UC-NRLF 111 ■ III III III SB 300 MIT A VISIT TO ERMAN SCHOOLS REESET LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Received MAR 7 1894 , 189 . ^Accessions No.^/-^ 7 ^-^ Class No. . / A Visit to German Schools LieR/f/?^ OF THE BY THE SAME AUTHOR. LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCATION. Price Sixpence each. I. PESTALOZZI : The Influence of his Principles and Practice. II. FROBEL and the Kindergarten System. Second Edition. III. THE SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCATION. IV. THE TRUE FOUNDATION OF SCIENCE-TEACHING. AN ESSAY ON THE CULTURE OF THE OBSERVING POWERS OF CHILDREN, especially in con- nection with the Study of Botany. By Eliza A. Youmans. Edited, with Notes and a Supplement, by Joseph Payne, F.C.P. Crown 8vo, cloth, price 2s. 6d. HENRY S. KING & CO., LONDON. A VISIT TO GEBMAN SCHOOLS NOTES OF A PROFESSIONAL TOUR To inspect some of the Kindergartens ; Primary Schools, Public Girls' Schools, and Schools for Technical Instruction, in Hamburg, Berlin, Dresden, Weimar, Gotha, and Eisenach, in the Autumn of 1874 WITH CRITICAL DISCUSSIONS OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF KINDERGARTEN AND OTHER SCHEMES OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION By JOSEPH PAYNE Late Professor of Education to the Coll-ge of Preceptors, London, Member of the Council of the Philological Society, etc. Of THE oT rrV CALIFO^: HENRY S. KING & CO., LONDON 1876 tf*f$-&? \The Rights of Translation and of Reproduction are Reserved.] Prefatory Note by the Editor. HIS little book was founded on Notes taken by Mr. Payne during his tour in the autumn of 1874, and reduced to its present shape in the spring of 1875. Various causes hindered its publication until, after my father's return from his summer journey, the state of his own health and the shock of a painful bereavement made it impossible for him to give any further attention to the subject. The manuscript accordingly remained untouched up to the close of the Author's life and labours in April 1876, and was thus never fully prepared for the press, or finally corrected. Notwithstanding this drawback, and although the information conveyed is not perfectly recent, these brief notes cannot, it is thought, fail to be of value and interest, as recording the direct impressions, and embodying the mature judgment of a highly-qualified observer in matters of education. One explanation only it seems desirable to make. ii Prefatory Note. Such a work as this cannot, of course, make any pretension to give a general account of the state of German education, even in a single department, since it is founded on the personal experiences and im- pressions of one journey only. It is thus possible that some practices actually observed in particular schools and institutions, may not be universally pre- valent, and that on another occasion, or in another place, a different impression might have been derived. But this seems, from the nature of the case, unavoid- able ; and as dates and places have in all cases been given, it has been thought better to let the Notes stand for themselves, without the additional informa- tion which friends would willingly have supplied, and which the Author, had he been able to see the work through the press, might probably have made use of. The Editor has, in conclusion, to thank Miss Gur- ney, Professor Hodgson, and the Rev. R. H. Quick, for many valuable suggestions, and for their kind assistance in revising the proof sheets. J. F. PAYNE. Savile Row, London, September 1876. M^-^mmm PR ent\ ebsity FACE. N the following pages I have given an account of a month's visit to many of the Kindergartens, several of the Primary Schools, and some of the Train- ing Colleges of North Germany. The main purpose I had in view was to investigate the methods and theories of the very earliest education — that which begins with children of between the ages of three and eight. It was not so much the advanced structure as the foundation that I wished to examine — to see how this foundation was laid, and to form a theoretical judgment on the value of the work. I have long been of opinion that what we especially want in England is a just vi Preface. estimate of elementary education ; meaning by that term what Pestalozzi and Frobel meant — the earliest stage in the cultivation of chil- dren's minds. In England this conception is generally confounded with that of elementary instruction, with which it is, strictly speaking, but remotely connected ; and hence all our efforts are directed to instruction, while edu- cation or culture is extensively neglected. Instruction — that is, the systematic impart- ing of definite knowledge — should be the sequel, not the precursor, of the training of the intellectual powers which are to be em- ployed upon the acquisition. In other words, the object of elementary education is to de- velop the natural faculties, that of elementary instruction to apply them. It would be easy to show this : if we make instruction our chief aim, we necessarily introduce dogmatic, didactic teaching, which, as a rule, depresses the native powers ; whereas if we make education — that is, cultivation — our chief aim, we elicit the native powers, and make the best of them. Preface. vii Entertaining these views of elementary educa- tion, I wished to see how far they were carried out in Germany ; and after careful observa- tion I am able to report that in the Kinder- gartens, and in the Primary Schools (those especially of Saxony), they serve as the theo- retical basis of the system pursued ; and, more- over, that where this theoretical basis is established, there the soundest and most fruitful instruction is secured. The results justify the theory. The question, then, whether we shall educate with a view to instruction as in Ger- many, or instruct with a view to education as in England, is, I venture to think, answered by the facts. No sane person will challenge a comparison between the average results of German primary education and of ours. Those who are interested in this important question, will find in my Narrative some of the grounds for forming an opinion upon it, though, as I have intimated, I concerned myself only about the teaching in the Kindergartens, and in the lowest classes of the Primary Schools. I XJN viii Pi'eface. My reasons for thus limiting my examina- tion (besides the want of time) were these — First, I wished to judge of the Kindergartener se, of its value both as a mere occasion for the happy employment of little children's exuberant energies, and with regard to their subsequent education and instruction ; secondly, to see the junction .of the Kindergarten with the first stage of school instruction, and to estimate its value in this relation ; and, thirdly, to examine the lowest classes of schools in which the children, being over six years of age, had received no preliminary teaching. The conclusion I arrived at was, that there is a substantial value in the exercises of the Kin- dergarten, which pleasurably bring out the active powers of the children — their powers of ob- servation, judgment, and invention — and make them at once apt in doing as well as learning. No apology, perhaps, is needed for the judgments which I have freely expressed on the spirit and the actual methods of elementary teaching in Germany, whether Preface. jx in Kindergartens or in the ordinary Primary Schools. A considerable experience in the art, and a long-continued study of the theory of education, will, I trust, be accepted as my warrant for expressing such judgments. Even in Germany, the land of scientific pedagogy, it is not rare to find avowed principles of action neglected or imperfectly carried out. To every one who carefully considers the state of education in England, and who com- pares the promise of theory with the results of practice, it will be apparent that the reform we need most begins at the beginning, with a true conception on the part of the teachers of what education really means. This involves a radical correction of the ordinary theories ; and this, again, a thorough education of the teachers in education itself. Now that the Bell Trustees, by their liberal grant of ,£10,000 towards the endowment of Chairs of Education at Edinburgh and St. Andrews, have recognised education as a psychological art, founded on scientific principles, we may hope to see some x Preface. effective measures taken for the training- of teachers. The question of training teachers for their high office will, it is to be hoped, henceforth supersede much of the profuse prate about education in which dilettanti in- experts and ' educationists ' are so accustomed to indulge. If the facts and discussions of this little volume shall be found to have contributed anything satisfactory towards the solution of that question, it will have answered its purpose. Joseph Payne. Kildare Gardens, London, February 1875. CONTENTS. Introduction, Hamburg, Berlin, Dresden, Weimar, Gotha, Eisenach, 8 45 65 80 92 Ct 7-Wf '~ - UNIVERSITY NOTES OF A Professional Visit to the Kindergarten and other Schools for Primary Instruction in North Germany. INTRODUCTION. ONSIDERABLE interest had been awakened in my mind by the study of Frobel's Principles of Elementary Education, as well as by some excellent specimens of their practical application which I had seen in London. The result of this interest was, fhat I delivered in February 1874, at the College of Preceptors, a lecture upon the subject. My lecture was strictly confined to as clear an account as I could give of the genesis of Frobel's root-idea — ^P ' 9>\ 2 A Visit to German Schools. that it is by studying the nature of the child that we are to learn how to teach and train him ; and I showed, moreover, in a brief sketch of Frobel's personal history, how this principle, which looks so obvious, but is so generally ignored in our treatment of little children, developed itself both from the life-experience of the man, and from his profound observation of the nature of children ; in fact, from his heart as well as from his head. Before I had ever heard Frobel's name, I had arrived at a con- clusion nearly identical with his ; namely, that in our ordinary education of young children we give them far too little credit for the powers with which the Creator has endowed them, and too frequently, by injudicious management, repress or even quench those manifestations of intelligence which ought to be taken as the basis of our operations. In other words, I had clearly seen that, instead of allowing children's native activities free scope, and aiming, especially in our early lessons, at eliciting what is in them, we are generally far too prone to impose upon them what is in ourselves, and therefore, by system, rule, and routine, to check, and sometimes even to stifle, natural development. I had further convinced myself that this unwise Introduction. 3 interference with nature's laws was the true cause of a phenomenon within the observation of all — that of a child who, before formal teaching begins, is distinguished for mental activity, becoming almost suddenly dull, inert, and stupid under the operation which is ostensibly intended to quicken his powers — a result obviously due to a theory of education which takes little or no account of the nature of the child. These and other similar considerations had pre- pared me fully to accept the principle expounded in the lecture already alluded to ; — in which, too, I further developed Frobel's notions respecting the spontaneous play and movements of the mind as the divinely appointed means for developing the powers of the child, and described the series of exercises which he devised for making play and self- activity greatly fruitful in early education. It occurred, however, to me, that it would be advisable, before I lectured again on the subject, to give my full attention to the theory of the Kinder- garten, and to see something more of the practice — especially in those places, Hamburg, Berlin, &c, where it was most skilfully and correctly carried out. I wished, moreover, to satisfy myself as to the 4 A Visit to German Schools. effect (respecting which I knew there was some controversy) of the training of the Kindergarten on the subsequent educational career of the children ; and knowing already what was said for the system by its numerous enthusiastic advocates, I wished also to hear on the spot what was said against it by its opponents. In order to form an accurate judgment, this was especially important. Lastly, I wished to ascertain in what special respects, if any, the Kindergarten was an improvement on our ordinary infant schools. My purpose, then, was clearly defined. It was to visit Kindergartens conducted by thoroughly trained teachers, to see how far they realized the ideal pre- sented in Frobel's writings, and try also to visit ele- mentary schools where children were received who had passed through the Kindergarten, and where the fundamental principle was still worked, as well as other elementary schools which were quite independ- ent of the Kindergarten. It may be as well to state here (though the fact is generally known), that what we call national educa- tion is, throughout Germany, the business of the respective Governments, who regulate that it shall commence when the child is six years of age, and Introduction. 5 shall be continued for at least eight years. 1 What- ever instruction then may be given to children before they are six years old, is properly no affair of the Government, which, therefore, does not reckon the Kindergarten as part of its system. This is the rule, to which there are some exceptions. 2 While in Berlin, however, I was informed that the Minister of Education — Dr. Falk — had recently taken much interest in the subject, had visited some of the Kindergartens, and had even said that in the new Prussian school regulations, which are expected to appear shortly, he proposed to include Kindergartens. This, however, was doubted by some well-informed persons, who thought the recognition improbable, on account of the strong prejudice of many, if not most, of the regular Prussian schoolmasters against the system. I can scarcely doubt that the adoption of the Kindergarten into the Government system generally would be greatly to the advantage of the 1 By a recent regulation of the Minister of Instruction, it is now ordained that, in Saxon schools, the course shall be eight years for the lowest, and ten years for the highest grade of primary schools. 2 In the last Government Report of Saxony the Kindergarten is re- cognised as part of the system ; and it is mentioned that an institution for training Kindergarten governesses has been lately established in Dresden ; of course, with the support of the State. 6 A Visit to German Schools. children, in two respects at least. It would secure a better average of trained Kindergarten teachers. The Government would demand, in all probability, a more uniform degree of excellence than now pre- vails. I was told by way of apology in one or two cases, that the demand for teachers was so great that it was necessary for the present to put up with the best that could be got ; and I can easily believe, from my own observation, that by no means all that are employed in Kindergarten have a definite grasp of Frobel's principles. Then, again, if the Government authorities took the matter in hand, they would certainly secure far better accommodation for the children than is provided in not a few of the establishments that I visited. Small, petty, ill-lighted rooms, carefully shut up against the admission of fresh air, but accessible to the most noisome stenches, and inconveniently crowded with children, were matters of my personal experience, even in some of the most flourishing towns. Indeed, considering the difficulties of this kind which in many cases beset the path of the young enquirers after knowledge, it was surprising to see the amount of physical and intellectual life which was everywhere displayed. The apology generally given for this Introduction. 7 miserable accommodation, in the instances to which I refer, was, that it was impossible in large towns to have suitable rooms except at an enormous rent. I cannot, of course, controvert this plea, but it certainly did occur to me as very desirable that the Frobel Verein, consisting of a large number of most respect- able ladies and gentlemen, might, with great probable ultimate advantage to the children, take a course of lectures themselves on hygiene. Having thus given some idea of the present posi- tion of the Kindergarten in relation to the general arrangements for primary instruction in Germany, I proceed to my personal narrative. Furnished with many letters of introduction to per- sons of education and influence in Hamburg, Berlin, Dresden, Weimar, Gotha, and Eisenach, I arrived in the first-named town August 23, 1874. HA MB U R G. Y first visit was to the noble institution which goes by the name of ' Gewerbeschule fur Madchen' (Girls' School for Technical In- struction), established by a voluntary society for the promotion of women's occupations {Verein ziir F'drderung weiblicher Erwerbsthatigkeit). The stately building — a beautiful specimen of architecture — was opened for use in December 1873, and is now a complete hive of busy bees. I regret that I have no time to describe it in detail. I can only say that I have never seen an establishment of the kind — hardly of any kind — in which the arrangements are so complete. The twenty-five class-rooms (adapted to the accommodation of 750 students), lofty, spacious, and admirably ventilated " by the best American system, which has not before been applied on the Continent," appear to be every- thing that could be desired, while the apparatus for heating in winter is as complete as that for ventila- Hambwg. 9 tion. The arrangements have in view instruction not only in the practical arts of washing, ironing, cooking, sewing with needle and machine, cutting-out, and general housekeeping, but also in geometrical and free-hand drawing, lithography, porcelain painting and burning. But this is far from all : the establish- ment contains (1) a high school for girls who have passed through the^ upper classes of the ordinary school. Here instruction is given in the German language, arithmetic, book-keeping, physics, geometry, &c. (2) Classes for the training of Kindergarten teachers. (3) A Kindergarten for children of from three to seven years of age, open from 9 to I. 1 This is the merest outline of the broad features of a very remarkable institution which well deserves the atten- tion of those who are now interesting themselves in the question of finding occupation for women, and who sometimes appear to forget the preliminary 1 The reader will observe in the fact that ' Kindergartenism ' is adopted as an important — rather the important — basis of instruction in this grand institution, — a noticeable testimony in its favour. The founders and supporters of the Gewerbeschule and of the Vtrein are persons deeply interested in education, who, in providing for the train- ing of Kindergarten governesses, and in establishing a Kindergarten, commit themselves, of course, to the recognition of its principles. io A Visit to German Schools. question of preparing women for occupation. Nothing is more certain than that one of the great difficulties in finding employment for women is in finding them competently equipped for undertaking it. I have Miss Emily Faithfull's authority, as well as that of others, for making this assertion. Miss Faithfull is besieged daily with applications for work from women who do not know what work is, nor how it should be done so as to be worth paying for. The object of the Hamburg institution is to train women for doing good work, which must always have its value in the market. Having taken a general view of the institution under the bright and intelligent guidance of the head-mistress, Frau Dr. M. dinger, I stayed behind in the beautiful rooms given up to the Kindergarten. 1 I saw nothing afterwards at all comparable in fitness for their purpose to these rooms, so lofty, large, airy, and full of light. There were three long low tables, 1 I extract from the report of the institution a paragraph which represents in a few words the theory and practice of the Kindergarten system. • The purpose of the games and occupations of the Kinder- garten is the harmonious development and cultivation of all the intellectual and bodily powers of the child. They lead him to become conscious of those powers, and to make use of them — to exercise the eye Hamburg. 1 1 with forms corresponding, and at these were seated what seemed a mere handful of children (there were only fifteen) busily engaged not in feeding their minds, but their bodies. It was just past eleven, and they were taking what was called their breakfast, which they had brought with them, and which con- sisted of bread (possibly with butter on it) and milk — each one being supplied with a plate and jug. When this slight refection, which could not have burdened the system much, was over, they rose up to march and sing, all looking very rosy and happy. Marching to the beat of the songs they sang (Tritt und Gesang) was, I found in all the Kindergarten, a frequent occupation of the children ; and a very noticeable feature of this exercise was the accuracy with which it was generally performed. Sometimes it consisted merely in stepping one after the other with a single beat of the foot ; at other times it was varied by an accented stamp thus : — | | , etc. ; but I in the observation {Anschaitung) of suitable forms, the hand in works which he performs as plays, the ear through simple melodies which delight him, the understanding through stories, narratives, and games which rouse his attention and fix in his mind accurate {Vorstellungcn) and general concepts (Begriffe). Lastly, in his intercourse with his little companions he learns to become happy, sociable, and peaceable (heiter, gesellig, und vertraglich). ' 12 A Visit to German Schools. noticed that in all cases the measure was well pre- served. There can be no doubt that this is not one of those bodily exercises 'that profit nothing.' It stirs the blood, animates the whole system, and dissi- pates the tedium liable to arise from much sitting, and is in every way adapted to the powers of the children. It was evidently very popular. About the singing of the songs I shall have something to say afterwards. After a few minutes thus employed I was invited to be present at an artistic little melodrama (Bewegimg- spiel) entitled the 'Maiiselein,' in which all the children except one held hands and enacted 'but- ter,' 'cheese,' 'bacon/ 'cake,' etc. The child in the middle of the ring was Master Maiiselein (i. e. Mouse), who went about touching (which was taken for tasting) the different articles of food — for which indulgence he had to pay dear in the end, being at last caught in a trap formed by some four or five of his companions, amid the rejoicing of the whole party. This little drama of action was dexter- ously performed, and seemed a favourite with the children, as I witnessed it twice afterwards at other Kindergartens. On a second visit to the Kindergarten, I found the Hamburg. i & mistress (a very kind, earnest, and intelligent young lady) telling the children the story of a lion, in which they were intently interested, listening with staring eyes, half-open mouths, and brows almost sternly wrinkled. When the story was done, the teacher asked a few questions upon it, which were promptly and eagerly answered. One little child was on the teacher's lap during the time ; but in none of the Kindergarten that I saw were any arrangements (such as we sometimes meet with in our infants' schools) for the sleeping of the children. Everywhere they were decidedly wide awake. At both these visits I saw also something of the training of the young Kindergarten teachers by the head-mistress, Miss H . In the first instance I attended a lesson given to about twenty- six young girls (ages fourteen to twenty), neatly dressed, very orderly and attentive, and rather superior in air and manner to some that I saw else- where. The lesson was a geometrical form, which some of them drew (not very cleverly) on the black board. As it is the essence of Frobel's theory to build everything on the concrete, I was rather sur- prised that no actual solids, which would have shown the origin and relations of geometrical forms, 14 A Visit to German Schools. 'were before the class. Such bodies had, perhaps, been already palpably examined. Still the lesson was decidedly interesting, from the earnestness dis- played by both teacher and pupils. I was struck here and in other teachers' classes with the absurd number of rings worn by the girls. I may also here remark that it occurred to me that these girls, many of them not more than fourteen or fifteen years of age, begin their direct training for governesses far too early. I heard of no indispensable previous general culture, at least nothing beyond a sufficient school instruction {eine geniigende Schulbildung) ; and as the training for the Kindergarten lasts generally only one year, during which nearly twenty-four subjects are to be taken up, 1 it is easy to see that many of the teachers must be turned out in a very crude condition. This remark 1 I append the somewhat extraordinary list of ' Subjects of instruction in the one year's course:' — 'The German, English, and French Languages, Home Knowledge] (Heimathkunde), Arithmetic, Geometry, Physics (Naturlehre), Natural History, Elementary Physiology {Lehre von dem menschiichen Korper), and the Laws of Health (Gesundleitslehre), Draw- ing, Singing, Gymnastics, Needlework (Handarbeit) ; the Art of educating and instructing {Erziehungs-und Unterrichtslehre), Training in the Use of the Frobellian Appliances, Practical Exercises in the Kinder- garten.' Prodigious demand, assuredly, on the intellectual energies of one year ! even though in certain cases (in gegebenen Fallen) instruction in foreign languages and Handarbeit be dispensed with. Hamburg. 1 5 may perhaps have a special and limited application, but of the principle involved I have no doubt. As in 1 the case of our own pupil-teachers, so here, it seems to be assumed that immature and unformed minds are competent, after a little technical drill, to take upon themselves the training of other minds, especially those of very young children ; whereas the truth is, that the highest artistic skill cannot be thrown away, nay, rather is required, in the earliest stages of a child's development, if the foundation is to be surely and firmly laid. In the interesting prospectus of this very institution it is clearly laid down (see note, p. 10), that \ the purpose of the plays, games, and occupations of the Kindergarten is the harmonious development and cultivation of all the intellectual and bodily powers of the child — to lead him to become conscious of those powers, and to make use of them,' &c. I quite approve of this programme of the objects in view, but I am'at the same time convinced that a year's training for a girl of fourteen years of age cannot possibly prepare her to carry it out ; and I am further of opinion that for fourteen years of age seventeen ought to be sub- stituted. Up to this latter age the general education of those who are intended for teachers ought to go on without interruption. This is one of the weak 1 6 A Visit to German Schools. points which lie open to the attacks which afterwards, at Berlin, I heard made upon the system. It is, indeed, idle to talk of ' the harmonious cultivation of all the intellectual and bodily powers of a child,' if the carrying out of this very comprehensive pro- gramme is to be left in any appreciable measure to girls of fourteen or fifteen after one year's training. Now it is just in proportion to the demands of Frobel's theory that provision must be made for its realization. Up to the time of the exposition of his views, there was no theory to work up to. Now there is ; and in order to realize it, much more than has yet been done (I speak in a general way) must be done to secure for it accomplished teachers. On my second visit to the training classes I found the young teachers engaged in gymnastics, still under the personal direction of Miss H . I was pleased with their graceful rhythmic movements, governed by the music of a piano, and accompanied by singing. They were thirty-five in number, some few of them probably over thirty years of age. They went through various evolutions, winding in and out among each other in a way which was very pretty and picturesque. They also used with aptness and skill staves and wooden rings. This lesson was followed by one on singing. Hamburg. 1 7 First the young ladies sang the ' Hirtenruf ' from a collection of songs by Karolina Weseneder of Brunswick (respecting whose system of teaching music I everywhere heard great praise expressed) in unison. Then came some part songs (among them a very pretty air called ' Friihlingslust '), and, lastly, exercises in scales and intervals from a book by Voigt. These exercises were, on the whole, the most satisfactory part of the performance, inasmuch as they trained and showed the possession of the power of singing at sight. The notes were well held, and even difficult passages were gone through with much apparent taste. During my stay in Hamburg, I visited for the whole of one evening (four hours) the great school for working-men and boys (Die Allgemeine Gewerbe- schule), which is under the able direction of Mr. Otto Jessen, who is also the director of the Gewerbe school for women. As my attention was exclusively given during this visit to the drawing department, and as I had no opportunity of returning to the school, I can only give a few particulars. It is an institution for the teaching, in classes carried on both by day and evening, as well as on the Sunday morning, men and boys of fourteen and upward, all B 1 8 A Visit to German Schools. those branches of instruction which have a bearing on their actual or intended employment for life. The programme is most comprehensive, embracing the German and English languages, Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, Book-keeping,' Physics (Naturlehre), Architecture, Drawing of every kind, Modelling in clay and wax, Lithographic Drawing, &c, all of which are taught, with their application to practical life and business. The number of students was, in the summer of 1873, 987, in the winter 1873-4, 1366. The school is founded and sustained by grants from the municipality of Hamburg, together with a small contribution pro- vided by the fees of the students. This same liberal- minded municipality has voted a sum of 800,000 thalers (about £120,000) for the building of a new schoolhouse (now rapidly approaching its comple- tion), with which are connected a Realschule and a Trades Museum. When shall we have half-a-dozen such institutions in London ? The drawing department of the institution is, by general acknowledgment, second to none in Ger- many. For my own part, I had never seen anything approaching it in completeness and excellence. The special point of interest to me was, that drawing was Hamburg, 19 taught from beginning to end through the training of eye and hand in connection with real objects. There is, except at the close of the course, no copy- ing from drawings, and the teachers do no part of the work for the pupils. Wooden blocks of different forms are used to begin with, and not only the outline as presented to the eye was drawn in strong lines on the paper, but the outlines of the parts not seen were estimated by measurement with the eye, and traced on dotted lines, as if the object was transparent. These blocks were placed in all possible positions, and drawn over and over again. Then followed other objects- — candlesticks, vases, plaster reliefs, parts of machines, whole machines, articles of furniture, etc. Then there was pattern-making, designing, drawing on lithographic stones (an extra hour being devoted to this), modelling in clay of leaves, etc., water-colour drawing, etc. Specimens of all these different kinds of art were produced under my eyes during my visit, and the marked excellence throughout could only be attributed to the method pursued, essentially consisting, as it did, of keeping close to the object before the eye, and without trick or sham of any kind representing it as truthfully as possible. It is a noticeable feature, that high 20 A Visit to German Schools. finishing is not allowed in the time of instruction. If the student wishes to add this grace to his work, he must do it at home. The practical, the useful, that connected with trades and occupations alone, is sanctioned in this very remarkable school. The accomplished director himself accompanied me in my visit to the several class-rooms, and gave me, through the kind interpretation of Professor Wiebe, who was with me, every explanation. Altogether the two Gewerbesckulen interested me exceedingly ; they are noble institutions. I saw nothing anywhere else to match them. Nor is this remarkable, inasmuch as they are the first of their kind, both in chronological order and in excellence, in Germany. One day I accompanied Professor Wiebe to see the Pestalozzistift (or, as we should perhaps call it, the Pestalozzian Asylum) at Braberc, three or four miles from Hamburg. In a forlorn, out-of- the-way situation, we arrived at a large handsome house, on entering which we found ourselves at once in a spacious central hall carried up to the roof, with open galleries continued round each landing. The effect was, on the whole, rather striking. The master, an intelligent-looking man, Hamburg. 2 1 came forward to meet us, and accompanied us over the building. The rooms of the institution are spacious and airy, furnished with good solid chairs, tables, and desks. It was near dinner-time, and the children were at play. We were told that they were seventy in number — boys and girls — taught together ; two-thirds of them boys, and generally from six to fourteen years of age. There are no school hours after twelve ; then the boys work in the fields connected with the house, and the girls at their needles, or at sweeping, cleaning, bed-making, etc. There are three teachers — all men. After a time the children came in to dinner, all with their hair cut close to their heads, and, the boys especially, notwithstanding their out- door work, looking far from healthy. After they had taken their seats at the table, where each had a chair, one said grace, and the operation of dining commenced. It was a remarkably simple operation. Large wooden tubs filled with boiled rice were brought in by some of the boys, placed before a young woman, the housekeeper, and forthwith ladled out by her into the plates held for it by different elder boys and girls, who take the messes to the several tables. This, without salt or sugar, 22 A Visit to German Schools. was their sole dinner ; varied, we were told, occa- sionally by boiled beans and peas. Sugar is allowed only on fete days. Meat is given three times a week. Some of the children had two or three helpings of rice, but many only one. Breakfast consists of bread and milk, or of grits boiled in milk. Sup- per of bread and water only. This undelightful and not very nutritious meal was eaten in solemn silence : water, apparently not ad libitum, washed down the rice. After the dinner was over we accompanied the master, who offered to show us the dormitories. We found them very clean and airy. The one we entered was furnished with thirty-five iron bedsteads and good arrangements for washing. The children go to bed every night at nine o'clock. On descending into the hall, we found all the children assembled, and prepared to give us a song. They were in two divisions, and they soon burst out, singing most delightfully in parts ' Die Wacht am Rhein.' I have scarcely heard anything so sweetly harmonious. I noticed that half-a-dozen of the children ran up the stairs as if with some special object in view. That object was soon apparent. A fresh song was begun, in two parts as before, and Hamburg. 23 at the close of the stanza, echo, with delicious gentleness and sweetness, repeated the last few notes from the top of the house. The effect was truly charming. Poor children ! they must have a hard life of it — rice without sugar for dinner, dry bread and limited water for supper, rough work in the fields, and (perhaps) rugged tillage in the school (but this I don't know) ; and with all this a good master, who, I hope, is gentle with them ; but, in spite of everything else, they learn to sing delightfully, and there is some comfort at least in this. I have often since remembered their singing with pleasure, and contrasted the general effect with that produced by much of the singing in the Kindergartens, which, possibly from some defect in myself, possibly because my ear is espe- cially sensitive to tune and harmony, was very often far from satisfactory to me. Time with the Kinder- garten mistresses and their little pupils is generally a prime consideration, but I cannot say as much for tune, meaning by this the tasteful harmony of sweet sounds. Singing is an important feature of Frobel's system, and I do not think it is executed nearly as well as it might be by the little birds of the Kinder- 24 A Visit to German Schools. gartens. Here, as is so generally the case in educa- tion, it is the teacher who is at fault ; the materials are all there, but the teacher fails to make the best use of them. The germs of art, however feeble, are in the native constitution of every little child, and though not always able to struggle of themselves into the light, they can be nursed and developed into power — that is, some measure of power — by the teacher on the outside, if he is himself an artist in education. But all teachers are not artists in educa- tion ; and this, again, not because they are naturally incapable, but because they are not naturally 'in- formed ' and inspired with the pregnant conception that the teacher's function is generative and even creative, and they therefore believe themselves incap- able without actually being so. They are unconscious of the powers they really possess, and they are un- conscious of their own powers because they do not appreciate those of the children they teach ; and lastly, they do not appreciate the children's powers, because they do not study carefully the nature of children. They should go to Frobel, and learn from him what children are, and what they can do when artistically handled. It is a very important con- sideration that the product of education, after all, Hamburg. 2 depends mainly on the teacher. The number of stupid children is really very small, but the number of children who are left stupid — that is, of those whose powers are undeveloped — is very great ; and this number is mainly dependent on the teacher, with whom it rests very much to decide whether these powers shall be ignored, developed, or stifled. The bad teacher is a menticide, who deserves punish- ment quite as much as the unskilful medical practi- tioner who is called into court to answer for his delinquencies. Hence it happens that young minds, that might have been quickened into life, remain dead, buried, and forgotten. I visited in Hamburg some of the ' Burger Kinder- garten! of which there are, I believe, nine in diffe- rent parts of the town. In one of them I found several children, a division of whom were busily occupied in constructing various forms, and build- ing with the little cubes of the fifth 'gift.' The fifth ' gift ' presents a cube as divided into twenty-seven smaller cubes, and .these are divided diagonally into fifty-four half cubes or prisms. Thus considered, it affords opportunity for forming (1) life-objects; (2) beauty-objects; (3) knowledge- objects. 26 A Visit to German Schools. The first class represents such forms as this- 1 1 1 1 1 Iff} p > 1 The second such as this — The third such as these- ^\ (SffiW The children were engaged in dealing with forms of the first kind ; that is, in building forms of life — real objects. They looked happy in their occu- pation, though it was carried on under very un- favourable circumstances. The room belongs to a Turnverein, which assembles in the evenings for gymnastic exercises. It was bare, rough, and gloomy, while the atmosphere was sensibly impregnated with the lingering fumes of the holocaust of tobacco which had been offered up on the preceding Hamburg. 2 7 evening. It was, perhaps, a result of the unconscious influence of the surroundings that the teachers here were less kind in manner and tone to the children than was usual elsewhere. As some sort of counter- balance to these disadvantages, there was, however, a small yard or garden for the children to play in, and some little disorderly beds of plants and flowers were pointed out to me as the children's. I may here take the opportunity of saying that Frobel's notion, that the children of the Kindergarten are not only to be regarded as human plants them- selves, but also as cultivators of real plants, remains still, for the most part, unrealized. I saw very few gardens at all connected with the institution, and those that I saw were scarcely worth a second glance. They were generally overgrown with sprawling plants, or given up to the dominion of weeds. Nor did I see ' a single instance in which children were at work in them. Indeed, it is obvious enough that things, in most cases, must be so. In large towns where the system is in vogue, and where, I believe, it will still take deep root and flourish, it is next to impossible to obtain adequate space for the experiments in actual gardening. If, indeed, I may venture an opinion, which will, I am aware, be unacceptable to ff ENIVE 28 A Visit to German Schools. some of the enthusiastic followers of Frobel, I should recommend the gradual disuse of the term Kinder- garten altogether. Interpreted by facts as they are, it has no special propriety. The Kindergartens are really preparatory schools for very young children, and nothing else. The methods adopted in them may and do differ greatly from those of ordinary schools, but when these, in process of time, are modi- fied, as they will be, so as to form a continuation of the same system, the name will lose its speciality. A child of six or seven years old is as much a human plant as one of three ; and the school, as a place for culture, is as much Kindergarten as that which now bears the name. If it is the age only on which the distinction depends, then we have a distinction with- out a difference. All this will sound very heterodox, no doubt, in the ears of some of the enthusiasts I have referred to ; but when they understand that I agree with them as to the value of the thing, they will per- haps tolerate my quibbles about the name. I fully believe myself that, though this foreign name has been temporarily adopted in England and America, neither this nor that of Kindergartner (gardeners) for the teachers will be permanently employed. Several of the Hamburg Kindergartens are under Hamburg. 29 the immediate superintendence of a number of ladies and gentlemen, forming a committee of the Frobel Verein (a Frobel Union), the headquarters of which are at Dresden. The ladies of the committee, and the president, who is a Mrs. Johanna Goldschmidt, very- kindly take turns in visiting the schools of the Union ; and I could distinctly see the good effects of this care in the character of their special institution. In one of them that I visited there were thirty children — ages from three to seven — paying nearly £4 a year each. The rooms, though not large enough, were commodious and cheerful, and the children, when I arrived, were industriously interweaving strips of coloured paper (Flechten), which they did very deftly, and with evident satisfaction to themselves. This work consists in plaiting strips of paper, so as to form various designs, the effect depending on the symmetrical arrangement of the different colours. The little workers, armed with needle and thread, draw the slips in and out amongst others already laid down to form the groundwork of the pattern, an exercise requiring much more attention and thought than might at first sight be expected. The specimen at top of next page will give some idea of the work. 30 A Visit to German Schools. The children had been engaged, I was told, since nine o'clock in (i) building with cubes ; (2) in 'stick- laying,' or making different forms on the flat table. This consists in placing little sticks (stabchen) in various relations to each other, as this — (3) In games and gymnastics. While I stayed, there was a good deal of singing, not very well con- ducted, for the teachers could not be complimented on their own sweet voices ; and I invariably re- marked that the tone and quality even of the children's voices depended greatly — and for obvious reasons — on those of the teachers. I observed, on looking out from one of the windows, some little flower-beds belonging, as I was told, to the children, to which the remarks which I have previously made were ap- plicable. The children altogether looked a very Hamburg. 3 1 happy little community, earnestly engaged in their occupation, and happy because earnestly engaged. And herein lies one of the great truths which Frobel brought to light and made practical. He saw more clearly, perhaps, than any one before him, that the secret of happiness is occupation — the healthy employment of our powers, whatever they may be. This is especially true of little children, who are scarcely ever contented with simply doing nothing, and whose fidgettiness and unrest, which often give mothers and teachers so much anxiety, are merely the strugglings of the soul to get, through the body, some employment for its powers. Supply this want, give them an object to work upon, and you solve the problem. The divergence and distraction of the faculties cease as they converge upon the work, and the mind is at rest in its very occupation. The nature of the work makes very little difference, and even its sameness does not weary. It becomes interesting, simply because it gives scope to the energies, and concentrates them. I frequently had occasion to notice that the children were doing over and over again what I knew that they had often done before, and I once enquired whether the teacher did not find that the children got tired of the apparent sameness 32 A Visit to German Schools. and monotony. ' Look at them ! ' was the reply in this case, ' and see whether they appear tired.' I did look, and could see no symptom of weariness, but, on the contrary, earnest, contented, even pleased absorp- tion in the work. What more was to be desired ? They were observing, comparing, contriving, some- times inventing, and all the while gaining practical skill in manipulation. They were working towards an end, and I often saw them stop for a moment and contemplate with delight what they had achieved. On one occasion a bright-eyed maiden of two and a half years old, after placing her little sticks in various forms which did not quite please her, at last hit upon one which did. She looked at it for a moment, then suddenly clapped her hands, chuckled with delight, and called her neighbour to observe the feat she had accomplished ; and then clapped her hands vigorously again. She had satisfied the desires of her mind — had gained a result of her own devising, and felt in her small measure the joys of invention. In this school I noticed that reading, writing, and elementary arithmetic were taught to the children over six years of age. This, which the rigid purists of the Kindergarten system generally regard as an inno- vation, is, in my opinion, a very desirable innovation, Hamburg. oo forms the proper transition and introduction to the work of the ordinary school, and constitutes a fitting application of the principles already carried out. It is desirable for this reason, if for no other, that the children thus prepared can take their place in the ordinary school without experiencing the sudden shock which those children experience who are at once transferred from the play- work of the Kinder- garten to the routine work of schools in which as yet Frobel's principles are unknown. My own opinion is, that the programme of the Kindergarten should cover the period from three to eight years of age, an exten- sion which would admit of the fixing and solidifying by practical application of the rudimentary know- ledge gained in the numberless instructive exercises of the Kindergarten proper, and for want of which much that is learnt there is in danger of being over- laid or lost. It is not enough to know — we must have a conscious knowledge. If what we learn is to gain a firm footing in the mind, and become a real possession, we must know that we know. Now, the addition of two years, to the ordinary Kindergarten course would give the opportunity for converting casual knowledge into real knowledge, and for fixing firmly in the mind the valuable ideas gained through c 34 A Visit to German Schools. the practical exercises in observing and using the forms (including surfaces, edges, angles, etc.) of the sphere, cube, and other solids, as well as for carrying onward the drawing and arithmetic, and learning more and more of the properties of material objects. It is a mistake into which many outsiders fall, to look upon all that is done in the Kindergarten as so much play. It begins with play, certainly, but it does not end in play. A great part of it is play that has work in view, and is work — unless we are prepared to deny that name to the constant exercise of the observing powers, with the attendant comparison and discrimination and judgment ; to the equally con- stant exercise of the imaginative faculty in the development of contrivance and invention ; to the cultivation of taste by singing, drawing, rhythmic movements, etc. ; to the training of the moral feelings by association of the children with each other, and to the attainment of deft and correct manipulative skill. All these objects, and many others that are incidental, come within the scope of the Kindergarten, and it is absurd to deny that they are all more or less intellec- tual in their nature and aim, and therefore to assert that they are mere play. At the same time it must be admitted that the ideas obtained through these Hamburg. 35 means are of a strictly rudimentary character, and are wanting, of course, in definiteness and accuracy. And therefore it is that some extension of the course is desirable, with a view to the further development of the thinking powers, and to the converting uncon- scious into conscious knowledge. In connection with this remark, I am bound to say that I saw but little of definite developing power among the Kindergarten teachers of Germany. There is far too much telling and doing for the children what they ought to be required, even young as they are, to do for them- selves ; and it is this very general tendency to the mechanical which lays much of the practice of the teacher open to the sharp strictures which I have already referred to. I may add, moreover, that I was much surprised that on no one occasion did I witness a lesson on objects. I do not say that such lessons are never given, but it certainly never was my fortune to be present at one. The only objects I saw in the hands of the children were those con- stituting the various • gifts,' and to these, as far as I am aware, their lessons were strictly confined. Not a flower, twig, leaf, stone, out of the boundless variety of Nature's stores, nor any models of artificial produc- tions, came into the lessons. This appears to me a 36 A Visit to German Schools. serious omission, and requires an explanation. The 'gifts' are most valuable. I certainly would not supersede their use, but they are not everything ; and it appears to me that no day should pass in the Kindergarten without a lesson on some object of nature or art. I have felt myself compelled to make these remarks, but I shall be glad to be set right if I have fallen into error as regards this very important matter. Nothing in the early education of children is of more importance than the cultivation of their observ- ing powers by means of the objects with which they are in immediate contact. The names of the children themselves, their age, the number of the members of their families ; the names and direction of the streets they pass through in coming to school ; the number of houses in these streets, the shops of various kinds in them ; the animals they meet with ; the carts, waggons, coaches, etc., that they have seen in the way ; the weather, with its various incidents ; the trees growing in the neighbourhood, the river flowing near them, the hills seen from a distance, the fields in which they play, or those they pass by in taking walks, the soil of the fields, the crops growing in them, the occupations of men that they witness ; the smithy, the barn, the threshing-floor, the carpenter's Hamburg. 3 7 shop, the sowing, ploughing, haymaking, reaping, harvesting, etc. ; — to all these matters their atten- tion should be directed, and the results of their own observation, not the observation of the teacher, elicited. Then, descending into particulars, let each child tell how many rooms are there in his home, how the rooms are used, the colour of the walls, the pattern of the paper ; what the houses are built of ; how many windows, doors, chimneys, etc. : have they gardens ? what is grown in them ? what' flowers, herbs, vegetables, trees, etc. ? Then the schoolroom — how many walls, windows ? how many desks, tables ? how high ? how long ? — the dimensions being referred to an actual rule and measured by themselves. Then let them say how many books there are on the table ; how many leaves in a given book ; how many lines in a page ; what is the weight of a book or any other object (ascertained by actual weighing it them- selves with scales) ; also the weight of a given object, guessed at by poising it in the hand, and then let the accuracy of the guess be tested by weighing ; how far is a tree, a pool, the end of the playground, off, to be guessed at, then tested by measuring done by them- selves ; how high is a wall, ascertained by counting the layers of bricks and measuring the thickness of 38 A Visit to German Schools. a brick, etc., etc. In all these exercises, which are numberless, the actual observation of the children, their own personal experience, should be the means and the limit of the knowledge. Nothing need be told them but conventional names — their senses and their minds should do the rest, without help from others. It is truly wonderful that all exercises of this kind are, as a rule, unknown in our primary schools, where they would be especially valuable — the result being that the scholars go forth into the world with eyes that do not see, ears that do not hear, and minds undeveloped. The knowledge of things that lie about them in daily life, knowledge which Milton emphati- cally points out as the prime wisdom, is studiously ignored. They are left 'unpractised, unprepared, and still to seek ; ' and what is even more important, the consciousness of their power to acquire such knowledge by their own efforts is never awakened. I visited the Frobel-Verein Institute for training (1) Kindergarten nursery governesses ; (2) Kinder- garten teachers. This institution has also a private Kindergarten in connection with it, for the practice of the teachers, but this I did not see. Mrs. Gold- schmidt kindly accompanied me, and introduced me to the intelligent head-mistress and the young novices, Hamburg, 39 who numbered about forty. These pleasant-looking maidens sang for my entertainment some pretty songs, accompanied by the piano, and further indulged me with two well-enunciated recitations, together with a specimen of the movement - play adapted to the children of the Kindergarten. I was very favour- ably impressed with the earnest interest manifested throughout, and only regretted the narrowness of their accommodation. The rooms were small, and not well adapted to the purpose of the institution. The informing spirit, however, appeared active, large, and generous. Next morning I again visited the same establish- ment, in order to be present at Professor Hoffman's weekly lesson to the young students. I was much interested by the Professor's appearance, and by his quiet, appropriate manner towards them. They too, on their part, seemed to have a perfectly good under- standing with him, looked very happy in their work, and indulged every now and then in ebullitions of innocent fun, which did not, however, hinder their serious attention to business. The girls were occu pied, when I entered the room, in laying down on the table folded slips of white paper forming vari- ous figures {scJiniirstnifen). These, I was told, were 4Q A Visit to German Schools. representations of forms of ' Life/ ' Knowledge/ and ' Beauty ' (Leben-Kenntniss-Schonheitsformen). Here are some specimens of them — A /' < a most valu- able work, worth all the books taken together that have ever been written in England on practical teaching. Got ha. 107 the learner's thorough acquisition and appreciation of facts, the results would in the majority of cases be far more satisfactory than they are. According to our notion, indeed, the framing of rules, formulae, and general propositions is, under the teacher's guidance, to be the work of the learner in the presence of facts that he knows ; and therefore in no case (in elementary in- struction) is the experience of others (of which ready- made rules are the product) to be allowed to set aside the learner's own personal experience, which afterwards must form the foundation of his mental structure, and must be taken as the base of operations for the teacher. The upshot of these remarks is obvious. It is that the true -function of the teacher is to get his pupils to learn — i. e. y to know that they cannot know, in any accurate sense of the term, what they do not learn by personal experience ; that is, by the working of their own minds ; or, in other words, by self-instruction and self-education. 1 Whatever apparent success a teacher may gain through interference with this principle, 1 Bishop Temple says — ' All the best cultivation of a child's mind is obtained by the child's own exertions, and the master's success may be measured by the degree in which he can bring his scholar to make such exertion absolutely without aid.' To the same effect Mr. Mark by says — ' To teach boys how to instruct themselves — that is, after all, the great end of school work.' 108 A Visit to German Schools. operates pro tanto against the interests of the learner by diminishing his independent power. This conse- quence results whenever the teacher does for the learner what he can and ought to do for himself by observing, analysing, investigating ; in a word, think- ing for him. The learner, even though a young child, can observe, compare, form and express judgments upon facts, and the teacher's proper function is to stimulate and guide him in the exercise of these powers, but never to supersede them. If, however, these principles are just, it is submitted that teachers, not only in England, but even in Germany, the land of pedagogy, very often neglect or abuse their proper function. But I have kept the reader a long time waiting for the continuation of my narrative. I will now resume it. I attended a lesson given in the third class of the girls' school in botany (twelve girls present, of the ages nine or ten). The teacher, a young and interesting person, whom I had already heard in the lower classes of the same school, showed great power as an instructress. Her tact and skill, and (I should think) her knowledge too, were remarkable for one so young. She had been, I understood, trained in the Seminar, though in that only. Gotha. 109 As the lesson was on botany, I looked, but looked in vain, for plants. To my surprise, there was not even a drawing visible. I must suppose that the actual contact with the material itself, or some good representation of it, had taken place in a previous lesson ; at all events, there was nothing of the kind here. Still the lesson, as far as it went, was ex- tremely interesting. After a few questions on the root, stem, leaves, etc. of a plant, the teacher called up one child after another to draw on the black board every variety of leaf. Without the slightest hesita- tion or bungling, they drew not only the outline of each leaf, but in some cases venation ; then at least a dozen modifications of the edges ; then pistils of various forms ; and lastly the stem, furnished with leaves of different kinds. The teacher had but to demand, and the product forthwith appeared. Con- sidering the age of the children, the skill even in drawing was very noticeable ; there was not one really bad specimen, and I think every child took her share in the work. The teacher, of course, had no book, nor did she appear to need one. She scarcely, however, gave a word of explanation. There was no telling. The work was all done by no A Visit to Gei'rnan Schools. the children themselves. I regretted that I had no further opportunity of witnessing the lessons of this masterly young teacher. In the sixth class (the lowest but one of the Girls' School), I attended a lesson on ' History.' The children (twenty in number) were only seven or eight years old, and I wished much to hear how they would be taught history. The teacher (Miss Ulrici, whom I have mentioned before) solved the question very easily, by telling them the story of Ulysses, in which she joined on in some way that I did not quite understand the tale of Orpheus and Eurydice. It was chiefly the latter with which she dealt, and she told it with uninterrupted ease and fluency to a highly appreciative audience. At the close she asked many questions, which were answered in a way which showed that no parts of the story had escaped attention. I wished to hear what the teacher had to say about teaching little children history ; so I asked her whether she called those stories 'history'? Her answer (in which I fully agreed) was that stories of this kind — that is, which excite the imagination and yet have a sort of historical foundation, and bear upon historical names — are the only basis you can lay for history-teaching in the case of such young children. Gotha. in * Better/ I enquired, ' than even the history of the Fatherland ? ' ' Yes,' she replied, ' the history of the Fatherland is too difficult/ I found, in fact, that in this class there was no bothering of little children with dates, which to them could have no meaning, nor exposition of ready cut and dried judgments (conveyed often in single epithets) of persons about whom the children knew no facts which could warrant the judgment. I am quite persuaded that much of our teaching of history to young children is almost immoral, as involving the systematic implantation of prejudices which take deep root, and often produce very undesirable fruits. Dr. Arnold recommended that children should be taught history much as Miss Ulrici taught it, by means of striking stories, told as stories, with the addition of pictures, which would make the interest more varied. I attended one lesson in the Higher School for Girls, given by Professor Kohler's son. It was on the German language, with illustrations from the writings of Schiller. Schiller's life was briefly sketched by the teacher, who soon began to ques- tion the students on the ' Lay of the Bell' ; the subject of which was entered into, and especially the measures H2 A Visit to German Schools. in which it was written. Some of the girls marked on the black board the typical trochaic and iambic feet, and a few of the variations from the type. Then questions were asked on the composition and on the nature of sentences. These were followed by the recitation of some short passages from the poem, which were given without much expression. This lesson seemed to me on the whole very good, but not masterly. The students were all exceedingly attentive. In the programme of studies in this institution, I did not find hygiene mentioned. It would, however, I venture to think, be well to add it, if for no other purpose than that of calling attention to the laws of ventilation. Not here only, but very generally in the schoolrooms of Berlin, Dresden, and Weimar, I really suffered from the oppressiveness of the air. In no one of them did I observe any system of ventilation whatever. The usual plan seems to be this — first, to shut all the windows and doors quite fast, so as to keep out every breath of fresh air ; to go on enduring the accumulated misery naturally arising from this arrangement until it is quite intolerable ; then to open the windows for about three minutes, and when Gotha. 1 1 3 these have expired, to go on again as before. I was, and still am, at a loss to understand the remarkable objection to fresh air that Germans almost universally manifest, but I am sure it acts injuriously on the school children ; and I could not help noticing how much fresher and healthier the children of the Kin- dergartens (in which the air-excluding tendency is rarely shown) generally looked than those of the schools. These remarks have, of course, no applica- tion to the case of the Girls' Gewerbeschule of Hamburg, where (as I have already remarked) the arrangements for ventilation are most elaborate and complete. In spite, however, of this drawback, I was strongly impressed with the excellent spirit (if not the excel- lent air) of Professor Kohler's institution. All the members of it, as far as I could judge, teachers, students, and children, seemed in a healthy mental condition. All were busy, earnest, and advancing, and testified in various ways to the powerful influence of the presiding genius of the place, ostensibly embodied in the person and character of the Professor, but really in the principles and practice of the great master whom he so ably represents. The benevolent and intellectual spirit of Frobel pervades the place. H ii4 A Visit to German Schools. Here, to a greater extent than anywhere else within my experience, his principles serve as the broad continuous basis of the system of instruction and education ; and the results, as far as I could judge of them, do great credit to the system. EI SEN A C H. On the 1 2th of September I found myself in Eise- nach, where there is one Kindergarten of seventy- six children, admirably conducted by Miss Traberth. This lady, an original pupil of Frobel, was, I believe, a learner in his school at Keilhau, and was trained as a Kindergarten governess under his direction. Hers, therefore, may be looked upon as an original Kindergarten of the true type. When I entered the room, I found a division of the children (about forty) engaged in a game, in which one, who was blind- folded, was attempting to ascertain, by feeling the dress and features, who the child was to whom she had been led up. When she succeeded, which was Eisenach, 1 1 5 not always the case, great joy was manifested by the rest. Another division was engaged in Netzzeichnen — drawing doors, pumps, chests of drawers, etc., very neatly. One little girl, whose drawing was incorrect, when the fault was very kindly pointed out, cried. This was the first tear I had seen shed in a Kinder- garten. The soothing words of the teacher, how- ever, speedily dissipated the clouds, and sunshine appeared again. The rest of the exercises were such as I had frequently seen before. They were well performed in an earnest manner ; and indeed everything was well done in this Kindergarten, under the direction of the very kind and intelligent Miss Traberth, who was assisted by two young teachers. In the course of this day I looked in at the 1 Seminar,' or normal school for elementary school- masters, the arrangements of which seemed very complete. There was a practising school in the same building. I just entered three of the classes, each consisting of about seventy boys and girls, evidently very poor, many of them without shoes and stockings. The rooms were very close and stuffy, and, as a consequence (so at least it appeared 1 1 6 A Visit to German Schools. to me), there was less interest and earnestness both in teacher and children than I had witnessed in some other institutions. The teacher in each case was a young man. I did not stay during the lessons, for the atmosphere oppressed me. I next proceeded to the Biirgersschule (No. 2), where I found in the class I entered sixty-four girls (ages six and seven). The teacher (a man) was giving them a lesson on birds. They all looked much interested, and answered the questions he put eagerly and well. They seemed familiar with the birds named, and gave particulars of their ap- pearances, habits, etc. There were, however, neither birds nor pictures then in view. In another class (of about seventy children, of nine or ten years of age) the teacher was giving a lesson on the geography of Germany, a noble map of which was before the learners. He was asking the names and position of places, and tracing (or rather asking them to trace) the courses of the rivers. He occa- sionally drew pictures of the rivers on the black board, and asked what towns were placed at the points he indicated. Neither he nor the children had any book. They answered his questions promptly and well, especially when the state of Eisenach. 1 1 7 the atmosphere was considered. I believe if I had stayed very long in it myself I should have for- gotten even the course of the Thames. My purpose was now accomplished. Next morn- ing I set off on my journey homewards by way of Frankfort, Cologne, and Ostend. CONCL USIO N. N the foregoing pages I have described what I saw, and only what I saw ; but in order to make my account more com- plete, I will add a few particulars relating to Kindergarten and elementary school teaching, and this especially because people who talk on our platforms, and even in official reports, of promot- ing popular education, frequently seem as if they were unaware that something very different from what they are talking about exists out of England. They talk as if they had never reached the conception of education as development and culture, and had derived all their knowledge of it from what they see going on in our primary schools, where there is — with very rare exceptions — neither development nor cul- ture in any true sense of the term. 1 It is therefore 1 If this and other remarks I have made on our Revised Code system appear too sweeping, I must take refuge under Dr. Morell's apologetic Conclusion. 119 important to show — though I have already, in fact, shown it — that it is possible not only to form a theory of education as culture, but practically to carry it out, so as to embody the theory in action. Now, suppos- ing that I had myself formed no such theory of edu- cation, but had merely, as an impartial spectator, looked at the work going on before my eyes in the Kindergarten and elementary schools I have visited, I could have evolved the theory from the practice. And, first, as to the Kindergartens. Observing the little children at their games and occupations, I could come to no other conclusion than that they were by report for 1873 (recently published), in which he thus sums up the ' general result ' of its working, which is — ' That all those elementary acquirements which are of a mechanical character, or which depend upon definite mental exercises rather than reflection (such as writing, elementary arithmetic, spelling, and the power of recognising words), are on the average well taught ; but that those acquirements which de- pend upon thought, sentiment, reflection, or research (such as reading with expression, arithmetical problems, geography, history, literature, and so forth), take a very low and exceptional place in our present school system. ' In this passage he seems to consider that ' to develop the intellect, to cultivate the imagination, to inform the understanding, to elevate both the aesthetic taste and the moral feelings,' is to present an ' ideal standard ' the attainment of which is quite out of the question. Comment on these quotations is needless. They prove the position I have assumed, and show that our primary education secures neither development nor culture. It is a system of education which leaves out the very essentials of true education. 120 A Visit to German Schools. these means developing all their powers — bodily, intellectual, and moral — in a manner at once natural and healthy; and that this development was accom- panied by pleasure and satisfaction. It involved, therefore, and secured, an all-sided training of the faculties, to which no other name could be given than that of culture. I observed, too, that the culture was self-culture. It consisted in the practical exercise of the children's powers by themselves. They learned to do by doing — by their own doing — not by that of the teacher. It was their own eyes that saw, their own hands that wrought, their own minds that devised, contrived, and often invented; and hence the earnest interest which they everywhere displayed. This interest, I saw, was the legitimate previous result of self-exercise, a4id could 'have been due to no other cause. No exertions on the part of the teacher, with- out reference to this cause, could have produced it. She might have exhorted, preached, warned, scolded, explained, told,- with no other result than that of exciting vexation and disgust, without the continued self-active co-operation of the learners themselves. The work in which their education consisted was to be their work, not hers ; to be done by themselves, not by the teacher. Conclusion. 121 It was easy to see that the self-action and self- exercise, on the part of the children, constituted per- sonal experience — gained at first hand — and therefore their own. It was not the experience of the teacher ' communicated ' (though such communication is really impossible) to the learner, and superseding his. It consisted rather in countless processes of seeing, hearing, feeling, performed by the children them- selves, and registering themselves in their minds as ideas, or in countless actions performed by their own limbs (especially their hands), and forming habits of doing. Now the very conception of ceaseless activity of the senses, mind, and limbs, excludes the notion of idleness ; and I saw without surprise no idleness in the Kindergarten. All, was busy, .healthy, happy life. I could not in presence of these facts come to any other conclusion than that which was going on before my eyes was in the strictest sense of the term edu- cation, and that it consisted essentially in self- culture. It was, moreover, in a very definite sense, culture on the part of the teacher — culture of the kind that the gardener bestows on his plants and flowers. These he cultivates according to their nature — a nature which he recognises in all his treatment. He does not theoretically devise a nature for them, 122 A Visit to German Schools. and impose upon this nature conditions of growth to suit his theory. On the contrary, he observes the phenomena which present themselves, assumes these as the laws which are to govern his action, and confines that action to cherishing favourable and warding off unfavourable influences. He elicits the vital forces of the plants, not by direct action upon them, but by securing the light, air, and warmth which are necessary for their development. Mutatis mutandis, the function of the child-cultivator is that of the plant-cultivator. Both have to secure growth, and to do this by similar means. In a general way (there certainly were exceptions), I saw the Kinder- garten governesses satisfying in their practices the demands of this theory of their proper function as child-cultivators. On the whole, I concluded that the work going on in the Kindergarten is a just and natural education, suited to the nature of little children, bringing out healthily and happily the faculties of every side of their being, and laying the basis of culture on their self-activity and personal experience. Turning to the earliest elementary education of children in the primary schools, I saw much that was in strict accordance with the aforesaid principles. Conclusion. 123 I saw the children of from six to eight years of age earnestly, and, as far as I could judge, happily engaged in their work ; and I noticed that this was conspicu- ously the case in schools in which the Frobellian means and appliances formed part (as they frequently did) of the machinery of instruction ; most of all (as at Gotha) where these children had already passed through the Kindergarten. I was present at lessons in reading where it was taught (1) separately, either by illustrations on the black board, or (2) by means of movable wooden tablets containing separate letters ; (3) in connection with writing, every scholar forming the letters on his slate while he uttered their sounds ; (4) in Connection with the reading primer (Lesefibel) ; and in every case I observed that the powers of the letters, not their names, were demanded and given by the scholars. In every case, too, the meaning of the separate words, when formed out of the sounds, was required and promptly furnished. I saw in these lessons in reading a recognition of the principle that it is by the actual contact and contest of the learner with facts and realities that power is elicited and trained. The teacher in general told the children nothing but the conventional sound corres- ponding to the printed or written symbol, which 124 A Visit to German Schools. because it was conventional they could not discover for themselves. All the rest was the pupils' own work. I was also present at a lesson in writing (described page 77) given by a first-rate teacher, who required numerous preliminary exercises with the fingers, wrist, hand, and arm, all of them illustrating the principle of personal experience, and preparing the children to do by knowing what they had to do, and how to set about it. I heard a lesson in one of these elementary classes on a picture, and observed the intense interest excited by it, and noticed further that the real personal experiences of the children, brought to conscious- ness by the handling of the teacher, furnished them with the power to interpret the various features of the picture. In another very interesting lesson, initiating the study of geography (described p. 73), I observed an illustration of the principle of proceeding from the near to the more remote in ever-enlarging concentric circles, one horizon of knowledge succeeding another in the exact order of nature. Here, too, the personal observation of the children, their own life's experience, was the basis of the instruction. Conclusion. 125 Lastly, at Goth a, I was present at a truly remark- able lesson in elementary botany (see p. 108), in which little girls of nine or ten years of age showed by their apt drawing of leaves, etc., on the black board, a singularly accurate knowledge of natural forms. Here too (if I may presume, and I hope I may, that the knowledge thus reproduced was gained by observation of the objects themselves) was a striking evidence that clear notions come not from the telling of the teacher, but from the contact of the learner's own mind with the realities of nature and life. Without referring to other instances, these furnished me with materials for the induction, that the ele- mentary teaching in German primary schools is characterised by its demand on the self-exercise of the learner's own powers ; that, as a rule, it does not stupefy the learner by wordy explanations (often requiring explanation themselves), or weaken his faculties by doing for him what he can and ought to do himself ; that it is, in fact, a practical gymnastic for the mind, recognizing the important principle, that as the dancing-master, for instance, does not get his pupirs to learn the art by dancing himself, but by making them dance, so the teacher — that is, the director of the mind — must gain his end not by 126 A Visit to German Schools. doing the pupil's thinking for him (which, however, is impossible, though often fondly attempted), but by making him think and act for himself. I do not say, for I do not believe, this theoretical aim was always so strictly kept in view by the teachers as it might have been, but considering the disadvan- tages under which, in many cases, both teachers and children worked, the large classes sometimes containing seventy or eighty pupils, and the stifling, unoxygenized atmosphere of the school-rooms, I was often surprised at the earnest interest and the intel- lectual activity which pervaded the system. The ultimate conclusion, therefore, to which I arrived with respect to the German elementary classes (I only speak of them in the primary schools), was that, as a rule, development and culture were aimed at and secured ; and this conclusion was based on the fact (i) that the children very generally did the work themselves, without the telling of the teacher ; (2) that their order and attention testified to the interest excited by the lesson ; (3) that the firm and accurate performance of the correct lesson (with scarcely even a blunder) evinced the mastery of the previous lesson ; (4) the reading, writing, and arithmetic were taught on intellectual principles, which required observation Conclusion. 1 2 7 and thought, and maintained the co-operation of the learner's with the teacher's rule ; (5) that book instruction was subordinated to practical exercises on the black board ; (6) that the teacher taught, and did not merely order the children to learn. In these facts I saw evidences of development and culture, that is of education, though my observa- tion was confined to the case of very little children. I do not endorse every practice carried on in these schools, nor believe that in all cases the most was made of the materials, but that the ' ideal standard ' of our schools is the real standard of German elemen- tary schools I have no doubt whatever. As regards external arrangements, there are two points to which my attention was forcibly drawn. In the first place, every German elementary teacher has a separate class-room. By this means the distraction arising from the juxtaposition of several classes under different teachers in the same room is absolutely excluded. The teacher is ' monarch of all he surveys/ and is therefore invested with complete responsibility for all that goes on under his administration. The wellbeing of his little realm lies entirely in his own hands, and he must himself concert the measures necessary for securing it. In the second place, there 128 A Visit to German Schools. are no pupil-teachers in the German primary schools. Teaching being recognized as a psychological art — the result or practical outcome of a thorough training in principles — it is justly presumed that crude children entirely ignorant of such principles, unformed in cha- racter, and for the most part destitute of well-digested knowledge, are entirely unfitted for the important business of teaching others. The contrary assumption involves indeed a direct denial of the existence of a science and art of education, and strikes at the root of any radical improvement in it. I am fully aware that we have in England many even that are considered high authorities in matters of education — Principals of Normal Colleges, and others — who strenuously advocate the pupil-teacher system ; and one (Dr Rigg) even goes so far as to recommend its adoption by the German authorities. I am morally certain they will never adopt it. They will probably, in time (as they ought to do), reduce the number of scholars in the classes, and largely increase the number of teachers, but they will never stultify themselves so far as to supersede the scientific and artistic teaching which now generally prevails, by sanctioning that which, in the nature of things, can be neither scientific nor artistic. They value Conclusion. 1 29 education too much to endanger its interests by such experiments. The pupil-teacher system has been advocated on the ground of its economy. The argument is, how- ever, futile. That is truly economical which gains its ends by the best means ; and if it should turn out on investigation (and such an investigation must, before long, be authoritatively made) that much of the acknowledged failure in our own primary instruc- tion is due to the extensive employment of pupil- teachers, the argument founded on economy will fall to the ground. If the object is not gained, it is foolish to boast of the means by which it ought to have been gained. If instead of deploring the results of our teaching, and complaining of them (as the Government Report does every year) as ' unsatisfactory/ we could point to them with pride as successful, and challenge criticism upon them, the case would be very different. It might then be said with some show of plausibility that the end justifies the means ; but who that knows what the average teaching in our schools is will urge this plea ? Our system stands condemned by its theory (if it can be said to have any) ; it is condemned by its practice, and even more condemned by its unsatisfactory I [30 A Visit to German Schools. results ; and I venture to express my individual opinion that much (I cannot, of course, say how much) of the failure is due to the extensive employ- ment of pupil-teachers. Nor can there be much doubt that a well-trained single teacher will hold in hand and pervade by his influence a class of even fifty children, so as to touch the springs of intel- lectual action in them more effectually than would be done by the same teacher taking only thirty pupils, and handing over in sets of ten each to two pupil-teachers the rest of the fifty. I think it highly desirable that the very large classes of the German schools should be reduced by nearly half ; but judging by my own observation, I should say that, although Sjjjj working under great disadvantages, the German elementary teachers succeed in awakening and maintaining in the children an amount of interest and intellectual life, which, taken in the aggregate, has rarely been equalled even in our own best schools when the same number of children were distributed and disposed of among ordinary pupil- teachers. Take reading as an instance. Who does not know the weary plodding of the little chil- dren, ' with weary steps and slow,' and the stumbling- blocks and intricacies of their early lessons, tripping Conclusion. 1 3 1 up continually against the former, and bewildered by the latter; unused to help themselves, and therefore regularly waiting for help from without I and not in vain, for the pupil-teacher, or some member of the class, seeing the need, comes to the rescue with just so much aid as lifts the traveller over the stumblingblock, or throws a momentary gleam of light over the fog which surrounds him, but leaves him just as unable to deal with the next difficulty, or to penetrate the darkness himself, as before. The untaught and inexperienced young teacher does not know (how can he know ?) that the ' telling,' which constitutes his sole resource, is not teaching at all ; that true teaching ever aims at increasing the pupil's fund of power — not in helping him merely to scramble over the present difficulty, but in making this difficulty the very means of conquest over the next — in helping the child to help himself. I saw no such 'teaching' as this in Germany — not even an approach to it. The methods were various (and I believe in the existence of a better method of teaching reading than any I saw), but they agreed in this, that they called for the exercise of the observing powers of the children, and required their active practical co-operation with the efforts of the 132 A Visit to German Schools. teacher, who certainly did not teach as if he thought that his vocation was 'telling.' There was, too, an orderly sequence in the lessons, and the children seemed to march forward step by step with a sort of aptness and confidence as if relying on them- selves, which, even taken alone, in itself showed, to my practised eye, how the previous lesson had been learnt. I saw nothing of the bewildered, ap- palled look on being called upon for individual effort which characterises the learner who is con- scious that he is unequal to the occasion, and has his weapons of attack still to seek. I rarely heard a blunder made, and when made, the teacher did not merely 'tell' the child the correction, but re- quired him to try again ; and the quickened attention in most cases solved the difficulty. But the method itself is the best preservative against blundering. If you make a pupil do the work himself — taking 1 action, action, action ! ' as your motto, not stupe- fying him with your ' telling,' but making him ' tell ' — not talking much yourself, but making him talk — — not bewildering him with explanations of ypur own, but requiring his, which must always be the outcome of his knowledge and personal experience, — the result will be that he gains power at every step, Conclusion. 133 and that this power will secure him against much blundering, except that which arises from mere inat- tention; — and 'telling' is certainly no remedy for that. The ordinary child who blunders and stumbles much at his lesson is a witness to the imperfection of his previous training. He does not prove by his blunders any native incompetency on his own part, but he does prove the incompetency of his teacher, who has failed to secure good grounding. As far as this negative argument goes, it is in favour of the German teacher. One word as to punishment. The best evidence I can give on this point is, that I saw none except the instance mentioned (p. 76), and there the punishment simply consisted in removing from the offender the means of taking part in the lesson. What, however, might follow when the pencil was restored I had no means of knowing ; but this I can say, that I was present at no administration of chastisement of any kind. In the classes there was perfect order, and even, on the part of so very small children, continued and undivided attention ; often, indeed, an eager un- repressed interest — no noise, no scolding, apparently no "taking of marks, therefore no contention or dis- satisfaction : and again, no visible implements of ft fj*^ 134 A Visit to German Schools. punishment — rod, cane, ruler, or tawse. As this is not intended to be a complete — indeed it is a very incomplete — account of German elementary schools, I do not pretend to assert that stringent measures of discipline, without which, some maintain, children cannot be * got past the bitterness of their learning,' are not resorted to, or that there is no ' torturing hour' which ' calls ' delinquents * to penance.' I simply say that I saw nothing of the kind. My visits, I may add, were never expected. I merely heard the lesson going on, and never, except on one occasion, did I allow of any interruption of the ordinary course of business. I was not therefore, perhaps, very far wrong in attributing the remarkable order, atten- tion, and interest manifest in all kinds of schools — not merely the elementary — to something inherent in the system of teaching. It is very clear to those who think about the matter and know human nature, that if you require children at school to do only that which they can do themselves, and therefore excite an in- terest in doing for its own sake, you will rarely need to employ artificial restraints or punishments. I may, indeed, go further, and maintain, without fear of con- tradiction, that where the schools are really good — that is, pervaded by the principle just stated — children Conclusion. 135 generally will not require 'compulsion' to force at- tendance at them. If this be true, it goes far to solve the vexed question of compulsory attendance. Make the schools good — that is, suit the teaching to the nature of the children — and ' attendance,' large and regular, will follow as a matter of course. The in- variable report of our own Inspectors is, that where the schools are good — good in the sense I have just explained — no compulsion is needed ; the schools are crowded with scholars. The remarkable experience furnished by the late Dean Dawes's school at King's Somborne is to the same effect, as a case in which the regular attendance was eight-ninths of the number on the rolls, in which the children, sometimes from a dis- tance of three or four miles, in all weathers, flocked joyfully to school, and in which the parents (many of them labourers earning only 9s. a week) made great sacrifices to keep their children where they were so happily and usefully employed in exercising their faculties. 1 All sorts of schemes have been suggested for securing attendance. Why not try the experiment of \ good schools ■ ? To carry \t out effectually, how- 1 See the late Professor Moseley's admirable report (occupying forty pages) on this school in the Blue Book for 1847, which all who wish to know what a 'good' elementary school is ought carefully to study. 136 ,A Visit to German Schools. ever, from my point of view, would involve a great revolution: Teachers would have to consider even the relation in which they ought to stand to their pupils. They would have to give up drilling and dragooning children, and try attracting them with learning ; to give up the cramming and word-drench- ing which too generally prevail in our primary schools, and demand self-teaching in their stead ; to study more closely than they do the nature of children, and to suit their methods of instruction to it. The Normal Colleges also would have to share in the revolution. They would have to impregnate students more deeply than they usually do with the fundamental principle that education is culture, and to send them forth not merely masters of the art of ' communicating ' their own knowledge, but of the higher art of teaching children how to gain knowledge, and with it power, for themselves. This great revolution must commence at headquarters, and one of the first measures for effecting it must be the sweeping away of the Revised Code into the limbo of oblivion. As long as it lasts, it not merely sanctions, but to a large extent system- atically enforces, bad teaching. I ought to add that much of the excellence of the German elementary teaching is no doubt due to the Conclusion. t 3 7 influence of Pestalozzi's principles. Even where not acknowledged, his spirit pervades the work, and shapes the methods employed. His main principle — that of proceeding from the near, the area of the pupil's own observation and experience, and prepar- ing him by self-exercise for advancing to the more distant and remote ; and his secondary principle — that of requiring that the pupil's move- ment onward shall be made step by step, without a break — are surely recognised in the ordinary teaching of the elementary schools. Again, Pestalozzi's demand that all instruction should be based on the pupil's own observation (Anschauung) of tangible and visible facts and objects, and should therefore be definite and real, subordinating the knowledge of words to the know- ledge of things, is, for the most part, satisfied in the practice of the elementary schools. In fact, ever since the time when numbers of young teachers were sent by different German Governments to study Pestalozzi's work at Yverdun, and when also- some of the highest authorities in education became convinced, in exercising it, of the soundness of his principles (I mean such men as Schlosser, Gerard, Wilhelm Von Humboldt, Fichte, Von Muller, Schelling, K 1^8 A Visit to German Schools. Schacht, Kruger, Plamann, Harnisch, Karl Ritter, Zeller, Denzel, etc.), the ultimate effect was assured. The adoption of Pestalozzi's principles by the Govern- ments of Prussia, Saxony, Baden, Wiirtemberg, etc., has only been a matter of time, and to their adoption we may fairly ascribe the enlightened teaching, with its excellent results, in the common schools of Ger- many. 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