the White Bear Inn. He bought the house and plot of ground for 8oo/., and at his death General Aytoun, brother to Mrs. Eason, sold it for i,ooo/., to invest the money for his sister and her only child Barbara Eason, afterwards wife of Thomas Wilkinson. A few years ago this property brought in i,6oo/. annually to Dr. Ashton's father, the baker. In early life Dr. Eason travelled on the Continent with Lord Moira, and afterwards was in the Inniskilling Dragoons, or the Marquis of Drogheda's, as army surgeon. He is especially said to have given his time to the poor in Manchester, and a tablet in the cathedral was put up by the people of Manchester ; a penny subscription contributed to it, and is a striking proof of his popularity. He had, however, medical practice among all classes. His death was tragic ; riding out to see a patient at ' Clugh,' Miss Yates, an aunt of Sir Robert Peel, the horse put its foot into a hole, causing a sudden effort on the part of the rider. The effort broke or dislocated the spine near the neck, and all below was paralysed. He knew at once ' that he was a done man,' but his brain remained clear till his death at Miss Yates' a fortnight afterwards, on May 27, 1796. He was 61 years old. He was buried from the house where he died ; all the mills and shops on the way were closed. Dr. Eason. 129 If it is fair to get amusement from a tragic death, we shall give here a letter sent by Dr. Eason's wife to him while he was lying ill at Miss Yates' house. This specimen of writing by a Fife lady of good family has, in the post- script at least, a strange turn of thought, not intended to be comic we dare say. Manchester, i;th (only date given). ' Oh my beloved Sandie, that I had wings like a . dove that I could fly to Churchland to do my duty to you, as you have always done to me ! But this is a subject far too soft for my pen at pre- sent ; my tears would flow faster than my ink. A thousand thanks for your kind remembrance by Dick Hall, which I will take care of. It gave me the greatest pleasure to hear by the Reverend Mr. Hall that your mind was so composed, and my prayer has never been wanting on that subject, nor ever shall. But I certainly must be allowed to come and see you ; and yet, I really think it would be too much for both. Reason says this, but not your affectionate 'JANE EASON. ' N. B. My kindest gratitude to Mr. and Mrs. Peel (other names not legible). ' I dare not trust my pen longer, notwithstanding I cannot help telling you in the midst of my affliction I feel a kind of pride, for the whole town, high and low, rich and poor, are your friends, and I do believe if you was to leave us in want we would be sup- ported for your sake', in short, the whole town and county is in an uproar about you, and if it is the Almighty's will to spare you, you will be given again to the prayers of thousands. I even was in hopes to go first to kingdom come, and it will be no disappoint- ment to me now to let me go and say you are coming. I'll keep a good place for you ; let me tell you it is a good thing to have a friend at court, Sandie, but I hope you will have faith in that friend that sticketh faster than a brother, and whose blood cleanseth from all unrighteousness, and who has said there is more joy in one repenting sinner than ninety and nine just persons. A lady called this day who was at the chapel in Old- K 1 30 Literary and Philosophical Society. ham St. Your name was put up in three different petitions ; that you were sent of God you did so much good to the poor, that if the Lord would but spare you this time, and they call all out three times Amen.' The name Eason has been made familiar to the present generation in Manchester by being a Christian name of one of his descendants, Dr. Eason Wilkinson, who stood high among the medical men here, and whose house in Greenheys had often pleasant company. On his death his widow retired to Middlethorpe Hall, near York. From her the above particulars were obtained. There are three papers by Dr. Eason in the first volume, a very thoughtful one on crystallisation, putting together various similar phenomena ; one on bleaching, from which a quotation is made, and one on the ascent of vapour, in which he advocates the view that electricity is required to keep the vapour up, two clouds, similarly electrified, repelling each other, but when one is positive and the other negative, there is a discharge of electricity, the particles of water unite, and rain falls. JAMES MASSEY. The name Massey is found in the Directory of the time under Chapel Street, Salford. There were two brothers, James and Joseph. James is interesting to us, as along with Dr. Mainwaring president of the Society for the first year. A portrait of Mr. James Massey was pre- sented to the Infirmary by Mr. Tate in 1793. This intro- duces an amount of confusion which I hope will be removed. Joseph became endeared to Manchester by paying all the expenses of the first year of the Infirmary, Massey on Saltpetre. and being, as it is said, its first president (1752), when yet in Shudehill. (It is also said that Mr. Miles Bower was first president, but others must settle that point.) These Masseys were evidently men of wealth and of weight, with intellectual and benevolent tendencies. In the MSS. there is mentioned as present at the second meeting of the Society Mr. John Massey. Mr. James, the president, had some knowledge of chemistry, and his paper seems to indicate having been abroad. It is a good specimen of the thinking of the time, and we shall give a pretty full extract. A Treatise on Saltpetre, by James Massey, Esq. P. 1 88. ' Saltpetre, to give a just description of, it, is a neutral saline concrete, evidently formed by a combination of a peculiar acid with a fixed vegetable alkaline salt. This acid is found in certain earths, from which it is extracted, by elixiviating them along with wood-ashes, the fixed salt of which, uniting with the acid, forms this neutral one, which crystallises in the ley when boiled down to a due consistence. ' From this plain account of the formation of saltpetre, it must be obvious that it can nowhere be found without the concurrence of these two .principles ; and, consequently, not in the air, or in vegetables or animals, because, though this peculiar acid may perhaps be found in these subjects, the fixed salt must needs be wanting. ' That it may be sometimes found in the earth we shall not deny, owing to the accidental introduction of wood-ashes to a soil impregnated with this acid. And that from hence it may pass into the stems and apices of K2 132 Literary a nd Philosophical Society. some plants, with the moisture that enters their roots, is far from being improbable. But that whole provinces can even be covered over with it, or that it can be generated in these organised bodies, as Lemeri and some others have imagined, must exceed all belief. ' The accounts which travellers generally give us of this salt are, that it is extracted from the soil of the countries they have visited, by elixiviating it with water, and evaporating the fluid ; which we believe may be consistent with truth ; but here it should not be forgotten that a certain portion of wood-ashes is always added to this soil before it is elixiviated, a circumstance which, either through ignorance or inattention, they have too often omitted to mention.' P. 190. ' Of these earths the most distinguished are, the rubbish of old houses, the ruins of old vaults and cellars, &c., which rarely fail to yield us the crystals of this salt when elixiviated with wood-ashes. That these earths possess an acid quality is not to be disputed ; seeing that upon re- ducing them to a coarse powder, and percolating a fixed alkaline solution through them, this solution will be neutral- ised, and no longer yield us an alkaline, but a neutral salt.' P. 191. 'From the well-known fact, that the rubbish of all such houses as have been occupied by the filthiest in- habitants, and of such clay walls as have stood in the neigh- bourhood of dunghills, or wherever putrid vapours more plentifully abound, is always most strongly impregnated with this acid, it is most natural to believe, that these vapours must confer it upon them, and consequently, that it must Massey on Saltpetre. 133 have its origin in putrid substances ; but to this there are likewise many objections. In the first place, the recent juices of vegetables and animals, some few of the former excepted, if we are not mistaken, contain no kind of acid whatever, and in a putrid state everybody knows they are of a volatile alkaline nature, which being the most powerful objection, we shall here principally endeavour to remove, and upon the whole shall undertake to show that there is an original acid in all vegetables and animals, which being rendered volatile by putrefaction, assumes the specific cha- racter of the nitrous. And that, since this acid constantly arises in vapour from putrid substances, hence it is that the rubbish of old houses, and of old clay walls, become impregnated with it, as well as those earths that lie in conjunction with thern. ' That the recent juices of vegetables and animals are in general perfectly neutral, we shall readily admit ; but from hence we think it does not follow that they contain neither an acid nor alkali, as is commonly concluded ; on the contrary, we apprehend a more just inference is that, being mixed, they must necessarily contain both. It is certain that if we throw a calcareous earth or fixed salt into any of these juices, the earth or salt will be neutralised by it ; which we take to be a proof that it contains an acid, which quits the weaker to join with the stronger alkali, according to the law of affinities. 'And the case will be the same, if these juices are putrefied. If we throw a fixed salt into any putrid liquor it will be neutralised by it, and now, if we dip a piece of soft paper into this mixture and dry it, it will burn like a match, in the same manner as if dipped into a weak solu- tion of saltpetre ; which shows, that it not only contains 1 34 Literary and Philosophical Society. an acid, but one of the nitrous sort ; and provided this liquor were putrefied, and the marine salt, with which all nitrous leys greatly abound, carefully removed, we cannot help thinking that upon being boiled down to a due consistence it would yield the crystals of saltpetre. The author must acknowledge he has boiled down many of these mixtures without success : but it was at a time when he was ignorant of the necessity of attending to the above circumstances. ' That all putrid substances, and consequently their juices, are of a volatile alkaline nature, is not to be denied, owing to an union of their acid and oily parts with their earth, which is equally subtilised by the putrid process.' P. 193. ' But the strongest proof of the existence of an acid in putrid juices, if the earths of stables and cow-stalls do not afford an equal one, must be drawn from the soil at the bottoms of graves, which can certainly derive its nitrous acid quality from nothing but the corrupt bodies with which it lies in contact ; and this may satisfy us in respect to the source from which other absorbent earths may derive it. ' Other earths, in common use among the saltpetre makers, are those of stables and cow-stalls, that have drunk up much animal urine ; the bottoms of stinking pits and ditches and the like. These they take out and lay in heaps, till by repeated trials they find them fit for their purpose. It is commonly supposed that, during this period, they draw their nitrous quality from the air ; but for this there is certainly no just foundation, seeing they are brought to maturity as soon in the closest vault or cellar as in the most open exposure. The truth is, that all putrid juices Massey on Saltpetre. 135 contain many oily and mucilaginous parts, which, till they are duly attenuated by putrefaction, will not suffer any crystals to form in the leys that are drawn from these earths ; and they are laid in these heaps for this event to take place. ' The ingenious author of the " Chemical Dictionary " has told us, that the nitrous acid is nowhere found but in such earths as are impregnated with the juices of vegetables and animals, and where these juices have sustained the whole putrefactive process. But having assigned no reason for it, he seems to have been little regarded. ' The common soil in some parts of India is naturally nitrous, owing plainly to the fish and slime that is left upon it by the inundations of the river Ganges, which soon corrupt in that hot climate, and fill the earth with putrid juices ; and here putrefaction, being carried on with the greatest rapidity, is, of course, soon completed, and the natives are, in a short time, furnished with a nitrous earth perfectly matured. But it must not be forgotten, that their strongest earths are found at the bottoms of their tanks or shallow ponds of water, which, in this country, are often of great extent, where, the water being evaporated by the heat of the sun, large quantities of fish are left to corrupt, which furnish a mud of the strongest nitrous quality. ' In this manner are nitrous earths naturally formed in these parts of the world, and might doubtless be formed in others, though not perhaps so expeditiously, by throwing into shallow ponds of water, natural or artificial, all sorts of dung and carrion, with other putrid and putrefiable matters ; where the water, being evaporated by the heat of our 1 36 Literary and Philosophical Society. summers, must certainly leave a mud of the same kind and quality. ' Putrid juices and putrid vapours are dispersed through the earth and air, so that there are few earths of an absorbent kind that are not, in some degree, nitrous. P. 197. ' Glauber, who, from the observations he had made upon the fruits and effects of the bottoms of stinking ditches, seems to be the first that attempted to form arti- ficial nitre beds, threw into pits, covered from the rain and sun, but exposed as much as possible to the air, all sorts of dung, with the cuttings of trees, refuse of gardens, and other putrid and putrefiable matters, to which he added wood- ashes ; and, by this means, in a course of time, obtained, not a mere nitrous, but a true saltpetre earth, that afforded him the crystals of this salt upon simple elixiviation and evaporation. ' It does not appear that this celebrated chemist had the least idea that these putrid matters were of any other use than to draw the nitre, as he called it, from the air, in which the fixed salt of the wood-ashes might possibly assist' P. 20 1. 'About thirty years ago, an ingenious chemist of our own nation, having visited many of the great works abroad, and made the observation, that to form a nitrous earth nothing more appeared to be necessary than to mix up calcareous earths with any kind of dung, and expose these materials to the air, returned home, fully persuaded that he was master of the secret, and had interest enough to prevail upon many of his friends to join him in erecting a large saltpetre works, at Fulham, near London. Here many Massey on Saltpetre. 137 hundred loads of lime were got together, and laid, with strata of horse muck, in long high ridges, the more to be exposed to this element ; the consequence of which was, that the rain running off, without penetrating the mass, no putrefaction ensued, and the lime, at the end of four or five years, was found to have received little or no impregnation ; upon which the work was dropped, with great loss to the proprietors.' P. 211. 'Upon many accounts it has been before ob- served that Glauber sometimes threw all sorts of dung into a large wooden vessel, and, when they had completed their putrefaction, percolated a fixed alkaline solution through them ; which furnished him with a ley of the same kind and nature with that drawn from nitrous earths and wood- ashes.' P. 220. ' All these things being considered, with the practice of the Swedes, and the success of our own experi- ments, we judge ourselves authorised to advise all those who are employed in making saltpetre, to place but a few wood-ashes at the bottom of their tubs, to serve by way of filter, and to supply their place with potash. 1 38 Literary and Philosophical Society. CHAPTER VIII. ESSAYS AND LIVES, VOLS. I.-IV. Sensation and Perception in Vegetables. DR. PERCIVAL wrote a short essay on the perceptive powers of vegetables, called by himself, partly in excuse for thinking in such a manner, a jeit a" esprit ; he seems to have felt uncertain whether he would print it or not. Some parts of this paper raise the author high as a general thinker on nature, and show that he had talents for investigation, and certainly for an observer, although his gentle nature and want of bodily strength led him into calmness of thought, which frequently produces diffuseness of style. Still he who looks on nature with the eye of a poet and a moralist, with much knowledge of natural law, and much acquaint- ance with phenomena, is a man of a high class, and in some respects of a much higher class than the man of genius, who sees in one direction only, although he who sees far is the rare man, and one to whom humanity owes most and gives most honour, and to whom alone we are accustomed to apply the title of Great. To the first class of men Dr. Percival certainly belonged, seeing nature in its great width and watching the existence of mind, descending even to the plants as life itself does. Sensation in Vegetables. 139 Some may say that the fundamental idea in the paper shows a touch of genius, and to this we might have agreed had we not known that it has occurred to many young sympathetic minds. Several have tried to give it a place in scientific thought. We remember it as a natural out- growth of our childhood, when untaught by any one we stopped the process of cutting a branch lest perhaps it felt pain, an idea nourished in us afterwards by Virgil, who learnt it from a long line of literary ancestors by fairy tales from various nations, including ancient Egypt ; but many ideas require no ancestors except the germs existing not solely as bodies, but as the peculiar movements of bodies in human blood. As we write this we think of sacred trees, and bleeding bushes, trees in which lived Hamadryads, or trees which live and die with chosen individuals. The whole world has been given a soul as early as Plato, and Pantheism puts this soul everywhere ; but to approach it as a naturalist shows a change of aspect of the question and a certain amount of boldness if Dr. Percival really did approach it of his own impulse ; had he read Adamson for example ? It would appear as if he had not, and he seems not to have read Dr. George Bell's essay, which however was printed afterwards in the same volume. We shall bring an extract from it before Percival's paper. Dr. Bell's article ' On the Physiology of Plants,' vol. ii. p. 394, was written previous to Percival's, and published in Edinburgh 1777, as a Latin thesis. It was translated by Dr. Currie and published in these Memoirs ; he says ' The analogy between vegetables and animals, which was formerly pointed out, gives a reasonable presumption 140 Literary and Philosophical Society. that the fluids of both are moved by similar powers. In animals, the powers of circulation are respiration and muscular action ; of those powers in plants we have already treated, and what has been said on the subject seems to show, that the motion of the juices in plants is rather to be ascribed to them than to capillary attraction. ' The analogy of animal nature appears to favour the opinion, that the juice rises through the wood only, and descends only through the bark ; but this analogy is not complete throughout. The arteries are' not placed in the internal parts alone, nor the veins in the external, but they accompany each other through every part of their distribu- tion. * On the whole we may conclude, that the formation and growth of the parts of plants depend chiefly on the vital energy, which is not however exerted except on the appli- cation of stimuli. We admire the marks of wisdom and design, which appear in the creation and preservation of vegetables, but we have no reason to believe that they are possessed of any intelligent power, which presides over and directs their peculiar functions. ' The principle of life seems universally diffused through nature, but bestowed on different beings in different degrees. To animals is given the largest share ; but throughout the whole animal kingdom, one species de- scends below another in the perfection of its mental powers, as well as of its organic sensations. And this progression is so very gradual, that the most perfect of an inferior species approaches very near to the most imperfect of that which is above it. The chain is continued between vege- tables and animals. ' And if we admit such motions, as criteria of a like power Sensation in Plants. 141 in other beings, to attribute them, in this instance, to mere mechanism, actuated solely by external impulse, is to deviate from the soundest rule of philosophising, which directs us not to multiply causes, when the effects appear to be the same. Neither will the laws of electricity better solve the phenomena of this animated vegetable : for its leaves are equally affected by the contact of electric and non-electric bodies ; show no change in their sensibility, whether the atmosphere be dry or moist ; and instantly close when the vapour of volatile alkali or the fumes of burning sulphur are applied to them. The powers of chemical stimuli to produce contractions in the fibres of this plant, may perhaps lead some philosophers to refer them to the vis insita, or irritability, which they assign to certain parts of organised matter, totally distinct from, and independent of, any sentient energy. But the hypothesis is evidently a solecism, and refutes itself. For the presence of irritability can only be proved by the experience of irri- tations, and the idea of irritation involves in it that of feeling.' Speculations on the Perceptive Power of Vegetables. By Thomas Percival, M.D.> F.R.S. Read February 18, 1784. Vol. ii. p. 114. ' Vegetables bear so near a similitude to animals in their structure, that botanists have derived from anatomy and physiology almost all the terms employed in the description of them. ' A tree or shrub, they inform us, consists of a cuticle, cutis, and cellular membrane, of vessels variously disposed, and adapted to the transmission of different fluids ; and of a ligneous, or bony substance, covering and defending a pith 142 Literary and Philosophical Society. or marrow. Such organisation evidently belongs not to inanimate matter ; and when we observe in vegetables, that it is connected with, or instrumental to the powers of growth, of self-preservation, of motion, and of seminal increase, we cannot hesitate to ascribe to them a living principle. And by admitting this attribute, we advance a step higher in the analogy we are pursuing. ' For the idea of life naturally implies some degree of perceptivity ; and wherever perception resides, a greater or less capacity for enjoyment seems to be its necessary ad- junct. Indefinite and low, therefore, as this capacity may be, in each single herb or tree, yet, when we consider the amazing extent of the vegetable kingdom, " from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop upon the wall," the aggregate of happiness, produced by it, will be found to exceed our most enlarged conceptions. It is prejudice only which restrains or suppresses the delightful emotions resulting from the belief of such a diffusion of good. And, because the framers of systems have invented arrangements and divisions of the works of God, to aid the mind in the pursuits of science, we implicitly admit as reality what is merely artificial ; and adopt distinctions, without proof of any essential difference/ Let us compare the latest conclusions on this subject by the man who of all others seems fitted best to give an opinion. In his concluding remarks (see ' The Power of Movement in Plants,' by Charles Darwin, LL.D., F.R.S., assisted by Francis Darwin), pp. 5/1-573, he says : ( Finally, it is impossible not to be struck with the resemblance between the foregoing movements of plants and many of the actions performed unconsciously by the Sensation in Plants. 143 lower animals. With plants an astonishingly small stimulus suffices ; and even with allied plants one may be highly sensitive to the slightest continued pressure, and another highly sensitive to a slight momentary touch. The habit of moving at certain periods is inherited both by plants and animals ; and several other points of similitude have been specified. But the most striking resemblance is the localisa- tion of their sensitiveness, and the transmission of an influence from the excited part to another which conse- quently moves. Yet plants do not of course possess nerves or a central nervous system ; and we may infer that with animals such structures serve only for the more perfect transmission of impressions, and for the more complete intercommunication of the several parts/ But as if to approach more nearly the feelings of Dr. Percival, he says at the end : ' It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radicle thus endowed, and having the power of directing the movements of the ad- joining parts, acts like the brain of one of the lower animals ; the brain being seated within the anterior end of the body, receiving impressions from the sense-organs, and directing the several movements.' After all, and even after reading Darwin's book on the motion of plants, we cannot be held to be nearer than Wordsworth, who says in ' Lines written in Early Spring ' : Through primrose tufts in that sweet bower, The periwinkle trails its wreaths ; And 'tis my faith that every flower Enjoys the air it breathes. The budding twigs spread out their fan, To catch the breezy air ; And I must think, do all I can, That there was pleasure there. *44 Literary and Philosophical Society. GRADATION IN MAN AND ANIMALS. Few people would expect the doctrine of progress in creation to have any representatives in the early Manchester Society, but this is chiefly because it seems so little known how far the world had advanced in the idea, and how many persons allowed it to pass through their minds. Dr. Charles White (we call him Dr., although not M.D.) had carefully thought of the remarkable smallness of the steps by which nature advances from the lowest forms up to the highest, and also the similar character of the advances in man himself. His opinions are to be found in a broad but thin quarto volume published in London in 1799; they had been given previously in a series of papers to the Literary and Philosophical Society. Their publication was not refused by the society, but he himself seems to have thought that it would entail too great an expense on that young institution. The volume is entitled ' An Account of the regular Gradation in Man and in different Animals and Vegetables, &c., from the Former to the Latter.' A plate shows these gradations in man and animals from birds to the highest human type. Mr. White had studied ' Camper's Facial Angle Theory,' but had made great advances upon him. He had studied Bonnet, and has given the gradation of animals as shown by him from man to earth and to fire, and even ' a more subtile element,' and he had read Lord Monboddo's writings. He is not willing to go with that very clear-headed advocate of evolution, even to the limited extent attempted to be proved by him. Lord Monboddo does not demand belief in the evolution of man from an animal lower than the ourang-outang, and to Gradation in Man. 145 make that more easily believed he had exalted that animal much more than modern inquiry justifies ; still he himself thinks that it may be necessary to go far back, and an evolutionist he is to an extent most decided. The mode in which language and thought are evolved is reasoned out in a manner which must surprise many who rush to show their ideas of development in various departments, calling it Darwinianism, and not distinguishing that from evolution ; Lord Monboddo does his part coolly, slowly, and deliberately, like a man who did not expect to be believed soon. Gradation in animals Dr. White saw clearly, but he refused to believe in development from species to species, and distinctly stigmatised Lord Monboddo's ideas as out of the pale of reason, .as so many have done after him. It could not be expected that reasoning such as Darwin's should be ripened last century when vegetable and animal anatomy were so little advanced ; but reasoning with the instruments at hand was clear in the mind of Monboddo ; it was no mere sentence or clause of a sentence that he gave to the public, but a full-grown system up to a certain point. He begins with development of thought, and pro- ceeds to his main point, development of language. It is difficult to imagine that a similar series of thoughts should have grown in society without giving Lord Monboddo credit or discredit for his part. Dr. White proceeded more on that method of reasoning which may be called scientific in opposition to philosophic so far as this, that he did not go beyond that which he saw before him. This by some men is held to be the true scientific method, and it is enough for a large class of such for example as have a short vision, a useful class of men, L 146 Literary and Philosophical Society. because with narrow views they often see their small points with great exactness. The man of genius goes further, but we must not blame the less lofty scientific men ; we cannot all be men of genius, seeing cosmos in the smallest acts of nature. But taking the subject from another side, who cannot see its beauty and correctness ! There are gradations of man, of all animals, and of all plants, and it is clear that if they did not arise as such in the mind of the Creator they exist in creation distinctly before us as such. Yes, there was evolution in the thoughts of God, because one fact clearly leads the mind on to another, and if the con- nection is intellectual and moral, what objection can we make to having it material also ? Let no one suppose that by speaking thus we try to rob the Creator of fore- sight. Growth is quite compatible with a knowledge of results, and if we sow a seed with full knowledge what kind of tree it will turn up, we may readily suppose that worlds sown broadcast cannot have developed without abundant foresight as to results. The means are very sure for the end, and of creation in its largest works we may say as of the smallest plants : things grow. Darwin has not brought us to this general law, but we have been glad to learn from him how things grew in certain departments of nature's activity. There is a kind of insanity spreading among scientific specialists, strongly developed among Darwinians so-called, but the larger mind of Darwin has never sanctioned it. They speak of natural selection as a power when it is only a method by which a power operates. In the same way differentiation is treated as a power, and people actually think they explain when they tell us of this occurrence in Evolution. 147 nature. This, instead of strength, is the utmost of weakness. Darwin has not shown this, but the weaklings (and nearly all his followers have been slow to reason) will now probably think that geotropism and apogeotropism will take the place of nature's most occult laws and will fancy these words also to be explanations. We should not be surprised to hear some of those who imagine themselves to be followers, but really are laggers behind, giving cir- cumnutation as an explanation of intellect, and making the nutation of the plant as similar in meaning to the nutus of power. Some people also think that the ' survival of the fittest ' is a great discovery. What else could sur- vive ? Were there ever men who believed that the least fit to live could live longest ? It is, however, a telling expression a name for a fact. It is only fair on the general question to quote Lord Monboddo's words ; he neglected the best part of his ideas and wandered over all the world losing the path with which he began. We may see what a fine foundation he had to work on. The following is from his * Origin and Progress of Language/ 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 175, 17/4. ' For it seems to be a law of nature, that no species of thing is formed at once, but by steps and progression from one stage to another. Thus naturalists observe several different appearances betwixt the seed and the vegetable, the embryo and the animal. The principles of body in general are points, lines, and surfaces, which are not body, and of number the monad and duad, which are not numbers, and in general the elements of things are different from the things themselves.' Here we have clearly enough expressed, notwithstanding some imperfection in utterance, the idea of the progressive L 2 1 48 Literary and Philosophical Society. growth of all things from the lowest point to the highest. He goes even farther than the lowest material and points, as he may be said to begin with mere ideas, for example : ' There is the same progress, according to my hypothesis, in the formation of man, and the same distinction between the elements of this species, and the species itself.' He leaves the body, as it is his intention to keep to the design and progress of language, but on p. 1 82 he says, ' This is the scale of being, rising by progressive gradations from mere matter and sense to intellect.' His strong belief that the ourang-outang was a man has no influence on this theory, and the length of his disserta- tion, which went over nearly all history and all the usual reading of men of the time, served only to weaken his main argument, so that few read his six volumes and almost as few ever refer to the book. It is very important, if one does refer to it, to use the second edition. The general ideas are in the first volume, before the special discussion on language and its progress begins. We may conclude that gradation exists in all creation, and the only difference of opinion exists as to the time of the rise of each step. Man is an animal with a skeleton and anatomy resembling other animals so closely that every lion, tiger, and gnat recognises it. We live on the earth and are built of it, and we may as readily believe that we have passed through the stages of the lower living animals as through the still lower stages of the vegetable and the dead animals out of which we have certainly and visibly been made. Here we may have Mr. Charles White's views brought in. ' Every one who has made natural history an object of Charles White. study, must have been led occasionally to contemplate the beautiful gradation that subsists amongst created beings, from the highest to the lowest. From man down to the smallest reptile, whose existence can be discovered only by the microscope, nature exhibits to our view an immense chain of beings, endued with various degrees of intelligence and active powers, suited to their stations in the general system. ' Enough, however, it is hoped, is ascertained to disprove the theories by which naturalists have attempted to account for what they denominate varieties of the human species ; and to establish that of a gradation as well of the human race as of the animal and vegetable kingdoms in general. ' A gradation in the human race, supposing all to have descended from one pair, could only be the temporary result of accidental causes, and would scarcely merit a minute investigation. But as a contemplation of the facts produced leads to the conclusion that various species of men were originally created and separated by marks suffi- ciently discriminative, it becomes an important object in general physiology to trace the lines of distinction. Pre- viously to discussing the question of species it seems necessary to consider the signification of the term as used by naturalists. * This leaves us to infer, as most naturalists have done, that species were originally so created and constituted as to be kept apart from each other, with certain charac- teristic distinctions which form a proper subject for investi- gation. < The opinion here maintained, so far from degrading, tends much more to dignify the human race than the 150 Literary and Philosophical Society. opposite one. For if, according to the latter, we admit that such great varieties can be produced in the same species as we find to exist in man, it would be easy to maintain the probability that several species of simise are but varieties of the species man ; since they differ as little in their organisation from some individuals of the species as these do from men in general. And if the argument be still further extended, almost all the animal kingdom might be deduced from one pair, and be consi- dered as one family ; than which a more degrading notion certainly cannot be entertained. But the opinion advanced above effectually precludes any such consequences, as it places each species upon its own proper basis, and debars them from intermixing with other species, unless nearly resembling themselves, and even that in a limited manner.' Lyell, in his ' Principles of Geology ' (edit. 1853), chap- ter xxxvi. p. 608, has some remarks on the theory of gradations in intellect as shown by the facial angle, in which Charles White's name is not treated with due respect. After mentioning that Camper first attempted to esti- mate the degrees of sagacity of different animals and of the races of men by the measurement of the facial angle, Lyell goes on to say, ' A great number of valuable facts and curious analogies in comparative anatomy were brought to light during the investigations which were made by Camper, John Hunter, and others to illustrate this scale of organisations ; and their facts and generalisations must not be confounded with the fanciful systems which White and others deduced from them.' Dr. Charles White. 151 Charles White, F.R.S. Charles White, F.R.S., the author of ' Gradation in Man/ was one of the original four vice-presidents of the Society, and was one of the most eminent and valued sur- geons of the time, famous in all the country and not merely in Lancashire for his skill in manipulation, his ready resource and the success of his innovations. Still he was a thorough Manchester man, his father, Dr. Thomas White, having practised in the same town. He was educated in London and Edinburgh, and was a fellow student and friend of John Hunter. He lived in King Street, in a large house, prominent in views of Manchester of the time, with an imposing flight of steps on the spot, where afterwards was built the Manchester Town Hall, now in 1881 the home of the Free Reference Library. Mr. White had a country house at Sale, wh'ich is above five miles distant. The Manchester Infirmary may be said partly to owe its position to him ; the Lying-in Hospital was also "raised by his influence. We are informed by Thomas Henry that out of London the only infirmaries before the Manchester one ' in this part of England ' (the meaning is not quite clear) were those of Shrewsbury and Liverpool. Mr. White was an enthusiast in surgery. His museum of anatomical preparations was presented to the Lying-in Hospital ; he and his son took part in the institution, begun in 1783, for the delivery of lectures on Literature, on Science, and the Arts. They took the anatomical depart- ment. He was the author also of many papers besides the work here mentioned, and his fame rested on his public spirit and his science, as well as on his fine touch. Studying Botany, beautifying his garden, collecting forest trees, attending to the wants of the public by raising 1 5 2 Literary and Philosophical Society. medical charities, and to as many patients as his time would permit, we see him rise into practical scientific thought, and in the above-mentioned essay to the wider position of generalising, and hear of him being recognised by various societies, and honoured by the acquaintance of many who themselves have received honour. We have reason to be proud of this one of our most brilliant founders. He lived a valued life, dying in 1813, his 85th year. The writer had a pleasant walk this April (1881) with Dr. Joule, who took such interest as only a warm-hearted man could in 'finding out the monument to Dr. Thomas White, which Charles White, the more eminent son, had put up, on the land which both in turn possessed, and near the house where they lived. It is called The Priory, and is at Sale, about a mile from Dr. Joule's own house. In the ' Directory ' of 1800 it is said, ' Passing the Mersey a pretty hermitage belonging to Dr. White.' The house still bears that appearance, although in coming near, one finds that time has injured it. The trees have now passed beyond their prime, and many have died, or been taken down ; some are now Deing removed by a new possessor, who is otherwise making improvements. .When we reached the monument it was with surprise and pity, whilst even laughter struggled for a place. The pillar was outside of the grounds of The Priory, the limits having been shortened towards the north ; it could be seen from the railway, but no one seemed to know what it was. One man said it was a monument to a horse, although it has an inscription on it, readable with care. It is next to the premises once occupied as Murray's stables, where ' hunters ' were taken care of, but although put out of its own grounds it is not included in Mr. Murray's, but stands close to the pigstyes. It is on the Dr. Thomas White. 153 edge of a bank, 1 below which is a piece of low flat land often flooded by the Mersey, and looking towards Man- chester. The foundation is of bad bricks, and they are giving way ; the bank itself is wearing down. The pillar is built of red sandstone, each stone being bevelled, so that in many cases water lodging in the hollows has worn away the edges, and in at least one case the deep cavity made is stuffed up with bricks. It is almost fourteen feet high ; a little ornament that was believed to be on the top is broken off, and the whole looks desolate, outcast, and forlorn, ragged and wretched. We have seen monuments two thousand years old in better condition. Probably some one will say that the monument is well known because carefully described in some books. We did not know it, and now record our pilgrimage of this year. We add the inscription, carefully read and written out by Dr. Joule To the memory of Dr. Thomas White, who, after acquiring prominence in his profession, retired from its honors and emoluments to enjoy in rural tranquility the pursuits of knowledge. Serene and cheerful through the declining period of life he attained the Sist year of his age with faculties unimpaired, and died July 20, 1776. The grove which he planted and reared is now in its maturity. Con- secrated to his revered name by his only son, Charles White, who erected this monument A.D. 1790. 1 The bank is really the old river limit. The Mersey is now confined as a rule to a narrow channel, but sometimes it seeks its old haunts and forms a wide lake. The sides of this old limit are called the Ees. Is that the Celtic as, steep bank or water-fall, or is it not rather a name from the cutting which in floods eases the flow ? It is not easy to obtain near Manchester the sight of any house with its grounds nearly as they were a hundred years ago. Ruinous as these of the Priory have become, they are like bad sketches, where the outlines are not seen exactly, but are blurred by the artist to save trouble ; such pictures as are generally of twilight in quiet distances, or of mist as if made to conceal instead of to reveal ; when not intended to cover incapacity, ignorance, or idleness. 1 54 Literary and Philosophical Society. In Ashton Old Church there is an inscription on a marble tablet on the north wall Near this place lieth the body of THOMAS WHITE, M.D. Who died July 20, 1776, aged So, and ROSAMOND, His wife, who died April 23, 1777, aged 80. Beneath this marble lieth also the body of CHARLES WHITE, Member of the Corporation of Surgeons, and Fellow of the Royal Society, Who, after rendering himself eminent in his profession For the space 0/60 years, By a dexterity and extent of knowledge scarcely exceeded By any of his contemporaries, Retired to the enjoyment of rural and domestic felicity In the society of his family and friends at Sale, " Within this parish. Died on the 2^th February, 1813, aged 84. Also the body of JOHN BRADSHA W WHITE, Who died April 27, 1797, aged 2 7 . We think this from Mr. White, the grandson of Dr. Thomas, may still be interesting. A Short Account of an Excursion through the Subterraneous Cavern at Paris. By Mr. Thomas White, Member of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh, in a letter to his Father. Read February 9, 1785. Vol. ii. p. 361. Paris : July 29, 1784. * I yesterday visited a most extraordinary subterraneous cavern, commonly called the Quarries. But before I give- you the history of my expedition it will perhaps be neces- Underground of Paris. 155 sary to say a few words concerning the Observatoire Royale, the place of descent into this very remarkable cavern. This edifice is situated in the Faubourg St. Jacques, in the highest part of the city. It takes its name from its use, and was built by Louis XIV. in 1667, after the design of Claude Perrault, Member of the Academy of Sciences, and First Architect to his Majesty. It serves for the resi- dence of mathematicians, appointed by the King to make observations, and improve astronomy. The mode of building it is ingenious, and admirably contrived, it being so well arched that neither wood nor iron are employed in its construction. All the stones have been well chosen, and placed with a uniformity and equality which contri- bute much to the beauty and solidity of the whole edifice. It is reckoned to be about eighty or ninety feet in height, and at the top there is a beautiful platform, paved with flint stones, which commands an excellent view of Paris, and its environs. In the different floors of this building there are a number of trapdoors, placed perpendicularly over each other, and when these are opened the stars may be very clearly distinguished, from the bottom of the cave, at noonday. * At this place I was introduced to one of the inspectors (persons appointed by the King to superintend the workmen) by my friend Mr. Smeathman, who had used great appli- cation and interest for permission to inspect the quarry, and had been fortunate enough to obtain it. For as this cavern is extended under a part of the city of Paris, and leaves it in some places almost entirely without support, the inspectors are very particular as to showing it, and endeavour to keep it as secret as possible, lest, if it should be generally known, it might prove a source of uneasiness 156 Literary and Philosophical Society. and alarm to the inhabitants above. For, what is very remarkable, notwithstanding the extent of this quarry, and the apparent danger many parts of the city are in from it, few, even of those who have constantly resided in Paris, are at all acquainted with it, and on my mentioning the expedition I was going to undertake to several of my Parisian friends, they ridiculed me upon it, and told me it was impossible there could be any such place. ' About nine o'clock in the morning we assembled to the number of forty, and, with each a wax candle in his hand, precisely at ten o'clock descended by steps to the depth of three hundred and sixty feet perpendicular. We had likewise a numbers of guides, with torches, which we found very useful ; but, even with these assistants, we were several times under the necessity of halting, to examine the plans the inspectors keep of these quarries, that we might direct our course in the right road. I was disap- pointed in not being able to obtain one of these plans, which would have given the clearest idea of this most extraordinary place. At the entrance, the path is narrow for a considerable way ; but soon we entered large and spacious streets, all marked with names, the same as in the city ; different advertisements and bills were found, as we proceeded, pasted on the walls, so that it had every appearance of a large town, swallowed up in the earth. ' The general height of the roof is about nine or ten feet ; but in some parts not less than thirty, and even forty. In many places, there is a liquor continually dropping from it, which congeals immediately, and forms a species of transparent stone, but not so fine and clear as rock crystal. As we continued our peregrination, we thought ourselves in no small danger from the roof, which Underground of Paris. 157 we found but indifferently propped in some places with wood much decayed. Under the houses and many of the streets, however, it seemed to be tolerably secured by immense stones set in mortar ; in other parts, where there are only fields or gardens above, it was totally unsupported for a considerable space, the roof being perfectly level, or a plain piece of rock. ' After traversing about two miles, we again descended about twenty steps, and here found some workmen, in a very cold and damp place, propping up a most dangerous part, which they were fearful would give way every moment. We were glad to give them money for some drink, and make our visit at this place as short as possible. The path here is not more than three feet in width, and the roof so low that we were obliged to stoop considerably. 'By this time, several of the party began to repent of their journey, and were much afraid of the damp and cold air we frequently experienced. But, alas ! there was no retreating. ' On walking some little distance farther, we entered into a kind of salon, cut out of the rock, and said to be exactly under the Eglise de St. Jacques. This was illu- minated with great taste, occasioned an agreeable surprise, and made us all ample amends for the danger and diffi- culty we had just before gone through. At one end was a representation in miniature of some of the principal forts in the Indies, with the fortifications, draw-bridges, &c. Cannons were planted, with a couple of soldiers to each, ready to fire. Sentinels were placed in different parts of the garrison, particularly before the governor's house ; and a regiment of armed men was drawn up in another place, 158 Literary and Philosophical Society. with their general in the front. The whole was made up of a kind of clay which the place affords, was ingeniously contrived, and the light that was thrown upon it gave it a very pretty effect. ' On the other side of this hall, was a long table set out with cold tongues, bread and butter, and some of the best Burgundy I ever drank. Now everything was hilarity and mirth ; our fears were entirely dispelled, and the danger we dreaded the moment before was no longer thought of. In short, we were all in good spirits again, and proceeded on our journey about two miles farther, when our guides judged it prudent for us to ascend, as we were then got to the steps which lead up to the town. We here found our- selves safe, at the Val de Grace, near to the English Benedictine convent, without the least accident having happened to any one of the party. We imagined we had walked about two French leagues, and were absent from the surface of the earth betwixt four and five hours. ' After we had thanked the inspectors and guides for their very great civility, politeness, and attention, we took our leave, to visit the English Benedictine convent, in whose courtyard, and within a few yards of their house, the roof of the subterraneous passage had given way, and fallen in to the depth of one hundred and ninety-three feet. 'Though there was some little danger attending our rash expedition (as some people were pleased to term it) yet it was most exceedingly agreeable, and so perfectly a nouvelle scene, that we were all highly delighted, and thought ourselves amply repaid for our trouble. ' I regretted much that I did not take a thermometer and barometer down with me, that I might have had an opportunity of making some remarks on the temperature Under g round of Paris. 159 and weight of the air. Certainly, however, it was colder at this time than on the surface of the earth. But Mr. Smeathman informed me, that when he descended the last winter in the long and hard frost he found the air much more temperate than above ground, but far from warm. Neither, however, had he a thermometer with him. I lamented too that I had not time to make more remarks on the petrifactions, &c. * Mr. Smeathman observed, that when he descended, he found a very sensible difficulty of breathing in some of the passages and caverns, where the superincumbent rock was low, and the company crowded. This no doubt was much increased by the number of persons and of wax lights, but he does not apprehend that the difficulty would have been so great in rooms, of equal dimensions above ground. We remarked too, when we descended, that there was, in some degree, an oppression of respiration throughout the whole passage. 'There were formerly several openings into the quarries, but the two I have mentioned, viz. the Observatory and the Val de Grace, are, I believe, the only ones left ; and these the inspectors keep constantly locked, and rarely open them, except to strangers particularly introduced, and to workmen who are always employed in some part by the King. ' The police thought it a necessary precaution to secure all the entrances into this cavern, from its having been formerly inhabited by a famous gang of robbers, who infested the country for many miles round the city of Paris. ' As to the origin of this quarry, I could not, on the strictest inquiry, learn anything satisfactory ; and the only 1 60 Literary and Philosophical Society. account I know published, is contained in the " Tableaux de Paris," nouvelle edition, tome premier, chapitre 5 me, page I2me: '" For the first building of Paris, it was necessary to get the stone in the environs, and the consumption of it was very considerable. As Paris was enlarged, the suburbs were insensibly built on the ancient quarries, so that all that you see without is essentially wanting in the earth for the foundation of the city : hence proceed the frightful cavities, which are at this time found under the houses in several quarters. They stand upon abysses. It would not require a very violent shock to throw back the stones to the place from whence they have been raised with so much difficulty. Eight men being swallowed up in a gulf one hundred and fifty feet deep, and some other less known accidents, excited at length the vigilance of the police and the Government, and, in fact, the buildings of several quarters have been privately propped up ; and by this means a support given to these obscure subterraneous places which they before wanted. ' " All the Faubourg St. Jacques, Rue de la Harpe, and Rue de Tournon, stand upon the ancient quarries ; and pillars have been erected to support the weight of the houses. What a subject for reflection, in considering this great city, formed and supported by means absolutely at contradiction ! These towers, these steeples, the arched roofs of these temples, are so many signs to tell the eye that what we now see in the air is wanting under our feet." ' The grandson of Charles White was lately well known in Lancashire as Captain White, many years master of the Cheshire hounds. Dr. Barnes. 161 Dr. Barnes, F.R.S. The Rev. Dr. Barnes is not much written of as a Lanca- shire force, but he certainly shows himself, in our Memoirs, to be one of the most clear-headed of the men in the Society in looking forward and seeing the defective educa- tion of the time and its results. He had become the minister of the Unitarian Chapel in Cross Street, a place made to continue interesting by the labours of Mr. Rob- berds, and still keeping its character under the care of Mr. Gaskell. We are told of very early proposals to erect a University in Manchester, long before the dates with which we have been occupying ourselves. The plan was formed in early times, when there were few people and little money. It was, unfortunately, unsuccessful, although the most of our universities, and until lately our public schools, were founded in days when the country was to a large extent uninhabited and when commerce scarcely existed. A university would perhaps have given, in the opinion of some, a broader basis to the manufactures of Manchester, which have been left in the hands of uneducated geniuses. This is partly the reason that so much credit has been given to the opinion that learning is prejudicial ; but, on the whole, it has been good for the world that the useful arts and book learning have worked separately for a time, so that each has learnt to respect the other. Can we find the men who are now living with all the advantages of education doing their work in such a superior manner that they are entitled to look down upon their fathers ? We know it is still true that the men who are self-educated come into the town and prosper, and too many educated 1 6 2 Literary and Philosophical Society. men who have received the moneyed fruits of their fathers' labours give themselves to amusement or to idleness, and we believe to vice. Have we not heard that Manchester is a great centre of betting, the resort of unregulated intellects, or men who will not make exertion, who have no steady purpose, who have no desire to do good, but who wish to live well even at the expense of others, men who seek to amass wealth by robbery, but in such a manner that they cannot be punished, for such is betting and mere speculation with the money of others. Dr. Barnes wished to avoid the evils of want of educa- tion. All was right so far; right to seek to have our manufacturers better taught than they were, and not to leave us obliged, as we are now, to hurry forward schools for practical science in fear lest our prosperity should rapidly decay, on account of the greater care taken in the education of our neighbours. But had he succeeded, no man knows if the result would have been better ; it may be that men would have been too far advanced in one direction, missing a stage of life. It may be that the idle- ness of abundance would have come soon, and a generation or two have been lost to labour. Wealth of nations is not always prosperity, and it is a question how far we are prosperous men ; long-continued wealth produces idleness, except in noble or ambitious minds ; a few shillings' increase weekly are as wealth to a poor man ; and he was a wise man who, when asked what is enough, answered ' a little more.' Our newest aesthetic literature follows suit in loving externals does its best to destroy high motive, and con- solidates the foundation of selfishness. When sin has no meaning man's conscience is guided by his success, when hope is a delusion caused by the near- Dr. Barnes. 163 ness of some organs of the brain to others, producing a mistaken induction, when charity and tenderness are the consequences of an atavism which another line of develop- ment may teach us to despise, is it wonderful that we should cease to have respect for the body, especially if it is not our own ; and is it, after all, any better than a galvanised carcase, excited by a fine spark which has no meaning, but runs off to perform a similar service to the nearest dog or reptile ; and why not ? Is not the reptile's life as important as our own ? For what cares heaven about us or about itself either the great unconscious, wandering, meaning- less heaven that spins round, for ever the same, always at a new beginning, always at a new end, that would weary of its own existence if it only had feeling enough to weary, or sense enough to. know how empty is its life ? This is the dreary religion of to-day. Why teach our children morality ? let them get the best they can of the world. If they take from others, what matters it these others are but for a day ! But at least let us teach them the physical morality of science, let us teach them to take care of their health. Why ? What matter how long they live, mere masses of tingling fibres there are plenty more to take their place ? However, society advances by steps, and after a time of mere aesthetic selfishness, or that { most beautiful ' refine- ment with which people make a kind of satanic drawing- room for heaven where poetry of earth and sense displaces religion, we shall some day throw it all aside as trifling, and shall again say, ' My very heart and soul cry out, O living God, for Thee.' Dr. Barnes returned to the education of Manchester in 1783, and read three papers on the subject, one of them M 2 1 04 Literary and Philosophical Society. being ' Proposals for establishing in Manchester a plan of liberal education for young men designed for civil and active life, whether in trade or in any of the professions.' 1 The next part was ' Constitution and Regulations of the College of Arts and Sciences in Manchester.' The first paper was drawn up ' at the request of the society,' and was printed by them, and ' offered for the consideration of the public.' This resolution was passed on April 23, 1783, and on July 6 of the same year, the 4 Col- lege of Arts and Sciences ' was instituted. We must give here some of the rules of the college. 2 ' We have mentioned it as principally accommodated to young men designed for a respectable line of trade. But those who are designed for the different professions, as well as those who have no particular profession in view, will probably find very considerable advantage from it, either as preparatory to the university, or to life in general. And there are many gentlemen, further advanced in age, who have sufficient leisure and disposition for such pursuits, to whom it would, possibly, be an agreeable circumstance to have the opportunity of spending two or three hours in a week in so rational and improving an entertainment. ' Strongly impressed with these ideas, the gentlemen who wish well to this scheme hope to see it prosecuted with zeal and perseverance. . They conceive that it will be an honour to the town of Manchester to have within itself such an institution as that here proposed, and to take the lead among the other great towns of this opulent kingdom in establishing a plan which, it is not improbable, many others will be ambitious to follow. ' If, upon this general view, this institution should appear 1 Vol. ii. p. 30. 2 Lit. and Phil. Soc., vol. ii. p. 40, College 0/1783. 165 worthy of the attention and patronage of the public, a more particular account of its extent and objects will be given in another paper, together with a distinct syllabus of the lectures proposed to be delivered in every separate depart- ment. And it is hoped that its commencement may take place the ensuing winter. ' N.B. It is proposed that the lectures shall be delivered in the evening, or so as not to interfere with the regular hours of business.' OFFICERS OF THE COLLEGE. Patrons. The Right Honourable the Earl of Derby, Lord Lieutenant and Gustos Rotulorum of the cotmty palatine of Lancaster. Sir Thomas Egerton, Bart. -i Knights of the Thomas Stanley, Esq. J Shire. President. Thomas Percival, M.D., F.R.S., & S.A., &c, &c. Governors. James Massey, Esq. Rev. Thomas Barnes. Alexander Eason, M.D. Rev. Samuel Hall, A.M. Charles White, Esq., F.R.S. Mr. Thomas Henry, F.R.S. Mr. George Bew. Mr. Isaac Mosse. 'As a mark of respect to the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, which has so fully discussed the merits, and so zealously encouraged the plan of this institu- tion, that the present nine officers, viz. the presidents, vice- presidents, secretaries, and treasurer, be appointed governors of the college. ' It may not be improper to mention, that the scheme here proposed has been carried into execution with con- 1 66 Literary and Philosophical Society. siderable success. During the two last winters, lectures have been delivered in different branches of science to numbers of gentlemen, who have thus given the most re- spectable sanction to the undertaking. And it may be added, that the gentlemen engaged in the office of prae- lectors, animated with the encouragement they have already received, hope to pursue their important object with vigour and perseverance, not doubting but that they shall continue to enjoy the patronage and support of the friends of science and of virtue.' However, the spirit of Manchester was too strong, and the Literary and Philosophical Society was aiming at more than the working city could accomplish, or at least was willing to accomplish. Dr. Barnes * seems to have been a wide-minded man, and to have had a clear vision of the importance of science, as well as the cultivation of the arts which made Manchester important. We see this from the paper he read (Jan 9, 1782), 'On the affinity subsisting between the arts, with a plan for graduating and extending manufactures, by en- couraging those arts on which manufactures principally depend/ This plan consists in forming an institution devoted principally to chemistry and mechanics, but con- nected also with a museum. An account of this is better in his own words. Dr. Barnes may be said to have followed on Mr. Henry's ideas, and developed plans still more practical. It would have been well if Manchester had taken the advice thus early given ; then the museum, with its collections of work and patterns, would have formed of itself a fine history of the town and all its labours. He writes : 1 See vol. i. p. 84, Dr. Barnes. College of 1 783. 167 * Let us now apply these observations. 1 I have ventured to chalk out the outlines of a plan, the sole object and principle of which is, the improvement of our manufactures, by the improvement of these arts on which they depend. Those arts are Chemistry and Mechanism. In an ex- cellent paper, read to this Society some time ago, it was lamented, " that so few of our dyers are chemists, and of our chemists dyers." We may add, how few of our mechanics understand the principles of their own arts, and the discoveries made in other collateral and kindred manu- factures ? At this day, I am informed, not a single weaver in the Norwich trade understands the use of a fly-shuttle. * But to proceed to our plan. 1 The first object of this scheme is, to provide a public repository among- us for chemical and mechanic know- ledge. ' In order to this, I could wish models to be procured of all such machines, in the various arts, as seem to bear the most distant relation to our own manufactures. All the processes in those of silk, of woollen, of linen, and of cotton should be here delineated. These would make the most necessary and important parts of this collection. But to these might, with great advantage, be added, the astonish- ing effects of mechanic genius in other branches, which have not so apparent an affinity with our own. ' In this repository let there be likewise provided an assortment of the several ingredients used in dyeing, print- ing, etc., for the purpose of experiments. 'A superintendent will be necessary, to arrange, and to apply this collection to its proper use. He should be a man well versed in chemical and mechanic knowledge. 1 See vol. i. p. 84, Dr. Barnes. 1 68 Literary and Philosophical Society. And let his province be, at certain seasons, and under certain regulations, to give lectures, advice, and assistance, to those who wish to obtain a better knowledge of these arts. ' Lastly ; let the expense necessary to open and to support the scheme be defrayed by a subscription : and let every subscriber have the power of nominating one, or more, to receive the advantages of this Institution. . . .' 1 This mechanic school would serve as a proper step of transition, from thence to the warehouse ; and, perhaps, it might become a regular part of a young gentleman's pre- paration for business. How desirable a part it would be I will not here say. Other gentlemen present are much better qualified to decide upon the question. . . . ' Objections will, perhaps, have already arisen, which may appear strong, I hope not unanswerable. That of the expense I cannot allow to be of this number. Nor the difficulty of finding a proper person to superintend the Institution. Nor the regulations necessary to its internal management and conduct. If no objections stronger than these be found against it, I shall not deem it altogether Utopian. ' Something similar to this has been done by the Society of Arts. But the two plans are essentially different. They give premiums : but they have no lectures, or modes of instruction. Our plan would be desirable in every large town, and particularly in the centre of every important manufacture. . . . He then adds : ' When I was engaged thinking on the plan, and, like the artist, enamoured of its imaginary beauty, I met with the following passage in Sully 's Memoirs. My feelings in reading it I will not attempt to describe. ' He tells us that among the great designs of Henry Museums. 169 IV. which were prevented from being carried into execu- tion by the untimely and tragical death of the great prince was the following. ' " There was to be," says Sully, " a Cabinet of State, in the Louvre, destined to receive whatever could tend to the knowledge of Finance, of Science, and of Art." ' After enumerating several of these, particularly relating to the army, such as lists, plans, charts, etc. etc., he adds : " I conceived a scheme, of appointing a large room, as a magazine, of models of whatever is most curious in machinery, relating to war, arts, trade, etc., and all sorts of exercises, noble, liberal, and mechanical ; that all those who aspired to perfection might, without trouble, improve themselves in this silent school. The lower apartments were to hold the heavy pieces of workmanship ; and the higher were to contain the lighter. An exact inventory of both was to be one of the pieces of the great cabinet." ] ' What a pity it is that this whole plan was not carried into execution. It would not have been the least of the embellishments of the reign of Henry. It would have done honour to the prince and to the age. I mean not to disparage the utility of our modern collections of fossils, shells, mosses, and insects. They are the works of God ; and therefore worthy of our highest admiration. But I can easily conceive that a scheme like this, upon a smaller scale, might possibly be applied to better use than many of those collections actually serve. In a town like this the opulence, and even the very existence of which depends upon manufactures, and these again upon arts, machinery, and inventions, a PUBLIC CABINET, devoted to this pur- pose, would be a source of great ornament and utility.' 1 Sully's Memoirs, vol. v. ' v 1 70 Literary and Philosophical Society. These ideas have been carried out with great fulness in Paris. Manchester has always been aware of the importance of such advice, but it has not been much inclined to look forward, and to take it ; it has looked to the next year perhaps, but seldom farther, and late in this century Salford moved a step in advance, and by great care the energy of some of its citizens has made a museum which is at least a very valuable portion of that which would long ago have existed had the advice of Dr. Barnes and Mr. Henry been adopted an advice which this Society disseminated over Europe. The idea of museums was not quite new, i.e. cabinets existed of all kinds of curiosities, both natural and artificial, not applied however by manufacturing towns for their purposes, or at least to a very small extent, and scarcely known to scientific men. As with the sanitary idea, Manchester began by think- ing, but showed itself more of a speculative town at the time, instead of a practical one. The world had got little beyond the times of De Monconys, who published his travels in Europe and the Levant in 1666 at Lyons, and describes for us the various collections of wonders as well as the experi- ments he saw. Certainly there were museums in more than one town in England : many were absurd collections not understood. Even Sir Hans Sloane, who was earlier in action, had not risen up to Dr. Barnes' ideal. Dr. Barnes, who brought forward the plans for colleges and museums, was born atWarrington in 1747, and died July 8, 1810. He was above thirty-one years minister of Cross Street Chapel. (See ' Manchester Academy/ App. A.) When the scientific men of Manchester were thus struggling for the welfare of the community around them, A Political Episode. others were fighting for political liberty. In 1794 the Boroughreeve, Thomas Walker, was prosecuted by the Government. He had been appointed two years before president of the Constitutional Society, certainly not a very formidable title, and one savouring little of opposition to law. A Political Episode. In contrast to the work of the Society we give here a few extracts from ' Old Political Tracts/ sent by Dr. Bottomley, and more explicit than the allusions already made. ' Thomas Walker and Samuel Jackson were respec- tively president and secretary of the Manchester Constitu- tional Society. Two of the members of the Society being in Paris upon private business, they were desired by the Society to communicate with the Patriotic Societies of France, for the purpose of establishing a correspondence upon any occasion in which the rights, interests, and hap- piness of mankind were concerned. Such a correspondence was proposed on the part of the Manchester Society, and was acceded to by the Society of Friends of the Constitu- tion in Paris, commonly known by the appellation of the Club of the Jacobins. The deputies of the Constitutional Society of Manchester were Thomas Cooper and James Watt, junior. They presented their address to the Society of the Friends of the Constitution, sitting at the Jacobins in Paris, on April 13, 1792. In the absence of the Presi- dent this address was replied to by the Vice-President, M. Carra. In this address he says, " Already several civic feasts have been celebrated in almost every department of the empire, consecrating the alliance which we have sworn anew to observe with all the patriots of England in the 172 Literary and Philosophical Society. persons of the deputies from the Society of the far-famed town of Manchester." This address was ordered to be printed, and was signed by Carra, Vice- President ; Ducos and Saladon, Deputies of the National Assembly ; Deperrey Roi, Doppet, Secretaries. A letter was also sent from the Society of the Friends of the Constitution at Paris to the Constitutional Society of Manchester. At the commence- ment it says, "Friends and Brethren, The affectionate address communicated to us by your deputies, Messrs. Cooper and Watt, has rejoiced the heart of every honest Frenchman, and of every true friend of humanity and philosophy." The letter is signed by Deperrey and Doppet, secretaries, and Carra, Vice-President ; the date is Paris, April 14, 1792 the fourth year of liberty. * These proceedings attracted the attention of Mr. Burke. In his speech made in the House of Commons April 30, 1792, he is reported to have expressed himself in substance thus : " That there were in this country men who scrupled not to enter into an alliance with a set in France of the worst traitors and regicides that had ever been heard of, the Club of the Jacobins. Agents had been sent from this country to enter into a federation with that iniquitous club, and those were men of some consideration here ; the names he alluded to were Thomas Cooper and James Watt (here Mr. Burke read the address presented to the club of the Jacobins by those men on April 16). . . . He likewise could name others who avowed similar prin- ciples ; for instance, Mr. Walker of Manchester." ' From the Manchester Historical Recorder I (Dr. Bot- tomley speaks) have taken the following notes : 1792. 'The premises of Messrs. Faulkner and Birch, printers of the Manchester Herald^ destroyed by a political A Political Episode. 173 mob. The house of Thomas Walker, Esq., in South Parade, St. Mary's, was also attacked, and in self-defence Mr. Walker was compelled to fire on the mob. The attacked were attached to the cause of reform.' 1794. 'Thomas Walker, Esq^ Mr. Collier, and others were tried at Lancaster on a charge of having conspired to overthrow the constitution and assist the French in the threatened attack upon this island. They were acquitted March 3, and returned triumphantly to Manchester.' ' Dunn, the principal witness against Mr. Walker, was tried for perjury, and sentenced to the pillory and two years' imprisonment.' The Constitutional Society had its opponents, and Mr. Francis Phillips is mentioned as a bitter enemy of reform. Later, i.e. in 1808, he had the satisfaction of supporting his chief in his last struggles, Mr. Perceval the Prime Minister having fallen into his arms when shot in the lobby of the House of Commons. As Dr. Bottomley remarks, these political feelings were carried into our Society, and we find that on October 7, 1791, Mr. S. Jackson moved, 'that the Society do write to Dr. Priestley, being an honorary member, expressing their concern at the losses he has sustained by the late disgrace- ful riots at Birmingham.' On October 21 this was post- poned, and on November 4 a letter of resignation was received from Mr. Thomas Cooper, also from Mr. Watt, junior, Mr. Thomas Walker, and Mr. Samuel Jackson. Mr. Walker was previously very popular on account of his influence in having the fustian tax, which had been imposed by Pitt, repealed. (See p. 122, also under Thomas Cooper, p. 189.) 1 74 Literary and Philosophical Society. Dr. John Ferriar. Dr. John Ferriar was a man of great force of character, and attained an eminence beyond the place of his practice. He was born at Oxnam, 1 near Jedburgh, in 1761 ; he studied in Edinburgh, and practised in Manchester. He was phy- sician to the Infirmary and Lunatic Asylum. He died in 1815. He contributed to the memoirs of the Society several of his papers ; a letter has already been quoted regard- ing sanitary measures to be adopted in Manchester. An article in vol. iii., ' On the Vital Principle/ gives us a specimen of his power of reasoning and breadth of mind, and leads to conclusions generally accepted. He sums up, ' While so many doubts occur respecting the proof of a vital principle, and while the supposition includes so many difficulties, in its own nature, it is allowable to suspend our judgment on the subject till more convincing proofs of its existence shall appear than have as yet been offered to the public. At present it is evident that we gain nothing by admitting the supposition, as no distinct account is given of the nature or production of this principle, and as an investigation of facts seems to lead us back to the brain as the source of sensibility and irritability. ' In the course of this paper I have uniformly considered the action of the mind and brain on the body as identical, without reference to the question of materialism ; because with respect to our facts, and indeed to all medical facts, the notion is sufficiently complete. I have also avoided all disquisitions respecting the peculiar nature of the ner- 1 Vol. iii. The same family spelt the name as Ferrier. See life by J. E. Bailey, Palatine Note Book, 1882. Dr. Ferriar. 175 vous energy, convinced that in the present state of our knowledge it is of more consequence to examine one opinion, which is said to be supported by facts, than either to reject or advance many plausible hypotheses. I have purposely omitted to consider the application of the doc- trine of a vital principle to pathology, as the subject would lead to disquisitions inadmissible by the rules of the Society.' We see a true scientific treatment up to the point of knowledge of the time, whilst there is generally an absence of that scientific bigotry or perhaps superstition which throws so much suspicion on the reasoning of many scientific men when they enter on such subjects. Dr. Ferriar's paper ' On Popular Illusions,' in vol. iii., is an interesting one, treating of demonology, magic, witch- craft, miraculous cures, and powder of sympathy, and he tells us many wonderful tales which have become to a large extent familiar to those who have read pretty full collections of such relations made in modern time, and we cannot but agree with his well expressed conclusion, giving our own meaning to his words. He says : ' Lastly, an acquaintance with the histories and argu- ments of demonologists produces a useful hesitation in assenting to evidence however specious; for in doubtful cases, however numerous the witnesses may be, it will always be remembered how frequently men have shewn them- selves determined to see and believe things invisible and incredible.' Dr. Ferriar amongst other subjects brings in mesmer- ism, and is in this case certainly not free from that kind of bigotry we spoke of, viz. the scientific, the result of want of far-seeing as all bigotry is. He does not seem to 'i 76 Literary and Philosophical Society. imagine for a moment that he may be wrong, and ascribes Mesmer's results to imagination, a word commonly intro- duced as a kind of magician's spell to explain everything that will not agree with presumptuous theories having weak foundations. The word imagination is used as for many years electricity has been used, a power wonderful enough, but itself as mysterious as anything that it is supposed to explain, and its use simply implies ignorance in most cases. After nearly a hundred years Mesmer found an expounder in Manchester. Dr, Braid examined the subject soon after he came from Scotland to settle here, when he formed the theory which he published in a volume on * Hypnotism, or the Sleep of the Nerves.' At least it proved many long denied facts, and advanced an explanation so far. All orthodox men thought it prudent to laugh, but now that his theory comes back from Germany, although unacknowledged, and probably unknown to the new writer, it may bring more honour to the product of our own com- munity. Dr. Braid was not looked on as sound here, was in fact despised by some as a quack, and he died before it was found by the public that he was a discoverer. What man can outlive the hatred of bigots ? It is certainly very amusing to see men who have learnt the grosser and more superficial laws of nature known to our books refusing to believe anything which these laws do not account for. The most wonderful things in nature are done by laws for which we have no expression beyond statement of facts. The reformer is often pitied as a quack. We have many good working scientific men who bring forth their little laws in neat sentences to express their ideas of the chains by which they propose to bind nature we do not object to their laws, but in most cases they may rather be compared Dr. Ferriar. 177 to small currents or eddies in a great stream, in which nature carries everything along with it the great law. Dr. Ferriar wrote a volume entitled ' Essay towards a Theory of Apparitions/ many of which also are easily ex- plained by the imagination method. As a very curious instance of this class of explanation Dr. Ferriar gives (see Mem. vol. iii. p. 113) some account of Marcus Marci (a physician in Prag), who held ' that ideas are substantial and everywhere in the constituent atoms of their subject, although its organisation be destroyed. Thus spectres and redivivi were explained, without any other difficulty than that of believing the theory. It was a question amongst philosophers last century, how the rain- ing of frogs could be explained ; for that frogs were rained nobody presumed to doubt before Rhedi. Marci roundly affirmed that the ideas of frogs were brought down by the rain, and that they put on a covering of mud after their descent. This rain of ideas is a thought that would have been much celebrated in a poet. Sterne has hit on some- thing like it, but the congelation of minds, which furnishes the subject of two very amusing papers in the " Tatler," is a stretch of fancy capable of making any poet's fortune. . . . That singular and beautiful appearance the Fata Morgana, was a happy confirmation of Marci's hypotheses ; he sup- posed them to consist of the ideas of dead animals.' Probably this is a perversion of Plato's theory of ideas, it certainly goes beyond all reason. Another paper read by Dr. Ferriar is entitled ' Essay on the Dramatic Writings of Massinger.' This essay shows a great attention to and a full appreciation of the dramatic poets of England, and modern writers have given to Massinger the place which our author has assigned. N 178 Literary and Philosophical Society. Dr. Ferriar complains of the neglect of the poet, and there certainly was no critical edition of his works till 1805, twenty-one years after this essay was written. We are inclined to look on the literary criticism as good in the Society's memoirs. Criticism had a rich field ; it did not require to enter into minute details to excite in- terest, and it attempted less than some have done since to adorn the poets by improvements, gilding refined gold and making a Shakspeare that would be new to the author. Dr. Ferriar's comments on Sterne are very searching (see 4th vol. p. 84), and they show a great amount of varied and remarkably careful reading. He traces the ideas of Sterne as well as his language to various authors, but still defends his use of thoughts taken from others. He says, speaking of his own remarks, ' They leave Sterne in possession of every praise but that of curious erudition, to which he had no pretence, and of unparalleled originality, which ignorance only can ascribe to any polished writer ' (the meaning of this may be asked or questioned). ' It would be enjoining an impossible task to exact much knowledge on subjects frequently treated, and yet to pro- hibit the use of thoughts or expressions rendered familiar by study, merely because they had been occupied by former authors. There is a kind of imitation which the ancients encouraged, and which even our Gothic criticism admits when acknowledged.' He says, ' The talents for so delicate an office as that of literary censor are too great and numerous to be often assembled in one person. Rabe- lais wanted decency, Sterne learning, and Voltaire fidelity. Luciari alone supported the character properly, in those pieces which appear to be justly ascribed to him.' We cannot agree to this position given to Lucian, but Dr. Ferriar. 1 79 we have often wondered why no edition of him has been spread among the public, and his power and beauty shown. And yet why do we wonder ? The reason seems to be in the absurd idea that the exact words and all the words of an author ought to be given. And thus, when a great author is low enough, or we may add foolish enough, we prefer to say wicked enough, to be indecent, his powers are lost to the world simply because people will insist on nothing being reserved, whilst certain portions excommuni- cate the whole unless removed. But the world will learn to throw aside the evils of the good and the follies of the great some day, and detest low language even if it comes from the pen of a Shakspeare, hiding it as we would gladly have hidden his failings if we had seen him overpowered with wine. We have so many great and good teachers, that we are simply base if we pick up the vile portions of any one's thoughts, still baser if we write mean thoughts ourselves, stimulating vice. We hear of some quibblers defending their low ideas by saying that the Bible had some such thoughts. No honest man says this, because if honest he would read to prove it, and he would find no one place where the Bible rejoices in iniquity. The idea of selling low words for money was not invented in Jerusalem. It seems to rise and fall as a fashion, unguided by principle. Dr. Ferrfar's comments and other essays and verses were afterwards published in two volumes in 1812. Although we have spoken of Dr. Ferriar as a literary man, his real value to Manchester was as a physician ; his professional works were published in three volumes, en- titled ' Medical Histories and Reflections/ These we have not seen, and it is out of our province to describe. We shall leave also behind stories of his professional jealousy N 2 1 80 Literary and Philosophical Society. when a new member of the medical world came into the field with a new medical idea or process. Strange it is how scientific men, seekers of truth by profession, object to any truth found out by others. They either steal it or try to depreciate it dogs and bones. Great scientific know- ledge is not always accompanied by high character, but it is very frequently accompanied by great greediness. There was once a delusion that intellect, nobleness, and love of truth went together a wish certainly not a wide obser- vation. However, Dr. Ferriar is blamed for nothing more than jealousy. Electricity among the Ancients. We must not forget Dr. Falconer's ' Observations on the Knowledge of the Ancients respecting Electricity,' see vol. iii. p. 278. There we have an account of amber, whether from Liguria or the north, and of Lapis Lyncurius ( which attracts straws and leaves, copper and iron/ and of electric fishes, subjects now better known to the ordinary reader ; we have however less known speculations sug- gested to Dr. Falconer by ' an ingenious and learned gentle- man/ on the knowledge of the Etruscans, familiar also to Numa Pompilius, who is said to have drawn fire down from heaven. This statement is corroborated by the manner of his successor's death. Tullus Hostilius was killed, the ingenious gentleman supposes, by mismanaging the process of bringing down the lightning. This is a fair explanation of the matter, and in the words of Livy, ' tradunt ira Jovis sollicitati prava religione, fulmine ictum cum domo con- flagrasse.' L Livy says of him * that after examining the commentaries of Numa and finding there a description of 1 B. i. ch. xxxi> Electricity among the Ancients. 1 8 1 certain occult and solemn sacrifices performed to Jupiter Elicius, he set himself to execute these in private ; but from some impropriety in the commencement and conduct of these operations, he not only failed of being favoured with any intercourse with any celestial beings, but was, through the wrath of Jove, excited by his being importuned with such irregular rites and ceremonials, struck with lightning, and consumed together with his palace.' We throw aside all these things in our new histories, and Numa Pompilius becomes an idea, like the frogs of Marcus Marci. Dr. Falconer's extract from Lucan is also very interest- ing, saying that the Etruscan Aruns collected the fires of heaven, and buried them in the earth with sad murmur. ' What is this/ he says, although the words have inverted commas as if they were a quotation, ' What is this but the description of the use of a conductor to secure buildings from being struck by lightning ? ' The words are : Dumque illi effusam longis anfractibus urbem Circumeunt, Aruns disperses fulminis ignes Colligit, et terrse msesto cum murmure condit. It certainly reads as if the fire itself were collected, but we fear the critics and dictionaries are against Dr. Falconer, and consider that it was the place struck by lightning or the objects struck. Fulgur, we are told, is an object struck by lightning, and the Bidental a place struck by lightning : both, however, have a sacredness, or at least awe, attached to them. In ' Lucan's Pharsalia,' translated by H. D. Riley, B.A., B. I. 585-599, we have ' Of whom, Aruns, the one,] most stricken in years in- 1 82 Literary and Philosophical Society. habited the walls of deserted Luca, well skilled in the movements of lightnings, and the throbbing veins of the entrails, and the warnings of the wing hovering in the air.' B. I. 603-610. ' And while in prolonged circuit they go round about the emptied city, Aruns collects the dispersed objects struck by flames of lightning, and with a lamenting murmur buries them in the earth, and bestows a name upon the consecrated spots. Then does he urge onward to the altar a male with selected neck.' * Still, without pretending to a critical knowledge of Latin, we must seek some evidence that ignes meant the things struck by fire. If we look at Smith's Dictionary, we find that the priests ' Bidentales ' collected the earth and buried it in the ground with a sorrowful murmur, but the proof of this painful expression is the very passage in question, and we may yet ask if condere fulgur means the same as colligere disperses fulminis ignes. Dr. Falconer seems to have found the truth hidden from the scholars unskilled in physics. He then endeavours to trace the use of spears as con- ductors, and quotes Livy's account of a spear which burnt for two hours and was not consumed. He gives Plutarch's account of balls of fire that were seen on the points of the soldiers' spears, and refers to the lightning on ships' masts, and the fires of St. Elmo. This connects the worship of spears with fire-worship. 1 Also see Riley : 'He alludes to the consecration of the 'bidental;' a name given to a place struck by lightning and thenceforward held sacred. Similar veneration was paid to the burial place of a person killed by lightning. Priests collected the earth, branches, &c., and buried them with lamentations. The spot was consecrated by sacrificing a two-year old sheep, which gave its name ' bidens ' to the place. An altar was also erected, and no one was allowed to tread on, touch, or look at it. The altar might be repaired when fallen into decay, but it was sacrilege to extend its boundaries. Seneca men- tions a belief that wine struck by lightning would produce madness if drank.' Richard Sharp. John Sharpe. 183 A paper ' On the Nature and Utility of Eloquence/ by Mr. Richard Sharp, 1 shows the importance of that art in the field of Probable evidence. One is tempted to think here of Dr. (now Cardinal) Newman's 'Grammar of Assent/ and that wide region between demonstration and fancy in which character is formed and lives. An account of some Experiments to ascertain whether the Force of Steam be in proportion to the Generating Heat. By John Sharpe. On this Dr. Bottomley says : 1 As a result of an experimental inquiry he came to the conclusion that when heat is applied to water the water heats through the several degrees of the thermometer nearly in equal times ; and when in a closed vessel, the same rule holds good, as well above the boiling point as below it. In another series of experiments he condensed in a still steam at different degrees of temperature; he concludes from the results that steam at the common boiling temperature, or within a few degrees above it, gives out as much latent heat as steam sent over at a much higher temperature, and most probably at any temperature whatever. On this paper Dalton has a note. He thinks it remarkable that the temperature of the water in the boiler increased in such proportion to the time of boiling. He would have expected the water to heat most quickly at first. He does not doubt the accuracy of the experiment, but explains it by supposing the common thermometric scale inaccurate ; the degrees of the mercurial thermometer are progressively too small as they ascend.' 1 Vol. iii. p. 307. 1 84 Literary and Philosophical Society. Theorems and Problems to elucidate the Mechanical Prin- ciples called Vis Viva. By John Gough. Dr. Bottomley describes the paper thus : * He starts with certain definitions of force and axioms. Vis viva he defines as " the whole force opposed by a body in motion to a retarding force which impedes its progress ; and conversely, it is the whole force accumulated in a body by the action of any motive force which puts that body in motion." Also, he assumes that the vis viva of a body is equal to the quantity of resistance which k is able to over- come. Then follow certain theorems involving his defini- tions and axioms. In his method of solution he uses Euclid's doctrine of proportions and the fluxional calculus. His paper concludes with mechanical problems the solu- tions of which depend for the most part on the preceding theorems, such as the penetration of plastic matters by falling weights of known dimensions. ' Determination of centre of gyration, and centre of oscillation ; ratio of forces necessary to draw out ductile cylinder of given proportions to other dimensions ; deter- mination of the velocity with which one ball must strike another so that it may break.' A Demonstration of Lawson's Geometrical Theorems. By the late Rev. Charles Wildbore. Dr. Bottomley says here : 'This paper consists of solutions by the late Rev. C. Wildbore to all the sixty theorems in the well-known pamphlet entitled, "A Dissertation on the Geometrical Analysis of the Ancients, with a collection of theorems and problems, without solutions, for the exercise of young Rev. George Walker. 185 students, 1774." These theorems have all been elegantly demonstrated before, in Leyburn's " Mathematical Reposi- tory.'" The author of the 'Dissertation' was the late Rev. John Lawson, B.D. The theorems are proved after the manner of Euclid. The Rev. George Walker, F.R.S. The Rev. George Walker, F.R.S., became President of the Society after Dr. Pefcival's death. He had great per- sonal influence. He was born in Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1735, was educated at Durham, acted as minister to a small dissenting congregation there, and afterwards at Yarmouth, then went as mathematical teacher to the Warrington Academy in 1 772. . He was famed at the time for his treatise on the sphere ; but honour for a time found in all his places very little payment at Durham less than fifty pounds per annum. He then went as minister to a congregation at High Pavement, Nottingham, in 1794. His importance latterly increased in the region of politics ; his collection of evidence showing the wasteful expenditure of the war, and of the general administration during the American war, was a powerful engine in raising up friends of Parliamentary reform, and his ' Dissenter's Plea ' was in a similar direction said by Fox and others to be the best utterance on the subject He wrote, according to the desire of a number of Priestley's admirers, an address of sympathy with that philosopher, and many ministers signed it. He also drew up a petition in favour of Parliamentary reform, which was signed by three thousand persons, and presented to Par- liament in 1793 by Mr. Grey. 1 86 Literary and Philosophical Society. He was invited to come to the Manchester Academy, and remained for some time ; afterwards he retired to Wavertree, near Liverpool, and died when on a visit to a friend in London, in 1807. Manchester missed receiving him in his youth, because when invited there they could only offer him forty pounds a year. He was, however, given little more at Durham, and that small sum was not all paid. He seems, indeed, to have been compelled to struggle with poverty during most of his life. Some of his writings are : on ' The Beautiful in the Human Form ; ' on ' Tragedy and the Interest in Tragical Representation ; ' on ' Hypocrisy ; ' ' Probable Arguments in favour of the Immateriality of the Soul ; ' on ' The Machinery of the Ancient Epic Poem ; ' on ' The Moral Influence of History ;' on 'Natural and Moral Philosophy, and the Proper Meaning of Philosophy in both ; ' on * Imitation and Fashion ; ' ' The Dissenter's Plea : a Defence of Learning and the Arts against some Charges of Rous- seau's ; ' ' The Dissenter's Plea : or the Appeal of the Dissenters to the Justice, the Honour, and the Religion of the Kingdom against the Test Laws/ In using the word dissenter in connection with the Manchester New College as in part with the Warrington Academy, and we may add with the Manchester Academy, we are really to understand Unitarians, who also frequently call themselves Presbyterians, a name which is not distinc- tive and is indeed confusing, and to which many persons . object, as the opinions differ from those of the Presbyterian establishment. They are a body which have always had great influence in Manchester, partly having the roots from Warrington, a body always very clear in their aims, ad- vanced in their views of education and of political liberty ; Fasting. as to religious liberty, they admired that as non- established bodies always do. They have done much unquestionably to raise the intellectual standard around them, and they have always done their duty with precision towards their neighbours ; yet they have not been popular, and indeed, in spite of their goodness, they have not been loved. Their cold and purely intellectual nature has not been attractive ; the intellect and reason are not the highest part of man ; these parts of man have not the highest aims, and have not the highest flights. This has nothing to do with the truth or otherwise of their doctrines ; it only seems to be a fact that their doctrines attracted very quiet men, and wherever their college went it was small and cold, a spark ready to go out. There is no pillar of fire in their line of march, and yet. with all this, who has written more beautifully of the Christian life or felt it more deeply than James Martineau ? One feels that it is presumption even to sound his praise ; every intellect must be impressed by his reason, and every heart deeply affected by his emotions. That there are many contradictions in man is no new opinion. Fasting. The world has lately been interested in an experiment in New York by Dr. Tanner, on the time to which life may be prolonged without food. His limit was forty days, with the abundant use of water. There is a paper by Dr. Percival in vol. iii. on the effects of famine, wherein he quotes Mor~ gagni De Sedibus et Caitsis Morborum as ' relating the history of a woman who obstinately refused to take any sustenance, except twice, during the space of fifty days, at the end of which period she died. But he adds, that she used water 1 88 Literary and Philosophical Society. by way of drink, though in small quantities.' ' Redi, who made many experiments (cruel and unjustifiable in my opinion) to ascertain the effects of fasting on fowls, observed that none were able to support life beyond the ninth day to whom drink was denied ; whereas one, indulged with water, lived more than twenty days.' Vol. ii. p. 475. Perception of Colour among the Ancients. Thomas Cooper, the same who was in Northumberland in the United States along with Priestley, gives three papers on very different subjects : ' Observations respecting the History of Physiognomy/ vol. iii. p. 408 ; ' On the Founda- tion of Civil Government,' p. 481 ; 'Observations on the Art of Painting among the Ancients,' p. 510. In this he defends the ancients from a supposed ignorance of colour- ing, a subject which, although reviewed of late, is shown to be by no means novel. It has been said that the ancients had only four colours ; he thinks the idea arises from mis- interpreting a passage in ' Cicero : ' f In the paintings of those who used no more than four colours, such as Zeuxis, Polygnotus, and Timantes, we admire the outline and the features ; but in Action, Protogenes, Nicomachus, and Apelles all is perfect,' evidently including colouring, and implying that the latter set used more than four colours ; and Philostratus says, * The ancients were satisfied with one colour, but the increasing progress of the art afterwards employed four ; and from thence even more than that number' (p. 514). He mentions the painting of flowers, peacocks, etc., also the delicate tints of the skin in one of Lucian's descriptions, also from Lucian he finds the painters Polygnotus, Eu- Thomas Cooper. 189 phranor, Action, and Apelles famous for blending their colours with taste and judgment, p. 539. We might add that the whole region of colour can be made with three, and why should the ancients be thought not to understand colour if they used only four or even less ; but if it is meant that they had only four including shades and mixtures, the text seems to deny it. If again it is supposed that because the names of the colours were few the perception of them was equally deficient, we may only look to Lancashire to find that wonderful appreciation of shade among her calico printers, whilst the words expressing colour had not increased except in a manner expressing their chemical composition when it was con- venient. Manganese brown, for example, was still a brown. When tar colours arrived a new style of name was requisite for the beautiful shades, but it required no new organs to see them, no generation developed to appreciate them every workman saw them at once the power lay in the organism as unused to them as in the time of Homer, when probably it was finer than with us, as the Greek senses were keener and finer than ours as to the external appearance of objects. (See Dr. Schunck's paper in ' Me- moirs ' for 1881). Of Thomas Cooper, Esq., we are told that he was a bar- rister at Manchester in 1792, but that he was compelled to leave his native country during the disgraceful riot in that year, retired to America, and settled in Columbia, where he died, May n, in his eightieth year. Cooper published in the Transactions of our Society a paper entitled-' Propositions respecting the Foundations of Civil Government.' To a subsequent reprint of that paper he attached the following note regarding female education ; i go Literary and Philosophical Society. in this age when women's rights are much talked about, it is not without interest : ' Since these propositions were first published I have repeatedly considered the subject of the rights of women, and I am perfectly unable to suggest any argument in sup- port of the political superiority so generally arrogated to the male sex which will not equally apply to any system of despotism of man over man. The first of these Propositions on Civil Government is just as applicable to women as men. The fact is, that we behave to the female sex much in the same manner as we behave to the poor. We first keep their minds and thus their persons in subjection, we educate women from infancy to marriage in such a way as to debilitate both their corporeal and mental powers. All the accomplishments we teach them are directed not to their future benefit in life, but to the amusement of the male sex ; and having for a series of years with much assiduity, and sometimes at much expense, incapacitated them for any serious occupation, we say they are not fit to govern themselves, and arrogate the right of making them our slaves through life. Thus we too frequently wed play- things and not friends and companions, and we in our turn are the dupes of cunning, and the victims of all the petty passions as a just reward for the tyrannical maxims we are at such pains to inculcate. I have read the writings of Mrs. M. Graham, of Miss Wollstoncroft, of Mrs. Barbauld, of Mrs. Montague, Miss Carter, Miss Seward, Mrs. Dobson, Miss H. M. Williams, &c., in England. I have conversed with Theroigne, with Madame Condorcet, Madame Robert, Madame Lavoisier, &c., in Paris. What these women are other women might become. I have often felt my own inferiority, and often lamented the present iniquitous and Prehistoric Cremation in Scotland. 191 most absurd notions on the subject of the disparity of the sexes. I have conversed with politicians and read the writings of politicians, but I have seldom met with views more enlarged, more just, more truly patriotic ; or with political reasonings more acute, or arguments more forcible than in the conversation of Theroigne and the writings of Miss Wollstoncroft. Let the defenders of male despotism answer (if they can) " The Rights of Woman " by Miss Wollstoncroft.' Dr. Ferriar addressed to him his essay entitled 'An Argument against the Doctrine of Materialism.' Mr. Cooper was a great friend of Dr. Priestley's, and was his companion, in this country as well as in America. See also 'A Political Episode,' pp. 121 and 171. Prehistoric Cremation in Scotland. On October 4, 1793, see vol. iv. p. 226, an account of a rare method of cremation used in Scotland was read by Mr. Alexander Copland, of Dumfries. We are astonished at an attempt to prove that cairns are really places of sepulture, following Pennant, and the difficulty of accounting for the meaning of the word Strath Blane. We have now become almost familiar with Blane as a saint, and cairns as places for the dead. Fore-history has since become almost a science, still there is an instrument described in this essay which will be new even to many of its students. Some instruments for cremation were found in a cairn in Galloway, near Knaer Castle. (The spot is not very exactly described.) One of them consisted of three rods set up so as to form a triangular stand, the rods meeting in the centre, and seven feet high. From this when used hung a chair by which the body was suspended, the fire being 192 Literary and Philosophical Society. placed below on a triangular hearth. The iron found was in good condition, charred wood and spades were also found, and the whole apparatus served to indicate that the use was such as the author describes. A horse-shoe for luck was at the apex of the hollow cone formed by the three rods. Meteorological Tables of Last Century. Meteorology, a favourite study at the Society, is repre- sented in the 4th volume by a series of observations from 1768 to 1793, by Mr. Hutchinson, Dockmaster of Liver- pool, by observations made at Dover, by Mr. T. Mantell, surgeon, by Mr. Copland of Dumfries, by Mr. Peter Cros- thwaite of Keswick, by Mr. Vernon at Middlewich, Mr. Gough at Kendal, the Rev. Mr. Wellbe (a contraction for Wellbeloved) at York, Mr. George Walker at Man- chester, Mr. Thomas Blades at Garsdale, Lord George Cavendish at. Chatsworth, Dr. Campbell of Lancaster, from Youngsbury near Ware by a lady, name not given, and Dr. Burgess of Kirkmichael. This series of commu- nications on meteorology contains also a calendar of the times of birds and flowers at Dumfries. These observa- tions were collected by Thomas Garnett, M.D., physician at Harrogate, and communicated to the Society by Dr. Percival. In vol. v. part i. we have a remarkable mixture of papers. It seems to be the end of the first era of the Society, and the Society itself had apparently the same opinion. This part, which contains papers from 1794 to 1796, has less vigour in the mode of thought. Dr. Samuel Argent Bardsley begins with an essay on party prejudice, from which he wishes to keep the mind free ; although he goes Miscellaneous Papers. 193 to the root of nothing, and shows neither great force nor insight, it is still the work of a well-read man, a calm thinker, a sound mind, and a graceful writer. What would the world do if it had no violent bigots ? if all its men would listen calmly to the other side, their objects of dislike would have no chance of being destroyed. Millions of gentle pattings will never do the work of one blow. Yet after this comes, as a great exception in this part, a paper by John Dalton his powerful but gentle first introduction into the work .of the Society in an * Essay on the Vision of Colours.' This is elsewhere spoken of it was clear and new. We have then an inquiry into the name of the founder of Owen Abbey, in Northumberland, by Robert Uvedale, M.A., of Trinity College, Cambridge. ' On the Benefits Arising from the Institution of Literary and Philosophical Societies,' by the Rev. Thomas Gis- borne, Yoxall Lodge. It is abstract, and produces no account of results. A Universal Written Character Dr. Anderson, of Glasgow, founder of Anderson College, brings forward his treatise ' On a Universal Character/ and makes us think of Melville Bell, of Edinburgh, and his work on 'Visible Speech,' and of his still more illustrious son, who has given us the telephone and the photophone. Another paper on this subject is by Dr. John Kemp. Some of these writings show interesting workings of the mind, the influence exercised by the Society, and the vague sketchings of men who did not live long enough to find if they had begun that which had a useful terminus in nature. It may, perhaps, be unfair to call Graham Bell greater than his father, a man who is so successful in O 194 Literary and Philosophical Society. teaching the dumb to speak, an art begun in the seven- teenth century, we believe, by Dr. Willis, one of those having an unknown future. This art was probably put on a firm basis for the first time in * Visible Speech and the Science of Universal Alphabets, or Self-interpreting Phy- siological Letters for the Writing of all Languages in one Alphabet,' by Alex. Melville Bell, 1867. With these early teachings of his father, before leaving Edinburgh, Graham Bell's mind was sent from youth towards the goal sought the production of speech by artificial apparatus. It would have been interesting if he had found the phono- graph, as some such thing was evidently in the father's eye on his early inquiries ; but one seeks and another finds. The writer believes that societies for correcting spelling are beginning at the wrong end. Their methods will in- evitably produce diversity and confusion, because they use letters to express the normal sounds to be advocated, whereas these letters will be interpreted in various ways. We must first have sounds that can be reproduced at will, and this can only be had from mechanism so constructed as to be readily repeated, and so described that persons at a distance may make and produce the same sounds. On this subject it will be interesting to read ' On the Pneu- matic Action which accompanies the Articulation of Sounds by the Human Voice, as Exhibited by a Recording Instru- ment,' by W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. Proceed. Royal Soc., 1874. It was called also a Logograph. Whilst speaking of the observation of the deaf, and the mode of instruction, it is interesting to think of an advance still greater, and indicating a mode by which not only the deaf but the blind may understand spoken lan- guage. The discovery has been quite forgotten so far as Visible* Speech. ' 195 we know, and was made by a little girl, daughter of a minister at Geneva. It is described by Bishop Burnet in his letters to the Hon. Robert Boyle. That from Rome, Dec. 8, 1685, contains the account: ( There is a minister of St. Gervais Mr. Gody who hath a daughter that is now sixteen years old. Her nurse had an extraordinary thickness of hearing. At a year old the child spoke all those little words that children begin usually to learn at that age, but she made no progress ; yet this was not ob- served till it was too late ; and as she grew to be two years old they perceived then that she had lost her hear- ing, and was so deaf, that ever since, though she hears great noises, yet she hears nothing that one can speak to her. But the child hath, by observing the motions of the mouths and lips of -others, acquired so many words, that out of these she has formed a sort of jargon, in which she can hold conversation whole days with those that can speak her own language. I could understand some of her words, but I could not comprehend a period ; for it seemed to me a confused noise. She knows nothing that is said to her unless she seeth the motion of the mouths that speak to her ; so that in the night when it is necessary to speak to her they must light a candle.' This part of the girl's discovery is up to the present day, but the next goes far beyond so far as we know. ' Only one thing appeared the strangest part of the whole narrative ; she hath a sister with whom she has practised her language more than with any other ; and in the night, by laying her hand on her sister's mouth, she can perceive by that what she says, and so can discourse with her in the night. It is true, her mother told me, this did not last long ; and that she found out only some short period in o 2 196 Literary and Philosophical Society. this manner, but it did not hold out very long.' (The Bishop's language here may require explanation, he does not mean that the person ceased soon, so far as we under- stand him, but that long sentences could not be read. The word period is used for sentence.) ' Thus this young woman hath merely by a natural sagacity found out a method of holding discourse, that doth in a great measure lessen the misery of her deafness. I examined this matter critically, but only the sister was not present, so that I could not see how the conversation passed between them in the dark.' It would have been better if the Bishop had seen the girls conversing by touch, but in any case it is a science beyond our present aspirings. ' The Inverse Method of Central Forces - has no named author. It was communicated by Dr. Holme, and it may be left to Dr. Bottomley to give his account of the paper. Dr. Bottomley says, ' The author of the paper says that if it sustains anything original it is in the third proposition. In this he treats of the equation of the orbit described by a body acted upon by the forces tending to the same centre which vary as the nth and the Qth powers of the distance reciprocally/ Dr. Theophilus Rupp discusses Priestley's experiments on air, and defends the new chemistry against Phlogiston, not the last defence, although the old theory was becoming weak. 'Experiments on the Oxygenated Muriat of Potash' are by Thomas Hoyle, Jun., originator of the famous print- works called by his name. Miscellaneous Papers. 197 In the second part of vol. v., published in 1802, we seem to enter an entirely new region. Dalton comes in with freshness and force, and we pass as if from the mild- ness of untaught sentiment into the vigour of external nature. We have Dalton on ' Evaporation and Springs ; ' ' On the Power of Fluids to conduct Heat ; ' ' Experiments and Observations on the Heat and Cold produced by the Me- chanical Condensation and Rarefaction of Air ; ' ' Experi- mental Essays on the Constitution of Mixed Gases ; ' and ' Meteorological Observations made at Manchester ; ' and Mr. Banks adds, ' On the Velocity of Air issuing out of a vessel in Different Circumstances/ a subject also interest- ing to earlier as well as later members of this Society. 198 Literary and Philosophical Society. CHAPTER IX. John Dalton. WE have now given some slight account of the more active men who began this Society, with some notice of their labours and modes of thinking : men who seem to have come out of darkness, and who were conscious of coming into light. Their eyes were brighter than those of their neighbours ; they look to us now like messengers first appearing on the top of the mountains bringing good tidings. The earliest are not, however, the angelic mes- sengers themselves, the men of genius. Soon there arrived amongst them a man of much greater vigour ; his education was meagre, he could not make Latin quotations with Dr. Percival, or search into early Classic writings with Dr. Falconer ; his knowledge of Greek was but slight, and gained from a little-used Schrevelius ; his manners were not formed amongst men who attended the Court ; he kept no private carriage, and invited no one to dine with him. He did not even read much poetry, and he thought little in the region of metaphysics, although he practised Chris- tian ethics and lived in harmony with all around him ; but the whole force of his mind was directed to the explanation of natural phenomena. The Academy, which we consider an offshoot from Warrington, was in want of a teacher of mathematics, and applied to Mr. John Gough, of Kendal, John Dalton. 199 a man of science and of talent, an explainer of nature although unable to look at its surface. He gave his advice. John Dalton had learnt much from this gentleman, and had used his books and physical apparatus. Indeed, we may look on Gough as one of the early props of the Society, although living in Kendal, and as a man of mark of the time he stands described by Wordsworth in ' The Excur- sion ' : Methinks I see him, how his eyeballs rolled Beneath his ample brow in darkness pained, But each instinct with spirit, and the frame Of the whole countenance alive with thought, Fancy and understanding ; whilst the voice Discoursed of natural and moral truth, With eloquence and such authentic power, That in his presence humbler knowledge stood Abashed, and tender pity overawed. Dr. Crompton, the friend of so many in Manchester, as well as their wise and kind physician, grandson of the inventor of the ' spinning mule/ which has done so much for Lancashire, received from Wordsworth a letter con- taining this passage : ' Your conjecture respecting that passage is remarkable. Mr. Gough, of Kendal, whom I had the pleasure of knowing, was the person from whom I drew the picture which was in no respect exaggerated. He was a most extraordinary person, highly gifted, &c. The sadness which the contemplation of blindness always pro- duces, was in Mr. Gough's case tempered by admiration and wonder in the most affecting manner.' Jonathan Dalton helped his cousin George Bewley, who had a school at Kendal, and John after some years fol- lowed. He had been keeping a school in his native place, Eaglesfield, nearly three miles south-west of Cockermouth, 2OO Literary and Philosophical Society. in Cumberland, having begun in 1778, when he was twelve years old ; the school was held in the Friends' Meeting House. His grandfather had joined the Society of Friends, and he never left that community. His father was poor, living in a house with two small rooms, and weaving in a shop attached to the house in the old-fashioned way ; still he was an educated man, and taught his son mensuration and navigation. His brother's death brought to him at a later period a small family estate, raising him out of labour. Dalton at twelve was probably not small for his age, as he grew to be a powerful man ; he had many struggles in the school, where he tried to maintain order among pupils older than himself, who challenged him to fight in the graveyard. Let us think of him helping Mr. Bewley in Kendal, becoming the friend of Mr. Gough there, and learning from him to make meteorological observations as well as to take an interest in the science, if it could then be called one. In Kendal he began to give lectures ; this programme of lectures, given when he was 21 years old, would suit a whole college of professors. In after life, when by chance the circular containing the list of subjects fell in his way, he burst out into a loud laugh, and the laugh described to us reminds of Carlyle's, except that it was the only Dalton laugh we have recorded, of a violent kind ; we can easily imagine the wonder he felt at his own early presumption. His uncle, Mr. Greenup, barrister in London, discouraged the attempt to learn a profession such as that of the Bar or of medicine, being disinclined to help him, so John Dalton set himself to an independent study of nature, and worked his school and his studies with an assiduity which John Dalton. 201 never ceased. It was hard work when the two brothers began their own school at Kendal, with some money borrowed from George Bewley and seven guineas from the father, to be repaid soon, whilst Mr. Lickbarrow lent them a guinea during their struggle, and Mr. Kendal lent two, and Mary the sister had to give up thirteen shillings and sixpence, and got paid in small portions, 'to Mary in part o/. os. 6d' We do not know how much Mr. Benson lent, but borrowing soon ceased, and all was paid, and Mary went to stay with the brothers, who had seventy pounds to live on, for a year, seldom increased by more than five pounds for * drawing conditions/ ' making wills/ or ' collecting rents.' It is not at all probable that Dalton objected to live on these small means, but he did object to the narrow life, and had flight in view, he knew not where. He made barometers, thermometers, and taught himself by making meteorological observations as well as by careful study. He prepared a hortus siccus of plants near Kendal, arranging in orders and classes, but did not afterwards pursue botany. The title shows a certain command of the Latin tongue which is unusual considering his opportunities, but his memory was seldom at fault. Before he left Kendal he became a frequent contributor to the ' Gentleman's Magazine/ answering questions, and especially those which were connected with mathematics, as we learn from an interesting memoir by Mr. T. H. Wil- kinson, of Burnley, in vol. xii. series 2, f the ' Society's Memoirs.' He has been known to answer fifteen out of six- teen such questions, and he frequently received the prizes volumes of the magazine. This habit he continued in Manchester for several years. It must have been a bright day for Dalton when Mr. 202 Literary and Philosophical Society. Gough told him that he might go to the growing city of Manchester and be a professor practically in a new college, the Manchester Academy (Appendix B.). He arrived in 1 793 with his ' Meteorological Observation and Essays/ ready or almost ready for publication. They were begun in 1788. The works of Dalton are numerous, and a list need not be given here, as one may be found in the fuller accounts of his life. We shall look only on some of his greatest feats. He entered this Society as a professed mathematician ; but this department ceased to be specially interesting to him, and the attention he had given to meteorology was such that hitherto his only long treatise was on that subject, and it was his first separate work published. His first paper printed in the memoirs, ' Extraordinary Facts Relating to the Vision of Colours/ was out of the direct course of his studies, but has been the foundation of a most valuable series of inquiries. The condition of vision analogous to Dalton's has been of late called colour-blindness, a plain and simple expression for the extreme condition, but by no means expressing the varieties. As the writer has else- where said, ' It is probable that there are many gradations, beginning with deficient colour sight and ending in dichromic, or perhaps monochromic or achromic vision, or true colour- blindness.' Dalton was short-sighted, but had powerful eyes that never wearied. Without this first discovery of Dalton's, railway night-signals would be seen erroneously in nearly ten cases out of a hundred, and one out of ten engine-drivers might be misled at every coloured lamp along the lines of rail. This first gift of Dalton to the Society is now a matter of national importance, and we may say that it is of value to all nations in which railways exist and to all who are interested in navigation, leaving little behind of John Dalton. 203 the civilised world, to which it is a matter of indifference. In this place, however, we must not forget Bew's paper on blindness, see p. 100. It was in viewing the skies that Dalton saw his earliest new truth. He thought of the air, why it was heavier and lighter ; he held that it could not be so by being piled up more or less highly above us, at certain times, but that the change must take place in the lower portions of the atmo- sphere. This change he found to be in the amount of water in a state of vapour. We owe to him the explanation of barometric differences indicating the character of the weather, and the beginning of a new impulse to the study of climate, in reality the true beginning of meteorology. On this subject we prefer to give the opinion of a dis- tinguished meteorologist, Alexander Buchan. He says in his handy book of that science, 1868, p. 5 : ' The publication of Dalton's " Meteorological Essays " in 1793 marks an epoch in meteorology. It was the first instance of the principles of philosophy being brought to bear on the explanation of the complex and varied phe- nomenon of the atmosphere. The idea that vapour is an independent elastic fluid, and that all elastic fluids, whether alone or mixed, exist independently; the great motive forces of the atmosphere. The theory of winds, with their effect on the barometer, and their relation to temperature and rain ; observations on the height of clouds, on thunder, and on meteors ; and the relation of magnetism and the aurora borealis, are some of the important questions dis- cussed in these remarkable essays, with an acuteness, a fulness, and a breadth of view, which leave nothing to be desired/ In fact Dalton brought to Manchester a new science in 2O4 Literary and Philosophical Society. his pocket, and was not content to have made only one. A man like this would have brought fame to a city and to a nation even if he had ceased to write after giving us the one work. It was when examining the air that Dalton was led to consider the condition of watery vapour amongst inconden- sible gases, proving that vapour rises from liquids with the same force ' at equal distances above or below the several temperatures at which they boil in the open air : and that force is the same under any pressure of any other elastic fluid as it is in vacuo! The force of aqueous vapour he showed to be the same at the same temperature whether air was present or not. This was the establishment of the separate action of fluid bodies so far, and he then passed on to the separate action of all gases in a mixed state, thus accounting for the fact that they do not separate according to their specific gravities as they ought to do, the heavy gases falling down to the earth if they did not act indepen- dently. For this purpose he supposes the particles of each gas to repel the particles of its own kind, but not those of another gas. For example, ' the particles of A meeting with no repulsion from those of B farther than that repulsion which as obstacles in the way they may exert, would in- stantaneously recede from each other as far as possible in their circumstances, and consequently arrange themselves just the same as in a void space/ The same would take place with the particles of B. ' Thus the two gases become rarefied to such a degree that their united forces only amount to the pressure of the atmosphere.' We find here that he causes repulsion to do the work which primordial motion does in the hypothesis of David John D alt on. 205 Bernoulli, brought up again by Herapath, and so thoroughly studied out by Joule, Clausius, and Maxwell, as to be now almost universally held to be a quality of such molecules as the gases known to us are made of. After all, repulsion is a moving power if not motion, and the result is the same ; but still Dalton's idea does not explain so many conditions as that of Bernoulli would explain ; but Bernoulli did not use his ideas for the larger ends seen by Dalton. The idea of re- pulsion without contact is less intelligible than that of constant motion and impact. To attain repulsion it was necessary to have atoms, the old Greek atoms, the atoms of Lucretius, the atoms defined more exactly by Newton as to external qualities. To these, every exact thinker has been brought when picturing matter; if we give up atoms we come to indefinite bodies, and pass the boundaries of the intelligible. We do not say that there is nothing beyond this boundary. On the contrary, we know that there must be something, but every thinker that has passed into this land of the indefinite has been penetrated with the same quality, and lost himself in seeking even the smallest portion of rest for the soles of his feet ; even non-atomists find a stage in which atoms, or at least undecomposable molecules, phy- sically the same to us at present, exist. Dalton was led to seek ' a true theory of evaporation.' The separate action of vapour of water and other gases was an opinion held, as Dalton himself says, by M. Pictet and others ; but Dalton claims chiefly to have removed the last objection. He shows that the weight of the atmo- sphere has no ultimate influence on the evaporation of liquids, although the rise of steam is obstructed by the inertia of the particles of air. It is not intended to give Dalton's long and elaborate 206 Literary and Philosophical Society. inquiry on the force of vapour ; it is enough to say that the tables stood the test of many years, and have been of marvellous value to nearly three generations, besides stimu- lating inquiry in many directions. Dalton might be wrong in fractions, but he was won- derfully clear in his great ideas, and showed himself a prophet and seer. It is strange how small are the facts out of which he brings great results ; with him a new science grows out of imperfect observations, and a new art from a defect in his eyesight. As Dalton rises into power we approach his highest work, the development and establishment of the atomic theory, which first gave consistency to the long-discussed ideas regarding matter, and practically showed that if atoms did not form the basis of matter, it was clear that matter acted as if it did consist of such bodies. In 1803 Dalton dared to give the relative^ weights of these atoms. This is the great work of Dalton ; from that moment chemis- try became a science, its leaves began to be legible, the meaning of combination was to a great extent understood, and weight, number, and measure were introduced as cer- tainties into the conception of compounds. Transformations were explainable, and the materiaprima the abstract has ceased to appear in books on the science. Lest any one should mistake the meaning of this, it may be said that there is no wish to deny the existence of a materia prima ; on the contrary, we have held it from very early years to be a sound thought. Dalton had evidently the idea, and every chemist must hold it to be a probable source of our elements. Before we attempt to give Dalton's position it may be well to give a short account of the theories before him as Greek Atomists. 207 to the condition of matter. To avoid the trouble of rewriting, the author may take some few points of interest from a work of his own long out of print. 1 Sketch of Atomic Theories before D alt on. Thales held the earth to be living, and believed that all things grew from water. He was born about 580 years before Christ, but Van Helmont was born in 1557 A.D., or 2,158 years later, and he proved to his satisfaction that the growth of all things from water was real ; and how few people can prove that it is not true ! Anaximenes believed that the principle of all things was in the air, which comprehended fire, water, and earth, and that all that is in the earth is merely the result of change in one and the same thing. But to perform these wonders strange mystic powers require to be given to air and water, and these have not been explained by the theorists. Fire had an advocate in Heraclitus, of Miletus, who says that fire produces air, and causes those changes in the atmosphere which produce water, whilst by its action on the earth it produces land also, which is raised from the sea. But then this fire was a mystic power, as the air and the water had become mystic ; explanations entirely wanting. We get a very meagre account of Anaximander from Diogenes Laertius, who says that the principle of all things was the infinite, which must be true ; but he gives no further definition, and we are left to think that he saw pretty far into the difficulties, but not into a mode of clearing them. Pythagoras made points to congregate, and called the 1 See pp. 74-76. Life of Dalton and History of the Atomic Theory up to his Time. Printed by the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, 1856; publishers Bailliere & Co., London. Ideas of matters up to the time of Lucretius and onwards. 208 Literary and Philosophical Society. origin of things numbers. This seems another mode of making atoms, the original power having a different name but explaining nothing. The five elements made in this way, by adding points, are perhaps fundamentally the five fingers, the image of the creative power of God, the great hand of the Phoenicians, a symbol of all this thought. On this subject we can point out the method in which a modern writer has reasoned, 'God has given man five senses for a fivefold sphere of action. He has given him five fingers for a fivefold instrument of industrial and artistic action, and five toes for a fivefold instrument of progressive action. He has given him a head and four extremities as the primary action of the corporeal system. Not without reason, and man being the noblest representative of the Divine creative agent, we should naturally give the prece- dence to the number five in the sphere of collective, social, and political progress, were it even superseded by some other number in the construction of irrational vertebrated animals. But when we find that all the superior orders of rational and irrational creatures are constructed on this fivefold principle, we are compelled to admit that, in the sphere of action, the number five must take the precedence as the fittest representation of providential movement/ ' The Gentile poets sang of the fifth age, the " Regna Saturnia," and the Jewish prophets took up the refrain and detailed the glories of the Redeemer's kingdom that succeeds the fourth. The fifth is the dominant in music, and is neither a local nor a sectarian idea in history or mythology. It is a poetic inspiration, a dramatic divi- sion of the course of time, universally known, familiar to all ages of the world, &c.' 1 This is probably the funda- 1 See the Divine Drama of History and Civilisation, by the Rev. James Smith, M.A., 1854, pp. 6 and 8. Liicretius. 209 mental idea of all the philosophical systems which had five as a basis, whether in Europe or the East. But Pythagoras was mathematical. The cube was the earth, the pyramid fire, the octohedron air, the icosahedron water, the dodecahedron the fifth element the same as Aristotle's ether, or that of the Sankhya Philosophy. Anaxagoras said that the number of things remains always the same. Here he had before him the continuity of matter, and if not of force alone, certainly that force which is inherent in matter. Besides this he considered that as gold consists of an endless number of small pieces of gold, so bone consists of an endless number of small pieces of bone. He thus lost the idea of diversity pro- ducible from a few simple bodies; he tried a theory of com- bination, but made a remarkably crude one ; but a step aside is sometimes useful by showing danger. Zeno of Elea had four elements, warm and cold, moist and dry, and Empedocles gave prominence to fire. Zeno mentions concord and discord, which we may call attraction and repulsion, and Empedocles has similar ideas. After all these earlier notions, each one attempting to make the whole out of the very few parts known roughly or conceived, we come to Leucippus, who seems first to have followed matter until he hunted it down to the smallest conceivable point, an atom. Who can go further on firm ground ? Democritus explained the theory more fully. Plato was not definite on this question ; the subject was extended by Epicurus ; but Lucretius is in reality the great expositor of the idea of atoms as it existed among the most exact thinkers up to his time. Lucretius has solid infrangible substances primary and P S. - . . ... ;' - 2 10 Literary and Philosophical Society. eternal. He criticises and laughs at the earlier speculators . Still he speaks of atoms moved by themselves, acted on by forces, urged by secret impulse. Book I. 1023 : Sed quia multa modis multis, mutata, per Omne, Ex infinite, vexantur percita plagis, Omne genus motus, et coetus experiundo, Tandem deveniunt in tales disposituras, Qualibus haec rebus consistit summa creata. and in Book II. 1. 132 : Prima moventur enim per se Primordia rerum, Inde ea, quse parvo sunt corpora conciliatu, Et quasi proxima sunt ad vires principiorum, Ictibus illorum csecis impulsa cientur ; Ipsaque, quae porro paullo majora, lacessunt. We confess ourselves to have been once much impressed by Lucretius, and, indeed, every one must admire the rare subtlety sometimes shown, and it is a fine lesson in psycho- logy to observe in his writings how the mind works, but we now at least admire him only because of being one of the early pioneers ; we feel that he had not clear notions of an atom at all times, and this he shows when speaking of the soul he seems to give it power in Book III. because of the smallness and subtlety of its atoms why should smallness give power ? where is force ? One becomes at least tired of the wandering atoms of Lucretius and his conceited opinion of himself, thinking that he explains when he merely presents phenomena as difficult to imagine as ever. He has no idea of combination, and his atoms go as they please, although he certainly says in one place that they do not. He does not see the necessity for laws of govern- ment, which shows a singular want of refinement of search. Lucretius. 211 In short, Lucretius got clearly to the existence of atoms and their permanence, he got clearly to forces agitating them, but he lost a great deal of his clearness in seeking a variety of atoms, and he had no distinct idea of any force. There is much confusion in speaking of the movements, and much contradiction even as to that great one, the inclination to fall, which he sees in an obscure way, and has no desire to seek a cause for. It is somewhat unfortunate that in modern times we prefer the same confusion as to the primordia rerum, and think that when we have endued them with all power we have explained their action. We have then only arrived at the facts to be explained, and think we have done because we throw the difficulty aside. We might very properly call the unchangeable atom the Daltonian, since neither New- ton nor Lucretius defined its work, and Dalton has made most use of it in science, forming not only a theory, but showing a law and an eternal one. There are, however, at- tempts to find in what manner this atom was made. Dalton had not this difficulty because he quietly gave it attraction, repulsion, heat, and elasticity and conducting forces, and was ready to add anything necessary to make it move. In doing this there is a manifest imperfection, because it makes the atom a compound when it is also supposed to be simple ; character is given, with organs to keep up the character, and, indeed, the characters revolve about the atom, doing all the work and leaving the atom useless. A similar gift of complex characteristics belongs also to the Lucretian and earlier view, and seeing this defect of reasoning Boscovich was led to push the atom out of his scheme of creation and be satisfied with centres of force. The view that comes next to this, in reason if not in P 2 2 1 2 Literary and Philosophical Society. time, is the vortex atom, admired by Sir William Thomson, and made by the movements of a fluid itself non-atomic. This idea is of value so far that it gives us a mode of imagining in what way a great diversity of bodies simple to us may be made out of one truly simple materia prima, and in what way an infinite variety of combinations may take place, causing great diversity of character to appear in compounds. It does not by any means destroy the Daltonian mode of combination, neither does it settle the original difficulty of the ultimate constitution of matter. It shows in what way the Daltonian atom may serve the purposes of creation in the stage in which our chemistry acts, and removes the difficulties as to infinite divisibility, one stage behind the present elements, putting it beside all the other difficulties which are abundantly gathered round every attempt to comprehend the infinite. We may leave without mention many centuries of imperfect thought, although of most interesting wanderings of the mind, names from Lucretius to Stephen Franz Geoffroi, born 1672. We do this that we may leap at once to the first ideas that promised a progress in the direction of exact quantity in combination, and of course to a sound chemical theory. Geoffroi drew up a table show- ing the order in which bodies separate each other from a given substance. 'Thus in the first column the fixed alkalies separate all the bodies below them from the acids. The volatile acids separate all except the fixed alkalies. The absorbent earths separate the metals, and the metals are separated by all the other bodies in the column/ This is a beginning of order, the first real attempt to make a table of equivalents by whatever name it is called. The 'Encyclopedic Methodique,' 1786, gives Guyton Wenzel. 213 Morvcau's chemical laws, which he himself thinks can scarcely be called laws, and as they are not essential to our purpose, we shall not repeat them here. Dr. Cullen seems to have been the first who gave diagrams of double or elective attraction. These do not appear to have been published, but they were used by Dr. Black in his lectures, and the publication has been left for Bergman, to whom we readily grant equal originality and more energy in giving the idea to the world. He could not, however, explain how neutral salts could receive an excess of acid ; in other words, he had no idea of addition by equivalent, and therefore could not compre- hend an atomic theory such as Dalton's. To Wenzel has often been given the honour of dis- covering reciprocal proportion, but we must conclude that he failed in his attempts to explain the mutual decompo- sition of salts, and considers that it is not complete. He seeks to explain affinity by the time of action, and says : The affinity of bodies with a common solvent is in the inverse ratio of the time taken to dissolve. Of this theory one may quote what is elsewhere said, ' He has made a theory of affinity and attempted to represent the force by a number. To attempt to give the numerical or dynamical ratio of every body to each other was an object of the very highest kind, and we must look on him as one of those less fortunate men who, when search was required in every direction, has had the wrong one assigned to him. He searched in the direction of time, and obtained a manifest fallacy; as bodies are constructed abstractedly he might be correct, but his theory cannot be introduced into science at present, and in the way he introduced it it is entirely a mistake. But he has done great service in early 214 - iterary and Philosophical Society. times in seeking for the distinct constitution of bodies, and in asserting the constancy of combination ; whilst he obtained numbers representing the constant relation of bodies to each other, he failed to see that they would be reciprocal.' Now the writer confesses that he ought to have said exactly reciprocal, and a few other explanations ought to have been added ; there was certainly a wish to be fair, and Wenzel got more than his share of space ; if not treated well, it is sad. To speak falsely of a man is a great error. Still he also must add that he would not have learned the laws of reciprocal affinity with any clearness from Wenzel, and more than that, he is not aware of any one who, did. Still to some extent the present writer repents and draws back his word. Wenzel has examples of reciprocal affinity in his book ; had he seen it in all its clearness, there would have been no room for scruples or inexactness. Dalton, with Wenzel's knowledge and no more, would have rushed to the full and complete law at once ; but Wenzel remained with ideas of measuring affinity by time, and thus obscuring his own knowledge. The general idea of a true, honest, working, scientific man is seen in him : a man without great genius floundering in the very current of his success. Colonel Ross, the author of ' Pyrology,' has been fighting for the fame of Wenzel ; and when we look at all that has been written a fear of having done injustice comes over the spirit. But looking at one part of the book, Colonel Rcss is right, at another part he is wrong. Wenzel must, we still think, be held as having seen pretty well, but not with such force and clearness as to have taught the world. Three generations have disputed about his mean- WenzeL 2 1 5 ing. Dalton's meaning is without doubt, and contained in a few pages. Indeed, if we consider Wenzel's words carefully, we may draw from them the conclusion that he sometimes argued from the principles of Dalton's atomic theory, scarcely conscious of it, and not sufficiently aware of his own progress. It is in this way that men dispute about discoveries in the past. Men sometimes use principles which are beyond their own understanding ; they become the unconscious tools of nature. There has been so much discussion on the question whether Wenzel discovered reciprocal combining propor- tion, that it is necessary to enter more fully on the subject ; and the ' Life of Dal ton and History of the Atomic Theory ' will be more fully drawn upon. 'We now come to Wenzel, one of those men whose names have been brought forward as much-neglected philosophers, and to whom almost every writer on the history of science, who has had occasion to mention him in later years, has been anxious to award the due honour. We see his book constantly quoted. Some writers give us his words, others give us what appears such a clear explanation of his ideas that we feel no more to be wanting. I had been long anxious to obtain his works, but after advertising in Germany, and inquiring in several towns and large libraries in this country, as well as in France and Germany, I did not obtain the volume, and proceeded without it. I afterwards found that a duplicate copy existed at the Munich Royal Library, and was fortunate enough to obtain it, duplicate copies being generally disposed of. Having read it carefully over, I found no such passages as are imputed to him ; and, there- 2 1 6 Literary and Philosophical Society. fore, read it still more carefully again, and then a third time, but they did not exist. Having written to two eminent historians of science for an explanation, I find that neither had seen the volume, but one of them in- formed me that the mistake had been rectified in a supplement to the " Handworterbuch der Chemie und Physik." ' ' The reciprocal saturation which results when two salts decompose each other is the discovery, the honour of which has long been given to Wenzel. It is a curious fact that not only does he not see this, but he sees and explains the contrary, as he shows us that in double decomposition something always remains unsaturated, but generally very little remains. One is sorry that, being so near a law, he had not the slightest conception of it. The most im- portant part of his work, as far as our purpose is concerned, seems to me to be contained in the following sentences. The title of the work is " The Doctrine of the Affinity of Bodies." 2 I shall not give the original, although scarce, as the work, from the fact above stated, has lost its great importance. ' In the preface he says, " At first my only intention was to make for my own use a treatise which should contain the order of the ascertained affinities and the circumstances under which they acted, lest I should not be able to remember them. But it occurred to me that others might find it useful also, if it were more worked out. For this end I endeavoured to explain the cause and the law of 1 It is by Dr. J. S. C. Schweigger, and has been since published as a pamphlet (Ueber die Stochiometrische Reihen im Sinne Richter^s, &c.), Halle, 2 Carl Friedrich Wenzel, Lehre von der Vetwandlschaft der Korper t Dresden, 1877. Wenzel. 217 affinity on a good foundation, and the circumstances under which the bodies combine as well as the true relation of their weights towards each other." ' Page 4. " It is of itself clear that any combination of bodies must have a constant unchangeable proportion, which can neither be greater nor smaller without some cause acting externally, because, otherwise, nothing certain could be decided on by comparing them. It therefore necessarily follows, that every possible combination of two bodies stands in the most exact relationship with every other, and this relation expresses the degree of combina- tion." ' Page 9. " These smallest particles of each body have at all times, in a natural state, a determinate figure ; but the whole mass of the body takes a form according as chance or art gives it, without causing any change in the smallest particles, just as the tender fibres or tubes in a piece of wood remain always the same, although the whole piece may be in the shape of a ball or a cube." ' Page 10. "I examine the natural structure of some metals, I see certainly nothing more than that they are hard, solidly united heavy bodies, which become liquid in the fire at different degrees of heat, and lose their former connectedness (or cohesion), and without being heavier take up a greater or less space than before. This is enough to enable us to conclude that the figure of the smallest particles of metals is changed by the fire, and that the fluid condition of the whole mass and its altered specific gravity are the necessary consequence of this alteration of figure. For when the mass of a body without change of weight takes up a greater or less space, it is certain that it can take place under no circumstances 2 1 8 Literary and Philosophical Society. except a change of figure in the smallest portions of the bodies. A thousand small cubes may be put into a smaller space than the same number of spheres of the same mass and weight, and the heap made by the spheres is not so great as if they were converted into stars, and so on. When the specific gravity is altered, no matter by what means, the figure and situation of the smallest parts can no longer remain the same." ' Page 20. " Besides change of figure, I know no suffi- cient reason for all that has been said ; for if we completely banished the figure and viewed the properties of the body as something substantial in matter, I know not how we could explain without contradiction the everyday ex- perience ; 01 we must, as Snellius with refraction, explain it by the will of God, which settles the matter at once ; but if my understanding is to lay hold of the method by which anything acts, this explanation will not be satis- factory." ' Page 28. " But we have remarked that any combination of bodies, on account of the figure of their parts, depends on static laws, and there it is proved that the motion of a weight is so much the slower the smaller the force is in comparison with it. Let us apply this to the present case and bodies will appear to us as so many weights, and their common solvent as a force which acts more slowly or more rapidly on one or the other. It follows, then, that the more rapidly a common solvent unites with a body, the greater must be its degree of combination, and we obtain therefore this law, (already given, p. 210.) ' " The affinity of bodies with a common solvent is in the inverse ratio of the time taken to dissolve" 'Page 31. "We have now a universal law, according to Wenzel. 219 which the affinity of bodies, or their rank in the series, is decided ; and we obtain at once this important advantage that we not only know that the union of a common solvent is greater or less with any body, but also how much greater or less it is, because the difference of the time of solution shows the difference of the combination. There- fore amongst a number of bodies, the combination of one with a common solvent may be considered as a quantity which may be expressed by a fixed number, if we take the smallest in such a series as unity ; and by this means we are able to give a correct explanation of all phenomena." ' Page 46. " This important question then remains, why a solvent, when it is only moderately diluted, does not in the least attack certain metals, but as soon as another metal is dissolved in it, with which it naturally has a less affinity, a ready solution of the first takes place.' ' Page 47. " Because here the powers meet which assist each other." ' Page 72. " The circumstances under which this metal (iron) is dissolved by vitriolic acid are these, that the acid must not be strong. When both unite iron vitriol is formed, which loses the most of its acid in the fire, as well as by frequent solution in water. A small bored cylinder of Styrian steel of 102 grains was put into half an ounce of the spirit of vitriol diluted with an equal quantity of water, exactly as with the zinc experiments ; there remained 46^ grains of steel, arid 55^ grains were dissolved in the half ounce of the spirit of vitriol." 'Therefore the relation of the hardest steel to the strongest vitriol is 175 : 240. ' Under Application of the Doctrine of Affinity of Bodies? it is said, " This will best be shown by examples. 1 Page 450. 220 Literary and Philosophical Society. ' " Is it possible by Beguin's spirit of sulphur (a sulphide of ammonium chiefly) to decompose the luna cornua, or to separate the muriatic acid entirely without loss ? ' " To settle this question we require only the following experiments. Muriatic acid has a smaller degree cf affinity with silver than with the volatile salt. Sulphur, on the other hand, unites with silver in preference to the volatile salt. The silver is not separated from the muriatic acid by the volatile salt on account of accidental circumstances, but this separation follows the moment any other body unites with the silver, if it has not the property of dissolving the silver. But sulphur is just such a body, and is there- fore fitted for the purpose. If, then,- the spirit of sulphur of Beguin is poured on finely powdered luna cornua, it is easily seen that the muriatic acid in the luna cornua must unite with the volatile salt in the spirit of sulphur, and the sulphur will unite with the silver. The new products that are formed by this separation can consequently be no- thing more than common sal-ammoniac and sulphuretted silver." ' Page 452. " Another similar question arises by which the proportions of the mixture must be considered. How much cinnabar must be mixed with the luna cornua so as completely to separate the silver ? ' " The possibility of this decomposition may be shown in the same way as in the first case. If no particular experiment is made, it depends on the comparison only of the following propositions. Half an ounce of fine silver takes up 35 1 grains of sulphur. We may then calculate that for i8o T 9 grains of fine silver, 26f grains of sulphur are required. We know besides that cinnabar contains sulphur in the proportion of 65 to 240 of quicksilver, or 65 Wenzel. 221 grains of sulphur united with 24.0 of quicksilver are to be met with in 305 grains of cinnabar, therefore 26| grains of sulphur are contained in 125-^ of cinnabar. This quantity of cinnabar, as regards its sulphur, will be sufficient for the decomposition of half an ounce of luna cornua. '"But we must inquire if 125^ grains of cinnabar con- tain as much quicksilver as will be sufficient to take in the muriatic acid which is saturated with the silver. Half an ounce of luna cornua contains SSyV grains of muriatic acid of greatest concentration. In half an ounce of the caustic sublimate there are 58 grains of the strongest acid, which is saturated with 174 grains of quicksilver. From this proportion it is found that 53 -fa grains of the strongest muriatic acid are required for I59f grains of quicksilver. Now as there are in cinnabar 240 grains of quicksilver united with 65 grains of sulphur, 159^ grains of quicksilver require 43 -J- grains of sulphur. Both together give nearly 202^ grains of cinnabar. Consequently, from 125^ grains of cinnabar, all the muriatic acid found in the luna cornua is not separated. We see from this that the muriatic acid of the lunar caustic rises in sublimation with the quicksilver rut of the 202^ grains of cinnabar as a caustic sublimate, whilst the silver remains united only with so much sulphur as it found in 123^ grains of cinnabar." ' His smallest parts of bodies are not atoms, but mole- cules rather, or particles, as they change their form. He has made a theory of affinity, and attempted to represent the force by a number. . . . This failure at once removes him from the great discoverers, and places him among those honourable and valuable labourers in science whose names are read with respect by students, but who cannot be recognised by mankind generally, because the capacities 222 Literary and Philosophical Society. of our minds are too small to retain more than the lives of a few of the most eminent. ' The doctrine of reciprocal proportion must be taken from him, and he can now no longer hold a place in the history of the atomic theory other than as the author of an intelligent attempt which has entirely failed. ' I feel sorry to leave him in this state, and a few kind words will do little good. I believe he would have pre- ferred the truth ; the honour he received was not required by him ; the discovery was not claimed by him, he died in 1793, before it was known to be worth making. In his works he appears an honest, earnest man.' Is this a fair summary after actually giving specimens of the neutral decomposition of salts ? These specimens occur as examples in the ' application of the doctrine/ but the doctrine is not quite expressive of these applications, and on the whole we cannot do better even now than come to the conclusion that Wenzel never expressed clearly the law of reciprocal proportion. We must not, however, forget an important sentence in his favour on the fourth page of his book. The translation has been given, p. 214. It may be well to give the original : 2. Dass eine jede Verbindung der Korper, eine bestimmte und unveranderlich bleibende Abmessung haben muss, die ohne ausserlich mitwirkende Ursachen weder grosser noch geringer werden, weil sonst auch nichts gewisses aus ihrer Vergleichung bestimmt werden konnte, ist schon an sich klar. Es folgt daher nothwendig, dass eine jede mogliche Verbindung zweier Korper mit jeder andern bestandig in dem genauesten Verhaltniss stehet, und dieses Verhaltniss driickt den Grad der Verbindung aus.' Wenzel. 223 In 1775 Dr. Bryan Higgins of Dublin, lecturing in Greek Street, Soho, London, made such a remarkable advance in opinions on atoms that one wonders that for thirty years no one paid attention to him. Even now he is almost ignored. He says, * The attraction subsisting between elementary atoms is more forcible in one direction or axis of each atom than in any other direction, and there is a polarity in all matter whatever.' How much theory this is the beginning of ! How little has it been acknowledged ! 7. ' That the attraction of bodies enumerated as distinct properties of matter or laws of nature, are nothing more than the sums of the attraction of their elementary atoms, or those forces concentrated in a certain degree by the pressure of repellent atoms, or those forces exerted to the greatest advantage in bodies whose primary elemen- tary attractions are strongest, and whose primary elemen- tary atoms are also arranged in polar order.' Bryan Higgins started so well that we are astonished at his failure, but as William Higgins says of himself in 1791, ' Est quadam prodire tenus si non datur ultra;' even the second does not seem to have satisfied himself when he wrote as a Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford, although he claimed more when he vindicated himself in 1814, writing as Professor of Chemistry to the Dublin Society. These men are not mentioned in some acounts of the period, but we have numerous quotations from men who had no idea of a science of chemistry long after it was fermenting in men's minds. The popular men of science for the time are often the favourite speakers of the time, who may or who may not have had real originality ; if 224 Literary and Philosophical Society. they have, so much the better. We demand some originality in our days. We might say much of William Higgins, but to a chemist one sentence of his is enough, ' We must suppose that the tiltimate particles of light inflammable air require two, or three, or more of dephlogisticated air to saturate them. If this latter were the case, we might produce ^vater in an intermediate state, as well as the vitriolic or nitrous acid, which appears to be impossible ; for in whatever proportion we mix our airs, or under whatever circumstances we com- bine them, the result is invariably the same' Higgins wrote on phlogiston a book of about three hundred pages, but there are very few sentences about com- bination and atoms. He does not at first seem to have seen the value of these ideas, or to know that they furnish the beginning of all chemical law. He wished to draw attention to phlogiston, he lost the great truth he had in hand, he used words greater than himself, no one got the atomic theory from his books, and he himself let it lie dead. We must allow that he gave the first clear and satisfactory explanation of saturation. He was an original thinker, but he was one of the many who fell in the breach. Elsewhere the writer has said, ' I look on him as the first man who even in his imagination formed a correct atomic compound and gave a correct analysis, in spite of the thousands of previous speculations and the simplicity of the idea, but one who lost the opportunity of elevating his idea into a great law of nature.' l Richter came next with laborious volumes. It is not our intention to discuss them. ' He found that there was a certain quantitative relation between all bodies, and he 1 A nfangsgriinde der Stochiomttrie, 2 vols. 8vo., 1792-3. Bryan and William Higgins. 225 made out the laws so far, that when he knew the quanti- tative analysis of a salt, he could tell its quantitative decomposition with another ; but he never saw it with sufficient clearness to be able to express the combining quantities each by its own distinct number, nor does he appear ever to have proceeded far enough to be able to assign a cause for the phenomena or to connect it with any fundamental idea.' ' He was the founder of the systematic study of Stoechiometry. He was an illustrator of one of its most important laws, and a defender of regularity in nature. His scientific life was laborious, his love of science sincere, and in all respects he seems to have been a man of high character. After reading his works, and coming occasion- ally on a sentence which makes us for the moment believe that he has discovered a greater law than we can now give to him, and finding that during his whole life he was just on the point of discovering the present atomic laws or laws of equivalents, one feels that perhaps he was the only man that deserved to discover them, having given himself up entirely to that purpose another combatant who died before victory.' So little hold had these ideas on chemists, existing as they did in a few minds groping uncertainly, that Berthol- let in 1805 ('Journal de Physique,' vol. lix. ) ridicules the idea of the molecules uniting by a leap from o to 9 to 12 to 25 per cent. Proust has actually to defend definite pro- portions against the backward thinking of Berthollet, who advocated the superior power of quantity without definite- ness. It is strange how chemists still cling to this power of mere bulk, not seeing it as a law more allied to cohesion, Q 226 Literary and Philosophical Society. if it be anything but cohesion. Still the two must meet somewhere. 1 The following still holds good. 'It really is a melan- choly thing to read these papers of Proust. ... He saw 2 with great clearness that without such constant proportion the products of nature would lose their stability, and the characters of bodies could not be depended on for perma- nence. We have here no difficulty in judging how much he did, and how much he left undone, how far his mind was advanced, and how it had merely speculated. When he uses +i, + 2, + 3 of proportions, he tells us that it is merely for illustration, he did not mean it to indicate the order of combination ; he had, in fact, made no theory, at least found no law on the subject, although he clearly saw that it must be owing to some law of nature. He sought for constant proportions in combination, and sought well, but he had no idea of a constant quantity of oxygen found uniting with a constant quantity of every metal and making higher oxides by steps always of an equal altitude, although he proved that the rise may not be that of an inclined plane, but by " fixed terms." And yet it follows as a consequence, so closely in fact does it follow that we must put ourselves in the position of the early chemists of the century well to understand the difference. When we have taken that position, we then see how thin was the veil, although utterly impenetrable, that divided his opinion from the present, and prevented the acute, accurate, and logical mind of Proust from attaining to the great dis- covery. His determinate proportions are given as remark- 1 The writer has shown that in the case of absorption of gases by charcoal definite laws are followed by cohesion, but proportions different from chemical equivalents are observed. * History of the Atomic Theory up to the time of Dalton, p. 226. Richter. 227 able facts in connection with which he confessed to perceive no law.' One cannot get a clearer notion of the indefinite or lawless constitution of the chemist's mind generally as to affinity than from a sentence in a volume by D. Friedrich Stromeyer. He says, p. 66, 36 (' Grundriss Theore- tischer Chemie zum Behuf seiner Vorlesungen entworfen von D. Friedrich Stromeyer/ Gottingen 1808), ' The affinity of a substance towards another is always in proportion to its chemical mass, which it brings with it for combina- tion.' Creation is full of wonders ; we can fancy Euclid writing out his axioms ; let us not inquire how long they took to grow and where they first took root, but let us fancy them quite easy so that anyone can see them, and some persons saying, well, anyone can understand that, .but, like the schoolboy trying how small they can make a point, and still giving it size. Mediaeval logicians gave wings to their imagination, and argued on the number of spirits which can dance on the top of this mathematical point, whilst the geometrician draws a line from it and makes people wonder how much space he has taken up. Algebra succeeds geometry. Both seek results that few can understand, and penetrate into regions as difficult of access to most human beings as the back of the shining moon. There has been no greater case of development in man's nature, even in his prehistoric and historic times together, than this mathe- matical one. The point and the line have become a world of thought, only in part as yet comprehended, but cosmic and other movements of creation have prepared our thoughts of geometry and algebra by making out the problems in deeds of infinite magnitude. Q 2 228 Literary anct Philosophical Society. If mathematical truth has begun out of few axioms, so also have national and social laws. Let us think of the enormous mass of law-books possessed by all nations, the enormous number continually making and being unmade ; and is it not still clear that in almost all cases ' Do as you would be done by ' means enough ? So with the great atomic law of Dalton ; it must expand and become more complex, and other branch laws may be added, but it is an amusement to see the men who labour to get over the fundamental one making use of the same conclusions and darkening their own counsel. We find one writer calling Dalton's laws hypotheses, and Avogadro's a theory ; where would Avogadro's have been without Dalton's ? We find then isomorphism and isomerism thus exalted, but surely they also are developments of Dalton's thoughts. The forms of expression ' atomic volume ' and ' specific heat of atoms ' would not only not have been used, but probably the inquiries they indicate never would have been made without the fundamental idea of 'the weight of ultimate particles of bodies.' It has been said that the farther we go in one direction the greater we prove the circle of knowledge to be, and it is added that the wider its range, the greater the part that is unknown ; there may be a limit to that, but we may say that the farther the idea leads us the greater it must be, and the great generalisation made by Dalton has not only led us very far, but promises to lead us still farther and probably longer than any single idea given us in physical sciences. The simplicity of Dalton's law threw all the specula - tions of the chemists to the winds and corrected their analyses. He saw simply that bodies combined by adding Dalton. 229 one unit or two or more units at a time. If you have nothing but penny pieces to pay wages with, you must give either one penny, or two pennies, or three, and so on ; you cannot divide them. In a similar way one atom of iron unites with one or two atoms of sulphur, or any number with any number; but there are no broken atoms : and this is the whole of Dalton's theory. It has gone beyond the reach of theory it is a fact ; but there are men who try to get beyond it and call it a speculation. Astronomy has to deal with great masses, mechanics have small ones, chemists have smaller still ; but they are so far as we know atomic, that is, not divided in our experience. ' Although Dalton rigidly held to the idea of atoms, he by no means supposed that we had attained the indivisible atom in our elements ; at least he expressly reserved this point. What he speaks of is simply the ultimate particle that seems to act in our chemical processes. He used atom and particle.' The latest ideas of molecules entirely fit in with his reasoning. Those who think otherwise cannot be said to understand Dalton, and indeed, it is difficult to imagine what any one means who opposes his theory, which is fitted for a far greater amount of knowledge of matter than any one seems by any speculations to indicate at this present time. The consequences of Dalton's great idea soon showed themselves to be that there was now one great law or theory in chemistry, so that it was for the first time fit to be called a science. It may be said distinctly that the laws which made chemistry a science were first seen by Dalton and published by this Society. The first announcements of them are given here in his own words : 230 Literary and Philosophical Society. On the Absorption of Gases by Water and other Liquids. By John Dalton, October 21, 1803. Page 286. . . . < Why does water not admit its bulk of every kind of gas alike ? This question I have duly con- sidered, and though I am not able to satisfy myself com- pletely, I am nearly persuaded that the circumstance depends upon the weight and number of the ultimate par- ticles of the several gases. Those whose particles are lightest and single being least absorbable, and the others more, according as they increase in weight and complexity. 1 An inquiry into the relative weights of the ultimate par- ticles of bodies is a subject, as far as I know, entirely new ; I have lately been prosecuting this inquiry with remarkable success. The principle cannot be entered upon in this paper ; but I shall just subjoin the results, as far as they appear to be ascertained by my experiments.' Here follows the first table of atomic weights. Daltoris New System of Chemistry, 2nd edition. Chapter iii. page 212. . . . * Chemical analysis and synthesis go no farther than to the separation of particles one from another, and to their reunion. No new creation or destruction of matter is within the reach of chemical agency. We might as well attempt to introduce a new planet into the solar system, or to annihilate one already in existence, as to create or destroy a particle of hydrogen. All the changes we can produce consist in separating particles that are in a state of cohesion or combination, and joining those that were previously at a distance. 1 < Subsequent experience renders this conjecture less probable. ' Dalton. 231 ' In all chemical investigations, it has justly been con- sidered an important object to ascertain the relative weights of the simples which constitute a compound. But unfor- tunately the inquiry has terminated here; whereas, from t he relative weights in the mass, the relative weights of the ultimate particles or atoms of the bodies might have been inferred, from which their number and weight in various other compounds would appear, in order to assist and to guide future investigations, and to correct their results. Now it is one great object of this work to show the impor- tance and advantage of ascertaining the relative weights of the ultimate particles, both of simple and compound bodies, the number of simple elementary particles which constitute one compound particle, and the number of less compound particles which enter into the formation of one more com- pound particle. * If there are two bodies, A and B, which are disposed to combine, the following is the order in which the combin- ations may take place, beginning with the most simple, viz. : I atom of A + I atom of B = atom of c, binary. 1 atom of A + 2 atoms of B = atom of D, ternary. 2 atoms of A + I atom of B = atom of E, ternary. I atom of A + 3 atoms of B = atom of F, quaternary. 3 atoms of A + I atom of B = atom of G, quaternary. &c., &c. * The following general rules may be adopted as guides in all our investigations respecting chemical synthesis . . .' Page 214. . . . 'From the application of those rules to the chemical facts already well ascertained, we deduce the following conclusions : 1st. That water is a binary com- pound of hydrogen and oxygen, and the relative weights of the two elementary atoms are i : 7, nearly ; 2nd. That 232 Literary and Philosophical Society. ammonia is a binary compound of hydrogen and azote, and the relative weights of the two atoms are as I : 5, nearly ; 3rd. That nitrous gas is a binary compound of azote and oxygen, the atoms of which weigh 5 and 7 re- spectively ; that nitric acid is a binary or ternary compound according as it is derived, and consists of one atom of azote and two of oxygen, together weighing 19; that nitrous oxide is a compound similar to nitric acid, and consists of one atom of oxygen and two of azote, weighing 17 ; that nitrous acid is a binary compound of nitric acid and nitrous gas, weighing 3 1 ; that oxynitric acid is a binary compound of nitric acid and oxygen, weighing 26 ; 4th. That carbonic oxide is a binary compound consisting of one atom of char- coal and one of oxygen, together weighing nearly 1 2 ; that carbonic acid is a ternary compound (but sometimes binary) consisting of one atom of charcoal and two of oxygen, weighing 19 ; &c., &c. In all these cases the weights are expressed in atoms of hydrogen, each of which is denoted by unity. . . .' Daltoris New System of Chemistry. Chapter iii. page 216. ... * From the novelty as well as importance of the ideas suggested in this chapter, it is deemed expedient to give plates, exhibiting the mode of combination in some of the more simple cases. A speci- men of these accompanies this first part. The elements or atoms of such bodies as are conceived at present to be simple, are denoted by a small circle, with some distinctive mark ; and the combinations consist in the juxtaposition of two or more of these ; when three or more particles of elastic fluids are combined together in one, it is to be sup- posed that the particles of the same kind repel each other, and therefore take their stations accordingly/ James Watt, Junr< 233 CHAPTER X. Intermediate Epoch. THE early times up to Dalton have been perhaps suffi- ciently dwelt on, and it would less break the progress of discovery as begun by Dalton if we took a rapid leap to the time of Joule's earlier life. There was however an intermediate period, which we cannot at present examine fully. It has been impossible to give it that attention which it certainly deserves as being interesting to Manchester especially ; but considering the time re- quired, the later histories of Manchester which have ap- peared, and the fact also, which must be confessed, that the results did not promise to be so interesting to the present writer as those on which he has dwelt, although perhaps more so to others, feeling too that it touches too much on the memories of the living, it has been decided to pass over even more characters than we have hitherto neglected. Part of this intermediate time might be called the engineering period, and we shall begin with a notice relating to an eminent engineer of the earlier years, who probably did much to bring others after him. James Watt, Junior. For 1790 we find Mr. James Watt secretary of the Society along with Dr. Ferriar, This was the son of him who 234 Literary and Philosophical Society. made the steam-engine a power in the world ; he seems for a time to have represented his father in Manchester. There were at one time a few sheets written by him amongst the Society's papers, but they do not at present appear ; and unfortunately the Society has none of that correspondence which it was once proud of. This is strange. The reason of the presence of Mr. Watt, junr., in this town seems to be shown by the allusion in the follow- ing letter : but he does not seem to have stayed long, and we know that he succeeded to his father's business, and lived a long and successful life. He was generally called Watt of Aston Hall. It is of interest to read this letter, and Mr. Muirhead's remarks, as it shows distinctly that Watt had found the only true method of 'burning smoke,' namely, giving it heat and air at the same time. If this is attended to, smoke will be burnt ; those who do not see this and depend on form and shape of brick or iron, are deceived. Those who give heat and air always succeed. From ' The Life of James Watt} by James Patrick Muirhead, M.A., 1858, //. 304 to 306. ' It is astonishing,' writes his son Mr. James Watt to him from Manchester in 1790, 'what an impression the smoke-consuming power of the engine has made upon the minds of everybody hereabouts ; nobody would believe it until the engine was set a-going, and even then they scarcely trusted to the evidence of their senses. You would be diverted to hear the strange hypotheses which have been started to account for it. However, it has James Watt, Junr. 235 answered one extremely good end : ij has made your engines general topics of conversation, and consequently universally known, which they were by no means before in this country.' On June 14, 1785, Watt took out a patent ' for certain newly improved methods of constructing fur- naces or fire-places for heating, boiling, or evaporating of water and other liquids which are applicable to steam- engines and other purposes, and also for heating, melting, and smelting of metals and their ores, whereby greater effects are produced from the fuel, and the smoke is in a great measure prevented or consumed/ which newly improved methods he describes to consist ' in causing the smoke or flame of the fresh fuel, in its way to the flues or chimney, to pass, together with a current of fresh air, through, over, or ampng fuel which has already ceased to smoke, or which is converted into coke, charcoal, or cinders, and which is intensely hot, by which means the smoke and grosser parts of the flame, by coming into close contact with, or by being brought near unto the said intensely hot fuel, and by being mixed with the current of fresh or unburnt air, are consumed or converted into heat, or into pure flame free from smoke.' ' I put this in prac- tice,' he continues, ' first, by stopping up every avenue or passage to the chimney or flues, except such as are left in the interstices of the fuel, by placing the fresh fuel above, or nearer to the external air, than that which is already converted into coke or charcoal ; and by con- structing the fire-places in such manner that the flame, and the air which animates the fire, must pass downwards, or laterally, or horizontally, through the burning fuel, and pass from the lower part, or internal end or side of the fire-place, to the flues or chimney. In some cases, after 236 Literary and Philosophical Society. the flame has passed through the burning fuel, I cause it to pass through a very hot tunnel, flue, or oven, before it comes to the bottom of the boiler, or to the part of the furnace where it is proposed to melt metal, or perform other office, by which means the smoke is still more effectually consumed. In other cases I cause the flame to pass immediately from the fire-place into the space under a boiler, or into the bed of a melting or other furnace.' He varied the figure or form and proportions of the fire- places, &c., but in all cases the principle was the same ; the fresh or raw fuel being placed next to the external air, and so that the smoke or flame passed over or through the coked or charred part of the fuel. ' Secondly,' he goes on, ' in some cases I place the fresh fuel on a grate as usual, and beyond that grate, at or near the place where the flame passes into the flues or chimneys, I place another small grate, on which I main- tain a fire of charcoal, coke, or coals which have been previously burnt until they have ceased to smoke ; which, by giving intense heat and admitting some fresh air, consumes the smoke of the first fire. ' Lastly, be it remembered,' he concludes, ' that my said new invention consists only in the method of con- suming the smoke and increasing the heat, by causing the smoke and flame of the fresh fuel to pass through very hot tunnels or pipes, or among, through, or near fuel which is intensely hot, and which has ceased to smoke, and by mixing it with fresh air when in these circum- stances ; and in the form and nature of the fire-places herein mentioned, described, and delineated ; the boilers and other parts of the furnaces being such as are in common use. And be it also remembered, that these Benjamin Franklin. 237 new invented fire-places are applicable to furnaces for almost every use or purpose.' * The new ideas in the Smoke- Abatement Exhibition at Kensington, 1881-82, are fewer than at his time in this letter by Mr. Watt, and the knowledge is among few persons. We are glad also to bring into the list of our con- tributors an American friend and Englishman, Benjamin Franklin. Meteorological Imaginations and Conjectures. By Benjamin Franklin, LL.D.> F.R.S., &c. Communicated by Dr. Percival. Read December 22, 1784. ' There seems to be a region higher in the air over all countries, where it is always winter, where frost exists con- tinually, since, in the midst of summer on the surface of the earth, ice falls often from above in the form of hail. * Hailstones, of the great weight we sometimes find them, did not probably acquire their magnitude before they began to descend. The air, being eight hundred times rarer than water, is unable to support it but in the shape of vapour, a state in which its particles are separ- ated. As soon as they are condensed by the cold of the upper region, so as to form a drop, that drop begins to fall. If it freezes into a grain of ice, that ice descends. In descending, both the drop of water and the grain of ice are augmented by particles of the vapour they pass through in falling, and which they condense by their cold- ness, and attach to themselves. 1 The specification, which was enrolled on July 9, 1785, is printed in the Mechanical Inventions of James Watt, 1854, vol. iii. pp. 115 to 121. 238 Literary and Philosophical Society. ' It is possible that, in summer, much of what is rain, when it arrives at the surface of the earth, might have been snow when it began its descent ; but being thawed in passing through the warm air near the surface, it is changed from snow into rain. ' How immensely cold must be the original particle of hail, which forms the centre of the future hailstone, since it is capable of communicating sufficient cold, if I may so speak, to freeze all the mass of vapour condensed round it, and form a lump of perhaps six or eight ounces in weight. 'When, in summer time, the sun is high and continues long every day above the horizon, his rays strike the earth more directly, and with longer continuance, than in the winter ; hence the surface is more heated, and to a greater depth, by the effect of those rays. ' When rain falls on the heated earth, and soaks down into it, it carries down with it a great part of the heat, which by that means descends still deeper. ' The mass of earth, to the depth perhaps of thirty feet, being thus heated to a certain degree, continues to retain its heat for some time. Thus the first snows that fall in the beginning of winter seldom lie long on the surface, but are soon melted and soon absorbed. After which the winds that blow over the country on which the snows had fallen, are not rendered so cold as they would have been by those snows if they had remained. And thus the approach of the severity of winter is retarded and the extreme degree of its cold is not always at the time we might expect it, viz. when the sun is at its greatest distance, and the day shortest, but some time after that period, according to the English proverb, which says, ' as Benjamin Franklin. 239 the day lengthens, the cold strengthens ; ' the causes of refrigeration continuing to operate, while the sun returns too slowly, and his force continues too weak to counteract them. ' During several of the summer months of the year 1783, when the effect of the sun's rays to heat the earth in these northern regions should have been greatest, there existed a constant fog over all Europe and great part of North America. This fog was of a permanent nature; it was dry, and the rays of the sun seemed to have little effect towards dissipating it, as they easily do a moist fog, arising from water. They were indeed rendered so faint in passing through it, that when collected in the focus of a burning glass, they would scarce kindle brown paper. Of course, their summer effect in heating the earth was ex- ceedingly diminished. * Hence the surface was early frozen. * Hence the first snows remained on it unmelted, and received continual additions. * Hence the air was more chilled, and the winds more severely cold. ' Hence perhaps the winter of 1783-4 was more severe than any that had happened for many years. ' The cause of this universal fog is not yet ascertained. Whether it was adventitious to this earth, and merely a smoke proceeding from the consumption by fire of some of those great burning balls or globes which we happen to meet with in our rapid course round the sun, and which are sometimes seen to kindle and be destroyed in passing our atmosphere, and whose smoke might be attracted and retained by our earth : or whether it was the vast quantity of smoke, long continuing to issue during the summer 240 Literary and Philosophical Society. from Hecla in Iceland, and that other volcano which arose out of the sea near that island, which smoke might be spread by various winds over the northern part of the world, is yet uncertain. ' It seems however worth the inquiry, whether other hard winters, recorded in history, were preceded by similar permanent and widely extended summer fogs, because if found to be so, men might from such fogs con- jecture the probability of a succeeding hard winter, and of the damage to be expected by the breaking up of frozen rivers in the spring, and take such measures as are possi- ble and practicable, to secure themselves and effects from the mischiefs that attended the last/ 'Passy : May 1784.' John Kennedy. Towards the end of last century several Scottish youths came to Manchester and made themselves prominent as engineers, leaving descendants who are still interested in the prosperity of the town. Although many have since come, it is intended to mention only a few of the earliest. James Watt, Junior, has been mentioned as having remained here for a time as representative of his father. We may next mention Mr. John Kennedy, who became a member in 1803 and continued so to his death in 1855. He was a friend of Watt, of Dalton, and of Henry, as well as other eminent men, and his house, from 1822, was a prominent one in Manchester, standing at the southern end of Ardwick Green, ready to welcome talent from all quarters. Mr. Kennedy was said by one whose name at the time was the oldest in the directory of business men in John Kennedy. 241 Manchester to be the only man who had retired from business in the town who had made a fortune and still had remained in the same house. This may have been owing to the fact that the house was being only very slowly surrounded, and in such cases the residents scarcely observe the change. Trees, however, are still numerous in the garden, and there is no dwelling house of the larger size equally near the Exchange. Mr. Kennedy was the third son of a family of Ken- nedys who had been landed proprietors in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright for nearly four hundred years. At the age of fourteen he went south, attracted by another boy from the same neighbourhood, named Adam Murray, and they both became apprentices to Messrs Cannan and Smith, at Chowbent in Lancashire. Afterwards Mr. Kennedy was nearly the first to establish cotton-spinning mills driven by steampower. Before this, however, he, in partnership with Messrs. Sandford and McConnel, had been a maker of machines for spinning cotton. He was considered a good mechanist, making several improvements in the mule, and being the first to invent the differential motion in the jack- frame. Mr. Kennedy had kind and engaging manners, and he always gave a hearty welcome to young men who were endeavouring to get on in the world. He left six daughters and one son, of whom one daughter (Mrs. Chad- wick) and the son alone survive. The son, Mr. John Law- son Kennedy, is a member of the Society ; the surviving daughter is Mrs. Chad wick, and we are glad to connect with the Society the name of such a man as her husband, Edwin Chadwick, C.B., who has rightly been called the father of sanitary reform, and who was born in this district. It would be difficult to find any man who R 242 Literary and Philosophical Society. has done so much to transform the habits of the whole population of this and the most advanced of other coun- tries, or who has done so much to remove sorrow and pain and raise the standard of cleanliness, comfort, and life. We have, however, a more direct reason for mention- ing another son-in-law, Mr. Samuel Robinson ; he has been a member of the Society since 1822. He was in business in Dukinfield, but has long lived retired : he is of a good family, a scholar, little known to the public, although his friends esteem him highly. However, he cannot be spoken of much, as he is among us to speak for himself. His knowledge is among such studies as few men here cultivate, being especially the Persian poets, from whom he has drawn many beautiful pieces, translating them in a graceful style, and we do not doubt with full appreciation, impressing deeply his friends with his skill, his refinement, and goodness. He has been brought incidentally among engineers, although he could only be called a user of machinery. He was prominent in advising the evening lectures at Owens College, which have been a great success. He now keeps very closely to his house at Wilmslow. Peter Ewart. Mr, Peter Ewart was long a prominent member of this Society, being elected in 1798. He bridged over the time from Percival and the early founders to 1835, when he left Manchester to become chief engineer and inspector of machinery in the Government Dockyards at Woolwich. Mr. Ewart was born at Troquair Manse, May 14, 1767. We learn from Dr. Charles W. Henry's account that the six sons of the minister of Troquair in Dumfriesshire all rose much above their original station. One was British Minister Peter Ewart. 243 at the Court of Berlin, another an eminent merchant in Liverpool and the friend of Canning ; the youngest, Peter, was obliged to work his way from the place of apprentice in the workshop to which he had been sent after showing an uncontrollable taste for watch-making, clocks, wheels, and all the connection of machinery. He was first put to work with Mr. Rennie, at Musselburgh, and then employed at Soho with Watt and Boulton. The character of Mr. Peter Ewart must have stood high, as the writer remembers well that the memory of that engineer sounded pleasantly in the ears of the elder men who knew him well. It is not possible to tell much of him, but we can imagine what he was from the following letter, which is so touching, and shows such enthusiasm as most men at present would not dare to evince ; they would be ashamed to be so natural. It is well that there was such a man as Dr. Currie to admire, such a firm as that of Mr. Oldknow of Stockport to devise plans, and such a man as Mr. Ewart to carry them out so heartily and lovingly. This is the letter. 1 Dr. Currie to W. Wilberforce, Esq. Liverpool, April 23, 1793. ' Dear Sir, If in the long letter which I wrote to you two days ago, there appears a good deal of unguarded warmth, the following circumstance will explain, though perhaps not justify it. ' I was sitting in my study on the evening of Saturday reflecting on public affairs, when a young man called to drink coffee with me, a manufacturer of Stockport, near 1 From Dr. Henry's Biographical Notice of the late Peter Ewart, Esq. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Mem., 2nd series, vol. vii. p. 121. R 2 244 Literary and Philosophical Society. Manchester. After giving a picture of the general distress there, he informed me of his own situation in particular, and of the business which brought him to Liverpool. ' He said that the house of which he is a partner employed about 1,500 hands, all of whom are now idle, or, as the phrase is, off work. That previous to their being discharged he and his partner had struggled on from one week to another in hopes that the times would mend and a demand, more or less, come for their goods. That, in this hope, they had gone on for the last three weeks, and not having a sufficient quantity of money to pay the people their full weekly wages, they had prevailed on them to accept about a third of the sum, as this, with economy, might suffice for subsistence. In procuring the money for this purpose, he told me, they had been reduced to extra- ordinary difficulties. Formerly they sold their goods in large quantity, but now they determined to supply the retailers themselves with a single piece, or even less ; and, provided they paid them in specie, at almost any price. Accordingly, having goods in their warehouses that suited the home market, they fitted up a light cart and sent a young man with it full of goods, to supply the retailers in every part of the country, and bring home the specie every Saturday, whatever might be the loss. The ex- pedient succeeded for about three weeks, but had now failed, and he was come to Liverpool to try if by any possible means he could raise a few hundred guineas to get over another week and keep his people alive. He told me that he and his partner had been constantly amongst them, and by entering into all their distresses, had pre- vailed on them to be extremely patient and reasonable. At their last meeting they had agreecl to wait this young Peter Ewart* 245 gentleman's return- from Liverpool, and what money he was able to raise, they had consented should be laid out in oatmeal, which being boiled up with water, potatoes, and some of the coarser pieces of beef, should be shared out in fair proportions among them, and thus in the cheapest manner provide for their subsistence. As the house had many thousands owing them in Liverpool, though he knew there was no hope of any considerable debts being paid, he had no fear of not being able to procure the sum imme- diately wanted. He had been using every effort for two days, and had actually threatened to arrest two of our principal merchants on the Exchange, but he had not been able to raise a single guinea. How he was to face the poor people he knew not, each of whom had four to six weeks' wages due. But he could appeal to heaven for the anxious exertions which he had made to relieve distresses which he could neither foresee nor prevent. As I looked at this young man, I perceived that his countenance seemed actually withered with care and sorrow. He is not a common character ; he was the apprentice of Messrs. Boulton and Watt, and has an extraordinary degree of the most useful knowledge of every kind. He is modest, virtuous, and prudent, of astonishing application, and, in a word, one of the first young men I ever knew. These qualities recommended him to the notice of the manu- facturers, among whom he exercised his profession of a mechanic and engineer. He had offers of partnership from the first houses there, and was actually taken into the house of Mr. Oldknow, of Stockport, about a year ago, at that time perhaps the first establishment in Lancashire. Mr. Oldknow you must have heard of as the original fabricator of muslin in this country, and a man of first rate 246 Literary and Philosophical Society. character. He has laid out a property of 5o,ooo/. on building and machinery alone. His partner (the young gentleman I speak of) is named Ewart, the younger brother of Mr. Ewart, the late Envoy at Berlin. It is men such as these that are reduced to such extremities.' The paper of Mr. Ewart on moving force attracted a good deal of attention, and Dr. James Bottomley has been good enough to give a full account of it, and it may be succeeded by the discussion of the same subject, written at a previous period, by Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S. ; and first the compendium and remarks by Dr. Bottomley. On the Measure of Moving Force. By Peter Ewart. Vol. II. (2nd series), p. 105* Account by Dr. James Bottomley. In this paper Ewart notices the views of both the schools of Natural Philosophers namely, those who took as the measure of moving force the mass x velocity, and those who took as the measure the mass x square of velocity. He compares the statements of Hooke, Huygens, Newton, John Bernouilli, Leibnitz, and he also adds the opinions and experiments of Dr. Wollaston and Smeaton the engineer, for whom such questions had a practical impor- tance. Smeaton's experiments showed great want of agreement between, the prevalent theory and practical results, nevertheless the mechanical principles of force continue to be treated nearly as before. Attwood also agrees with Smeaton, that the momentum is not as the quantity of matter into the velocity. Attention is called to the non-applicability of this measure of force in the case Dr. Bottomley on Ewart. 247 of bodies revolving round fixed axes. Attwood thinks that neither of the measures of force is capable of general application, and also that theoretical views of force have had little effect on the construction of machinery, owing their origin and improvement to long experience of re- peated trials. Ewart demurs to this ; neither does he think that Attwood is supported in his opinion by the history of useful discoveries in machines, giving us ex- amples of men who were both scientific and ingenious, Huygens and Hooke. Smeaton also availed himself of. a just theory in applying water to the best advantage as a moving power. Ewart then proceeds to state some of the difficulties which have occurred to himself and others in the application of the common doctrine of moving force, and describes some particular instances where the difficulties occur, and gives from approved writers on mechanics such observations as appear to have been given in explanation of the points in question. He then gives several examples of force producing motion in bodies from a state of rest, also examples of motion destroyed and of motion transferred from one body to another. He expresses his disappointment that Emerson does not give that information which one might have expected from his analytic skill. Emerson even thinks that vis viva ought not to pass for a principle in science. Attwood points out where Emerson, in the solution of a problem, is led into error by a neglect of this very principle. Some mathematicians have regarded the question of momentum or vis viva as a measure of moving force as a dispute about words. Ewart quotes Prony to the effect. Dr. Milner of Cambridge contends that the dispute is not merely verbal. Dr. Wollaston thinks that the conception 248 Literary and Philosophical Society. of a quantity dependent on the continuance of a given vis motrix for a certain time may have its use when cor- rectly applied in certain philosophical considerations, but the idea of the same force exerted through a determinate space is of greater practical utility, as it occurs daily in the usual occupations of men. Wollaston's views closely coincide with those of Smeaton. The Edinburgh Re- viewers, however, on Wollaston's essay, adopt a different doctrine. The opinion of Laplace on the question is quoted, ' La force peut etre exprimee par une infinite de fonctions de la vitesse qui n'impliquent point contradictions, il n'y en a point par exemple a la supposer proportionnelle au carre" de la vitesse/ Laplace thinks the law of inertia and the law of force proportional to the velocity, are the most natural and most simple principles imaginable, that they are derived from the very nature of matter, and that they are the only facts which the science of mechanics borrows from experience. In connection with the measure of moving force reference is made to Smeaton's work on water-wheels. Ewart thinks Smeaton's four maxims on undershot wheels may all be comprehended in one ex- pression, thus : that in cases where the maximum effect is produced it is nearly as the quantity of water multiplied by the effective head. Ewart refers to some experiments of Bossut on water-wheels, giving results agreeing very nearly with Smeaton's conclusions. Borda and Waring attempted to show that the force of the water against the wheel is not proportional to the square of the velocity with which it strikes the wheel, but that it is in the simple ratio of that velocity. Ewart objects to Waring's demon- stration, leading he thinks to the conclusion that we may double the power of any undershot wheel (whatever may Dr. Bottomley on Ewart. 249 be its velocity) by merely doubling the number of its floats or planes acted upon by the water. Ewart also objects to some experiments of D'Alembert, Condorcet, and Bossut, as not sufficiently comprehensive and admitting deductions of an arbitrary kind. He mentions some experiments of Don Juan and M. Buat, on the pressure of moving water on planes ; their results do not agree with the ordinary theory. Smeaton's observations on these matters, although neglected by authors, have not been lost to practical men, and have led to the disuse of undershot wheels, which about fifty years ago were more prevalent but are now rarely met with. Smeaton's principle was to apply the water so that it should act more by its weight than by its impulse, an advantage being thereby gained. The Edinburgh Reviewer objects to the opinion of Mr. Smeaton ; allusion is' made to the doctrine of the Carte- sians, which was also maintained by Leibnitz and John Bernoulli, that motion could not be lost, for the same quantity of motion or of force, it was said, must be always preserved in the world. With reference to the principle Ewart states, ' It has never been questioned that motion may be generated, accelerated, or retarded in a variety of ways, and there appears to be no good reason for sup- posing that it may not be destroyed as well as generated/ Ewart then refers to some arguments of Maclaurin's that have always been considered the strongest that have been brought against the principle of vis viva. These arguments are contained in a treatise that obtained the prize of the Royal Academy of Science at Paris in 1724. Ewart thinks that Maclaurin and Bernouilli reason from different principles ; he also gives some remarks of Dr. Milner upon the paper to the same 250 Literary and Philosophical Society. effect. Ewart then proceeds to the consideration of change of figure. Smeaton, he says, was the first who subjected to actual measurement the force spent in pro- ducing change of figure in the collision of non-elastic bodies. His dissertation, however, has been almost totally neglected by succeeding writers. Of the Illustrative ex- periments brought forward by Ewart one was suggested by Dalton. It is stated in order to show that the same effect is produced by the same fo'rce whether it act by gradual pressure or by sudden percussion. It treats of the impact of a prism fixed at one extremity upon a piece of clay, the impression is the same at whatever distance the clay is placed from the centre of motioft. Ewart thinks 'that great misunderstandings respecting the subject have arisen from the various senses in which the terms have been taken must be acknowledged, but it cannot, I think, be reasonably contended that the whole has been merely a dispute about words.' He also thinks it was a misfortune that the principle of vis viva was brought forward in opposition to the Newtonian doctrine of force. Ewart does not regard it in opposition but rather as an extension. In order to have the history of this measure we must go as far back as Galileo. Mr. Robins and Maclaurin seem to ignore this and regard it as a new doctrine brought forward by Leibnitz and his followers. Ewart says as far, therefore, as the measure of force which is composed of the pressure into the space through which it acts can be applied to the estimation of the force of moving bodies, it is properly speaking the doctrine of Galileo and Newton. The same principle has been still further extended and applied to explain the phenomena of force producing changes of figure in masses of matter. Ewart states ' all Dr. Bottomley on Ewart. 251 our notion of force appears to be derived from pressure as it is perceived by the sense of touch. When a mass is moved by pressure the pressure must also move unless the pressure follow and act upon the mass through some portion of space no motion can be produced. If pressure be increased in the same ratio that the space through which it acts be diminished, or vice versa, the same effect will still be produced. The space therefore compensates for the pressure and the pressure for the space, and when taken together they constitute a determinate measurable quantity of moving force, but in determinate quantities which are always proportional to the moving force by which they are produced. The word Force has been ambiguously used. The force of a body in motion and a quiescent pressure are different in kind. Leibnitz and his followers adopted the distinct terms, vis and vis viva. Wollaston prefers impetus to vis viva, but he sometimes uses energy in the same sense. Smeaton uses the term mechanical power to express the product of the pressure into the space through which it acts, or the product of the mass into the square of the velocity. Ewart thinks that in this sense moving force would be a convenient term for action of moving pressure. It need not be confounded with motive force or the pressure uncombined with the space or time through which it acts. Moving force might be defined as ' moving pressure producing change of velo- city or change of figure in masses of matter.' The dura tion of a moving force cannot be taken generally as an element in the estimation of its quantity. There appears to be no more reason for taking duration as the general measure of a moving force than for taking temperature as the general measure of heat. Ewart then refers to 252 Literary and Philosophical Society. expenditure of moving force in overcoming cohesion of particles of fluid, he refers to the case of a jet of water issuing from a hole in the containing vessel this had been considered by John Bernouilli in his ' Hydrodynamics. Newton also considered it ; his solution in later editions of the ' Principia ' differing from that in the first. To measure the repulsive action on the water in the opposite direction to the jet Newton suggested that the vessel should be suspended like a pendulum ; it will then recede from the perpendicular in the opposite direction to the jet. Ewart made some experiments of the kind, and obtained results nearly agreeing with what it was concluded to be by Bernouilli and Newton. The results also agree with the explanations that have been given of moving force. Upon the same principle an easy and simple explanation may be given of the action of the hydraulic machine called Barker's Mill. The theory of this machine has engaged the attention of many mathematicians, and Euler has furnished two treatises on it to the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy his demonstrations are complicated. Mr. Waring in America has given quite a different theory. Ewart's own explanation is different from any other ; allud- ing to the maximum effect produced by machines, Ewart observes that in the actual construction of machines it is necessary to aim at a maximum quite different from that which is usually proposed in books on the theory of machines. By proceeding on the principle that when a weight is raised from one point to another in the least time the maximum effect is produced, many erroneous conclusions have been drawn respecting the proper con- struction of machines ; Ewart mentions an example in the case of overshot wheels. Ewart next refers to a case Moving Force. 253 brought forward by Dr. Wollaston involving collision and change of figure, which has been understood to prove that the force of a body in motion may be properly estimated either by the duration of its action or by the space through which it acts according to the particular views which may be taken of the phenomena. Ewart thinks that it admits of the same explanations as some of those which have already been examined. Ewart concludes with a simple application of the principle which he endeavours to support, and the resolu- tion of compound moving forces. Having given the above remarks on Mr. Ewart's paper, we add also Mr. Hodgkinson's, written some years earlier than the above. Some Account of the late Mr. Ewarf s paper on the 'Measure of Moving Force! &c., by Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S. (read April 30, 1844),^. 138 to 144, Vol. XII. The subject of this paper formerly caused a great con- troversy among mathematicians, which continued for thirty years or more, and was then dropped about a century ago. Since which time an idea has been generally entertained that it was only a dispute about terms. The advocates on one side, including Leibnitz, the Bernouillis (John and Daniel), Hooke, Huygens, Wolfius, Gravesande, Musschenbroek, &c., maintained that the force of bodies in motion ought to be estimated by the quantity of matter multiplied into the square of the velocity ; whilst the other side, called Newtonians, and including the names of Maclaurin, Pemberton, Desaguliers, Clark, Jurin, and 254 Literary and Philosophical Society. Robins, contended that the force was as the quantity of matter multiplied simply by the velocity. To explain the reason of these opposite opinions, Dr. Wollaston, in his lecture on the Force of Percussion (Phil. Trans. 1806) proposes the following experiment: ' Suppose a ball of clay to be suspended at rest, having two similar and equal pegs slightly inserted into its opposite sides ; and let two other bodies A and B, whose weights are as 2 to i, strike at the same instant against the opposite pegs, with velocities which are in the proportion of I to 2. In this case the ball of clay would not be moved from its place to either side ; nevertheless, the peg impelled by the smaller body B, which has the double velocity, would be found to have penetrated twice as far into the clay as the peg impelled by the larger body A.' The results of this experiment were admitted by both parties ; but they reasoned upon them differently. The party termed Newtonians asserted that as the clay is not moved, it is a 'proof that the forces of impact of the two balls were equal ; as they would infer from the momenta being equal. Their opponents, on the other hand, main- tained with equal confidence that the unequal depths to which the pegs had been driven was a proof that the causes of these different effects were unequal ; as might be inferred from considering the forces as proportional to the squares of the velocities. One party drew their conclusions from the fact that equal momenta can resist equal pressures during the time. The other party took into consideration the spaces through which the same moving force was exerted ; and as these were as 2 to I, or as the product of the weight of each striking body and the square of its velocity, they concluded that the vis viva, to which this is Moving Force. 255 proportional, was the proper measure of the effect of a body in motion. The main object of Mr. Ewart's paper, in accordance with the conclusions of Smeaton (Phil. Trans. 1776), Dr. Wollaston, and others, was to show that if a constant pres- sure applied by any agent were multiplied by the space through which it acted, the result, being in a given propor- tion to the vis viva, was the most natural measure of moving force. He urged that if the effects of pressures were estimated with regard to the spaces through which they passed, instead of the velocities for a certain time, they would apply, as a measure of work done, in all the cases of practical mechanics ; and would, he contended, remove many inconsistencies and errors from the reason- ings upon questions occurring in them. He gives illustra- tions of his statement's from almost every branch of practical mechanics and hydraulics ; pointing out discrepancies, and solving various problems according to the principles he had assumed. He compared the conclusions from the common theory of fluids with the results of Smeaton's experiments on water-wheels (Phil. Trans. 1759), arriving at interesting conclusions ; but the more recent investigations on this subject by Poncelet and others, with the very important experiments of the committee of the Franklin Institute, upon wheels of 20, 15, 10, and 6 feet diameter together with those of M. Morin, on the turbine of M. Fourneyron have placed all others in the shade. Mr. Ewart made many experiments on the reaction of effluent water, and applied the results of his researches on this subject to the solution of the problem of the recoil engine, known by the name of Barker's Mill. . . . Mr. Ewart adduces, in his paper, several cases which 256 L iterary and Philosophical Society. he conceives not to be explicable according to the prin- ciples maintained by the advocates of the opposite mea- sure of moving force to that which he adopted ; and if the difference between them had been as great in reality as it was in words, there is little doubt his conclusion would have been just. Both parties seemed to be right, and to obtain correct results, when they reasoned consis- tently with their hypothesis ; but there required a little adjustment between them. The arguments for adopting, under some distinct denomination, the product of the quantity of a pressure by the space through which it acted were very strong. It was evident that such a measure of effect produced would have a most extensive application. This measure had been used by Watt to estimate the effects of steam engines ; it had long before been adopted by Smeaton ; and writers on mechanics had become pre- pared, both in this country and on the Continent, for the introduction of such a value. It has, therefore, beeri adopted by the most eminent writers on mechanics, both theoretical and practical ; and without making any change in the received definitions of momentum and moving force, which depend on the mass multiplied by the velocity. Fairbairn. Sir William Fairbairn, Bart., F.R.S., &c. Sir William Fairbairn is the best known of the engineers who have adorned the Society. He was born in Cold- stream in 1789. His life by Dr. Pole, F.R.S., says that he was born in Kelso, but the present writer had Coldstream from Mr. Fairbairn himself. He was self-educated, and one feels it a matter of great wonder that such a struggle as we find depicted in his autobiography could have ended in showing such a fine specimen of a man, such pleasant, gentle manners, so much general knowledge. We cannot say that he was a learned engineer, still he read much and had good taste ; we cannot say that he had scientific knowledge of an exact kind, indeed, he was sadly deficient in it, but he had an instinct and an insight that was of more value than any amount of education. A good mechanical head will invent machinery without any exact knowledge of any laws of physics, and calculate without any teaching in algebra or mathematics. There is something which colleges teach us to neglect, and that something was retained by William Fairbairn. This wonderful instinct made him one of the best known engineers, and led him to make improve- ments in every department he touched. His work has been so fully dwelt upon that it is only necessary to refer to their published account, and to the great tubular bridge at Menai, as well as the hundreds that have been built since, of course some of them improved. Much more would be said of Sir William Fairbairn could we not refer to his own most interesting account of himself contained in Dr. Pole's admirable volume. He was quite aware that there were times when instinct required the aid of science, S 258 Literary and Philosophical Society. and he knew well that without Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson or a man of equal powers his calculations would be insuffi- cient. He was a most lovable man, gentle and agreeable as well as handsome, and with a force of character never- theless which raised him to a high station. People instinctively believed in him, and he instinctively seemed to see into the minds of men as well as into the character of his work without the intellectual training so necessary to lesser endowments. If he was a little vain of his progress, it is only that which nearly all men who have risen so rapidly are blamed for showing. The long dispute as to the honour which he received from his work at the Menai tubular bridge, and which some considered to belong solely to Eaton Hodgkinson, we cannot enter upon ; cer- tainly, however, all who knew both the men must feel that the abilities of the latter were not of a kind which would have enabled him to bring important public undertakings to a practical conclusion. Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S., &c. The life of Mr. Hodgkinson must be treated also in a few lines according to our habit here, and we must at least tell that he was born at Anderton, in the parish of Great Budworth, Cheshire, on February 26, 1/89, and that he died at Eglesfield House, Higher Broughton, Manchester, in 1 86 1. His father had a farm, and his mother was left to continue it and keep her three children, being a widow when Eaton was only six years old. It is said that he got nervousness and hesitation of speech by maltreatment at the Northwich High School, whither he was sent in prepara- tion for Cambridge by the advice of his uncle the Rev. Eaton Hodgkinson. 259 Henry Hodgkinson, rector of Aberfield, Berkshire. He was removed to another school, but instead of showing an inclination to the usual study of languages he seems to have given up everything for mathematics. He was obliged very early to assist his mother in attending to the farm, and at length to leave it, taking all the family into Salford, Manchester, where a business was begun which obtained for him a competency. He continued his mathematical studies and became the leading authority on the strength of materials and the mode of calculating. The labours of a lifetime seemed to culminate in formulae for the purpose, and the most striking instance of their use was in the successful erection of tubular bridges. We may be satisfied to quote Mr. Robert Rawson, who knew him well, and who may be trusted as a competent judge to sum up his work. 1 'The strengths of long pillars of cast iron, wrought iron, cast steel, and Dantzic oak of the same dimensions, are in proportion to the numbers 1,000, 1,745, 2,518, 109. Cast iron is not reduced in strength when its temperature is raised to 600. * The sets in cast iron beams vary nearly as the square of the force of deflection ; hence any force, however small, will injure the elasticity of cast iron. The strength in tons of beams approaching the best form is measured by the formula, 2 1 66 ad -j- /, where a area of section of bottom flange in the middle, d = the depth in inches of the beam, and / = the distance between supports. ' A general investigation of the position of the neutral line is given on the principle that the forces of . extension and compression of a particle vary as a function of its 1 See an account of him in vol. ii. 3rd series, Lit. and Phil. Soc. Mem. S 2 260 Literary and Philosophical Society. distance from the neutral line. This includes every hypo- thesis which has been proposed in order to compute the strength of material bodies subjected to strains. 'When, therefore, Mr. Stephenson was engaged in the novel construction of the Conway and Britannia tubular bridges, he requested the assistance of his friend Mr. Hodgkinson in fixing the best form and dimensions of tubes. The experiments which were devised and carried out by Mr. Hodgkinson with a view to answer the above questions are recorded in the report of the Royal Commis- sioners appointed to inquire into the application of iron to railway structures. ' Mr. Hodgkinson, by these experiments, sought : ' i. To ascertain how far the strain upon a square inch at the top and bottom of the tube would be affected by changing the thickness of the metal, the other dimensions being the same. ' 2. To obtain the strength of similar tubes. ' 3. To find the strength of tubes of various forms of section in the middle, and to furnish means of judging of the proper proportions of the metal in the bottom, top, and sides of the tube. * 4. To ascertain the relative strength of uniform tubes to bear a weight in all parts of their length ; and whether tubes, tapering in thickness from the middle towards the ends, according to theory, would be equally strong in every part. 1 5. To obtain the resistance of the tubes, previously tried vertically, to bear a side pressure with an intention to ascertain the effect of the wind upon a tube. ' 6. To ascertain the strength of small tubes of different Eaton Hodgkinson. 261 forms of section to resist best a force of compression applied in the direction of their length. ' 7. To ascertain the resistance of wrought-iron plates to a crushing force in the direction of their length. ' 8. To determine the strength of tubes to sustain impact, with reference to riveting. * 9. To determine, by bodies let fall upon tubes, the probable effect, if any, of trains rushing rapidly upon tubular bridges, to produce resilience, or springing up at the ends. ' 10. To determine the transverse strength of tubes stiffened in the top with cast iron, joined with wrought iron, to increase the resistance of the top to a crushing force. ' It was impossible that such assistance in the execution of a novel design could 'be lightly esteemed or inadequately appreciated by the great engineer. Hence, in the history of these tubular bridges, where Mr. Stephenson is anxious to record the merits of his assistants, he frankly acknowledges his deep obligations to the mathematical philosopher 'for devising- and carrying out a series of experiments which terminated in establishing the laws that regulate the strength of tubular structures, in a manner so satisfactory that I was enabled to proceed with more con- fidence than I otherwise should have done! (See vol. i. p. 35, of the ' Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges/ by E. Clark, Esq.) ( This declaration of Mr. Stephenson completely disarms all future praise or detraction with respect to the part which Mr. Hodgkinson took in the execution of the tubular bridges. It places him before the public in his right position as a most important contributor to the success of 262 Literary and Philosophical Society. an enterprise which will represent the engineering skill of the present time, and will be the admiration of future ages. E. Clark, Esq., who superintended the building of the tubular bridges, speaks in the highest terms of Mr. Hodg- kinson's labours in fixing the proper dimensions of the bridges. ' We are indebted to him also for nearly the whole of the mathematical calculations in reducing the experiments which were made into a form fit for application to a large structure. But we are also indebted to Mr. Fairbairn for a great portion of the practical construction of the bridges. ' The answers given by Mr. Hodgkinson to his inquiries, and which rendered such signal service to the engineer in the execution of his novel design, are as follows : 1 i. The value of (f) the strain upon a square inch at the top or bottom of the tube is constant in material of the same nature, while it varies from 19, 14, to ?f tons when the thickness of metal varies from -525, -272, to -124 of an inch. The determination of (f) is the chief obstacle to obtaining a formula for the computation of the strength of tubes of every form. ' The strength of the Conway tube was calculated to bear 1,084 tons when the value of (f) was taken at 8 tons and the deflection about 15^ inches in the middle. ' 2. The strength of similar tubes was somewhat lower than the square of their linear dimensions, being about rg power instead of the square. ' 3. The tubes may be reduced in strength and thickness towards the ends corresponding to the ratio indicated by theory, viz. that the strain at any point of the tube is proportional to the rectangle of the two parts into which that point divides the length of the tube. Eaton Hodgkinson. 263 ' 4. The power of the tube to resist a vertical strain is to its power to resist a strain on its side, as from the wind, as 26 to 15 nearly. ' 5. The resistance of tubes to crushing follows the law of cast iron pillars when the crushing force is not more than 8 tons per square inch. It appears, however, that cast iron was decreased in length double what wrought iron was by the same weight ; but the wrought iron sunk to any degree with a weight of 12 tons per square inch, while cast iron required double the weight to produce the same effect. ' 6. The power of plates to resist buckling varies nearly as the cube of the thickness. Mr. Clark refers to this property as being most useful in the construction of the tubular bridge. ' 7. The tube bent* by pressure had borne a deflection of five inches without serious injury ; but its riveting was destroyed by repeated impacts deflecting it through less than one inch. ' 8. Resilience is perceptible, but very small. * 9. The introduction of cast iron on the top of the tube would be attended with advantage in resisting the force of compression. Practical objections, however, of a serious nature prevented Mr. Stephenson from availing himself of the power of cast iron to resist compression. He thought it advisable to increase the thickness of wrought iron to resist compression, rather than use a combination of wrought with cast iron. It may be stated that Mr. Stephenson has used cast iron, for the purpose recom- mended by Mr. Hodgkinson, with success in tubes of smaller dimensions than the Conway tubes. ' In 1 847 Mr. Hodgkinson was appointed one of the 264 Literary and Philosophical Society. Commissioners to inquire into the application of iron to railway structures ; and during the space of two years the wnole of his time and abilities were devoted to the subjects of this inquiry. The exertions, both physical and mental, which he made at this period for the advancement of engineering science were so great as materially to affect his health and prostrate his powers. Immediately after the publication of the Commissioners' Report in 1849, ne sought the restoration of his exhausted faculties by a tour on the continent of Europe.' He was for some years Professor of the Mechanical Principles of Engineering at University College, London (Lecturer from 1847 to 1853 inclusive). His hesitation in speech greatly prevented his public usefulness as a teacher, and prevented that display of power which he evidently possessed. A marble bust of him is in the meeting-room of the Society, and admirably gives the gentle and pleasing expression of his countenance. He was President during the years 1848-50. The full account by Mr. Rawson will be read with profit by engineers. John Fred. Bateman, F.R.S., &c. &c., is the son-in-law of Sir Wm. Fairbairn, and engineer to some of the greatest waterworks in the world, that of Manchester to which the water is brought from Woodhead, and that of Glasgow to which the supply comes from Loch Ketturin. He is now occupied with the still greater scheme, namely, bringing water from Thirlmere. He began his career in this Society, and we hope he will see his present great labour prosper in his hands that is, if it ought to be accomplished. It does, however, strike one as strange that a county much too wet should ever be in water. We are imperfect J . F. Bateman. 265 in our modes of keeping, and probably equally so in our modes of using it. Mr. Bateman left the Society when he went to London he was formerly a very constant attendant, and gave us many papers on rainfall and rain gauges but being still alive no more can be added. Sir John Hawkshaw, another eminent engineer, has left Manchester, but is still a member. 266 Literary and Philosophical Society. CHAPTER XL William Sturgeon and others. WILLIAM STURGEON, the electrician, as we may call him, or physicist, was born in Lancaster, and spent his time from 1838 to his death, December 8, 1850, in close relations with the Society, and it was here that he collected his works for publication. He was born in 1783, and as we learn from a graphic account by Dr. Joule, was reared under circumstances peculiarly suited to make a man rough, selfish, and unintellectual. To keep his father, a clever man but an idle shoemaker, poaching fish and rear- ing gamecocks when starving the family, was the painful work of the young Sturgeon, and to the very last he had a life of labour and poverty. The work he did was never- theless surprising, and we give here a full list of his papers, although not done in any other case, because he was one of those men too neglected, both by the higher class of scientific men of the time and by the Societies in which they were. It is sad to think that scientific men see no better than the public where real merit exists surely this is nonsense, scientific men must see where science exists well let it be so then : they are not very well able to bring forward those who are neglected, or are they willing if able ? It is to be feared that they are as other men, self being served first. It is true that at last he was seen by men of scientific eminence, and notably by our President, William Sturgeon. 267 Mr. Binney, who although not an electrician was doing the work of others, and induced the Government to allow Mr. Sturgeon fifty pounds per annum when he was old. Here also we have to make complaints : to him who hath shall be given. A sum so small would not have been offered to a man who had been fairly prosperous, but to a man who had suffered all his life this sum was to set a seal on his poverty and to continue his depression. But it is not intended to write his life. Dr. Leigh (now Medical Officer of Health for Manchester) and Dr. Joule have written of him, and they knew him better than the writer of this did. It is enough then to add from their accounts the following, and first from John Leigh, F.R.C.S., &c., as it appeared in- the ' Manchester Examiner and Times,' December 14, 1850. ' It was during his connection with the artillery that, as he once described "to the writer of this brief notice, his attention was awakened, and his curiosity quickened/Jby the phenomena of a terrific thunderstorm. The whole phenomenon was a mystery. to him, but he determined to become better acquainted with the wonderful agent that had so strongly excited his awe and admiration a power that, in an instant, could rend rocks and rive trees, and yet whose visible existence was nowhere. The few books he was able to obtain afforded him little information, and even the perusal of those showed him that, in education, he was deficient in the elements essential to a physical investigator. With an energy and perseverance that characterised him through life, he resolved to overcome these difficulties ; and he set about it in a manner that indicated the high order of his mind. He began at once the study of mathematics, of which he obtained an ex- cellent knowledge ; he then cultivated the Latin and 268 Literary and Philosophical Society. Greek languages to a sufficient extent to enable him to understand the meaning and origin of scientific terms, and coin for himself such as he needed. French, German, and Italian, he studied with much assiduity, that he might read the researches of the great continental philosophers. These languages, indeed, he read with considerable facility. Thus prepared, he entered on the study of natural philo- sophy, of which he obtained a sound knowledge ; never- theless, the phenomena of electricity and magnetism had ever the greatest charm for him. . . . ' It is difficult to conceive a more unfavourable social position for the formation of a scientific character than that of a private soldier, the constant and wearying routine of duty, the want of privacy, the difficulty at the time of which we write of obtaining a fit supply of books, and the incessant temptations offered by companionship and a soldier's habits ; and yet, surrounded by such diffi- culties, exposed to such temptations, and in such a posi- tion, did Mr. Sturgeon master the numerous branches of knowledge, the possession of which gave to his researches and their exposition a clearness and precision that had scarcely ever been surpassed. Simple-minded and clear himself, imbued with an ardent love of truth, he had an utter abhorrence of scientific quackery, and never failed to express his contempt for those who substituted a pretended knowledge for its reality. He was exceedingly happy in devising experiments and contriving the necessary appa- ratus, as may be seen by referring to Dr. Frances' " Dic- tionary of Scientific Instruments," and quick in perceiving the relations of the facts which he educed ; and though it may be said that he never succeeded in the enunciation of a great law, yet no man has contributed to science a William Sturgeon. 269 greater number of isolated discoveries of equal value and importance, or left behind him a greater number of instru- ments for others to work with. Some conception of his great labours and numerous contributions to science may be formed from the subjoined list of his papers : ' i. An improved method of exhibiting M. Ampere's rotating electro-magnetic cylinders, by employing a horse- shoe magnet instead of a bar magnet, as previously used. Phil. Mag. Sept. 1823. ' 2. On new electro-magnetic experiments. Phil. Mag. Feb. 1824. ' 3. Electro and thermo-magnetic experiments. Phil. Mag. April 1824. '4. Description of a rotatory thermo-magnetic appa- ratus. Phil. Mag. April 1824. '5. On electro-magnetism. Phil. Mag. Oct. 1824. '6. On a new mode of showing the action which a magnet exercises on metallic discs ; and on a novel phe- nomenon discovered thereby. Edinburgh Phil. Journal and London Phil. Mag. August 1825. ' 7. Description of a complete set of improved electro- magnetic apparatus. Trans. Soc. Arts for 1825. ' 8. On the ignition of gunpowder by the electric dis- charge, and on the transmission of electricity through water. Phil. Mag. June 1826. 1 9. On the inflammation of gunpowder and other sub- stances by electricity, with a proposal to employ the term momentum as expressive of a certain condition of the elec- tric fluid. ' 10. Recent experimental researches in electro-mag- netism and galvanism. Published by Mr. Sturgeon, in 1830. 2 7o Literary and Philosophical Society. ' 1 1 . An account of an aurora borealis observed at Woolwich, on the night of January 7, 1831. Phil. Mag. 1831. r 12. On thermo-magnetism of homogeneous bodies. Phil. Mag. for July and August 1831. '13. On electro-magnets. Phil. Mag. 1832. ' 14. On the distribution and retention of magnetic polarity in metallic bodies. Phil. Mag. April and May 1832. ' 15. On the distribution of magnetic polarity in metallic bodies. Phil. Mag. 1832. ' 1 6. On the theory of magnetic electricity. Phil. Mag. 1832, and Annals of Electricity, vol. i. ' 17. Description of an aurora borealis seen at Woolwich on the evening of December 22, 1834. Phil. Mag. Jan. 1835- ' 1 8. Description of a thunder-storm, as observed at Woolwich on June 14, 1834, with some observations on the cause of the deflection of the electric clouds by high lands, and an account of a peculiar phenomenon exhibited by means of a kite elevated during the storm. Phil. Mag. Dec. 1834. ' 19. Researches in electro-dynamics, experimental and theoretical. Annals of Electricity, Magnetism, and Chemis- try, vols. ii. and v. ' 20. On electro-pulsations and electro-momentum. Phil. Mag. Aug. 1836. On October i, 1836, Mr. Sturgeon commenced a new scientific journal, called " The Annals of Electricity, Magnetism, and Chemistry," and continued it, under his own superintendence, through ten octavo volumes. '21. Description of an electro-magnetic engine for turn- ing machinery. A nnals of Electricity, &c. Oct. 1 836. William Sturgeon. 271 '22. Description of two novel and brilliant electrical experiments well calculated for the lecture table. Annals of Electricity, &c. Jan. 1837. ' 23. An experimental investigation of the laws which govern the production of electric shocks, and other pheno- mena, by a single pair of metals. Annals of Electricity ', vol. i. ' 24. Application of the theory of magnetic electricity, and of the laws of electro-magnetism, to the explication of phenomena. Annals of Electricity, vol. I. '25. An inquiry into the attributes of the galvanometer, and how far its indications may be depended upon in electro-dynamic researches. Annals of Electricity, Oct. 1836. ' 26. An experimental investigation of the influence of electric currents on' soft iron, as regards the thickness of the metal requisite to a full display of magnetic action, and how far these pieces of iron are available for practical purposes. Annals of Electricity, Oct. 1837. ' 27. Experimental and theoretical researches in elec- tricity. Read before the London Electrical Society, Dec. 5, 1837- '28. An investigation of the causes of the fracture of glass during an electric discharge, and on the mode of protecting it. Read before the London Electrical Society, Jan. 6, 1838. Annals of Electricity, vol. ii. ' 29. Researches in electro-dynamics, experimental and theoretical. Annals of Electricity, vol. ii. ' 30. Experimental and theoretical researches in elec- tricity. Read before the London Electrical Society. 4 3 1 . Description of three different instruments for open- 272 Literary and Philosophical Society. ing and shutting the battery circuit of an electro-magnetic coil machine. Annals of Electricity, vol. iii. ' 32. Description of an aurora borealis which appeared in London on the evening of September 29, 1838. Annals of Electricity, vol. iii. '33. Experimental and theoretical researches in elec- tricity and magnetism. Read before the London Electrical Society, December 4, 1838. '34. Experimental and theoretical researches in elec- tricity and magnetism. A nnals of Electricity, vol. iv. ' 35. On the use of voltaic electricity in electro-gilding and silvering. Annals of Electricity, vol. iv. ' 36. Description of an aurora borealis observed in Lon- don. Annals of Electricity, vol. iv. '37. Description of an original cast-iron voltaic battery, and an account of some of its performances. Annals of Electricity, vol. v. ' 38. Experimental and theoretical researches in elec- tricity and magnetism. Annals of Electricity, vol. v. 1 39. Results of galvanic experiments made on Clapham Common in the autumn of 1838. Annals of Electricity, vol. v. '40. Experimental and theoretical researches in elec- tricity and magnetism, &c. Annals of Electricity, vol. vi. '41. Examination and report of the effects of lightning on St. Michael's Church, Liverpool. Annals of Electricity, vol. vii. '42. Experimental and theoretical researches in elec- tricity, magnetism, &c. Annals of Electricity, vol. viii. '43. Description of an aurora borealis seen at Manches- ter, on Wednesday, April 5, 1843. Annals of Electricity, vol. x. William Sturgeon. 273 ' 44. On some peculiarities in the magnetism of ferru- ginous bodies. Manchester Memoirs for 1845. ' 45. On a peculiar source of deterioration of the powers of magnetic bars. Read before the Royal Society, May 1845. ' 46. On the electro-culture of farm craps. Transactions of the Highland Agricultural Society. ' 47. An experimental investigation of the magnetic cha- racters of simple bodies, metals, metallic alloys, and metallic salts. Memoirs of Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 1846. ' 48. Three accounts of the aurora borealis ; and on the formation of clouds as observed in the locality of Kirkby Lonsdale. Memoirs of Manchester Literary and Philoso- phical Society, vol. viii. ' 49. On lightning and lightning conductors. March 21, 1848. ' 50. On the peculiarities of the thunder-storm which oc- curred in this neighbourhood on July 18 last; posthumous paper, date uncertain. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., read March 4, 1856. ' Mr. Sturgeon has also published two elementary treatises, one on electricity, the other on galvanism, besides some smaller works, the last of which was entitled " Practical Instructions for the Protection of Persons and Property from the Effects of Lightning." ' For a set of improved electro-magnetic apparatus, Mr. Sturgeon received, in 1825, the large silver medal of the Society of Arts, together with thirty guineas. ' The following statement of some of his most important discoveries, in a letter from the pen of the most distinguished physicist new left to us in Manchester, is an admirable T 2 74 Literary and Philosophical Society. testimony to his great scientific merits, and cannot be read without interest : 4 " My dear Sir, I have sifted Mr. Sturgeon's claims to the utmost. I have examined all the periodicals likely to throw light upon the history of electro-magnetism, and find that Mr. Sturgeon is, without doubt, the originator of the electro-magnet, as well as the author of the improved electro-magnetic machine. The electro-magnet described by Mr. Sturgeon in the 'Transactions of the Society of Arts for 1825 ' is the first piece of apparatus to which the name could with propriety be applied. Arago, and Ampere, and Davy had already, it is true, magnetised steel needles by passing currents of electricity along spirals surrounding them, but it does not appear that they observed the phenomena with iron needles, nor that they had any knowledge of the sud- denness with which the polarity of soft wrought iron might be reversed by a change in the direction of the current. It appears, therefore, quite clear that to Mr. Sturgeon belongs the merit of producing the first electro-magnet constructed of soft iron, as well as that of ascertaining its peculiar and most remarkable properties. Hence it was that M. Jacobi, of St. Petersburg^ claimed for Mr. Sturgeon, in conjunction with Professor CErsted, the discovery of the electro-magnetic engine. Mr. Sturgeon's claims with regard to the magneto- electrical machine appear to me to be equally well estab- lished. He was the first who devised and executed an apparatus for throwing the opposing currents into one direction, thus accomplishing for this machine exactly what Watt accomplished for the steam engine. Beside this, he is beyond dispute the author of the systems of solid brass discs and insulators, going by the name of ' commutator ' William Sturgeon. 275 on the Continent, and ' unitress ' in America ; an apparatus now universally employed in every magneto-electrical machine. Mr. Sturgeon was without doubt the constructor of the first rotary electro-magnetic engine. ' " The use of amalgamated zinc plates in the voltaic battery was originated by Mr. Sturgeon. It is an improve- ment of such value that it has been universally adopted ever since, although all other arrangements of equal date have been superseded. ' " Mr. Sturgeon's discoveries in the thermo-electricity and magnetism of homogeneous bodies are very important, and have placed his name higher than that of any other philosopher who, after Seebeck, has cultivated thermo- electricity. ' " The above is only a very imperfect abstract of a small part of Mr. Sturgeon's discoveries and improvements in magnetism, electricity, and the kindred sciences. Though not himself the author of extensive generalisations, he has been signally useful in preparing the way for them, and in carrying them out practically ; and I know not of one individual, who, under equal or even less disadvantages, has contributed so eminently to the advancement of these highly interesting and useful sciences. (Signed) JAMES P. JOULE." * Soon after he left the army, Mr. Sturgeon was appointed Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Military Academy at Addiscombe, where he continued to lecture until he came down to Manchester to superintend the Victoria Gallery of Practical Science. The pressure of the times very soon necessitated the discontinuance of this institution, and Mr. Sturgeon was then unhappily deprived of any T 2 276 Literary and Philosophical Society. means of existence but the very precarious one arising from occasional courses of lectures. After struggling with difficulties which would have weighed many men down, he was at length, by the intercession of his friend?, placed by Lord John Russell on the civil list for a pension of 5 ) 32^ = 6,225 feet per second. N '8 / 336 Literary and Philosophical Society. ' The above velocity will be found equal to produce the atmospheric pressure, whether the particles strike each other before they arrive at the sides of the cubical vessel, whether they strike the sides obliquely, and, thirdly, into whatever number of particles the 36-927 grains of hydrogen are divided. 'If only one-half the weight of hydrogen, or 18-4635 grs., be enclosed in the cubical vessel, and the velocity of the particles be as before, 6,225 f eet P er second, the pres- sure will manifestly be only one-half of what it was previously; which shows that the law of Boyle and Mariotte flows naturally from the hypothesis. ' The velocity above-named is that of hydrogen at the temperature of 60 ; but we know that the pressure of an elastic fluid at 60 is to that at 32 as 519 is to 491. Therefore the velocity of the particles at 60 will be to that at 3 2 as A/ 5 19, A/491 ; which shows that the velocity at the freezing temperature of water is 6,055 ^ ee t P er second. ' In the above calculations it is supposed that the par- ticles of hydrogen have no sensible magnitude, otherwise the velocity corresponding to the same pressure would be lessened. ' Since the pressure of a gas increases with its temper- ature in arithmetical progression, and since the pressure is proportional to the square of the velocity of the particles, in other words, to their vis viva, it follows that the absolute temperature, pressure, and vis viva are proportional to one another, and that the zero of temperature is 491 below the freezing point of water. Further, the absolute heat of the gas, or, in other words, its capacity, will be represented by the whole amount of vis viva at a given temperature. Joule. 337 The specific heat may therefore be determined in the following simple manner : ' The velocity of the particles of hydrogen, at the tem- perature of 60, has been stated to be 6,225 f ee * per second, a velocity equivalent to a fall from the perpendicular height of 602,342 feet. The velocity at 61 will be 6,225 V ffl = 6,230-93 feet per second, which is equivalent to a fall of 603,502 feet. The difference between the above falls is i, 1 60 feet, which is therefore the space through which i Ib. of pressure must operate upon each pound of hydrogen in order to elevate its temperature one degree. But our mechanical equivalent of heat shows that 770 feet is the altitude representing the force required to raise the temperature of water one degree ; consequently the specific heat of hydrogen will be y^> = 1-506, calling that of water unity. ' The specific heats of other gases will be easily deduced from that of hydrogen ; for the whole vis viva and capacity of equal bulks of the various gases will be equal to one another, and the velocity of the particles will be inversely as the square root of the specific gravity. Hence the specific heat will be inversely proportional to the specific gravity, a law which has been arrived at experimentally by De la Rive and Marcet. * In the following table I have placed the specific heats of various gases, determined in the above manner, in juxta- position with the experimental results of Delaroche and Berard reduced to constant volume : Experimental Theoretical specific heat. specific heat. Hydrogen 2-352 1-506 Oxygen O'i68 0-094 Nitrogen 0-195 0-107 Carbonic oxide . . . .0-158 0-068 338 Literary and Philosophical Society. 'The experimental results of Delaroche and Berard are invariably higher than those demanded by the hypo- thesis. But it must be observed that the experiments of Delaroche and Berard, though considered the best that have hitherto been made, differ considerably from those of other philosophers. I believe, however, that the in- vestigation undertaken by M. V. Regnault, for the French Government, will embrace the important subject of the capacity of bodies for heat, and that we may shortly expect a new series of determinations of the specific heat of gases, characterised by all the accuracy for which that distin- guished philosopher is so justly famous. Till then, perhaps, it will be better to delay any further modifications of the dynamical theory, by which its deductions may be made to correspond more closely with the results of experiment.' L We have thus got to the motion of atoms, but the result of this motion was also taken up by Joule, and we give him without difficulty the honour of showing its relations first in one very important direction, namely 1 If we assume that the particles of a gas are resisted uniformly until their motion is stopped, and that then their motion is renewed in the opposite direction, by the continued operation of the same cause, as in the projection upwards and subsequent fall of a heavy body, the maximum velocity of the particles will be to the uniform velocity required by the theory assumed in the text as the square root of 2 is to I, and the comparison of the theoretical with the experimental specific heat will be as follows : Experimental Theoretical specific heat. specific heat. Hydrogen ...... 2-352 3-012 Oxygen 0-168 0-188 Nitrogen ..... 0-195 0-214 Carbonic oxide . . . .0-158 0-136 I have just learned that the experiments of Regnault on the specific heat of elastic fluids are on the eve of publication, and doubt not that their accuracy will enable us to arrive at a decisive conclusion as to the correctness of the above hypothesis. June 1851, J. P. J. Joule. 339 heat. We have the pleasure of knowing that he went still further, and showed that whilst the heat itself resulted in force, that force had a definite limit, and could be estimated by the amount of chemical action or by the combinations taking place between the elements. In other words, he showed the connection between chemical action, electricity, heat, and mechanical force. The long train of papers on this subject written by Dr. Joule would astonish many who receive his results in a few lines and are satisfied with their simplicity ; but it would also be a very simple thing if after living to maturity in a pit, with artificial light only, we were to come up and see the sun. How simply we should then get light no candle used, no wax, no oil, no paraffin ; the sun laughs at all our methods of illumination, and we, too, may laugh at ourselves when we think how short was our view in the direction indicated before Dr. Joule discovered the mechanical equivalent of heat. To show the fullest early form in which the author approached the subject we quote farther on. (See Mem. of the Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Manchester, Vol. VII., Second Series, pp. 103, 104, and no.) We shall further quote a paper read January 24, 1843, his 2Oth paper on heat, electricity, and magnetism, though still a youth. When speaking of Dr. Joule we must not forget to put before ourselves clearly the position taken up by Faraday in the development of measurable quantity, a position which is gained by the vantage ground of the atomic theory, and stands between that of Dalton's and Joule's, to whose wider generalisations it tended. In his ' Experimental Researches in Electricity/ 704 (ed. 1839), we find one of his papers read in January 1834: ' I have already said, when engaged in reducing common Z 2 340 Literary and Philosophical Society. and voltaic electricity to one standard of measurement, and again, when introducing my theory of electro- chemical decomposition, that the chemical decomposing action of a current is constant for a constant quantity of electricity, notwithstanding the greatest variation in its sources, in its intensity, in the size of the electrodes used, in the nature of the conductors (or non-conductors, 307) through which it passes, or in other circumstances.' ' 705. I endeavoured upon this law to construct an instrument which should measure out the electricity passing through it, and which, being interposed in the course of the current used, should serve at pleasure either as a com- parative standard of effect or as a positive measure of the subtle agent.' 706. . . . ' Water therefore, acidulated by sulphuric acid, is the substance I shall generally refer to, although it may become expedient in peculiar cases or forms of experiment to use other bodies.' In 843 it is said, ' I expect to find in some salts, as the acetate of mercury and zinc, solutions favourable for this use.' In 866, speaking of the decomposition of water, he says, ' For an equivalent of zinc oxidised an equivalent of water must be decomposed.' ' 918. All the facts show us that that power com- monly called chemical affinity can be communicated to a distance through the metals and certain forms of carbon ; that the electric current is only another form of the forces of chemical affinity ; that its power is in proportion to the chemical affinities producing it ; that when it is deficient in force it may be helped by calling in chemical aid, the want in the former being made up by an equivalent of the latter ; that, in other words, " the forces termed cJtemical affinity and electricity are one and the same." ' Joule. 34 1 That equivalents exist is no proof of oneness, but we see here great progress made by Faraday in the con- sideration of the unity of power and the relation of import- ant forms of power. We shall quote here some of Joule's early papers. On the Heat Evolved during the Electrolysis of Water. January 26, 1843. By James Prescott Joule. Vol. VII. , Second Series, Memoirs of the Literary and Philo- sophical Society of Manchester, pp. 101, 103, 104, no. ' ist. In an electrolytic cell, there are three distinct obstacles to the voltaic current. The first is resistance to conduction ; the second is resistance to electrolysis without chemical change, arising simply from the presence of chemical repulsion ; and the third is resistance to electro- lysis accompanied by chemical changes. ' 2nd. By the first of these (the resistance to conduction) heat is evolved exactly as it is by a wire, according to the resistance and the square of the current ; and it is thus that a part of the heat belonging to the chemical actions of the battery is evolved. By the second, a reaction on the intensity of the battery occurs, and wherever it exists heat is evolved exactly equivalent to the loss of heating power in the battery arising from its diminished intensity. But the third resistance differs from the second, inasmuch as the heat due to its reaction is rendered latent and is thus lost by the circuit. ' 3rd. Hence it is that, however we arrange the voltaic apparatus, and whatever cells of electrolysis we include in the circuit, the whole caloric of the circuit is exactly ac- counted for by the whole of the chemical changes. 342 Literary and Philosophical Society. ' 4th. As was discovered by Faraday, the quantity of current electricity depends upon the number of atoms which suffer electrolysis in each cell : and the intensity depends upon the sum of chemical affinities. Now both the mechanical and heating powers of a current are (per equivalent of electrolysis in any one of the battery cells) proportional to its intensity. Therefore the mechanical and heating powers of a current are proportional to each other. ' 5th. The magnetic electrical machine enables us to convert power into heat, by means of the electric currents which are induced by it. And I have little doubt that by interposing an electro-magnetic engine in the circuit of a battery, a diminution of the heat evolved per equivalent of chemical change would be the consequence, and this in proportion to the mechanical power obtained. 1 ' I have shown also that the modus operandi is resistance to conduction. ' There are many phenomena which cannot be accounted for by the theory which recognises heat as a substance ; and there are several, which though sometimes adduced as triumphant objections to the other theory, tend, when rightly considered, only to confirm it. The heat of fluidity may very naturally be regarded as the momentum, or mechanical force necessary to overcome the aggregation of particles in the solid state. The heat of vaporisation may be regarded, partly as the mechanical force requisite to overcome the aggregated condition of atoms in the fluid state, and partly as the force requisite to overcome atmo- spheric pressure. Again, the heat of combination is only 1 I am preparing for experiments to test the accuracy of this proposition. February 18, J. P. J. Joule. 343 the manifestation, in another form, of the mechanical force with which atoms combine ; on the other hand, the pheno- mena of electrolysis by the voltaic battery give us positive proof that the mechanical force of the current requisite to procure the decomposition of an electrolyte is the equivalent of the heat due to the recombination of the elements. Thus it appears that electricity is a grand agent for con- verting heat and the ordinary forms of mechanical power into one another? On a New Method of Ascertaining the Specific Heat of Bodies. Read December 2, 1845. Memoirs of Philoso- phical Society of Manchester, Vol. VII. Second Series, p. 562. ' When any body, capable of conducting the voltaic electricity, is placed in the circuit of a battery, the quantity of heat evolved by it in a given time is proportional to its resistance to conduction and the square of the quantity of transmitted electricity. Consequently, if a wire traversed by a voltaic current be made to communicate to any body the heat which it evolves, the capacity for heat of that body and the wire taken together will be directly proportional to the square of the quantity of electricity transmitted in a given time to the resistance of the wire and to the time, and inversely proportional to the increase of temperature of the body. Hence we derive the general equation, . where y is put for the capacity, c for the voltaic current, r for the resistance of the wire, t for the time, and h for the increase of temperature. 344 Literary and Philosophical Society. ' If we make the time and the resistance of the wire constant, the above equation becomes simplified to 7 = C! 2 ' If the current and time are constant, we have ' I have made several series of experiments, using the same conducting wire as a source of heat, a constant inter- val of time, and a variable current of electricity. The method adopted in these experiments was, to try the effect of a wire traversed by a current of electricity, first, when it was immersed in water, and afterwards when it was im- mersed in another liquid. Hence I obtained two deter- minations of y in equation 2, one of them for water, the other for the liquid. The relation between these two quantities gave, of course, the capacity of the liquid com- pared with that of the water.' Without pretending to say that it was impossible to arrive at Joule's conclusions without the atomic theory of Dalton, we may say distinctly that it was not attained without its aid. The idea of full portions, units of measure in Dalton's mind, developed itself gradually into units offeree in the mind of Joule, and it is in this form that we received it from the hand of one illustrious member still active amongst us. To say that the two are the most successful descendants of the great thinkers who have grappled with the subject of atoms for three thousand years is but to express a simple fact ; and to assert that Dalton and he have made the great leading discoveries on the subject is simply to follow history. From one we learn the order in which the ultimate Joule. 345 particles of bodies move, from the other we learn the force and relation of their movements in those great phe- nomena, heat, electricity, and mechanical force. It is of course impossible to deny great honour to many men who have laboured on heat. We have great admiration for the work of Dulong and Petit, great illus- trators of atomic action. We may delight in the specu- lative ideas of Clausius, Helmholtz, Clerk Maxwell, and Sir William Thomson, but we must remember that these men represent another department of atomic study. They take the Daltonian atom as granted. They take it also as Joule, Dalton's pupil, made it a measure of power, and they seek to go farther in studying its physical properties. 1 We have here a follower worthy of the prophet. Dalton's pupil has become the master of many learners. 1 In speaking of Joule we do not attach weight to the able but merely speculative papers of Meyer. The comparative value of these is fully dis- cussed in the Thermodynamics of P. G. Tait. 346 Literary and Philosophical Society. CHAPTER XIII. THE PRESENT TIME. IT is not safe to speak of the present members, and, much as the author longs to tell how he has admired personal friends, he leaves this subject and proceeds only to give a few remarks on the present state of the Society. It would have been impossible, however, to leave out all reference to Dr. Joule, but even regarding him too little, as has been said, one might have enlarged with propriety on his scientific works, now being collected by the Physical Society, as well as on the many virtues which have endeared him to his friends, and which make his private life as pleasing as his scientific career is brilliant. We do not even describe Dr. Edward Schunck, whose laboratory at Kersal is prob- ably the finest private one in the country, and whose long personal relations with the writer make the subject tempting. Whilst writing this volume the President (Mr. Binney) died, and the writer had the melancholy duty of revising his work. It was Mr. Binney mainly who caused this volume to be written. It would also have been pleasant to remember more fully Mr. Baxendell, our Secretary, and to describe him in his Observatory at Southport ; but all these things seem forbidden by the circumstances of the case, and it might be asked, Why is not every member who The Present of the Society. 347 writes a paper described, and every professor who visits the Society ? This would have been too daring an inroad on con- temporary life. These ideas have, indeed, prevented the author from mentioning names to such an extent as he thinks he might fairly have done without hurting any man's feelings. However, he has avoided the danger by silence. It has been remarked that members of the Society are not content to read their papers here, but prefer to send them to the Royal Society. This remark has, so far as the writer knows, been made without attaching blame to any one. It is useless to complain of this : it is a phase of national life, and it will grow stronger probably for a time, until this subcentre becomes sufficiently brilliant to make men feel that it is an object of great ambition to become distinguished here. This might be the case even now if there was a combined determination to send work to the Society ; but such an event can never take place suddenly, and it cannot be expected to take place here rapidly whilst the Society has none of the funds which have of late so materially strengthened the position of the Royal Society. It would be a great advantage to the community if this Society had at its disposal a sum to be spent on scientific or literary investigations, and it is much to be desired that this subject be brought before men who have wealth to dispose of. With an honest and sufficient pride of position, and respect for the city which has increased so much in impor- tance, the Society may continue to be the centre of all that is most original in the department of Science in the district. It is extremely important for the sake of humanity itself to 348 Literary and Philosophical Society. diminish to the utmost the centralisation of mental activity, unless when necessary to raise a series of batteries to attack some very strong position where ignorance reigns. It is remarkable how many towns in France have valuable societies, notwithstanding many evils connected with cen- tralisation there, and in this respect she has given a good example. This may appear in contradiction to another opinion given, but this is not the place to reconcile the two, even if success were certain. The number of literary and scientific men is increasing here, and they are beginning to publish their results in separate Societies. 1 Probably we have lost by want of sympathy, and allowed the forces to be too much scattered ; but good is doing, and our aim is to receive only the more original portion of scientific work and such literary memoirs as may be considered in the character of investigations. This has not been defined by the rules, but it follows from 1 James Young, LL.D., F.R.S., who was a member of the Society when he lived in Manchester about thirty years ago, wished to have a chemical society, and brought together about thirty young men connected with works ; they, or at least some of them, met in summer in country places, had tea at an inn generally, and held their meetings at the tea-table. Some of the meetings were very pleasant. It was afterwards connected with the Lit. and Phil. Society itself, forming the first section ; the addition of several sections took place afterwards. The writer of this was secretary, but he found it difficult in those days to gain attendance, and papers were too few. He at last gave up calling the meetings. The most of the members were chemists in works. Mr. Young began another movement in Manchester. He wished to have a Liberal paper, not considering the Gttardian sufficiently so. Talking with the present writer both agreed that the editor should be Thomas Ballantyne, and that it should be called the Examiner. Mr. Ballantyne obtained other men, who do not seem to have been told of Mr. Young's idea. Mr. Ballantyne left the paper soon, and never succeeded. He was a remarkable man, capable of speaking many leading articles in an evening articles too of great power but he had apparently little power of writing them out in such a way as to attract the public. At any rate he did not please his friends, and cir- cumstances were against him in after life. The Present of the Society. 349 the character and habits of the Society. As an example, a poem, however beautiful and original, would not suit our memoirs. Essays are of various kinds, and we have some ; their suitability depends entirely on the mode of treating the subject and the result obtained, and of these qualities the Council must judge. At present we are doing our best to make a good collection of the labours of scientific societies over all the world, so that our members are able to see for themselves the work of their contemporaries. The Society has never accumulated money, having spent all its income for the benefit of those who subscribe, keeping at the same time carefully out of all engagements which it could not fulfil. The time, however, has come when it must make an effort to enlarge the buildings which were erected for its accommodation in 1804, or remove to new ones. The library is making the rooms inconveniently small, and it has been proposed to sell the building and site, take cheaper premises, and look to using the interest of the money obtained by the sale for purposes of the Society. It has also been proposed that the books should be added to the Free Library under certain conditions, whilst members only of the Society should have permission to read them at home ; but the feelings of the members seem decidedly opposed to this ; and it is remarkable how strong and how beautiful the sentiment is of attachment to the spot where the Society has gained its fame. The members are un- willing to leave the rooms where Dalton studied, rooms that were given him for his laboratory, and which were his home from morning till evening for the greater part of his life, a building which has been consecrated to science in 350 Literary and Philosophical Society. the memory of all who are in Manchester, and to which many have looked with wonder and awe from childhood. This would not be strange in those who had seen the old philosopher moving to and from his lodgings with his lantern in hand in the early winter mornings or the dark evenings, but it is pleasant to find it true of those whose age prevents all such memories ; to them the old reasons for attachment remain by inheritance, whilst new ones have arisen with every year of their visits, and around many or all of its active members or its frequent attendants : this must be allowed to speak well for the later as well as earlier condition of the Society. For these reasons many consider that it would be well if we could remain, enlarging our premises and building as the early fathers of the Society built, or at any rate that if we move we ought to have an establishment to ourselves. We have the land bought for us : they had theirs to buy. As to the means, it is not for the writer to say more than this : that Manchester is rich, and without science it will not remain so. It has, however, been said that the Society has done nothing to teacR Manchester. It has given no lectures, no soirees, no displays ; it has not in any way, except by its publications, shown itself ; its members are scarcely seen, and it is looked on as stagnant. We certainly are not wanting in members who speak well and appear pro- minent as visible agents in the scientific world although not as representing our Society ; but it has been the habit of the Society to make no display. It has even given up the few lectures which at one time were allowed in its rooms. This subject has been frequently discussed at the council, and it has been decided that the Society shall The Present of the Society. 351 leave rather to the Royal Institution here to rival that of London, and such an institution must be held to be of marvellous value to a city. The intention was at one time carried out more than at present, and public attention to lectures has fallen wherever it has existed. On the other hand the roads to places of amusement concert-halls and theatres are choked with vehicles, and the world shouts out for more play and less work. The world is fitful in its progress, and whilst far from satisfactory this light singing of society has some good mixed with it ; men are not so violent, and knowledge as well as comfort are increased. On the other side, whilst earnestness exists it is too much spent in seeking wealth, which when obtained is dissipated in pleasure. We cannot suppose that the loss of earnestness will be lasting ; we shall believe that it will be made up by such a gain of knowledge and com- fort as will give power and peace to a coming genera- tion; and let us hope that Dr. Beddoe has made a mistake if he estimates that our mental power is diminish- ing with a lessening girth of the base of the head ; for if that is true a removal backwards is for certain before our country. Whatever the future may be, it is the part of this Society to keep within its walls a sound stock of scientific food, and to bring to it as many members as possible, giving them every encouragement to feed. We begin a new century, it would be well to begin with hope, and it would probably be good if we enlarged our plans and endeavoured to attach to ourselves some of the younger societies of the city and do something to guide the progress of investigation. An attempt has been made 352 Literary and Philosophical Society. more than once to do this by means of a medal, and one was presented in early times, whilst another was made for the purpose in late years, but the plan has never been carried out. It may be of little interest to the world that we as a society should exist, but that an organisation for the direction and encouragement of original research should exist in Manchester has been shown by results to be of the greatest importance, and as this Society has proved its fitness it is most proper that it should be preserved as a centre. For this reason it seems essential that some changes should be made in conformity with the changing habits of recent times as well as the change of relative position caused by the growth of the city, one of the causes of change of manners. For example, more is done by reading than was formerly done ; opportunities of meeting are fewer. This has caused an increase of books. Distances are greater, and central positions are more expensive. Shall we seek to overcome this difficulty and endeavour to pay for larger premises on a spot equally central with our own ? This would entail a hopeless expense. Shall we seek to enlarge our own buildings, close to great ware- houses and in constant danger of being burnt down, keep- ing nevertheless the prestige of position with all its senti- ment ? Thirdly, shall we seek a new settlement in a new position, even if circumstances have determined that it shall not be central ? Of all these plans the writer is inclined to the third. The premises are small, and must be enlarged some day ; they are also old. That a new place would be less con- venient for some sites of the town is a misfortune to which the character of space compels us to yield. However, it would change the minds of some of the The Present of the Society. 353 members if a fine central position were given to the Society by the city or otherwise, and in such a manner as to leave the institution quite independent as now in all future time, as the Government has given an independent position to the Royal and other societies. This is an important problem for the Society to solve, viz. what is to be its residence when beginning this second century of its life ? It is also important for it to show to the scientific men around that it is for their benefit to have a centre of their own, and that it greatly trammels the intellectual power of a nation to have few centres of thought ; the individual and the nation suffer together. Two examples are seen, in Germany and France : in the former the many centres have made a highly educated nation, a nation of thinkers ; in the latter the thought- power has been deeply depressed, by the central guiding power having too much influence. In England the North has suffered much because of the universities being only in the south and very exclusive ; indeed, to a large amount of the population England has been a country without a university, whilst the two in the south sent out for generations untaught men to teach the people. The energy of the nation has made them look elsewhere, but we have suffered for want of scientific training. The new university, the Victorian, contains much of our hopes. We want variety in our education, and no greater misfortune can exist in the national education than to have one staff of examiners, one university, one mode of thinkers, only one mode of drilling mind. This is the true way to crush out originality, although in a talented race nature causes it to break out in spite of our little formalities. Unless the Victoria University deve- A A 354 Literary and Philosophical Society. lops a valuable variation of study, the reason for its existence ceases. To some extent it has done, and we watch its progress. In Scotland, where there have been five universities to a population the seventh part of England, there has been, without deep learning, an effect of education on the people such as has not been found in England in wealthy counties, and a scattered and poor population (at least poor till lately) has done more than its share of the world's work. Much of this is to be attributed to the emulation caused by numerous and endowed universi- ties ; a difference amongst the youth in Manchester has been observed by the writer since Owens College was founded. The full-grown generation is also affected. This Society acted as the only centre of scientific thought for many years in the district, and much of the influence of a university must be attributed to it. Still we must remember that it is not our province to teach youth, it is for us to receive amongst us those who have already learned ; we must judge of their labours, and give these labours in a fitting form to the world that it may benefit by them. This has been the aim as well as the habit of the Society, and this must continue. It would be well if we could give also aid to those who show them- selves fit to discover : not stimulating research by reward, merely to help to make it a trade as seems to be often the sole wish, but assisting those whose minds naturally lead them to research in directions valuable to the world, although not immediately if at all profitable. The inclination to seek the greatest centre arises in most cases from an excusable love of fame, but chiefly from a haste to be famous. True fame always finds the The Present of the Society. 355 centre at last ; whilst false fame, or fame forced too soon, is thrust from it. One advantage in having many centres is that more men are satisfied, or fewer men are left with a feeling of neglect. The greater centre is better fed by the lesser, and certainly to be at a provincial centre is much the safest for all men, and the surest way to gain confidence. On the other hand, to the man who loves science and thinks nothing of fame and of this class there really are a few a provincial society is by far the plea- santest place in which to publish and discuss his ideas; there is less of jealousy and envy, and less of selfish opposition ; as at football so in many scientific societies, he who kicks and elbows most violently is the most pro- minent, although he may kick the shins instead of the ball. It is much to be desired, for these reasons, that calm and eager societies should increase. They may be satisfied to feed those of the metropolis, but not to be controlled in any way by them, and the larger cities such as Man- chester may be serviceable in giving encouragement. We must finish with a cheerful hope that the work of the past will successfully encourage the future, and that the success which we have received in our isolation will be still greater when we have entered into union with our fellows, and that the speed of our work will be increased in accord- ance with the speed that seems to be gained of late by exertions in every department of knowledge, and even in every department of the thinking power itself. It may be here mentioned that the constitution of the Society has been so far altered that there are now sections for different departments of science, and more may be formed at any time according to the demand. The physical and mathematical section and the natural history and micrp- A A 2 356 Literary and Philosophical Society. scopical section are at present in active existence. The chemical section has long ceased to meet, and at present there is scarcely room for it. The new society of students in Owens College seems to be found more convenient for such of the members as are likely to attend. The publications of the Society consist of Memoirs and Proceedings. The latter are printed after every meeting and distributed with the circular calling the next. In this way the abstracts of work done are published rapidly, being sent not only to the members but to newspapers and scientific journals. The Memoirs are published in octavo at irregular intervals. The Society was very active till 1803, having in eight years printed six volumes. The earlier volumes sold well, and helped to build the present house, which cost 6oo/. ; during 45 years afterwards it published only seven volumes ; during the next twenty years it published ten volumes, so that about 1840 it began a period of activity after a rather slumbering state. The period of early activity produced above all Dalton, with Henry and the founders who have been mentioned. The second period of less activity pro- duced certain men of mark of which the Society may be proud, but no society was very active during that period of war and struggle with its consequences. The third period has produced Joule's work, and we may claim some of Sturgeon's, and brought to the Society a greater variety of men and study. It is not easy to judge our intimate friends, but it is certain that there are in this third period more men in the Society who are members of other societies the Royal, for example than in any former period. The Society may partly be judged of in this way, and not solely by the papers read at its meetings. The Present of the Society. 357 If the members find that it is a convenient, useful, or agreeable thing to speak on subjects of common interest, they form a centre of intellectual life which may send forth its vigour in any direction ; that vigour is not solely to be measured by anything they may say or do at a meeting, but by the force generated, by the face of man strengthening his friend. The great struggles for political changes are made in Parliament, but these are merely the result of hundreds of smaller struggles elsewhere. It is therefore of great importance that Manchester should keep with earnestness its centre of scientific life, even if the results should not all be published there, but should frequently be sent to other societies whose position is supposed by the authors to give the papers more dignity or cause them to be more widely spread. Are we talking without consideration, are we merely wishing to exalt a favourite institution, boasting as so many patriotic men do of their own country, their town, or their village, and turning even their weaknesses into subjects for applause ? We think not. The commerce of Manchester and its manufactories have benefited the world, but the formation of a science is the creation of a power which enables the world to benefit itself at all times and in all quarters. If this is an exaggerated view, let us take out of the world of books the atomic theory as begun by Dalton, and the mechanical equivalent of heat as developed by Joule, both of these great thoughts having emanated from this Society, and it will be more difficult to conceive the magnitude of the loss to mankind than if the whole of Manchester and its dependents, and many cities and counties besides, were obliterated from the earth. 358 L iterary and Philosophical Society. Supplementary. Some of the results which more directly flow from Dalton's work belong to the later period of the Society's life not entered on. The great peculiarity of the atomic discovery of Dalton was that it supplied a measure for all combinations a measure of bulk in an intellectual sense, and a measure of weight in an absolute sense. This has been extended so far that not only does the atom become a measure of -com- parative gravity, but it also supplies the same measure for other forces, viz. heat and mechanical force. Matter therefore has become a measure of force, and in the minds of some a force in a wider sense than ever had been foreseen. The following are two attempts made of late in the Society to extend the atomic theory, and as such they have their own interest. They are still in a state not to be exactly understood, because their relationships are not sufficiently known; but they are young, and may grow, and it may be well to place them beside those which have already done much of their work. The world takes up some of the themes, and leaves others, one wonders why. When the true theory is found the relationships of the elements will be numerous and astonish us daily. So with the atomic weights of bodies, even those we have, and still more those which exist below them and make up our atoms ; and first will be given an account of Mr. Wilde's theories. It has been objected to this paper of Mr. Wilde's that the numbers can have only some accidental similarity. What can atoms have to do with the great movements Atomic Theory Wilde. 359 of celestial bodies ? The objections have been considered, and the reply is that analogous numbers or forms in different departments of nature are most interesting, and he who has followed the growth of thought on the mode of making worlds must be thankful to see that some numbers in one correspond to the other. It may be the beginning of vast thought in cosmogony, and of a mathematical era for thinking on the wild vortices of creation that have been described by theorists of all ages. Atoms seem to have begun worlds, and it is for us to watch the smallest open- ings that give a " blink " into the great region where matter took its shape. Who knows if our chemical compounds do not form by motions analogous to celestial ? This is a region where we can have no regard to mere opinion, and where reason has been unable to see clearly. Such is our conclusion after hearing all voices without prejudice, and so an abstract of the memoir remains here. ' On the Origin of Elementary Substances, and on Some New Relations of their Atomic Weights! by Henry Wilde, Esq. (' Proceedings,' April 30, 1878.) 'The hypothesis, that the solar system, as at present constituted, was formed by the successive condensations of a gaseous substance rotating under the influence of a central force, has so much evidence in its favour, that it may be affirmed to equal the best of that obtained from the geo- logical record of the changes which in past times have taken place on the surface of the terrestrial globe. That this gaseous or primordial substance consisted of a chaotic mixture of the sixty-five elements known to chemists is a notion too absurd to be entertained by any one posses- sing the faculty of philosophic thinking, as the regular gra- 360 Literary and Philosophical Society. dation of properties observable in certain groups of elements clearly shows that elementary species are not eternal, but have a history which it is the proper object of physical science to unfold. 'One of the principal facts which to my mind establishes the nebular theory of the formation of planetary systems on a firm basis, is Bode's empirical law of the distances of the members of the solar system from each other and from the central body, as in this law is comprehended the idea of nebular condensation in definite proportions. Now, if ele- mentary species were created from a homogeneous substance possessing a capacity for change in definite proportions, it is probable that the greater number of elements would be formed during, or after, the transition of the nebular matter from the annular to the spheroidal form. Moreover, as great cosmic transitions are not made per saltum, it might be expected that some modification of the law of nebular condensation into planetary systems as exhibited in Bode's law, would be found on the further condensation of the pri- mitive matter into elementary species. ' That relations such as I have indicated exist between the nebular and elementary condensations, represented by the planetary distances on the one hand, with the atomic weights of well-defined groups of elementary substances on the other, will be evident on comparing the numbers in the following table : O' O' 4 = 4 Mercury. 1x3+4 = 7 Venus. 2 x 3 + 4=10 Earth. 4 x 3 + 4= 16 Mars. ' In the above table the numbers expressing the relative distances of the planetary bodies from the sun, and from 8x3 + 4 = 28 Ceres, Pallas, &c. 16x3 + 4 = 52 Jupiter. 32 x 3 + 4 = 100 Saturn. I6 Uranus. Atomic Theory Wilde. 361 each other, are obtained by multiplying successively the difference (3) between the distance of the first and second members of the system by a geometric series, and adding to the products the constant distance (4) of the first mem- ber from the sun. ' If the atomic weight of the second member of the alkaline and silver group of metals (Na = 23) be multiplied successively by an arithmetical series, then will the products, minus the atomic weight of the first member (Li = 7), be the atomic weights of all the elements belonging to that group. II. o' o- 7 = Li = 7 i x23 -o =Na = 23 2x23 7 = Ka = 39 3x23-7 = 01 = 62 4 x 23 - 7 = Rb = 85 6x23-7 = Cs =131 7x23-7= =154 8x23-7= =177 ' Again, by multiplying in like manner the atomic weight of the second member of the alkaline earth and cadmium group of metals, the products, minus the atomic weight of the first member (Gl = 8), are the atomic weights of all the elements of this group. in. o- o- 8= Gl = 8 i x 24 -o = Mg = 24 2x24 8 = Ca =40 3x24 8 = Zu =64 4x24-8 = 81 =88 5x24-8 = Cd =112 6x24 8 = Ba =136 7x24 8= =160 8x24-8= =184 9x24-8 = Pb =208 ' The further relations observable between interplanetary voids and atomic condensations of the natural groups of elements in Tables II., III., are as follows : 1 i. The regular geometric series of the planetary dis- tances commences at the second member of the system, and the regular arithmetical series of atomic weights com- 362 L iterary and Philosophical Society. mences at the second and corresponding member of each group. ' 2. As the atomic weight of the second element in each group is half the sum of the atomic weights of the first and third elements, so is the distance of the second member of the solar system an arithmetical mean, or half the sum of the distances of the first and third members. * 3. The atomic weight of the fourth member in each group of elements is equal to the sum of the atomic weights of the second and the third ; and the distance of the fourth member of the solar system is also equal, within a unit, to the sum of the distances of the second and third members. ' 4. As the smallest planetary distance is a constant function of the distances of the outer planetary bodies, so is the smallest atomic weight in each group a similar func- tion of all the higher members of the series to which it belongs. It will also be observed that the plus and minus signs of these constants are correlated respectively with the interplanetary spaces and the elementary condensations. ' 5 . Each of the atomic weights after the third in the groups is an arithmetical mean of any pair of atomic weights at the same distance above and below it ; and the distance of each member of the solar system (minus the constant 4) is a mean proportional of the distances of any two members, externally and internally to it, from the central body. ' 6. The geometric ratio of the planetary distances from each other terminates at the two members nearest the central body, and approaches to an arithmetical one ; and a similar departure is also noticeable from the regular arith- metical series of the atomic weights of the first two mem- bers of the groups, which renders the third less than an Atomic Theory Wilde. 363 arithmetical mean of the atomic weights of the second and fourth members.' If any man will say that Mr. Wilde compares a law of weight with a law of distance, then we may reply, ' Does the weight not determine the distance ? Is not the atom that which determines the motion of worlds, and the power of suns ? ' It may certainly look like presumption in the writer to bring forward any of his own work when leaving out that of his friends ; but these two papers are all that have been published by the Society on the atomic numbers since Dalton and Joule. The author does not pretend to see their bearing, but they have a bearing of a certainty. He sends them to be explained, if he fails to explain them him- self. Only the beginning can be shown, but the results were obtained with care, and seem to indicate a new departure for the atomic theory. The writer had been collecting papers on the subject, a favourite one, when this result was found by him. It led to a new direction of thought, but more practical work has driven him from it for too long a time. It arose from no crotchet, but from a series of most unexpected facts. The first idea was given in 1868 at the Norwich meeting of the British Association, and then published by this Society. Afterwards every experiment was several times repeated with similar results after an interval of ten years, and the following abridgment was published by the Royal Society. 364 Literary and Philosophical Society. Absorption of Gases by Charcoal. Part II. On a new Series of Equivalents or Molecules. By R. Angus Smith, Ph.D. y F.R.S. Received January 30, 1879. (Abstract.) ' In the " Transactions of the British Association," 1868, Norwich, on page 64 of the " Abstracts," there is a pre- liminary notice of an investigation into the amount of certain gases absorbed by charcoal. . . . The results given were : Hydrogen ....... I Oxygen 7-99 Carbonic oxide ...... 6*03 Carbonic acid . . . . . .22*05 Marsh-gas ....... 10*01 Nitrous oxide ...... 12*90 Sulphurous acid . . . . . . 36*95 Nitrogen ....... 4*27 ' It was remarked that the number for nitrogen was probably too low; I had some belief that the charcoal retained a certain amount which I had not been able to estimate. * For common air, the number 40*065 crept into the paper or abstract instead of the quotient 7'o6. ' The cause of this was clear, as I believed, namely, the irregular character of the charcoal with which I had to deal. The experiments which I had published were for- gotten, I suppose, by most men, but the late Professor Graham told me that he had repeated them with the same results which I had given. I might have considered this sufficient, but waited for time to make a still more elabo- rate investigation of the subject and to take special care with oxygen, in the belief that, the rule being found, the rest of the inquiry would be easy ; this was extended to Atomic Theory Angus Smith. 365 nitrogen, but not by so many experiments as with oxygen. I am now assured of a sound foundation for inquiries, which must take their beginning from the results here given. ' It is found that charcoal absorbs gases in definite volumes, the physical action resembling the chemical. 1 Calling the volume of hydrogen absorbed i, the volume of oxygen absorbed is 8. That is, whilst hydrogen unites with eight times its weight of oxygen to constitute water, charcoal absorbs eight times more oxygen by volume than it absorbs hydrogen. No relation by volume has been hitherto found the same as the relation by weight. 'The specific gravity of oxygen being 16 times greater than hydrogen, charcoal absorbs 8 times 16, or 128 times more oxygen by weight than it does hydrogen. This is equal to the specific gravity of oxygen squared and divided i6 2 by two, , or it is the atomic weight and specific gravity multiplied into each other, 16x16, and divided by two, ' Nitrogen was expected to act in a similar way, but it refused. The average number of the latest inquiry is 4-52, but the difficulty of removing all the nitrogen from charcoal is great, and I suppose the correct number to be 4-66. Taking this one as the weight absorbed, 14 x 4-66=65-24, or it is it. Oxygen is a dyad ; nitrogen a triad. o ' We have then carbonic acid not divided, but simply 22 squared = 484. ' Time is required for full speculation, but the chemist must be surprised at the following : 366 Literary and Philosophical Society. Carbonic oxide .... 6 volumes. Carbonic acid, CO 2 . . .6+16 ,, = 22 Marsh-gas, CH 4 . . , .6 + 4 ,, = 10 Protoxide of nitrogen, NO . . 8 + 4-66 (N) (4-9) 12 '66 ' These four results belong to the early group not corroborated lately, but so remarkably carrying out the principle of volume in this union, giving numbers the same as those of weight in chemical union, that they scarcely require to be delayed. ' I am not willing to theorise much on the results ; it is here sufficient to make a good beginning. We appear to have the formation of a new series of molecules made by squaring our present chemical atoms, and by certain other divisions peculiar to the gases themselves. Or it may be that the larger molecule exists in the free gas, and chemical combination breaks it up. These new and larger mole- cules may lead us to the understanding of chemical combi- nations in organic chemistry, and whenever there is union not very firm, and may also modify some of our opinions on atomic weights and the motion of gases. ' Of course, I cannot pretend to give the result of these results ; but as we have here the building up of a mole- cule by volumes, so as to form an equivalent of physical combination analogous to the chemical equivalent, it is impossible to avoid seeing that it indicates the possi- bility of our present equivalents being made up in a similar manner. < I did not expect these numbers ; but I certainly, as my previous paper showed, had in full view a necessity for some connection between physical and chemical phenomena more decided than we possessed.' ;6 7 CHAPTER XIV. Memorandum of Association of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. 1. The name of this Society is the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. 2. The registered office of the Society will be situated in England. 3. The objects for which the Society is established are : (a) The advancement of literature and science. (b) The reading and discussion, at the meetings of the Society, and sections of the Society, of original papers, essays, or treatises on literary or scientific subjects, written by members of the Society, or communicated to the Society by members on behalf of the authors. (c) The printing and publishing, at the expense of the Society, of such of the said papers, essays, or treatises, as shall, in the opinion of the Society, or its governing body, be of sufficient merit or interest to be worthy of publi- cation. (d) The doing all such other lawful things as are incidental or conducive to the attainment of the above- mentioned objects, or any of them. 368 Literary and Philosophical Society. 4. No subject relating to or involving any question of party politics, or controversial divinity, shall be brought before, or entertained by the Society, or any section thereof, nor shall any discussion of any such subject as last aforesaid be permitted at any meeting of the Society, or any section thereof, and no member or other person shall be allowed, directly or indirectly, to introduce or submit to the Society, or any section thereof, any subject, with a view to pecuniary gain either to himself or any other person. 5. The income and property of the Society, whenceso- ever derived, shall be applied solely towards the promotion of the objects of the Society, as set forth in this Memor- andum of Association, and no portion thereof shall be paid or transferred directly or indirectly, by way of dividend or bonus, or otherwise howsoever, by way of profit, to the persons who at any time are or have been members of the Society, or to any of them, or to any person claiming through any of them, provided that nothing herein contained shall prevent the payment, in good faith, of remuneration to any officers or servants of the Society, or to any member of the Society, or other person, in return for any services actually rendered to the Society. 6. The 5th paragraph of this Memorandum is a condi- tion on which a licence is granted by the Board of Trade to the Society, in pursuance of section 23 of the ' Com- panies Act, 1867.' For the purpose of preventing any evasion of the terms of the said 5th paragraph, the Board of Trade may from time to time, on the application of any member of the Society, impose further conditions, which shall be duly observed by the Society. 7. If the Society act in contravention of the 5th para- Rules. 369 graph of this Memorandum, or of any such further condi- tions, the liability of every ordinary member of the Society shall be unlimited, and the liability of every member who has received any such dividend, bonus, or other profit, as aforesaid, shall likewise be unlimited. 8. Every ordinary member of the Society undertakes to contribute to the assets of the Society, in the event of the same being wound up during the time that he is an ordinary member, or within one year afterwards, for pay- ment of the debts and liabilities of the Society, contracted before the time at which he ceases to be an ordinary member, and of the costs, charges, and expenses of winding up the same, and for the adjustment of the rights of the contributories amongst themselves, such amount as may be required, not exceeding io/. ; or in case of his liability becoming unlimited, such other amount as may be required in pursuance of the last preceding paragraph of this Memorandum, We, the several persons whose names and addresses are subscribed, are desirous of being formed into a Society in pursuance of this Memorandum of Asso- ciation. Names, Addresses, and Description of Subscribers. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Vine Street:, Higher Broughton, Chemist. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, 55 Peter Street, Manchester, Soli- citor. ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, 22 Devonshire Street, All Saints', Man- chester, Inspector of Alkali Works. WILLIAM GASKELL, Minister, 84 Plymouth Grove, Manchester. SAMUEL BROUGHTON, Collector, Heaton Mersey, Manchester. JOSEPH BAXENDELL, 32 Crescent Road, Cheetham Hill, Agent. B B 370 Literary and Philosophical Society. OSBORNE REYNOLDS, 23 Lady Barn Road, Fallowfield, Man- chester, Professor of Engineering. Dated this ninth day of March, 1875. Witness to the above Signatures, HENRY MERE ORMEROD, 5 Clarence Street, Manchester, Solicitor. Articles of Association of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. It is hereby agreed as follows : 1. The regulations contained in the table marked A in the first schedule to the ' Companies Act, 1 862,' shall not apply to this Society, but instead thereof, the follow- ing shall be the regulations of the Society, subject never- theless to repeal and alterations thereof, and additions thereto, as is provided by these presents. INTERPRETATION. 2. In the interpretation of these presents the following words and expressions shall have the following meanings, unless such meanings be excluded by the subject or context, viz. : ' The Society ' means the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. ' The Statutes ' means and includes the ' Companies Act, 1 862,' the ' Companies Act, 1 867,' and every other Act from time to time in force concerning Joint Stock Companies with limited liability, and necessarily affecting the Society. ' These Presents ' means and includes the ' Memo- randum of Association,' and the regulations and Rules. Articles of Association of the Society from time to time in force. ' Special Resolution ' means a special resolution of the Society, in accordance with section 5 1 of the 'Companies Act, 1862.' 'The Property' means the lands, buildings, funds, books, instruments, furniture, and other real and personal property from time to time of the Society. ' Ordinary Member ' means an ordinary member of the Society, as defined by these presents. ' Cor- responding Member' and 'Honorary Member' respectively mean persons occupying the posi- tions or relations with reference to the Society, which are by these presents attributed to or prescribed, for corresponding and honorary members of the Society respectively. ' Secretary ' means any one of the Secretaries from time to time of the Society, and any temporary substitute for such Secretary. ' Ordinary Meeting ' means an ordinary meeting or assembly of members, whether ordinary, corre- sponding, or honorary, for literary, scientific, or philosophical purposes. 'General Meeting' means a general meeting of ordinary members of the Society duly called and constituted for the purpose of electing members or officers, or for financial or constitutional pur- poses, or for purposes not within the power of ordinary meetings, and any adjourned holding of such general meeting ' Council ' means a meeting of the members of the council, duly called and constituted, or (as the B B 2 372 Literary and Philosophical Society. context may require) such of the members of the council as are present at a meeting thereof, or (as to the decision of any question, or the exercise of any power, which the council are by these presents or the statutes enabled to exercise), the majority of those members of the council who shall be present at a meeting thereof, such majority being a majority in number of votes according to the provisions of these presents, with respect to the votes of the chairman and members of council present at a meeting thereof. * Office ' means the registered office from time to time of the Society. ' Month ' means calendar month. Words importing the singular number only shall include the plural number, except where such meaning shall be repugnant to the context. 'Words importing the plural number only shall include the singular number, except where such meaning shall be repugnant to the context. Words importing the masculine gender only shall include the feminine gender. 3. For the purposes of registration, the number of the ordinary members of the Society is declared not to exceed two hundred. 4. The Society is established for the purposes ex- pressed in its ' Memorandum of Association,' and its business and affairs and property shall be carried on, conducted, and managed by or under the direction of the council, subject only to such control as is by these pre- sents reserved to or vested in general meetings of the Society. Rules. 373 CONSTITUTION. 5. Such of the present members of the Society hereto- fore called the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester as shall be desirous of becoming members of the Company constituted by the foregoing Memo- randum of Association, and shall respectively subscribe these Articles of Association, or shall, within twelve calendar months next after the incorporation of the Company, either pay the hereinafter-mentioned composi- tion for subscriptions of 2 5 guineas, or annual subscription of 2/. 2s., or signify in writing to the Secretary for the time being of the said Company their desire to become members of the said Company, shall be the first and present members of the said Company. 6. The Society, so far as its constitutional and financial powers, rights, and obligations are concerned, shall consist of ordinary members only ; but it may elect and admit to the ordinary meetings and to such of the privileges and benefits of the Society as are not by these presents con- fined to ordinary members, other persons who, according to circumstances, shall be styled either corresponding members or honorary members. 7. Persons who have attained the age of twenty-one years, and have given proof by their writings, researches, or attainments of being duly qualified in those respects, may be elected ordinary members 8. The ordinary members shall be liable for all the expenses of the Society, subject nevertheless to such limitation of liability as is prescribed by the 'Memo- randum of Association,' and the ordinary members shall alone be entitled to the property of the Society, and they 374 Literary and Philosophical Society. only shall have the right of voting at general meetings of the Society. 9. Persons who are duly qualified as aforesaid to be ordinary members, and who have shown an active interest in the proceedings of the Society, may be elected corre- sponding members if recommended by the Council. 10. Persons who have by their genius and labours contributed in an eminent degree to the advancement of literature or science may be elected honorary members if recommended by the Council. 11. Both corresponding members and honorary mem- bers may be present at and take part in the business of any ordinary meetings, but only ordinary members shall be present at or take part in the business of any general meeting of the Society. ELECTION OF MEMBERS. 12. Every candidate for admission to any of the privileges of the Society, whether as an ordinary member, or corresponding member, or an honorary member, shall be proposed by not less than three ordinary members. 13. The proposers shall sign and deliver to the Secretary a certificate, giving the name of the candidate in full, together with his profession or business, and usual place of residence, as well as specifying any work or works which he may have published, and declaring likewise, that they, either from personal knowledge, or acquaintance with his writings, researches, or attainments, believe him to be qualified to become a member of the Society, and stating whether the candidate is proposed as an ordinary member, or a corresponding member, or an honorary member. Rules. 375 14. As soon as this certificate has been properly filled up and signed, a copy of it shall be suspended in the meeting hall or office of the Society, and shall not be removed until after the day of election. 15. The certificate shall be audibly read by the Secretary at not fewer than two successive ordinary meet- ings, previous to the general meeting, at which the election is to take place. 1 6. Notice of the name, profession, and usual place of residence, of each candidate shall be inserted in the circular convening the general meeting at which, the election of such candidate is to be proceeded with. 17. The election of members shall be by ballot, and three-fourths at least of the votes given shall be in favour of the candidate, in order to render his election valid. 1 8. The ballot shall be conducted under the direction and supervision of the Chairman of the meeting at which it shall take place, and the result of the ballot shall be ascertained by the Secretary, under the direction and supervision of such Chairman, and shall be announced to the meeting by such Chairman. SUBSCRIPTIONS. 19. The financial year of the Society shall commence on the ist day of April, and end on the following 3ist day of March. 20. Every ordinary member whose name is on the register of the Society on the first day of the financial year shall pay a subscription of 2/. 2s. for that year, and such subscription shall be due on the 24th day of June in the same year. 376 Literary and Philosophical Society. 21. Every ordinary member shall immediately upon his election, and before being admitted to any meeting of the Society, pay an admission fee of two guineas ; if elected in any month from April to December, both inclusive, he shall also pay the full amount of his annual subscription for the then current year, in addition to his said admission fee, but if elected in January, February, or March, he shall pay only one-half his subscription for the then current year, in addition to his said admission fee. 22. Every ordinary member whose annual subscription shall, on the 3ist day of March, in any year, be in arrear for two years or upwards, shall cease to be a member of the Society, and the council shall cause the fact of his having so ceased to be a member to be announced at the next following general meeting, and shall erase his name from the register of the ordinary members of the Society. 23. If any person, who, by virtue of the Article last hereinbefore contained, shall cease to be a member of the Society, shall within one year from the date of the general meeting at which such an announcement as last aforesaid shall have been made, apply for re-admission to the Society, the council may, on reasonable cause being shown by the applicant, recommend the Society to re-admit him as an ordinary member, on condition of his paying the amount of his arrears and such further subscription as would have become due from him if he had during the interval con- tinued to be an ordinary member, and upon such recom- mendation being made, and on the performance by him of the aforesaid conditions, the Society may, at its then next or any subsequent general meeting, re-elect him as an ordinary member of the Society. 24. A copy of the last two preceding Articles shall be Rules. 377 printed on all receipts given to ordinary members for the payment of their subscriptions. 25. Any ordinary member may at any time compound for all his future subscriptions by a payment to the Society of twenty-five guineas. ORDINARY MEETINGS. 26. The Society shall hold a session annually, beginning with the month of October, and ending with the month of April in the year following, and may hold such intermediate ordinary meetings as the Society or the Council may from time to time determine on. 27. The first ordinary meeting of the session shall be held on the first Tuesday in October, and the subsequent ordinary meetings on every alternate Tuesday up to the end of April, at seven o'clock in the evening. 28. If Christmas Day or any national holiday fall on any of those days on which an ordinary meeting of the Society ought to take place, such meeting shall be held on the day next preceding or the day next following, as the council may determine. 29. Persons who are not members of the Society may assist at its ordinary meetings when introduced by members of any class. 30. At every ordinary meeting each member in entering the hall of the Society shall write his name, as well as the name and address of any visitor introduced by him, in a book accessible for this purpose. 31. Members and visitors in making remarks, or taking part in the discussion at the ordinary meetings, shall address themselves to the Chairman of the meeting, and private desultory conversation shall not be permitted. 378 Literary and Philosophical Society. 32. Not more than forty minutes shall be allowed for reading a paper, essay, or treatise, and if it is not concluded within that time, the remainder shall be deferred till the next or some other ordinary meeting. 33. In other respects the proceedings of ordinary meet- ings shall be conducted according to the standing orders of the council, so far as such standing orders apply, and where these presents and such standing orders do not apply, then as the Chairman of the meeting in question shall deter- mine. PUBLICATION OF MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS. 34. The Memoirs of the Society for each session shall be published as soon as practicable after the close of each session. 35. Every honorary member shall be presented with a copy of the volume of Memoirs which may be in course of publication at the time of his election, and of all volumes subsequently published during the continuance of his honorary membership. 36. The proceedings of the ordinary meetings of the Society may be published at the discretion of the council, and shall be sent free of charge to every member of each class, ordinary, corresponding, and honorary, residing in the United Kingdom. 37. The council may- depute one or more ordinary members to superintend the .printing of the Memoirs and proceedings, and may award to the member or members so deputed such remuneration for his or their services as the council may deem fit. Rules. 379 GENERAL MEETINGS. 38. A general meeting shall be held annually, in the month of April, at such place, on such day, and at such hour as the council shall, from time to time, determine. The first annual general meeting shall be held in the month of April, 1875. 39. An extraordinary general meeting may, at any time, be called by the council, or the president of the council, or one-third of the members of the council, of their own accord. 40. An extraordinary general meeting shall be called by the council whenever a requisition, signed by five or more ordinary members, and stating fully the object of the meeting, shall have been delivered to the Secretary, or left at the office, addressed to the council or the president of the council. 41. Whenever the council shall neglect for fourteen days after such delivery, or leaving of any such requisition, to call a meeting in accordance therewith, the requisitionists, or any three of them, may call the meeting by notice to the ordinary members. 42. Every extraordinary meeting shall be held at such hour, at the rooms of the Society, in Manchester, as the council, or the president, or the members of council, or requisitionists calling the meeting (as the case may be), shall in the notice of the meeting appoint. 43. Five ordinary members shall be the quorum of every general meeting. 44. If within half an hour after the time appointed for the holding of a general meeting the quorum be not pre- sent, the meeting, if convened on the requisition of ordinary 380 Literary and Philosophical Society. members, shall be dissolved, and in any other case shall stand adjourned to the next working day, at the same place, and to meet at the same hour of the day as was appointed for the holding of the original meeting. 45. If at any adjourned general meeting the quorum be not present within half an hour after the time appointed for holding the meeting, the meeting shall be finally dissolved. 46. The Chairman of the meeting may adjourn any general meeting from time to time, but to be held at the same place. 47. An adjourned general meeting shall be deemed to be part of the original meeting from which the adjournment took place. 48. No business shall be transacted at any adjourned general meeting other than the business left unfinished at the meeting from which the adjournment took place. 49. The council, or president, or members of council calling any general meeting, and the ordinary members calling any extraordinary general meeting, shall respectively give at least seven days' notice of the meeting. 50. When any general meeting shall be adjourned for more than seven days, the council shall give at least four days' notice of the holding of the adjourned meeting. 51. The several days' notice above-mentioned shall be reckoned exclusively of the day of giving the notice, but inclusively of the day of the meeting. 52. Notices calling general meetings shall be given by circulars to the ordinary members having registered places of address in the United Kingdom, expressing the time and place of the meeting. 53. In every case in which by virtue of these presents Rules. 381 notice of any business to be transacted at a general meeting is to be given, the circular shall, so far as may be practicable, particularise the business. 54. Any general meeting, when notice in that behalf has been given in the notice convening the meeting, or otherwise, in the manner required by these presents, may remove any member of council, or officer, or servant of the Society for misconduct, negligence, incapacity, or other cause deemed by the meeting sufficient, and (subject to the provisions of these presents) may from time to^time deter- mine how and to what purposes any property or revenue of the Society shall be expended or applied, and may from time to time vary the number of members of council, and (subject to the provisions of these presents) may generally decide on any affairs or questions of, or relating to the Society, of which due notice has been given. 55. Any general meeting, without any notice in that behalf, may receive and either wholly or partially reject or adopt and confirm the accounts, balance-sheets, and reports of the council, Treasurer, and Librarian respectively, and may discuss, transact, and decide on any business or matter brought under its consideration by any report thereto of the council and (subject to the provisions of these presents) may generally discuss any affairs of or relating to the Society. 56. Except when otherwise provided by these presents, every question to be decided by any general meeting, unless resolved on without a dissentient, shall be decided by a simple majority by show of hands of the ordinary members personally present thereat. 57. No corresponding member or honarary member shall take part in or be present at the proceedings of any 382 Literary and Philosophical Society. general meeting, and only ordinary members shall vote at or take part in the proceedings of general meetings. 58. Every ordinary member present in person at any general meeting shall have one and only one vote upon each question arising at such meeting. But no ordinary member shall vote or exercise any privilege of an ordinary member at any general meeting while any admission fee or subscription or any part thereof due from him shall be unpaid. 59. Except with reference to the election of members, the person in the chair at a general meeting in every case in which on any question arising at such meeting there shall be for and against such question an equality of votes, shall have an additional or casting vote. 60. No objection shall be made to the validity of any vote, except at the meeting at which such vote shall be tendered, and every vote not disallowed at such meeting shall be deemed valid for all purposes whatsoever. 6 1. The Chairman of any general meeting shall be the sole and absolute judge of the validity of every vote tendered at such meeting, and may allow or disallow the votes tendered accordingly as he shall be of opinion that the same are or are not valid. 62. A statutory declaration by the Secretary, to the effect that notice of any general meeting has been given in the manner specified by these presents to each of the ordinary members having registered places of address in the United Kingdom, shall in the absence of proof to the contrary be con- clusive evidence of notice of such meeting having been given to each such ordinary member, and the proceedings of any general meeting shall not be invalidated by reason of no such notice thereof having been given to one-tenth or less in Rules. 383 number of the ordinary members having such registered places of address, unless it shall appear that the failure or neglect to give them such notice was intentional on the part of the person or persons by or by whose direction the notices of such meeting were or ought to have been given. COUNCIL AND OFFICERS. 63. Subject only to such control as is by these presents reserved to or vested in the general meetings of the Society, and to such resolutions as may be passed by general meetings, the affairs of the Society shall be managed by a council chosen from the ordinary members. 64. The number and constitution of such council may be from time to time determined by a general meeting, but until otherwise determined by a general meeting such council shall consist of a President, four Vice-Presidents, two Secretaries, a Treasurer, a Librarian, and six other ordinary members. 65. The first and present members of the council and their respective offices shall be as follows : Edward Schunck, President ; James Prescott Joule, LL. D., Edward William Binney, Robert Angus Smith, Ph.D., William Gaskell, Vice-Presidents ; Joseph Baxendell, Osborne Reynolds, Secretaries ; Samuel Broughton, Treasurer ; Francis Nicholson, Librarian ; Robert Dukinfield Darbi- shire, William Boyd Dawkins, Balfour Stewart, Alfred Brothers, Brooke Herford, Charles Bailey, ordinary mem- bers of council. 66. At the annual general meeting, to be held in the month of April, 1875, and at each annual general meeting 384 Literary and Philosophical Society. in every subsequent year, all the members of the council for the time then being shall retire from office, and the general meeting shall or may elect to fill their respective places an equal number of qualified ordinary members. 67. Every retiring member of the council, if otherwise qualified, shall be eligible for re-election, but no person shall be eligible to the office of President for more than two consecutive years at any one time. 68. Every election of an officer of the Society or a member of the council shall be by ballot and in no other mode. 69. Every member of the council shall vacate his office upon his ceasing to be an ordinary member, or being found lunatic, or if he shall absent himself from the council for six months without the sanction of the council, but until an entry of his disqualification is made in the minutes of the council his acts in his official capacity shall be as effectual as if he had not been disqualified. 70. Any occasional vacancy in the office of any member of the council may be filled up by an extraordinary general meeting by the election of a duly qualified ordinary member to the vacant office. 71. Whenever the annual general meeting in any year shall fail to elect members of council in the place of any of the retiring members of council whose places ought, accord- ing to the fixed number of members of council for the time then being, to be filled up at such meeting, then the retiring members of council, or those of them whose places ought to have been, but have not been, filled up, shall (if willing and able to act) continue in their respective offices until some subsequent extraordinary or annual general meeting shall have filled up their places. Rules. 385 PROCEDURE, POWERS, AND DUTIES OF THE COUNCIL AND OFFICERS. 72. Ordinary meetings of the council shall be held when and where the council shall think fit, but one ordinary meeting of the council shall be held in each month during the session of the Society. Special meetings of the council may be convened by the President or the Secretary when deemed necessary by them or either of them, and shall be convened when called for by a requisition to the President or Secretary, signed by at least three members of the council. 73. The quorum of every council shall be three members of the council at the least, and every question arising at a council,* except where required by these presents, or by any member of the council to be decided by ballot, shall be decided by a simple majority of the members of council present thereat, and in case of an equality of votes at a council, whether by ballot or by show of hands, the acting chairman thereat shall have a second or casting vote. 74. In the exercise of the functions entrusted to them, the council shall be guided by such instructions as shall be given them by general meetings of the Society, and subject thereto, their procedure shall be regulated so far as the standing orders of the council extend by such standing orders, and in other respects as the members of council present thereat shall think fit. 75. The council shall take into consideration, and pro- pose to the Society, such measures as they deem conducive to its interests and the furtherance of its objects. 76. The council shall decide by ballot if not unanimous c c 386 Literary and Philosophical Society. whether papers, essays, or treatises read or communicated to or at ordinary meetings of the Society shall be printed or not in its Memoirs. Every paper, essay, and treatise so read or communicated shall be laid before the council at their next following meeting, or at a meeting as soon as conveniently can be held to consider the same, and if they do not then unanimously agree either to print or reject it, they shall refer it to one or more members of the Society to report upon its merits. It shall, however, be left to the discussion of the council in exceptional cases to refer papers, essays, or treatises to persons who are not members of the Society to report thereon. After having received the report upon a paper, essay, or treatise, the council shall without delay decide by ballot whether or not the same is to be printed. 77. Four days, at least, before each annual general meeting the council shall deliver, or send by post, or other- wise, to each ordinary member the annual report of the council, including the Treasurer's annual account and the Librarian's annual report, and such reports and accounts shall be read by the Secretary at the commence- ment of such annual general meeting. 78. The council shall, in addition to the powers and duties by these presents expressly conferred or imposed on them, exercise and perform all such other powers and duties as by the statutes or these presents respectively are directly or by implication conferred or imposed on the governing body of the Society. 79. The duties of the President and Vice-Presidents respectively shall be to preside when required at the general and ordinary meetings of the Society and the ordinary and special meetings of the council, to call for Rules. 387 reports and accounts from committees and officers, to check irregularities, to preserve order during discussions, to see that the regulations, standing orders, and rules of the Society are observed, and to decide questions of practice which may arise on the proceedings. 80. At every meeting of the Society, whether general or ordinary, the President, or, during his absence, a Vice- President then present, elected by the ordinary members then present, and if there shall be neither President nor Vice-President present, a member of the council, elected by the ordinary members present, or during the absence of all the members of the council an ordinary member, elected by the ordinary members present, shall take the chair. 8 1. The duties of the Secretary shall be to attend all meetings of the Society and the council, to take minutes of the proceedings at meetings of the Society and the council, to conduct the correspondence of the Society, to take charge of the diplomas and seal, to receive papers and communications and lay them before the Society or the council, to keep the register of members of the Society, and to enter in such register the name of each member in order as elected, and to issue the circulars convening the meetings of the Society and the council. 82. If either of the Secretaries be prevented from attending any meeting of the Society or the council, he may appoint a member of the council to officiate for him, who shall for all purposes be deemed to represent the Secretary. 83. The duties of the Treasurer shall be to receive and give effectual discharges for all sums of money which may be due or payable to the Society ; to disburse all sums of c c 2 388 Literary and Philosophical Society. money which may be due from or payable by the Society ; to keep proper accounts of all such receipts and payments ; to submit to the council all bills for their approval ; to report to the council the state of the funds of the Society ; to submit to the council, at their first meeting in April in every year, a list of members whose subscriptions may be in arrear, together with the amount in each case, and to make up his annual account immediately after the conclusion of each financial year, so that such account, with the vouchers thereto, may be ready for audit ten days before the annual general meeting then instant. 84. The Treasurer may draw cheques on the Society's bankers, and shall have charge of the trust-deeds and all other documents relating to the property of the Society ; certified copies of such deeds and such other documents shall be deposited by him in the archives of the Society. 85. Any Collector whom the council may appoint shall be under the control of the Treasurer, as regards the time and mode of collecting and of accounting for the sums collected. 86. The Librarian shall have charge of the library, the stock of the printed Memoirs of the Society, and the archives ; and his duties shall be to keep the catalogue of the library constantly entered up ; to keep a proper register of all papers and documents in the archives ; to keep an account of the copies of the printed Memoirs ; to purchase all books ordered by the Society ; to see that no book be taken out of the library without having been previously entered in a register; and to report to the council at their first meeting in April, every year, the names of members who may not have returned books obtained from the library. Rules. 389 87. All books obtained by members from the library shall be returned in the last week of March in every year, and defaulters shall be liable and shall be required to make good to the Society, without delay, any book not so returned. 88. At the first ordinary meeting of the Society, in February in each year, the Chairman of such meeting shall appoint two ordinary members, who shall audit the Treasurer's account for the then current financial year, and previous to the day on which the next annual general meeting is to be held, they shall report to the council the result of the audit. SECTIONS AND THEIR REGULATIONS. 89. Upon the request of not less than seven members of any class the council may establish for any special object a section consisting of members of the Society interested in such object, provided the proposed object of such section is included in the objects aimed at by the Society. 90. Each section shall pay 2/. 2s. per annum to the Treasurer, to be paid by him to the Curator of the Society's rooms for his trouble in preparing the rooms for meetings of such section, and in attendance on such meetings and otherwise in reference to such sections. 91. All cabinets, instruments, specimens, books, and other articles which shall have been purchased by or pre- sented to any section, shall be the property of the Society, but shall be held by the Society for the use of the members of such section. 92. The internal government and management of each section shall be regulated by its own members, subject how- ever to the regulations and standing orders of the Society 390 Literary and Philosophical Society. from time to time in force, and such bye-laws as may be prescribed by the council for the regulation of such section, and each section shall from time to time appoint a secre- tary for the purpose of transacting such business with the council or Society at large as may be needed, and such secretary (whose appointment shall be notified to the council) shall be considered as the official representative of the section in its intercourse with the council and the Society respectively. 93. All rules made by any section shall only be pro- visional until they have been approved by the council. 94. The Sectional Secretary, or other person appointed by the section for this purpose, shall, after each meeting of the section, furnish to the Secretaries of the Society an abstract of the paper or papers read at the sectional meet- ing, and of any other valuable or interesting communica- tions made to the sections at such meeting, for the purpose of the same being inserted in the next number of the Society's proceedings, subject to any directions which may be given in that behalf by the council. 95. All papers which any section (or the governing body of such section) shall deem worthy of printing in extenso shall be communicated to the Society at the first ordinary meeting which the Secretary of the Society may think convenient for the purpose, and shall then come before, and be considered and dealt with by, the council in the manner prescribed for papers read at, or communicated to, ordinary meetings of the Society. DISPOSAL OF DOCUMENTS AND PAPERS. 96. After the annual report of the council for any year has been passed at any general meeting, the Treasurer's Rules. 391 account for the same year, and the vouchers thereto, shall be deposited in the archives of the Society. 97. All papers, letters, and documents received by the Society, the council, or the Secretary, which the council shall think proper to be preserved, shall be deposited in the archives as soon as practicable. 98. The original copies of papers, essays, or treatises read at any ordinary meeting of the Society, or any such section as aforesaid, shall be the property of the Society, unless an agreement has been previously made to the contrary. The authors, however, shall be at liberty to take copies of their papers, essays, or treatises. 99. The author of any paper, essay, or treatise read at any meeting of the Society, or any such section as afore- said, shall have a right to withdraw it from publication by giving timely notice to the council. ALTERATION OF REGULATIONS. 100. The Society may, from time to time, in general meetings, by special resolution, alter and make new pro- visions and regulations in lieu of, or in addition to, any regulations of the Society from time to time in force. 101. No resolution for an alteration of, or addition to, the regulations from time to time of the Society, shall be submitted to any general meeting, unless the member who intends to propose it shall, at least one month before the general meeting at which it is to be proposed, have given written notice to the council of his intention, and also of the exact tenor of the alteration or addition which he con- templates. 1 02. Notice of every such proposed alteration or addi- 392 Literary and Philosophical Society. tion shall be given, or sent by post, or otherwise, to the ordinary members, with the circular convening the general meeting at which the resolution is to be proposed. NOTICES. 103. Every member shall, from time to time, in writing, name to the Secretary a place of address in the United Kingdom, and the place so named shall be entered in the books of the Society as the address of such member, and shall, for the purposes of these presents and the statutes, be deemed to be his place of residence and address. 104. Every notice and circular required by these pre- sents to be given or sent to any person shall be sufficient if it shall bear the name or signature of the Secretary, or (as the case may be) of the person or persons giving such notice, and every notice, circular, and documents by these presents required to be delivered, sent, or given to any person shall, if put into the post-office in a letter or enve - lope, addressed to him (if a registered member) at his registered place of address, and (if not) at his usual or last known place of abode, shall be deemed to have been delivered to him on the day on which, in the regular course of the post-office, it would be delivered at his place of address or abode. 105. It shall not be necessary for any of the purposes of these presents, or for the validity of any proceeding, meeting, or act of the Society, or the council, or any other person under these presents, to give or send any notice or circular or document to any member not having at the time a registered place of address in the United Kingdom. Rules. 393 Names, Addresses, and Description of Subscribers. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Vine Street, Higher Broughton, Chemist. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, 55 Peter Street, Manchester, Soli- citor. ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, 22 Devonshire Street, All Saints', Man- chester, Inspector of Alkali Works. WILLIAM GASKELL, Minister, 84 Plymouth Grove, Manchester. SAMUEL BROUGHTON, Collector, Heaton Mersey, Manchester. JOSEPH BAXENDELL, 32 Crescent Road, Cheetham Hill, Agent. OSBORNE REYNOLDS, 23 Lady Barn Road, Fallowfield, Man- chester, Professor of Engineering. Dated this ninth day of March, 1875. Witness to the above signatures, HENRY MERE ORMEROD, 5 Clarence Street, Manchester, Solicitor. Licence by the Board of Trade pursuant to Section 23 of the Companies Act, 1867. ^1963. Whereas it has been proved to the Board of Trade that the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, which is about to be registered under the Companies Act 1 862, and the Companies Act 1867, as an Association Limited by Guarantee, is. formed for the purpose of promoting objects of the nature contemplated by the 23rd section of the last-mentioned Act, and that it is the intention of the said Society that the income and property of the Associa- tion, whencesoever derived, shall be applied solely towards the promotion of the objects of the Association as set forth in the Memorandum of Association of the said Society, and 394 Literary and Philosophical Society. that no proportion thereof shall be paid or transferred directly or indirectly by way of dividend or bonus, or otherwise howsoever by way of profit to the persons who at any time are or have been members of the said Society, or to any of them or to any person claiming through any of them : Now therefore, the Board of Trade, in pursuance of the powers in them vested, and in consideration of the provi- sions, and subject to the conditions contained in the Memorandum of Association of the said Society, as sub- scribed by seven members thereof, on the Qth day of March, 1875, do, by this their Licence, direct the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society to be registered with ' Limited Liability ' without the addition of the word ' Limited ' to its name. Signed by order of the Board of Trade, this I3th day of March, 1875. HENRY G. CALCRAFT, An Assistant Secretary to the Board of Trade. No. 9330 c. N. L. 9017. Certificate of Incorporation of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. I hereby certify that the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society (the word ' Limited ' being omitted by licence of the Board of Trade) is this day incorporated under the Companies Act 1862, and that this Company is Limited. Rules. 395 Given under my hand, at London, this twenty-second day of March, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-five. E. C. CURZON, Registrar of Joint Stock Companies. Fee, 5/. IQJ. od. S 18. 396 Literary and Philosophical Society. CHAPTER XV. IT was considered to be an interesting thing to have a list of all persons that have been members of the Society or are still members : this list includes the earliest in 1781, and the latest up to the annual meeting in April, 1881. Those with an asterisk form the list of members at the latter date. PRESENT OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY, APRIL, 1881. PRESIDENT. EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S. VICE-PRESIDENTS. JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. HENRY ENFIELD ROSCOE, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. SECRETARIES. JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S. OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., F.R.S. TREASURER. CHARLES BAILEY, F.L.S. LIBRARIAN. FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S. OF THE COUNCIL. REV. WILLIAM GASKELL, M.A. ROBERT DUKINFIELD DARBISHIRE, B.A., F.G.S. BALFOUR STEWART, LL.D., F.R.S. CARL SCHORLEMMER, F.R.S. JAMES BOTTOMLEY, B.A., D.Sc., F.C.S. WILLIAM HENRY JOHNSON, B.Sc. Officers of the Society. 397 OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY FOR EVERY YEAR SINCE ITS COMMENCEMENT. PRESIDENTS ELECTED. Feb. 28, 1781 Peter Mainwaring, M.D., James Massey, Esq.. April 24, 1782 James Massey, Esq., Thomas Percival, M.D. 30, 1783 Thomas Percival, M.D., James Massey, Esq. 28, 1784 James Massey, Esq., Thomas Percival, M.D. 25, 1785 James Massey, Esq., Thomas Percival, M.D. 26, 1786 JameS'Massey, Esq., Thomas Percival, M.D. 25, 1787 James Massey, Esq. 25, 1788 24, 1789 3; I 79 Dr - Percival. 29,1791 Thomas Percival, M.D. May 4, *79 2 April 26, 1793 25, 1794 ,, 24, 1795 29, 1796 Dr. Percival. 28, 1797 20, 1798 ,, 26, 1799 May 2, 1800 i, 1801 April 30, 1802 9, l8 3 27, 1804 26, 1805 Rev. G. Walker, F.R.S. 25, 1806 398 Literary and Philosophical Society. May 9, 1807 . . Thomas Henry, F.R.S. April 29, 1808 . . Thomas Henry, F.R.S. 28, 1809 . . J. Hull, M.D. 27, 1810 . . Thomas Henry, F.R.S. 26, 1811 . . 24, 1812 . 30, 1813 . 29, 1814 . ii 28, 1815 . 26, 1816 . . 25, 1817 . . Mr. John Dalton. 24, 1818 . 30, 1819 . , ,, 28, 1820 . 19, 1821 . . 26, 1822 . . ii 18, 1823 . 30, 1824 . . 29, 1825 . . Mr. J. Dalton, F.R.S. 21, 1826 . 20, 1827 . . 18, 1828 . . 16, 1829 . . 30, 1830 . 29, 1831 . 27, 1832 . 26, 1833 . 18, 1834 . . 24, 1835 . 29, 1836 . Aug. n, 1837 . April 17, 1838 . 30, 1839 28, 1840 . 20, 1841 . 19, 1842 . 18, 1843 . Officers of the Society. 399 April 30, 1844 . . Mr. J. Dalton, F.R.S. Oct. 29, 1844 . . Dr. Holme. April 29, 1845 21, 1846 . 20, 1847 1 8, 1848 . . Eaton Hodgkinson. 17, 1849 . 30, 1850 . 29, 1851 . . John Moore 20, 1852 . . 19, 1853 . 18, 1854 . 17,1855. . W. Fairbairn, C.E., F.R.S. 29, 1856 . 21, 1857 . 20, 1858 . 19, 1859 . 17, 1860 . . 'J. Prescott Joule, F.R.S. 30, 1861 . 29, 1862 . . E. W. Binney, F.R.S. 21, 1863 . . 19, 1864 . . R. Angus Smith, F.R.S. 25, 1865 . . 17, 1866 . . Edward Schunck, F.R.S. 30, 1867 . . 28, 1868 . . J. P. Joule. 20, 1869 . . 19, 1870 . . E. W. Binney. 18, 1871 . 30, 1872 . . J. P. Joule. 29, 1873 . ,, 21, 1874 . . Edward Shunck. 20, 1875 18, 1876 . . E. W. Binney. 17, 1877 . 30, 1878 . . J. P. Joule. 29, 1879 . 20, 1880 . . E. W. Binney. 400 Literary and Philosophical Society. VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECTED. May 2, 1781 Dr. Percival, The Rev. Mr. Barnes, Thomas But- terworth Bayley, Esq., and Dr. Eason were elected Vice-presidents. April 24, 1782 Rev. Samuel Hall, Dr. Cowling, The Rev. Thomas Barnes, and Alexander Eason, M.D., were elected Vice-presidents. 30, 1783 Rev. Thomas Barnes, Alexander Eason, M.D., Rev. Samuel Hall, and Charles White, Esq. 28, 1784 The Rev. Thomas Barnes, D.D., Alexander Eason, M.D., Charles White, Esq., and Rev. Samuel Hall. 25, 1785 The Rev. Mr. Hall, Charles White, Esq., George Lloyd, Esq., and Mr. George Bew. 26, 1786 Rev. Mr. Hall, Thomas Cooper, Esq., Charles White, Esq., and George Lloyd, Esq. 25, 1787 Charles White, Esq., Thomas Cooper, Esq., Rev. Mr. Hall, and George Lloyd, Esq. 25, 1788 Rev. Mr. Hall, Charles White, Esq., Thomas Cooper, Esq., and Mr. Thomas Henry. 24, 1789 Thomas Cooper, Esq., Rev. Mr. Hall, Mr. Thomas Henry, and Charles White, Esq. 30, 1790 Mr. Cooper, Mr. Henry, Mr. White, and Mr. George Philips. 29, 1791 Thomas Cooper, Esq., Mr. Thomas Henry, Mr. George Philips, and Charles White, Esq. May 4, 1792 Charles White, Esq., Thomas Henry, Esq., John Ferriar, and George Philips. April 26, 1793 Charles White, Esq., Thomas Henry, Esq., John Ferriar, and Rev. John Radcliffe. 25, 1794 Charles White, Esq., Thomas Henry, Esq., John Ferriar, and Rev. John Radcliffe. 24, 1795 Mr. White, Mr. Henry, Mr. Radcliffe, and Dr. Ferriar. 29, 1796 Dr. Ferriar, Mr. Henry, the Rev. J. Radcliffe, and Charles White, Esq. Officers of the Society. 401 April 28, 1797 Mr. White, Dr. Bardsley, Mr. Henry, and Dr. Ferriar. 20, 1798 Mr. White, Mr. Henry, Dr. Bardsley, Dr. Holme. 26, 1799 Charles White, Mr. Henry, Dr. Bardsley, and Dr. Holme. May 2, 1800 Mr. White, Mr. Henry, Dr. Bardsley, Dr. Holme. i, 1 80 1 Mr. White, Dr. Bardsley, Mr. Henry, Dr. Holme. April 30, 1802 Dr. Bardsley, Mr. Henry, Mr. White, Dr. Holme. 29, 1803 Mr. White, Mr. Henry, Dr. Bardsley, and Dr. Holme. 27, 1804 Dr. Bardsley, Mr. White, Dr. Holme, and Mr. Henry. 26, 1805 Charles White, Esq., F.R.S., S. A. Bardsley, T. Henry, F.R.S., and Edward Holme, M.D. 25, 1806 T. Henry, F.R.S., Charles White, F.R.S., Dr. Bardsley, and Dr. Holme. May 9, 1807 Dr. Holme, Dr. Bardsley, Dr. Roget, and Mr. William Henry. April 29, 1808 Dr. Holme, Dr. Bardsley, Dr. Henry, and Dr. Roget. 28, 1809 E. Holme, M.D., Mr. Gibson, Mr. Dalton, and W. Henry, M.D. 27, 1 8 10 Dr. Holme, Mr. Dalton, W. Henry, M.D., and Mr. B. Gibson. 26, 1811 Dr. Henry, Dr. Holme, Mr. Dalton, and Mr. Gibson. 24, 1812 Dr. Holme, Dr. Henry, Mr. Dalton, and Mr. Ewart. 30, 1813 Dr. Holme, Mr. Ewart, Dr. Henry, Mr. Dalton. 29, 1814 Dr. Henry, Mr. Ewart, Dr. Holme, Mr. Dalton. 28, 1815 Dr. Holme, Dr. Henry, Mr. Dalton, and Mr. Ewart. 26, 1816 Dr. Holme, Dr. Henry, Mr. Dalton, and Mr. Ewart. 25, 1817 Edward Holme, M.D., William Henry, M.D., Mr. Ewart, and Mr. Johns. D D 4O2 Literary and Philosophical Society. April 24, 1818 Dr. Holme, Dr. Henry, Mr. Ewart, and Mr. Johns. 30, 1819 Dr. Henry, Dr. Holme, Mr. Ewart, and Mr. Johns. 28, 1820 Dr. Holme, Dr. Henry, Mr. Ewart, and Mr. Johns. 19, 1821 Dr. Holme, Dr. Henry, Mr. Ewart, and Mr. Johns. 26, 1822 Dr. Holme, Dr. Henry, Peter Ewart, and G. W. Wood. 18, 1823 Mr. Edward Holme, M.D., William Henry, M.D., Peter Ewart, and George William Wood. 30, 1824 Edward Holme, F.L.S., William Henry, Peter Ewart, and George William Wood. 29, 1825 Dr. Holme, Dr. Henry, Mr. P. Ewart, and Mr. G. W. Wood. ,, 21, 1826 Edward Holme, William Henry, Peter Ewart, and G, W. Wood. 20, 1827 Edward Holme, William Henry, Peter Clare, and G. W. Wood. 1 8, 1828 Edward Holme, William Henry, Mr. Peter Ewart, and G. W. Wood. 1 6, 1829 Edward Holme, William Henry, Mr. Peter Ewart, and G. W. Wood. 30, 1830 E. Holme, William Henry, Mr. P. Ewart, and G. W. Wood. 29, 1831 Edward Holme, William Henry, P. Ewart, andG. W. Wood. 27, 1832 Edward Holme, William Henry, P. Ewart, and G. W. Wood. 26, 1833 Dr. Henry, Dr. Holme, Mr. Ewart, and Mr. G. W. Wood. 1 8, 1834 Edward Holme, William Henry, Peter Ewart, and G. W. Wood. 24, 1835 Edward Holme, William Henry, Peter Ewart, and G. W. Wood. 29, 1836 Edward Holme, Wm. Henry, Geo. W. Wood, and Charles Phillips. Officers of the Society. 403 Aug. n, 1837 Edward Holme, G. W. Wood, Charles Phillips, M.D., and William C. Henry. April 17, 1838 Edward Holme, G. W. Wood, Rev. John James Tayler, B.A., and John Moore, F.L.S. 30, 1839 Edward Holme, G. W. Wood, Rev. John James Tayler, B.A., and John Moore, F.L.S. 28, 1840 Edward Holme, G. W. Wood, Rev. John James Tayler, B.A., and John Moore, F.L.S. 20, 1841 Edward Holme, G. W. Wood, Rev. John James Tayler, B.A., and John Moore, F.L.S. 19, 1842 Edward Holme, G. W. Wood, Rev. John James Tayler, B.A., and John Moore, F.L.S. 1 8, 1843 Edward Holme, G. W. Wood, John Moore, and Peter Clare. 30, 1844 Edward Holme, John Moore, Peter Clare, and J. A. Ransome. Oct. 29, 1844 Mr. Hodgkinson, in place of Dr. Holme. April 29, 1845 John Moore, Peter Clare, J. Atkinson Ransome, and E. Hodgkinson. 21, 1846 John Moore, Peter Clare, J. Atkinson Ransome, and E. Hodgkinson. 20, 1847 J onn Moore, Peter Clare, J. Atkinson Ransome, and E. Hodgkinson. 1 8, 1848 J. Moore, P. Clare, J. A. Ransome, and John Davies. 17, 1849 J- Moore, P. Clare, J. A. Ransome, and William Fairbairn. 30, 1850 J. Moore, P. Clare, J. A. Ransome, and William Fairbairn. 29, 1851 William Fairbairn, J. P. Joule, Laurence Buchan, and Joseph C. Dyer. 20, 1852 W. Fairbairn, J. C. Dyer, Eaton Hodgkinson, and J. P. Joule. 19, 1853 W. Fairbairn, J. P. Joule, Eaton Hodgkinson, and J. C. Dyer. ,, 1 8, 1854 J. P. Joule, William Fairbairn, J. C. Dyer, and E. Hodgkinson. ,, 17, 1855 J. P. Joule, J. C. Dyer, Eaton Hodgkinson and Thomas Hopkins. D D 2 404 Literary and Philosophical Society. April 29, 1856 J. P. Joule, J. C. Dyer, Thomas Hopkins, and E. W. Binney. 21, 1857 J. P. Joule, J. C. Dyer, Thomas Hopkins, and A. J. Scott. 20, 1858 J. P. Joule, J. C. Dyer, Thomas Hopkins, and James Crossley. 19, 1859 J. P. Joule, Thomas Hopkins, J. C. Dyer, and R. Angus Smith. 17, 1860 William Fairbairn, R. Angus Smith, J. C. Dyer, and E. W. Binney. 30, 1 86 1 Robert Angus Smith, E. W. Binney, William Fairbairn, and J. C. Dyer. 29, 1862 J. P. Joule, Robert Angus Smith, J. C. Dyer, and Edward Schunck. 21, 1863 J. P. Joule, Robert Angus Smith, J. C. Dyer, and Edward Schunck. 19, 1864 J. P. Joule, E. W. Binney, J. C. Dyer, and Edward Schunck. 25, 1865 J. P. Joule, E. W. Binney, J. C. Dyer, and Edward Schunck. 17, 1866 Robert Angus Smith, J. P. Joule, E. W, Binney, and J. C. Dyer. 30, 1867 Robert Angus Smith, J. P. Joule, E. W. Binney, and J. C. Dyer. 28, 1868 E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, E. W. Binney, and J. C. Dyer. 20, 1869 E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, E. W. Binney, and Rev. W. Gaskell. 19, 1870 J. P. Joule, E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, and Rev. W. Gaskell. 1 8, 1871 J. P. Joule, E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, and Rev. W. Gaskell. 30, 1872 E. W. Binney, E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, and Rev. W. Gaskell. 29, 1873 E. W. Binney, E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, and Rev. W. Gaskell. 21, 1874 J. P. Joule, E. W. Binney, R. Angus Smith, and Rev. W. Gaskell. Officers of the Society. 405 April 20, 1875 J. P. Joule, E. W. Binney, R. Angus Smith, and Rev. W. Gaskell. 1 8, 1876 E. Schunck, J. P. Joule, R. Angus Smith, and H. E. Roscoe. 17, 1877 E. Schunck, J. P. Joule, R. Angus Smith, and H. E. Roscoe. 30, 1878 E. W. Binney, E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, and H. E. Roscoe. 29, 1879 E. Schunck, E. W. Binney, H. E. Roscoe, and R. Angus Smith. 20, 1880 J. P. Joule, E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, and H, E. Roscoe. SECRETARIES ELECTED. Feb. 28, 1781 Mr. Thomas Henry, F.R.S., Mr. George Bew. April 24, 1782 Mr. Thomas Henry, F.R.S., Mr. George Bew. 30, 1783 Mr. Thomas Henry, Mr. George Bew. 28, 1784 Mr. Thomas Henry, Mr. George Bew. 25, 1785 The Rev. Dr. Barnes, Mr. Thomas Henry, F.R.S. 26, 1786 Dr. Barnes and Mr. Henry. 25, 1787 Thomas Henry and John Ferriar. 25, 1788 Mr. John Wynne and John Ferriar. 24, 1789 John Ferriar, M.D., and Mr. James Watt. 30, 1790 Dr. Ferriar and Mr. Watt. 29, 1791 John Ferriar and Mr. William Simmons. May 4, 1792 Mr. W. Simmons and Thomas Henry, junior. April 26, 1793 Mr. Harvey and S. A. Bardsley, Esq. 25, 1794 S. A. Bardsley and Edward Holme, 24, 1795 Dr. Bardsley and Dr. Holme. 29, 1796 Dr. Bardsley and Dr. Holme. 28, 1797 Dr. Holme and Mr. William Henry. 20, 1798 Dr. Hull and Mr. Henry. 26, 1799 Dr. Hull and Mr. William Henry. May 2, 1800 Dr. Hull and Mr. Dalton. i, 1 80 1 Dr. Hull and Mr. Dalton. April 30, 1802 Dr. Hull and Mr. Dalton. 29, 1803 Dr. Hull and Mr. Dalton. 406 Literary and Philosophical Society. April 27, 1804 . . Dr. Hull and Mr. Dalton. 26, 1805 . . Dr. Hull and Mr. Dalton. 25, 1806 . . Dr Hull and Mr. Dalton. May 9,1807 . . Mr. J. Dalton and Rev. William Johns. April 29, 1808 . . Mr. Dalton and Mr. Johns. 28, 1809 . . Mr. Johns and W. Winstanley. 27, 1810 . . Mr. Johns and J. A. Ransome. 26,1811 . . Mr. Ransome and Mr. Johns. 24, 1812 . . Mr. Ransome and Mr. Johns. 30, 1813 . . Mr. Ransome and Mr. Johns. 29, 1814 . . Mr. Ransome and Mr. Johns. 28, 1815 . . Mr. Ransome and Mr. Johns. 26, 1816 . . Mr. Ransome and Mr. Johns. 25, 1817 . . Mr. Ransome and T. H. Robinson. 24, 1818 . . Mr. Ransome and T. H. Robinson. 30, 1819 . . Mr. Ransome and Mr. Robinson. 28, 1820 . . Mr. Ransome and T. H. Robinson. 19,1821 . . Mr. T. H. Robinson and Mr. P. Clare. 26, 1822 . . Peter Clare and Rev. J. J. Tayler. 1 8, 1823 . . Peter;Clare and Rev. J. J. Tayler. 30, 1824 . . Peter Clare and J. J. Tayler. 29, 1825 . . Peter Clare and J. J. Tayler. 21,1826 . . Peter Clare and J. J. Tayler. 20, 1827 . . Peter Clare and J. J. Tayler. 18, 1828 . . Peter Clare and J. J. Tayler. 16, 1829 . . Peter Clare and J. J. Tayler. ., 3> 1830 . . Peter Clare and J. J. Tayler. 29,1831 . . Peter Clare and J. J. Tayler. 27, 1832 . . Peter Clare and J. J. Tayler. 26, 1833 . . Peter Clare and J. J. Tayler. 1 8, 1834 . . Peter Clare and J. J. Tayler. 24, 1835 Peter Clare and J. J. Tayler. 2 9, 1836 . Peter Clare and J. J. Tayler. Aug. n, 1837 . Peter Clare and J. J. Tayler. April 17, 1838 . Peter Clare and J. A. Ransome. 30, 1839 . Peter Clare and J. A. Ransome. 28, 1840 . Peter Clare and J. A. Ransome. 20, 1841 . . Peter Clare and J. A. Ransome. Officers of the Society. 407 April 19, 1842 . Peter Clare and J. A. Ransome. 1 8, 1843 J- A. Ransome and John Davies. 30, 1844 John Davies and J. Holt Stanway. 29, 1845 John Davies and J. Holt Stanway. 21, 1846 . . John Davies and J. P. Joule. 20, 1847 John Davies and J. P. Joule. 1 8, 1848 . . J. P. Joule and E. W. Binney. 17, 1849 . . J. P. Joule and E. W. Binney. 3> 1850 . . J. P. Joule and E. W. Binney. 29, 1851 . . E. W. Binney and Rev. H. H. Jones. 20, 1852 . . Rev. H. H. Jones and Robert Angus 19, 1853 . . Smith. 1 8, 1854 . . Rev. H. H. Jones and Robert Angus Smith. 17, 1855 . . Dr. R. A. Smith and Rev. H. H. Jones. 29, 1856 . . Dr. R. A. Smith and Edward Schunck. 21,1857 .. . E. Schunck and R. C. Christie, M.A. 20, 1858 . . E. Schunck and R. C. Christie, M.A. 19, 1859 . . E. Schunck and R. C. Christie, M.A. 17, 1860 . . E. Schunck and Henry E. Roscoe. . 30, 1 86 1 . H. E. Roscoe and J. Baxendell. 29, 1862 . . H. E. Roscoe and J. Baxendell. 21, 1863 . . H. E. Roscoe and J. Baxendall. 19, 1864 . H. E. Roscoe and J. Baxendell. 25, 1865 . . H. E. Roscoe and J. Baxendeil. 17, 1866 . . H. E. Roscoe and J. Baxendell. 30, 1867 . . H. E. Roscoe and J. Baxendell. 28. 1868 .-. . H. E. Roscoe and J. Baxendell. 20, 1869 . . H. E. Roscoe and J. Baxendell. 19, 1870 . . H. E. Roscoe and J. Baxendell. 18,1871 . . H. E. Roscoe and J. Baxendell. ., 30, 1872 . . H. E. Roscoe and J. Baxendell. 29, 1873 . . H. E. Roscoe and J. Baxendell. ., 21, 1874 . . J. Baxendell and O. Reynolds. 20, 1875 . . J. Baxendell and O. Reynolds. 1 8, 1876 . . J. Baxendell and O. Reynolds. ., 17,1877 . . J. Baxendell and O. Reynolds. 30, 1878 . . J. Baxendell and O. Reynolds, 408 Literary and Philosophical Society. April 29, 1879 J- Baxendell and O. Reynolds. 20, 1880 . . J. Baxendell and O. Reynolds. TREASURERS ELECTED. April 30, 1783 . . Mr. Isaac Mosse. 28, 1784 27, 1785 26, 1786 2 S> J 787 >i 25, 1788 24, 1789 30, 1790 . . Mr. Maxwell. 29, 1791 . . B. A. Heywood, Esq. May 4, 1792 April 26, 1793 2 5, 1794 24, 1795 29, 1796 . . Nathaniel Heywood. 28, 1797 20, 1798 > 26, 1799 May 2, 1800 . . i, 1801 . . April 30, 1802 . . 29, 1803 . . 27, 1804 . 26, 1805 25, 1806 May 9, 1807 April 29, 1808 28, 1809 27, 1810 . . 26, 1811 . . 24, 1812 30, 1813 29, 1814 Officers of the Society. 409 April 28, 1815 . . Benjamin Hey wood, jun. 26, 1816 25, 1817 24, 1818 30, 1819 28, 1820 ii I9> l821 26, 1822 1 8, 1823 30, 1824 29, 1825 21, 1826 . 20, 1827 1 8, 1828 1 6, 1829 30, 1830 29, 1831 27, 1832 >i 26, 1833 1 8, 1834 24, 1835 29, 1836 Aug. n, 1837 April 17, 1838 30, 1839 . . Sir Benjamin Heywood, Bart. 28, 1840 . 20, 1841 19, 1842 ii 18, 1843 i, 30, 1844 29, 1845 21, 1846 20, 1847 18, 1848 17, 1849 ii 3> 1850 29,1851 . . George Wareing Ormerod, M. A, 410 Literary and Philosophical Society. April 20, 1852 . . George Wareing Ormerod, M. A. *9> l8 S3 18, 1854 17, 1855 . . Henry Mere Ormerod. 29, 1856 21, 1857 20, 1858 *9> l8 59 17, 1860 30, 1861 29, 1862 21, 1863 . . Robert Worthington. 19, 1864 i> 2 5, l86 5 > i7 l866 30, 1867 28,1868 20, 1869 Thomas Carrick. 19, 1870 l8 l8 7i 30, 1872 29, 1873 21, 1874 . . Samuel Broughton 20, 1875 1 8, 1876 17, 1877 . . Charles Bailey. 30, 1878 29, 1879 20, 1880 LIBRARIANS ELECTED. April 28, 1784 . . Mr. Thomas Robinson. 2 5 i7 8 5 26, 1786 25, 1787 . John Mitchell. 25, 1788 . . John Mitchell, M.D. Officers of the Society. 4 1 1 April 24, 1789 . . John Mitchell, M.D. 30, 1790 2 9 I79 1 May 4, 1792 April 26, 1793 . . Mr. Simmons. 25, 1794 . Mr. Henry. 24, 1795 . . Rev. Joshua Brookes. 29, 1796 . . Mr. William Henry. 28, 1797 . . Mr. Joseph Collier. 20, 1798 26, 1799 May 2, 1800 . . i, 1801 . . April 30, 1802 . . Mr. R. Robinson. 29, 1803 . . ,, 27, 1804 . . Mr. Hutchinson. 26, 1805 . ' 25, 1806 May 9, 1807 April 29, 1808 . . Dr. Winstanley. 28, 1809 . . Mr. Ransome. 27, 1 8 10 . . William Cririe. 26, 1811 24, 1812 30, 1813 . . T. H. Robinson. 29, 1814 . . 28, 1815 26, 1816 25, 1817 . . Dr. Carbutt. 24, 1818 30, 1819 . . Mr. John Davies. 28, 1820 19, 1821 26, 1822 18, 1823 30, 1824 29, 1825 21, 1826 412 Literary and Philosophical Society. April 20, 1827 . . Mr. John Davies. 18, 1828 . . William Robert Whatton. 16, 1829 30, 1830 29, 1831 >, 27, 1832 26, 1833 1 8, 1834 24, 1835 29, 1836 . . Eaton Hodgkinson. Aug. n, 1837 April 17, 1838 . 30, 1839 ,, 28, 1840 20, 1841 19, 1842 J 8, 1843 30, 1844 Oct. 29, 1844 . . Mr. J. P. Joule. April 29, 1845 21, 1846 . . Francis Eugene Vembergue. 20, 1847 1 8, 1848 17, 1849 3> J 85o . . Edward W. Makinson. 29, 1851 20, 1852 J 9> 1853 . . Mr. John Young Caw. > l8 , 1854 *7, 1855 29, 1856 . . Mr. C. F. Ekman. 21, 1857 20, 1858 J 9, 1859 17, 1860 . . 30. 1861 ?J 29, 1862 Members of the Society. 413 April 21, 1863 . 19, 1864 . 25, 1865 . 17, 1866 . 30, 1867 . 28, 1868 . 20, 1869 . 19, 1870 . 18, 1871 . 30, 1872 . 29, 1873 . 21, 1874 . 20, 1875 . 18, 1876 . 17, 1877 . 30, 1878 . 29, 1879 . 20, l88o . Mr. C. F. Ekman. Thomas Windsor. Charles Bailey. Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S. ORDINARY MEMBERS. Members from the beginning in 1781 to April 1881. Those with a * were members at the latter date. DATE OF ELECTION. January 27, 1857 . . Acton, Henry Morell. n, 1881 . . *Adamson, Daniel. April 29, 1856 . . Adshead, Joseph. December 12, 1781 . . Aikin, John. January 21, 1805 . . Ains worth, James. April 30, 1839 . . Ainsworth, Ralph F. January 26, 1847 . . Albert, Dominic Fric. 22, 1 86 1 . . *Alcock, Thomas. November 15, 1870 . . Aldis, Thomas S. January 24, 1854 . . Allan, James. October 31, 1817 . . Allen, Joseph. January 7, 1873 . . *Allmann, Julius. April 19, 1821 , . Andrew, Robert. 414 Literary and Philosophical Society. DATE OF ELECTION. December 13, 1870 . January 22, 1861 . April October August February December October November j> January November April October April January December November October January December January April November February November January November May January 17, 1849 19, 1824 11, 1837 18, 1862 26, 1781 3i, 1871 4, 1796 2, 1792 27, 1846 14, 1784 8, 1813 13, 1804 3> 1874 14, 1865 1781 26, 1822 19, 1821 30, 1824 23, 1824 TO, 1790 14, 1865 29, 1844 27, 1852 12, 1781 24, 1834 19, 1842 28, 1876 T5, 1786 I, 1797 22, 1819 12, 1867 23, 1781 10, 1806 24, 1834 . *Angell, John. . *Anson, Ven. Archdeacon George Henry Greville. . Ash, William Henry. Ashton, Thomas. . * Ashton, Thomas, jun. . Ashworth, Henry. . Ashworth, James. . Ashworth, John. . Ashworth, Robert. . Atkinson, John. . Atkinson, John. . Atkinson, Joseph. . Atkinson, Thomas. . Atkinson, William. . *Axon, William, E. A. . *Bailey, Charles. Baker, Joseph. . Baker, Richard George. . Bamber, Richard Parr. . Bannerman, Henry. . *Barbour, Robert. . Bardsley, Dr. . Barker, Thomas. . Barlow, William. . Barlow, N. B. . Barnes, Rev. Thomas. . Barrat, James, jun. . Barratt, Joseph. . *Barratt, Walter E. . Barrit, Thomas. . Barritt, Charles. . Barrow, Peter. . *Barrow, John. . Barrow, John. Barton, Horatio. . Barton, Samuel. Members of the Society. 415 DATE OF ELECTION. April 17, 1849 Bassnett, Rev. Richard. January 21, 1840 . . Bateman, John Frederick. 26, 1858 . . *Baxendell, Joseph. December 12, 1781 . . Bayley, Thomas Butterworth. January 23, 1801 . . Bayley, W. October 16, 1812 . . Bayliff, William. January 26, 1847 *Bazley, Thomas. April 19, 1853 . . Bazley, Thomas Sebastian. January 26, 1827 . . Beard, Rev. J. R. April 1 6, 1867 . Beasley, Henry Charles* November 27, 1877 . . *Becker, Wilfred. 26, 1878 . . *Bedson, Peter P. April 30, 1839 . . Beeston, William Calvert. January 25, 1848 . . Bell, Charles. December 12, 1781 . . Bell, George, M.D. November 15, 1870 .' . Bell, Joseph Carter. January 26, 1847 . . *Bell, William. April 21, 1857 . . Bellhouse, Edward T. n, 1781 . . Bennet, Rev. John. November 15, 1870 . . *Bennion, John A. January 26, 1858 . . *Benson, Davis. April 26, 1799 . . Bentley, Gartside. 1 6, 1829 . . Bentley, John. March 22, 1786 . . Bentley, Michael. April 30, 1830 . . Bentley, Rev. Thomas Rothwell. January 26, 1820 . . Berry, George Frederick. 23, 1844 . . Bevan, James. December 12, 1781 . . Bew, George. January 25, 1833 . . Bewer, Frederick. 24, 1854 . . Beyer, Charles. December 15, 1868 . . *Bickham, Spencer H., jun. February 5, 1783 . . Bill, John. January 25, 1842 . . *Binney, Edward William. 26, 1838 . . Binyon, Alfred. 16, 1782 . . Birch, John. November 15, 1870 . . *Bird, John Durham. January 24, 1823 . . Birley, Richard. 4 1 6 Literary and Philosophical Society. DATE OF ELECTION. April 18, 1834 . . Birley, Richard. 1 8, 1876 . . *Birley, Thomas Hornby. 30, 1839 . . Black, James. January 26, 1821 . . *Blackwall, John. 25, 1842 . . Blake, George. April 29, 1796 . . Bontefleur, Mr. October 29, 1824 . . Boothman, Thomas. January 27, 1837 . . Boothman, Thomas, sen. 22, 1 86 1 . . *Bottomley, James. 23, 1855 . . Bowman, Eddowes. October 29, 1839 . . *Bowman, Henry. April 17, 1838 . . Bowman, John Eddowes. January 25, 1842 . . Bowman, John. November 16, 1875 . *Boyd, John. April 1 8, 1834 . . Brackenbury, James Blackledge. 20, 1792 . . Bradshaw, John. . Brandt, C. F. November 4, 1873 . . Bridson, Joseph Ridgway. April 26, 1811 . . Brigham, William, jun. January 25, 1859 . . Brittain, Thomas. April 21, 1857 . . Brock, John. 17, 1855 . . *Brockbank, William. 2, 1 86 1 . . *Brogden, Henry. 30, 1824 . . Brooke, Edward. 25, 1794 . . Brookes, Rev. Joshua. January 24, 1823 . . Brooks, Samuel Reeves. 23, 1844 . . *Brooks, William Cunliffe, M.P. 24, 1860 . . *Brothers, Alfred. April 17, 1855 . . Broughton, Frederick. December 10, 1867 . . Broughton, Samuel. January 27, 1846 . . *Browne, Henry. 21, 1840 . . Buck, George Watson. 22, 1 86 1 . . Buckley, Rev. Thomas. 27, 1846 . . Burd, John, jun. November 12, 1872 . . *Burghardt, Charles. April 19, 1853 . . Bury, Henry. November 29, 1864 . . Buxton, E. C. Members of the Society. 417 DATE OF ELECTION. January 24, 1854 . . Callender, William, jun. 26, 1847 . Calvert, Fred. Grace. 2 3> l8 35 Campbell, Henry Cadogan. April 21, 1815 . . Carbutt, Dr. December 15, 1874 . . *Carrick, Joseph. January 25, 1859 . . Carrick, Thomas. 26, 1858 . . Casartelli, Joseph. April 20, 1841 . . Caw, John Young. January 23, 1855 . . Cawley, Charles E. April 20, 1852 . . Chadwick, David. January 25, 1842 . . *Charlewood, Henry. April 30, 1839 Chaytor, Gustavus. December 16, 1791 . . Chesshyre, Edward. April 24, 1812 . . Chippendall, John. October 19, 1847 Christie, David. April 1 8, 1854 . . Christie, Prof. Richard Copley. January 23, 1824 . . *Christie, Robert. April 21,1857. . Churchhill, George Cheetham. 27, 1810 . . Clare, Peter. February 18, 1862 . . Clark, Thomas. September 29, 1784 . . Clarke, Henry. April 20, 1841 . . *Clay, Charles. 24, 1 80 1 . . Clayton, Edward. 24, 1 80 1 . . Clayton, John. February 6, 1782 . . Clegge, Ash worth. April 29, 1851 . . Cleminshaw, Charles. J 9> l8 S3 Clift > Samuel. January 22, 1861 . . Clifton, Prof. Robert B. October 31, 1817 . . Close, Thomas. January 27, 1797 . . Close, John. 9, 1807 . . Clowes, William. April 30, 1824 . . Coates, Richard, 29, 1836 . . Cobden, Richard. 20, 1792 . . Collier, Joseph. October 29, 1850 . . Colston, Rev. John. January 23, 1824 . . Connell, Edward. April 17,1838, . Cooke, Thomas, jun. 4 1 8 Literary and Philosophical Society. DATE OF ELECTION. December 21, 1785 . . Cooper, Thomas. January 25, 1853 . . Corbett, Edward. October 20, 1837 . . Cottam, Samuel E. January 25, 1853 . . *Cottam, Samuel. j> 2 5) l8 S9 *Coward, Edward. November 12, 1861 . . *Coward, Thomas. April ii, 1781 . . Cowling, John. January 12, 1810 . . Cririe, W. April 29, 1851 . . *Crompton, Samuel. January 22, 1839 . . Crossley, John. 25, 1848 . . *Crowther, Joseph S. 24, 1854 . . Culley, Richard S. November i, 1833 . . Cumber, Charles. April 8, 1876 . . *Cunliffe, Robert Ellis. 2, 1 86 1 . . *Cunningham, William Alexander. January 22, 1861 . . Curtis, John. April 1 8, 1843 . . Curtis, Matthew. October 29, 1824 . . Dadley, Henry. February 7, 1854 . . *Dale, John. November 28, 1871 . . *Dale, Richard Samuel. 1794 . . Dalton, John. April 19, 1842 . . *Dancer, John Benjamin. February 10, 1863 . . Darbishire, G. Stanley. January 25, 1822 . . Darbishire, Samuel Dukinfield. April 19, 1853 . . *Darbishire, Robert Dukinfield. January 21, 1862 . . Darbishire, William Arthur. June 13, 1781 . . Darby, Robert. April 26,1811 . . Darbyshire, James, jun. January 24, 1854 . . Davies, David Reynolds. October 18, 1816 . . Davies, John. January 21, 1851 . . Davies, Rev. John. 10, 1806 . . Davis, Mr. November 26, 1878 . . * Davis, Joseph. 2, 1869 . . *Dawkins, William Boyd. April 25, 1794 . . Dawson, John Charlton. November 15, 1870 . . Deacon, Henry. 15, 1842 . . Dean, James Joseph. Members of the Society. 419 DATE OF ELECTION. December 10, 1861 . . *Deane, William K. January 8, 1790 . . Delap, Robert. November i, 1793 . . Dennet, Mr. April 24, 1818 . . Dennison, Joseph. March 18, 1879 . Dent, Hastings Charles. January 24, 1794 . . Devy, John Smith. 10, 1806 . . Dewar, Dr. 2 3> l8 55 Dickinson, William L. 27, 1852 . . Dickson, Thomas. December 12, 1781 . . Dinwiddie, Mr. January 10, 1812 . . Ditchfield, Mr. 10, 1812 . . Dockray, Benjamin. 25, 1859 . . Dorrington, James. April 24, 1 80 1 . . Douglas, John. January 27, 1832 . . Douglas, John. December 12, 1781 . . Drinkwater, John. November 15, 1786 . . Drinkwater, Peter. January 30, 1782 . . Duckworth, George. 24, 1817 . . Duckworth, William. November i, 1833 . . Dugard, Rev. George. March 22, 1864 . . Duval, C. A. April 24, 1818 . . Dyer, Joseph C. 30, 1850 . . Dyer, Frederick Nathaniel. January 25, 1859 . . Eadson, Richard. December 12, 1761 . . Eason, Alexander. April 5, 1864 . . Eastham, John. 28, 1820 . . Edwards, John. May 4, 1841 . . Egerton, Lord Francis. April 29, 1856 . . Ekman, Charles Frederick, January 24, 1854 . . Ellis, Charles. February i, 1799 . . Entwistle, Henry. April 28, 1840 . . Ethelston, Edwards. 28, 1840 . . Evans, Richard. January 25, 1833 . . Everett, James. 26, 1798 . . Ewart, Peter. 25, 1853 . . Fairbairn, George. April 30, 1850 . . Fairbairn, Thomas, E E 2 42 o Literary and Philosophical Society, DATE OF ELECTION October 29, 1824 . )> 30, 1849 March 5, 1878 . April 29, 1825 . January 25, 1848 . April 12, 1786 . January 26, 1847 j) 27, 1832 . October 21, 1851 . January 22, l86l . jj 27, 1846 . 27, 1846 . jj 25, 1842 . April 30, 1824 . jj 18, 1828 . October 31, 1817 . April 29, 1856 . jj 21, 1857 . January 23j 1855 . March 28, 1781 . December 1, 1784 . April 17, 1860 . jj 29, 1851 . January 22, 1839 April 16, 1872 . January 24, 1854 . November 18, 1873 . February 6, 1877 . January 23, 1824 . JJ ii, 1811 . JJ 21, 1840 . April 29, 1836 . jj 30, 1861 . )> 17, 1860 . January 22, 1839 . j 25, 1842 . April 20, 1847 . Fairbairn, William. . Fairbairn, William Andrew. . Fairgrieve. Andrew. . Fawdington, Thomas. . Ferguson, Pearson B. . Ferriar, Dr. . Ferris, Octavius Allen. . Fincham, Frederick. . Finlay, Prof. Robert. . Fischer, William Henry. . Flaching, Edward. . Flaching, James. . Fleming, David Gibson. . Fleming, Thomas. . Fleming, William. . Flint, Richard. . Forrest, Henry Robert. . Foster, Thomas B. . Fothergill, Benjamin. . Foxley, Rev. John. . Foxley, Robinson. . Francis, John. . Frankland, Prof. Edward. . Fraser, James William. . Freeston, Rev. Joseph. . Fryer, Alfred. . Gamgee, Arthur. . Garnett, William. . *Garnett, William. . Garforth, James Benjamin. . *Gaskell, Rev. William. . Giles, Samuel. . Gladstone, Murray. . Glover, George. . Goodlad, William. . Goodman, John. . Gould, John. Members of the Society. 421 DATE OF ELECTION. April 30, 1802 . January 26, 1821 . 27, 1852 . October 31, 1794 . January 12, 1816 . 24, 1823 . 24, 1817 . 24, 1817 . October 30, 1849 February 19, 1790 . April 26, 1833 . January 25, 1848 . November 26, 1790 . January 25, 1800 . 21, 1831 . August n, 1837 . ' October 29, 1830 . January 23, 1818 . November 3, 1874 . April 21, 1863 . 26, 1799 . 26, 1811 . January 25, 1848 . April 1 8, 1828 . February 9, 1875 May 23, 1781 . November 20, 1782 . April 20, 1827 . January 22/1819 . December 12, 1781 . 12, 1781 . 12, 1781 . April 1 8, 1781 . 29, 1845 - November 26, 1790 . 28, 1865 . January 23, 1844 . . Grant, Rev. Johnson. . Greaves, Robert. . Greaves, Robert. . Green, Edward. . Green, B. H. . Green, Samuel. . Greenway, Charles. . Greg, Robert H. . Greg, Robert Philips. . Greg, Samuel. . Greg, William Rathbone. . Gregan, John Edgar. . Gregory, Dr. . Gibson, Mr. . Glover, Thomas. . Graham, John. . Greaves, John. . Grime, William Brireton. . *Grimshaw, Harry. . Grindon, Leopold Hartley. . Grindrod, Rev. William. . Grundy, Rev. John. . Grundy, John C. . Guest, William. . *Gwyther, R. F. . Haddon, Rev. Peter. . Hadfield, J. . Hadfield, William. . Halkyand, John. . Hall, Edward. . Hall, Richard. . Hall, Richard Edward. . Hall, Rev. Samuel. . Halley, Robert. . Hamilton, Gawin. . Hampson, Francis. . Hampson, Richard. 422 L iterary and Philosophical Society. DATE OF ELECTION. October i, 1878 . April 25, 1794 . January 25, 1800 . 10, 1812 . 27, 1837 . April 30, 1878 . October 30, 1849 February 9, 1864 . December 5, 1781 . October 19, 1858 . 3> l8 7i April 28, 1797 . November 4, 1862 . April 13, 1823 . November 26, 1790 . January 25, 1793 . *2, 1839 - November 20, 1789 . April 26, 1793 . January 25, 1793 ^ December 16, 1873 . April 19, 1859 . November 15, 1842 . January 10, 1806 . October 31, 1828 . December 12, 1781 . April 29, 1796 . November i, 1864 . 17, 1868 . January 24, 1854 . April 20, 1827 . 30, 1861 . February 6, 1789 . January 14, 1815 . April 2, 1 86 1 . 26, 1833 March 22, 1864 . . Hannay, James Ballantine. . Hanson, Joseph. . Hanson, Edward . Hardie, Dr. . Hardy, Dr. Robert. . *Harland, William Dugdale. . Harley, Robert. . Harris, George. . Harrison, Rev. Ralph. . Harrison, William Phillip. . Harrison, Thomas. Harrison, William. . *Hart, Peter. . Hartley, Jesse. Harvey, Samuel. . Hatfield, Thomas. . *Hawkshaw, Sir John. . Hawkes, Rev. Mr. . Hay, William. . Hay, Charles. . *Heelis, James. Heelis, Thomas. . Henfrey, Charles. . Hennel, James. . *Henry, William Charles. . Henry, Thomas. . Henry, William. . Heppel, George. . *Herford, Rev. Brooke. . Hetherington, John. . Hewes, Thomas Check. , Heys, William Henry. . Heywood, Benjamin. . Heywood, Benjamin, jun. . Heywood, George Robert. . *Heywood, James. . *Heywood, Oliver. Members of the Society. 423 DATE OF ELECTION. April 26, 1822 . January 9, 1807 . November 24, 1784 . April 29, 1851 . 29, 1845 . October 31, 1848 . January 22, 1839 . April 2, 1 86 1 . January 21, 1820 . April 24, 1818 . February 15, 1786 . 2 3> ^55 January 24, 1854 . 27, 1846 . October 29, 1824 . April 20, 1847 .' January 21, 1805 . October 31, 1823 . April 25, 1794 . 27, 1810 . 26, 1793 . 18, 1823 . March 21, 1871 . December 19, 1781 . January 23, 1824 . 25, 1842 . December 2, 1873 . November 4, 1791 . February 7, 1854 . April 30, 1824 . November 3, 1863 . January 27, 1797 . 27, 1857 . 25, 1859 . 23, 1801 . April 26, 1811 . 1 8, 1823 . . Heywood, Richard. . Hibbert, Robert. . Hibbert, Samuel. . *Higgin, James. . Higgins, James. . Higson, Peter. . Hobson, John. . Hobson, John Thomas. . Hodgkinson, Eaton. . Hodgson, Isaac. . Hodson, William. . *Holden, Isaac. . Holcroft, George. . *Holden, James Platt. . Hole, George. ". Holland, Phillip Henry. Holland, Thomas. Holland, Rev. Thomas Crompton. . Holme, Dr. . Holt, D. . Holt, James. . Hopkins, Thomas. . Hopkinson, John. . Houghton, Rev. William. . Houldsworth, Henry. . Howard, Richard Baron. . *Howorth, Henry H. . Hoyle, Thomas, jun. . Hoyle, William Jennings. . Hudson, George. . *Hull, Edward. . Hull, John. . *Hunt, Edward. . *Hurst, Henry Alexander, . Hutchinson, Mr. . Hyde, John. . Hyde, John. 424 Literary and Philosophical Society. DATE OF ELECTION. November 13, 1866 . October 31, 1794 . 21, 1808 . January 27, 1857 . October 21, 1808 . April 25, 1788 . March 22, 1864 . January 27, 1837 . November 2, 1792 . April 17, 1849 October 16, 1807 . February i, 1799 . January 24, 1823 . April 29, 1825 . November 13, 1866 . February 6, 1872 . October 7, 1805 . April 30, 1850 . January 22, 1856 . 24, 1865 . November i, 1870 . 26, 1878 . 15, 1842 . April 21, 1846 October 19, 1821 April 1 8, 1848 January 25, 1842 April i, 1862 January 27, 1846 October 30, 1818 January 23, 1829 24, 1843 October 18, 1799 January 24, 1817 April 29, 1803 January 27, 1852 , Jack, William. Jackson, Mr. (of Hunt's bank). Jackson, Charles. Jackson, George. , Jackson, Roger. Jackson, Samuel. , Jacob, Leslie. , James, Faul Moon. . James, Robert. . Jamison, Alexander. . Jarrold, Dr. . Jenkinson, John. . Jesse, John. . Jesse, Joseph Albert. . Jevons, William Stanley. . *Jewsbury, Sidney. . Johns, W. . * John son, Richard. . Johnson, William. . Johnson, William B. . *Johnson, William H. . *Jones, Francis. . Jones, Rev. Henry Longenville, M.A. . Jones, Rev. Henry Halford. . Jordan, Joseph. . * Joule, Benjamin St. J. B. . *Joule, James Prescot Joy, David. . Joynson, William. Kay, Alexander, jun. Kay, James Philip. Kay, Samuel, jun. Kay, Samuel. . Kennedy, James. . Kennedy, John. . *Kennedy, John Lawson. Members of the Society. 425 DATE OF ELECTION. April 1 8, 1823 . . Kennedy, Peter. June 27, 1781 . . Kenyon, Rev. Robert. January 24, 1854 . . Kershaw, James, jun. May 1 6, 1781 . . Kershaw, Thomas. January n, 1811 . . Kinder, Henry. November 26, 1867 . . Kipping, James Stanley. October 19, 1821 . . Kirk, Benjamin. November 29, 1786 . . Kirwan, Mr. April 29, 1862 . . *Knowles, Andrew. January 29, 1827 . . Lacey, Henry Charles. October 21, 1791 . . Lamb, William. April 27, 1810 . . Lander, Mr. 26, 1822 . . Lane, Richard. 30, 1830 . . Langton, William. 24, 1860 . . * Latham, Arthur George. Laurence, John. 15, 1863 . . *Leake, Robert, M.P. i, 1790 . . Lee, George. 29, 1824 . . Lees, Aaron. 30, 1850 . . *Leese, Joseph. 17, 1849 . . Leigh, John. 24, 1860 . . Leigh, John, n, 1837 . . Leisler, John. 19, 1858 . . Lever, Charles. 29, 1830 . . Lillie, James. 26, 1847 . . Lingard, John Rowson. 22, 1856 . . Lingard, Thomas Taylor. 27, 1826 . . Littler, Thomas. 3, 1871 . . Livesey, Thomas. 3, 1781 . . Lloyd, George. 25, 1842 . . Lockett, John. 29, 1839 . Lockett, Joseph. 30, 1830 . . Lomas, John. 21, 1840 . . Lomas, John, M.D. 12, 1816 . . Lomas, William. 27, 1852 . . Long, Isaac W. 27, 1857 . . *Longridge, Robert Bentink. January December January October April >> January August October January October January October April January 426 Literary and Philosophical Society. DATE OF ELECTION. April 24, 1835 . . Looney, Francis. 19, 1842 . . Love, Benjamin. 19, 1870 . . *Lowe, Charles. January 24, 1854 . . Lowe, George Cliffe. December 12, 1871 . . Lucas, Louis. April 1 8, 1843 . . Ludlow, Ebenezer. 30, 1850 . . *Lund, Edward. January 23, 1855 . . Lund, George T. 25, 1859 . . *Lynde, James G. October 30, 1855 . . Mabley, William Tudor. 5) J 875 . Mackereth, Thomas. March i, 17^6 . . Macnivan, Charles. December 12, 1781 . . Mainwaring, Peter. October 20, 1846 . . Makinson, Edward William. January 24, 1823 . . Makinson, William. 26, 1875 . . *Mann, John Dixon. 22, 1839 Mann, Robert. 27, 1846 . . Mann, Robert Manners. April 26, 1822 . . Marriott, Christopher. January 27, 1839 . . Marriott, Thomas L. April 27, 1832 . . Marsden, William. December 2, 1879 . . *Marshall, Prof. A. M. April 30, 1824 . . Marshall, James E. October 21, 1836 . . Marshall, John. November 4, 1873 . . *Marshall, Rev. William. April 1 6, 1829 . . Marsland, Henry. 26, 1811 . . Marsland, Samuel. November 26, 1878 . . Martin, Sidney Trice. December 12, 1781 . . Massey, James. 12,1781 . . Massey, John. April 20, 1858 . . Mather, Cohin. December n, 1789 . . Mather, John. November i, 1864 . . *Mather, William. 17, 1868 . . *Mawson, John J. 13, 1789 . . Maxwell, Thomas. January 25, 1859 . . *McClure, John William. April 24,1812. . McConnel, James. Members of the Society. 427 DATE OF ELECTION. April 30, 1829 . . McConnel, James. 20, 1827 . . McConnel, Henry. 25, 1825 . . McConnel, John. 17, 1838 . . McConnel, William. 30, 1844 . . McDougall, Alexander. November 13, 1866 . . *McDougall, Arthur. January 24, 1823 . . McFarlane, John. 27, 1797 . . Meadowcroft, Richard. April 30, 1830 . . Meadows, James. January 25, 1842 . . Mellor, Thomas. 27, 1837 . . Mellor, William. March 18, 1873 . . *Melvill, James Cosmo. January 24, 1834 . . Mertz, Philip. March 8, 1864 . . Micholls, Horatio. December 30, 1879 *Miller, John Bell. November 20, 1782 '. . Mitchell, John. October 31, 1794 . . Mitchell, William. January 25, 1859 . . Molesworth, Rev. William Nassau. October 16, 1801 . . Monnsill, William. January 14, 1815 . . Moore, John. November 27, 1877 . . *Moore, Samuel. October 29, 1830 . . Mordacque, L. A. J. 29, 1 86 1 . . *Morgan, John Edward. January 23, 1849 Morris, Daniel. November i, 1870 . , Morris, Walter. January 25, 1859 . . Mosley, George. March 13, 1782 . . Moss, Isaac. October 31, 1794 . . Moulson, R. January 23, 1795 . . Moxon, J. n, 1811 . . Moxon, Samuel. March 22, 1864 . . Mudd, James. February 9, 1875 . . Muir, M. M. Pattison. January 14, 1815 . . Murray, George. 14, 1815 . . Mutrie, Robert. May 1 6, 1781 . . Nanfan, John. December 30, 1791 . . Nash, John. January 23, 1795 . . Nash, Thomas. 428 Literary and Philosophical Society. DATE OF ELECTION. January 26, 1838 . . Nasmyth, George. August n, 1837 . . Nasmyth, James. January 25, 1848 . . Neild, Alfred. 24, 1854 . . Neild, Arthur. 27, 1852 . . Nelson, James E. February 7, 1854 . . Neville, Thomas Henry. January 24, 1860 . . *Newall, Henry. April 30, 1839 . . Newbery, Henry. 21, 1846 . . Newman, Professor. January 21,1845 Nicholls, John Ashton. March 4, 1873 *Nicholson, Francis. April 28, 1820 . . Nicholson, John. December 14, 1785 . . Nicholson, Matthew. 1 6, 1791 . . Nicholson, Thomas. January 26, 1827 . . Nicholson, William. April 26, 1822 . . Nield, William. November 16, 1875 . . *Nix, E. W. October 21, 1836 . . Noble, Daniel. 31, 1854 . . Noden, Edward Byron. December 30, 1862 . . *Ogden, Samuel. 12, 1781 . . Oldham, Joshua, October 31, 1794 . . Oilier, Thomas. January 22, 1861 . . *O'Neill, Charles. 14, 1815 . . Orme, Daniel. December 5, 1781 . . Orme, John. April 30, 1844 . . *Ormerod, Henry Mere. January 26, 1841 . . Ormerod, George Wareing. November 4, 1791 . . Owen, John. April 30, 1839 . . Owen, John. February 5, 1850 . . Owen, Joseph. November i, 1793 . . Owen, Robert. January 24, 1823 . . Parkes, Josiah. April 24, 1818 . . Parkes, Samuel. November i, 1833 Parkinson, Rev. Richard. April 30, 1 86 1 . . *Parlane, James. January 21, 1791 . . Parr, Dr. April 30, 1844 "Parr, George. Members of the Society. 429 DATE January April November April October March January April January December January April December October January December November October November January j) April January )> April December April OF ELECTION. 22, l86l . 26, 1833 . 28, 1876 . 16, 1829 . 21, 1825 . 20, 1866 . 25, 1842 . 26, 1811 . 20, 1841 . 26, 1799 . 13, 1874 . 12, 1781 . 22, l86l . 12, 29, 1830 : 22, 1783 . 20, 1781 . 15, 1842 . 10, 1784 1 8, 1799 . 29, 1870 . 25, 1848 . 22, 1861 . 21, 1857 . 25, 1842 . 24, 1854 . 17, 1860 . 12, 1781 . 21, 1826 . January 23, 1824 . November 3, 1784 . January 27, 1857 . February 1877 . January 22, 1819 . 22, 1861 . . Parr, George, jun. . Parry, John. . *Parry, Thomas. . Paton, Joseph. . Patten, John. . Patterson, John. . Pauling, George E. . Peel, Frederick. . Peel, George. . Peel, Robert, jun. . *Pennington, Rooke. Percival, Thomas. . Perring, John Shae. . Philips, George. . Philips, Robert. . Phillips, Charles. Phillips, John. . Phillips, J. Lee. . Phillips, Montague. Phillips, Thomas. . Phillips, Waller. . Piers, Sir Eustace F., Bart. . Pincoffs, Peter. . Pincoffs, Simon. . Platt, William Wilkinson. . Playfair, Lyon. . *Pochin, Henry Davis. . *Pocklington, Rev. Joseph N. . Polier, Charles. . Potter, Edmund. Potter, James. . Potter, John. . Powell, John . Poynting, Thomas Elford. Poynting, John Henry. . Prentice, Archibald. . Preston, Francis. 430 Literary and Philosophical Society. DATE OF ELECTION. January 22, 1839 October i, 1878 . 21, 1791 . April 17, 1849 . January 23, 1824 April 29, 1831 26, 1799 January 25> 1793 ? 22, 1836 21, 1831 5J 22, l86l April 17, 1807 February 7, 1854 April II, 1781 19, 1859 January 13, 1809 April 29, 1836 January 26, 1847 April 30, 1839 January 21, 1845 )> 23, 1824 November 16, 1869 March 4, 1791 January 25, 1859 April 26, 1811 April March April December January December February January October 20, 1827 23, 1880 1 8, 1823 14, 1787 24, 1860 27, 1864 i, 1790 25, 1822 Price, David. . *Priestley, John. . Priestley, Joseph. . Prince, the Right Reverend James, Bishop of Manchester. . Pringal, Arthur. . Pryce, John. . Pye, Charles. . Radcliffe, Rev. John. . Radford, Joseph. . Radford, Thomas. . *Radford, William. Railton, John. . *Ramsbottam, John. . Rankin, Rev. William. . *Ransome, Arthur. . Ransome, J. A. . Ransome, Joseph Atkinson. . Ransome, Thomas. . Ravenscroft, William R. . Rawson, Robert. . Reed, William. Reid, William. . *Reynolds, Osborne. . Richardson, Thomas. . Rideout, William J. . Robberds, Rev. John. Roberton, Captain William. . Roberton, John. . *Roberts, Lloyd. . Roberts, Richard. . Roberts, William. . *Roberts, William. . *Robinson, John. Robinson, Robert. . *Robinson, Samuel. . Robinson, Thomas. Members of the Society. DATE OF ELECTION. January 13, 1809 . . Robinson, T. H. April 25, 1788 . . Robinson, William. January 12, 1864 Rogerson, John. 21, 1805 . . Roget, Peter. 27, 1837 . . Romlley, Henry. 26, 1858 . . *Roscoe, Henry Enfield. November i, 1797 . . Ross, Thomas. December 14, 1869 . . Routledge, Robert. January 25, 1842 . . Royle, Allen. October 21, 1791 . . Rupp, George. November i, 1793 . . Rushforth, Richard. January 23, 1844 . . Rylands, Thomas Glazebrook. April 1 8, 1848 . . Salt, Samuel. 29, 1851 . . *Sandeman, Prof. Archiblad. January 12, 1816 . . Sandford, Benjamin. 26, 1847 . . Satterthwaite, Michael. October 30, 1829 . . Saulter, Henry. 20, 1815 . . Saunderson, T. W. B. April 29, 1831 . . Scholes, Thomas Seddon. December 13, 1870 . . *Schorlemmer, Carl. January 25, 1842 . . *Schunck, Edward. November 18, 1873 . . *Schuster, Arthur. April 7, 1863 . . Schwabe, Edmund Salis. 20, 1847 Schwabe, Sali. February 7, 1854 . . Scott, Prof. Alexander J. April 30, 1824 . . Serjeant, Edwin W. January 23, 1855 . . Sharp, Edmund Hamilton. April 28, 1797 . . Sharp, John. October 29, 1824 . . Sharp, John. April 17, 1838 . . Sharp, Rev. John. January 12, 1816 . . Sharp, Thomas. 25, 1833 . . Shaw, George. 24, 1823 . . Sherratt, John. October 30, 1836 . . Shuttleworth, John. April 29, 1851 . . Sichel, Ferdinand. 20, 1852 . . *Sidebotham, Joseph. Simmons, W. 432 Literary and Philosophical Society. DATE OF ELECTION. December 26, 1865 . January 25, 1859 . February January November April November April November December October January }> April December January October January April November January j> October January January- October November January April January April January 23, 1869 26, 1838 28, 1876 22, 1808 12, 1872 29, 1845 16, 1829 14, 1871 13, 1864 21, 1825 25, ^59 22, 1839 29, 1851 27, 1864 27, 1852 30, 1835 24, 1834 20, 1847 I, 1870 22, 1819 23, 1849 6, 1863 26, 1858 7, 1814 29, 1844 29, 1870 25, 1859 28, 1840 18, 1834 25, 1781 18, 1828 22, 1856 26, 1833 26, 1821 . Simpson, Henry. Slagg, John, jun. Slater, Rev. Fr. . Smart, Robert B. . Smith, Geo. Sam. Fereday. . *Smith, James. . Smith, Joseph. . Smith, Henry Arthur. . *Smith, Robert Angus. . Smith, Samuel. . Smith, Watson, jun. . Sonstadt, Edward. . Souchay, Charles. . *Sowler, Thomas. Spear, John. . *Spence, Peter. . Spencer, Joseph. . Standring, Thomas. . Stanway, John Holt. . Stephens, Edward. . Stephens, James. . *Stewart, Balfour. . Stone, Aaron. . Stone, Daniel. . *Stretton, Bartholomew. . Stuart, Charles Patrick. . Stuart, Robert. . Sturgeon, William. . Syson, John Edward. . Tait, M. L. . Tate, William J. . Taylor, Charles. . Taylor, Charles. . Taylor, John Edward. . Taylor, John Edward. . Taylor, Rev. James. . Taylor, Rev. John James. Members of the Society. DATE OF ELECTION. April 22, 1808 . . Taylor, John. March 22, 1870 . . Teale, James. April 20, 1852 . . Thorn, David. January 27, 1846 . . Thorn, John. April 1 8, 1854 . . Thompson, James. January 25, 1859 . . Thompson, James. April 1 8, 1823 . . Thompson, John Bent. January 23, 1824 . . Thompson, William. April 15, 1873 . . *Thompson, William. January 21, 1820 . . Thomson, Edmund Peel. 27, 1826 . . Thomson, William. October 20, 1815 . . Thorpe, Robert. November 2, 1869 . . Thorpe, Thomas Edward. April 17, 1860 . . *Trapp, Samuel Clement. March 28, 1781 . . Travis, Rev. Mr. April 29, 1836 . . Turner, James Aspinall. 19, 1821 . . Turner, Thomas. January 24, 1860 . . Unwin, William Cawthorne. April 25, 1794 . . Vause, Rev. John. October 21, 1831 . , Vernbergue, Eugene. April 30, 1861 . . Vernon, George V. December 12, 1781 . . Wakefield, George. January 30, 1782 . . Walker, George. October 19, 1827 , . Walker, John Gouldie, jun. January 27, 1857 . . Walker, Robert. December 7, 1798 . . Walker, Mr., F.R.S. January 22, 1790 . . Walker, Thomas. 26, 1841 . . Wallace, Rev. Robert. April 30, 1802 . . Walshman, John. December 30, 1879 . *Ward, Thomas. October 26, 1785 . . Ward, Mr. November 18, 1873 . * Waters, Arthur William. January 24, 1823 . . Watkin, Absolom. November 4, 1873 Watkins, James. April 26, 1793 . , Watkins, James. January 25, 1859 . . Watson, John. 12, 1816 . . Watson, Peter. F F 433 434 Literary and Philosophical Society. DATE OF ELECTION. December 15, 1874 . . *Watson, Prof. Morrison. February 6, 1789 . . Watt, James, jun. January 27, 1874 . . * Watts, John. December 29, 1868 . . Watts, William Marshall. January 27, 1857 . . *Webb, Thomas George. October 15, 1861 . . Whalley, John. January 25, 1822 . . Whatton, William Robert. 25, 1828 . . Wheeler, Thomas. April 26, 1811 . . White, Arthur Bourne. December 12, 1781 . . White, Charles, F.R.S. March 28, 1781 . . White, John. October 26, 1785 . . White, Thomas. January 26, 1858 . . *Whitehead, James. February 9, 1869 . . Whitehead, Walter. January 23, 1782 . . Whittaker, James. March 27, 1782 . . Whittaker, Rev. Mr. January 22, 1839 . . *Whitworth, Sir Joseph. October 19, 1847 . . Wightman, Alexander. January 25, 1842 . . Wild, Charles Heard. 25, 1859 . . *\Vilde, Henry. December 29, 1868 . . Wilkins, Augustus S. January 26, 1821 . . Wilkinson, Thomas Jones. 26, 1841 . . Wilkinson, Matthew A. Eason. April 19, 1859 . . * Wilkinson, Thomas Reade. November 3, 1874 . . *Williams, William Carletou. April 19, 1853 . . Williamson, Samuel Walker. 29, 1851 . . *Williamson, William Crawford. 25, 1781 . . Wilson, John. 15, 1814 . . Wilson, William. November 28, 1781 . . Wimpey, Mr. March 8, 1864 . . Windsor, Thomas. October 31, 1871 . . Winstanley, David. January 26, 1841 . . Winstanley, Thomas Woodcock. 9, 1807 . . Winstanley, Dr. 21,1851. . Withington, George Bancroft. 27, 1826 . . Withington, George. October 16, 1801 . . Wood, Charles. Honorary Members. 435 DATE OF ELECTION. April 17, 1807 January 22, 1819 . October January April November April October April November February December November > January April October 22, 1836 30, i855 26, 1841 17, 1860 21, 1846 30* i39 15, 1842 17, 1860 29, 1819 28, 1840 17, 1863 21, 1865 12, 1781 I, 1864 9, 1785 26, 1841 26, 1799 19, 1847 . Wood, George William. . Wood, Kinder. Wood, Ottiwell, jun. . *Wood, William Raynor. . Woodcock, Alonzo Buonaparte. . Woodcroft, Bennet. . Woodcroft, Rufus Dewar. . Woodhead, George. . Woods, Edward. . Woolley, James. . *Woolley, George Stephen. . Worthington, Henry Thomas. . Worthington, Robert. . *Worthington, Samuel Barton. . *Worthington, Thomas. . Wright, John, M.D. . *Wright, William C. . Wynne, Mr. . Yates, Joseph St. John. Yates, Thomas. . Young, James. HONORARY MEMBERS. From the beginning in 1781 to April 1881. April 20, 1847 18, 1843 December 12, 1781 April 1 8, 1843 February 7, 1843 April 1 6, 1790 18, 1843 1792 3) 1783 December 21, 1785 Adams, John Couch, F.R.S. Agassiz, Louis. Aikin, John. Airy, George Biddell. Alwyne, The Most Noble Spencer Joshua. Anderson, James. Arago, Francois Jean Dominique. D'Azyr, Felix Vicq. Baker, Sir George, Bart. Banks, Dr. Joseph. F F 2 436 Literary and Philosophical Society. DATE OF ELECTION, April 18, 1843 February 25, 1784 April 30, 1790 18, 1843 February 7, 1843 April 1 8, 1843 January 23, 1849 April 1 8, 1843 February 7, 1843 October 2, 1782 February 7, ^43 April 17, 1860 January 25, l8 59 March 24, 1784 October 30, 1866 November 12, 1783 12, 1790 February 23, 1864 May 15, 1782 April 28, 1868 21, 1784 January 23, 1795 October 2, 1782 April 21, 1784 October 30, 1782 March 8, 1786 April 30, 1844 March 9, 1869 February 7, 1843 January 22, 1836 October 30, 1782 April 1 8, 1843 October 8, 1783 April 6, 1869 Barlow, Peter. Beattie, James. Bertholet, Mons. Berzelius, Jens Jacob. Bessel, Prof. Fred. William. Biot, Jean Baptiste. Bosworth, Rev. Joseph. Brewster, Sir David. Brisbane, General Sir Thomas MacDougall, Bart. Brydone, Patrick. Buchanan, John. Buckland, Rev. William. Bunsen, Prof. Robert. Cayley, Arthur. Chorley, Dr. Edwood. Clifton, Robert B. Cooper, Thomas. Crell, Dr. Laurence. Crum, Walter. Currie, Dr. James. Darwin, Charles. Darwin, Erasmus. Deivan, Dr. J. R. Delaval, Edward Hussey. Dillon, John Talbot, Knight. Dobson, Matthew. Drinkwater, Captain. Dumas, Jean Baptiste. Dyer, Joseph C. Enfield, Rev. William. Erman, Dr. Adolphe Paul. Ewart, Peter. Falconer, William. Faraday, Michael. Fothergill, Dr. Anthony. Frankland, Edward. Honorary Members. 437 DATE OF ELECTION. January February March January April January 24, 1860 7> 1843 24, 1784 9, 1807 18, 1843 17, 1849 16, 1790 23, 1866 ,, 22, 1861 February 7, 1843 7> 1843 April 19, 1853 November i, 1797 December 12, 1781 April 30, 1867 1 8, 1843 December 14, 1785 January j> April January October January April October April February April October November October 25, 1848 23, 1866 2, 1867 25, l8 53 2, 1782 12, 1869 1 8, 1843 30, 1782 30, 1872 7> l8 43 19, 1810 8, 1783 19, 1783 1.9, 1852 November i, 1797 Franklin, Benjamin. Freis, Elias. Frisiani, Paul. Frossard, Dr., of Lyons. Garthshore, Dr. Maxwell. Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis. Girardin, M. Girtanner, Dr. Graham, Thomas. Gregory, George, D.D. Haidinger, Wilhelm. Hamilton, Sir William Rowan. Harcourt, Rev. William Venables. Hartnup, John. Hatchett, Charles. Hawes, Dr. William. Haygarth, J., M.D. Henry, Dr. Joseph. Herschell, Sir John Frederick. Hey, Mr., of Leeds. Hibbert, G. Hind, John Russell. Hofmann, A. W. Holland, Sir Henry, Bart. Hopkins, William. Houlston, Thomas, M.D. Huggins, William. Humboldt, Baron Alexander von. Hunter, Alexander. Huxley, Professor. Jacob, Prof. C. G. J. Jenner, Dr. Johnstone, Dr. Kintner, Mr. Kirkman, Rev. Thomas Pennington. Kirwan, Richard. Lambe, Dr. William. 438 Literary and Philosophical Society. DATE OF ELECTION. October April 31, 1848 . 2, 1783 . February 7, 1843 December 18, 1782 April 30, 1872 December 14, 1869 November January December October January April February January jj April January April j> November April i> i?97 9, 1782 7, 1798 3i, 1794 24, 1794 17, 1849 7, 1843 25, 1859 24, 1854 1 8, 1843 26, 1821 4, 1781 30, 1844 9, 1785 30, 1844 1 8, 1843 November i, 1797 April 29, 1851 . January 22, 1856 September 19, 1784 February 25, 1784 January 23, 1866 April 30, 1872 November i, 1797 Lassell, William. Lavoisier, Monsieur. Lettsom, J. C Liebig, Justus. LlandarT, Rev. the Bishop of. Lloyd, Rev. Humphrey. Lyell, Sir Charles, Bart. MacMorland, Patrick. Magee, Rev. William. Magellan, G. H. Marslam, Mr., F.R.S. Maseres, Baron. Massey, James. Mercer, John. Mitscherlich, Eilert. Morgan, Augustus De. Morin, General, M.A. Moseley, Rev. Henry. Mosley, Sir Oswald. Moyes, Henry. Murchison, Roderick Impey. Nicholson, William. Owen, Richard. Peacock, The Very Rev. George, Dean of Ely. Pearson, Dr. George. Playfair, Lyon. Platiere, Mons. Polard de. Poiteoir, Mons. Poncelet, General. Pope, Rev. John. Porteous, Right Rev. Beilby, Lord Bishop of Chester. Prestwich, Joseph. Priestley, Rev. Joseph. Quetelet, Prof. Adolph. Radcliffe, Rev. John, Honorary Members. 439 DATE OF ELECTION. January 23/1866 . December 5, 1781 . April 19, 1859 , January 23, 1849 April 19, 1859 . January 30, 1861 . December 7, 1798 . October 27, 1784 . April 26, 1799 . December 22, 1784 . April 30, 1844 30, 1872 j? 30, 1872 February 7, 1843 October 20, 1846 March 13, 1782 January 25, 1800 December 14, 1869 April 30, 1872 j> 29, 1851 January 22, 1861 April 28, 1868 January 24, 1854 j> 25, 1800 April 18, 1843 ,1 30, 1872 . 29, 1851 . November 12, 1783 . April 28, 1868 . November i, 1793 . April 20, 1847 November i, 1793 Ramsay, Andrew Crombie. Ramsbotham, Doming. Rankine, W. J. Macquorae. Rathbone, William. Rawson, Robert. Reichenbach, Carl, Baron von. Roberts, Richard. Robison, Prof. Roscoe, William. Rumford, Sir George Paul, Bart, and Count. Rush, Dr. Benjamin, of Philadel- phia. Sabine, Lieut. -Col. Edward. Sachs, Dr. Julius. Schimper, Prof. W. P. Sedgwick, Rev. Adam. Sibson, Rev. Edmund. Simmons, Dr. Samuel Foart. Smith, Dr. James Edward. Sorby, Henry Clifton. Stenhouse, Dr. John. Stokes, George Gabriel. Sylvester, James Joseph. Tait, Peter Guthrie. Tayler, Rev. John James. Tennant, Smithson. Thenard, Le Baron. Travis, Rev. G. Trecul, Monsieur A. Trossard, Rev. Mr. Thomson, William (Glasgow). Turner, Rev. William. Tyndall, John. Van Swinden, J. H. Verrier, Le. Vince, Rev, Samuel. 440 Literary and Philosophical Society. DATE October April October )> April March February January February March OF ELECTION. 2, 1782 . 21, 1784 . 2, 1782 . 2, 1782 . 30, 1872 . 12, 1783 . 25, 1784 . 22, l8o8 . 7> 1843 . 12, 1783 . April 30, 1850 . February i, 1799 . December 13, 1786 . Volta, Mr. Wakefield, Rev. Gilbert. Wall, Dr. Martin. Warltire, John. Watson, Hewett Cotterel. Watson, Dr. Wedgwood, Josiah. Werner, Prof. A. G. Whewell, Rev. William. Whitehurst, Dr. Whittaker, Rev. J. Woodcroft, Bennet. Wright, Dr. Young, Arthur. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. From the beginning in 1781 to April 1 88 1. April 19, 1810 . . Acton, Mr. January 25, 1800 . . Adair, James N. April 17, 1860 . . Ainsworth, Thomas. 26, 1793 . . Alexander, William. January 25, 1793 . . Astbury, Dr., of Newcastle. October 29, 1861 . . Bache, Prof. A. D. April 19, 1810 . . Bailey, Butterfield. 24, 1812 . . Bailey, Lieut. James. 30, 1802 . . Banks, J. January 22, 1861 . . Buckland, Prof. George. October 31, 1794 . . Buxton, Samuel. February 5, 1867 . . Cialdi, Alessandro, Commander. March 8, 1870 . . Cockle, Sir James. November i, 1793 . . Copeland, Alexander, of Dumfries. December 2, 1791 . . Dawson, John, of Sedbergh. January 23, 1866 . . De Caligny, Anatole, Marquis le 21, 1805 . . Denholm, James. April 26,1799. . Deriabin, A., of Russia. 24, 1812 . . Dewar, Henry. Corresponding Members. 441 DATE OF ELECTION. January 23, 1824 . . Dockeray, Benjamin. November i, 1797 . . Falconer, Rev. Thomas. April 2, 1 86 1 . . Fardel, Max Durand. January 7, 1862 . . Fedrico, Laneia di Brolo. April 1 8, 1823 . . Fischer, Prof. Gotthelf. January 25, 1859 . . Folis, Augustus le. February i, 1799 . . Fontana, Mr. 4, 1791 . . Garnett, Dr. January 7, 1862 . . Gistel, Prof. Dr. Johannes. December 2, 1791 . . 'Cough, J. April 21, 1846 . . Gough, Thomas. January 10, 1812 . . Granville, Dr. October 18, 1799 . . Green, Edward. November i, 1793 . . Guthrie, Dr. Matthew. April 30, 1819-1 . Hall, Marshall. October 21, 1808 . . Hamilton, Rev. G. J. April 30, 1850 . . Harley, Robert. January 21, 1851 . . Harris, William Thaddeus. December 7, 1798 . . Haworth, Dr. January 22, 1861 . . Henry, Prof. Joseph. October 31, 1800 . . Henry, Peter. April 19, 1821 . , Herberski, Vincent. January 22, 1819 . . Hibbert, Samuel. April 26, 1793 . . Hoffmann, Mr., of Berlin. January 10, 1812 . . Holland, Dr. H. November i, 1793 . . Holme, Edward. i, 1793 . . Holt, John. January 13, 1804 . . Johnstone, Dr. John. 22, 1839 . . Just, John. April 21, 1846 . . Kirkman, Rev. Thomas P. November i, 1797 . . Lambe, Dr. William. March 18, 1879 . Letourneux, Monsieur A. January 27, 1857 . . Lowe, E. J. 23, 1818 . . Lowe, John. October 21, 1808 . . Lowny, Wilson. January 12, 1810 . . Lyall, Robert. 25, 1793 . . Lyon, John. 442 Literary and Philosophical Society. DATE OF ELECTION. April 24, 1801 . 21, 1846 . October 29, 1861 . January 25, 1848 . 21, 1825 . April 28, 1797 . 19, 1864 . January 7, 1862 . April 26, 1793 . January 14, 1815 . October 16, 1807 . November i5> l8 33 April 26, 1822 . 93 29, 1851 . February 4, 1791 - November 1 8, 1808 . January 12, 1869 . April 20, 1798 . February 5, 1867 . April 17, 1838 . 19, 1821 . 29, 1796 . October 3, l8 35 - April 30. l8 39 - 26, 1799 . January 23, 1801 . October 21, 1808 . 1 8, 1816 . January 12, 1869 . 24, 1834 . 23, 1795 April 20, 1798 . 19* 1853 . January 21, I7QI . Maese, James, of Philadelphia. Marshall, Samuel, of Kendal. Maury, Captain M. F. Miller, John Fletcher. Milligan, Edward. Milne, James. Mitchell, Captain John. *Nasmyth, James. Nicholls, Francis. Otley, John. Percival, Edward. Perez, Dr. Perkins, Jacob. Pincoffs, Peter. Riddell, Mr. Roget, Dr. *Saint Venant, Barre de. Scherer, Dr. Alexander. *Schonfeld, Edward. Schouch, Daniel Koechlin. Scoresby, Captain William. Scott, Helenus. Sibson, Rev. Edmund. Sims, Oliver. Taunton, Mr. (Surgeon of the Corn- wall Fencible Cavalry). Thomas, James. Thomson, John. Turner, Rev. William, jun. Venant, Saint. * Watson, Henry Hough. Wemys, Major. Wilkinson, Charles. Wilkinson, T. T. Willis, Mr, 443 APPENDIX A. Page 7. I received the following from Mr. Morse Stephens, Oxford : ' The following short chronology of Marat's earlier life will show where there may be* a fragment of truth, and what is undoubtedly false. Marat was born 1743 at Neufchatel ; left home 1759 ; pub- lished " Essay on Man " 1773 in London. Here comes the great lacuna, from 1759-1773. He asserts that he travelled in France, spent some time at Bordeaux and Paris (the latter fact is certainly indicated by the pamphlet I have unearthed), spent a year in Holland, and then came to England. He states in his later writings that he spent eleven years in England : he undoubtedly went back to Paris, when he received his Court appointment in 1777 so that I date his arrival in England at 1766 or 1767. What did he do between 1766 and the publication of his book in 1773? He undoubtedly studied science much and read much, for his book on " Man " is full of classical and mediseval lore. He also thoroughly learnt English. I am inclined to think he spent those years studying medicine, and later in practice in London, as we find him a well-known doctor in 1776, and sufficiently famous to be summoned from England to fill a Court post at Paris in 1777. Now it is just possible that he may have taught French at the Unitarian Academy of Warrington in the earlier years of his stay, say 1767-69, though I should be inclined to doubt it. The point deserves investigation, and I should be glad if you could help me, but the latter part ot the extract is utterly impossible. The trial of Le Maitre for the robbery at the Ashmolean took place in 1778, when Marat was in Paris, writing scientific books, 444 Appendix. and a well-known person of fashion. The later part of the quo- tation falls with this, for we know every year of Marat's Paris life, when he used to entertain such men as Dr. Franklin. If the Mara of the Warrington Academy was that Marat, you must show he was not Le Maitre, no very difficult thing to do, as their identity, or the fact of Le Maitre's being Mara, is not alluded to at all in the trial. That done, the Mara of Warrington may be our Marat, for his original name was Mara, and he probably did not Gallicize it till he began to publish. I hope you will excuse this long rigma- role, but you have brought it on yourself by taking such a kindly interest in my work. Now if you can in any way manage to prove the years in which Mara was at Warrington, we can work tenta- tively on that basis ; and again, would it be too much to ask if you know anyone at Dublin, who would work up the Medical record between 1797 and 1773, to see if Marat took a degree there, or became a student there ? He declares he spent a year in Dublin, and it would be a great help to know when it was.' Still there is a problem. There is evidence that a similar name was in the Warrington Academy books, and later investigations have not found it. Has it been erased ? There was the Place called Mara's Walk in Warrington, from the Bridge to the Bank Quay. Mr. Bright, in volume xi. of the ' Transactions of the Historical Society of Lancashire and Cheshire,' says that he can- not find Marat's name in the minutes of the Academy, and thinks Mr. Turner must have made a mistake. Mr. R. D. Darbishire too cannot find the name. Still the general belief in Warrington and the name of the place, " Mara's walk," cannot be put aside along with Mr. Turner's words. But the best reason for believing in the difference of the men is perhaps in the Christian names. The revolutionist was Jean Paul, but we learn from Mr. Beamont (of Orford Hall, Warrington) that the name of the teacher there was Jean Pierre. Jeremiah Mara took his degree in arts in 1762 or 1773 in Dublin. 445 APPENDIX B. Page 202. The following summary has been sent me by Mr. Frank Nicholson : The Manchester Academy was instituted February 22, 1786, on which day a ' very respectable meeting of gentlemen ' unani- mously agreed that* ' an academy should be established in Man- chester, on a plan affording a full and systematic course of educa- tion for Divines, and preparatory instruction for the other learned professions, as well as for civil and commercial life. This insti- tution will be open to young men of every religious denomination, from whom no test or confession of faith will be required.' The first session was opened September 14, 1786, by an address from Rev. Thos. Barnes, D.D. (Professor of Hebrew, Metaphysics, Ethics, and Theology). Thomas Percival, M.D., F.R.S, was the first chairman. The Rev. Ralph Harrison (elected a member of the Literary and Philosophical Society, December 5, 1781 l ) was Professor of Classical Literature. The first name on the roll of regular students is James Percival ; further comes Peter Henry, also of Man- chester. In the next year (January 1787) Edward Holme, of Kendal (M.D., President of the Literary and Philosophical Society, 1844-47), an d (September 1787) William Henry (M.D., Vice- President 1817 onwards). In March 1788, Hector Mortier (of Catteau, near Cambray) was admitted. In a paper by the late J. Moore, Esq., F.L.S., in Harland's 'Collectanea' ('Chatham Society's Publications/ vol. Ixxii.) he is identified with Marshal Mortier, Due de Treviso, 1 See List, p. 33. 446 Appendix. killed by Fieschi's infernal machine in 1843. Probably, however, Hector was a younger brother of the Marshal. Lewis Loyd, admitted September 1789, was appointed assistant classical tutor in the Academy 1790-92. He afterwards became a banker, and was, I believe, the father of Samuel James Lloyd, the present and first Baron Overstone. In 1791 John Moore (President of the Literary and Philoso- phical Society, 1851-4, and F.L.S.) was admitted a student. In 1793 John Dalton was appointed tutor in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, and held that appointment until 1800. So the 'New College' (page 202) is the Manchester Academy, to which belongs the credit of having brought Dalton to Manchester. In 1796 (January 7), Samuel Hibbert was admitted a student, (afterwards Hibbert -Ware, M.D., author of ' The Foundations of Manchester,' etr.,). In 1798, the Rev. George Walker, F.R.S., became Professor of Theology (President of the Literary and Philosophical Society, 1805-6), and appears to have acted as Principal until 1803, when the Academy was removed to York, where it was carried on as * Manchester College, York,' until 1840. In that year it returned to Manchester as ' Manchester New College,' with Wallace Robberds, Kenrick, Martineau, J. J. Tayler, and Newman on its list of professors. In 1853, it removed to London, where, as 'Manchester New College, London,' it is now occupying University Hall, Gordon Square, W.C. 447 APPENDIX C E. W. BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. Our President, whilst this volume was printing, was Edward William Binney. He exercised a great deal of influence in the Society from his strong will and a general tone of common sense in his remarks, as well as from his position as the leading geologist in matters relating to the carboniferous rocks and coal. He was born at Morton, in Nottinghamshire, in 1812, and seems to have lost his father's care early, but a brother came to his help and enabled him to serve his apprenticeship to a solicitor in Chester- field. Afterwards he completed his study in London, and came to Manchester in 1836. It does not appear that he had then any love of geology when he arrived, but he had a belief that by studying questions relating to coal he might be largely employed by coal-owners. He was thus led to the science in which he took the deepest interest, and to the peculiar department of it which he never left. His capacity for long walks gave him a great advantage. He was tall and powerful, and he had no wish to seek society. Indeed, he always spoke in a disparaging manner of the usual social intercourse in the middle and upper ranks, and delighted in rambling over the county and mixing with the men he chanced to meet, studying their ways and learning their obser- vations. It was in this way that he came to take much interest in the scientifically inclined working man, and he had a particular pride in speaking more highly of him than of the more learned or elaborately trained. Indeed, it was his opinion that to be a 448 Appendix. straightforward man and to observe well, seeing clearly the way before one, was the most pleasant object in life. That he himself was fitted for clear and accurate, as well as long-continued and patient observation, soon became manifest, and we have a list of papers written by him and extending over forty-two years, and 134 in number. Except during a few of those earlier years, when John Leigh, F.R.C.S., now medical officer of health, and then his intimate friend, was his fellow lodger, he lived at Cheetham Hill (Man- chester), attracted by its sandy soil, but spent his days at his business, or in reading at the Athenaeum, or in attending to the affairs of this Society, in which he took a deeper interest than any member, if we are to judge by the trouble he took in direct- ing its minutest details, so that for many years little was done without his will. His attention to business was so great that for thirty years he had not been absent from it for a fortnight at a time. He attended well the meetings of the British Association for many years, and at the Geological and Palasontological Societies was well-known as a contributor, whilst his studies of the flora and wood of the coal measures have helped greatly to make an important era in our knowledge. The writer must leave a geologist to sum up his labour and define his position as a scientific man. Of the 134 papers of which we have a list, some are certainly only slight notices, but others show laborious search, and have been left unfinished. He joined Mr. Young in beginning works for the manufacture of paraffin oil, adding his savings to the small amount that was available at the time, after Mr. Young (now Dr. Young, of Kelly) had found it necessary to have aid in order to enlarge his estab- lishment and begin his Scottish works, the supply of oil in Derbyshire having failed. The firm was in our town called by the name of E. W. Binney & Co. The partnership continued during the existence of the patent, and Mr. Binney retired with a handsome sum, which he greatly increased by his investments. He spent a large portion of his later years at Douglas, in the Isle of Man, where his house, Ravenscliff, gave him a fine view of the Bay and of the sea, and was still to a great degree sheltered. E. W. Binney. 449 Mr. Binney was a remarkable man. He knew many people, but visited few, but to these few he was very strongly attached, whilst his tenacity of purpose prevented him from having sympathies with many, and caused him to put many people in an attitude of opposition without making them enemies. In science he read very widely, but never wrote on anything outside the first field of his geological interest. He had a peculiar horror, even loathing, for men who made a display, and, although a rich man, he lived in great simplicity. He admired great men it is true, but his chief love was for the poor man who gained knowledge, although finding it difficult to gain bread. Thus he took up the case of Samuel Bamford, the author of 'The Life of a Radical,' and did not cease till he induced the Government to grant him a sum from the Civil List. A similar kindly feeling prompted him to great attention to the botanist, the author df ' The Flora of Manchester,' a remarkable man, who was known to Mr. Binney only when age had over- taken him. For many years Mr. Buxton sat for hours daily in the office reading. He was a shoemaker, and a poor man, and had never made above ten shillings a week all his life, and he lived of course in a poor street. It was remarkable, however, how fine his taste was, and how well informed he was found on all subjects, an educated gentleman, timid and shy as a child. Mr. Binney helped him to have his book published, and to obtain for it a fair sale. The delicacy of his treatment of this man was remarkable when men of great importance in the eyes of society were sent away with a growl. His pleasure in promoting and attending meetings of the scientific working-men was great. It has already been mentioned, when speaking of Mr. Sturgeon, that the small annuity obtained was owing to the persistency of Mr. Binney. Still a purely benevolent life would have been most distaste- ful to Mr. Binney ; he was a man of business and a geologist. Geology had at an early period put out of his mind much of his knowledge of other sciences, and his attention to the many affairs on hand very much in later years interfered with his geology. He has left a fine collection of geological specimens, and a fortune G G 45O Appendix. to his wife and family, consisting of three sons as well as three daughters. It was his strong desire to have the rooms of the Society retained, but enlarged ; and he intended to assist in raising a fund of five thousand pounds for this purpose, and also for obtaining the services of a librarian and editor. The Society has certainly suffered by his loss in this respect, but it has not the less suffered by the absence of his face and the full sympathy and clear sense which he introduced into so much of the work of the Society, although we often thought that, liberal as he was in politics, time had made him too conservative of some of our forms. Professor W. C. Williamson mentions as the first appearance of Mr. Binney as a geologist, a paper read by him in 1835 in con- junction with John Leigh, F.R.C.S. This paper was * On Fossils found in the Red Marl at Newtown, in the valley of the Irk.' The earliest paper recorded seems to be in the Trans, of the Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 35, entitled a 'Sketch of the Geology of Manchester and its Vicinity.' It was the work of three years, and showed in a remarkable degree the energy of the author's character. It was followed rapidly by others, on the coalfields of Lancashire and Cheshire, on the marine shells of the Lancashire coalfields, and on the fossil fishes. The inquiries which were of most interest to him were the constitution of coal and the conditions under which it grew. Next to these subjects came the action of glaciers and icebergs in distributing clay and boulders over the two counties especially in which he took interest. He calculates the Lancashire and Cheshire coalfield as 6,600 feet in thickness, commencing with the lowest millstone grit and terminating with the red clays of Ardwick and Manchester. He says, ' In all the floors which I have examined, which are eighty- four in number, remains of Stigmaria ficoides have been found/ Again, he says, ' Coal floors show no evidence of strong currents of water necessary to drift forests of timber from neighbouring lands, but have every appearance of a hardened mud brought by sluggish water with scarcely any current.' Continuing to extract a few sentences from the paper on the origin of coal, vol. viii. of the Society's Mem. New Series, we have E. W. Binney. 45! 1 Nearly all the coal seams more or less display evidence of common coal plants, especially Stigmaria, Sigillaria, and Lepidodendra, pul- verulent carbonaceous matter like charcoal, or show woody struc- ture under the microscope. On the other hand, the roofs or strata immediately above the seams of coal nearly always present some evidence of currents of water. Sandstone roofs present exactly such an appearance as a strong current of water flowing over a tract of luxuriant vegetation would now produce, namely, prostrate trees lying in all directions, mingled with sand.' 1 The black shale roofs indicate even a more quiet and gentle flow of water than those composed of lime We find that the strong currents of the lower field were not favourable to the formation of thick and numerous seams of coal, but that the tranquil and quiet waters of the middle one were; while the waters of the upper field, although equally quiet and tranquil, having been charged with peroxide of iron and carbonate of lime, were not favourable to the formation of thick and valuable seams.' ' The occurrence of thick seams of coal lying amidst the most tranquil of aqueous deposits, and the rareness of such seams in the coarse gritstones of the lower field, seem to prove anything but that the vegetable matter now forming coal was drifted into the places where it is found ; else we should expect fully as great if not a greater amount of vegetable matter, where we find evidence of a stronger current.' ' Wherever the plants grew the strata in which they were found were no doubt deposited from water, and show no evidence of having been dry land When the deposits were in a plastic state the animals walked across it and left their tracks ; subsequently the sun or air, by desiccating the clay, produced wide tracks, and the water at length returning again filled both the feet marks and cracks, and made a beautiful cast of them in sand.' Mr: Binney describes some in this paper, and others found by himself are described in a paper entitled, ' On some Trails and Holes found in Rocks of the Carboniferous Strata, &c.' ('Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc.,' vol. for 1852.) It has sometimes been stated that Mr. Binney owed his fortune to his knowledge of coal, because he was associated with Mr. Young in the manufacture of paraffin oil, and because he had ob- G G 2 452 Appendix. served petroleum coming from a peat bed at Down Holland, near Ormskirk. This is a mistake. Dr. Lyon Playfair's statement is correct that he received the account of the flow of petroleum in a coalfield belonging to his brother-in-law, Mr. Oakes, at Alfreton, in Derbyshire, and told Mr. Young of it. That has long been in print and well known, and it is strange that whilst the actors are still living a new story should turn up. Mr. Binney was a friend of Young's, and was taken to see the spring, but not till after it was actually being utilised. When it was exhausted after about two years, a new source was looked for, but even then Mr. Binney did not assist, as the Boghead cannel was shown to Mr. Young by Mr. Bartholomew, then manager of the City and Suburban Gasworks, Glasgow, and now, if not then, a coal-owner in Scotland. This evidence was given at a trial in Edinburgh, was never questioned, but other notions have quietly intruded themselves. Mr. Binney's opinions on coal and peat were taken up as Mr. Bowman left them, and the difference may be judged by the follow- ing quotations. Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society ', Vol. I., p. 92. On the Origin of Coal; and the Geological Conditions under which it was produced. By J. E. Bowman , F.G.S. and F.L.S. Read January 30, 1840. 1 . . . . But the experiments of Dr. MacCulloch following those of Hatchett and other previous investigators, have since so satisfactorily proved its vegetable origin, that I shall only need to touch briefly on this division of my subject. 1 In the ordinary process of vegetable putrefaction and destruc- tion, a variety of compound gases are formed by the reaction of their elements, and carbon alone, or rather carbon united to a portion of hydrogen, remains behind. The experiments thus alluded to are in perfect harmony with this natural process, and have proved the following facts: That all vegetables, including wood, are chiefly composed of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon ; that in peat, which is the first or incipient stage of their decay produced by the action of water, the two latter elements form a hydro -carbonaceous compound, which communicates its brown E. W. JSinney. 453 colour to water j that peat itself does not appear to contain any bitumen, but that this latter substance in some of its modifications, as asphaltum, mineral tar, oil, or naphtha, is generated by the slow conversion and formation of the hydro-carbonaceous compound under pressure, during which the complete separation of the hydrogen from the carbon that takes place, and the consolidation of the latter, is completed ; this, however, is a slow process, and a lengthened time is necessary to complete it. That bituminised wood, Surturbrand, Bovey coal, &c., as well as vegetables and peat, contain hydrogen and carbon, and .in greater proportion according to the degree of closeness and pressure to which they have been subjected under beds of soil, clay, &c.; that a sufficient length of time being allowed, mere pressure and exclusion from the atmosphere are sufficient to convert bituminised peat and lignite into coal ; and > lastly, that the action of air and water on vegetable substances is similar to that of fire, though much slower and less complete.' Page 105. ' My opinion is simply this. That the trees and vegetables from which the beds of coal are derived, grew on the identical spots the latter now occupy, when each bed was suc- cessively the surface, and probably but little raised above the level of the waters, either as detached islands or extensive plains or savannahs ; that these surfaces, during the settling of the earth's crust, were one after another submerged and covered with sedi- ments from turbid waters, or with drifted clay, sand, and shells which buried up the plants ; that these sedimentary deposits gradually accumulated till they formed a new surface, which in time produced another growth of plants and trees, and after a second period of rest were in their turn submerged and covered up by other deposits ; and that similar intervals of repose with intermittent occasional subsidences, were repeated during the entire period of the coal formation. As each vegetable surface sunk beneath the waters, it gradually became converted into coal by processes already explained, and the successive deposits of mud and sand became consolidated into shales and sandstones.' Page 1 08. ' There is a peculiarity in the texture of coal which has not received the attention it deserves. If it be closely ex- amined, it will be found to consist of a series of parallel horizontal 454 Appendix. laminse, varying in thickness from the fourth to the sixteenth of an inch, often adhering closely together, but sometimes with an in- termediate layer of fibrous glossy charcoal, in broken portions, which causes it to separate easily. These laminae are best ob- served in the cross fracture, and often exhibit considerable dif ference in compactness and lustre, some being so much more bituminous and shining than others, that they may be traced for a great length. This structure, though in some coal seams indistinct, is so general that it seems to point to some law which the chemical geologist might advantageously investigate.' It is not meant to assert that these views expressed by Mr. Bowman were original, but they are put in his own words to show the steps by which Mr. Binney was led to his own views regarding both the origin of coal and conditions of peat. Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society. Vol. VIII. Session 1868-69. On the Petroleum found in the Down Holland .Mass, near Ormskirk. By E. W. Binney and John Hawks head Talbot. Read March 30, 1843. Page 46. ' On the composition and origin of the petroleum. .... Although it is by no means uncommon to find traces of an oily matter floating upon the surface of the water that drains out of peat bogs in the low mosses of Lincolnshire and other parts of England, the authors believe that the occurrence of peat so strongly impregnated with petroleum as that found in Down Holland has not yet been noticed. Page 47. * On first inspecting the peat, the authors imagined that the petroleum had its origin from some spring which flowed up through the moss from a fissure in the strata underneath ; but after examining these deposits, composed of silty clay, sand, till, and most probably portions of the new red sandstone formation, and finding the lower bed of peat not only destitute of petroleum, but quite dry, they became convinced that the oil could not have come from below. They next considered that it might possibly proceed from a spring which rose out of the higher land at Halsall or Down Holland, and then flowed down into the moss ; but the peat on the eastern side, although moist and nearest to E. W. Binney. 455 the source of any spring flowing from that part (if such were the case), was totally destitute of petroleum. The only remarkable feature connected with the upper bed of peat is the western portion of it being covered up with a bed of sand, and being probably sometimes subject to an infiltration of sea- water, accord- ing to Mr. Harkness's information. These circumstances, added to the fact of the petroleum being found most plentifully at the edge of the sand, lead the authors to the conclusion that it is produced by the decomposition of the upper bed of peat under the sand. 'The chemical process by which such singular effects have been produced is a subject more fitted for the consideration of the chemist than the geologist, but the authors suppose that the petroleum is the result of slow combustion in the peat, and has been produced by a process partly analogous to that which takes place in the destructive distillation of wood in close vessels, where, owing to a total absence of oxygen, the combination of hydrogen and carbon, in the form of hydro-carbons, is effected.' At a meeting of the Manchester Geological Society, Decem- ber 18, 1860, a paper was read on the same subject by Mr. Binney. A note says, ' .... I cannot suppose but that it must have been produced by a process partly analogous to that which takes place in the destructive distillation of wood in close vessels, where, owing to the limited or total absence of oxygen, the combination of hydrogen and carbon in the form of hydro- carbons is effected.' In explaining the decomposition of peat Mr. Binney quotes Liebig's opinions concerning slow combustion, and wishes to show that hydro-carbons may be formed in peat in this way ; but it seems as if .Mr. Bowman's views were as clear on the subject as Liebig's, and they were published in January, 1840, whilst Liebig's preface dates from September of the same year. Liebig does not allude to peat, but to organic substances generally. The views, however, of Mr. Bowman and Mr. Binney are not well supported ; we do not know of any formation of hydro-carbons other than gaseous by the decay of woody fibre. Both seem to have forgotten that peat contains resinous matter in considerable amount. Still this has always been found very solid, and we cannot wonder that 456 Appendix. when the woody fibre decays the resin should remain, but we have still a difficulty as to the oily matter, which has not yet, so far as we remember, been found in ordinary peat. 1 The most important work undertaken by Mr. Binney, and carried out with great pertinacity so far as he could spare time from his business, was the explanation of the position which the principal coal plants have to each other. A most important feature in the inquiry was the proof that the so-called Stigmaria were the roots of the Sigillaria and also of allied genera such as the Lepidodendron. The discovery of a number of specimens new to geologists put him in a peculiarly favourable position, and this position he held for many years, whilst he somewhat slowly produced his description. It is from these, his most elaborate, as well as somewhat late papers, that we shall cull extracts, giving in his own words the position which he claimed for himself. Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester, Vol. VIII. New Series. III. On the Origin of Coal. Read December i, 1846, by E. W. Binney. Page 172. 'The long processes radiating in quincuncial order from the Stigmaria to a considerable distance did not allow of its being so easily drifted, therefore it was allowed to have grown in the position where it is found, and called an aquatic plant. As it was always met with in the coal floors, it was supposed to have been a kind of harbinger of dry land, filling up, by its rapid growth, the swamps until a bed of soil was formed for the growth of the larger trees, like the Sigillaria, &c. This view was taken by many authors, who represented the vegetable matter, now forming coal, to have grown on the spots where it is now found on dry land.' Page 173. 'As before stated, the seams of coal are generally found lying upon a fine deposit of hardened clay or silt, indicating great quietude in its formation, and scarcely any trace of a current. 1 The author gave this view in < A Study of Peat,' Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc. vol. v. 3rd series, p. 330. He has also shown that the resinous of hydro-carbonaceous matter can be found in the mosses from which the peat was formed, E. W. Binney. 457 In fact, we have in the floor a fine rich soil, well calculated to have produced a luxuriant crop of vegetation, full of immense numbers of Stigmaria ficoides, now proved by the trees of St. Helen's and Dukinfield to be nothing more than the roots of Sigillaria. 1 So their presence under the seams of coal is now fully accounted for, being merely the roots in situ of the forests of Sigillaria, that have chiefly formed the beds of coal found lying above them. These fossils are of great value in accounting for the true formation of coal seams, and must for ever do away with the drift hypothesis, so far as concerns those seams in which they are found in the floors, and establish the rival theory which attributes the formation of coal seams to vegetable matter, grown upon the identical places where it is now found.' Page 175. * Although the stems of Sigillaria have been generally noticed in the roofs of coal seams, it is by no means to be inferred that they are not to be found in other portions of the carboniferous strata. They no doubt have been found more frequently in the roof than other places ; but that part can be better examined than other strata in a mine. The fossil trees at St. Helen's, all Sigillaria, were four in number, and occurred in a deposit of grey indurated silty clay, lying about eighteen yards two feet above a foot coal, and fourteen yards one foot under a yard seam ; the bases of the stems lying about eight feet above a white gritstone rock, and the stems proceeding upwards in the warren, which was completely traversed, as far as it could be traced, by Stigmaria ficoides ; so if the whole of the rock had been on in the quarry, the stems would probably have reached up to the Roger seam of coal.' Page 177. * Lately has been discovered in the floor of the Victoria Mine, Dukinfield, near Manchester, at the depth of eleven hundred feet from the surface, a magnificent specimen of Sigillaria, which exhibits in the stem the respective characters of the species pachyderma, reneformis, and organum, and true Stigmariae traced eighteen or twenty feet as its roots. The stem was about two feet high, and could not be traced into the coal 1 Phil. Mag. for March 1844, and October 1845 ; also Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society for Nov. 1846. - .. - T *--\( 458 Appendix. and cannel seam above. Four main roots appeared to have proceeded from the base, but only one has been preserved entire and lodged in the museum of the Manchester Geological Society. This, after proceeding some distance, divides into two roots, and each of these latter into two more, which run in a horizontal direction as Stigmaria, at a depth of two feet under the coal. Their extremities have not been reached, although they were traced upwards of twenty feet' Page 194. * We are at present in want of a correct vertical section of the earth's crust, showing the materials composing its various beds, and the nature of their organic remains. When this is supplied, we shall be enabled to trace back the physical history of our globe, and furnish the mathematician with data from which to calculate, with absolute certainty, the changes which have taken place in the solid particles of our planet, and to determine whether some of the most important of them have not been effected by the slow and silent process of the radiation of heat, rather than by more actively energetic causes.' Carboniferous Flora. Part II. Observations on the Structure of Fossil Plants found in the Carboniferous Strata. Memoirs of the Palaontographical Society, 1871. This treats of Lepido- dendron, Lepidostrobus, and Flemingites with their relation to Sigillaria. Page 33. '. . . One good specimen showing the organs of fructification connected with the stem and foliage of the plant is worth any number of detached fragments. It has been my good fortune to become possessed of a specimen showing such three portions of a plant ; and therefore it has occurred to me that no time should be lost in describing it, although in due order, prob- ably, it ought to have been delayed to a later portion of the monograph.' Page 60. ' ... This monograph, no doubt the reader will have perceived, was intended to be of a descriptive character rather than an attempt to trace the analogy of those plants, the remains of which have formed our valuable beds of coal, with living vegetables. My endeavours have been to collect materials 459 and give them to the public for botanists to work upon. The subject is surrounded with difficulties ; and, although it has been my good fortune to meet with many specimens in a fair state of preservation, the specimen, as a rule, when the internal structure is well preserved, is in a fragmentary condition, and when several parts of a plant are found connected together we are not favoured with structure, as is the case of the beautiful fossil plant last described.' Carboniferous Flora. Part IV. 1875, PP- 9^ and 99. General Observations on Sigillaria^ Anabathra, Diploxylon, and Stig- maria. ' Ever since the time when the Fossil plants of the coal measures first attracted attention, Sigillaria has occupied a chief place in the minds of botanists : for it is to be met with in the strata near most seams of coal, in a more or less perfect state of preservation. The trunks of this genus are of two kinds, namely, those distinctly ribbed and furrowed with leaf-scars on the ribs at greater or less distances, and those with the leaf-scars contiguous, and covering the whole surface of the trunk \ both having them in a spiral arrangement around the axis. Nearly one hundred species have been described by different authors, who have made numerous species out of the same trunk ; various parts of it being in a bad or good state of preservation. No doubt, when we are better acquainted with the true nature of the plant, the number of species will be greatly reduced. ' For a long time Sigillaria and Stigmaria were regarded as dis- tinct genera of plants, and even now, on the Continent, some dis- tinguished palaeontologists are disposed to remain of that opinion. In the specimens first described by me, in the " Philosophical Magazine" for 1844,* which were found in Mr. Littler's quarry, near St. Helen's, Stigmaria was clearly traced to the trunks of the large, irregularly ribbed and furrowed Sigillarise, showing little, if any, traces of leaf-scars ; but it was there distinctly stated that around these trunks smaller trunks were found standing, which 1 Phil Mag., ser. 3, vol. xxiv. p. 168 ; and 1845, vol. xxvii. p. 241, &c, 460 Appendix. showed all the characters of Sigillaria reniformis, with Stigmaria rootlets in the adjoining strata, pointing in the direction of the root, but not absolutely proved to be connected with it. On viewing the specimens as they originally stood in the quarry be- fore their removal, little doubt could be entertained as to all the trees there found having had Stigmarise for their roots. In some specimens, however, afterwards described by me in the " Philo- sophical Magazine " for 1847, ser. 3, vol. xxxi. p. 259, the connec- tion of Stigmaria, as a root, with Sigillaria reniformis, S. alternans, and S. organum, was clearly proved. 1 ' The regularly ribbed and furrowed Sigillaria, with distinct leaf- scars, generally found flattened and compressed in the sandstones and shales, are seldom of so large a size as those irregularly ribbed and furrowed stems described by me under the name Sigillaria vascularis, sometimes attaining seven feet in diameter. In the fossil forests of trees standing erect in the coal-measures, which have come under my observation, nearly all belong to the last- named genus. In the Pemberton Hill cutting, on the railway between Wigan and Liverpool, six out of thirty stems, from one to two feet in diameter, exhibited the scars of Sigillaria reniformis, S, alternans, and S. organum, the remaining twenty-four belonging to S. vascularis. On the numerous fossil trees found in cutting the Clay -Cross tunnel, on the Midland Railway, near Chesterfield, in the specimens found in the deep pit at Pendleton, some of which were more than fifty feet in height in that from the Victoria pit, Dukinfield, now in the Manchester Museum ; in those on the Manchester and Bolton Railway at Dixon Fold, described by Messrs. Hawkshaw and Bowman ; and in the large stems from the Trap-Ash, of Laggan Bay, discovered by Mr. Wiinsch there was no evidence of distinct leaf-scars, but only irregular ribs and furrows. All the specimens except the last-named were seen and examined by me in situ. The only example of a very large Sigillaria showing distinct leaf-scars, which has come under my observation, is specimen "No. 49 " of Sigillaria reniformis, now in the Museum of the School of Mines in Jermyn Street. Unfor- tunately, all the above-mentioned specimens, except those from 1 See also Quart. Journal of Geol. Soc., vol. ii. p. 391. JB. W. Binney. 461 Laggan Bay, afford no traces of internal structure. These last, however, some of which are about two feet in diameter, afford evidence of the structure of the thick inner bark, termed by me the outer radiating cylinder, and the woody or inner radiating cylinder of barred tubes, containing vascular bundles and medullary rays, enclosing a medulla, composed of barred tubes, in all respects exactly similar in structure to the large Sigillaria vascularis, with irregular ribs and furrows, described by me in the " Philosophical Transactions," l and the smaller specimens, exhibiting on their outsides scars of Lepidodendra, described in the " Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society." 2 These large and small specimens gradually pass one into the other, as numerous specimens in my cabinet, in addition to those figured, amply testify. Many persons have become accustomed to class my small specimens, the first ever described showing a medulla of vascular tubes, as Lepidodendron, from their external characters, without regarding their inner radiating cylinder and its singular medulla, so totally different in arrangement to the vascular Cylinder and medulla of orthosenchymatous tissue of Lepido- dendron Harcourtii, before described in this monograph/ Page 1 45 '. . . When Brongniart described his Sigillaria elegans, the Rev. Mr. Harcourt's Lepidodendron, Lindley and Button's Stigmaria, and Mr. Witham's Anabathra, he had before him all the materials then known for examining the structure of those plants that the coal-measures had afforded. Subsequently Corda added the Diploxylon cycadoideum. Then Goeppert described his Stig- maria with the vascular bundles in the pith. But in all these specimens, except the last, the structure of the piths was more or less wanting. The first time that anything was published as to stems with vascular tubes in their piths was in my paper in the " Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society," and this was further extended in my memoir in the " Philosophical Transactions," where were described larger specimens of Sigillaria vascularis and Diploxylon cycadoideum, all showing structure similar to that of the smaller ones first described, with the exception of the Diploxylon having the edges of the woody bundles of the inner radiating cylinder 1 For 1865, p. 579 tt stq> a Vol. xviiu 1862, p, ni, tha 462 Appendix. slightly lunette-shaped, and running into the pith, like those described by Corda in his specimen, but in a less degree ' .... It appears to me desirable for the present to limit the genus Lepidodendron to the old type; and, therefore, I object to Mr. Carruthers taking my small specimens as Lepidodendron, and Professor Williamson taking my large as Diploxylon vasculare. My names are only provisional, but I think it better that they should remain until we know more of the fructification of the plant.' Page 146. '. . . . In examining the structure of coal-measure plants we labour under great difficulties, owing to the fragmentary state of the specimens, and we have to collect evidence gradually and with patience. It has never been my practice to pretend to do much more than to collect the best specimens, and to carefully describe them, in accordance with the advice of that great botanist, the late Dr. Robert Brown, who more than once stated to me that such was the course he should recommend, and which he himself would adopt. To other more experienced botanists is left the task of comparing the ancient with the modern flora.' It is therefore clear that Mr. Binney did not consider that he had finished the subject ; and who can finish a subject? Other men more experienced in vegetable morphology have taken it up, and to them, and notably to Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., the task of continuing the observations of Mr. Binney is left, and in continuing we of course expect that improvement is part of the labour. Prof. Williamson has on several occasions objected to the views of Mr. Binney, who certainly did not pretend to a great knowledge of botany and vegetable physiology. This was not pleasant to Mr. Binney, but progress must be made, and Prof. Williamson spoke in the true spirit of a friend as well as of a scientific man. Mr. Binney's views on many subjects were opposed to those of the community, and he never fully recognised the value of careful training. He certainly preferred the work of the student who was not trained academically. He was irritated by the destruction of the Natural History Society and by the removal of the. Geological Museum to the Owens College. He was afraid ,t the Literary and Philosophical Society might be nullified in E. W. Binney. 463 a similar manner, and determined to make it independent. Un- fortunately he waited too long. His views are preserved in a speech he made at the Geological Society on the transference of its museum. It is in the proceedings of that Society as follows : ( Vol. VIII. Annual Meeting held in Museum, Peter Street, on Tuesday, October 27, 1868. G. C. Greenwell, Esq., F.G.S., President, in the chair.) Page 10. Mr. Binney : f You are to consider what, in the event of getting rid of your museum, you are to do for a meeting place for this Society. There is now no Natural History Society. I hold that geology is to be advanced as a science, not merely by young boys in classes at college, but by practical amateur culti- vators. Manchester has always stood preeminent for working scientific men. What have we to hope from Owens College with regard to our Society? Look back to see what its professors have done for us. When we are in the city of Dalton, the Henrys, Hodgkinson, Roberts, and a host of men who have raised it to its present position, why should we look to universities or colleges ? What help has been received from them in building up this great hive of industry ? It has nearly all been done by amateurs and practical men. I should like to ask gentlemen connected with the coal trade of Lancashire what assistance they have had from professors of science, either at Owens or any other college ; or what they expect for the advancement of the sciences of geology and mining from colleges, or young boys brought up at colleges ? A college certainly can educate a man, no one doubts that ; and a good man when well educated will be better than one without education ; but still, it is impossible to have men made to order by colleges and other similar institutions. I consider that a city and a district like ours should have a Geological Society with a museum independent of a college. The latter may give a taste for geology, but for the advancement of the science a society is needed.' Although beginning with an objection to colleges, he acknow- ledges their value before he ends. But he ceased to attend the meetings of the Geological Society here. 464 Appendix. The character of Mr. Binney was a remarkable one : he had many of the characteristics of a great man, many of those of a little one. He would often take a wonderful pleasure in pleasing, and often seemed not to care how he hurt. He admired progress, but kept his habits unchanged, and his opinions, right or wrong, on almost all subjects and persons ; he admired nature, yet he never made a journey much out of his way to see any of the great and beautiful things of the world. He had some fine poetic feelings as to the condition of creation, and some large views, but he never read books of literature, and was contented with those early known to him. He was really shy, and one may say in a sense, timid, yet roused he was defiant of every one. He was a gentle and pleasant companion, a most uncompromising foe. He was a most careful observer of many things, and yet not diligent enough to write them down ; he delighted to cogitate on subjects without noting the results. Mr. Binney died at Cheetham Hill, Manchester, on December 19, 1881. Dr. Joule presented the Society with an admirable portrait of Mr. Binney by Mr. W. H. Johnson, and it hangs on the walls of the meeting room as a characteristic remembrance of a man who has been a friend, pleasant, sympathetic and wise, during an inti- macy which to a few of us in the Society has lasted nearly forty years, His family have reason to thank him, and scientific history will not soon forget his labours among vegetation of the past, illustrating calm days in which coal grew to enrich us, or among the boulders and till, explaining the method in which they were deposited, making for us a pleasant or interesting land to dwell in. 465 APPENDIX D. Account of some Remarkable Facts observed in the Deoxidation of Metals, particularly Silver and Copper, by Samuel Lucas, Esq., of Sheffield (Read March 6, 1818). In a letter to Mr. Dalton. Memoirs of Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manchester, vol. viii. Page 271. . . . 'Dear Sir, When I had the pleasure of seeing you in Manchester, I mentioned having observed that pure silver, when melted and while in a fluid state, had the property of uniting with a small proportion of oxygen, not only from the atmosphere, but also from other bodies which gave it out at a suitable degree of heat, as some of the nitrates for instance ; and that the oxygen thus absorbed remains united with the silver only so long as it continues in a fluid state, or while fluid, until some substance be applied having a more powerful attraction for the oxygen. In proof of this I now send for your inspection a few specimens of silver that has been in the different states, and which carry the external marks ; and also a bottle of the gas collected from silver, which had been exposed to the influence of the atmosphere by cupellation.' . . . Page 2 7 2. ... 'If, instead of cooling gradually, it be made to assume the solid state suddenly by pouring it into water, still the same phenomena occur ; an ebullition takes place, and oxygen gas is evolved ; but as the silver is so much divided and passes so suddenly from the fluid to a solid state, the protuberances are proportionally minute, and are spread more equally over the whole surface, as will be seen in specimen No. 2.' ... Page 273. . . ( Thus, if charcoal be spread, for a few moments H H 466 Appendix. only, on the surface of silver that has absorbed oxygen, the whole of the oxygen will immediately be taken from it ; no ebullition or escape of gas occurs, whether it be cooled gradually, as in speci- men No. 4, or when poured into water as in No. 5.' ... Page 274 (note). I found this gas to contain 86 or 87 per cent, of oxygen. J. D. I N D EX. JES A ESCHYLUS, 97 I~\ African slave trade, no Aikin, Dr. John, jun., 6 - Dr. John, sen., 8 Air, 6 1, 80 condensation and rarefaction, 197 velocity of, 197 Allen, Mr., in, 124 Alston, Dr., 109 Alum, 114 Amber, 180 American war, 185 Ammonia, 61 Ampere, 274 Amusement, places of, 351 Anaximenes, 207 Ancients, 188 electricity amongst the, 180 Anderson, Dr., 193 Mr. W., 300 Anti-Corn-Law League, 318 Antrim, 108 Apparitions, 177 Arago, 274 Arians, 12 Art, 79,85 Arts and Sciences, College of, 164 Aruns, Etruscan, 181 Ashmolean Museum, 8 Ashton, Dr., 128 old church, 154 Athenaeum, 276 Atmosphere, the, 203, 205 Atomic theory, 2, 5, 206 et seq.^ 344, 358 */ seq. BEL Atom, vortex, 212 Atoms, 205, 338 Atonement, doctrine of, 12 Attwood, 246, 247 Aurora borealis, 270, 272 Axioms, definition of, 184 Aytoun, General, 128 Alexander, 1 28 BAILEY, W. H., 325, 327, 328 Bamford, Samuel, 449 Bank, Liverpool and District, 3i8 of Manchester, 318 Banks, Mr., 197 Sir Joseph, 315 Barbauld, Mrs., 7, 8, 13, 190 Bardsley, Dr. Samuel Argent, 70, 192 Barker's mill, 252, 255 Barlow, W. H., 194 Barnes, Dr., no, 161 Bartholomew, Mr., 452 Bateman, John Fred., 264 Baumd, in Baxendell, Joseph, 346 Baxter, Edwin, 318 Beamont, Mr., 446 William, 6 Beddoe, Dr., 351 Bell, Dr. Charles, 107 Dr. George, 76, 107, 139 Graham, 193 John, 309, 324 Melville, 193 Sir Charles, 107 468 Index. BEN Benedict, Arnold, 312 Berard, 338 Bergman, 114, 213 Bernoulli!, Daniel, 305, 331 David, 205 John, 246, 249 Berthollet, 225 Betting in Manchester, 162 Bew, Mr., 100, no Bewley, George, 199 Bible, the, 178 Bidental, 181 Binney, E. W., 267, 287, 292, 296, 346, 447 Black, Dr., 124, 213 Blackwall, John, 329 Blades, Thomas, 192 Bleaching, 83, 98 Blindness, 100 Bodies, affinity of, 216, 218 specific heat of, 343 Boerhaave's chemistry, 108 Bonnet, Mr., 144 Borda, 248 Boroughreeve, 171 Boscovich, 211 Bossut, 248, 249 Bottomley, Dr. James, 171, 183, 184, 196, 246 Boulton and Watt, 303, 310 Bower, Mr. Miles, 131 Bowman, J. E., 452 Bowring, Sir John, 316 Boyle, Hon. Robert, 195 and Mariotte's law, 334 Braid, Dr., 176 Bridgewater Canal, 306 Britannia and Conway tubular bridges, 261 British Association, 280 Brougham, Lord, 124 .Brown, Mr. Charles, 303 Sir Thomas, 37 Buat, Mr., 249 Buchan, Alexander, 203 Buckingham, John Silk, 316 Burgess, Dr., 192 Burke, Mr., 172 Burnet, Bishop, 195 COM /CALCAREOUS earth, in \+^ Caloric, 281 Cambridge, University of, 99 Campbell, Mr., 292 Dr., 64, 192 Camper, 150 Camper's Facial Angle, 144 Carbolic acid, 72 Carboniferous Flora, 458 Carding engine, 314 Carlyle's Reminiscences, 323 Carra, Mr., 171 Carter Miss, 190 Cast iron, strength of, 259 Cavendish, Lord George, 192 Cavern, subterraneous, 154 Centrifugal Railway, 328 Chad wick, Edwin, 241 Chain floats, endless, 306 Chapel, Oldham Street, 129 Chemical affinity, 340 essays, 113 Chemistry, 100 lectures, 101 new system of, 230 system of, 125 theory of, 5 - utility of, 82 Chowbent, 13 Cicero, 188 Civil government, 188 Clare, Peter, 294 Clark, E., 261 Clark's process of purifying water, 109 Clausius, 205, 334, 345 Clegg, Mr., 327 Clocks, 328 Cloth, 99 Clyde Canal, 301 Coalfields, 450 Coal gas, composition of, 125 Coal, origin of, 452 consumption of, 51, 61 Cold, essay on, 17 Collier, Mr., 173 Colour, 189, 193 Colour-blindness, 202 Colours, perception of, 188 Commission, Ecclesiastical, 321 index. 469 COM Commissioners' Report, 264 Commission, Royal, 63 Condorcet, 190, 249 Conductor, lightning, 181 Congle^on, 103 Congress, non-intercourse, Act of, 313 Constitutional Society, 122, 171 Cooper, Thomas, 171, 188 Copland, Alexander, 191 Corday, Charlotte, 7 Corn, 105 Cotton, 113 Cremation, prehistoric, 191 Criticism, elements of, 94 Crompton, Dr., 199 Cromwell, Thomas, 44 Crosthwaite, Peter, 192 Crystal, 5 Cullen, Dr., 213 Currie, Dr., 122, 139, 21.3, 243 Curtis, Captain, 300 Cylinders, rotating electro- magnetic, 269 DADE, Rev. Mr., 43 et seq. D'Alembert, 249 Dalton, Jonathan, 199, 211 -John, 24, 78, 100, 125, 126, 127, 183, 193, 197, 198, 228 et seq., 250, 283, 290, 330, 344, 349 Dancer, Mr., 292 Danforth, Mr., 314 Darbishire, R. D., 446 Darwin, Charles, 142 Darwinism, 145 Davy, 274, 333 Deaths of persons above seventy, 119 Delaroche, 338 De la Rue, 124 Democritus, 209 De Monconys, 170 Denny, Mr. William, 300 Deperrey, Mr., 172 Desaguliers, 253 Diogenes Laertius, 207 ENF Dissenter's plea, 185 Divine drama of civilisation, 208 Dixon, Mr., 295 Dobson, Mrs., 190 Doppet, Mr., 172 Dramas, 97 Drinking, 93 Drinks, aerated, 127 Drogheda, Marquis of, 128 Druidism, 112 Ducatus Leodiensis, 47 Ducos, Mr., 172 Dulong, 345 Dumbarton Herald, 300 Dyeing, 113 Dyer, Captain Nathaniel, 311 Mr. F. N., 311 Joseph C., 298 EASON, Dr., 99, 127 Eddie, Mr., 313 Education, 20, 107, 162, 163, 164, 353 female, 190 Egypt, 97 Ekman, John Frederick, 287 Electric current, 340 - fluid, 285, 334 Electricity, 81, 180 annals of, 283 atmospheric, 281 magnetic, 270 Electro-calorific phenomenon, 280 Electro-dynamics, 271 Electro-magnetic coil machine, 280 Electro-magnetism, 269 Electro-magnets, 274 Electro-momentum, 270 Electro-pulsations, 270 Elementary substances, origin of, 359 Eloquence, nature and utility of, 183 Emerson, 247 Emperor Nicholas, 328 Encyclopedic Methodique, 212 Enfield, Dr., 7 470 Index. ENV Envy, 8, 37 Epicurus, 209 Essays, Medical, Philosophical and Experimental, 18 Etruscan Aruns, 181 Euler, Mr., 252 Evaporation, 197 Evenings at home, 7 Evolution, 145 Ewart, Peter, 242, 309 FAIRBAIRN, Sir William, 257 Falconer, Dr., 97, 100, 180 Faraday, Michael, 279, 339, 341, 342 Farey, Henry, 317 John, 317 Fasting, 187 Ferrier, Dr. John, 124, 174, 191, 233 Fever, contagious, 117 Fire, 207 worship, 182 Fires of St. Elmo, 182 Fitch, Mr., 306 Flora of Manchester, 449 Fluids, power of, to conduct heat, 197 peculiarities of, 331 Fly-shuttle, 167 Fog, 239 Force, 251, 322, 354 definition of, 184 Fordyce, Dr., 58, 77 Forster, Dr. Reinhold, 7 Fossil plants, 458 Fothergill, Dr., 103, 118 Fourneyron, M., 255 Fox, 185 Frances, Dr., 268 "Franklin, Dr., 109, 237, 305, 446 Institute, 255 Free trade, 318, 321 Froude, James Anthony, 323 Fulgur, 181 Fulton, Mr., 299, 302 Fur-shearing machine, 314 Fustian tax, 173 HEN 250 Y_J Galvanometer, 271 Garfield, General, 316 Garnett, Jeremiah, 318 Thomas, 192 Gas, absorption of, by water, 125 measure for, 327 Gaseous motion, theory of, 331 Gases, 197 absorption of, by charcoal, 364 absorption of, by water, 230 Gaskell, Rev. William, 161 Gassiot, Mr., 280 Geoffroi, Stephen Franz, 212 Geology, principles of, 1 50 of Manchester, 450 Gentleman's Magazine, 201 Gerland, Dr. Ernst, 325 Gisborne, Rev. Thomas, 193 Gmelin, John Friedrich, 100 Gody, Mr., 195 Gough, John, 184, 192, 198 Gradation in man, 144, 151 Graham, Mrs. M., 190 Professor Thomas, 292, 364 Grammar of Assent, 183 Gravesande, 253 Greek character, 97 Greenup, Mr., 200 Greenwell, G. C., 463 Grey, Mr., 185 Grindon, Leo., 72 Gyration, 184 HAILSTONES, 237 Hall, Rev. Samuel, 86 Handwriting, 330 Harris, Sir W. Snow, 280 Harrison, Rev. Ralph, 124 Hawkshaw, Sir John, 265 Head, measurement of, 351 Health, 65 board of, 47, 121 Heat, 77, 322 animal, 76 - equivalents of, 2, 5, 77, 339 remarks on, 334 Helmholtz, 96, 345 Henry, Dr. William, 123 Inaex. HEN Henry, Thomas, 78, 108 HenshalFs Blind Asylum, 318 Heraclitus, 207 Herapath, 205, 333 Higgins, Dr. Bryan, 223 William, 223 History, moral influence of, 186 Hodgkinson, Eaton, 246, 253,258 - Rev. Henry, 259 Holme, Dr., 124, 196 Holtzmann, 334 Homer, 189 Hooke, 246, 247, 253 House, fireproof, 319 of Lords, 315 of Recovery, 48, 63 Howard, 7 Hoyle, Thomas, jun., 196 Hudson River, 304, 308 Hume, 16 Hunter, John, 150 Hunting, shooting, fishing, &c., 1 06 Hutchinson, Mr., 192 Huygens, 246, 247, 253, 325 Hydrocarbons in peat, 455 Hypnotism, 176 Hypocrisy, 186 TMITATION and fashion, 186 J_ Infirmary, Royal, 107 Ingenhouse, Dr., 81 Inniskillen Dragoons, 128 Instruments, Dictionary of Scien- tific, 268 Inventors, 314 Ireland, 103 Iron boat, 327 Italy, 95, 96, 97 JACKSON, Samuel, 171 Jacobi, M., 274 Jacobites, 122 James II., 108 Jarrold, Thomas, 330 Jealousy, 8, 37 Jefferson, 313 Jeffrey, 124 LON Joule, Dr. James P., 152, 205, 266, 322, 331, 464 Jurin, 253 Just, Mr., 292, 296 KAY, Alexander, 316 Keir, Mr., 114 Kemp, Dr. John, 193 Kennedy, John, 240 Kenrick, Rev. John, 13 Kirk, Thomas, 47 Kites, 281 Knaer Castle, 191 LANGUAGE, 4 origin and progress of, 147 Laplace, 248 Lavoisier, Mons., 109 Madame, 190 Laws and regulations for the Government of the Literary and Philosophical Society, 27 Lawson, John, 185 Lawson's Geometrical Theorems, 184 Lawyers, 122 Leeds, Mill Hill Chapel, 10 Leibnitz, 246, 249 Leigh, Dr. John, 267, 448, 450 - Mr., 294 Le Maitre, 446 Leroy, Mons. Alphonse, 305 Leucippus, 209 Liberalism, 318 Lickbarrow, Mr., 201 Liebig, Baron, 289, 455 Life, 103 Life-boat, 312 Lightning, 273 Linnaeus, 91 Livingstone, Mr., 303 Livy, 1 80 Llandaff, Bishop of, 113 Lodging-houses, 52 London Philosophical Magazine, 277 Longevity, 103, 322 472 Index. LOU Louis Philippe, 316 Lucan, 181 Lucian, 178 Lucretius, 209 Lyell, 150 MACCULLOCH, Dr., 452 Machine, corn-grinding, 328 Machinery, introduction of, 116 Maclaurin, Mr., 249, 253 Magnesia, manufacture of, 127 alba, method of preparing, 109 Magnetic action, 281 Mainwaring, Dr., 107, 130 Malbon, 109 Man, origin of, 148 Manchester Academy, 186, 443 Guardian, 318 Herald, 172 Infirmary, 151 New College, 186 Society, 122, 171 Mantell, Mr. T., 192 Marat, Jean Paul, 7, 443 Jean Pierre, 443 Marcet, 124 Marci, Marcus, 177, 181 Mark, Mr., 316 Marquis de Jouffroy, 304 Martineau, Rev. James, 13, 186 Mason, Mr., 280 Massey, James, no, 130 John, 131 Massinger, 177 Matrimony, 120 Matter, 106 indestructibility of, 230 Maudsle^s engineering works,327 Maxwell, Clerk, 205, 334, 345 McDougall, Alexander, 72 Mechanics' Institution, 318 Medical Ethics, 37 histories and reflections, 179 Mersey River, 153 Mesmerism, 175, 176 Metcalf, John, 101, 102 Meteorological observations at Manchester, 197 OWE Meteorology, 24, 192, 203 Military Academy, 275 Mill, Oldham, 4, 65 Miller, Patrick, 307 Professor Allen, 73 Milner, Dr., 247 Moira, Lord, 128 Moldeth Hall, 319 Monboddo, Lord, 144, 147 Montague, Mrs., 190 Moore, John, 288 Morin, M., 255 Mortality in Manchester, 1 1 5 bills of, 38, 117 Morveau, Guyton, 213 Moves, Dr. Henry, 100, 101 Muirhead, James P., 234 Mule, self-acting, 326 Munich Royal Library, 215 Muriatic acid, 99 Museums, 169 Music, 96, 97, 98 Musschenbroek, 253 NAIL-MAKINGmachine, 314 Nature, 104 Nerves, sleep of the, 176 Newcomen, 314 Newman, Cardinal, 183 Newspaper, 318 Newton, 211, 246 North American Review, 315 Northern latitudes, life in, 86 Numa Pompilius, 180 OAKES, Mr., 452 Observatoire Royale, 155 Oersted, Professor, 274, 276 Officers of the Manchester Lite- rary and Philosophical Society, 397 Offices, diplomatic, 316 civil, 316 Oldknow, Mr., 243 Optics, science of, 81 Orred, Margaret, 15 Orrery, Lord, 95 Oscillation, 185 Owen Abbey, 193 Index. 473 PAI PAINTING, 96, 98 Papin, Denis, 324 Paraffin oil, manufacture of, 448 Parham, Lord Willoughby de, 16 Parliamentary reform, 185, 316 Peak, Derbyshire, 103 Peat, hydrocarbons in, 455 Peel, Sir Robert, 128, 294 Pemberton, 253 Pennant, 191 Percival, Dr., 14, 118, 125, 138, 192 Percussion, force of, 254 Perkins, Mr., 314 Perrault, Claude, 155 Peterloo massacre, 315 Petit, 345 Petroleum, 454 Philips, Mr., 316 Phillips, Francis, 173 Philosophy, 80 natural and moral, 1 86 Philostratus, 188 Phlogiston, 196, 224 Phonograph, 194 Physicians, Royal College of, 109 Physiognomy, history of, 188 Piccadilly, 128 Pictet, M., 205 Planing machine, 327 Plants, physiology of, 139 power of movement in, 142 Platinum, melting of, 1 14 Plato, 209 Playfair, Dr. Lyon, 124, 452 Plutarch, 182 Pneumatics, 80 Pole, Dr., 257 Pole-lathe, 326 Political episode, 171 Poncelet, 255 Popular Illusions, 175 Population in Manchester, 4, 19, 40, 105, 115, 116, 118 Potato disease, 290 Potomac, the, 306 Presbyterians, 186 Priestley, 109, 173, 191, 196 Principia, 252 Pringle, Sir John, 109 RUT Progress, doctrine of, Prony, 247 Proust, 225, 226 Public cabinet, 169 Public-houses, 20, 122 Pythagoras, 207, 209 RAILWAY, Liverpool and Manchester, 31 Ransome, Mr., 292 Arthur, 330 Joseph Atkinson, 329 Rawson, Robert, 259 Ray Society, 329 Reciprocal proportion, 213 Redi, 1 88 Reed-making machine, 327 Rees, Dr., 315 Reform League, 316 Regnault, M. O., 338 Religio-Medici, 37 Rennie, John, 309 Revolution of 1830, 316 of 1848, 317 " Rhedi, 177 Richter, 225 Riley, H. D., 181 Rive, Prof, de la, 283 Robberds, Rev. J. G., 161 Robert, Madame, 190 Roberts, Richard, 325 Robertson, Dr., 16 Robins, 250, 253 Robinson, Samuel, 242 Roget, 124 Roscoe, William, 7, 122 Ross, Colonel, 214 Rothwell, Mr., 296 Royal Institution, 318, 351 Royou, Mons., 305 Rules of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 367 Rumford, Count, 332 Rumsay, James, 306 Rupp, Dr. Theophilus 196 Rush, Dr., 306 Russell, Lord John, 276 Rutley's Chronological History of Weather 19 I I 474 Index. SAL SALADON, Mr., 172 Saltpetre, 131 Sanitary Society, 72 Sankhya Philosophy, 209 Savory, 314 Scarlett, 124 Scepticism, 104 Schunck, Dr., 189, 346 Schweigger, Dr. J., 216 Science, Royal Academy of, 249 Scientific men, 123, 180 societies, 348 Scurvy, 92 Seddon, Rev. John, 6, 9, 11, 12 Seebeck, 275 Selenite, 99 Seward, Miss, 190 Shakespeare, 8 Shane, John, 122 Sharp, William, 327 Sharpe, John, 183 Roberts and Co., 326 Shepherd, Rev. William, 122 Shuttleworth, 318 Sigillaria, 457 Slide-lathe, 327 Slotting machine, 327 Small-pox, 118 Smeathman, Mr., 155, 159 Smeaton, Mr., 246, 255 Smith, Dr. R. Angus, 292, 364 -J.B, 3 i8 Rev. James, 208 Smith's Dictionary, 182 Smoke, 51, 6 1 burning, 234 Snellius, 218 Social progress, 3 Society of Friends, 200 Socrates, 94 Soldier, life of a, 268 Soul, immateriality of the, 186 Sound, 1 02 Sounds, articulation of, 194 Spear worship, 182 Spelling reform, 194 Spiders of Great Britain, 329 Spinning-wheel, 326 Springs, 197 Stanhope, Lord, 302, 306, 315 TIM Stassfurt, 99 Steam, 304 force of, 1 83 navigation, 299 Steamboat, 314 Steamboat * Claremont,* 302 Steam-engine, 234 a treatise on the, 317 Steamer ' Fulton,' 307 Steamers, 323 Steamship ' Margery,' 300 Steel engraving, 314 Stephens, J. C, 307 Morse, 445 Stephenson, 317 Sterne, 177 Stewart, Dugald, 124 Stoechiometry, 225 Strath Blane, 191 Stromeyer, D. Friedrich, 227 Sturgeon, William, 266 Sully's Memoirs, 168 Sulphuric acid, 99 Sulphurous acid and potato disease, 290 Swinton, Alexander, 127 Symbols, chemical, use of, 99 Symes, Mrs., 16 Symington, William, 307 HTAIT, P. G., 345 1 Talbot, John Hawkshead, 454 Tanner, Dr., 187 Taste and fine arts, 94 Tatler, 177 Tayler, Rev. J. J., 13 Taylor, James, 307 John Edward, 318 Rev. John, 7 Thales, 207 Thermometer, mercurial, 183 Theroigne, 190 Thorn, John, 290, 292 Thorns, Mr., 103, 104 Thomson, Sir William, 212, 345 Thoresby, Mr., 47 Thunderstorm, 267, 270 Timber, price of, 117 if, Index. 475 TIM Times, the, 300 Tobacco smoking, 54, 68, 93 Tragedy, 186 Tubular bridge, 257, 260 Tudor, Mr. Henry, 315 Tullus Hostilius, 180 Turner, Rev. William, 6 Turret clocks, 328 ships, 328 T TNDERGROUND of Paris, U 155 Unitarian chapel, 161, 170 Unitarians, 6, 186 Universities, 353 University in Manchester, 161 Uvedale, Robert, 193 VAN HELMONT, 207 Vegetable alkali, 112 Vegetables, perceptive power of, 141 Vernon, Mr., 192 Victoria Mine, Dukinfield, 457 Virtue, 95, 96 Visible speech, 193 Vis viva, 184, 247 Vital principle, 174 Voltaic battery, 272 Voltaire, 178 ^1 rAKEFIELD, Rev. Gilbert, Walker, George, 192 Thomas, 122, 171 Wall, Dr. Martin, 99, 112 Waring, Mr., 248, 252 Warren, Dr., 109 Warrington Academy, 6, 7, 9, 185 Guardian, 6 Water, decomposition of, 340 electrolysis of, 341 heating, 183 ZIN Water, purification, no supply, 264 Waterwheels, 248, 255 Watson's chemical essays, 113 Watt, James, jun., 171, 233, 240, 256, 304, 3H Wellbe, Rev. Mr., 192 Wenzel, 213 White, Charles, 148, 150, 151 Dr. Thomas, 151 Wilberforce, W., 243 Wildbore, Rev. Charles, 184 Wilde, Henry, 358, etc. Wilkinson, Dr. Eason, 130 John, 327 Thomas, 128 T. H., 201 Williams, Miss H. M., 190 Williamson, Prof. W. C, 292, 45o,- 462 Willis, Thomas, 1 14 Willoughby, Honourable Hugh, Lord, 7 Wilmslow, 103 Wilson, Lieut. -General, 319 Wimpey, Mr., 105 Wintringham, Sir Clifton, 109 Wolfius, 253 Wollaston, Dr., 246, 315 Wollstoncroft, Miss, 190 Woman, rights of, 191 Wordsworth, 143, 199 Worsley, Martha, 15 Wrexham, Grammar School, 108 Wright, Mr. Edmond, 321 YATES, Miss, 128 Young, Dr. James, 290, 292, 348,448,451 yENO, of Elea, 209 / s Zinc plates, amalgamated, 279 Printers, New-street Square, London. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. - . LD 21A-5tf*t-ll.'62 '6B (D3279slO)4761 neral Library iity of Califor Berkeley YD 09895