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 A VISIT TO 
 ERMAN SCHOOLS 
 
REESET LIBRARY 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Received MAR 7 1894 , 189 . 
 
 ^Accessions No.^/-^ 7 ^-^ Class No. . 
 
 / 
 
A Visit to German Schools 
 
 LieR/f/?^ 
 
 OF THE 
 
 
BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE AND 
 ART OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Price Sixpence each. 
 
 I. PESTALOZZI : The Influence of his Principles and Practice. 
 II. FROBEL and the Kindergarten System. Second Edition. 
 
 III. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCATION. 
 
 IV. THE TRUE FOUNDATION OF SCIENCE-TEACHING. 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE CULTURE OF THE 
 
 OBSERVING POWERS OF CHILDREN, especially in con- 
 nection with the Study of Botany. By Eliza A. Youmans. 
 Edited, with Notes and a Supplement, by Joseph Payne, F.C.P. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth, price 2s. 6d. 
 
 HENRY S. KING & CO., LONDON. 
 
A VISIT TO GEBMAN SCHOOLS 
 
 NOTES OF A PROFESSIONAL TOUR 
 
 To inspect some of the Kindergartens ; Primary Schools, Public 
 
 Girls' Schools, and Schools for Technical Instruction, in 
 
 Hamburg, Berlin, Dresden, Weimar, Gotha, 
 
 and Eisenach, in the Autumn of 1874 
 
 WITH 
 
 CRITICAL DISCUSSIONS OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES 
 
 AND PRACTICE OF KINDERGARTEN AND OTHER 
 
 SCHEMES OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
 
 By JOSEPH PAYNE 
 
 Late Professor of Education to the Coll-ge of Preceptors, London, 
 Member of the Council of the Philological Society, etc. 
 
 Of THE oT rrV 
 
 CALIFO^: 
 
 HENRY S. KING & CO., LONDON 
 1876 
 

 tf*f$-&? 
 
 \The Rights of Translation and of Reproduction are Reserved.] 
 
Prefatory Note by the Editor. 
 
 HIS little book was founded on Notes taken 
 by Mr. Payne during his tour in the autumn 
 of 1874, and reduced to its present shape 
 in the spring of 1875. Various causes hindered its 
 publication until, after my father's return from his 
 summer journey, the state of his own health and the 
 shock of a painful bereavement made it impossible 
 for him to give any further attention to the subject. 
 The manuscript accordingly remained untouched up 
 to the close of the Author's life and labours in April 
 1876, and was thus never fully prepared for the press, 
 or finally corrected. 
 
 Notwithstanding this drawback, and although the 
 information conveyed is not perfectly recent, these 
 brief notes cannot, it is thought, fail to be of value 
 and interest, as recording the direct impressions, and 
 embodying the mature judgment of a highly-qualified 
 observer in matters of education. 
 
 One explanation only it seems desirable to make. 
 
ii Prefatory Note. 
 
 Such a work as this cannot, of course, make any 
 pretension to give a general account of the state of 
 German education, even in a single department, since 
 it is founded on the personal experiences and im- 
 pressions of one journey only. It is thus possible 
 that some practices actually observed in particular 
 schools and institutions, may not be universally pre- 
 valent, and that on another occasion, or in another 
 place, a different impression might have been derived. 
 But this seems, from the nature of the case, unavoid- 
 able ; and as dates and places have in all cases been 
 given, it has been thought better to let the Notes 
 stand for themselves, without the additional informa- 
 tion which friends would willingly have supplied, and 
 which the Author, had he been able to see the work 
 through the press, might probably have made use of. 
 The Editor has, in conclusion, to thank Miss Gur- 
 ney, Professor Hodgson, and the Rev. R. H. Quick, 
 for many valuable suggestions, and for their kind 
 assistance in revising the proof sheets. 
 
 J. F. PAYNE. 
 
 Savile Row, London, 
 September 1876. 
 
M^-^mmm 
 
 PR 
 
 ent\ ebsity 
 FACE. 
 
 N the following pages I have given 
 an account of a month's visit to 
 many of the Kindergartens, several 
 of the Primary Schools, and some of the Train- 
 ing Colleges of North Germany. The main 
 purpose I had in view was to investigate 
 the methods and theories of the very earliest 
 education — that which begins with children 
 of between the ages of three and eight. It 
 was not so much the advanced structure as 
 the foundation that I wished to examine — to 
 see how this foundation was laid, and to form 
 a theoretical judgment on the value of the 
 work. I have long been of opinion that 
 what we especially want in England is a just 
 
vi Preface. 
 
 estimate of elementary education ; meaning by 
 that term what Pestalozzi and Frobel meant 
 — the earliest stage in the cultivation of chil- 
 dren's minds. In England this conception is 
 generally confounded with that of elementary 
 instruction, with which it is, strictly speaking, 
 but remotely connected ; and hence all our 
 efforts are directed to instruction, while edu- 
 cation or culture is extensively neglected. 
 Instruction — that is, the systematic impart- 
 ing of definite knowledge — should be the 
 sequel, not the precursor, of the training of 
 the intellectual powers which are to be em- 
 ployed upon the acquisition. In other words, 
 the object of elementary education is to de- 
 velop the natural faculties, that of elementary 
 instruction to apply them. It would be easy 
 to show this : if we make instruction our chief 
 aim, we necessarily introduce dogmatic, didactic 
 teaching, which, as a rule, depresses the native 
 powers ; whereas if we make education — that is, 
 cultivation — our chief aim, we elicit the native 
 powers, and make the best of them. 
 
Preface. vii 
 
 Entertaining these views of elementary educa- 
 tion, I wished to see how far they were carried 
 out in Germany ; and after careful observa- 
 tion I am able to report that in the Kinder- 
 gartens, and in the Primary Schools (those 
 especially of Saxony), they serve as the theo- 
 retical basis of the system pursued ; and, more- 
 over, that where this theoretical basis is 
 established, there the soundest and most fruitful 
 instruction is secured. The results justify the 
 theory. The question, then, whether we shall 
 educate with a view to instruction as in Ger- 
 many, or instruct with a view to education as 
 in England, is, I venture to think, answered 
 by the facts. No sane person will challenge 
 a comparison between the average results of 
 German primary education and of ours. 
 
 Those who are interested in this important 
 question, will find in my Narrative some of the 
 grounds for forming an opinion upon it, though, 
 as I have intimated, I concerned myself only 
 about the teaching in the Kindergartens, and 
 in the lowest classes of the Primary Schools. 
 
 I XJN 
 
viii Pi'eface. 
 
 My reasons for thus limiting my examina- 
 tion (besides the want of time) were these — 
 First, I wished to judge of the Kindergartener 
 se, of its value both as a mere occasion for the 
 happy employment of little children's exuberant 
 energies, and with regard to their subsequent 
 education and instruction ; secondly, to see the 
 junction .of the Kindergarten with the first 
 stage of school instruction, and to estimate its 
 value in this relation ; and, thirdly, to examine 
 the lowest classes of schools in which the 
 children, being over six years of age, had 
 received no preliminary teaching. 
 
 The conclusion I arrived at was, that there is 
 a substantial value in the exercises of the Kin- 
 dergarten, which pleasurably bring out the active 
 powers of the children — their powers of ob- 
 servation, judgment, and invention — and make 
 them at once apt in doing as well as learning. 
 
 No apology, perhaps, is needed for the 
 judgments which I have freely expressed 
 on the spirit and the actual methods of 
 elementary teaching in Germany, whether 
 
Preface. jx 
 
 in Kindergartens or in the ordinary Primary 
 Schools. A considerable experience in the 
 art, and a long-continued study of the theory 
 of education, will, I trust, be accepted as my 
 warrant for expressing such judgments. Even 
 in Germany, the land of scientific pedagogy, 
 it is not rare to find avowed principles of 
 action neglected or imperfectly carried out. 
 
 To every one who carefully considers the 
 state of education in England, and who com- 
 pares the promise of theory with the results 
 of practice, it will be apparent that the reform 
 we need most begins at the beginning, with a 
 true conception on the part of the teachers 
 of what education really means. This involves 
 a radical correction of the ordinary theories ; 
 and this, again, a thorough education of the 
 teachers in education itself. Now that the 
 Bell Trustees, by their liberal grant of ,£10,000 
 towards the endowment of Chairs of Education 
 at Edinburgh and St. Andrews, have recognised 
 education as a psychological art, founded on 
 scientific principles, we may hope to see some 
 
x Preface. 
 
 effective measures taken for the training- of 
 
 teachers. The question of training teachers 
 
 for their high office will, it is to be hoped, 
 
 henceforth supersede much of the profuse 
 
 prate about education in which dilettanti in- 
 
 experts and ' educationists ' are so accustomed 
 
 to indulge. 
 
 If the facts and discussions of this little 
 
 volume shall be found to have contributed 
 
 anything satisfactory towards the solution of 
 
 that question, it will have answered its 
 
 purpose. 
 
 Joseph Payne. 
 
 Kildare Gardens, London, 
 February 1875. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction, 
 
 Hamburg, 
 
 Berlin, 
 
 Dresden, 
 
 Weimar, 
 
 Gotha, 
 
 Eisenach, 
 
 8 
 45 
 65 
 80 
 92 
 
 Ct 7-Wf '~ - 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
NOTES 
 
 OF A 
 
 Professional Visit to the Kindergarten 
 and other Schools for Primary 
 Instruction in North Germany. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ONSIDERABLE interest had been awakened 
 in my mind by the study of Frobel's 
 Principles of Elementary Education, as well 
 as by some excellent specimens of their practical 
 application which I had seen in London. The result 
 of this interest was, fhat I delivered in February 1874, 
 at the College of Preceptors, a lecture upon the subject. 
 My lecture was strictly confined to as clear an account 
 as I could give of the genesis of Frobel's root-idea — 
 
 ^P ' 9>\ 
 
2 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 that it is by studying the nature of the child that 
 we are to learn how to teach and train him ; and 
 I showed, moreover, in a brief sketch of Frobel's 
 personal history, how this principle, which looks so 
 obvious, but is so generally ignored in our treatment 
 of little children, developed itself both from the 
 life-experience of the man, and from his profound 
 observation of the nature of children ; in fact, from 
 his heart as well as from his head. Before I had 
 ever heard Frobel's name, I had arrived at a con- 
 clusion nearly identical with his ; namely, that in 
 our ordinary education of young children we give 
 them far too little credit for the powers with which 
 the Creator has endowed them, and too frequently, 
 by injudicious management, repress or even quench 
 those manifestations of intelligence which ought to be 
 taken as the basis of our operations. In other words, 
 I had clearly seen that, instead of allowing children's 
 native activities free scope, and aiming, especially in 
 our early lessons, at eliciting what is in them, we are 
 generally far too prone to impose upon them what 
 is in ourselves, and therefore, by system, rule, and 
 routine, to check, and sometimes even to stifle, natural 
 development. 
 
 I had further convinced myself that this unwise 
 
Introduction. 3 
 
 interference with nature's laws was the true cause 
 of a phenomenon within the observation of all — that 
 of a child who, before formal teaching begins, is 
 distinguished for mental activity, becoming almost 
 suddenly dull, inert, and stupid under the operation 
 which is ostensibly intended to quicken his powers 
 — a result obviously due to a theory of education 
 which takes little or no account of the nature of 
 the child. 
 
 These and other similar considerations had pre- 
 pared me fully to accept the principle expounded 
 in the lecture already alluded to ; — in which, too, 
 I further developed Frobel's notions respecting the 
 spontaneous play and movements of the mind as 
 the divinely appointed means for developing the 
 powers of the child, and described the series of 
 exercises which he devised for making play and self- 
 activity greatly fruitful in early education. 
 
 It occurred, however, to me, that it would be 
 advisable, before I lectured again on the subject, to 
 give my full attention to the theory of the Kinder- 
 garten, and to see something more of the practice 
 — especially in those places, Hamburg, Berlin, &c, 
 where it was most skilfully and correctly carried out. 
 I wished, moreover, to satisfy myself as to the 
 
4 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 effect (respecting which I knew there was some 
 controversy) of the training of the Kindergarten 
 on the subsequent educational career of the children ; 
 and knowing already what was said for the system 
 by its numerous enthusiastic advocates, I wished 
 also to hear on the spot what was said against it 
 by its opponents. In order to form an accurate 
 judgment, this was especially important. Lastly, I 
 wished to ascertain in what special respects, if any, 
 the Kindergarten was an improvement on our 
 ordinary infant schools. 
 
 My purpose, then, was clearly defined. It was to 
 visit Kindergartens conducted by thoroughly trained 
 teachers, to see how far they realized the ideal pre- 
 sented in Frobel's writings, and try also to visit ele- 
 mentary schools where children were received who 
 had passed through the Kindergarten, and where the 
 fundamental principle was still worked, as well as 
 other elementary schools which were quite independ- 
 ent of the Kindergarten. 
 
 It may be as well to state here (though the fact is 
 generally known), that what we call national educa- 
 tion is, throughout Germany, the business of the 
 respective Governments, who regulate that it shall 
 commence when the child is six years of age, and 
 
Introduction. 5 
 
 shall be continued for at least eight years. 1 What- 
 ever instruction then may be given to children before 
 they are six years old, is properly no affair of the 
 Government, which, therefore, does not reckon the 
 Kindergarten as part of its system. This is the rule, 
 to which there are some exceptions. 2 While in 
 Berlin, however, I was informed that the Minister of 
 Education — Dr. Falk — had recently taken much 
 interest in the subject, had visited some of the 
 Kindergartens, and had even said that in the new 
 Prussian school regulations, which are expected to 
 appear shortly, he proposed to include Kindergartens. 
 This, however, was doubted by some well-informed 
 persons, who thought the recognition improbable, 
 on account of the strong prejudice of many, if not 
 most, of the regular Prussian schoolmasters against 
 the system. I can scarcely doubt that the adoption 
 of the Kindergarten into the Government system 
 generally would be greatly to the advantage of the 
 
 1 By a recent regulation of the Minister of Instruction, it is now ordained 
 that, in Saxon schools, the course shall be eight years for the lowest, 
 and ten years for the highest grade of primary schools. 
 
 2 In the last Government Report of Saxony the Kindergarten is re- 
 cognised as part of the system ; and it is mentioned that an institution 
 for training Kindergarten governesses has been lately established in 
 Dresden ; of course, with the support of the State. 
 
6 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 children, in two respects at least. It would secure 
 a better average of trained Kindergarten teachers. 
 The Government would demand, in all probability, 
 a more uniform degree of excellence than now pre- 
 vails. I was told by way of apology in one or two 
 cases, that the demand for teachers was so great that 
 it was necessary for the present to put up with the 
 best that could be got ; and I can easily believe, from 
 my own observation, that by no means all that are 
 employed in Kindergarten have a definite grasp of 
 Frobel's principles. 
 
 Then, again, if the Government authorities took the 
 matter in hand, they would certainly secure far better 
 accommodation for the children than is provided in 
 not a few of the establishments that I visited. Small, 
 petty, ill-lighted rooms, carefully shut up against the 
 admission of fresh air, but accessible to the most 
 noisome stenches, and inconveniently crowded with 
 children, were matters of my personal experience, 
 even in some of the most flourishing towns. Indeed, 
 considering the difficulties of this kind which in many 
 cases beset the path of the young enquirers after 
 knowledge, it was surprising to see the amount of 
 physical and intellectual life which was everywhere 
 displayed. The apology generally given for this 
 
Introduction. 7 
 
 miserable accommodation, in the instances to which I 
 refer, was, that it was impossible in large towns to 
 have suitable rooms except at an enormous rent. I 
 cannot, of course, controvert this plea, but it certainly 
 did occur to me as very desirable that the Frobel 
 Verein, consisting of a large number of most respect- 
 able ladies and gentlemen, might, with great probable 
 ultimate advantage to the children, take a course of 
 lectures themselves on hygiene. 
 
 Having thus given some idea of the present posi- 
 tion of the Kindergarten in relation to the general 
 arrangements for primary instruction in Germany, 
 I proceed to my personal narrative. 
 
 Furnished with many letters of introduction to per- 
 sons of education and influence in Hamburg, Berlin, 
 Dresden, Weimar, Gotha, and Eisenach, I arrived in 
 the first-named town August 23, 1874. 
 
HA MB U R G. 
 
 Y first visit was to the noble institution which 
 goes by the name of ' Gewerbeschule fur 
 Madchen' (Girls' School for Technical In- 
 struction), established by a voluntary society for 
 the promotion of women's occupations {Verein ziir 
 F'drderung weiblicher Erwerbsthatigkeit). The stately 
 building — a beautiful specimen of architecture — 
 was opened for use in December 1873, and is now 
 a complete hive of busy bees. I regret that I 
 have no time to describe it in detail. I can only 
 say that I have never seen an establishment of 
 the kind — hardly of any kind — in which the 
 arrangements are so complete. The twenty-five 
 class-rooms (adapted to the accommodation of 750 
 students), lofty, spacious, and admirably ventilated 
 " by the best American system, which has not before 
 been applied on the Continent," appear to be every- 
 thing that could be desired, while the apparatus for 
 heating in winter is as complete as that for ventila- 
 
Hambwg. 9 
 
 tion. The arrangements have in view instruction not 
 only in the practical arts of washing, ironing, cooking, 
 sewing with needle and machine, cutting-out, and 
 general housekeeping, but also in geometrical and 
 free-hand drawing, lithography, porcelain painting 
 and burning. But this is far from all : the establish- 
 ment contains (1) a high school for girls who have 
 passed through the^ upper classes of the ordinary 
 school. Here instruction is given in the German 
 language, arithmetic, book-keeping, physics, geometry, 
 &c. (2) Classes for the training of Kindergarten 
 teachers. (3) A Kindergarten for children of from 
 three to seven years of age, open from 9 to I. 1 This 
 is the merest outline of the broad features of a very 
 remarkable institution which well deserves the atten- 
 tion of those who are now interesting themselves in 
 the question of finding occupation for women, and 
 who sometimes appear to forget the preliminary 
 
 1 The reader will observe in the fact that ' Kindergartenism ' is 
 adopted as an important — rather the important — basis of instruction in 
 this grand institution, — a noticeable testimony in its favour. The 
 founders and supporters of the Gewerbeschule and of the Vtrein are 
 persons deeply interested in education, who, in providing for the train- 
 ing of Kindergarten governesses, and in establishing a Kindergarten, 
 commit themselves, of course, to the recognition of its principles. 
 
io A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 question of preparing women for occupation. Nothing 
 is more certain than that one of the great difficulties 
 in finding employment for women is in finding them 
 competently equipped for undertaking it. I have 
 Miss Emily Faithfull's authority, as well as that of 
 others, for making this assertion. Miss Faithfull is 
 besieged daily with applications for work from women 
 who do not know what work is, nor how it should be 
 done so as to be worth paying for. The object of 
 the Hamburg institution is to train women for doing 
 good work, which must always have its value in the 
 market. 
 
 Having taken a general view of the institution 
 under the bright and intelligent guidance of the 
 head-mistress, Frau Dr. M. dinger, I stayed behind 
 in the beautiful rooms given up to the Kindergarten. 1 
 I saw nothing afterwards at all comparable in fitness 
 for their purpose to these rooms, so lofty, large, airy, 
 and full of light. There were three long low tables, 
 
 1 I extract from the report of the institution a paragraph which 
 represents in a few words the theory and practice of the Kindergarten 
 system. • The purpose of the games and occupations of the Kinder- 
 garten is the harmonious development and cultivation of all the 
 intellectual and bodily powers of the child. They lead him to become 
 conscious of those powers, and to make use of them — to exercise the eye 
 
Hamburg. 1 1 
 
 with forms corresponding, and at these were seated 
 what seemed a mere handful of children (there were 
 only fifteen) busily engaged not in feeding their 
 minds, but their bodies. It was just past eleven, and 
 they were taking what was called their breakfast, 
 which they had brought with them, and which con- 
 sisted of bread (possibly with butter on it) and milk — 
 each one being supplied with a plate and jug. When 
 this slight refection, which could not have burdened 
 the system much, was over, they rose up to march 
 and sing, all looking very rosy and happy. Marching 
 to the beat of the songs they sang (Tritt und Gesang) 
 was, I found in all the Kindergarten, a frequent 
 occupation of the children ; and a very noticeable 
 feature of this exercise was the accuracy with which 
 it was generally performed. Sometimes it consisted 
 merely in stepping one after the other with a single 
 beat of the foot ; at other times it was varied by an 
 accented stamp thus : — | | , etc. ; but I 
 
 in the observation {Anschaitung) of suitable forms, the hand in works 
 which he performs as plays, the ear through simple melodies which 
 delight him, the understanding through stories, narratives, and games 
 which rouse his attention and fix in his mind accurate {Vorstellungcn) 
 and general concepts (Begriffe). Lastly, in his intercourse with his 
 little companions he learns to become happy, sociable, and peaceable 
 (heiter, gesellig, und vertraglich). ' 
 
12 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 noticed that in all cases the measure was well pre- 
 served. There can be no doubt that this is not one 
 of those bodily exercises 'that profit nothing.' It 
 stirs the blood, animates the whole system, and dissi- 
 pates the tedium liable to arise from much sitting, 
 and is in every way adapted to the powers of the 
 children. It was evidently very popular. About the 
 singing of the songs I shall have something to say 
 afterwards. 
 
 After a few minutes thus employed I was invited to 
 be present at an artistic little melodrama (Bewegimg- 
 spiel) entitled the 'Maiiselein,' in which all the 
 children except one held hands and enacted 'but- 
 ter,' 'cheese,' 'bacon/ 'cake,' etc. The child in the 
 middle of the ring was Master Maiiselein (i. e. Mouse), 
 who went about touching (which was taken for 
 tasting) the different articles of food — for which 
 indulgence he had to pay dear in the end, being at 
 last caught in a trap formed by some four or five of 
 his companions, amid the rejoicing of the whole 
 party. This little drama of action was dexter- 
 ously performed, and seemed a favourite with the 
 children, as I witnessed it twice afterwards at other 
 Kindergartens. 
 
 On a second visit to the Kindergarten, I found the 
 
Hamburg. i 
 
 & 
 
 mistress (a very kind, earnest, and intelligent young 
 lady) telling the children the story of a lion, in which 
 they were intently interested, listening with staring 
 eyes, half-open mouths, and brows almost sternly 
 wrinkled. When the story was done, the teacher 
 asked a few questions upon it, which were promptly 
 and eagerly answered. One little child was on the 
 teacher's lap during the time ; but in none of the 
 Kindergarten that I saw were any arrangements (such 
 as we sometimes meet with in our infants' schools) for 
 the sleeping of the children. Everywhere they were 
 decidedly wide awake. 
 
 At both these visits I saw also something of the 
 training of the young Kindergarten teachers by 
 
 the head-mistress, Miss H . In the first 
 
 instance I attended a lesson given to about twenty- 
 six young girls (ages fourteen to twenty), neatly 
 dressed, very orderly and attentive, and rather 
 superior in air and manner to some that I saw else- 
 where. The lesson was a geometrical form, which 
 some of them drew (not very cleverly) on the black 
 board. As it is the essence of Frobel's theory to 
 build everything on the concrete, I was rather sur- 
 prised that no actual solids, which would have 
 shown the origin and relations of geometrical forms, 
 
14 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 'were before the class. Such bodies had, perhaps, 
 been already palpably examined. Still the lesson 
 was decidedly interesting, from the earnestness dis- 
 played by both teacher and pupils. I was struck here 
 and in other teachers' classes with the absurd number 
 of rings worn by the girls. I may also here remark 
 that it occurred to me that these girls, many of them 
 not more than fourteen or fifteen years of age, begin 
 their direct training for governesses far too early. I 
 heard of no indispensable previous general culture, at 
 least nothing beyond a sufficient school instruction 
 {eine geniigende Schulbildung) ; and as the training for 
 the Kindergarten lasts generally only one year, during 
 which nearly twenty-four subjects are to be taken up, 1 
 it is easy to see that many of the teachers must be 
 turned out in a very crude condition. This remark 
 
 1 I append the somewhat extraordinary list of ' Subjects of instruction 
 in the one year's course:' — 'The German, English, and French Languages, 
 Home Knowledge] (Heimathkunde), Arithmetic, Geometry, Physics 
 (Naturlehre), Natural History, Elementary Physiology {Lehre von dem 
 menschiichen Korper), and the Laws of Health (Gesundleitslehre), Draw- 
 ing, Singing, Gymnastics, Needlework (Handarbeit) ; the Art of 
 educating and instructing {Erziehungs-und Unterrichtslehre), Training in 
 the Use of the Frobellian Appliances, Practical Exercises in the Kinder- 
 garten.' Prodigious demand, assuredly, on the intellectual energies of 
 one year ! even though in certain cases (in gegebenen Fallen) instruction 
 in foreign languages and Handarbeit be dispensed with. 
 
Hamburg. 1 5 
 
 may perhaps have a special and limited application, 
 but of the principle involved I have no doubt. As in 1 
 the case of our own pupil-teachers, so here, it seems 
 to be assumed that immature and unformed minds are 
 competent, after a little technical drill, to take upon 
 themselves the training of other minds, especially 
 those of very young children ; whereas the truth is, that 
 the highest artistic skill cannot be thrown away, nay, 
 rather is required, in the earliest stages of a child's 
 development, if the foundation is to be surely and 
 firmly laid. In the interesting prospectus of this very 
 institution it is clearly laid down (see note, p. 10), that 
 \ the purpose of the plays, games, and occupations of 
 the Kindergarten is the harmonious development and 
 cultivation of all the intellectual and bodily powers 
 of the child — to lead him to become conscious of those 
 powers, and to make use of them,' &c. I quite approve 
 of this programme of the objects in view, but I am'at 
 the same time convinced that a year's training for a 
 girl of fourteen years of age cannot possibly prepare 
 her to carry it out ; and I am further of opinion that 
 for fourteen years of age seventeen ought to be sub- 
 stituted. Up to this latter age the general education 
 of those who are intended for teachers ought to go 
 on without interruption. This is one of the weak 
 
1 6 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 points which lie open to the attacks which afterwards, 
 at Berlin, I heard made upon the system. It is, 
 indeed, idle to talk of ' the harmonious cultivation of 
 all the intellectual and bodily powers of a child,' if 
 the carrying out of this very comprehensive pro- 
 gramme is to be left in any appreciable measure to 
 girls of fourteen or fifteen after one year's training. 
 Now it is just in proportion to the demands of Frobel's 
 theory that provision must be made for its realization. 
 Up to the time of the exposition of his views, there 
 was no theory to work up to. Now there is ; and in 
 order to realize it, much more than has yet been done (I 
 speak in a general way) must be done to secure for it 
 accomplished teachers. On my second visit to the 
 training classes I found the young teachers engaged 
 in gymnastics, still under the personal direction of 
 
 Miss H . I was pleased with their graceful 
 
 rhythmic movements, governed by the music of a 
 piano, and accompanied by singing. They were 
 thirty-five in number, some few of them probably over 
 thirty years of age. They went through various 
 evolutions, winding in and out among each other in a 
 way which was very pretty and picturesque. They 
 also used with aptness and skill staves and wooden 
 rings. This lesson was followed by one on singing. 
 
Hamburg. 1 7 
 
 First the young ladies sang the ' Hirtenruf ' from 
 a collection of songs by Karolina Weseneder of 
 Brunswick (respecting whose system of teaching music 
 I everywhere heard great praise expressed) in unison. 
 Then came some part songs (among them a very 
 pretty air called ' Friihlingslust '), and, lastly, exercises 
 in scales and intervals from a book by Voigt. These 
 exercises were, on the whole, the most satisfactory 
 part of the performance, inasmuch as they trained 
 and showed the possession of the power of singing 
 at sight. The notes were well held, and even difficult 
 passages were gone through with much apparent 
 taste. 
 
 During my stay in Hamburg, I visited for the 
 whole of one evening (four hours) the great school 
 for working-men and boys (Die Allgemeine Gewerbe- 
 schule), which is under the able direction of Mr. 
 Otto Jessen, who is also the director of the Gewerbe 
 school for women. As my attention was exclusively 
 given during this visit to the drawing department, 
 and as I had no opportunity of returning to the 
 school, I can only give a few particulars. It is an 
 institution for the teaching, in classes carried on 
 both by day and evening, as well as on the Sunday 
 morning, men and boys of fourteen and upward, all 
 
 B 
 
1 8 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 those branches of instruction which have a bearing 
 on their actual or intended employment for life. 
 The programme is most comprehensive, embracing 
 the German and English languages, Arithmetic, 
 Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, Book-keeping,' 
 Physics (Naturlehre), Architecture, Drawing of every 
 kind, Modelling in clay and wax, Lithographic 
 Drawing, &c, all of which are taught, with their 
 application to practical life and business. The 
 number of students was, in the summer of 1873, 987, 
 in the winter 1873-4, 1366. The school is founded 
 and sustained by grants from the municipality of 
 Hamburg, together with a small contribution pro- 
 vided by the fees of the students. This same liberal- 
 minded municipality has voted a sum of 800,000 
 thalers (about £120,000) for the building of a new 
 schoolhouse (now rapidly approaching its comple- 
 tion), with which are connected a Realschule and a 
 Trades Museum. When shall we have half-a-dozen 
 such institutions in London ? 
 
 The drawing department of the institution is, by 
 general acknowledgment, second to none in Ger- 
 many. For my own part, I had never seen anything 
 approaching it in completeness and excellence. The 
 special point of interest to me was, that drawing was 
 
Hamburg, 19 
 
 taught from beginning to end through the training 
 of eye and hand in connection with real objects. 
 There is, except at the close of the course, no copy- 
 ing from drawings, and the teachers do no part of 
 the work for the pupils. Wooden blocks of different 
 forms are used to begin with, and not only the 
 outline as presented to the eye was drawn in strong 
 lines on the paper, but the outlines of the parts not 
 seen were estimated by measurement with the eye, 
 and traced on dotted lines, as if the object was 
 transparent. These blocks were placed in all possible 
 positions, and drawn over and over again. Then 
 followed other objects- — candlesticks, vases, plaster 
 reliefs, parts of machines, whole machines, articles 
 of furniture, etc. Then there was pattern-making, 
 designing, drawing on lithographic stones (an extra 
 hour being devoted to this), modelling in clay of 
 leaves, etc., water-colour drawing, etc. Specimens of 
 all these different kinds of art were produced under 
 my eyes during my visit, and the marked excellence 
 throughout could only be attributed to the method 
 pursued, essentially consisting, as it did, of keeping 
 close to the object before the eye, and without trick 
 or sham of any kind representing it as truthfully as 
 possible. It is a noticeable feature, that high 
 
20 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 finishing is not allowed in the time of instruction. 
 If the student wishes to add this grace to his work, 
 he must do it at home. The practical, the useful, 
 that connected with trades and occupations alone, is 
 sanctioned in this very remarkable school. The 
 accomplished director himself accompanied me in 
 my visit to the several class-rooms, and gave me, 
 through the kind interpretation of Professor Wiebe, 
 who was with me, every explanation. 
 
 Altogether the two Gewerbesckulen interested me 
 exceedingly ; they are noble institutions. I saw 
 nothing anywhere else to match them. Nor is this 
 remarkable, inasmuch as they are the first of their 
 kind, both in chronological order and in excellence, 
 in Germany. 
 
 One day I accompanied Professor Wiebe to see 
 the Pestalozzistift (or, as we should perhaps call 
 it, the Pestalozzian Asylum) at Braberc, three or 
 four miles from Hamburg. In a forlorn, out-of- 
 the-way situation, we arrived at a large handsome 
 house, on entering which we found ourselves at 
 once in a spacious central hall carried up to the 
 roof, with open galleries continued round each 
 landing. The effect was, on the whole, rather 
 striking. The master, an intelligent-looking man, 
 
Hamburg. 2 1 
 
 came forward to meet us, and accompanied us over 
 the building. 
 
 The rooms of the institution are spacious and airy, 
 furnished with good solid chairs, tables, and desks. 
 It was near dinner-time, and the children were at 
 play. We were told that they were seventy in 
 number — boys and girls — taught together ; two-thirds 
 of them boys, and generally from six to fourteen 
 years of age. There are no school hours after twelve ; 
 then the boys work in the fields connected with the 
 house, and the girls at their needles, or at sweeping, 
 cleaning, bed-making, etc. There are three teachers 
 — all men. After a time the children came in to 
 dinner, all with their hair cut close to their heads, 
 and, the boys especially, notwithstanding their out- 
 door work, looking far from healthy. After they 
 had taken their seats at the table, where each had 
 a chair, one said grace, and the operation of dining 
 commenced. It was a remarkably simple operation. 
 Large wooden tubs filled with boiled rice were 
 brought in by some of the boys, placed before 
 a young woman, the housekeeper, and forthwith 
 ladled out by her into the plates held for it by 
 different elder boys and girls, who take the messes 
 to the several tables. This, without salt or sugar, 
 
22 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 was their sole dinner ; varied, we were told, occa- 
 sionally by boiled beans and peas. Sugar is allowed 
 only on fete days. Meat is given three times a week. 
 Some of the children had two or three helpings 
 of rice, but many only one. Breakfast consists 
 of bread and milk, or of grits boiled in milk. Sup- 
 per of bread and water only. This undelightful 
 and not very nutritious meal was eaten in solemn 
 silence : water, apparently not ad libitum, washed 
 down the rice. After the dinner was over we 
 accompanied the master, who offered to show us 
 the dormitories. We found them very clean and 
 airy. The one we entered was furnished with 
 thirty-five iron bedsteads and good arrangements 
 for washing. The children go to bed every night 
 at nine o'clock. 
 
 On descending into the hall, we found all the 
 children assembled, and prepared to give us a song. 
 They were in two divisions, and they soon burst out, 
 singing most delightfully in parts ' Die Wacht am 
 Rhein.' I have scarcely heard anything so sweetly 
 harmonious. I noticed that half-a-dozen of the 
 children ran up the stairs as if with some special 
 object in view. That object was soon apparent. A 
 fresh song was begun, in two parts as before, and 
 
Hamburg. 23 
 
 at the close of the stanza, echo, with delicious 
 gentleness and sweetness, repeated the last few 
 notes from the top of the house. The effect was 
 truly charming. Poor children ! they must have a 
 hard life of it — rice without sugar for dinner, dry 
 bread and limited water for supper, rough work 
 in the fields, and (perhaps) rugged tillage in the 
 school (but this I don't know) ; and with all 
 this a good master, who, I hope, is gentle with 
 them ; but, in spite of everything else, they learn 
 to sing delightfully, and there is some comfort at 
 least in this. I have often since remembered their 
 singing with pleasure, and contrasted the general 
 effect with that produced by much of the singing 
 in the Kindergartens, which, possibly from some 
 defect in myself, possibly because my ear is espe- 
 cially sensitive to tune and harmony, was very often 
 far from satisfactory to me. Time with the Kinder- 
 garten mistresses and their little pupils is generally 
 a prime consideration, but I cannot say as much 
 for tune, meaning by this the tasteful harmony of 
 sweet sounds. 
 
 Singing is an important feature of Frobel's system, 
 and I do not think it is executed nearly as well 
 as it might be by the little birds of the Kinder- 
 
24 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 gartens. Here, as is so generally the case in educa- 
 tion, it is the teacher who is at fault ; the materials 
 are all there, but the teacher fails to make the best 
 use of them. The germs of art, however feeble, are 
 in the native constitution of every little child, and 
 though not always able to struggle of themselves 
 into the light, they can be nursed and developed 
 into power — that is, some measure of power — by the 
 teacher on the outside, if he is himself an artist in 
 education. But all teachers are not artists in educa- 
 tion ; and this, again, not because they are naturally 
 incapable, but because they are not naturally 'in- 
 formed ' and inspired with the pregnant conception 
 that the teacher's function is generative and even 
 creative, and they therefore believe themselves incap- 
 able without actually being so. They are unconscious 
 of the powers they really possess, and they are un- 
 conscious of their own powers because they do not 
 appreciate those of the children they teach ; and 
 lastly, they do not appreciate the children's powers, 
 because they do not study carefully the nature of 
 children. They should go to Frobel, and learn from 
 him what children are, and what they can do when 
 artistically handled. It is a very important con- 
 sideration that the product of education, after all, 
 
Hamburg. 2 
 
 depends mainly on the teacher. The number of 
 stupid children is really very small, but the number 
 of children who are left stupid — that is, of those 
 whose powers are undeveloped — is very great ; and 
 this number is mainly dependent on the teacher, 
 with whom it rests very much to decide whether 
 these powers shall be ignored, developed, or stifled. 
 The bad teacher is a menticide, who deserves punish- 
 ment quite as much as the unskilful medical practi- 
 tioner who is called into court to answer for his 
 delinquencies. Hence it happens that young minds, 
 that might have been quickened into life, remain 
 dead, buried, and forgotten. 
 
 I visited in Hamburg some of the ' Burger Kinder- 
 garten! of which there are, I believe, nine in diffe- 
 rent parts of the town. In one of them I found 
 several children, a division of whom were busily 
 occupied in constructing various forms, and build- 
 ing with the little cubes of the fifth 'gift.' The 
 fifth ' gift ' presents a cube as divided into 
 twenty-seven smaller cubes, and .these are divided 
 diagonally into fifty-four half cubes or prisms. 
 Thus considered, it affords opportunity for forming 
 (1) life-objects; (2) beauty-objects; (3) knowledge- 
 objects. 
 
26 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 The first class represents such forms as this- 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 Iff} 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 The second such as this — 
 
 The third such as these- 
 
 ^\ 
 
 (SffiW <m> 
 
 The children were engaged in dealing with forms 
 of the first kind ; that is, in building forms of life 
 — real objects. They looked happy in their occu- 
 pation, though it was carried on under very un- 
 favourable circumstances. The room belongs to a 
 Turnverein, which assembles in the evenings for 
 gymnastic exercises. It was bare, rough, and gloomy, 
 while the atmosphere was sensibly impregnated 
 with the lingering fumes of the holocaust of 
 tobacco which had been offered up on the preceding 
 
Hamburg. 2 7 
 
 evening. It was, perhaps, a result of the unconscious 
 influence of the surroundings that the teachers here 
 were less kind in manner and tone to the children 
 than was usual elsewhere. As some sort of counter- 
 balance to these disadvantages, there was, however, 
 a small yard or garden for the children to play in, 
 and some little disorderly beds of plants and flowers 
 were pointed out to me as the children's. 
 
 I may here take the opportunity of saying that 
 Frobel's notion, that the children of the Kindergarten 
 are not only to be regarded as human plants them- 
 selves, but also as cultivators of real plants, remains 
 still, for the most part, unrealized. I saw very few 
 gardens at all connected with the institution, and 
 those that I saw were scarcely worth a second glance. 
 They were generally overgrown with sprawling plants, 
 or given up to the dominion of weeds. Nor did I see ' 
 a single instance in which children were at work in 
 them. Indeed, it is obvious enough that things, in 
 most cases, must be so. In large towns where the 
 system is in vogue, and where, I believe, it will still 
 take deep root and flourish, it is next to impossible 
 to obtain adequate space for the experiments in 
 actual gardening. If, indeed, I may venture an 
 opinion, which will, I am aware, be unacceptable to 
 
 ff ENIVE 
 
28 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 some of the enthusiastic followers of Frobel, I should 
 recommend the gradual disuse of the term Kinder- 
 garten altogether. Interpreted by facts as they are, 
 it has no special propriety. The Kindergartens are 
 really preparatory schools for very young children, 
 and nothing else. The methods adopted in them 
 may and do differ greatly from those of ordinary 
 schools, but when these, in process of time, are modi- 
 fied, as they will be, so as to form a continuation of 
 the same system, the name will lose its speciality. A 
 child of six or seven years old is as much a human 
 plant as one of three ; and the school, as a place for 
 culture, is as much Kindergarten as that which now 
 bears the name. If it is the age only on which the 
 distinction depends, then we have a distinction with- 
 out a difference. All this will sound very heterodox, 
 no doubt, in the ears of some of the enthusiasts I have 
 referred to ; but when they understand that I agree 
 with them as to the value of the thing, they will per- 
 haps tolerate my quibbles about the name. I fully 
 believe myself that, though this foreign name has 
 been temporarily adopted in England and America, 
 neither this nor that of Kindergartner (gardeners) for 
 the teachers will be permanently employed. 
 
 Several of the Hamburg Kindergartens are under 
 
Hamburg. 29 
 
 the immediate superintendence of a number of ladies 
 and gentlemen, forming a committee of the Frobel 
 Verein (a Frobel Union), the headquarters of which 
 are at Dresden. The ladies of the committee, and 
 the president, who is a Mrs. Johanna Goldschmidt, very- 
 kindly take turns in visiting the schools of the Union ; 
 and I could distinctly see the good effects of this care 
 in the character of their special institution. In one 
 of them that I visited there were thirty children — 
 ages from three to seven — paying nearly £4 a 
 year each. The rooms, though not large enough, 
 were commodious and cheerful, and the children, 
 when I arrived, were industriously interweaving 
 strips of coloured paper (Flechten), which they 
 did very deftly, and with evident satisfaction to 
 themselves. This work consists in plaiting strips 
 of paper, so as to form various designs, the effect 
 depending on the symmetrical arrangement of 
 the different colours. The little workers, armed 
 with needle and thread, draw the slips in and 
 out amongst others already laid down to form the 
 groundwork of the pattern, an exercise requiring 
 much more attention and thought than might at 
 first sight be expected. The specimen at top of 
 next page will give some idea of the work. 
 
30 
 
 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 The children had been engaged, I was told, since 
 nine o'clock in (i) building with cubes ; (2) in 'stick- 
 laying,' or making different forms on the flat table. 
 This consists in placing little sticks (stabchen) in 
 various relations to each other, as this — 
 
 
 (3) In games and gymnastics. While I stayed, there 
 was a good deal of singing, not very well con- 
 ducted, for the teachers could not be complimented 
 on their own sweet voices ; and I invariably re- 
 marked that the tone and quality even of the 
 children's voices depended greatly — and for obvious 
 reasons — on those of the teachers. 
 
 I observed, on looking out from one of the 
 windows, some little flower-beds belonging, as 
 I was told, to the children, to which the 
 remarks which I have previously made were ap- 
 plicable. The children altogether looked a very 
 
Hamburg. 3 1 
 
 happy little community, earnestly engaged in their 
 occupation, and happy because earnestly engaged. 
 And herein lies one of the great truths which Frobel 
 brought to light and made practical. He saw 
 more clearly, perhaps, than any one before him, that 
 the secret of happiness is occupation — the healthy 
 employment of our powers, whatever they may be. 
 This is especially true of little children, who are 
 scarcely ever contented with simply doing nothing, 
 and whose fidgettiness and unrest, which often give 
 mothers and teachers so much anxiety, are merely 
 the strugglings of the soul to get, through the body, 
 some employment for its powers. Supply this want, 
 give them an object to work upon, and you solve the 
 problem. The divergence and distraction of the 
 faculties cease as they converge upon the work, and 
 the mind is at rest in its very occupation. The nature 
 of the work makes very little difference, and even its 
 sameness does not weary. It becomes interesting, 
 simply because it gives scope to the energies, and 
 concentrates them. I frequently had occasion to 
 notice that the children were doing over and over 
 again what I knew that they had often done before, 
 and I once enquired whether the teacher did not find 
 that the children got tired of the apparent sameness 
 
32 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 and monotony. ' Look at them ! ' was the reply in 
 this case, ' and see whether they appear tired.' I did 
 look, and could see no symptom of weariness, but, on 
 the contrary, earnest, contented, even pleased absorp- 
 tion in the work. What more was to be desired ? 
 They were observing, comparing, contriving, some- 
 times inventing, and all the while gaining practical 
 skill in manipulation. They were working towards 
 an end, and I often saw them stop for a moment and 
 contemplate with delight what they had achieved. 
 On one occasion a bright-eyed maiden of two and a 
 half years old, after placing her little sticks in various 
 forms which did not quite please her, at last hit upon 
 one which did. She looked at it for a moment, 
 then suddenly clapped her hands, chuckled with 
 delight, and called her neighbour to observe the feat 
 she had accomplished ; and then clapped her hands 
 vigorously again. She had satisfied the desires of her 
 mind — had gained a result of her own devising, and 
 felt in her small measure the joys of invention. 
 
 In this school I noticed that reading, writing, and 
 elementary arithmetic were taught to the children 
 over six years of age. This, which the rigid purists of 
 the Kindergarten system generally regard as an inno- 
 vation, is, in my opinion, a very desirable innovation, 
 
Hamburg. 
 
 oo 
 
 forms the proper transition and introduction to the 
 work of the ordinary school, and constitutes a fitting 
 application of the principles already carried out. It 
 is desirable for this reason, if for no other, that the 
 children thus prepared can take their place in the 
 ordinary school without experiencing the sudden 
 shock which those children experience who are at 
 once transferred from the play- work of the Kinder- 
 garten to the routine work of schools in which as yet 
 Frobel's principles are unknown. My own opinion is, 
 that the programme of the Kindergarten should cover 
 the period from three to eight years of age, an exten- 
 sion which would admit of the fixing and solidifying 
 by practical application of the rudimentary know- 
 ledge gained in the numberless instructive exercises 
 of the Kindergarten proper, and for want of which 
 much that is learnt there is in danger of being over- 
 laid or lost. It is not enough to know — we must 
 have a conscious knowledge. If what we learn is to 
 gain a firm footing in the mind, and become a real 
 possession, we must know that we know. Now, the 
 addition of two years, to the ordinary Kindergarten 
 course would give the opportunity for converting 
 casual knowledge into real knowledge, and for fixing 
 firmly in the mind the valuable ideas gained through 
 
 c 
 
34 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 the practical exercises in observing and using the 
 forms (including surfaces, edges, angles, etc.) of the 
 sphere, cube, and other solids, as well as for carrying 
 onward the drawing and arithmetic, and learning more 
 and more of the properties of material objects. It 
 is a mistake into which many outsiders fall, to look 
 upon all that is done in the Kindergarten as so much 
 play. It begins with play, certainly, but it does not 
 end in play. A great part of it is play that has work 
 in view, and is work — unless we are prepared to 
 deny that name to the constant exercise of the 
 observing powers, with the attendant comparison 
 and discrimination and judgment ; to the equally con- 
 stant exercise of the imaginative faculty in the 
 development of contrivance and invention ; to the 
 cultivation of taste by singing, drawing, rhythmic 
 movements, etc. ; to the training of the moral feelings 
 by association of the children with each other, and to 
 the attainment of deft and correct manipulative skill. 
 All these objects, and many others that are incidental, 
 come within the scope of the Kindergarten, and it is 
 absurd to deny that they are all more or less intellec- 
 tual in their nature and aim, and therefore to assert 
 that they are mere play. At the same time it must 
 be admitted that the ideas obtained through these 
 
Hamburg. 35 
 
 means are of a strictly rudimentary character, and are 
 wanting, of course, in definiteness and accuracy. And 
 therefore it is that some extension of the course is 
 desirable, with a view to the further development 
 of the thinking powers, and to the converting uncon- 
 scious into conscious knowledge. In connection with 
 this remark, I am bound to say that I saw but little 
 of definite developing power among the Kindergarten 
 teachers of Germany. There is far too much telling 
 and doing for the children what they ought to be 
 required, even young as they are, to do for them- 
 selves ; and it is this very general tendency to the 
 mechanical which lays much of the practice of the 
 teacher open to the sharp strictures which I have 
 already referred to. I may add, moreover, that I 
 was much surprised that on no one occasion did I 
 witness a lesson on objects. I do not say that such 
 lessons are never given, but it certainly never was 
 my fortune to be present at one. The only objects 
 I saw in the hands of the children were those con- 
 stituting the various • gifts,' and to these, as far as I 
 am aware, their lessons were strictly confined. Not 
 a flower, twig, leaf, stone, out of the boundless variety 
 of Nature's stores, nor any models of artificial produc- 
 tions, came into the lessons. This appears to me a 
 
36 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 serious omission, and requires an explanation. The 
 'gifts' are most valuable. I certainly would not 
 supersede their use, but they are not everything ; and 
 it appears to me that no day should pass in the 
 Kindergarten without a lesson on some object of nature 
 or art. I have felt myself compelled to make these 
 remarks, but I shall be glad to be set right if I have 
 fallen into error as regards this very important matter. 
 Nothing in the early education of children is of 
 more importance than the cultivation of their observ- 
 ing powers by means of the objects with which they 
 are in immediate contact. The names of the children 
 themselves, their age, the number of the members of 
 their families ; the names and direction of the streets 
 they pass through in coming to school ; the number of 
 houses in these streets, the shops of various kinds 
 in them ; the animals they meet with ; the carts, 
 waggons, coaches, etc., that they have seen in the 
 way ; the weather, with its various incidents ; the trees 
 growing in the neighbourhood, the river flowing near 
 them, the hills seen from a distance, the fields in 
 which they play, or those they pass by in taking 
 walks, the soil of the fields, the crops growing in 
 them, the occupations of men that they witness ; the 
 smithy, the barn, the threshing-floor, the carpenter's 
 
Hamburg. 3 7 
 
 shop, the sowing, ploughing, haymaking, reaping, 
 harvesting, etc. ; — to all these matters their atten- 
 tion should be directed, and the results of their own 
 observation, not the observation of the teacher, elicited. 
 Then, descending into particulars, let each child tell 
 how many rooms are there in his home, how the rooms 
 are used, the colour of the walls, the pattern of the 
 paper ; what the houses are built of ; how many 
 windows, doors, chimneys, etc. : have they gardens ? 
 what is grown in them ? what' flowers, herbs, 
 vegetables, trees, etc. ? Then the schoolroom — 
 how many walls, windows ? how many desks, tables ? 
 how high ? how long ? — the dimensions being referred 
 to an actual rule and measured by themselves. Then 
 let them say how many books there are on the table ; 
 how many leaves in a given book ; how many 
 lines in a page ; what is the weight of a book or any 
 other object (ascertained by actual weighing it them- 
 selves with scales) ; also the weight of a given object, 
 guessed at by poising it in the hand, and then let the 
 accuracy of the guess be tested by weighing ; how far 
 is a tree, a pool, the end of the playground, off, to be 
 guessed at, then tested by measuring done by them- 
 selves ; how high is a wall, ascertained by counting 
 the layers of bricks and measuring the thickness of 
 
38 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 a brick, etc., etc. In all these exercises, which are 
 numberless, the actual observation of the children, 
 their own personal experience, should be the means 
 and the limit of the knowledge. Nothing need be 
 told them but conventional names — their senses and 
 their minds should do the rest, without help from 
 others. It is truly wonderful that all exercises of this 
 kind are, as a rule, unknown in our primary schools, 
 where they would be especially valuable — the result 
 being that the scholars go forth into the world with 
 eyes that do not see, ears that do not hear, and minds 
 undeveloped. The knowledge of things that lie about 
 them in daily life, knowledge which Milton emphati- 
 cally points out as the prime wisdom, is studiously 
 ignored. They are left 'unpractised, unprepared, 
 and still to seek ; ' and what is even more important, 
 the consciousness of their power to acquire such 
 knowledge by their own efforts is never awakened. 
 
 I visited the Frobel-Verein Institute for training 
 (1) Kindergarten nursery governesses ; (2) Kinder- 
 garten teachers. This institution has also a private 
 Kindergarten in connection with it, for the practice 
 of the teachers, but this I did not see. Mrs. Gold- 
 schmidt kindly accompanied me, and introduced me 
 to the intelligent head-mistress and the young novices, 
 
Hamburg, 39 
 
 who numbered about forty. These pleasant-looking 
 maidens sang for my entertainment some pretty songs, 
 accompanied by the piano, and further indulged me 
 with two well-enunciated recitations, together with a 
 specimen of the movement - play adapted to the 
 children of the Kindergarten. I was very favour- 
 ably impressed with the earnest interest manifested 
 throughout, and only regretted the narrowness of 
 their accommodation. The rooms were small, and 
 not well adapted to the purpose of the institution. 
 The informing spirit, however, appeared active, large, 
 and generous. 
 
 Next morning I again visited the same establish- 
 ment, in order to be present at Professor Hoffman's 
 weekly lesson to the young students. I was much 
 interested by the Professor's appearance, and by his 
 quiet, appropriate manner towards them. They too, 
 on their part, seemed to have a perfectly good under- 
 standing with him, looked very happy in their work, 
 and indulged every now and then in ebullitions of 
 innocent fun, which did not, however, hinder their 
 serious attention to business. The girls were occu 
 pied, when I entered the room, in laying down on 
 the table folded slips of white paper forming vari- 
 ous figures {scJiniirstnifen). These, I was told, were 
 
4Q 
 
 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 representations of forms of ' Life/ ' Knowledge/ and 
 ' Beauty ' (Leben-Kenntniss-Schonheitsformen). Here 
 are some specimens of them — 
 
 A 
 
 /' < 
 
 </f% /j| 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 There was here a field for considerable ingenuity 
 and taste, but I was surprised to see that the 
 demand for these qualities was strictly confined to 
 an imitation of what the teacher did. The girls 
 were told almost everything — scarcely anything 
 required of them but rigid performance. The argu- 
 ment for this was, that these were the very exercises 
 the children were to be carried through in the 
 Kindergarten, — an argument plainly insufficient if the 
 object of the Frobel principle is, as I believe it is, to 
 develop a direct native power. Not only were the 
 girls told in every instance exactly what they were to 
 do, but were also told, even when the case was most 
 obvious, how to correct every mistake. ' This is too 
 short/ ' That is too long,' ' You must do so and so,' 
 were words of constant occurrence, when ' Correct 
 this by looking again at the pattern' would have 
 been amply sufficient ; as it is an article of our 
 
Hamburg. 4 1 
 
 educational creed, that the learner's blunders are to 
 be corrected by himself, and thus to be utilised for his 
 benefit. I was proportionally disappointed at the 
 mechanical nature of this teaching, which made so 
 little demand on the intellect of the pupils. My 
 convictions on this point were strengthened, when, 
 in the second lesson (on network drawing), I heard 
 the teacher, in his criticism of the work, telling the 
 girls most assiduously what was perfectly obvious. 
 1 This line is not straight,' ' These lines are not wide 
 enough apart,' 'This line should be horizontal, that 
 perpendicular,' etc. — remarks all perfectly just, but also 
 perfectly unnecessary in the case of girls of sixteen 
 or seventeen years of age. 
 
 This vice of 'telling' seems quite ingrained in teachers 
 generally, and is very commonly even regarded as a 
 virtue. But I hold it to be a fundamental canon of teach- 
 ing, never to tell a pupil what he can find out for himself; 
 and the canon is, I am bound toassert, violated to a very 
 great extent (I cannot, of course, say universally) in 
 the training schools for Kindergarten governesses. 
 The consequences are naturally seen when these 
 governesses take the charge of children themselves ; 
 and hence the tendency to formal mechanism, on 
 which I have already made some remarks. It may 
 
42 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 be said, perhaps, with some truth, that Frobel him- 
 self, by laying down a definite plan of training, 
 through his 'gifts,' and by his strongly insisting on 
 its strict observance, countenanced and authorised 
 to a certain extent mechanical action. This, how- 
 ever, is a case in which the ' letter killeth/ while the 
 ' spirit quickeneth ; ' and I am persuaded that those 
 are very imperfectly acquainted with Frobel's prin- 
 ciples who force their practical application into so 
 narrow a groove ; at the same time, I suspect that 
 even Frobel himself did not firmly grasp the prin- 
 ciple, that the child, who is naturally a self-teacher, is 
 to be a self-teacher throughout. The great truth, 
 I however, that comes out of Frobel's researches into the 
 nature of man is, that education consists in an every- 
 sided culture of all the human faculties only. What he 
 means by culture is development, not ' telling,' which 
 is too generally the antagonist, not the minister, of 
 culture. There is a sense in which it may be truly 
 said, that we know — that is, consciously know — 
 nothing that we are merely told by others. 1 What 
 
 1 Faraday was accustomed to say that he never received as a fact 
 what others told him, until, by working upon it himself, he had made 
 it his own. It was a fact to him only when it became fact through 
 his own personal experience. 
 
Hamburg. 43 
 
 we really know, so as to possess as a part of ourselves, 
 — of our organic life — comes out of our personal experi- 
 ence in thought or action. We know, in this sense, 
 what we have felt, what we have acquired by contact 
 with the realities of nature and life ; but we do not 
 know, for instance, in this sense, the distance of the 
 sun from the earth, nor Kant's theory of the origin of 
 ideas. 
 
 Whatever value may be attached to these re- 
 marks, one thing is certain, that in early education 
 we must take as the basis of our operations the 
 phenomena of natural development, the experiences 
 of the children themselves, and on them erect our 
 system of teaching. This is what is meant by 
 Frobel's great principle, as I construe it, that we 
 must learn, by studying the nature of children, 
 how we are to teach them ; just as Bacon taught 
 that we are to learn from nature the laws by which 
 we are ourselves to govern nature. The choicest 
 fruits of Frobel's ideas will be gathered only 
 when the teachers of the teachers are profoundly 
 impressed with it themselves, and, above all, im 
 press it upon them. This, at present, is not, so 
 far as I have observed, by any means generally 
 the case. 
 
44 
 
 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 I left Hamburg deeply impressed with the edu- 
 cational activity everywhere manifested, with its 
 noble institutions for early and advanced instruc- 
 tion, and with the generous public spirit of its 
 authorities. 
 
BERLIN. 
 
 N the 30th of August I arrived in Berlin, 
 and on the following Monday commenced 
 my mission in that city by visiting a pri- 
 vate Kindergarten, conducted by Fraiilein Sperling, 
 where I found thirty or forty children of from three 
 to seven years of age busily engaged in breakfast- 
 ing at half-past ten. After their simple repast was 
 over, they commenced ' building ' with little wooden 
 cubes and tablets. This I found everywhere a very 
 favourite 'work' of the children, and one in which 
 they generally display much ingenuity. It con- 
 sists in forming with the objects just mentioned 
 seats, sofas, columns with pedestals, crosses, door- 
 ways, flights of steps, walls, little houses, etc. (see 
 p. 26). The children never seemed wearied in 
 varying these forms in every possible way. It is 
 an exercise suited in all respects to their powers, 
 and by means of it, as I have elsewhere said, ' play 
 exhibits the characteristics of art, and "conforms" (to 
 
46 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 use Bacon's words) "the outward show of things to 
 the desires of the mind," and the child learns not 
 merely to imitate, but to create.' ' In consequence, 
 too, of the exact geometrical conformity of the cubes 
 and tablets (the dimensions of the tablets having 
 always a fixed definite proportion to those of the 
 cubes), notions of precision and symmetry are neces- 
 sarily acquired. It is remarkable to see with what 
 zest and earnest seriousness the children engage in 
 this systematic building. 
 
 The next exercise consists of movement - games, 
 accompanied by singing ; and as I nowhere saw 
 these games better carried out than here, I will 
 describe some of them in detail. 
 
 1. The Sportsman. — The children forming a large 
 ring with joined hands, and singing a song adapted 
 to the subject, one of them is detached to represent 
 a midge disporting itself in the sunshine. He runs 
 round the circle, throwing his arms about to imitate 
 flying. Another child is then detached to repre- 
 sent a sparrow, who attacks the midge, and swallows 
 it up (a large demand on the imagination, certainly). 
 
 1 See Erode/ and the Kindergarten System of Elementary Education, 
 pp. 16, 17. 
 
Berlin. 47 
 
 The midge vanishes, and the sparrow remains. A 
 hawk (another child) immediately pounces on the 
 sparrow, and despatches him, but not with impunity, 
 for a sportsman, who had been on the watch for the 
 hawk, shoots him, and he falls to the ground, to the 
 great delight of the children, who thereupon utter 
 an animated shout. 
 
 2. The Horse and his Rider. — One child represents 
 the horse, and another, laying hold of the horse 
 behind, follows him as the rider. They set off very 
 merrily ; the horse is fresh, but soon shows symptoms 
 of weariness. The pace slackens. He steps in front 
 of one of the children, who represents the ostler of an 
 inn, gets a bait and a drink, and steps on vigorously. 
 Again, however, the pace becomes slower. He has 
 cast a shoe. He stops at a smithy ; the blacksmith 
 comes forward and nails on a new one. The horse 
 goes on again, and comes to the gate of a town 
 where the rider pays a toll. After a while the 
 pair starts for the homeward journey, the rider 
 reaches his house, distributes presents that he has 
 brought amongst his children, and receives their 
 thanks. All is mirth and jollity. 
 
 3. The Seasons. — One child is selected for each. 
 To begin with, Spring stands in the middle of a ring 
 
 TJ«P 
 
48 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 formed by the rest. All lift up their hands and sing 
 the song ' Spring ' {Friihlingslitst), to denote joy and 
 satisfaction. Then Summer takes his place, wiping 
 his heated brow. Haymaking begins, and the move- 
 ments of the haymakers are imitated. Summer's 
 song is sung amid rejoicings. Autumn comes next, 
 and reaping, harvesting, and so forth, are represented. 
 Then Winter succeeds, shivering, stamping with his 
 feet, rubbing his hands. Then the four Seasons join 
 hands and dance prettily together ; and lastly all 
 take part, waltzing with real grace in pairs. My 
 heart, I confess, danced with them. 
 
 4. The Mill. — Four children placed crosswise form 
 the mill ; the movements of their arms, the sails. Then 
 others bring corn to the mill, which turns round and 
 grinds it. It is then carted off amid songs and shouts. 
 
 5. The Cooper's Shop. — Wooden and steel mallets 
 and chisels are brought in, as well as a plane, sawing- 
 block, and a tub. The song begins, and the workmen 
 all hammer together at the tub, the clank of the steel 
 tools giving a pleasing variety to the general effect. 
 
 6. Doing as I Do. — This consists in the singing a 
 little song by a child in the middle of the circle, who, 
 when he arrives at the word ' so,' claps his hands, or 
 imitates reaping, or hammering, or what not. There- 
 
Berlin. 
 
 49 
 
 upon the song is repeated by all the children, who do 
 together what the leader has done. I give the words 
 and the music as an average specimen (by no means 
 the best specimen) of the sort of thing which exercises 
 very pleasantly the voices and the wits of these little 
 ones. 
 
 J J +~ 
 
 *^*- 
 
 r=^ 
 
 II 
 
 -&=& 
 
 Wenn die Kin-der ar - tig sind, dann sind sie im - mer 
 
 IH 
 
 £ 
 
 N h K 
 
 ? 
 
 froh; 
 
 m 
 
 und wenn sie nur recht lu - stig sind, dann 
 
 g 
 
 3 
 
 mach-en's Al - le so, 
 
 dann mach-en's A 
 
 i 
 
 jM=^£5^5 
 
 $=t 
 
 dann 
 
 mach-en's Al 
 
 These movement games are, of course, very numer- 
 ous. Kohler gives in Die Beivcgungspiele der Kinder- 
 garten no fewer than 275 specimens. They also seem to 
 be entered into by the children with great enjoyment. 
 They practise the limbs, voices, and wits very effectu- 
 
 1 The translation is — 'When the children are well behaved, then they 
 are always happy ; and when they are very merry, then they all do so. ' 
 
 D 
 
50 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 ally, and moreover give peeps into the world of busi- 
 ness and real life. They afford, too, opportunities for 
 the exercise of the moral virtues, by requiring mutual 
 concession, sympathetic aid, and harmonious co-opera- 
 tion. The little things were very polite (artig) to 
 each other, and often displayed much innocent arch- 
 ness and fun. They were certainly very happy. 
 
 One morning I went to see the Victoria-Schule, one 
 of two noble public schools for girls. The other is 
 the Louisen-Schule. The Victoria-Schule, which is 
 under the direction of Dr. Haarbriicker, educates about 
 950 girls ; the Louisen-Schule, under the direction of 
 the learned philologist, Dr. Matzner, 850. 1 A few 
 particulars respecting the former, which, however, for 
 want of time I only partially inspected, may be inte- 
 resting. It was opened in 1867 with 259 scholars in 
 7 classes. It has now 950 scholars in 18 classes. 
 Besides the rector there are 28 teachers (5 ' head ' 
 and 10 'ordinary;' 9 women; I teacher of sing- 
 ing, 1 of music, and 2 supernumerary), who are 
 
 1 1 had a pleasant chat with Dr. Matzner, who greeted me as a fellow- 
 member of the Philological Society, and he was, although in his 75th 
 year, radiant with health and intelligence, and told me that he still 
 hoped to complete his unfinished dictionary of Old English, though it 
 would require ten years of hard work to do it. 
 
Berlin. 5 1 
 
 each engaged from 20 to 25 hours per week. The 
 stipend of the rector is 1700 thalers, that of the first 
 head-teacher 1400, and that of the rest ranging down- 
 wards to 350 thalers per annum. The inclusive school 
 fee is 30 thalers per annum. The curriculum of obliga- 
 tory subjects consists of religion, the German language 
 and literature, arithmetic, French, geography, history, 
 natural history (with physics, or Natiirkiinde), writing, 
 drawing, singing, needlework (excused in the higher 
 classes if desired), and gymnastics. English is an 
 optional subject, but it appears that in the winter of 
 1872-3, out of 279 scholars, who from their position in 
 the school were at liberty to take it or not, only seven 
 failed to do so. The teachers are generally persons 
 of high qualifications, and the results of their teaching 
 are spoken of as very satisfactory. The average number 
 of pupils in a class is about 50. This indeed is pre- 
 scribed as the maximum, but it is not strictly adhered 
 to. The religious profession of the parents is in 835 
 cases Protestant Evangelical, in 107 Jewish, while there 
 are only two ' Dissidents ' and nine Catholics. The 
 school is a city foundation, and is under the direction 
 of the authorities of Berlin. It takes its name from 
 that of the Crown Princess, who has shown much 
 interest in it, and was present at the opening. 
 
52 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 
 As my special purpose was to see elementary — not 
 advanced — teaching, I gave most of my time to a 
 
 class (the 8th) of about sixty children (ages nine and 
 eleven) who were learning a lesson in arithmetic. 
 They were working a very simple sum in what we 
 call short division, which they did by long division 
 thus : — 
 
 79:5 l 5 
 
 5 5 
 
 29 And then for proof, 75 
 
 5 ± 
 
 4 79 
 
 This was all done on the black board with the 
 teacher's figures, but by the work of the scholars, 
 who were closely questioned on each operation, and 
 gave the figures which the teachers registered. There 
 was nothing so remarkable in the lesson as the earnest 
 fixed attention of the children. The order was per- 
 fect. All the sixty seemed to give themselves up to 
 the work as if they were one ; yet I consider that the 
 number in the class was at least double what it ought 
 to have been ; and even the perfect order, which was 
 unbroken, helped to cover the delusion that the minds 
 of all could be suitably and simultaneously developed. 
 Comparatively few pupils were able, under the cir- 
 
Berlin. 53 
 
 cumstances, to answer at all, and it too frequently 
 happened that the same individuals came to the front 
 and did the main work of the class. I was shown 
 some paper books, ruled in squares, in which the 
 scholars were required to enter every rule on a sepa- 
 rate page, one sum. All these books seemed very 
 neatly kept. The text-book, including only the first 
 four rules, and, as is constantly the case in Germany, 
 without any answers to the examples, was ' Belgradt 
 und Sc/iuff's Recherfibel! 
 
 I entered one of the French classes in which a lady ^^ 
 was the teacher, whose power over the fifty_scholars 
 was observable in their fixed attention and apparent 
 interest. The teaching was most careful ; the ques- 
 tions she asked on the text, as well as on the gram- 
 mar, were for the most part correctly answered, but 
 the pronunciation was decidedly bad. 
 
 In conversation with Dr. Haarbriicker on the Kin- 
 dergarten, I heard some of the objections, which he 
 fully endorsed, to the Kindergarten system — not, how- 
 ever, as he was careful to say, against the principles 
 so much as the practice. The first was, that Kinder- 
 garten children, when received at the school, were so 
 restless and fidgetty that it took two or three months 
 to get them into order. Having been so much accus- 
 
54 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 tomed to play, they brought the play-spirit with them, 
 and it was very difficult to exorcise it ; and as for 
 making it work, that was out of the question. He 
 could not allow any interference of play with school 
 business. Even in the intervals between the lessons, 
 when the girls got into the fresh air, they were not 
 allowed to play — play disorganised them. They 
 could walk up and down — that was quite enough. A 
 Kindergarten child, then, was a nuisance, and the first 
 business the school had to do with her was to clear 
 her head and heart of the fond delusion of associating 
 learning with amusement. Secondly, there, was too 
 much routine and drill in the Kindergarten. It de- 
 stroyed originality, and made the children all alike. 
 It was altogether mechanical. It did occur to me to 
 ask Dr. Haarbriicker whether he considered that the 
 ordinary school teaching, in classes of sixty children 
 for instance, under one teacher, gave much oppor- 
 tunity for developing individual originality, but I for- 
 bore — partly because I could not muster my poor 
 German speech-forces for the occasion, and partly 
 because I wished rather to hear than discuss objec- 
 tions. Thirdly, the system was handed over to 
 ignorant girls not out of their teens, who had not 
 been thoroughly trained by general education, had 
 
Berlin, 5 5 
 
 undergone no examination (he meant by the Govern- 
 ment authorities), and could do nothing else. 
 
 I listened to these objections in silence, but while 
 in my secret heart I acknowledged that there was a 
 tincture of plausibility in them, I felt that on the 
 whole they were unfair and unreasonable. One can 
 easily believe that there may be some difficulty in 
 bringing a Kindergarten child accustomed to much 
 freedom of action and thought, and also to receive 
 much individual attention, all at once under the 
 bonds of routine ; but then, on the other hand, one 
 cannot but believe that the quickened intelligence — 
 for this can hardly be denied — would amply com- 
 pensate in the end for the lack of order at the 
 beginning. And I further cannot help thinking that 
 to assume that the moment the clock strikes and the 
 child is six years of age, she is to cease to be a child, 
 and forthwith to be treated as if all she had hereto- 
 fore learned was of no account, is a very large and 
 unwarrantable assumption. That it could be made, 
 however, was only an argument the more for my 
 belief, that to give the Kindergarten a fair chance, 
 its course must be extended so as to include the 
 elementary studies of the school proper. The initia- 
 tion at the arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic 
 
56 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 would necessarily mitigate to some extent the super- 
 abundant hilarity and joyousness which the regular 
 schoolmasters of Berlin have, it appears, so muck 
 trouble in putting down before their lessons can take 
 effect. I am quite of * JacototV opinion, that 'on ne 
 sinstruit pas en iamusantl but I am also of the 
 opinion of the Frobel authorities, that instruction in 
 the strict sense of the term ought to find no place in 
 the training of a little child of from three to six years 
 of age. Instruction, as the word denotes, is the 
 systematic building of knowledge into the mind in 
 accordance with a preconceived design, and has 
 therefore nothing in common with the spontaneous 
 liberation of forces which constitute the speciality of 
 the Kindergarten, and which aims rather at fashioning 
 the building-stones for future use than at fitting them 
 prematurely into their places. Both the object and 
 the means, therefore, are different in the two cases. 
 
 As to the objection that the Kindergarten destroys 
 all originality, it is simply amusing. If cultivating 
 the powers of a child on all sides of his being, or in 
 accordance with his nature, does not give scope for 
 originality, then of course we must try what the drill 
 and cramming order of teaching will do for him. It 
 will, however, be very surprising if this should turn 
 
Berlin. 5 7 
 
 out to be the true remedy. The third objection, for 
 which there are some grounds, no doubt, will be 
 met by making the Kindergarten governesses more 
 thoroughly competent for their work, through a 
 stricter habit of discipline, than is now generally 
 demanded from them. Not one of these objections, 
 nor any others that I heard in Germany against the 
 Kindergarten, are of the smallest weight, in my opinion, 
 against the overwhelming evidence furnished by its 
 theoretical soundness and its practical efficiency. 
 
 In one of the Kindergartens I was present at a 
 lesson, which I could not but pronounce a total 
 failure. About sixty children (aged from three to 
 six) were seated in front of their little tables, 
 making three sides of a square. In front of them 
 was a teacher — a very young one, certainly — with 
 her arms behind her, telling them a story (Erzahliing). 
 There was no expression in her face, and of course 
 she used no gesticulation. She looked straight 
 before her into the air, not into the minds of the 
 children, and tamely proceeded with her narrative, 
 without stopping, and without putting a single 
 question to them. The effect of this style of dealing 
 with her class was very soon evident. The children 
 were utterly unconcerned about the lesson, conse- 
 
58 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 quently paid no attention to it, and forthwith began 
 to create for themselves the interest which the 
 teacher had failed to create for them. They 
 talked noisily, laughed with each other, pulled each 
 other about, and even, in some cases, left their seats. 
 The teacher seemed not to notice the disturbance, 
 but went on unmoved to the end, by which time 
 she had lost all control over the class. The lesson, 
 in fact, had not only accomplished nothing, but had 
 demoralised the children. The effect was strikingly 
 different from what I had witnessed in other cases 
 of Erzahlung, in which the children's interest was so 
 intensely excited that they could with difficulty be 
 restrained from acting out themselves the various 
 incidents described. When the teacher spoke of 
 the dog leaping along, they threw themselves on 
 the floor to leap too ; and when she uttered ' bow- 
 wow,' they chimed in simultaneously with their 
 own little ' bow-wows.' She held them, in fact, 
 entranced by the interest of the narrative. In the 
 case I have just described, the teacher from the first 
 only held the class by a thread, which soon snapped, 
 and then all was confusion. Each wandered on 
 his own way, and all the wrong way. While observ- 
 ing what took place, I could not help expressing in 
 
Berlin. 
 
 59 
 
 my mind the principle, that it is the prime busi- 
 ness of a teacher, especially of little children, to 
 create an interest in the lesson. Unless teachers 
 do that, they work to no purpose. Whatever 
 may be the matter in hand, whatever the method 
 employed, the interest of the children in it is the 
 essential condition of success. This interest fixes 
 and concentrates their attention, calls out their active 
 powers, and ensures their co-operation with the work 
 of the teacher, and therefore educates them. The 
 method employed is of comparatively little impor- 
 tance. That is a good method, ex vi termini, which 
 secures this co-operation. It is good because it 
 educates — that is, stimulates and develops power. 
 When this profitless lesson was over, the children 
 began building, weaving slips of paper, etc. ; and now, 
 when they had something to do themselves, all was 
 changed. They were as earnestly absorbed as they 
 had before been indifferent, and now looked perfectly 
 happy in their work 
 
 In another Kindergarten which I visited imme- 
 diately after, I found in a large and handsome room 
 thirty children, who formed one division of the whole 
 number, making in all seventy-four. These were 
 marching and singing very merrily. This exercise 
 
bo A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 was succeeded by ' network drawing ' {Netzzeichneii). 
 Each child had a slate marked with squares, corres- 
 ponding to those on a large black board which stood 
 in view. The tables were also marked all over with 
 squares. The teacher, calling attention to the black 
 board, made a figure, or part of one, and she re- 
 quired the children to make the same on their slates, 
 while she uttered continually (fifty times at least) 
 1 one — two,' ' one — two,' etc., so that all the children 
 simultaneously made the same strokes. The rigid 
 mechanism (which also accompanies the teaching of 
 writing, and often of reading, in all the common 
 schools) may have advantages which I failed, 
 on the whole, to appreciate. To me it seemed to 
 have, at least, some disadvantages. It forced the 
 slower children along at too rapid a pace, and gave 
 them little or no time to correct their errors them- 
 selves. In fact, the principle of calling on the chil- 
 dren to gain conscious profit for the self-correcting 
 of their blunders and mistakes, is scarcely recognised 
 in any of the teaching that I saw in the Kinder- 
 gartens. In this instance especially there was far 
 too much 'telling' and ordering to learn, and con- 
 sequently not the demand there might have been 
 on the intelligence of the children. Still the general 
 
Berlin. 
 
 61 
 
 result was good. They were acquiring aptness of 
 head and eye, and accustoming the mind to sym- 
 metrical form. The figures which ultimately came 
 out were pretty. This is a specimen — 
 
 Much importance, not without reason, is attached to 
 this kind of drawing, called technically 'Netzzeichnen.' 
 It promotes accuracy of observation, and, by securing 
 perfect symmetry, leads to the cultivation of taste, 
 admits of great variety, and undoubtedly excites 
 much interest. It is, moreover, the generally recog- 
 nised method of instruction (not in the Kinder- 
 garten only) in the art of drawing. It is employed 
 in the Gewerbeschule of Hamburg, and I saw it in use 
 in most of the elementary schools that I visited. It 
 is suited to the powers of children, and supersedes 
 unmeaning exercises in making isolated straight 
 strokes. It also prepares for writing, which, accord- 
 ing to both Pestalozzi's and Frobel's notions, should 
 follow, not precede, drawing. 
 
 (J UNIVERSITY 
 
62 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 I attended on one occasion, by invitation of the 
 teacher (Miss Kohland), a class in a Volksschule — 
 a school of the same class as our primary schools — 
 to be present at a lesson on a picture, which was the 
 nearest approach that I saw anywhere to a lesson 
 on objects. It was called a lesson in Anschauung 
 (observation), a name which it would have better 
 deserved had the objects been real. It was a large 
 coloured picture of a village, with a farm-house, a 
 church, trees, cows, a pond, etc. On these the 
 teacher asked a number of questions as to their 
 relation to each other, their nature, uses, etc., all 
 of which were remarkably well answered by the 
 children (about sixty in number, ages eight to 
 ten), who were evidently much interested in the 
 lesson. Here I for the first time became acquainted 
 with a custom, of which I frequently afterwards had 
 specimens. As soon as an answer was given which 
 had a special significance, and which involved a 
 distinct proposition, the teacher said, 'Repeat that 
 all together/ whereupon all the sixty, with one 
 monotonous voice, and that a very loud one, which 
 at first almost startled me, gave it out simultaneously. 
 The teacher had asked, ' What is a house ? ' One of 
 the children answered, ' A house is a building.' On 
 
Berlin. 63 
 
 requiring this to be repeated, they all roared out, 
 *A — house — Is — a — building.' On the whole, this 
 lesson was a very good and useful one. I witnessed 
 no lessons on pictures in the Kindergartens, but I 
 see no reason against, and many for, their being 
 introduced there. They are quite suited, or may be 
 suited, to the powers of the children, and would tend 
 to enlarge the range of their ideas, which are, as I 
 have already said, rather too much restricted within 
 the bounds of the ' gifts.' 
 
 I became aware at Berlin of the existence of some 
 disunion among the unions for promoting the Kinder- 
 garten system. The Berlin unionists, it appears, do 
 not see eye to eye with those of Dresden, and both, 
 unless I mistake, have some differences with those of 
 Weimar and Gotha. I do not quite understand the 
 quarrel, and will not therefore attempt to explain it ; 
 but as it appears to lead to personal remarks, some- 
 times rather bitterly expressed, on each other, among 
 the leaders of the parties, I learned the fact with 
 much regret. German teachers, unless I do them an 
 injustice from my ignorance, are rather more prone 
 even than those of England to pick holes in each 
 other's coats. Some of the holes seemed to me to be 
 very large, and considerably changed the appearance 
 
64 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 of certain individuals whom I had from afar ideally 
 invested with sound and even splendid dresses. I still 
 prefer, on the whole, to keep my ideal in its integrity, 
 and to believe better things of some of these good 
 men than they apparently believe of each other. 
 
DRESDEN. 
 
 N the 4th of September I left Berlin for 
 Dresden, and the next day called on Dr. 
 Marquart, one of the directors of the ' Gene- 
 ral Education Union' (Der Allgemeine Erziehimgs- 
 verehi), who received me very pleasantly, and gave 
 me several addresses. He lives in a house in which 
 there is a private school for young ladies which he 
 formerly directed, and which is now under the con- 
 duct and proprietorship of Dr. Janicher. Dr. Mar- 
 quart introduced me, at my request, to this gentleman, 
 who kindly appointed one of his teachers to take me 
 into the class-rooms. I was much pleased with all 
 that I saw in the school ; and as there is a Kinder- 
 garten connected with it, from which children are 
 regularly drafted into the lower classes, and as I was in- 
 formed that Frobel's principles were adopted through- 
 out, I was the more interested in my inspection of it. 
 I had not time to do more than visit the Kinder- 
 
 E 
 
66 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 garten and the lowest class, but I may add, that from 
 the prospectus I learned that the curriculum embraces 
 Religion, German, French, English, History, Geo- 
 graphy, Arithmetic, Natural Science (Naturwissen- 
 schaft), Calligraphy, Drawing, Singing, Gymnastics, 
 and Needlework. Pianoforte-playing is an extra sub- 
 ject. The institute takes day scholars, half boarders, 
 and boarders. The fee for instruction only varies 
 from 4 thalers to fcj, according to the class, monthly ; 
 and for boarders, 300 thalers a year in addition. 
 The Kindergarten pupils pay 20 thalers per annum. 1 
 
 I first went to the Kindergarten, and found twenty- 
 five nice little children (boys as well as girls) under the 
 care of a pleasant-looking mistress, engaged in folding 
 paper (Fatten). They all looked busy and happy. 
 
 1 next entered the room for the lowest class of the 
 school, and found the head-master himself teaching the 
 
 1 It may interest some English mistresses of boarding-schools to 
 know the outfit that each young lady is required to bring with her on 
 entering this establishment. 'One complete bed (without bedstead), 
 with summer coverlet, and 2 dust-covers, I table-cloth, half-dozen of 
 napkins, 2 silver spoons, with knife and fork, I cup, I glass, 6 night- 
 caps, 6 night jackets, 2 day and 3 night shifts, 12 pairs of stockings, 24 
 pocket-handkerchiefs, 1 waterproof cloak, 4 white, 2 coloured, and 
 
 2 warm dresses, 6 pairs of drawers, I umbrella, I work-box, 1 set of 
 toilet basin, ewer, and jug, 1 chest of drawers.' 
 
Dresden. 67 
 
 children to read. This was an interesting fact ; and I 
 could not but compare it with another fact; — namely, 
 that amongst us it is too generally considered that any- 
 body is fit to give children their earliest instruction, 
 whereas the initiative into any study, being in many 
 respects the most important part of it, especially 
 requires artistic teaching. 
 
 The method was this : The teacher wrote a letter, 
 or a combination of letters, on the black board, utter- 
 ing very clearly, at the same time, the sound of which 
 it was the symbol, and then requested the children 
 to reproduce the signs on their slates, and to utter 
 them at the same time, the utmost attention being 
 paid to distinctness of articulation. 1 The children 
 were of the ages of six to eight, and the immediate 
 subject was evidently new to them. When I entered, 
 i-e appeared on the board — ' i-e is z,' said the teacher ; 
 
 1 This method of connecting reading with writing, called * die 
 Schreiblesemethode? is very commonly, though not universally, employed 
 in German schools. It is sometimes called Graser's, from the name of 
 an eminent teacher, who gave it a systematic form. It had, however, 
 been suggested (as I learn from Strach's Geschichte des Deutschen 
 Schulwesens) by De Launay, a French teacher of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. The method, which appears to be very successful in practice, has 
 the special recommendation, that it requires the learner to take an 
 active part in the process. He co-operates throughout with the 
 teacher, and in fact does the work himself. 
 
68 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 i i-e=V responded all the children with one voice. 
 He then went on — ' i-e-h is i} This was followed by 
 ' i-e-r is i-i-r ' (the r strongly vibrated) ; ' i-e-s is is! 
 (the s brought out very sharply). All this was re- 
 produced by the children, who looked with all their 
 eyes, and delivered the sounds with all their voices. 
 They were most earnest, attentive, and orderly. 
 The children then turned to the book which lay 
 before them, where they found whole words con- 
 taining the elements in which they had been exer- 
 cised. Sixty of these they went through, the teacher 
 asking the meaning of the words, and then, when one 
 answered, requiring the whole to repeat simultane- 
 ously in a loud voice, ' What is meant by Dieb ? ' — 
 .nswer, ' Ein Dieb ist ein Rauber! ' Repeat Ein-Dleb- 
 ist-eln-Rdub-er! 
 
 This practical combination of writing, reading, and 
 requiring the meaning of the words, is general in the 
 elementary classes ; and though the meanings given, 
 as appears from the above specimen, were not very 
 definite or deep, they served the purpose ; and it was 
 assumed (possibly without sufficient warrant) that, by 
 the simultaneous repetition, the knowledge of one or 
 more became the property of the whole. I scarcely 
 ever heard the teacher give the meaning himself — he 
 
Dresden. 69 
 
 generally got it from some member of the class. The 
 reading in the elementary schools is generally remark- 
 ably good. It is rare to meet with the stammering 
 and stumbling too frequently heard in our schools. 
 The children know what they are about, and proceed 
 with confidence. In the year 1873, I heard, in the 
 village school of Schwalbach, small children, ten or 
 eleven years of age, reading complete narratives, con- 
 taining plenty of the long-tailed words with which 
 German abounds, in a style which surprised me ; — just, 
 in fact, as an educated Englishman would read out 
 an article from the Times, explaining the important 
 words and completely expressing the sense. 1 
 
 I was amused in Dr. Janicher's class with a little 
 morsel of a child, who, I was told, was English. I 
 asked her, ' Can you speak English V \ Yes, I can, 
 and I'm learning to speak German, / believe! She 
 looked very bright and intelligent. 
 
 In another class, where writing was going on, I saw 
 some beautiful * English writing ' on the black board, 
 which the children were copying. 
 
 1 Dr. Morell tells us in his Report in the last Blue Book that ■ he could 
 count up on his fingers the elementary schools in which this kind of 
 reading is heard in England. ' 
 
jo A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 In another class — rather higher up in the school — 
 the children were busy at Netzzeichnen, and produced 
 some very pretty specimens; and, generally, I ob- 
 served that the Kindergarten ' works' (not the games), 
 with cubes, etc., found their way, or rather were main- 
 tained, in several other classes. 
 
 On the whole, I was satisfied that a very good style 
 of teaching prevailed in this school, and I could not 
 but attribute this in a great measure to the principles 
 on which the practice was avowedly founded. 
 
 I had an opportunity one morning of conversing 
 with Dr. Paul Hohlfeld (one of the most intelligent 
 men I met with in Germany, and himself a teacher in 
 a great Volksschule in Dresden) on the objection to 
 the Kindergarten system that I had heard in Berlin. 
 He allowed that there was much mechanical and un- 
 intelligible teaching in some Kindergartens, in which 
 the teachers did not well understand what they were 
 about, and therefore failed to elicit the best results of 
 the system ; but he assured me, from his experience 
 in the Volksschule, that the children who had been 
 in the Kindergarten were generally superior to others, 
 showed more interest, and 'stepped quicker up the 
 classes.' Dr. Marquart, also speaking from experience, 
 had made the same remark, adding that some 
 
Dresden. 7 1 
 
 children, who had been pupils in his own Kindergarten, 
 created, to use his own expression, 'quite a furore' in 
 the Gymnasium. 
 
 I visited an institution for training Kindergarten 
 governesses, where I found a number of young girls 
 under the direction of Madame Keller, the principal, 
 engaged in pasting slips of white paper on blue card- 
 board (Aufkleben), and producing various geometrical 
 forms, and others producing similar forms by laying 
 down little tablets on the desk before them (Legetd- 
 fclchen). I had occasion here to remark, as I had done 
 at Hamburg, how very small an amount of native 
 intelligence the students were credited with. ■ Look 
 here ; don't you see that that is quite wrong ? ' ' That 
 ought to have been done so,' etc., when the slightest 
 reference to the fault would have called forth the 
 reflection necessary for the correction of the pupil 
 himself. I need not repeat the remark I have already 
 made on this subject. The teacher was no doubt 
 able and intelligent — as she certainly was amiable 
 and kind — but I am persuaded she might make 
 more of her materials than I saw made. 
 
 I wished to visit the Volks Kindergarten attached 
 to this institution, but it was 'free' time for the 
 children, who were all in the playground, and I 
 
72 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 could not wait. I observed, however, that they were 
 happily engaged in playing with some large heaps 
 of dry sand, just as children play on the sea-side, 
 scooping it out, making mounds with trenches round 
 them, etc. This seemed to me a good hint for other 
 Kindergartens. These sand-heaps afforded an im- 
 mense amount of innocent amusement, not altogether 
 unaccompanied with instruction. 
 
 I left this pleasant scene in order to avail myself of 
 an introduction to Dr. Kockel, the accomplished 
 director of the Konigliches Schullehrer Seminar (Nor- 
 mal School for Elementary Teachers), with attached 
 practising schools. I was most pleasantly received by 
 him, and put in the way of visiting some of the lower 
 classes of the school under the courteous guidance of 
 Mr. Thieme, one of the head-teachers of the Seminar, 
 with whose marked intelligence and artistic skill I was 
 strongly impressed. I was the more interested in 
 visiting these elementary classes, because Dr. Kockel 
 is himself a strenuous advocate of Frobel's prin- 
 ciples, and has impregnated the practising school 
 with them. I do not know whether there is a class 
 of Kindergarten children in this institution, but the 
 Frobellian exercises (gymnastics, weaving, paper-fold- 
 ing, tablet-laying, natural drawing, as well as the 
 
Dresden. j$ 
 
 cubes, spheres, etc., of the 'gifts') certainly form a 
 regular part of the method pursued in the lower 
 classes, with a view, as stated in the prospectus, of 
 * cultivating the children's active powers, and laying a 
 sound foundation for drawing, geometrical instruction, 
 and the observation of nature.' x I was introduced by 
 Mr. Thieme to the 12th class, where I found 33 chil- 
 dren, boys and girls, of from six to eight years of age ; 
 apparently, judging by their dress, and in many cases 
 by their bare feet, of the poorest class. A young 
 teacher was just about to give a lesson on geography, 
 and I found it was to begin with the house itself in 
 which the children were assembled. As it was a very 
 interesting lesson (and moreover typical), and as I 
 stayed the whole hour while it was given, I shall 
 describe it in detail. 
 
 Besides the ordinary black board, there was another 
 painted in squares, on which, or in connection with 
 which, the lesson was to be given. Each child had a 
 slate correspondingly ruled in squares. The teacher 
 began by asking questions about the bearings of the 
 house — ' Which is the north, south ? ' etc. These ques- 
 
 1 It is to be noted that in this institution, which is a Government 
 normal school, the Kindergarten certainly forms a part of the system. 
 
74 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 tions were promptly answered, and N. S. W. E. marked 
 on the board. Then ' How is this house situated ? ' 
 It came out that it faced the north, and therefore the 
 sides were known. Then was shouted out simultane- 
 ously in a very high key, ' The-front-6f-the-house- 
 looks-towards-the-north.' Then 'What is the house 
 built of ? ' Answer — ' The-l^use-is-built-of-stone.' 
 Then ' What was round the house ? ' Answer — ' A 
 garden on three sides ' — shouted out in chorus, ' The 
 se-mi-na-ry-gar-den-has-three-sldes.' I have not given 
 all the questions and answers. 
 
 The teacher then began to draw, strictly preserving 
 the proportions pointed out by the squares, the shape 
 of the building, asking questions as he made every 
 line, and directing the children to draw the corre- 
 sponding figures on their slates. The questions were 
 such as these — ' What have you done now ? ' ' Why 
 is that line so long, and not longer ? ' a reason being 
 required for every operation. Then the out-houses 
 were visited, questions being asked what they were 
 for, and how large in proportion to the main build- 
 ing, etc. From time to time, at a signal given, the 
 children laid down their pencils and shouted out 
 their answers simultaneously, as before described. 
 
 The figure on the board and on the slate was, 
 
Dresden. 
 
 75 
 
 at the present stage of the lesson, something like 
 this— 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TT 
 
 The position of the house and its surroundings 
 being thus determined, and many questions being 
 asked upon it, the teacher took his chalk in hand 
 and proceeded to draw the street on which it 
 stands, asking many questions, such as — ' In what 
 direction does the street go V 'The street' (not merely 
 ' it ') 'goes E. and W.' ' To what place does it go ?' j The 
 street goes east to Lobtau.' ' What places or buildings 
 does it pass near on the way to Lobtau ? ' Then 
 naming other places in the neighbourhood — ' How 
 
 must we go to reach ? ' * We must still go 
 
 E. to reach ,' or sometimes ' N.E. or N.W.,' etc. 
 
 Lobtau and some other places were then inserted 
 by the teacher on the board, and by the children 
 on their slates. Then all left off, and a boy was 
 
7 6 
 
 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 called from the class to the board to examine (pointer 
 in hand) the rest on what had been done, which he 
 accomplished very skilfully, repeating his question 
 over and over again. [One child who was rather 
 inattentive — a marked exception — was punished 
 by the teacher's taking his pencil from him.] 
 Then other streets or roads were inserted with the 
 same strict observance of the bearings, and the 
 figure on the board finally presented itself thus — 
 
Dresden. 7 7 
 
 I could not but consider this a very excellent lesson 
 — excellent in every way. The children (with the 
 exception already mentioned) were earnestly atten- 
 tive throughout ; their own co-operation all the time 
 maintained the interest excited by the teacher, 
 who, on his part, though young and a novice 
 in teaching, steadily kept to his purpose. This first 
 lesson was to be followed up by others, extending 
 the area to the principal towns of Saxony, and then 
 the map of Saxony was to be carefully studied and 
 mastered. The teacher, of course, had no book to 
 aid him. I never saw a teacher with a book in any 
 German school, even when reading in class was 
 going on. In this case the scholars were to read 
 so as to inform the teacher of the matter of the 
 lesson. If they could not do that, then the reading 
 was bad, and had to be recommenced. Everywhere 
 the teacher appeared to be master of his subject 
 
 I next went with Mr. Thieme to a class of children 
 of between six and eight years of age, in which he 
 himself gave a lesson in writing. Three other teachers 
 were present, who merely looked on and acted unde; 
 direction. All the children but the very youngest, 
 who wrote on ruled slates, had copy-books. This 
 lesson was in many respects very remarkable. I had 
 
78 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 never seen anything like it before. 1 The part which 
 particularly attracted my attention was the elaborate 
 preliminary exercise — the pantomimic representation 
 of all that was being done by the pupils. 
 
 The object was twofold — first, to prepare the fingers 
 and the mind for their work ; and, secondly, to make 
 the pupils conscious of all the operations they were 
 to perform in the practice of writing. 
 
 i. Exercises with the fingers. Mr. Thieme held up 
 his hand with the fingers close together ; he detached 
 one, two, three from the rest ; then, renewing the 
 operation, he added them singly or in groups to each 
 other ; he elevated them singly or in groups — the 
 children throughout imitating his movements. Next 
 the fingers were elevated separately and in groups, 
 with the words ' up — down — up — down,' etc. 
 
 2. Wrist-movements of various kinds. 
 
 3. Movements required in writing ; the hand (with- 
 out pen) held in the required position ; then both 
 hands and the arms arranged with regard to each 
 
 1 It appears, however, from Strach's interesting Geschichte des 
 Deutschen Schulwesens, that this method is in substance Dafft's, who 
 made it known twenty-five years ago. He prescribes preliminary exer- 
 cises for rendering the fingers supple, exhibition of the proper way of 
 holding the pen, and especially the writing by time ( Taktschreibung), 
 the teacher leading the operation by saying • one ' at the up stroke and 
 ' two ' at the down stroke, which words the learners are to repeat softly 
 as they make each movement. 
 
Dresden. 79 
 
 other ; lastly, pantomimic movements on the board 
 by way of illustration. 
 
 4. Movements, pen in hand, to show proficiency in 
 holding it ; first slow, then quicker and quicker, then 
 a sliding movement of both hands to show that the 
 letter was made. 
 
 These exercises altogether occupied nearly a quar- 
 ter of an hour. The teacher then took up the chalk 
 and wrote on the board (ruled for round hand) various 
 strokes, the children making the same in their books. 
 Then followed a line of /'s, each being joined to the 
 preceding by a curved line thus— f^f^f^f^f ; while 
 each movement of the head was accompanied by 
 the words 'one — two — three,' 'one — two — three/ so 
 that the whole class (each child repeating softly the 
 same words) made the same stroke at the same time. 
 Then the pace was quickened, and they proceeded at 
 a rapid rate. In fact, the pace was far too rapid, and 
 prevented the children from observing the model, 
 which I observed they did not look at a second time. 
 The strokes were all made with very sharp-pointed 
 pens, so that the distinction between thick and thin 
 strokes seemed scarcely even to be aimed at. With 
 some modifications, easily made, this method appeared 
 to me very excellent. The preliminary exercises 
 
 especially, though too much prolonged, would certainly 
 sgH UBRA*y- 
 
80 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 make the hand flexible, and give every child a very 
 distinct notion of what he had to do. 
 
 On the whole, I was much interested by what I saw 
 in this practising school. I only regretted that I had 
 no time to give to a visit to the classes of the Seminar 
 itself — an institution, judging from the programme of 
 studies, and from what I saw of the teachers and the 
 teaching, in which such work is well done. 
 
 I felt on leaving Dresden that I had done scant 
 justice to the earnest educational activity which 
 prevails there. My plan, however, did not allow of 
 further delay. I proceeded, therefore, next to 
 
 WEIMAR, 
 
 which I reached on the 8th of September. 
 
 In Weimar I first visited the Biirgerschule (Director 
 Pfeiffer), a large institution for boys and girls, each 
 in a separate part of the school-house. My special 
 purpose was to attend the lessons of the lowest 
 class, consisting, as I found, of about eighty little 
 girls of six and seven years of age, — far too great a 
 number to be under the direction of one teacher, 
 though in this case the teacher was a very intelli- 
 gent young man. The children were, however, ably 
 managed, and were very attentive and orderly ; yet 
 
Weimar. 8 1 
 
 as was natural under the circumstances, the greater 
 part of the work was done by a comparatively small 
 number of the children. 
 
 The business of the morning began at eight o'clock 
 with a short prayer, all standing. The lesson was on 
 the history of Moses, a portion of which the teacher 
 related in a simple manner. He then asked a number 
 of questions, which the children answered readily. 
 They appeared to be much interested. The good 
 answers were repeated simultaneously by the whole 
 class, some of the little boys nodding their heads 
 and swaying their bodies while they answered, as if 
 naturally moved by the interest of the story. This 
 little trait struck me forcibly. Now and then they 
 were required to repeat after the teacher some little 
 rhymes. At another time the teacher said, 'When 
 we feel ourselves fresh and well in the morning, 
 what ought we to do ? ' ' We ought to pray, and 
 give thanks to the dear God.' On the whole, this 
 was an interesting little lesson. 
 
 The teacher next began a lesson in reading, hav- 
 ing by his side a black board with ledges, on 
 which he placed movable blocks, each containing 
 a letter. These were sounded at first separately, 
 then in various combinations, by the 'laut' or 
 
 F 
 
82 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 'sound* method, 1 the children framing the mouth 
 for each sound, consonants and vowels, and then, 
 in the case of the hard consonants, exploding the 
 sound. It was the sound of the letter, not its name, 
 that was uttered — ' P-a, pa ; p-a-pa ; papa ; ' w-a-n-d-e, 
 wdnde. ' Wie viele Wdnde hat die Stube?' (How 
 many walls has the room ?) Answer, ' Die Stu-be hat 
 vier Wdnde! (The room has four walls) ; and so on. 
 Then followed arithmetic. The teacher produced 
 a tray of cubes, and taking up one said, ' Was ist das? * 
 
 1 This ' laut ' method was first developed and expounded by Stephen 
 — seventy years ago — with some modifications suggested by Krugg, and 
 prescribed for general adoption by the Prussian Minister of Education 
 in 1 84 1. I found it employed in almost all the schools that I visited, 
 though with various degrees of strictness. It is a perfectly natural 
 method, and ought to be introduced along with the 'Schreiblese 
 Methode ' into our elementary schools. Sir James Kay Shuttleworth, 
 when in Downing Street forty years ago, made an attempt, which proved 
 fruitless, to introduce it. The failure was greatly due to the singularly 
 crabbed and uninteresting book ( The Phonic Method ), compiled under 
 Dr. Kay's direction, which was intended to initiate teachers into the 
 method. All praise is, however, to be given to Sir James for the earnest 
 and enlightened spirit in which he then worked up the improvement 
 of the methods of elementary teaching. It is not his fault that the 
 Revised Code has so long pursued its disastrous course, ignoring or 
 repudiating eveiy principle of true education. Had his wishes been 
 realised, we should have had a very different kind of teaching in our 
 schools from that which has for years prevailed, and still prevails. 
 
Weimar. 83 
 
 (What is that ?) ' Das ist ein Wiirfel! (That is a cube.) 
 1 Count the sides — the edges — the angles. How many- 
 are there ? ' The children answered promptly and well. 
 Three or four more cubes were produced, and placed on 
 or alongside each other. * How many are there now ? 
 I take away one — two — three ; how many are left ? ' 
 * How many when I add these ' (pointing at four) ' to 
 this one ? ' Answer — ' Four cubes and one cube is 
 five cubes ' (strong emphasis on five). Then a number 
 of such questions as these were asked : ' You buy 
 twopence worth of apples and four pennyworth of 
 potatoes — how much do you spend ? ' All these ques- 
 tions, certainly simple enough, were answered per- 
 fectly ; not only correctly, but with a certain air 
 of mastery, denoting complete comprehension. Then 
 came writing. The copy 'Mutter' was written on 
 the board, and read aloud before it was written. 
 The children wrote on slates, one side of which 
 was ruled for large hand, the other was ruled in 
 squares for Netzzeichnen. Some of the writing was 
 remarkably good for such little children ; and indeed, 
 on the whole, considering the number in the large 
 class, there was a good deal of intellectual life. Many 
 of these children came, no doubt, out of the two large 
 Kindergartens of Weimar ; and whether they did or not, 
 
84 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 the spirit of the method pursued was as nearly as pos- 
 sible in conformity with Frobel's principles. 
 
 I visited in the same institution the lowest class of 
 boys (78 — of six and seven years of age). Here there 
 was more amusement, less teaching. All sorts of exer- 
 cises, as clapping hands together, the one on the 
 other, laying the head first on one hand, then on 
 the other, then on both, going to sleep with the right 
 side of the head laid flat on the cloth, then the same 
 with the other side, etc. They then sang to the 
 teacher's violin accompaniment a song, the refrain of 
 which was f Cuck-oo, cuck-oo.' The singing was loud, 
 not sweet. I did not stay for the next lesson. 
 
 I have here and in other parts of this book minutely 
 described what I saw done in the Volkssckulen, be- 
 cause these exactly correspond to our primary schools. 
 The materials to work upon were precisely the same 
 in all respects, and the difficulties to be overcome of 
 precisely the same nature ; but here I witnessed nothing 
 of the drawling, droning manner of learning which 
 too frequently characterises our style — the manner of 
 dreamers who are suddenly waked up for the moment, 
 and then relapse into slumber until they are roused 
 again. The children here, on the contrary, were all 
 awake, and eagerly desirous to prove that they were : 
 
Weimar. 85 
 
 nor did I see a single child in any of these schools 
 that could be denounced as idle, nor one instance in 
 which they seemed to be covertly attempting, by secret 
 tricks between neighbours, to create an interest for 
 themselves outside of the lesson. I was struck too, 
 as I have said before, with a certain air of confidence 
 and mastery with which they performed their parts 
 when called upon. They scarcely ever hesitated for 
 a moment in answering the questions put to them, but 
 proceeded at once to the business in hand as if con- 
 scious that they were prepared for it. In all these I 
 perceived easily the soundness of the previous teach- 
 ing, which was producing its effects on the current 
 lesson. They did well because they had been used to 
 do well, and had been taught how to learn. 
 
 I' next proceeded to visit Miss Meissner's private 
 Kindergarten, one of the two established in Weimar. 
 The other is Miss Minna Schellhorn's, of which I 
 shall have presently to speak. The children (forty 
 in number, ages from three to six) were engaged, 
 when I entered, in movement-games (Bewegung- 
 spielen). There was one of these, which I had never 
 seen before, intended to test and improve the sense 
 of hearing. A child in the middle of the circle was 
 blindfolded and then led up to one of the other 
 
86 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 children, who was to sing ' la-la-la ' in its ordinary 
 voice, and the point was for the former to detect 
 by ear and touch also who the singer was. If suc- 
 cessful, the detected child was to take the place of 
 the other, and so on. This game might be varied, 
 but was not in the present instance, by requesting 
 the blindfolded child to name, from touch, different 
 articles in the room, or to tell what part of the room 
 he is in. 1 
 
 The children, after the games were over, sat down 
 to work at folding paper (Fatten) and pricking out 
 forms on paper ruled in squares (Ausstecken), the 
 outlines of the figures of horses, birds, houses, etc., 
 having been sketched beforehand by the teacher 
 in pencil. The little things seemed much interested 
 in this employment, and gave up their small minds 
 earnestly to it. They were doing something them- 
 selves. Every now and then they held up their 
 performance to the light, and were pleased to see 
 the figures growing under their hands. Miss Meissner, 
 active, brisk, and intelligent, was as a centre of light 
 
 1 A variety of such experiments in the use of the senses may be 
 found described in a very valuable little book which I strongly 
 recommend to parents and teachers — Exercises for the Improvement 
 of the Senses for Young' Children (Bell & Daldy). 
 
Weimar. 87 
 
 and movement to the whole body, which she inspired 
 with her presence. 
 
 My next visit was to Miss Minna Schellhorn's large 
 Kindergarten of about 100 children. Her rooms 
 are very spacious and airy, and there is a garden 
 (with children's flower-beds), and a large play-ground, 
 with an ample shed, in which much of the mingled 
 play-work goes on when the weather is fine. I 
 found one division of the children engaged in paper- 
 modelling (Fatten), another in arranging slips of 
 paper in geometrical forms (Verschnuren), and a 
 third in laying little wooden tablets in various posi- 
 tions with regard to each other, constituting forms of 
 'life/ 'knowledge,' and 'beauty' (Legetafelchen). As 
 the children here were remarkably apt and intelligent, I 
 stood by watching them at their ' work.' To the eldest, 
 engaged in ' Falten,' pieces of buff-coloured paper (four 
 inches square, exactly measured) were given out. They 
 were first asked to explain the form of the paper. 
 ' What is the form ? ' — ' A square.' ' How many sides ? ' 
 — ' Four.' ' What about the sides ? '— ' All are equal.' 
 'What about their position?' — 'Two are perpendi- 
 cular, two horizontal.' Then followed questions on 
 the angles, their number, kind, etc., all of which were 
 promptly and correctly answered by all the chil- 
 
88 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 dren. They were then directed to fold the paper so 
 as to make two of the parallel sides meet. ' What 
 figure have we now ? ' — ' An oblong.' ' Restore the 
 original figure, and compare this with it.' ' Each of 
 the oblongs is half as large as the square.' ' How do 
 you know that?' 'Compare the length with the 
 breadth of the oblong, what do you notice ? ' ' The 
 length is twice the breadth.' ' Show that measure.' 
 Many more questions of this kind were asked, and 
 thoroughly well answered. Then the square was 
 folded diagonally, and a new series of observations 
 made on the triangle produced. ' How many angles ? ' 
 ' What kind of angles ? ' ' One right angle and two 
 acute angles.' ' What is an acute angle ? ' ' What is 
 an obtuse angle ? ' ' Have we an obtuse angle here ? ■ 
 etc., etc. The answers were not always technically 
 expressed, though they generally were, but they 
 invariably showed correct observation (Anschauung) 
 of the facts with which their minds were brought into 
 direct contact. I was delighted with the intelligent, 
 artistic guidance of the teacher (Miss Schellhorn), 
 and with the almost equal intelligence with which the 
 children followed her lead. These preliminaries over, 
 the teacher said, ' Now fold some forms with your 
 paper,' and left them to take another class. I stood 
 
Weimar. 89 
 
 at the table myself, watching the deft little figures 
 rapidly employed in 'conforming the outward show 
 of things to the desires of their minds,' and produc- 
 ing, each according to his or her own pleasure, boxes, 
 boats, seats, crosses, salt-cellars, and other very com- 
 plicated shapes, of which I did not get the names. 
 The children begged to be allowed to give me the 
 results of their handiwork, and I accordingly, after 
 expressing my genuine satisfaction, brought them 
 away with me. If any one chooses to contend that 
 these children were not usefully (I know that they 
 were happily) employed in their ' Falten,' I can only 
 reply by asking for a definition of useful employment. 
 Observation, expression, reflection, were all exer- 
 cised ; and if nothing else was done, they were gaining 
 great aptness in the use of their fingers. 
 
 I next directed my attention to the work of the 
 children (the youngest of all) who were employed 
 with the tablets. It was delightful to see the thorough 
 absorption in the work of forming seats, crosses, tables, 
 houses, etc., on the flat desk, and the glee with which 
 they contemplated their little performance — talking, 
 laughing, and criticising each other's work. One child, 
 after looking for a moment at what he had produced, 
 shouted with delight ; another, who had been earnestly 
 
90 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 employed in making a house which had tumbled down 
 several times, having at last succeeded, clapped her 
 tiny hands over the finished work, and nudged her 
 neighbour to invite her to witness and share in her 
 joy. If there are any of my readers who amuse them- 
 selves with the idea of a grave professor of advanced 
 years sympathising with these innocent sports and 
 occupations of children, and calling that education, I 
 cannot help it. After years of both study and prac- 
 tice of education, I cannot frame a definition of it, 
 which, as including development and training, does 
 not strictly apply to the exercises in which these little 
 children were engaged. Their active powers, bodily 
 and mental, were elicited by an all-sided culture, and, 
 what is supremely important, with the continual 
 accompaniment of satisfaction and pleasure. No 
 harsh compulsion, no tears, no idleness did I observe 
 in this or any of the Kindergartens of Germany. All 
 were busy, all earnest, all interested, and this because 
 they were at work (for the games were work) on their 
 own account. The labour itself was a pleasure {Labor 
 ipse voluptas), because it was their own labour. 
 
 The morning's business was now coming to a close, 
 and it was finished by an exercise which produced 
 immense excitement. Some twenty-five of the 
 
Weimar. 9 i 
 
 children, seated on both sides of a long table, began, 
 in imitation of the teacher, to beat time on the table, 
 at first very slowly, then quicker and quicker, — at 
 first with one finger, then with two, three, etc., then 
 with the whole flat hand, and lastly with the doubled 
 fists. This was apparently very satisfactory, but the 
 next was the chef-d'oeuvre. It was to imitate a storm. 
 First, the finger-tips tapped to measure on the table 
 represented the dripping rain, then louder tapping 
 showed that the rain was growing to a pelting shower. 
 It went on louder still, while now and then smart 
 simultaneous blows with the flat hand indicated the 
 lightning-flashes ; these at last were succeeded by fast, 
 loud, redoubled blows with the closed fists of both 
 hands, making a tremendous crash of thunder. This 
 was the climax of the storm, and it created quite a 
 furore among the children. They were, in fact, in- 
 tensely delighted, and — shall I confess it ? — so was I. 
 I left Miss Schellhorn's admirable Kindergarten with 
 feelings of great respect for her, and with increased 
 confidence in the system which she so artistically 
 administered. 
 
GO TH A. 
 
 N the ioth of September I found myself 
 in Gotha, my principal object in visiting 
 which was to examine the great Kinder- 
 garten institution presided over by Professor Kohler. 
 I may say at once that few things in the course of 
 my life have ever interested me more than my visit 
 to ' Das Gothaische Lehrerinnen-Seminar und seine 
 Zweiganstalten ' — the Gotha Normal School for 
 Governesses and its branch establishments. It will 
 be seen from this title that its main object is that 
 of training female teachers. The Kindergarten 
 itself is only one of its departments — a sort of 
 practising ground for the Kindergarten governesses. 
 The institution embraces, in fact, six departments — 
 1st, the Kindergarten (for children from two and a 
 half to six years of age, fee about £i, 16s. per 
 annum) ; 2d, the Girls' School (age from six to four- 
 teen, fee about £2, 14s. per annum) ; 3d, the Higher 
 Girls' School (Fortbildungschule), (age from about four- 
 
Gotha. 93 
 
 teen upwards, fee about £4, 10s. per annum) ; 4th, the 
 Normal College for Kindergarten Governesses (girls 
 above sixteen years of age, fee £9 per annum) ; 5 th, 
 the Normal College for Teachers preparing for the 
 Primary Schools (fee £9 per annum) ; 6th, the Board- 
 ing House (£45 per annum, including the school fee). 
 All these departments are closely connected with 
 each other, especially by the principle which reigns 
 throughout and determines the character of the 
 instruction. That principle is that of Frobel, of 
 which, both theoretically and practically, Professor 
 Kohler is a distinguished expositor. He has written 
 several separate works upon it, and his Praxis des 
 Kindergartens (in two volumes, to be followed by a 
 third) is one of the best guides to its practice. 
 After receiving from my interview with Professor 
 Kohler a very favourable impression of his benevo- 
 lence and intelligence, I went first to the lowest 
 class of the Girls' School, where I found twenty-two 
 children (ages six and seven). The class consisted, 
 I was told, properly of thirty children, but eight 
 were absent from measles. They were marching 
 very prettily to a measured rhythm of three beats, 
 the last of which was strongly accented. Then they 
 were supposed to come to a wood,. where they all 
 
94 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 lay down to sleep, from which they were roused 
 by a loud ' cuckoo ! ' from the teacher. Then they 
 all jumped up, shouting ' cuckoo ! ' dancing, and 
 clapping hands, and went to sleep again. It was, 
 in fact, a Kindergarten exercise introduced into this 
 elementary class of the Girls' School. 
 
 I next went to the Kindergarten itself, where I 
 found the same teacher who had just before been 
 in the Girls' School. The children, about thirty or 
 forty in number, were variously employed — one 
 division, the youngest, were engaged with little 
 sticks istdbchen) making various forms of objects on 
 the table. One of two and a half years old was very 
 earnestly busy, but not very successful. She did not 
 quite perfectly ' conform the outward shape of things 
 to the desires of her mind.' Now and then she 
 looked round to see what her neighbours were doing, 
 and then, appearing to have gained a hint, went on 
 again, nodding her head with approval when she had 
 made a point. There are many exercises with stab- 
 chen ; amongst others, exercises in counting. 
 
 At another table the children had needles, with 
 coarse thread, which they passed through holes 
 already pricked as a pattern for them in cards, thus 
 producing a sort of embroidery (Ausnahen). This, 
 
Gotha. 95 
 
 though, I believe, very common, I had not seen 
 before. The effect was pretty, and the children 
 seemed much pleased as the picture grew under 
 their hands. 
 
 I thence passed into the sixth class (lowest but 
 one of the girls' school), about twenty-five in number, 
 ages seven and eight, where a very intelligent and 
 painstaking teacher (Miss Ulrici) was cleverly 
 developing the principles of Umlaut ; that is, the 
 modification of the vowels in nouns. I was surprised 
 to hear how fully these little ones entered into the 
 lesson. They answered the questions put to them 
 exceedingly well. 
 
 In the next class that I entered the lesson was in 
 English, about thirty girls, of whom fourteen (thirteen 
 or fourteen years of age) were here learning English. 
 The teacher (Miss Rothstein), who is a pleasing person 
 of gentle and refined manners, was conducting the 
 lesson. Each girl had before her ' EartJis Many 
 Voices' (published by the Christian Knowledge 
 Society), a nice little book, well adapted to the 
 purpose. The lesson was given in German, not 
 English, and all were most attentive to it. The 
 pronunciation was far from good — too soft and 
 mincing — but they seemed to know very well what 
 
 i CNIVEB 8JTY 
 

 g6 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 they were about, and translated the text into Ger- 
 man quite fluently. 
 
 In the afternoon of this day I was present at 
 what was called a trial lesson (Probe Aufgabe) in the 
 Kindergarten governess department. Twenty-four 
 children came merely in to be experimented on by 
 six teachers in the presence of all the other teachers 
 (who took notes), and by Professor Kohler himself. 
 Dr Haas, also of Wiesbaden (whose Kindergarten I 
 had visited the previous summer), and another gentle- 
 man, were present. Five out of the six teachers 
 successively told stories to the children. The sixth 
 superintended a lesson in gymnastics, in which there 
 was much jumping over spaces marked out by long 
 staves laid on the floor, etc. The success in story- 
 telling was various, but all the teachers spoke with 
 great fluency and distinctness. I have frequently 
 had occasion to notice the firm and unhesitating 
 manner in which German teachers speak in their 
 classes. There was never any stammering, hesitating, 
 bungling, or recalling words, as is common enough 
 when English teachers deliver themselves in a set 
 narrative or speech. All seemed to know exactly 
 what they had to say, and how to say it ; yet, as I 
 have said, the success of these teachers in their trial 
 
 .1 
 
Gotha. 97 
 
 lesson, as tested by the effect on the children, was 
 various. Some laid hold of the children's eyes, 
 ears, and minds with remarkable power, and kept 
 their attention riveted on the story. In one instance 
 the eyes began to wander, and symptoms of weariness 
 were obvious, and a little member of the class went 
 fairly to sleep. On the whole, the interest displayed 
 by the children under these repeated doses of words 
 was far less vivid than that manifested when engaged 
 in the ' occupations ' in which they were themselves 
 the agents. It is what children do for themselves 
 and by themselves that most interests and most 
 effectively educates them. The present instance, 
 however, does not perhaps fairly represent the case. 
 It could scarcely be expected that the children 
 should maintain their attention at full pitch under 
 the infliction of five successive doses of words. 
 
 At the close of the sixth lesson, which came in 
 very opportunely, the session was broken up. In 
 about ten minutes after, however, it was resumed, 
 without the children, in another room ; the object now 
 being to criticise the lessons just given. One teacher 
 after another rose at the bidding of the Professor, 
 and gave what appeared to be very frank and out- 
 spoken opinions on the performances of their 
 
 G 
 
98 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 colleagues. I could not, in consequence of my 
 deficiency in German, understand all the points 
 brought forward, and shall therefore venture on no 
 criticism of the critics themselves. At the end of 
 a long discussion Professor Kohler briefly summed 
 up the arguments. 
 
 The next morning, at seven o'clock, I again pre- 
 sented myself in the same department of the 
 institution to hear two lectures of an hour each, 
 to be successively given by Professor Kohler. 
 
 The first lecture was on Methodik, or Method. 
 It was entirely viva voce. No one of the fifteen 
 young governesses present took a single note, but 
 their fixed attention was very obvious. The lecture 
 was very simple in substance (almost, indeed, to 
 excess), and the tone and manner those of a master 
 of the art of lecturing. The motive or subject was 
 the laying of the grand work of clear representations 
 (Vorstellungen) in the mind, and the. first part con- 
 sisted of an analysis of numbers, the second of 
 that of forms. It was shown how the conception 
 of number arises from the observation of a plurality 
 of concrete things. A great number of instances of 
 every kind were adduced, and the proposition laid 
 down that ' what is true everywhere, at all times 
 
Got ha. 99 
 
 and in respect to everything, must be general and 
 abstract,' and hence the use of abstract numbers. 
 Questions were frequently put to the class, and 
 bundles of little sticks used by the students by way 
 of illustration. Then the conception of form was 
 analysed, the proportions of the circle being minutely 
 investigated. 
 
 The second lecture, ' On the Theory of the Kinder- 
 garten,' to a new set of students, twenty-five in 
 number, and younger than the others, followed the 
 first after an interval of about five minutes. It was, 
 of course, one of a series, and the subject was the 
 exercises of which the cube is capable. Every 
 student was required to do herself with the cube 
 what she was as a teacher to require from the 
 children. The rigid enforcement of this demand 
 on the attention became at last, I could perceive, 
 rather wearisome. The Professor, however, would 
 take nothing for granted, so the cube was made to 
 show off every power that could possibly be expected 
 from a well-behaved solid. Anything more exhaustive 
 — not to say exhausting — in the way of a lesson 
 (which it was rather than a lecture), I was never 
 present at. The proof of the cube's capabilities 
 was complete and overwhelming. I do not say 
 
ioo A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 there was too much of demonstration — for one never 
 knows what too much is — but it did occur to me 
 (as I have remarked before), that the teachers of 
 Kindergarten governesses in Germany certainly give 
 their pupils extremely little credit for native intelli- 
 gence ; by which I mean here the power of thinking 
 for themselves, of dispensing with continual guidance 
 and help from without. I make this remark with 
 some diffidence, however, in the case of so eminent 
 a teacher as Professor Kohler, especially as I had 
 witnessed inthe previous lecture to the elder students 
 a greater, though still very slight, demand made on 
 their thinking powers. The question has been touched 
 upon in a previous page, but as it is one of great 
 importance, and forms almost the only ground of 
 difference between myself and most of the heads of 
 Kindergarten Colleges I met with in Germany, and ap- 
 plies, a fortiori, to our own Normal Colleges, I may ven- 
 ture to re-discuss it here. It is usually thought that 
 the testing a teacher's powers is his competency to 
 'communicate,' as it is called, the knowledge that 
 he possesses to his pupils. If we find him earnest in 
 his work, intent in dealing out facts which he knows to 
 his class, and giving them clear explanations of what 
 he conceives to be difficult, we generally pronounce 
 
Gotha. 101 
 
 him to be an excellent teacher. The test is, however, 
 fallacious ; for, after all, it is more than possible that 
 he has communicated (that is, that the hearers have 
 received and incorporated) little or nothing of his 
 prelection, and that their minds were simply passive 
 under the torrent of words with which he has drowned 
 them. He has taught, certainly, but they after all 
 have not learnt ; and it may happen, indeed often 
 does happen, that just in proportion to the care with 
 which he has mixed their food for them, is its unsuit- 
 ableness for their nutrition. He has, in fact, done 
 for them what, if they were to gain strength and 
 power from the lesson, they ought to have done for 
 themselves. He has been hard at work, and they 
 have done little beyond looking on. Assuming 
 moderate attention, or at least the appearance of it, 
 on their part, they may have gained now and then, 
 in a fragmentary way, something which happened to 
 be en rapport with what was already in their minds ; 
 but the doubts and difficulties which at the moment 
 suggested themselves, and the solution of which by 
 their own reflection would have been most valuabl 
 to them, have been repressed by the necessity imposed 
 on them of trying to keep up with the long strides of 
 the teacher advancing in his way. They quicken 
 
102 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 their steps, but find a mist in the path, which thickens 
 as they proceed. They hear but cannot see their 
 leader, and at last give up the attempt to overtake 
 him. The rest of the lesson is therefore utterly 
 useless to them, and they cease to give any heed 
 to it. 
 
 Now, suppose on the other hand that the teacher, 
 instead of assuming that his knowledge of the subject 
 in hand, and his power of telling and explaining, con- 
 stituted the proper qualifications for his office, had 
 assumed, on the contrary, that his business was, be- 
 fore everything else, to elicit the pupils' powers, not to 
 display his own — to make them think, not to think 
 for them — to make them do the talking and explain- 
 ing, not to do it for them — to receive, not to give — 
 his plan of action would have been altogether different, 
 and the results would have been different. 
 
 He would have thought to himself — I know well 
 myself the subject I have to teach these students, and 
 my knowledge will enable me to direct their attention 
 to its various points of interest, but it will be of no 
 service to them simply to tell them what I know. My 
 knowledge, as far as it is the product of my own re- 
 search and thought, cannot possibly be communicated 
 to them. In order to possess it, they must themselves 
 
Gotha. 103 
 
 go through the processes by which I gained it. My 
 business, therefore, is not even to attempt to impose 
 it didactically upon them, but to put them in the way 
 of obtaining it themselves. The function of a teacher 
 is to get his pupils to learn — to learn for themselves 
 — by the exercise of their own powers. But what is 
 1 to learn ' ? To learn is to know, and in the true 
 sense of the term we know, not what we have been 
 told by others, but what we have observed and thought 
 out for ourselves. Knowledge, which we can properly 
 call our own, is the result of our own experience — not 
 of the experience of others. What I have to do, then, 
 is to make my pupils learn through their own personal 
 experience. This is a reality — a matter of fact. The 
 experience of others, the results of that experience, 
 may in time supplement personal experience, but it 
 cannot, in forming the mind, be allowed to supersede 
 it, and is therefore to the elementary student an un- 
 reality. It is a fact which does not concern him. 
 What does concern him — vitally and indispensably — 
 is the exercise of his own powers, and by this exercise 
 I mean not the mincing over again what I have 
 minced for him, but the practical contact and contest 
 of his own jaws with the food, and the conversion of 
 it, by the forces of his own stomach, into ' the blood 
 
I04 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 which is the life.' My object, then, is sufficiently 
 defined. It is to utilise, by all the means within my 
 compass, the powers that God has given to every 
 human being, and to do nothing which shall tend to 
 neutralise them. And I know, from my study of the 
 nature of the mind, and from my observation of the 
 mental activity of children in their self-teaching, 
 through natural circumstances, and in Kindergarten 
 and infant schools, that children have minds, and can 
 be got to use them if the proper means are employed. 
 My aim then shall be, whether I have children merely 
 as to age or children as to knowledge, to teach, not 
 to tell and explain, what I know (since by so doing 
 I should deaden, or at least neutralise, their powers), 
 but to animate, stimulate, quicken, and guide them, 
 by requiring self - teaching, self-action, and self- 
 education. 1 
 
 Now, if these principles are grounded in nature and 
 
 1 It is much to be regretted that these principles have not yet found 
 their way into our own primary school instruction. Dr. Morell (Report 
 for 1873-4) tells us that in reading, for instance, he could 'count up 
 on his fingers ' the schools in which it was taught so as to bring 
 out expression, etc. ; by which he means, as appears from the general 
 tone of his Report, schools in which the children are taught to think 
 of the meaning of what they read, and, in fact, to use their active 
 powers at all. 
 
Got ha. 105 
 
 truth, I cannot but believe from what I have seen that 
 both the teachers and the taught in Germany as well 
 as in England have something still to learn. 
 
 I wish to add a few words on a point intimately 
 connected with the foregoing discussion. I noticed in 
 Germany what is too common in England — the extra- 
 ordinary tendency of teachers to make their teaching, 
 or rather the result of it, prematurely regular and 
 systematic. Hence the almost fanatical attachment 
 to rules and formulae. The teacher thinks the pupil 
 has done nothing unless it is reduced to rule and 
 system. In other words, he is so intent upon the pro- 
 duction of the flower that he neglects the culture of 
 the growing plant, which, after all, should be his main 
 concern. The premature introduction of the systematic 
 and scientific often stunts or even stops the natural 
 development of the mind. That distinguished teacher 
 Diesterweg thus puts the case generally : ' It is not 
 what is complete and already made, but that 
 which is individual, that which is, that concerns the 
 learner. The true teacher does not show his pupil 
 the ready-made building, the product of a thousand 
 years' labour, but guides him in shaping the building 
 stones, carries up the building with him, teaches him 
 how to build.' To this he adds : ' The so-called 
 
106 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 Scientific Method is deductive, synthetic, progressive, 
 logical, and often indeed in the most cases purely dog- 
 matical. The elementary method (that suited to 
 elementary teaching) is inductive, analytic, regressive, 
 heuristic (from Ety/Vxw, I find out). The former con- 
 sists in proceeding from above to below, the latter in 
 proceeding from below to above. In the former you 
 begin with the top, and work your way downward to 
 the foundation; in the latter you begin with the 
 ground work on which the house stands, and advance 
 upward to the summit.' ' To the same purpose we 
 find the great teacher Wolf quoting from Tanaquil 
 Faber, an excellent mathematician, a passage in which 
 he comments on the error into which some teachers 
 fall in making their elementary lessons severely scien- 
 tific and systematic. The natural method dictates to 
 the teacher the fixing of the learner's whole attention 
 on the individual thing — on that which is, the fact — and 
 leaving the co-ordination and classification of facts 
 until these are represented in the mind by accurate 
 ideas. If only a tithe of the labour expended by the 
 teacher in teaching rules were expended in securing 
 
 1 Diesterweg's Wegweiser (new edition, 1873, P- 2 44)> a most valu- 
 able work, worth all the books taken together that have ever been 
 written in England on practical teaching. 
 
Got ha. 107 
 
 the learner's thorough acquisition and appreciation of 
 facts, the results would in the majority of cases be far 
 more satisfactory than they are. According to our 
 notion, indeed, the framing of rules, formulae, and 
 general propositions is, under the teacher's guidance, to 
 be the work of the learner in the presence of facts that 
 he knows ; and therefore in no case (in elementary in- 
 struction) is the experience of others (of which ready- 
 made rules are the product) to be allowed to set aside 
 the learner's own personal experience, which afterwards 
 must form the foundation of his mental structure, and 
 must be taken as the base of operations for the teacher. 
 The upshot of these remarks is obvious. It is that 
 the true -function of the teacher is to get his pupils to 
 learn — i. e. y to know that they cannot know, in any 
 accurate sense of the term, what they do not learn by 
 personal experience ; that is, by the working of their 
 own minds ; or, in other words, by self-instruction and 
 self-education. 1 Whatever apparent success a teacher 
 may gain through interference with this principle, 
 
 1 Bishop Temple says — ' All the best cultivation of a child's mind is 
 obtained by the child's own exertions, and the master's success may be 
 measured by the degree in which he can bring his scholar to make such 
 exertion absolutely without aid.' To the same effect Mr. Mark by says 
 — ' To teach boys how to instruct themselves — that is, after all, the great 
 end of school work.' 
 
108 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 operates pro tanto against the interests of the learner 
 by diminishing his independent power. This conse- 
 quence results whenever the teacher does for the 
 learner what he can and ought to do for himself by 
 observing, analysing, investigating ; in a word, think- 
 ing for him. The learner, even though a young child, 
 can observe, compare, form and express judgments 
 upon facts, and the teacher's proper function is to 
 stimulate and guide him in the exercise of these 
 powers, but never to supersede them. If, however, 
 these principles are just, it is submitted that teachers, 
 not only in England, but even in Germany, the land 
 of pedagogy, very often neglect or abuse their proper 
 function. 
 
 But I have kept the reader a long time waiting for 
 the continuation of my narrative. I will now resume it. 
 
 I attended a lesson given in the third class of the 
 girls' school in botany (twelve girls present, of the 
 ages nine or ten). The teacher, a young and 
 interesting person, whom I had already heard in 
 the lower classes of the same school, showed great 
 power as an instructress. Her tact and skill, and 
 (I should think) her knowledge too, were remarkable 
 for one so young. She had been, I understood, trained 
 in the Seminar, though in that only. 
 
Gotha. 109 
 
 As the lesson was on botany, I looked, but looked 
 in vain, for plants. To my surprise, there was not 
 even a drawing visible. I must suppose that the 
 actual contact with the material itself, or some good 
 representation of it, had taken place in a previous 
 lesson ; at all events, there was nothing of the kind 
 here. Still the lesson, as far as it went, was ex- 
 tremely interesting. After a few questions on the 
 root, stem, leaves, etc. of a plant, the teacher called 
 up one child after another to draw on the black board 
 every variety of leaf. Without the slightest hesita- 
 tion or bungling, they drew not only the outline of 
 each leaf, but in some cases venation ; then at least 
 a dozen modifications of the edges ; then pistils of 
 various forms ; and lastly the stem, furnished with 
 leaves of different kinds. The teacher had but to 
 demand, and the product forthwith appeared. Con- 
 sidering the age of the children, the skill even in 
 drawing was very noticeable ; there was not one 
 really bad specimen, and I think every child took 
 her share in the work. The teacher, of course, had 
 no book, nor did she appear to need one. She 
 scarcely, however, gave a word of explanation. 
 There was no telling. The work was all done by 
 
no A Visit to Gei'rnan Schools. 
 
 the children themselves. I regretted that I had no 
 further opportunity of witnessing the lessons of this 
 masterly young teacher. 
 
 In the sixth class (the lowest but one of the Girls' 
 School), I attended a lesson on ' History.' The 
 children (twenty in number) were only seven or 
 eight years old, and I wished much to hear how 
 they would be taught history. The teacher (Miss 
 Ulrici, whom I have mentioned before) solved the 
 question very easily, by telling them the story of 
 Ulysses, in which she joined on in some way that I 
 did not quite understand the tale of Orpheus and 
 Eurydice. It was chiefly the latter with which she 
 dealt, and she told it with uninterrupted ease and 
 fluency to a highly appreciative audience. At the 
 close she asked many questions, which were answered 
 in a way which showed that no parts of the story had 
 escaped attention. I wished to hear what the teacher 
 had to say about teaching little children history ; so 
 I asked her whether she called those stories 'history'? 
 Her answer (in which I fully agreed) was that stories 
 of this kind — that is, which excite the imagination and 
 yet have a sort of historical foundation, and bear upon 
 historical names — are the only basis you can lay for 
 history-teaching in the case of such young children. 
 
Gotha. in 
 
 * Better/ I enquired, ' than even the history of the 
 Fatherland ? ' ' Yes,' she replied, ' the history of the 
 Fatherland is too difficult/ I found, in fact, that in 
 this class there was no bothering of little children 
 with dates, which to them could have no meaning, 
 nor exposition of ready cut and dried judgments 
 (conveyed often in single epithets) of persons about 
 whom the children knew no facts which could warrant 
 the judgment. I am quite persuaded that much of 
 our teaching of history to young children is almost 
 immoral, as involving the systematic implantation of 
 prejudices which take deep root, and often produce 
 very undesirable fruits. Dr. Arnold recommended 
 that children should be taught history much as Miss 
 Ulrici taught it, by means of striking stories, told 
 as stories, with the addition of pictures, which would 
 make the interest more varied. 
 
 I attended one lesson in the Higher School for 
 Girls, given by Professor Kohler's son. It was on 
 the German language, with illustrations from the 
 writings of Schiller. Schiller's life was briefly 
 sketched by the teacher, who soon began to ques- 
 tion the students on the ' Lay of the Bell' ; the subject 
 of which was entered into, and especially the measures 
 
H2 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 in which it was written. Some of the girls marked 
 on the black board the typical trochaic and iambic 
 feet, and a few of the variations from the type. Then 
 questions were asked on the composition and on the 
 nature of sentences. These were followed by the 
 recitation of some short passages from the poem, 
 which were given without much expression. This 
 lesson seemed to me on the whole very good, but 
 not masterly. The students were all exceedingly 
 attentive. 
 
 In the programme of studies in this institution, I 
 did not find hygiene mentioned. It would, however, 
 I venture to think, be well to add it, if for no other 
 purpose than that of calling attention to the laws of 
 ventilation. Not here only, but very generally in the 
 schoolrooms of Berlin, Dresden, and Weimar, I really 
 suffered from the oppressiveness of the air. In no 
 one of them did I observe any system of ventilation 
 whatever. The usual plan seems to be this — first, to 
 shut all the windows and doors quite fast, so as to 
 keep out every breath of fresh air ; to go on enduring 
 the accumulated misery naturally arising from this 
 arrangement until it is quite intolerable ; then to 
 open the windows for about three minutes, and when 
 
Gotha. 1 1 3 
 
 these have expired, to go on again as before. I was, 
 and still am, at a loss to understand the remarkable 
 objection to fresh air that Germans almost universally 
 manifest, but I am sure it acts injuriously on the 
 school children ; and I could not help noticing how 
 much fresher and healthier the children of the Kin- 
 dergartens (in which the air-excluding tendency 
 is rarely shown) generally looked than those of the 
 schools. These remarks have, of course, no applica- 
 tion to the case of the Girls' Gewerbeschule of 
 Hamburg, where (as I have already remarked) the 
 arrangements for ventilation are most elaborate and 
 complete. 
 
 In spite, however, of this drawback, I was strongly 
 impressed with the excellent spirit (if not the excel- 
 lent air) of Professor Kohler's institution. All the 
 members of it, as far as I could judge, teachers, 
 students, and children, seemed in a healthy mental 
 condition. All were busy, earnest, and advancing, and 
 testified in various ways to the powerful influence of 
 the presiding genius of the place, ostensibly embodied 
 in the person and character of the Professor, but 
 really in the principles and practice of the great 
 master whom he so ably represents. The benevolent 
 and intellectual spirit of Frobel pervades the place. 
 
 H 
 
ii4 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 Here, to a greater extent than anywhere else within 
 my experience, his principles serve as the broad 
 continuous basis of the system of instruction and 
 education ; and the results, as far as I could judge of 
 them, do great credit to the system. 
 
 EI SEN A C H. 
 
 On the 1 2th of September I found myself in Eise- 
 nach, where there is one Kindergarten of seventy- 
 six children, admirably conducted by Miss Traberth. 
 This lady, an original pupil of Frobel, was, I believe, 
 a learner in his school at Keilhau, and was trained 
 as a Kindergarten governess under his direction. 
 Hers, therefore, may be looked upon as an original 
 Kindergarten of the true type. When I entered the 
 room, I found a division of the children (about forty) 
 engaged in a game, in which one, who was blind- 
 folded, was attempting to ascertain, by feeling the 
 dress and features, who the child was to whom she 
 had been led up. When she succeeded, which was 
 
Eisenach, 1 1 5 
 
 not always the case, great joy was manifested by 
 the rest. 
 
 Another division was engaged in Netzzeichnen — 
 drawing doors, pumps, chests of drawers, etc., very 
 neatly. One little girl, whose drawing was incorrect, 
 when the fault was very kindly pointed out, cried. 
 This was the first tear I had seen shed in a Kinder- 
 garten. The soothing words of the teacher, how- 
 ever, speedily dissipated the clouds, and sunshine 
 appeared again. 
 
 The rest of the exercises were such as I had 
 frequently seen before. They were well performed 
 in an earnest manner ; and indeed everything was 
 well done in this Kindergarten, under the direction 
 of the very kind and intelligent Miss Traberth, who 
 was assisted by two young teachers. 
 
 In the course of this day I looked in at the 
 1 Seminar,' or normal school for elementary school- 
 masters, the arrangements of which seemed very 
 complete. There was a practising school in the 
 same building. I just entered three of the classes, 
 each consisting of about seventy boys and girls, 
 evidently very poor, many of them without shoes 
 and stockings. The rooms were very close and 
 stuffy, and, as a consequence (so at least it appeared 
 
1 1 6 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 to me), there was less interest and earnestness both 
 in teacher and children than I had witnessed in 
 some other institutions. The teacher in each case 
 was a young man. I did not stay during the lessons, 
 for the atmosphere oppressed me. 
 
 I next proceeded to the Biirgersschule (No. 2), 
 where I found in the class I entered sixty-four girls 
 (ages six and seven). The teacher (a man) was 
 giving them a lesson on birds. They all looked 
 much interested, and answered the questions he 
 put eagerly and well. They seemed familiar with 
 the birds named, and gave particulars of their ap- 
 pearances, habits, etc. There were, however, neither 
 birds nor pictures then in view. 
 
 In another class (of about seventy children, of nine 
 or ten years of age) the teacher was giving a lesson 
 on the geography of Germany, a noble map of which 
 was before the learners. He was asking the names 
 and position of places, and tracing (or rather asking 
 them to trace) the courses of the rivers. He occa- 
 sionally drew pictures of the rivers on the black 
 board, and asked what towns were placed at the 
 points he indicated. Neither he nor the children 
 had any book. They answered his questions 
 promptly and well, especially when the state of 
 
Eisenach. 1 1 7 
 
 the atmosphere was considered. I believe if I had 
 stayed very long in it myself I should have for- 
 gotten even the course of the Thames. 
 
 My purpose was now accomplished. Next morn- 
 ing I set off on my journey homewards by way of 
 Frankfort, Cologne, and Ostend. 
 
CONCL USIO N. 
 
 N the foregoing pages I have described 
 what I saw, and only what I saw ; but 
 in order to make my account more com- 
 plete, I will add a few particulars relating to 
 Kindergarten and elementary school teaching, and 
 this especially because people who talk on our 
 platforms, and even in official reports, of promot- 
 ing popular education, frequently seem as if they 
 were unaware that something very different from what 
 they are talking about exists out of England. They 
 talk as if they had never reached the conception of 
 education as development and culture, and had 
 derived all their knowledge of it from what they see 
 going on in our primary schools, where there is — with 
 very rare exceptions — neither development nor cul- 
 ture in any true sense of the term. 1 It is therefore 
 
 1 If this and other remarks I have made on our Revised Code system 
 appear too sweeping, I must take refuge under Dr. Morell's apologetic 
 
Conclusion. 
 
 119 
 
 important to show — though I have already, in fact, 
 shown it — that it is possible not only to form a theory 
 of education as culture, but practically to carry it out, 
 so as to embody the theory in action. Now, suppos- 
 ing that I had myself formed no such theory of edu- 
 cation, but had merely, as an impartial spectator, 
 looked at the work going on before my eyes in the 
 Kindergarten and elementary schools I have visited, 
 I could have evolved the theory from the practice. 
 And, first, as to the Kindergartens. Observing the 
 little children at their games and occupations, I could 
 come to no other conclusion than that they were by 
 
 report for 1873 (recently published), in which he thus sums up the 
 ' general result ' of its working, which is — ' That all those elementary 
 acquirements which are of a mechanical character, or which depend 
 upon definite mental exercises rather than reflection (such as writing, 
 elementary arithmetic, spelling, and the power of recognising words), 
 are on the average well taught ; but that those acquirements which de- 
 pend upon thought, sentiment, reflection, or research (such as reading 
 with expression, arithmetical problems, geography, history, literature, 
 and so forth), take a very low and exceptional place in our present 
 school system. ' In this passage he seems to consider that ' to develop 
 the intellect, to cultivate the imagination, to inform the understanding, 
 to elevate both the aesthetic taste and the moral feelings,' is to present 
 an ' ideal standard ' the attainment of which is quite out of the question. 
 Comment on these quotations is needless. They prove the position 
 I have assumed, and show that our primary education secures neither 
 development nor culture. It is a system of education which leaves out 
 the very essentials of true education. 
 
120 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 these means developing all their powers — bodily, 
 intellectual, and moral — in a manner at once natural 
 and healthy; and that this development was accom- 
 panied by pleasure and satisfaction. It involved, 
 therefore, and secured, an all-sided training of the 
 faculties, to which no other name could be given than 
 that of culture. I observed, too, that the culture was 
 self-culture. It consisted in the practical exercise of 
 the children's powers by themselves. They learned 
 to do by doing — by their own doing — not by that of 
 the teacher. It was their own eyes that saw, their 
 own hands that wrought, their own minds that 
 devised, contrived, and often invented; and hence the 
 earnest interest which they everywhere displayed. 
 This interest, I saw, was the legitimate previous result 
 of self-exercise, a4id could 'have been due to no other 
 cause. No exertions on the part of the teacher, with- 
 out reference to this cause, could have produced it. 
 She might have exhorted, preached, warned, scolded, 
 explained, told,- with no other result than that of 
 exciting vexation and disgust, without the continued 
 self-active co-operation of the learners themselves. 
 The work in which their education consisted was to 
 be their work, not hers ; to be done by themselves, not 
 by the teacher. 
 
Conclusion. 121 
 
 It was easy to see that the self-action and self- 
 exercise, on the part of the children, constituted per- 
 sonal experience — gained at first hand — and therefore 
 their own. It was not the experience of the teacher 
 ' communicated ' (though such communication is really 
 impossible) to the learner, and superseding his. 
 It consisted rather in countless processes of seeing, 
 hearing, feeling, performed by the children them- 
 selves, and registering themselves in their minds as 
 ideas, or in countless actions performed by their own 
 limbs (especially their hands), and forming habits of 
 doing. Now the very conception of ceaseless activity 
 of the senses, mind, and limbs, excludes the notion of 
 idleness ; and I saw without surprise no idleness in 
 the Kindergarten. All, was busy, .healthy, happy life. 
 
 I could not in presence of these facts come to any 
 other conclusion than that which was going on before 
 my eyes was in the strictest sense of the term edu- 
 cation, and that it consisted essentially in self- 
 culture. It was, moreover, in a very definite sense, 
 culture on the part of the teacher — culture of the 
 kind that the gardener bestows on his plants and 
 flowers. These he cultivates according to their nature 
 — a nature which he recognises in all his treatment. 
 He does not theoretically devise a nature for them, 
 
122 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 and impose upon this nature conditions of growth to 
 suit his theory. On the contrary, he observes the 
 phenomena which present themselves, assumes these 
 as the laws which are to govern his action, and 
 confines that action to cherishing favourable and 
 warding off unfavourable influences. He elicits the 
 vital forces of the plants, not by direct action upon 
 them, but by securing the light, air, and warmth 
 which are necessary for their development. Mutatis 
 mutandis, the function of the child-cultivator is that 
 of the plant-cultivator. Both have to secure growth, 
 and to do this by similar means. In a general way 
 (there certainly were exceptions), I saw the Kinder- 
 garten governesses satisfying in their practices the 
 demands of this theory of their proper function 
 as child-cultivators. 
 
 On the whole, I concluded that the work going on 
 in the Kindergarten is a just and natural education, 
 suited to the nature of little children, bringing out 
 healthily and happily the faculties of every side of 
 their being, and laying the basis of culture on their 
 self-activity and personal experience. 
 
 Turning to the earliest elementary education of 
 children in the primary schools, I saw much that 
 was in strict accordance with the aforesaid principles. 
 
Conclusion. 123 
 
 I saw the children of from six to eight years of age 
 earnestly, and, as far as I could judge, happily engaged 
 in their work ; and I noticed that this was conspicu- 
 ously the case in schools in which the Frobellian 
 means and appliances formed part (as they frequently 
 did) of the machinery of instruction ; most of all (as 
 at Gotha) where these children had already passed 
 through the Kindergarten. I was present at lessons 
 in reading where it was taught (1) separately, either 
 by illustrations on the black board, or (2) by means 
 of movable wooden tablets containing separate 
 letters ; (3) in connection with writing, every scholar 
 forming the letters on his slate while he uttered their 
 sounds ; (4) in Connection with the reading primer 
 (Lesefibel) ; and in every case I observed that the 
 powers of the letters, not their names, were demanded 
 and given by the scholars. In every case, too, the 
 meaning of the separate words, when formed out of 
 the sounds, was required and promptly furnished. I 
 saw in these lessons in reading a recognition of the 
 principle that it is by the actual contact and contest 
 of the learner with facts and realities that power is 
 elicited and trained. The teacher in general told the 
 children nothing but the conventional sound corres- 
 ponding to the printed or written symbol, which 
 
124 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 because it was conventional they could not discover 
 for themselves. All the rest was the pupils' own 
 work. 
 
 I was also present at a lesson in writing (described 
 page 77) given by a first-rate teacher, who required 
 numerous preliminary exercises with the fingers, 
 wrist, hand, and arm, all of them illustrating the 
 principle of personal experience, and preparing the 
 children to do by knowing what they had to do, 
 and how to set about it. 
 
 I heard a lesson in one of these elementary classes 
 on a picture, and observed the intense interest excited 
 by it, and noticed further that the real personal 
 experiences of the children, brought to conscious- 
 ness by the handling of the teacher, furnished them 
 with the power to interpret the various features of 
 the picture. 
 
 In another very interesting lesson, initiating the 
 study of geography (described p. 73), I observed an 
 illustration of the principle of proceeding from the 
 near to the more remote in ever-enlarging concentric 
 circles, one horizon of knowledge succeeding another 
 in the exact order of nature. Here, too, the personal 
 observation of the children, their own life's experience, 
 was the basis of the instruction. 
 
Conclusion. 125 
 
 Lastly, at Goth a, I was present at a truly remark- 
 able lesson in elementary botany (see p. 108), in which 
 little girls of nine or ten years of age showed by 
 their apt drawing of leaves, etc., on the black board, 
 a singularly accurate knowledge of natural forms. 
 Here too (if I may presume, and I hope I may, 
 that the knowledge thus reproduced was gained by 
 observation of the objects themselves) was a striking 
 evidence that clear notions come not from the telling 
 of the teacher, but from the contact of the learner's 
 own mind with the realities of nature and life. 
 
 Without referring to other instances, these furnished 
 me with materials for the induction, that the ele- 
 mentary teaching in German primary schools is 
 characterised by its demand on the self-exercise of 
 the learner's own powers ; that, as a rule, it does 
 not stupefy the learner by wordy explanations (often 
 requiring explanation themselves), or weaken his 
 faculties by doing for him what he can and ought to 
 do himself ; that it is, in fact, a practical gymnastic 
 for the mind, recognizing the important principle, 
 that as the dancing-master, for instance, does not 
 get his pupirs to learn the art by dancing himself, 
 but by making them dance, so the teacher — that is, the 
 director of the mind — must gain his end not by 
 
126 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 doing the pupil's thinking for him (which, however, 
 is impossible, though often fondly attempted), but 
 by making him think and act for himself. I do 
 not say, for I do not believe, this theoretical aim 
 was always so strictly kept in view by the teachers 
 as it might have been, but considering the disadvan- 
 tages under which, in many cases, both teachers 
 and children worked, the large classes sometimes 
 containing seventy or eighty pupils, and the stifling, 
 unoxygenized atmosphere of the school-rooms, I was 
 often surprised at the earnest interest and the intel- 
 lectual activity which pervaded the system. The 
 ultimate conclusion, therefore, to which I arrived 
 with respect to the German elementary classes (I only 
 speak of them in the primary schools), was that, as 
 a rule, development and culture were aimed at and 
 secured ; and this conclusion was based on the fact 
 (i) that the children very generally did the work 
 themselves, without the telling of the teacher ; (2) 
 that their order and attention testified to the interest 
 excited by the lesson ; (3) that the firm and accurate 
 performance of the correct lesson (with scarcely even 
 a blunder) evinced the mastery of the previous lesson ; 
 (4) the reading, writing, and arithmetic were taught 
 on intellectual principles, which required observation 
 
Conclusion. 1 2 7 
 
 and thought, and maintained the co-operation of the 
 learner's with the teacher's rule ; (5) that book 
 instruction was subordinated to practical exercises 
 on the black board ; (6) that the teacher taught, 
 and did not merely order the children to learn. 
 
 In these facts I saw evidences of development 
 and culture, that is of education, though my observa- 
 tion was confined to the case of very little children. 
 I do not endorse every practice carried on in these 
 schools, nor believe that in all cases the most was 
 made of the materials, but that the ' ideal standard ' 
 of our schools is the real standard of German elemen- 
 tary schools I have no doubt whatever. 
 
 As regards external arrangements, there are two 
 points to which my attention was forcibly drawn. 
 In the first place, every German elementary teacher has 
 a separate class-room. By this means the distraction 
 arising from the juxtaposition of several classes 
 under different teachers in the same room is absolutely 
 excluded. The teacher is ' monarch of all he surveys/ 
 and is therefore invested with complete responsibility 
 for all that goes on under his administration. The 
 wellbeing of his little realm lies entirely in his own 
 hands, and he must himself concert the measures 
 necessary for securing it. In the second place, there 
 
128 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 are no pupil-teachers in the German primary schools. 
 Teaching being recognized as a psychological art — 
 the result or practical outcome of a thorough training 
 in principles — it is justly presumed that crude children 
 entirely ignorant of such principles, unformed in cha- 
 racter, and for the most part destitute of well-digested 
 knowledge, are entirely unfitted for the important 
 business of teaching others. The contrary assumption 
 involves indeed a direct denial of the existence of 
 a science and art of education, and strikes at the 
 root of any radical improvement in it. 
 
 I am fully aware that we have in England many 
 even that are considered high authorities in matters 
 of education — Principals of Normal Colleges, and 
 others — who strenuously advocate the pupil-teacher 
 system ; and one (Dr Rigg) even goes so far as to 
 recommend its adoption by the German authorities. 
 I am morally certain they will never adopt it. They 
 will probably, in time (as they ought to do), reduce 
 the number of scholars in the classes, and largely 
 increase the number of teachers, but they will never 
 stultify themselves so far as to supersede the scientific 
 and artistic teaching which now generally prevails, 
 by sanctioning that which, in the nature of things, 
 can be neither scientific nor artistic. They value 
 
Conclusion. 1 29 
 
 education too much to endanger its interests by such 
 experiments. 
 
 The pupil-teacher system has been advocated on 
 the ground of its economy. The argument is, how- 
 ever, futile. That is truly economical which gains 
 its ends by the best means ; and if it should turn 
 out on investigation (and such an investigation must, 
 before long, be authoritatively made) that much of 
 the acknowledged failure in our own primary instruc- 
 tion is due to the extensive employment of pupil- 
 teachers, the argument founded on economy will 
 fall to the ground. If the object is not gained, 
 it is foolish to boast of the means by which it ought 
 to have been gained. If instead of deploring the 
 results of our teaching, and complaining of them 
 (as the Government Report does every year) as 
 ' unsatisfactory/ we could point to them with pride as 
 successful, and challenge criticism upon them, the 
 case would be very different. It might then be said 
 with some show of plausibility that the end justifies 
 the means ; but who that knows what the average 
 teaching in our schools is will urge this plea ? Our 
 system stands condemned by its theory (if it can be 
 said to have any) ; it is condemned by its practice, 
 and even more condemned by its unsatisfactory 
 
 I 
 
[30 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 results ; and I venture to express my individual 
 opinion that much (I cannot, of course, say how 
 much) of the failure is due to the extensive employ- 
 ment of pupil-teachers. Nor can there be much 
 doubt that a well-trained single teacher will hold 
 in hand and pervade by his influence a class of even 
 fifty children, so as to touch the springs of intel- 
 lectual action in them more effectually than would 
 be done by the same teacher taking only thirty 
 pupils, and handing over in sets of ten each to two 
 pupil-teachers the rest of the fifty. I think it highly 
 desirable that the very large classes of the German 
 schools should be reduced by nearly half ; but judging 
 by my own observation, I should say that, although 
 Sjjjj working under great disadvantages, the German 
 elementary teachers succeed in awakening and 
 maintaining in the children an amount of interest 
 and intellectual life, which, taken in the aggregate, 
 has rarely been equalled even in our own best 
 schools when the same number of children were 
 distributed and disposed of among ordinary pupil- 
 teachers. Take reading as an instance. Who 
 does not know the weary plodding of the little chil- 
 dren, ' with weary steps and slow,' and the stumbling- 
 blocks and intricacies of their early lessons, tripping 
 
Conclusion. 1 3 1 
 
 up continually against the former, and bewildered by 
 the latter; unused to help themselves, and therefore 
 regularly waiting for help from without I and not 
 in vain, for the pupil-teacher, or some member of 
 the class, seeing the need, comes to the rescue with 
 just so much aid as lifts the traveller over the 
 stumblingblock, or throws a momentary gleam of 
 light over the fog which surrounds him, but leaves 
 him just as unable to deal with the next difficulty, 
 or to penetrate the darkness himself, as before. The 
 untaught and inexperienced young teacher does not 
 know (how can he know ?) that the ' telling,' which 
 constitutes his sole resource, is not teaching at all ; 
 that true teaching ever aims at increasing the 
 pupil's fund of power — not in helping him merely 
 to scramble over the present difficulty, but in making 
 this difficulty the very means of conquest over the 
 next — in helping the child to help himself. I saw 
 no such 'teaching' as this in Germany — not even 
 an approach to it. The methods were various (and 
 I believe in the existence of a better method of 
 teaching reading than any I saw), but they agreed 
 in this, that they called for the exercise of the 
 observing powers of the children, and required their 
 active practical co-operation with the efforts of the 
 
132 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 teacher, who certainly did not teach as if he thought 
 that his vocation was 'telling.' There was, too, an 
 orderly sequence in the lessons, and the children 
 seemed to march forward step by step with a sort 
 of aptness and confidence as if relying on them- 
 selves, which, even taken alone, in itself showed, to 
 my practised eye, how the previous lesson had 
 been learnt. I saw nothing of the bewildered, ap- 
 palled look on being called upon for individual 
 effort which characterises the learner who is con- 
 scious that he is unequal to the occasion, and has 
 his weapons of attack still to seek. I rarely heard 
 a blunder made, and when made, the teacher did 
 not merely 'tell' the child the correction, but re- 
 quired him to try again ; and the quickened attention 
 in most cases solved the difficulty. But the method 
 itself is the best preservative against blundering. If 
 you make a pupil do the work himself — taking 
 1 action, action, action ! ' as your motto, not stupe- 
 fying him with your ' telling,' but making him ' tell ' 
 — not talking much yourself, but making him talk — 
 — not bewildering him with explanations of ypur 
 own, but requiring his, which must always be the 
 outcome of his knowledge and personal experience, — 
 the result will be that he gains power at every step, 
 
Conclusion. 133 
 
 and that this power will secure him against much 
 blundering, except that which arises from mere inat- 
 tention; — and 'telling' is certainly no remedy for that. 
 The ordinary child who blunders and stumbles much 
 at his lesson is a witness to the imperfection of his 
 previous training. He does not prove by his blunders 
 any native incompetency on his own part, but he 
 does prove the incompetency of his teacher, who 
 has failed to secure good grounding. As far as 
 this negative argument goes, it is in favour of 
 the German teacher. 
 
 One word as to punishment. The best evidence I 
 can give on this point is, that I saw none except the 
 instance mentioned (p. 76), and there the punishment 
 simply consisted in removing from the offender the 
 means of taking part in the lesson. What, however, 
 might follow when the pencil was restored I had no 
 means of knowing ; but this I can say, that I was 
 present at no administration of chastisement of any 
 kind. In the classes there was perfect order, and 
 even, on the part of so very small children, continued 
 and undivided attention ; often, indeed, an eager un- 
 repressed interest — no noise, no scolding, apparently 
 no "taking of marks, therefore no contention or dis- 
 satisfaction : and again, no visible implements of 
 
 ft fj*^ 
 
134 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 punishment — rod, cane, ruler, or tawse. As this is 
 not intended to be a complete — indeed it is a very 
 incomplete — account of German elementary schools, 
 I do not pretend to assert that stringent measures of 
 discipline, without which, some maintain, children 
 cannot be * got past the bitterness of their learning,' 
 are not resorted to, or that there is no ' torturing hour' 
 which ' calls ' delinquents * to penance.' I simply say 
 that I saw nothing of the kind. My visits, I may 
 add, were never expected. I merely heard the 
 lesson going on, and never, except on one occasion, 
 did I allow of any interruption of the ordinary 
 course of business. I was not therefore, perhaps, very 
 far wrong in attributing the remarkable order, atten- 
 tion, and interest manifest in all kinds of schools — 
 not merely the elementary — to something inherent in 
 the system of teaching. It is very clear to those who 
 think about the matter and know human nature, that 
 if you require children at school to do only that which 
 they can do themselves, and therefore excite an in- 
 terest in doing for its own sake, you will rarely need 
 to employ artificial restraints or punishments. I may, 
 indeed, go further, and maintain, without fear of con- 
 tradiction, that where the schools are really good — 
 that is, pervaded by the principle just stated — children 
 
Conclusion. 135 
 
 generally will not require 'compulsion' to force at- 
 tendance at them. If this be true, it goes far to solve 
 the vexed question of compulsory attendance. Make 
 the schools good — that is, suit the teaching to the 
 nature of the children — and ' attendance,' large and 
 regular, will follow as a matter of course. The in- 
 variable report of our own Inspectors is, that where 
 the schools are good — good in the sense I have just 
 explained — no compulsion is needed ; the schools are 
 crowded with scholars. The remarkable experience 
 furnished by the late Dean Dawes's school at King's 
 Somborne is to the same effect, as a case in which the 
 regular attendance was eight-ninths of the number on 
 the rolls, in which the children, sometimes from a dis- 
 tance of three or four miles, in all weathers, flocked 
 joyfully to school, and in which the parents (many of 
 them labourers earning only 9s. a week) made great 
 sacrifices to keep their children where they were so 
 happily and usefully employed in exercising their 
 faculties. 1 All sorts of schemes have been suggested 
 for securing attendance. Why not try the experiment 
 of \ good schools ■ ? To carry \t out effectually, how- 
 
 1 See the late Professor Moseley's admirable report (occupying forty 
 pages) on this school in the Blue Book for 1847, which all who wish to 
 know what a 'good' elementary school is ought carefully to study. 
 
136 ,A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 ever, from my point of view, would involve a great 
 revolution: Teachers would have to consider even 
 the relation in which they ought to stand to their 
 pupils. They would have to give up drilling and 
 dragooning children, and try attracting them with 
 learning ; to give up the cramming and word-drench- 
 ing which too generally prevail in our primary schools, 
 and demand self-teaching in their stead ; to study 
 more closely than they do the nature of children, and 
 to suit their methods of instruction to it. The Normal 
 Colleges also would have to share in the revolution. 
 They would have to impregnate students more deeply 
 than they usually do with the fundamental principle 
 that education is culture, and to send them forth not 
 merely masters of the art of ' communicating ' their 
 own knowledge, but of the higher art of teaching 
 children how to gain knowledge, and with it power, 
 for themselves. This great revolution must commence 
 at headquarters, and one of the first measures for 
 effecting it must be the sweeping away of the Revised 
 Code into the limbo of oblivion. As long as it lasts, 
 it not merely sanctions, but to a large extent system- 
 atically enforces, bad teaching. 
 
 I ought to add that much of the excellence of the 
 German elementary teaching is no doubt due to the 
 
Conclusion. t 3 7 
 
 influence of Pestalozzi's principles. Even where not 
 acknowledged, his spirit pervades the work, and 
 shapes the methods employed. His main principle 
 — that of proceeding from the near, the area of the 
 pupil's own observation and experience, and prepar- 
 ing him by self-exercise for advancing to the 
 more distant and remote ; and his secondary 
 principle — that of requiring that the pupil's move- 
 ment onward shall be made step by step, without 
 a break — are surely recognised in the ordinary 
 teaching of the elementary schools. 
 
 Again, Pestalozzi's demand that all instruction 
 should be based on the pupil's own observation 
 (Anschauung) of tangible and visible facts and 
 objects, and should therefore be definite and real, 
 subordinating the knowledge of words to the know- 
 ledge of things, is, for the most part, satisfied in the 
 practice of the elementary schools. 
 
 In fact, ever since the time when numbers of young 
 teachers were sent by different German Governments 
 to study Pestalozzi's work at Yverdun, and when also- 
 some of the highest authorities in education became 
 convinced, in exercising it, of the soundness of his 
 principles (I mean such men as Schlosser, Gerard, 
 Wilhelm Von Humboldt, Fichte, Von Muller, Schelling, 
 
 K 
 
1^8 A Visit to German Schools. 
 
 Schacht, Kruger, Plamann, Harnisch, Karl Ritter, 
 Zeller, Denzel, etc.), the ultimate effect was assured. 
 The adoption of Pestalozzi's principles by the Govern- 
 ments of Prussia, Saxony, Baden, Wiirtemberg, etc., 
 has only been a matter of time, and to their adoption 
 we may fairly ascribe the enlightened teaching, with 
 its excellent results, in the common schools of Ger- 
 many. When the different States shall add (as 
 Saxony has done) Frobel's methods to those of 
 Pestalozzi, the arrangements for elementary education 
 will probably be as complete as it is possible for 
 ordinary human ingenuity to make them. 
 
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