\
 
 THE 
 
 CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS: 
 
 A GLANCE AT THE HISTORICAL 
 
 CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE 
 
 FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM 
 
 TO THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 IN TWO PARTS. 
 
 PART I. (701290). 
 
 AVIGDOK CHAIKIN, 
 
 Rabbi of the Sheffield Hebrew Congregation. 
 Author of the " Apologia des Juifs," Paris, 1887. 
 
 SHEFFIELD : PAWSON AND BKAILSFORD 
 
 AND THE AUTHOR, 63, THE WICKER, SHEFFIELD, 
 
 1899.
 
 (Copy of Letter from the REV. DR. ADLEK.) 
 
 OFFICE OF THE CHIEF EABBI, 
 
 22, FINSBURY SQUARE, 
 
 LONDON, DEC. 28TH, 5659. 
 
 DEAR MR. CHAIKIN, 
 
 I thank you for kindly sending me a copy of 
 your work on The Celebrities of the Jews. The volume 
 evinces most praiseworthy diligence and remarkable 
 familiarity with the bibliography of the various themes 
 you touch upon. 
 
 I shall gladly welcome further fruits of your 
 scholarship and of your wide knowledge of our ancient 
 and precious literature. 
 
 With best wishes, 
 
 I remain, dear Mr. Chaikin, 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 H. ADLER, 
 REV. A. CHAIKIN. 
 
 2093621
 
 CONTEXTS. 
 
 PAET I. (701290). 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE - - v. vin. 
 CHAP. 
 
 I. THE EPOCH OF THE TANAIM - 1 21 
 
 II. THE EPOCH OF THE AMORAIM 22 39 
 
 III. THE SETTLEMENTS OF THE JEWS BOTH 
 
 BEFORE AND AFTER THE DESTRUCTION 
 
 OF THE SECOND TEMPLE - 40 56 
 
 IV. THE EPOCH OF THE GAONIM 57 78 
 V. THE JEWS IN SPAIN- 79124 
 
 VI. EABBI MOSES MAIMONIDES AND HIS 
 
 CONTEMPORARIES . - - 125 144 
 
 VII. EABBI MOSES MAIMONIDES AND HIS 
 
 CONTEMPORARIES (continued) 145 158 
 
 VIII. THE JEWS IN FRANCE AND GERMANY - 159 175 
 
 IX. THE JEWS IN FRANCE, GERMANY AND 
 
 ITALY - 176203 
 
 X, THE JEWS IN GREAT BRITAIN - - 204219
 
 PKEFACE. 
 
 THE History of the Jews is a wonderful story, the very 
 uniqueness of which makes it stand apart from, and 
 above, the history of every other nation. The Egyptians, 
 who in the old time were the men of wisdom and held in 
 their hands the circle of the sciences where are they? 
 Once the Jews were their bond-slaves, and the monuments 
 of Egyptian intelligence and of Jewish industry still remain 
 gigantic dials of time upon the sandy wastes of the great 
 desert but what is the Egyptian now ? A mere instrument 
 of taxation for foreign bond-holders. 
 
 Of the Assyrians, once so mighty and powerful, whose 
 colossal works are to be seen in the national museums, we 
 know still less than we do of the Egyptians. Edom and 
 Philistia great in their day what know we of them now ? 
 Greece is not the Greece of that mighty monarch who 
 grudged his father's glory, and whilst yet in the spring of 
 manhood wept for the want of other worlds to conquer. 
 The Greeks are not the Greeks who fought at Thermopylae ; 
 and all powerful Eome, the mistress of the world, succumbed 
 to the onslaught of savage hordes. Nations have risen and 
 decayed ; peoples have become great and have diminished ; 
 races have mingled with races, as the rivers run into the 
 sea ; but the Jews are the exception. 
 
 Prof. James K. Hosmer gives a comprehensive glance at 
 the career of the Jews : " It is the marvel of history that 
 this little people, beset and despised by all the earth for ages, 
 maintains its solidarity unimpaired. Unique among all the 
 peoples of the earth, it has come undoubtedly to the present 
 day from the most distant antiquity. Forty centuries rest 
 upon this venerable contemporary of Egypt, Chaldea, and 
 Troy. The Hebrew defied the Pharaohs ; with the sword of 
 Gideon he smote the Midianite ; in Jephthah, the children 
 of Ammon. The purple chariot-bands of Assyria went back
 
 yi I'KEFACE. 
 
 from his gates humbled and diminished. Babylon, indeed, 
 tore him from his ancient seats and led him captive by 
 strange waters, but not long. He has fastened his love upon 
 the heights of Zion, and, like an elastic cord, that love broke 
 not, but only drew with the more force as the distance 
 became great. When the grasp of the captor weakened, 
 that cord, uninjured from its long tension, drew back the 
 Hebrew to his former home. He saw the Hellenic flower 
 bud, bloom, and wither upon the soil of Greece. He saw 
 the wolf of Eome suckled on the banks of the Tiber, then 
 prowl ravenously for dominion to the ends of the earth, 
 until paralysis and death laid hold upon its savage sinews. 
 At last Israel was scattered over the length and breadth of 
 the earth. In every kingdom of the modern world there has 
 been a Jewish element. There are Hebrew clans in China, 
 on the steppes of Central Asia, in the desert heart of Africa. 
 The most powerful races have not been able to assimilate 
 them, the bitterest persecution, so far from exterminating 
 them, has not eradicated a single characteristic. In mental 
 and moral traits, in form and feature even, the Jew to-day 
 is the same as when Jerusalem was the peer of Tyre and 
 Babylon. Abraham and Mordecai stand out upon the 
 sculptures of Nineveh, marked by the same eye and beard, 
 the same nose and jaw by which we just now recognized 
 their descendents. Language, literature, customs, traditions, 
 traits of character these, too, have all survived." 1 
 
 In the sketch of Jewish history presented in these pages, 
 I have endeavoured to notice especially the chefs-d'oeuvre of 
 Hebrew learning, and the time and circumstances of the 
 men by whom they were created. 
 
 " While those around them were grovelling in the dark- 
 ness of besotted ignorance ; while juggling miracles and 
 lying relics were themes on which almost all Europe was 
 expatiating ; while the intellect of Christendom, enthralled 
 by countless persecutions, had sunk into a deadly torpor, in 
 which all love of inquiry and all search for truth were 
 abandoned, the Jews were still pursuing the path of know- 
 ledge, amassing learning, and stimulating progress with the 
 
 * The Jews, London, 1887, p. 4 5.
 
 PREFACE. Vll 
 
 same unflinching constancy that they manifested in their 
 faith. They were the most skilful physicians, the ablest 
 financiers, and among the most profound philosophers. 
 While they were only second to the moderns in the cultiva- 
 tion of natural science, they were also the chief interpreters 
 to Western Europe of Arabian learning." 1 
 
 " To the Jews," says Professor Andrew White in his 
 recent Warfare of Science with Theology (ii. 33), " is largely 
 due the building up of the School of Salerno, which we find 
 flourishing in the tenth century .... Still more im- 
 portant is the rise of the School of Montpellier ; this was due 
 almost entirely to Jewish physicians, and it developed 
 medical studies to a yet higher point, doing much to create a 
 medical profession worthy of the name throughout Southern 
 Europe." 2 
 
 " The Jews," says Renan, " ought to have played a great 
 part in the work of the Renaissance. One of the reasons 
 why France was slow in gaining by the great transformation 
 is that, about 1500, France was quite destitute of a Jewish 
 element. The Jews, to whom Francis I. was forced to have 
 recourse for the foundation of his college, le Canosse, 
 Guidacier, were Italian Jews." 3 
 
 In referring to the time when the Jews were without the 
 pale of the law, we must remember with gratitude the few 
 great minds who in the dark ages endangered their popu- 
 larity, lives, and fortune, to defend them. I have taken 
 care, to give notices, more or less extended, of the defenders 
 of the Jews. Glory to those who have struggled in favour of 
 justice, and respect to their memory ! 
 
 I hope that this book may be especially useful to my 
 younger brethren, in presenting a brief and comprehensive 
 survey of the conditions and relations of our ancestors in the 
 Dispersion, and in serving as an introduction to a more 
 complete and exhaustive investigation of the subject. 
 
 1 Lecky, Rise and Influence of Nationalism in Europe, vol. ii., p. 281 ; 
 quoted by the Chief Rabbi, Dr. H. Adler, in the Nineteenth Century, 
 1878, p. 642 643. 
 
 2 Quoted by I. Abrahams in the introduction to his Jewish Life in the 
 Middle Ages, p. xix , London, 1896. 
 
 3 Renan, Les Ecrivains Juifs frangais du Xiv c Stecle, p. 393 ; cf - the 
 Jewish Life, p. 372, note i.
 
 In conclusion it may be of interest to quote a paragraph 
 relative to Jewish history from a letter the world-renowned 
 savant Adolphe Franck kindly addressed to me on the 
 publication of my "Apologie des Juifs" in 1887: "C'est 
 avec raison que vous avez donne a votre travail le nom 
 d' Apologie; car le plus sur moyen de justifier les Juifs des 
 accusations dont on les a si longtemps poursuivi et dont ils 
 souffrent encore aujourd'hui dans plusieurs pays, c'est de 
 raconter leur histoire."
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 THE EPOCH OF THE TANAIM. 
 
 THE year of the destruction of Jerusalem was an 
 extremely severe one for the Jews. After having 
 fought most heroically but fruitlessly against the formidable 
 armies of Vespasian and Titus to uphold their liberty and 
 national independence, they had at last to submit to an 
 unavoidable fate. The holy Temple of Jerusalem, in which 
 their religious, political and civil life was centred, was 
 reduced to a heap of ashes, and from that time forth their 
 nationality ceased to exist. Any other nation would, under 
 similar circumstances, have long ago disappeared from the 
 face of the earth. Not so the Jews. 1 The school and the 
 synagogue were now to be their impregnable citadel, and 
 the law their palladium. 
 
 It is related 2 that Eabbi Jochanan ben Zaccai, last of 
 Hillel's scholars, enjoyed the favour of the Eoman general, 
 who, on that account, promised to grant any request the 
 Eabbi might make. Eabbi Jochanan then petitioned, first 
 for permission to keep open his school at Jabne, and next 
 for the safety of the family of Eabban Gamaliel. Having 
 obtained these favours, he returned much cheered to his 
 disciples, feeling convinced that the power of the schools 
 would eventually prove of greater effect for preserving, than 
 the power of the legions for destroying, the institutions of 
 the Israelite people, and he judged aright. 
 
 Eabbi Jochanan settled with his disciples in Jamnia 
 (Jabne), a city not far from the Mediterranean Sea, and 
 situated between the port Joppa and the former city of 
 the Philistines, Ashdod. Eabbi Zadok, a contemporary of 
 
 1 Dr. Chotzner, Zichronoth, viii., London, 1885. 
 
 2 Gittin. 56b. 
 
 1
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Rabbi Jochanan (of whom it is related that he, in an- 
 ticipation of the destruction of the Temple, fasted for forty 
 successive years), then removed to Jabne, where he, as well 
 as his son, Rabbi Eliezer, belonged to the circle of the 
 distinguished teachers. Rabbi Dosa ben Harchinas be- 
 longed also to the school of Hillel, and removed with Rabbi 
 Jochanan from Jerusalem to Jabne, where he reached a 
 very old age. He stood in such high esteem that his most 
 distinguished colleagues appealed to his opinion in doubtful 
 cases. 1 
 
 Of other authorities belonging to this generation of 
 Tanaim, mention must be made of Rabbi Juda ben Bathyra, 
 who had a school in Nisibis (in Assyria) already at the time 
 when the Temple of Jerusalem was still in existence ; 2 of 
 Rabbi Nechunia ben Hakana, who w r as the teacher of Rabbi 
 Ishmael 3 and Nachum of Gimzo, who introduced the 
 hermeneutic rule of Eibbui umiut (extension and limitation), 4 
 which was later further -developed by his great disciple Rabbi 
 Akiba ; and of Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob, who was head of a 
 school and in possession of traditions concerning the 
 structure and interior arrangements. of the Temple. He is 
 also mentioned with commendation as to his method of 
 instruction, which was "concise and clear." 8 
 
 Rabbi Jochanan ben Zaccai endeavoured to illuminate the 
 ordinances of the law in a clear and simple manner. It is 
 related 6 that Rabbi Jochanan in urging the necessity of 
 immediate repentance used the following parable: A certain 
 king invited his servants to a feast, but appointed them no 
 time. The wise amongst them dressed themselves in their 
 best apparel, and immediately sat at the king's door, saying 
 to themselves, "Is there anything impossible to a king?" 
 
 1 See Dr. M. Mielziner, Introduction to the Talmud, p. 26 ; cf. Z. Frankel's 
 Darhei ha-Mishne, p. 7173. 
 
 2 Pesachim, 3b. 
 
 3 Shebuoth, a6a. 
 
 4 Ibid. 
 
 5 Gittin, 67a. 
 
 6 Sabbath, i53a. 
 
 A Biography of Rabbi Jochanan ben Zaccai, written by J. Spitz, 
 Berlin, 1883 ; see also I. H. Schwarz, Bar-Cochbaische Aufstand, 
 P- 13-15-
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 But the foolish ones went to their work saying, " Can there 
 he a feast without preparation?" Suddenly the king sum- 
 moned his guests. The wise amongst them entered into his 
 presence in their best attire, but the foolish ones had to enter 
 in their soiled garments. The king rejoiced with the wise, 
 but he was angry with the foolish, and said, "Those that 
 have properly dressed themselves shall go in and partake of 
 the feast, but the others that are not properly dressed must 
 stand by and look on." 
 
 Five of his best pupils became renowned, but only three of 
 their names have reached us Eabbi Eliezer, and Eabbi 
 Joshua, and also Eabbi Eleazar ben Arach. The latter was 
 the most eminent and important amongst them, and of him 
 it was said, 1 " If weighed in the scale, he would outweigh all 
 his fellow-scholars." Eabbi Jochanan loved to incite them 
 to independent thought by deep-reaching questions. Thus 
 he gave them as a theme for thought, What should man 
 endeavour most eagerly to obtain? One answered, " A 
 genial manner," another " a noble friend," a third "a noble 
 neighbour," the fourth " the gift of knowing in advance the 
 result of his actions." Eabbi Eleazar answered that "man's 
 best possession is a noble heart." This remark won the 
 approval of his master ; it was an answer after his own mind, 
 for in it all else was included. 
 
 The dying benediction of Eabbi Jochanan to his disciples 
 was: "I pray for you that the fear of Heaven may be as 
 strong upon you as the fear of man. You avoid sin before 
 the face of the latter; avoid it before the face of the All- 
 seeing." 2 
 
 Immediately after the death of their master,' his chief 
 disciples held council as to the place where they might con- 
 tinue the work of teaching the law. Most of them thought 
 of remaining in Jabne, where there lived a circle of men 
 acquainted with the traditions of the past. Eabbi Eleazar 
 ben Arach, the favourite pupil of Eabbi Jochanan, however, 
 insisted on removing the school to Emmaus, a healthy and 
 pleasant town, three geographical miles distant from Jabne. 
 
 1 Aboth ii, 12 14 ; Aboth di Rabbi Nathan, ch. 14. 
 
 2 Berachoth, z8b.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 It was first necessary to give a chief to the community, 
 which, though small, was yet respected by the Jews of all 
 countries. Eabban Gamaliel was chosen ; he was a descendant 
 of Hillel, and his ancestors had presided over the Sanhedrin 
 throughout four generations. Eabban Gamaliel took the title 
 Nasi. 1 He had his seat in Jabne, and was also sufficiently 
 versed in traditions to preside in the school. Although the 
 town of Jabne was of first importance, the members of the 
 new college established some schools outside that town, but 
 in its neighbourhood. Eabbi Eliezer ben Hyrcanus taught at 
 Lydda, Eabbi Joshua ben Chananya at Bekiin, on the plains 
 between Jabne and Lydda ; other pupils of Eabbi Jochanan 
 also opened schools ; and each attracted a circle of disciples, 
 and was called by the title Eabbi (Master). The Patriarch 
 was called Eabban (General Master) to distinguish him from 
 the other teachers. 
 
 A disciple of Eabbi Eliezer ben Hyrcanus, Eabbi Mathia 
 ben Charash, founded a school in the city of Eome, and 
 thus was the first teacher who transplanted the knowledge 
 of the rabbinical law from Asia to Europe. 
 
 When Eabbi Eliezer ben Hyrcanus became seriously ill, 
 his disciples went to visit him, and said, " Eabbenu, teach 
 us the way of life, that we may inherit the future world." 
 The Eabbi answered, " Give honour to your comrades. 
 Know to whom you pray. Eestrain your children from 
 frivolous conversation, and place them among the learned 
 men, in order that they may acquire wisdom. So may you 
 merit life in the future world." 2 
 
 Eabbi Joshua ben Chananya taught his pupils at Bekiin, 
 and carried on the humble handicraft of making needles, by 
 which he maintained his family. Through his twofold 
 occupation Eabbi Joshua was brought into communication 
 both with scholars and with the common people ; and he 
 endeavoured to unite the two, and was the only man who 
 possessed power over the minds and will of the masses. 
 Besides an acquaintance with tradition, he seems to have 
 
 1 Graetz. History of the Jews, ii, p. 337, 338 (E. T.) 
 
 2 Berachoth, 28b. Concerning his life and works, cf. Rabbi David 
 Luria in his Introduction to the Pirkei di Rabbi Eliezer, Warsaw, 1852 ; 
 Z. Frankel, Darkei ha-Mishna, p. 75 83.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 possessed some astronomical knowledge, which enabled him 
 to calculate the irregular course of the comets. This know- 
 ledge was once of great use to him when he was on a journey. 
 He had started on a voyage with Eabban Gamaliel, and had 
 laid in more provisions than were usually necessary for the 
 journey. The ship took an erratic course for some time, 
 because its captain, deceived by the sight of a certain star, 
 had steered in a wrong direction. Eabban Gamaliel's pro- 
 visions having been consumed, he was astonished that this 
 was not the case with his companion, but that, in fact, he 
 could even spare some for him. Thereupon Rabbi Joshua 
 informed him that he had calculated on the return of a 
 star (a comet), which re-appeared every seventy years, and 
 which would have misled the ignorant sailor, and that there- 
 fore he had provided himself with extra food for this emer- 
 gency. 1 
 
 As 'Eabbi Joshua, on several occasions, 2 was humiliated by 
 the Patriarch Eabban Gamaliel, with whom he differed on 
 some questions, the members of the Sanhedrin resented 
 this insult of their esteemed colleague by deposing the 
 offender from his dignity, and electing Eabbi Elazar ben 
 Azariah for president. The latter was descended from a 
 noble family whose pedigree was traced up to Ezra the 
 scribe. Eabban Gamaliel, having apologised to Eabbi Joshua, 
 was in consequence reinstated, and Eabbi Elazar then 
 became vice-president. On account of the noble virtue 
 which he combined with his great learning, he was com- 
 pared to " a vessel filled with aromatic spices," 8 and Eabbi 
 Joshua said of him: "A generation having a man like 
 Eabbi Elazar ben Azariah, is not orphaned." 4 
 
 A great sensation was at that time created in Eome by 
 the conversion to Judaism of Flavius Clemens and his wife 
 Flavia Domitilla. 5 Flavius was a cousin of the Emperor 
 
 1 Horiot, ica. 
 
 2 See Berachoth, 2jb; Rosh Hashana, 253; Bechoroth, 3&a. 
 
 3 Gittin, 6ja. 
 
 4 Chagiga, 3b. Concerning the life of Rabbi Joshua, see A. Levysohn, 
 in the periodical journal Bikkurim, I. p. 26 35, Vienna, 1864; see also 
 L. Mandelstamm, Rabbi Joshua ben Hanania, Berlin, 1862; Hamazkir, 
 iv., p. 139. 
 
 5 Graetz, ibid, p. 390.
 
 THE CELEB1UTIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Domitian ; he was also a member of the Senate, and 
 Consul. His wife was also a near relative of the Emperor. 
 Their two sons had been named as Caesars by Domitian, 
 therefore one of them would have become Emperor. 
 Although Clemens probably kept his adhesion to Judaism 
 secret, yet it was known to the Jews in Borne, and to the 
 leaders in Palestine. On receipt of the news the four chiefs, 
 the Patriarch Eabban Gamaliel and his coadjutor Eabbi 
 Elazar ben Azariah, Rabbi Joshua and Eabbi Akiba, set out 
 on the journey to Eome. In Eome they were treated with 
 great reverence both by the Jews and proselytes, and they 
 had an opportunity of answering many religious questions. 
 But they had arrived at an unfavourable moment. Domitian 
 was at the height of his bloodthirsty tyranny. The period 
 of favour towards the Jews on the part of the Flavian house 
 was at an end. At this time (95), Flavius Clemens was 
 condemned to death, Domitian having heard of his leaning 
 towards Judaism. The four teachers of the law from 
 Palestine, who had come to Eome on his account, and who 
 expected a brighter future from him, were witnesses of his 
 death. His wife Domitilla, who was exiled to the island of 
 Pandataria, is said to have declared to the teachers of the 
 law that Clemens had been circumcised before his death. 1 
 
 A complete contrast to the character of Domitian was 
 presented by his successor Nerva. The Jews and the 
 proselytes immediately felt the effect of the change of ruler. 
 During the short period of his reign which only lasted 
 sixteen months, from September 96 to January 98 Nerva, 
 who had to put an end to various perversions and abuses in 
 the constitution, yet found time to occupy himself with the 
 Jews. He permitted every man to acknowledge his faith as 
 a Jew, without thereby incurring the punishment of an 
 atheist. 
 
 The Jews' tax also, if not quite set aside, was levied with 
 kindness and forethought, and accusations against those who 
 avoided this tax were not listened to. This act of toleration 
 
 1 Cf. I. H. Schwarz, Bar-Cochbaische Aufstand, p. 26, 27, Gablonz, 
 1885; Derenbourg, Histoire de la Palestine, p. 334; Revue Isra61ite, 
 1870, Nos. 17, 18.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 on Nerva's part appears to have been of so great importance 
 that a coin was struck in order to commemorate it. It is 
 probable that the four Tanaites, who were still in Eome at 
 the time of the death of Domitian and the accession 
 of Nerva, had furthered this favourable turn of events by 
 opposing the complaints against Judaism, and by inducing 
 those in power to form a better opinion of it. This reign, 
 which was of but too short duration, terminated the period 
 of favour shown towards the Jews, and w r ith Trajan, Nerva's 
 successor, there began afresh the old hatred between the 
 Eomans and the Jews, and soon both nations again stood 
 arrayed against each other with their weapons in their 
 hands. 
 
 The fiscal extortions of the Eomans, the persecutions 
 decreed under Domitian, who aimed at the destruction of 
 every remnant of the royal family of David, as politically 
 dangerous, goaded the Jews, within short intervals of time, 
 into three formidable but fruitless insurrections, from 
 Babylonia to the African Syrtis, against Trajan and 
 Hadrian. 1 
 
 .The balanced and calm character of Eabbi Joshua rendered 
 him especially fitted for the part of intermediary between the 
 Jewish nation and Eoman intolerance. He was the only 
 teacher who sought and enjoyed the confidence of the Eoman 
 rulers. The death of Eabban Gamaliel, and the hostile 
 attitude of the Jews towards the Eomans during the last 
 years of the Emperor Trajan and the early years of 
 Hadrian's reign, seem to have roused Eabbi Joshua from 
 his petty trade, and to have given the public leadership into 
 his hands. 
 
 On one occasion the Emperor Hadrian said to Eabbi 
 Joshua, " I am better than your master Moses, for I am 
 living and he is dead ; as it is said, ' a living dog is better 
 than a dead lion.' " Eabbi Joshua asked him, " Can you 
 compel the inhabitants of the surrounding villages not to 
 kindle fires for the space of three days ? " He told him he 
 could, and immediately decreed it under severe punishments. 
 The first night he led him to the terrace of the palace ; 
 
 1 Theodores, Essays and Addresses, p. 357, London, 1874.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 they perceived smoke arising from one of the houses; he 
 then observed to him the little obedience paid to his orders. 
 He replied, "It must be some sick person, whom a doctor 
 has recommended to take something warm." He then 
 answered, " Emperor, even during your lifetime you are not 
 obeyed ; and Moses commanded, ' Ye shall kindle no fire 
 throughout your habitations on the Sabbath day,' and he is 
 yet obeyed, so long after his death. How then are you better 
 than he ? f>1 
 
 The Eoman Emperor said one day to Eabbi Joshua ben 
 Chananya, 2 " Show me your God ! " " Eaise your eyes to 
 the sky," replied the Eabbi, " God is there." The Emperor 
 directed his eyes to the firmament ; but at this moment the 
 sun poured his rays upon the earth. Their dazzling lustre 
 very soon caused the Emperor to cast his eyes downwards, 
 whereupon Eabbi Joshua said to him: "What! Wouldst 
 thou see the Master, when thou hast not the power to look 
 his satellites in the face ? ' ' 
 
 We are told that, 8 on the hinderance to the rebuilding of 
 our Temple in the days of Hadrian, on account of the 
 representations of the Samaritans, who were jealous lest 
 the object of their aversion, the Temple of Jerusalem, 
 should again rise from the dust the Samaritans endeavoured 
 to represent to the Emperor the danger of such a restoration ; 
 and on that occasion Eabbi Joshua was immediately sent 
 for to tranquillize, by his influence and eloquence, the excited 
 populace, who were bent upon rebellion. Eabbi Joshua 
 addressed the people in a manner which has always appealed 
 to the masses. He related a fable, and drew a moral which 
 applied to the existing circumstances: "A lion had once 
 regaled himself on his prey, but a bone remained sticking in 
 his throat. In terror he promised a great reward to anyone 
 who would extract the bone. A crane with a long neck 
 presented himself, performed the operation and claimed his 
 
 1 Midrash Kohelet, ix., 3. 
 
 2 Chulin, sgb, 6oa. 
 
 3 Midrash Bereshith Rabba, Ixiv., at the end. Rabbi Joshua declared 
 that the works of charity are equal to the value of the Temple ; cf. 
 Jalkut Hosea, 522.
 
 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 9 
 
 reward. The lion, however, said, ' Eejoice that thou hast 
 withdrawn thy head unharmed from the lion's jaws.' " "In 
 like manner," satirically said Eabbi Joshua, "let us be glad 
 if we come away from the Eoman with a whole skin, without 
 insisting on the fulfiment of his promise." 
 
 But the nation was filled with the idea of rebellion, and as 
 long as Hadrian remained in Syria (130, 131) the malcon- 
 tents did not commence the revolt. Rabbi Akiba seems to 
 have developed a silent but effective activity in his prepara- 
 tion for a revolt. 
 
 Eabbi Akiba ben Joseph studied for several years under 
 Nachum of Gimso and under Eabbi Eliezer, and founded a 
 college of his own at Bene Berak. The position of this spot, 
 which through him became so celebrated, is supposed by 
 some to be south-east of Joppa. Others place it yet more 
 to the south, near Ashdod. Eabbi Akiba was a member of 
 the Sanhedrin in Jabne, and it was but seldom that any 
 measure was determined without him. His colleagues, with 
 whom he frequently differed on questions of the law, were 
 Eabbi Tarphon of Lydda, Eabbi Jochanan ben Nuri, Eabbi 
 Jose the Galilean, and Eabbi Simon ben Nanos. 
 
 Eabbi Tarphon, on account of his great learning, was 
 called " the teacher of Israel," 1 besides being praised for his 
 great charitable works. Eabbi Jochanan ben Nuri presided 
 over a college in Beth Shearim, a place near Sepphoris in 
 Galilee. Eabbi Jose the Galilean was an authority especially 
 in the laws concerning the sacrifices and the Temple service. 
 Of his domestic life it is related 2 that he had the bad fortune 
 to have an illtempered wife, who treated him so meanly that 
 he was compelled to divorce her, but learning that she in 
 her second marriage lived in great misery, he generously 
 provided her and her husband with all the necessaries of life. 
 One of his sons, Eabbi Eleazar ben Eabbi Jose the Galilean, 
 became a distinguished teacher in the following generation, 
 and established the thirty-two hermeneutic rules of the 
 Agada. Eabbi Simon ben Nanos, also called simply Ben 
 Nanos, was a great authority, especially in the civil law, so 
 
 1 Jerushalmi Megilla, ch. I.. 12. 
 
 2 Bereshit Rabba, ch. 17.
 
 10 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 that Eabbi Ishmael recommended all law students to attend 
 the lectures of this profound teacher. 1 
 
 Eabbi Tarphon used to say: " I wonder whether there 
 is in this generation anyone who could [with propriety] 
 reprove [others] ? If he were [to say to any person] , 
 ' Take out the mote from thine eyes ' ; [the other] would 
 say to him, ' Take thou out the beam from thine eyes' " 2 
 
 Eabbi Akiba arranged the accumulated material of the 
 traditional law into a proper system, placing it in methodical 
 order, and enriching its substance with many valuable 
 deductions of his own. Eabbi Tarphon said of him, " He 
 who departs from thee, departs from life eternal ; for what 
 has been forgotten in the handing down, that dost thou give 
 afresh in thy explanation." 8 It was acknowledged that the 
 law would have been forgotten or neglected had not Eabbi 
 Akiba given it his support. 
 
 The Talmud tells how one day Eabbi Akiba, walking with 
 his companions in the vicinity of the site of the Temple, saw 
 a fox stealing forth from the ruins. The Eabbis break out 
 into exclamations of woe ; but Eabbi Akiba laughs. " Why 
 dost thou laugh?" his astonished companions inquire. 
 "And you, why do you lament?" he asks them in turn. 
 " How can we do anything but lament," they cry, " when 
 we see the Temple destroyed, and its ruins become the den 
 of wild beasts?" "It is just on that account that I 
 rejoice," Eabbi Akiba replies; "if the disasters threatened 
 by the prophets have lighted on us, surely the salvation 
 predicted by them will also be vouchsafed in God's good 
 time." 4 
 
 That fiery patriot left the hall of the school to become 
 shield-bearer to Bar Cochba, 5 when the latter unfurled the 
 banner of the holy war, to win back freedom for his people 
 and to restore the tarnished glory of the Jewish state. That 
 
 1 Baba Batra, lysb. The thirty-two hermeneutic rules of Rabbi 
 Eleazar are incorporated in the editions of the Talmud, but the best 
 edition is of H. Katzinelnbogen, with a valuable introduction and notes, 
 under the title of Netibot Olam, Vilna, 1859. 
 
 2 Erechin, i6b. 
 
 8 Kedushin, 66b. Zebachim, 133. 
 
 * Makkoth, 2^b. 
 
 5 Maimonides, Hilchot Mtlachim, ch. xi. 3,
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 11 
 
 the Jewish people survived that war, which culminated in 
 the carnage at Bether (on the 9th of Ab, 135) is one of the 
 marvels of history. According to Dio Cassius (Ixix. 13) 
 580,000 were put to the sword by the Eomans, exasperated 
 at their own losses. The captives were sold in the Eoman 
 slave markets at the price of beasts of burden. The most 
 illustrious men of the country suffered death as sainted 
 martyrs, among them being Eabbi Akiba. 
 
 The first to be executed was Eabbi Ishmael ben Elisha, 
 who formulated the Thirteen Eules. 1 When still a boy, 
 he was made a captive and brought to Eome, where Eabbi 
 Joshua, 2 who happened to come there on a mission, 
 redeemed him at a high ransom, and brought him back to 
 Palestine. Eabbi Nechunia ben Hakana is mentioned as 
 one of his principal teachers. When grown to manhood, 
 he became a member of the Sanhedrin, and was highly 
 revered by his colleagues. He is named among those who 
 emigrated with the Sanhedrin from Jabne to Usha. His 
 residence was in South Judea, in a place called Kefar-Aziz. 
 A separate school which he founded was continued after 
 his death by his disciples, and was known by the name of 
 "Be Eabbi Ishmael." 
 
 It was soon the turn of Eabbi Akiba to suffer martyrdom 
 for publicly teaching the law, contrary to the edict of the 
 Emperor Hadrian. 
 
 Eabbi Akiba was once asked by Pappos ben Judah, 3 one 
 of those who advised submission at any price, why he con- 
 tinued to expound the law publicly at the peril of his life ; 
 he gave him an answer wrapped in the following parable : 
 " Once upon a time a fox was walking along the river side, and 
 saw the fishes swimming to and fro in the greatest consterna- 
 tion. Having asked them what was the matter, and what they 
 were afraid of, they pointed to the nets which were spread 
 out to catch them. Thereupon the fox advised them to 
 come to live with him on dry land, and to be safe. But the 
 
 1 Cf. The Canon of Talmudic Logic in the Hebrew Review, iii., p. 
 171 174, 189 192, 203 205; Petuchowski, Der Tana Rabbi Ismael, 
 Frankfort, 1894 ; and Mielziner's Introduction, p. 130176. 
 
 2 Gittin, s8a. 
 
 3 Berachot, 6ib; see also Pesachim, ii2a.
 
 12 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 fishes replied, ' Thou wilt never persuade us to follow thy 
 advice, for, if in our element, the water, we have reason to 
 fear for our life, surely when we depart from it, the danger 
 must be even greater.' "So it is with us," said Eabbi 
 Akiba ; " if our life is imperilled during all the time our mind 
 remains fixed upon the study of the law, which is the soul 
 of our existence, how much greater must our danger be 
 when we leave our element and cease to study." On the 
 third day of Tishri he was thrown into prison, where chance 
 brought him and this very Pappos together. Pappos 
 lamented that he was only condemned for a worldly matter, 
 and that he could not comfort himself with the idea that he 
 was suffering for a great cause. 
 
 Rufus, the governor and executioner, acted towards Rabbi 
 Akiba, whom he considered as the head and leader, with even 
 greater severity than towards the others. He kept him for 
 a long time in the prison, which was so s.ecurely guarded 
 that no one could gain admission. The remaining teachers 
 of the law, who felt utterly deserted and helpless without 
 Rabbi Akiba, took all possible pains to obtain his advice in 
 doubtful cases. Once they gave 400 denars to a messenger, 
 who could only with great difficulty obtain access to Rabbi 
 Akiba. 1 
 
 At last, however, the hour of his execution came. Rufus 
 inflicted the cruellest tortures on him, and caused his skin 
 to be torn off with irons. The great martyr, whilst under 
 torture, recited the Shema with a peaceful smile on his face. 
 Rufus, astonished at his extraordinary courage, asked him 2 
 if he was a sorcerer, that he could so easily overcome the 
 pain he was suffering ; to which Rabbi Akiba replied, "I am 
 no sorcerer, but I rejoice that I am permitted to love God 
 with my life." Rabbi Akiba breathed forth his soul with 
 the last words of the prayer which contains the whole idea 
 of Judaism God is One. 8 
 
 1 Jebamoth, io3b. 
 
 2 Jerushalmi, Sotah, v. 7. 
 
 3 Berachot, 6ib. Concerning the revolt of Bar Cochba, see J. H. 
 Schwarz, der Bar Cochbaische An/stand, 1885. Concerning the life of 
 Rabbi Akiba, see J. Gastfreund, Lemberg. 1871; and A. M. Vitkind, 
 Vilna, 1877.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 13 
 
 Eabbi Chananya ben Tradyon bore also his death 
 heroically. He was wrapped up in a scroll of the law and 
 burnt on a stake of fresh rushes. 1 Eabbi Chananya's wife was 
 also sentenced to death, and his daughter condemned to 
 degradation. 
 
 The martyrdom of Eabbi Chuzpit, the Speaker 
 (Meturgeman) of the Sanhedrin of Jabne, and Isebab, the 
 secretary of the Sanhedrin, are merely noted without 
 details. Eabbi Judah ben-Baba is said to have been the last 
 of the martyrs. Before his death he resolved to invest the 
 seven remaining pupils of Eabbi Akiba with the necessary 
 authority to continue the propagation of the traditional 
 law. He selected for the function the valley between Usha 
 and Shefaram, but despite this secrecy he was surprised by 
 the Eomans. His disciples refused to leave him, and it was 
 only after repeated entreaties that they fled. The enemy 
 found the old man alone, and he gave himself up to death 
 without opposition. 1 He was pierced by lances. 
 
 The seven disciples of Eabbi Akiba, with broken hearts, 
 had sought refuge in Nisibis and Nahardea. Hadrian's 
 death, which occurred three years after the fall of Bether, 
 and the succession of Titus Aurelius Antoninus, who 
 received the name of Pius, brought about a favourable turn. 
 On the 28th Adar, 139 or 140, the joyous news came that 
 the decrees of Hadrian were revoked, and this day was ' 
 commemorated in the calendar. This unexpected end of 
 the persecution recalled the fugitives to their native land. 
 The seven disciples of Eabbi Akiba the only heirs to the 
 spiritual heritage of former times who, for the most part, 
 had emigrated to Babylon, now returned. These were 
 Eabbi Meir, Eabbi Judah ben Ilai, Eabbi Jose ben Chalafta, 
 Eabbi Jochanan of Alexandria, Eabbi Simon ben Jochai, 
 Eabbi Elazar ben Shamua and Eabbi Nehemiah. They 
 reassembled in Usha, the native place of Rabbi Judah, who, 
 even previous to the revolution of Bar-Cochba, had occupied 
 the presidency in the college, and they invited all the 
 remaining teachers of the law in Galilee to meet there. 
 
 1 Aboda Zara, ijb. 
 a Aboda Zara, 8b.
 
 14 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 The members of the Tanaite circle pursued the work of 
 their predecessors with great self-sacrifice, in order to 
 restore the broken chain of tradition. The chief of those 
 who took part in affairs were Eabbi Simon, son of the 
 Patriarch Eabbi Gamaliel, Rabbi Nathan of Babylon, Eabbi 
 Meir and Eabbi Simon ben Jochai. 
 
 The most original personage of this period was un- 
 questionably Eabbi Meir, whose great intellect, thoroughness 
 of purpose and knowledge remind us of his teacher Eabbi 
 Akiba. Eabbi Meir was fond of illustrating his doctrine by 
 apologue and parable, and is reported to have invented no 
 less than three hundred fables about foxes. 1 His wife 
 Beruria, the learned daughter of Eabbi Chananya ben 
 Tradyon, is also celebrated for her knowledge 2 and acumen, 
 of which there are several well-known anecdotes. The sub- 
 mission to God of Eabbi Meir and his wife on the occasion of 
 the death of their two children has become known through a 
 poetical account of the event. 3 It is related that his two sons, 
 having died suddenly on the Sabbath during their father's 
 absence at the school, his tender-hearted wife did not tell 
 him of the deaths in order that he might not be grieved by 
 sad tidings on the holy day. When the Sabbath was over, 
 she asked him whether that which was lent must necessarily 
 be returned to the lender, and on receiving an affirmative 
 answer, she led him to where their two children lay dead, 
 and consoled him with what he had said, that they had only 
 been confided to their care, and were now reclaimed by the 
 owner. 
 
 Eabbi Meir, one Sabbath, having prolonged his sermon 
 beyond the customary time, a female on returning home 
 found her husband furious at the delay of his dinner. 
 "Whence comest thou? " said he, his eyes glistening with 
 rage. "From the sermon." "Ah! well, thou canst return 
 thither, for I will not permit thee to enter my house until 
 
 1 Sanhedrin, 38b. 
 
 2 Tosifta Keilim, viii. See H. Zirndorf, Some Women in Israel, 
 Philadelphia, 1892. 
 
 3 lalkut Shimeoni, Mishlei, xxxi. Beruria declared that God takes 
 no delight in the death of an impenitent sinner, but mercifully desires 
 that the wrongdoer should repent and preserve his soul, Berachot, loa
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 15 
 
 thou hast offended the rabbi, who has spoiled my repast." 
 The poor woman ran away in alarm, for her husband was 
 passionate and brutal. She went and recounted her troubles 
 to her neighbours, saying she would die rather than insult 
 a holy man like Rabbi Meir. The preacher, to whom this 
 was soon reported, sent for her immediately, and told her he 
 was blameable for the grief she suffered, and so ingeniously 
 made it appear so, that the good woman abused him, not 
 doubting his earnestness. This was told to the husband, 
 whose weak resentment was satisfied, and he thereupon 
 received his wife, and lived in peace with her. 1 
 
 The pupils of Eabbi Meir remarked to him, that in 
 permitting himself to be insulted, he compromised the 
 character with which he was invested. The worthy pastor 
 observed, "We must answer passion by moderation, and 
 insult by calmness. As for me, my children, I do not con- 
 sider any sacrifice dishonorable when it tends to produce 
 peace and union in our community." 2 
 
 Eabbi Meir was a native of Asia Minor, and gained a 
 subsistence as a skilful copyist of Sacred Scripture. At first, 
 he entered the academy of Eabbi Akiba, but finding himself 
 not sufficiently prepared to grasp the lectures of this great 
 teacher, he attended, for some time, the school of Eabbi 
 Ishmael, where he acquired an extensive knowledge of the 
 law. Eeturning then to Eabbi Akiba, and becoming his con- 
 stant and favoured disciple, he developed great dialectical 
 powers. His academy was in Emmaus, near Tiberias, and 
 for a time also in Ardiscus, near Damascus, where a large 
 circle of disciples gathered around him. Under the patriarch, 
 Eabbi Simon ben Gamaliel, he occupied the dignity of a 
 Chacham (advising sage), in which office he was charged 
 with the duty of preparing the subjects to be discussed in 
 the Sanhedrin. 3 
 
 1 Midrash Vayikra Rabba, ix. 9 ; Debarim Rabba, v. 15 ; and 
 Jerushalmi Sota, i. 
 
 2 A. Abraham, Moral and Religious Tales for the Young, London, 1846, 
 p. 165, 1 66. Concerning the life and work of Rabbi Meir, see Raphael 
 Levy, Un Tanah, Rabbi Meir, Paris, 1883 ; A. Blumenthal, Rabbi Meir, 
 Sein Leben mid Wirken, Frankfort, 1889. 
 
 3 Horioth, i3b.
 
 16 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Eabbi Simon ben Gamaliel appointed Eabbi Nathan the 
 Babylonian to the dignity of Ab-Beth-Din (chief justice or 
 vice-president), in the Sanhedrin of Usha. He had to retire 
 from this office because of his and Eabbi Meir's dissension 
 with the patriarch, but was soon reinstated and became 
 reconciled with the Sanhedrial president, who held him in 
 high esteem. Also the succeeding patriarch Eabbi Jehuda, 
 with whom he had many discussions on questions of the 
 law, speaks of him with great respect. Eabbi Nathan was 
 not only an authority in the rabbinical law, especially in 
 jurisprudence, but appears also to have been well versed in 
 mathematics, astronomy and other sciences. To him is 
 ascribed the authorship of Aboth de Eabbi Nathan, which is 
 a kind of Tosephta to Pirke Aboth. 1 
 
 Another important name was that of Eabbi Judah ben Ilai 
 of Usha, whose character bore a similarity to that of Eabbi 
 Joshua. Modest, wise, diplomatic and eloquent, he knew 
 how to bridge over the breach which existed between the 
 Eoman and the Jewish nature. He was therefore especially 
 designated " the wise," or "the first speaker." 
 
 A conversation was once reported which took place 
 between Eabbi Judah, Eabbi Jose and Eabbi Simon ben 
 Jochai at Usha, where it appears a discussion was held with 
 regard to the Eoman policy. Eabbi Judah, who like Eabbi 
 Joshua endeavoured to calm those who stood around, had 
 been praising Eome for her actions. 2 " How useful this 
 nation has been ; everywhere it has erected towns with 
 market-places ; it has put bridges over rivers, and built 
 bath-houses for the preservation of health." Eabbi Jos6 
 kept silent, neither giving praise nor blame. Eabbi Simon 
 ben Jochai, on the other hand, could not repress his dis- 
 pleasure. " What the Eomans do," he said, "they only do 
 for the sake of selfishness and gain. They keep houses of 
 bad repute in the cities, misuse the bathing-places, and levy 
 toll for the bridges." A proselyte, Judah, having repeated 
 this, perhaps without desiring to make mischief, it finally 
 
 1 See the Preface of S. Shechter to his edition of Aboth de Rabbi 
 Nathan, p. vi. xxi., Vienna, 1887. 
 
 2 Sabbath, 33b. Concerning Rabbi Judah ben Ilai, see I. H. Weiss, 
 Zur Geschichte der judischen Tradition, p. 153 157, t. iv., Vienna, 1876.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 17 
 
 reached the ears of the Eomans. Whereupon Eabbi Judah 
 was loaded with honours, Eabbi Jose was banished to 
 Sepphoris, and Eabbi Simon was condemned to death. 1 
 
 Eabbi Simon, accompanied by his son Eabbi Eliezer, had 
 taken refuge in a cave. He is said to have spent many years 
 in this cave, supporting himself on carob beans and spring 
 water, in consequence of which his skin became full of boils. 
 When he learnt that affairs had taken a favourable turn, 
 probably through the death of the Emperor Verus (169), he 
 left his concealment, and reappeared as the founder of a 
 school at Tekoa. 2 
 
 After his return Eabbi Simon ben Jochai was asked to 
 repair to Eome, and to intercede with the Emperor Marcus 
 Aurelius for the abolition of the laws against the Jews. As 
 his companion on this journey he had Eabbi Eleazar, the 
 son of Eabbi Jos6. When they arrived in Eome, assisted by 
 various influential Eoman Jews, they probably succeeded in 
 obtaining from Marcus Aurelius the concession sought. 8 
 Eabbi Eleazar ben Jose boasted that he had seen in Eome 
 the vessels of the Temple, 4 the frontal of the high priest, and 
 the curtain of the Holy of Holies, which Titus had carried 
 off as trophies, and which could only be seen by those 
 especially favoured. 
 
 Eabbi Jose ben Chalafta devoted himself to the collection 
 of Jewish history, and left behind him an account from the 
 creation of the world to the war of Bar-Cochba, under the 
 name of Seder Olam, or Order of the World. 5 This is the 
 first chronicle composed after the destruction of the Second 
 Temple. He endeavoured to fix the various dates correctly 
 from the historical records of the Bible, to render clear the 
 doubtful passages, and to fill up the gaps in traditions. 
 
 1 See Moses Konitz, Sepher Ben Jochai, Vienna, 1815, which treats 
 especially on the life and work of Rabbi Simon ben Jochai, and Dr. A. 
 Kaminka, Studien Zur Geschichte Galilaas, Berlin, 1896, p. 3859- 
 
 2 Menachot, 723. 
 
 3 Meilah, iya b. 
 * Yoma, 57a. 
 
 5 Printed several times, ed. princeps, Constantinople, I5 1 ?; with a 
 Latin translation by Genebrard, Paris, 1577 ; but the best edition is of 
 B. Ratner with an Introduction published Vilna, 1895 ; and the text 
 itself with notes, Vilna, 1897. 
 2
 
 18 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Rabbi Jochanan of Alexandria, born in Alexandria in 
 Egypt, came to Palestine to attend the lectures of Rabbi 
 Akiba, and was so faithful a disciple that he visited this 
 teacher even in prison, in order to receive instruction from 
 him. 1 His legal opinions are occasionally recorded in the 
 Mishna, as well as in the Tosephta and Baraitha. 
 
 Rabbi Elazar ben Shamua was among those of Rabbi 
 Akiba's disciples who, in consequence of the Hadrian edicts, 
 went to the South, whence he departed to Nisibis. He is 
 regarded as a great authority in the law. The place of his 
 academy is not known, but it is stated that his school was 
 always overcrowded by disciples eager to hear his learned 
 lectures. Among his disciples was also the patriarch Rabbi 
 Judah. 2 On a journey, he visited his former colleague Rabbi 
 Meir, at Ardiscus, 8 and with him had discussions on impor- 
 tant questions of the law, which are recorded in the 
 Mishna and Baraitha. 
 
 Rabbi Nehemiah belonged to the last disciples of Rabbi 
 Akiba, and was an authority especially in the sacrificial law 
 and in the laws concerning Levitical purification. His con- 
 troversies are mostly with Rabbi Judah ben Ilai. Of other 
 authorities belonging to this generation we have to mention, 
 Abba Saul, Rabbi Eliezer ben Zadok, and especially Rabbi 
 Ishmael, the son of Rabbi Jochanan ben Broka. 
 
 The patriarch Rabbi Simon was succeeded by his son 
 Rabbi Judah I., a man whose sanctity of character, immense 
 erudition, and practical wisdom in administering the dis- 
 cipline and rule of Judaism over its entire domain, have won 
 for him the praise of his people in all generations. He is 
 said to have been on terms of friendly intimacy with the 
 Emperor Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. 4 
 
 This period of tranquility was utilized by those who were 
 employed in constructing another kind of edifice, instead of 
 a building of wood and stone. This was the Mishna, and 
 
 1 Jerushalmi Jebamot, ch. xii. 
 
 2 Jebamot, 843. 
 
 3 Tosephta Nazir, ch. v. 
 
 4 See S. L. Rapaport's Ercch Millin, p. 123, Prague, 1852; and Bodek's 
 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Leipzig, 1868 ; more probably Lucius Verus 
 Antoninus, cf. Mielziner's Introduction, p. 38.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 19 
 
 eventually the Talmud the so-called Oral Law, arranged, 
 commented upon and explained which became in the 
 course of a few centuries a complete digest, or a wonderful 
 storehouse of practical lessons, of the law, the religion and 
 the nationality of the Jews. 
 
 The anxious consideration of the impending dangers 
 induced the patriarch Eabbi Judah, disciple of Eabbi Simon 
 ben Jochai and of Eabbi Elazar ben Shamua, among whose 
 ancestors were Hillel and Eabban Gamaliel, to collect and 
 classify all the traditions handed down to his time, about 
 the end of the second century, in the town of Sepphoris. 
 Thus he enabled the teachers, who were to be solemnly 
 ordained in the patriarch's court, to diffuse the doctrine 
 uniformly throughout the countries of the dispersion. By 
 this means the bonds of religious and national unity were to 
 be preserved, despite political difficulties ; and indeed, the 
 experience of seventeen centuries has justified that far- 
 sighted hope. Thus was formed the Mishna or " diligent 
 teaching," in which the author embodied all collectanea, of 
 the same character made by several of his predecessors, 
 from Hillel the Elder downwards. 1 The commandments 
 and the prohibitions of the law are distributed under six 
 heads named orders, subdivided into treatises, composed of 
 chapters, each of which contains a number of sections called 
 rules. We shall briefly describe their contents : 
 
 The First order, Seeds : of Agrarian Laws, commencing 
 with a treatise on Prayers. In this order the various tithes 
 and donations due to the priests, the Levites, and the poor, 
 from the products of the soil, and further, the sabbatical 
 year, and the prohibited mixtures in plants, animals, and 
 garments, are treated of. 
 
 The Second, Feasts : of Sabbaths, Feast and Fast days; 
 the work prohibited, the ceremonies ordained, the sacrifices 
 to be offered on them. Special treatises are devoted to the 
 Feast of the Exodus from Egypt, to the New Year's Day, 
 to the Day of Atonement, to the Feast of Tabernacles, and 
 to that of Haman. 
 
 1 Theodores, ibid, p. 358-9; see also M. Braunschweiger, Die Lehrcr 
 
 der Mishnah .
 
 20 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 The Third, Women : of Betrothal, Marriage, Divorce, etc. ; 
 also of Vows. 
 
 The Fourth, Damages : including a great part of the civil 
 and criminal law. 1 It treats of the law of trover, of buying 
 and selling, and the ordinary monetary transactions. Fur- 
 ther, of the greatest crime known to the law, viz., -Idolatry. 
 Next of Witnesses, of Oaths, of Legal Punishments, and of 
 the Sanhedrin itself. This order concludes with the so- 
 called " Sentences of the Fathers," containing some of the 
 sublimest ethical dicta known in the history of religious 
 philosophy. 
 
 The Fifth, Sacred Things : of Sacrifices, the First-born, 
 etc. ; also of the Measurements of the Temple (Middoth). 
 
 The Sixth, Purifications : of the various Levitical and 
 other hygienic laws of impure things and persons, their 
 purification, etc. 
 
 The Mishna, in its original form, became the text book at 
 the Palestinian schools, where it ranked before the several 
 epitomes of the traditional laws previously known and 
 henceforward described as external Mishnas (Boraitha), 
 which were afterwards accounted to hold about the same 
 relation to the authoritative Mishna. Nearly coeval with 
 the Mishna are three commentaries still extant (Mechilta, 
 Sifra, Sifri), on part of the second and on three further 
 books of the Pentateuch. In these works, not the dis- 
 cussions of the doctors, as in the Mishna, but the elucidation 
 of the Biblical word and phrase is the immediate object of 
 the authors. This latter process is called Midrash (enquiry, 
 search) ; it is applicable to a number of writings produced 
 from the early commencement of exegetical studies down to 
 the eighth and ninth centuries, which offer a vast homiletic 
 thesaurus to the orator and the moralist. 1 
 
 The Mishna and its above-mentioned auxiliary works are 
 composed in Hebrew, rarely interspersed with Aramaic 
 that is, the dialect then vernacular in Syria and the adjoin- 
 
 1 See Dr. Shiller-Szinessy's art. " Midrash," in the "Encyc. Brit." 
 gth ed. ; Dr. A. Jellinek, Beth-ha-Midrash, i. iv., Leipzig, 1853 57; 
 v., vi., Vienna, 1873 -78. Dr. Aug. Wiinsche translated the Midrash 
 Rabba into German, Leipzig, 1880-86 ; cf. Kitto's Cyclopaedia, iii. 
 p. 165-174, Edinburgh, 1865.
 
 THE CELEBKITIES OP THE JEWS. 21 
 
 ing district between the Euphrates and Tigris. But the 
 Mishnic style exhibits many Hebrew new formations and 
 numerous terms referring to science, commerce, trades, 
 jurisprudence, agriculture, and domestic economy, altogether 
 unknown to Biblical Hebrew. 1 
 
 1 See L. Dukes, die Sprache der Mishna, Esslingen, 1846. The first 
 edition of the Mishna, with the commentary of Maimonides, was at 
 Naples, 1492. Surenhuys translated it into Latin, Amsterdam, 1668 
 1703; into German, by Jost, Berlin, 1832; into English, only eighteen 
 treatises, by De Sola and Raphall, 1843 ; an English translation and 
 notes on the Pirke Aboth, or Sentences of the Fathers, was made by 
 Dr. C. Taylor, Cambridge, 1877. See Z. Frankel's Darkei ha-Mishna, 
 Leipzig, 1859. Concerning the Tosephta, see Darkei ha-Mishna, 
 p. 304 307 ; I. H. Weiss, Zur Geschichte der judischen Tradition, 
 Vienna, 1876, p. 217225, t. n. ; and Schwarz's work on the Tosephta. 
 Concerning the Mechilta, Sifra and Sifri, see Darkei ha-Mishna, 
 p. 307 313; I. H. Weiss' Introduction to his edition of the Mechilta, 
 p. i. xxxv., Vienna, 1865 ; his Introdnction to his edition of the Sifra, 
 p. iii. viii., Vienna, 1862; and his Zur Geschichte der judischen 
 Tradition, n., p. 225 239 ; M. Friedmann's Introduction to his edition 
 of the Sifri, Vienna, 1864; and S. Z. Halberstam, Kebod ha-Lebanon, 
 x. p. 7.
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 THE EPOCH OF THE AMOEAIM. 
 
 IN common with his friend Antoninus, Eabbi Judah used 
 to explain very quaintly the doctrines of Judaism in 
 the form of discourses. 
 
 Kabbi Judah was once asked by the Emperor Antoninus, 
 whether, in the future world, it may not be possible for the 
 wicked to plead that their sins were done by their bodies, 
 and that since they are now souls without bodies, they are 
 no longer to be held guilty. The Eabbi in answer, 1 tells the 
 following story. A king once had a garden of very fine 
 fig-trees, and wishing to secure that the figs should not be 
 stolen, he put them under the charge of two men, of whom 
 one was blind and the other was lame. But when they were 
 in the orchard, the lame man said to the blind man, " I see 
 some luscious figs. Take me on your back, and I will pluck 
 them, and we shall both enjoy them." The king, on visiting 
 the orchard, noticed at once that his finest figs had been 
 stolen, and summoned the custodians of the garden to ask 
 which of them was the thief. " Not I," said the blind man. 
 " I could not have stolen them, for I could not see them, 
 being blind." " Not I," said the lame man. " I could not get 
 to the trees at all, being lame." Then the king put the lame 
 man on the back of the blind man, and punished them both. 
 So shall it be with us. The world is the orchard ; the soul 
 and the body act as one man ; both are alike guilty, and 
 neither can the soul throw the blame on the body nor the 
 body on the soul. Hence it is written, " He shall call from 
 the heaven above and to the earth to judge his people "- 
 where the heaven above represents the soul, and the earth 
 below the body, which is commingling with its native dust. 
 
 How great was the veneration in which Eabbi Judah was 
 held for his wisdom and integrity, may be judged from the 
 
 1 Sanhedrin, gia b.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 23 
 
 fact, that the foreign communities, as well as those of Judaea, 
 were obliged to put themselves in direct communication with 
 the Patriarch, in order to obtain their officials, judges, and 
 teachers. The community of Simonias, which lay to the 
 South of Sepphoris, begged the Patriarch to send them a 
 man who should give public lectures, decide questions of law, 
 superintend the Synagogue, prepare copies of authentic 
 writings, teach their sons, and generally supply all the wants 
 of the community. He recommended to them for this pur- 
 pose his best pupil, Rabbi Levi bar Sissi. 1 
 
 Another disciple of Rabbi Judah, Rabba bar Ghana by 
 name, a native of Cafri in Babylon, was obliged to obtain 
 the authorisation of the former for questions of religion and 
 law in his native land. 2 In the same manner, a third disciple 
 of his, Rabbi Abba Areka, also a native of Babylon, who later 
 on became a great authority with the Babylonian communi- 
 ties, obtained his influence solely by Rabbi Judah' s nomina- 
 tion. 8 
 
 One dignity alone, that of the Prince of the Captivity in 
 Babylon, was on an equal footing with the Patriarchate. 
 
 Among the numerous Babylonians who crowded to the 
 Academy at Sepphoris, was a distinguished disciple, by name 
 Rabbi Chiya, whom his contemporaries could hardly praise 
 enough, on account of his natural gifts, his pious conduct, 
 and his untiring endeavours to spread the teachings of 
 religion among the people. "Will you rival me?" says 
 Rabbi Chiya to Rabbi Chanina ; 4 " I took care that the law 
 should not be forgotten ; I sowed flax, knitted nets, caught 
 stags, and gave the flesh to the orphans, and of the skins I 
 made rolls for Scripture, and where no schoolmaster was, I 
 taught the five books of Moses to five children, and the six 
 books of the Mishna to six boys, and also taught them to 
 teach each other the books they had themselves learnt, "- 
 upon which Rabbi said : ' ' How great are the deeds of Rabbi 
 Chiya ! " 
 
 1 Jerushalmi Jebamot, ch. xii. at the end. His biography has been 
 written by M. Padua in Chut ha-Meshulash, Vilna, 1877. 
 
 2 Sanhedrin, 53. 
 
 3 Ibid. 
 
 * Baba Metsia, S^b.
 
 24 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 With Eabbi Chiya lived and laboured Eabbi Oshaiya 
 Eabba, and Bar-Kappara, renowned for the pungency of his 
 wit and his aptitude in illustrating moral lessons by the 
 machinery of fable. 1 
 
 One of the most celebrated of the Babylonian disciples, 
 was Samuel, by whose medical treatment Eabbi Judah had 
 been cured of his long illness. To him is due the legal 
 principle that "the law of the civil government is the law," 
 i.e., that except in religious matters the Jew must submit to 
 the laws of his country. 2 
 
 With great equanimity Eabbi Judah prepared to die, 
 awaiting his dissolution with tranquility. He summoned his 
 sons and learned comrades before him, and informed them 
 of his last wishes. He conferred the dignity of Patriarch 
 on Eabbi Gamaliel, his elder son, and appointed Eabbi Simon, 
 the younger, to the office of Chacham. He particularly 
 enjoined on Eabbi Gamaliel the obligation of conferring the 
 dignity of teacher, first and foremost on Eabbi Chanina bar 
 Chama, to whom he believed himself indebted. He besought 
 the Sanhedrin to bury him without any great pomp, to allow 
 no mourning ceremonies to be performed for him in the 
 towns, and to re-open the Assembly of Teachers after the 
 short interval of thirty days. The intelligence of the 
 Patriarch's death was indirectly communicated to the people 
 by Bar-Kappara. With his head veiled and his garments 
 torn, he spoke the following words : "Angels and mortals 
 contended for the ark of the covenant ; the angels have 
 conquered, and the ark has vanished." 8 
 
 As the Mishna is composed with the greatest precision, and 
 cannot be understood without a commentary, it was natural 
 that in course of time doubts and disputes should arise 
 regarding the exposition of the Mishna itself, as well as the 
 mode of its application to cases which it does not sufficiently 
 determine. All these doubts and their manifold solutions, 
 all these controversies and the decisions thereon, were finally 
 
 1 Nedarim, sob, 5ia, Jerushalmi, Moed Katan, iii. i. 
 
 2 Baba Batra, 54b. 
 
 3 Ketubot, io3a io^a. On the life and work of Rabbi Judah, see 
 M. Konitz, Bet Rabbi, Vienna, 1805 ; S. Gelbhaus, Rabbi Jehuda Hanasi 
 und die Redaction der Mischna, Vienna, 1876.
 
 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 25 
 
 collected in the Talmud Jerushalmi and in the Talmud Babli. 
 The principals of the schools applied themselves, in the first 
 place, to the elucidation of the terse text of the Mishna. 
 From this aspect of their labours they received the name of 
 Amoraim (amorai, expounder). The Mishna having been 
 communicated by two of Eabbi Judah's immediate disciples 
 (Eab and Samuel) to the schools in Babylonia, the same 
 system of study in the two countries produced two Talmuds 
 one of Jerusalem or Palestine, the other of Babylon. 
 
 As the most celebrated Amoraim in Palestine, we may 
 mention Eabbi Chanin'a, of Sepphoris (180 260); Eabbi 
 Jochanan ben Naphcha (199 279); Eabbi Simon ben- 
 Lakish (200275) ; and Eabbi Joshua ben Levi bar Sissi. 
 
 Eabbi Chanina and Eabbi Jochanan were very severe 
 against those who attacked the honour of their fellow-men. 
 Eabbi Chanina said : " All who descend into hell rise again, 
 except three, who descend and rise no more. They are: 
 adulterers, those who whiten (shame) the faces of their 
 neighbours in public, and those who give their neighbours 
 an evil name." 1 Eabbi Jochanan, in the name of Eabbi 
 Simon ben Jochai, declared thus: "Eather let a man 
 throw himself into a furnace than publicly offend his fellow- 
 man." 2 
 
 Through the influence of Eabbi Jochanan, Tiberias, with 
 its mild air, its fertility and its curative waters, became the 
 meeting place of a numerous body of disciples who flocked 
 to him from far and wide. Celebrated not less for his 
 personal beauty than for his incomparable virtue, he has 
 acquired a mythical grandeur of character. The Talmud 
 describes his beauty as follows: "Let him who desires to 
 form an idea of Eabbi Jochanan 's beauty take a newly- 
 wrought silver goblet, fill it with ruddy garnets, crown its 
 brim with a wreath of red roses, and place it between light 
 and shadow ; its peculiar reflection of light would represent 
 the glory of Eabbi Jochanan's dazzling beauty." 3 To him 
 
 1 Baba Metsia, s8b. 
 
 2 Ibid. 5ga. Rabbi Jochanan, in the name of Rabbi Simon ben Jochai, 
 proceeds as follows : " A man inflated with pride is equal to an 
 idolater." Sota p. 4b. 
 
 3 Baba Metsia, 84a. His biography is given by C. N. Vitkind, incor- 
 porated in the book " Chut ha-Meshulash," p. 105 142, Vilna, 1877.
 
 26 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 is attributed the commencement and groundwork of the 
 Talmud Jerushalmi. Eabbi Simon ben-Lakish, Eabbi 
 Jochanan's contemporary, friend, brother-in-law and 
 opponent, was altogether a peculiar personage, in whom 
 were united the most opposite qualities ; rough physical 
 strength was coupled with tenderness of sentiment and 
 acuteness of mind. Rabbi Joshua ben Levi, formed with 
 Rabbi Jochanan and Ben-Lakish, the triumvirate of the 
 Palestinian Amoraim. The son of Rabbi Levi ben Sissi 
 conducted a school at Lydda, in the South of Judaea. 
 
 Rabbi Joshua ben Levi on one occasion visited Rome in 
 the capacity of collector of revenues for the Patriarch. He 
 had there an opportunity of observing a fact which exhibited 
 in strong relief the contrasts existing in the capital of the 
 world. He saw a statue enveloped in drapery, in order to 
 protect it against heat and cold, while near by sat a beggar, 
 who had hardly a rag to cover his nakedness. 1 
 
 Contemporary with the patriarchs Rabbi Gamaliel III., 
 Rabbi Judah II , Rabbi Gamaliel IV., and Rabbi Judah III., 
 were the following distinguished Amoraim : Rabbi Ami, 
 Rabbi Assi, Rabbi Eleazar ben Pedat, Rabbi Chiya, and 
 Rabbi Abbahu. 
 
 The patriarch Rabbi Judah III. (280 320) commissioned 
 the three principal Amoraim, Rabbi Ami, Rabbi Assi, and 
 Rabbi Chiya, to undertake a journey through the cities of 
 Judaea, in order to inspect the various institutions of a 
 religious or educational character, and to restore them in 
 those places where they were falling into decay. In one 
 town, where the envoys found neither teachers of the people 
 nor of the young, they summoned the elders to bring before 
 them the guardians of the city. On the armed guard of the 
 town being brought into their presence the envoys of the 
 Nasi exclaimed : " These are in no wise the guardians of 
 the city, but its destroyers ; the true guards are the teachers 
 of the young and of the people. If God protect not the 
 house, in vain watcheth the warder." 2 
 
 1 Midrash Bereshit-Rabba, xxxiii, i. 
 
 2 Jerushalmi Chagiga, I. 7.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 27 
 
 Eabbi Abbahu of Caesarea on the Sea was held in great 
 esteem by the Roman Proconsul, and probably also by the 
 Emperor Diocletian, on account of his profound learning, 
 which was heightened by the charm of a dignified figure 
 and a generous character. When it was proposed to ordain 
 him as Eabbi, he withdrew in favour of Eabbi Abba of Acco, 
 desiring first to see the distinction conferred upon the latter, 
 who by this promotion would have been able to free him- 
 self from the burden of debt with which he was oppressed. 1 
 
 Another event brings out yet more strongly evidence 2 of 
 his unassuming disposition. He was once delivering dis- 
 courses, concurrently with Eabbi Chiya bar Abba, in a 
 strange town, the subject being treated by the latter 
 according to the Halachic method, while he adopted the 
 more edifying style of the Agada. As was only natural, the 
 popular discourses of Eabbi Abbahu, being intelligible to all, 
 were better attended than Eabbi Chiya's lectures, which 
 were more difficult of comprehension. The latter having 
 manifested some irritation at the neglect which fell 
 to the lot of his discourses, Eabbi Abbahu attempted to 
 console him in the following words: "Thy teaching 
 resembles the most precious stones, of which there are but 
 few good judges; mine, on the contrary, is like tinsel, which 
 delights everyone." 
 
 Of the labours of those great men, we have the monu- 
 mental result in the Palestinian Gemara, commonly called 
 the Talmud Jerushalmi, or the Western Talmud. Eabbi 
 Jos6 Bun, contemporaneous with the Emperors Julian, 
 Jovian, and Valentinian 3 (361 375), was the last of the 
 great Amoraim of the Talmud Jerushalmi. 
 
 The patriarch Eabbi Judah III. was succeeded by his son 
 Eabbi Hillel II. (320360). Eabbi Hillel published the 
 astronomical rules on the calendar. 4 The method of calcu- 
 lating the calendar introduced by him is so simple and 
 certain that up to the present day it has required neither 
 
 1 Sotah, 4oa. 
 
 2 Ibid. 
 
 3 See I. H. Weiss Zur Geschichte der judischen Tradition, t. iii., p. 114. 
 
 4 See L. M. Lewisohn, Geschichte und System des judischen Kalendar 
 wesens, Leipzig. 1856.
 
 28 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 amendation nor amplification, and for this reason is acknow- 
 ledged to be perfect by all who are competent to express an 
 opinion on the subject, whether Jews or non-Jews. The 
 system is based upon a cycle of nineteen years, in which 
 seven leap years occur. Ten months in every year are 
 invariable, and consist alternately of twenty-nine and thirty 
 days, the two autumn months only which follow Tishri (the 
 most important of all the months) are left variable, as being 
 dependent on certain circumstances in astronomy and 
 Jewish law. This and other computations rest, however, 
 on rules so simple, and are so plain and easy, that the 
 veriest tyro is thereby enabled to draw up a calendar for a 
 hundred, or even a thousand years. 1 
 
 The last three Patriarchs areEabbi Gamaliel V., successor 
 of Eabbi Hillel II.; his son Eabbi Judah IV. ; and Eabbi 
 Gamaliel the last (370425). 
 
 The much more copious Talmud Babli contains the record 
 of the transactions of the Babylonian schools. 
 
 The Jewish province in Babylonia was divided into several 
 smaller districts, each of which was known by the name of 
 its capital. Thus there existed the districts of Nares, Sora, 
 Pumbeditha, Nahardea, Nahar-Pacod, Machuza, and some 
 others, all of them possessed of some characteristic, such as 
 a peculiar dialect, or particular customs or manners, or even 
 distinct weights and measures. 
 
 In the year 188, Abba-Areka (Eab) introduced the Mishna 
 at Nahardea, where at that time Eab Shila officiated. At 
 Eab Shila' s death (219) Samuel Yarchinai, the great 
 physician and astronomer, became the rector of that school, 
 and Eab was elected to the similar post at Sora. Their fame 
 attracted numerous students. Artabanus IV. (211 226), 
 the last Parthian monarch of the house of Arsaces, esteemed 
 Eab so highly that he once sent him a present of some 
 valuable pearls. Between the last Parthian king and the 
 first Babylonian Amora there existed the same friendly 
 
 1 Graetz, n., p. 580 i. Concerning the Jewish Calendar see E. H. 
 Lindo, A Jewish Calendar, p. i 12, London, 1838 ; J. Jacobs, Jewish 
 Year Book, p. 15 19. A useful summary of the Jewish Writers on the 
 Calendar has been published by I. Loeb, Tables du Calendrier Juif, Paris, 
 1886. See also the valuable work on the Calendar, published by M. A. 
 Giinzburg, under the title of Ittim Labina, Warsaw, 1889.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 29 
 
 relations as between the Jewish Patriarch and the Eoman 
 Emperor of his time. Artabanus was afterwards deposed 
 by Ardashir, and with him ended the dynasty of Arsaces. 
 When Eab heard of the fall of Artabanus, he exclaimed 
 sorrowfully, " The bond is broken." 1 
 
 Mar- Samuel also was in exceedingly good repute at the 
 Persian court, and lived on confidential terms with Shabur I. 2 
 
 Most of Eab's decisions, especially in ritual questions, 
 obtained legal sanction, but in the civil law his friend Mar 
 Samuel in Nahardea was his superior. After Bab's death 
 (247), his disciples recognized Mar Samuel as the highest 
 religious authority of Babylonia. A distinguished contem- 
 porary of Mar Samuel was Mar Ukba, at first head of the 
 court in Kafri, 8 and later Exilarch in Nahardea. 4 
 
 Babylonia had become a regular Jewish state, whose con- 
 stitution was the Mishna, and whose public props were the 
 Prince of the Captivity and the school assembly. Mar- 
 Nehemiah and Mar Ukban, Eab's grandchild'ren, and 
 Nathan their father, were appointed Eesh-Galutas in this 
 generation ; by reason of their intimate knowledge of the 
 Halacha, they received the title of honour of Eabbana. The 
 Halacha was furthered to the utmost of their power by the 
 successors of Eab and Samuel, of whom the most prominent 
 were: Eab Huna (212 297), who was the chief teacher 
 of the Sora academy, and at the same time was regarded as 
 religious head both in Babylon and abroad ; Eab Judah 
 ben Ezekiel (229 290), who founded a new school in 
 Pumbeditha, and introduced a new method of studying the 
 Halacha ; Eab Nachman ben Jacob 5 (235 324), who 
 transferred his academy to Shekan-Zib, on the Tigris, after 
 the destruction of Nahardea (259) ; Eab Chasda of Kafri 
 
 1 Aboda Zarah, lob. See M. I. Miihlfelder, Rabh. Bin Lebensbild zur 
 Geschichte des Talmud, Leipzig. 1871. I. H. Weiss, Kochbei Isaac, Heft, 
 8 io. 
 
 2 Concerning the life and work of Mar Samuel see Dr. Hoffman's 
 Mar-Samuel, Leipzig, 1874 ; S. Fessler, Mar Samuel, Breslau, 1879 ; and 
 Dr. R. Landau, Geschichte der judischen Aerzte, Breslau, 1895. 
 
 3 Kedushin, 44b. 
 
 * Moed Katan, i6b. Sanhedrin, sib, 
 
 5 On the life and work of Rab Nachman ben Jacob see Nachman 
 Ibn Israel's Rythmical Poem, in Hebrew, Varsaw, 1883.
 
 30 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 (217 309) ; Eab Sheshet, who founded a school at Silhi, 
 on the Tigris ; Eabba bar Abbahu ; Eabba bar Nachmani 
 (270333) ; and Eab Joseph ben Chiya (270335). 
 
 Eab Joseph ben Chiya was a disciple of Eabbi Judah 
 ben Ezekiel and succeeded his colleague Eabba bar Nach- 
 mani in the dignity of president of the academy in Pum- 
 beditha, after having once before been elected for this office, 
 which he had declined in favour of Eabba. 1 His learning 
 was so extensive and his knowledge of the traditional lore 
 was so profound that he obtained the appellation of Sinai, 
 that is one who is acquainted with all the traditions in 
 succession since the giving of the law on Sinai. Besides 
 being a great authority in the rabbinical law, he devoted 
 himself to the Targum of the Bible, especially of the pro- 
 phetical books. 2 
 
 After his death, Abaye, surnamed Nachmani, was selected 
 as head of the academy in Pumbeditha, but under his ad- 
 ministration, which lasted about five years, the number of 
 hearers in that academy decreased considerably, as his 
 famous colleague Eaba bar Joseph bar Chama, disciple of 
 Eab Joseph, had founded a new academy in Mechuza, 
 which attracted greater crowds of pupils. 3 Under these two 
 Amoraim, the dialectical method of the Babylonian teachers 
 reached the highest developments. Their discussions, 
 which mostly concern some very nice distinctions in the in- 
 terpretation of the Mishna, in order to reconcile conflicting 
 passages, fill the pages of the Talmud. In their differences 
 concerning more practical questions the opinion of Eaba 
 generally prevails, so that later authorities pointed out only 
 six cases in which the decision of Abaye was to be adopted 
 against that of his rival. 
 
 In the year 258, Nahardea was sacked by the robber-king 
 Papa ben Nazar, a condottiere, under the auspices of Ode- 
 natus, the consort of the famous Zenobia, then at war with 
 the Persian king Shapur. 
 
 1 Berachot, 64. 
 
 2 See J. Fiirst, Kultur und Literaturgeschichte der Juden in Asien, 
 p. 144155. 
 
 3 On the life and work of Raba bar Chama, see M. S. Antokolski in 
 the Periodical Journal " Haasiph," p. 194 201, Warsaw, 1885; and A. 
 Jafa, Kneset Israel, I., p. 889 898, Warsaw, 1887. On Abaye, see the 
 Journal " Ha-Eshkol," p. 95.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 31 
 
 The school at Nahardea never regained its former rank ; 
 the teachers sought or founded new seats of study, and thus 
 Pumbeditha, Machuza, and some minor places rose into im- 
 portance of more or less duration. The Jewish colony at 
 Nahardea revived, however, after the fall of Palmyra. 
 
 Rab Ashi ben Simai (352 427), rector of Sora, in the year 
 374 set about collecting materials for publishing the Trans- 
 actions of the Babylonian High Schools. 1 After his death, 
 his son, Mar bar Ashi. continued his father's work, and 
 included the latter's decisions therein. After Mar's death, 
 the Jews of the Persian empire were the victims of a fresh 
 persecution under Fizur (Pheroces, 457 484), which was 
 far more terrible than that which had occurred under his 
 father, Jezdijird. Huna-Mari, the son of Mar-Zutra, Prince 
 of the Captivity, and two teachers of the law, Armemar bar 
 Mar-Ianka and Meshershya bar Pacod, were thrown into 
 prison and afterwards executed (469-70). They were the 
 first martyrs on Babylonian soil. 
 
 A few years later, persecution was carried to a still 
 greater extent ; the schools were closed, assemblies for the 
 purpose of teaching prohibited, the jurisdiction of the Jews 
 abolished, and their children compelled to embrace the 
 religion of the Magi (474). 
 
 As soon as the terrors of persecution had ceased with 
 Fizur 's death, the ancient organisation was again restored in 
 Jewish Babylonia ; the academies were re-opened, principals 
 appointed, and Sora and Pumbeditha received their last 
 Amoraic leaders the former in the person of Rabina, the 
 latter in Rab Jose. These two principals and their as- 
 sessors had but one end in view, the completion and termina- 
 tion of the work of compiling the Talmud begun by Rab 
 Ashi. The continual increase of affliction and the un- 
 certainty of the future, impelled to the completion of the 
 Talmud. Rabina, who held office from 488 to 499, and Rab 
 Jose, who discharged the duties of principal from 471 to 
 about 520, are expressly mentioned in the old chronicles as 
 living at " the close of the period of the Amoraim." 2 
 
 1 A useful summary of Rab Ashi's Decisions has been published by 
 S. Z. Socher in the Periodical Journal, " Mitspah," iii. p. i 4, St. 
 Petersburg, 1885. 
 
 2 Graetz, ibid. p. 637639 ; Mielziner's Introduction, p. 51 55.
 
 32 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Eabina and Eab Jose accomplished the completion of the 
 Talmud, that is to say, they sanctioned as a complete whole 
 the collection of all previous transactions and decisions 
 which they had caused to be compiled, and to which no 
 additions or amplifications were henceforward to be made. 
 The definite completion of the Babylonian Talmud (called 
 also the Gemara) occurred in the year of Eabina's death, 
 just at the close of the fifth century (13th Kislev, 499). 
 
 There were teachers after the compilation, but they were 
 no longer Amoraim, whose decisions were binding ; the 
 Epigones of those latter days were styled Seboraim. They 
 did not assume the authority to contradict the decisions 
 established by the Amoraim, but merely ventured to express 
 an opinion and to fix the final decision in cases where their 
 predecessors, the Amoraim, disagreed. They gave the 
 Talmud a finishing touch by adding these final decisions, as 
 well as numerous, especially Agadic, passages. 
 
 The texts of the Talmud are composed of two elements, 
 which it is essential not to confound. First, the legal 
 decision, Halacha, which is considered binding on all who 
 recognise the authority of the tradition. It contains those 
 rules, institutions, precepts, and interpretations by which 
 the Jewish people profess to be guided, in addition to the 
 Scriptures. The comments on the law dated from its 
 giving on Sinai. Take, as an instance, the command, " Ye 
 shall dwell in booths." It looks at first simple enough. 
 But questions would soon arise. Did the "ye" mean men, 
 women, and children? did the "dwell" include sleeping 
 and eating ? Of what sort and material were the booths to 
 be? All such points were for a long period transmitted 
 orally from generation to generation, and were practically 
 settled by the Tanaim. 1 
 
 Analogy with ancient and modern legislations proves that 
 contemporaneously with the Lex Scripta the Lex Non-Scripta 
 must have developed. 2 Early Eoman law was preserved in 
 the Pontifical College by means of oral traditions, which the 
 Twelve Tables only codified. The bulk of the English 
 
 3 Cf. Rabbi David Nieto in his Matteh Dan, p. 8 19, ed. Metz, 1780. 
 2 Cf. J. W. Peppercorne, Life and Writings of Maimonides, p. xxiii. 
 iv., London, 1840.
 
 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 33 
 
 common law consists of customs and judges' oral decisions 
 "Precedents broadening down in the process of the suns." 
 Even the precise force and application of a new statute 
 depends ultimately on its interpretation by the Courts. The 
 necessity of tradition to elucidate, develop, and apply to the 
 needs of practical life, the brief notes, pithy statements, and 
 leading cases of which the Pentateuchal legislation mainly 
 consists, is an obvious truism. The definition of " work " 
 forbidden on the Sabbath, the selection of plants "with 
 which to rejoice on the Feast of Tabernacles," the precise 
 connotation of the " affliction of the soul," enjoined for the 
 Day of Atonement, are all fixed by tradition. 1 
 
 Secondly, the Agada, 2 " the Saying," or the element of the 
 most boundless intellectual activity. All that did not belong 
 to the law, it assumed as its province ; the conceptions of 
 God, of angels and spirits ; notions of the being and destiny 
 of man in this world and the next ; the moral law in all its 
 bearing ; the treatment of the historical events in the Jewish 
 annals ; the possible meaning of every expression in the 
 Holy Scriptures ; the reconcilement of seemingly contra- 
 dictory characters of Biblical persons ; popular traditions 
 and proverbs ; even particular observances of the law, as 
 far as they could be brought into relation with such in- 
 quiries, in short, an endless world of actual life is contained 
 in the Agada or Midrash, discourses which were given in the 
 synagogues. 
 
 Manual labour was held in such honour by the Tanaim, 
 that some of the most prominent sages of the Talmud are 
 known to have made their living by various kinds of handi- 
 craft. This custom is exemplified in the case of Hillel, who 
 was a hewer of wood ; 3 Eabbi Joshua ben Chananya, who was 
 a needle-maker ; 4 Eabbi Judah ben Ilai, who supported him- 
 
 1 Rev. M. Hyamson, Jewish Quarterly Review, ix. p. 308-309. 
 
 2 See W. Bacher, Jewish Quarterly Review, iv. p. 406 429; and 
 J. Dessauer, Lexicon der Kernspriiche oder Perlenschatz rabbinischer 
 Weisheit, Buda-Pest, 1876. 
 
 3 Chobat ha-Lebaboth, ix. 5 ; Maimonides' Commentary on Aboth, 
 iv. 5. Concerning his Life and Works see I. Trenel, Vie de Hillel 
 1'Ancient, Paris. 1867. 
 
 4 Jerushalmi Berachot, iv. i. 
 
 3
 
 34 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 self by an occupation of which he was not ashamed. He often 
 used the expression " The work honours the labourer." 1 
 " He who does not teach his son a handicraft designs him 
 to be a robber." 2 Eabbi Jose ben Chalafta, of Sepphoris, 
 was a tanner ; 3 and numerous examples may be found among 
 the other Rabbis who were distinguished by their occupa- 
 tion. 
 
 The Jews originally had no special turn for trading. In 
 the earlier days of their life we have seen them to be herds- 
 men, tillers of the soil, and handicraftsmen of the simplest 
 sort. Their traffic was insignificant even after their return 
 from the exile ; and continued so until the Macedonian days, 
 when mercantile intercourse with other nations became 
 among them a more frequent pursuit. Even then commerce 
 was far from absorbing them. But in the countless lands 
 into which they were at length carried by the dispersion, 
 they were often forced to follow quite other paths than the 
 old. The prejudice of the races among which they came, 
 frequently forbade to them the ownership of land and the 
 following of their handicrafts. Commerce became to them 
 the easiest and most natural resource ; as they practised it, 
 their dexterity increased. The success they reached aroused 
 a disposition which their ancestors did not possess. 4 Theo- 
 logy, philosophy, astronomy, astrology, medicine, botany, 
 geography, arithmetic and architecture, were all themes 
 which alternately occupied the attention of the masters and 
 the disciples in the Talmud. 
 
 Dr. Noel Gueneau de Mussy says that 6 : " The hygienic 
 rules which the Torah and Talmud contain are said to 
 
 1 Nedarim, 4gb. 
 
 2 Kedushin, zga. 
 
 3 Sabbath, 4gb. See Dr. Seligman Meyer, Arbeit und Handwerk im 
 Talmud, Berlin, 1878. 
 
 4 Herzfeld, Handelgeschichte der Juden. p. 271. Renan in Le 
 Judaisme et le Christianisme, p. 22, asserts that " Until the beginning of 
 the thirteenth century, though they were much hampered by distinctive 
 legislation, the Jews pursued the same handicrafts as the rest of the 
 world:" quoted in I. Abraham's Jewish Life, p. 218; cf. Handwerk 
 unter den Juden, in Wertheimer's Jahrbuch fur Israeliten, Vienna, 1856. 
 
 5 Hygienic Laws of Moses, Medical Abstract, March, 1885, New 
 York. See also Steinschneider's Preface to Dr. Waldenburg's Lehre 
 von der Tuberculose, Berlin, 1869.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 35 
 
 possess great wisdom. The idea of parasitical and infectious 
 maladies, of which we now hear so much, occupied also the 
 mind of Moses. He indicates with great wisdom the 
 animals to be used as food, excluding those liable to 
 parasites, as swine, rabbits, and hares. He prescribes the 
 thorough bleeding of animals to be eaten, and the burning 
 of the fat ; it has been established that it is precisely the 
 blood and the fat which are most liable to retain parasitic 
 germs and carry infection. The Talmud, moreover, directs 
 that the liver, lungs, and spleen shall be carefully 
 scrutinized. Precisely those organs are especially liable to 
 disease. With reference to dwellings and clothing and the 
 satisfying of natural wants, the rules of Torah and Talmud 
 are excellent ; in point of health, the advantage of a careful 
 observance of the Sabbath is very great ; even circumcision 1 
 can be defended as an excellent sanitary expedient. In 
 several respects the Mosaic Law is declared to have antici- 
 pated modern science by several thousand years. Through- 
 out the entire history of Israel, the wisdom of the ancient 
 lawgivers in these, is remarkably shown : in times of 
 pestilence, the Hebrews have suffered far less than others ; 
 as regards longevity and general health, they have in every 
 age been noteworthy." 
 
 " Under their primitive forms," concludes Dr. de Mussy, 
 "these laws still subsist, and those who adhere to them, 
 dispersed, according to the prediction of their great legis- 
 lator, to the four winds of heaven, derive from them a force 
 and a vitality which carry them in triumph over the 
 obstacles they encounter and the persecution they have 
 
 suffered and from whatsoever point of 
 
 view it be regarded, in considering the immense role played 
 by Israel's great lawgiver, and the indirect influence which 
 he still exercises over the civilised world, it is difficult not 
 to recognise in him one of those providential men placed by 
 the Creator on the path of humanity to guide it to the end 
 which He has ordained." 2 
 
 1 See Dr. P. C. Remondino's History of Circumcision, p. 171, 173, 
 191, 306, Philadelphia, 1891. 
 
 2 Quoted by Dr. H. Behrend, the Nineteenth Century, 1889, p. 418. 
 For fuller particulars concerning this branch of literature see Dr. H. 
 Behrend, Jewish Chronicle, i2th November, 1880, and 24th October,
 
 36 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 J. Buxtorf says, on the merits of the Talmud, in the 
 preface to his great Chaldaic and Talmudical Lexicon : " The 
 Talmud," that Christian Divine states, "is a learned work, or 
 a large corpus of erudition ; it contains manifold learning in 
 all sciences ; it teaches the most explicit and most complete 
 civil and canonical law of the Jews, so that the whole nation, 
 as well as their synagogue, might live thereby in a state of 
 happiness, in the most desirable way. It is the most 
 luminous commentary of the Scriptural law as well as its 
 supplement and support." 
 
 " It contains much excellent teaching on jurisprudence, 
 medicine, natural philosophy, ethics, politics, astronomy, 
 and other branches of science, which make one think highly 
 of the history of that nation and of the time in which the 
 work was written." 1 
 
 The Talmudical standard of ethics is high. 2 Truthfulness, 
 purity, humility, temperance without asceticism these are 
 the heads under which the numerous attractive sayings may 
 be registered that have secured a celebrity to the Talmud 
 among learned men of all confessions. 
 
 The largest philanthropy is recommended in the Talmud, 
 towards all classes of human beings . ' ' Feed the hungry among 
 the heathen," says the Talmud, "visit their sick, mourn 
 with the bereaved, and bury their dead, to the end that peace 
 and goodwill may prevail among all the families of man." 3 
 
 The Talmud proclaims : "The pious and virtuous of all 
 nations participate in the eternal bliss." 4 
 
 1890 ; Mr. Marcus Adler's instructive paper on the Health Laws of the 
 Bible, and their influence upon the life condition of the Jews ; Dr. 
 Dembo's elaborated Jewish Method of Slaughter, London, 1894 ; and 
 Rev. M. Hyamson's valuable article in the Jewish Quarterly Review, 
 ix. 294 310. 
 
 1 Translated by Dr. L. Loewe in the Diaries of Sir Moses and Lady 
 Montefiore, vol. i., p. 331, London, 1890; see also Dr. Mielziner's 
 Introduction, 103 114. For fuller particulars concerning the state- 
 ments of the Christian scholars on the Talmud, see Solomon Plesner, 
 Wort zu seiner Zeit, oder die Autoritat der jiidischen Traditionslehre, 
 Breslau, 1850, pp. 12 34 ; and in Karl Fischer's Gutmeinung iiber den 
 Talmud der Hebraer, Vienna, 1885. 
 
 2 Theodores, ibid, p. 377; cf. M. Mielziner's Introduction, p. 267 
 280. 
 
 3 Gittin, 6ia. 
 
 * Tosephta Sanhedrin, ch. xiii.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 37 
 
 And a noteworthy utterance on the subject is to be found 
 in the Talmud 1 : "When the Egyptian host lay dead on 
 the sands of the Bed Sea, the heavenly choir chanted hymns 
 before the throne of the Almighty. But the Lord forbade 
 them, saying, " The Egyptians are the work of my hand no 
 less than the Israelites." 
 
 Abundance of parables, riddles, and stories are dispersed 
 throughout the Talmud and Midrashim. 2 
 
 The most remarkable treatises of the Talmud are those 
 on jurisprudence. The judgment of such a man as Pro- 
 fessor E. Gans, the great German jurist, who knew the 
 Talmud well, cannot be disregarded. He says 3 that no 
 corpus juris known to him gives evidence of so much 
 critical labour and penetration as the Talmudical law on 
 inheritance and succession. The procedure in criminal 
 cases prescribed in the Talmud, 4 is marked with the stamp of 
 humanity in almost every particular. A specimen of the 
 very advanced ideas entertained by some leading teachers of 
 the tradition on the subject of capital punishment is 
 supplied by the Mishna. 5 " A court that passes a sentence 
 of death once in a week of years is indeed a pernicious 
 tribunal." Eabbi Eleazer added, " I hold it to be such, if it 
 does so once in 70 years." Rabbi Tarphon and Rabbi Akiba 
 declared, " If we sat in judgment, we should on no account 
 vote for the execution of any criminal." 
 
 1 Sanhedrin, 3gb. 
 
 2 See Dr. Aug. Wunsche, Die Rathselweisheit bei den Hebraern, 
 Leipzig, 1883 ; and S. Back, Die Fabel im Talmud, Monatsschrift fur 
 Geschichte und Wissenschaft, 1875, 7^> 80, 84. 
 
 3 Erbrecht i., p. 151, quoted by Theodores, p. 377. See Quarterly 
 Revieiv, 1869, vol. 127, p. 343. 
 
 * See S. Mendelssohn, The Criminal Jurisprudence of the ancient 
 Hebrews, compiled from the Talmud and other Rabbinical writings, 
 Baltimore, 1891 ; and P. B. Benniy, The Criminal Code of the Jews, 
 London, 1880. 
 
 5 Makkot, 73. See also I. Tonisen, La peine de mort dans le Talmud, 
 in the bulletin del' Academic royale des sciences de Belgique, 25" annee, 
 2 me serie, t. 22, N- u, 1866, p. 349 423. He says, "tous ceux qui dans 
 la seconde moitie du dix huitieme siecle, contribuerent si puissamment 
 a la naissance de la philosophic du droit penal, auraient eu pour pre- 
 curseurs, seize siecles plus tot, les rabbins de Lydda, de Madalen et de 
 Tiberiade ! "
 
 38 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 The Talmud was, in the midst of all the sufferings of the 
 Jews, their supreme consolation, the safeguard of their 
 morality, and the bond of their religious unity. 1 
 
 1 As early as 553, the Emperor Justinian interdicted it, and for over a 
 thousand years, with only one honourable exception, that of Pope 
 Clement V., both the secular and the spiritual powers, kings and 
 emperors, popes and anti-popes, vied with each other in hurling 
 anathemas and bulls and edicts of wholesale confiscation and conflagra- 
 tion against the Talmud. Ignorance, as in most cases, was at the 
 bottom of unreasoning persecution ; they did not understand the book, 
 and so their ignorance begat a superstitious fear, and they took passages 
 here and there, and garbled them and mistranslated them. At last 
 things came to a crisis. In Germany, when Maximilian reigned, a 
 wretched convert named Pfefferkorn, begged the Emperor to decree a 
 public burning of all the copies of the book that could be found, and 
 Maximilian, not knowing or caring much about it, agreed. But a 
 learned and brave man, named Johann von Reichlin, professor at 
 Ingoldstadt, the principal promoter of the study of Hebrew in his day, 
 stood up in its defence ; the end of it was the Talmud won, and its first 
 complete edition was printed in the year 1520 6, Venice. On the whole 
 subject, see E. Deutsch's article, "The Talmud" in Quarterly Review, 
 October, 1867, p. 421 424 ; R. N. Rabbinowitsch, Kritische Uebersicht 
 der Gesammt-und Einzelausgaben des babylonischen Talmuds seit 
 1484, Miinchen, 1877. M. Schwab, 1'Introduction du Traite des Berak- 
 hoth, Paris, 1871, and Dr. H. Goitein, Anklager und Vertheidiger des 
 Talmud, Frankfort, 1897. 
 
 A W. Streane translated into English the Treatise Chagiga, Cam- 
 bridge, 1891. 
 
 J. J. Rabe published a German translation of the Treatise Berachot, 
 Halle, 1777; with an introduction by M. Pinner, Berlin, 1842. Into 
 French by M. Schwab, Paris, 1871. Treatise Megilla into German by 
 M. Rawicz, 1883 ; Treatise Rosh ha-Shana into German, by the same, 
 Frankfort, 1886; D. O. Straschun translated the Treatise Taanith into 
 German, Halle, 1883. A. Sammter published a German translation of 
 the Treatise Baba Metsia, Berlin, 1876. M. Rawicz translated into 
 German the Treatise Sanhedrin, Frankfort, 1892. E. C. Ewald pub- 
 lished, Niirenberg, 1856 and 1868, a German translation of the Treatise 
 Aboda Zarah. The Agada of the Babylonian Talmud has been 
 translated into German by Dr. Aug. Wiinsche, 2 volumes, Leipzig, 
 18861888. 
 
 The Talmud Jerushalmi was first published by D. Bombergo, Venice, 
 1520 1522 ; again in Cracow, 1609 ; appeared in French by M. Schwab, 
 10 volumes, Paris, 1871 90. An English translation of the Treatise 
 Berachot, has been published, London, 1886. The Agada of the Talmud 
 Jerushalmi has been translated by Aug. Wunsche, Zurich, 1880. Cf. 
 N. Briill " Ueber die Entstehung des Talmud," in his Jahrbiicher, zur 
 jiidischen Geschichte und Literatur, II. 1876, Frankfort. Shiller- 
 Szinessy, Art. "Talmud," in the Encyc. Brit, gth ed., and Schechter 
 " On the Study of the Talmud," in the Westminster Review, January 
 and April, 1885. 
 
 The study of the Talmudical writings is now coming into great 
 cultivation : J. P. Stehlin, The Traditions of the Jews contained in the 
 Talmud, 1748. A. H. Israel's Collectanea Gynaecologica ex Talmude 
 Babylonico, Groningen, 1845. R. I. Wunderbar, Biblish talmudische
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 39 
 
 Medicin, 2 volumes, Leipzig, 1850 60. Joach. Halpern, Beitrage zur 
 Geschichte der talm. Chirurgie, Breslau, 1869. Joseph Bergel, Die 
 Medizin der Talmudisten, Leipzig, 1885. Dr. L. Katzenelson, Die 
 Osteologie der Talmudisten, in Hebrew, St. Petersburg, 1888. Ueber 
 die Anatomie der Talmudisten, in Russian, by the same; and J. M. 
 Rabbinowitz, Paris, 1869, all these cultivated the Medicine ot the Tal- 
 mud. 
 
 B. Zuckermann, Das Mathematishe im Talmud, Breslau, 1878, cul- 
 tivated the Mathematics ; L. Lewysohn, Die Zoologie des Talmuds, 
 Frankfort, 1858, the Zoology ; M. Duschak, Zur Botanik des Talmud, 
 Pesth, 1871, the Botany. The following authors cultivated the Legis- 
 lation of the Talmud : Z. Frankel, Der Gerichtliche Beweis nach 
 mosaisch talmudishem Rechte, Berlin, 1846 ; H. B. Fassel, Das 
 mosaisch rabbinische Civilrecht, Gr. Kanischa, 1852 54; M. Bloch, 
 Die Civilprocess Ordnung, Pesth, 1882; Das mosaisch talmundische 
 Polizeirecht, by the same author, Pesth, 1878 ; translated into English 
 and published in the Hebrew Review I., Cincinnati, 1881 ; M. Duschak, 
 Das mosaisch talmudische Strafrecht, Vienna, 1869; Das mosaisch 
 talmudische Eherecht, Vienna, 1864, by the same; and J. M. 
 Rabbinowitz, Paris, 1873 80. 
 
 A. Nager, Die Religionsphilosophie des Talmud, Leipzig, 1864, 
 wrote on the Religious Philosophy. M. Bloch, Die Ethik der Halacha, 
 Pesth, 1886 ; H. Cohen, Die Nachstenliebe im Talmud, Marburg, 1886, 
 and L. Lazarus, Zur Charakteristik, der talmudischen Ethik, Breslau, 
 1877 these wrote on the Ethics. S. Sekles illustrated poetry in his 
 book, The Poetry of the Talmud, New York, 1880. Blach Gudensberg, 
 Das Pedagogische im Talmund, Halberstadt, 1880; Sam. Marcus, Zur 
 Schul-Pedagogik des Talmud, Berlin, 1866 ; Strassburger, Geschichte 
 der Erziehung bei den Israeliten, Stuttgart, 1885; and Rev. B. Spiers, 
 in his School System of the Talmud, London, 1881, treats of the 
 Pedagogy of the Talmud. I. Brill, Vienna, 1864, wrote on the 
 Mnemonic ; A. Stein, Prague, 1869, on the Terminology ; M. Jacobson, 
 on the Psychology of the Talmud, Hamburg, 1878, J. R. Fiirstenthal, 
 Rabbinische Anthologie, Breslau, 1834; L. Dukes, Rabbinische 
 Blumenlese, Leipzig, 1844 ; Rabbinische Sprachkunde, by the same, 
 Vienna, 1851; Lowenstein, Sentenzen, Berlin, 1887; A. Weill, Sagesse 
 des Rabbins, Paris, 1885, and Rev. Isidore Myers, Gems from the 
 Talmud, London, 1894 all these cultivated the Proverbs, the Maxims, 
 and the Parables of the Talmud. Gr. Rab. Zadok-Kahn, in his book 
 L'Esclavage selon la Bible et le Talmud, Paris, 1867, wrote on the laws 
 concerning Slavery in the Talmud. Dr. Ad. Neubauer published, La 
 Geographic du Talmud, Paris, 1868, Dr. A. Berliner, Beitrage zur 
 Geographic und Ethnographic Babyloniens im Talmud und Midrash, 
 Berlin, 1884, and Dr. H. Hildesheimer, Beitrage zur Geographic 
 Palaestinas, Berlin, 1886. A. Hahn wrote on Dialectics in The Rabbini- 
 cal Dialectics, Cincinnati, 1879 ; and B. Zuckerman, in his work Ueber 
 Talmudische Miinzen und Gewichte, Breslau, 1862, treated on the 
 Coinage and Weights of the Talmud.
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 SETTLEMENTS OF THE JEWS BOTH BEFOBE AND AFTEE THE 
 DESTEUCTION OF THE SECOND TEMPLE. 
 
 WITH the history of the dispersion and fate of Israel 
 in the Bast and in the West, in Asia, and in 
 Europe, are connected the annals of the wandering and 
 suffering Jews in all parts of the world. 
 
 The first settlement of the Jews in the Roman empire was 
 at the time of Pompey. Under the more indulgent emperors 
 who followed : Julius Caesar, Marcus Coccejus Nerva, Anto- 
 ninus Pius (138161), Marcus Aurelius (161180), Septi- 
 mus Severus (193 211), Caracalla (211 17), Marcrinus 
 (217-18), Bassiamus Elagabalus (218 22), Alexander Se- 
 verus (222 35), and Julian Apostate (361 63), the Jews in 
 the empire were restored to many of their ancient privileges. 
 New synagogues were frequently erected in the principal 
 cities of the empire. Julian the Apostate, immediately on 
 his accession, declared all the persecuting laws to be a dead 
 letter; he reduced taxes, abolished disabilities, and finally 
 gave permission to the Jews to rebuild their temple. But 
 after a brief reign, he fell in battle against the Parthians. 
 The Jews were favoured under Valentinian and Valens (364). 
 Their equity to the Jews and respect for their patriarchs are 
 clearly shown by a law of Arcadius, in which their author- 
 ity is appealed to. 1 
 
 Maximus (383) ordered a synagogue at Rome, that had 
 been wantonly burnt, to be rebuilt at the expense of the 
 Roman community. Under the government of Honorius, 
 (395 423), the Jews enjoyed the full exercise of their re- 
 ligion. In the year 418, however, Plavius Honorius dis- 
 qualified them from all state employment except pleading in 
 the law courts, and in 439 even this privilege was denied 
 them by Theodosius II. The Jews, however, still occupied 
 
 1 Cod. Theodos. xvi. 13.
 
 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 41 
 
 honourable positions everywhere, and, as men of science, 
 were highly esteemed. Schleiden tells us that they were the 
 only physicians trusted by the public. 1 
 
 Upon the overthrow of the Roman empire by the Vandals 
 in 476, it might have been expected that the Jews would 
 have been worse treated than others of the people, by that 
 fierce and barbarous nation. But they enjoyed the same 
 privileges and only participated in the common miseries 
 which are the usual attendants of great revolutions. They 
 were allowed the unrestricted exercise of their religion, and 
 on the payment of a tribute they were permitted the freedom 
 of commerce. Theodoric (496 526) in particular protected 
 them against the Christian zealots, and would permit no 
 compulsory means for their conversion. Theodot (534 36) 
 protected them against Christian zealots in Milan, Genoa 
 and Rome. 
 
 When Justinian became emperor at Constantinople 
 (527 65), he found their condition to be that of an oppressed 
 and miserable people. 
 
 About this time a war occurred in Italy. The Jews joined 
 with the Goths against Justinian and his general, Belisarius, 
 and, in conjunction with the Gothic forces, they defended the 
 city of Naples with such obstinacy that the Roman soldiers 
 became exceedingly exasperated against them. 2 The Visi- 
 goths also, at the commencement of the same century (518), 
 received assistance from the Jews in their defence of Aries, 
 in Provence, against the Franks under Clovis. 3 Pope 
 Gregory I. (590 604) conscientiously maintained the rights 
 of citizenship of the Jews, which had been recognised as 
 belonging to them as Romans by various emperors. In the 
 territory which was subject to the Papal sway in Rome, 
 Lower Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia, he steadfastly persisted in 
 this course, in the face of the fanatical bishops, who regarded 
 the oppression of the Jews as a pious work. His pastoral 
 letters are full of earnest exhortations, such as the follow- 
 ing : " We forbid you to molest the Jews or to restrict 
 
 1 L. Wolf in the Nineteenth Century, 1881, p. 349. 
 
 2 Procop. de Bella Gothico, I. 10, p. 53, edit. Bonn. 
 
 3 Dahn, Die Konige der Germanen, Wiirzburg, 1871, t. vi. p. 420.
 
 42 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 them in opposition to the established laws ; we further per- 
 mit them to live as Romans and to dispose of their property 
 without prejudice." Gregory reproves the Bishop of Terra- 
 cina for having driven the Jews from certain places where 
 they were accustomed to hold their festivities. 1 
 
 The arrival of the Jews and the establishment of their 
 colonies in the Peninsula is carried back, both by Jews and 
 Christians, to a period of great antiquity. 2 Certain Jewish 
 families, the Ibn-Dauds and the Abarbanels, boasted of 
 being descended from the royal house of David, and main- 
 tained that their ancestors had been settled since time 
 immemorial, partly in the district of Lucena, and partly in 
 the environs of Toledo and Seville. The family of the Ibn- 
 Albalias dated their immigration from the destruction of the 
 Second Temple. A family tradition runs to the effect that 
 the Roman governor of Spain begged the conqueror of 
 Jerusalem to send him some noble families from the capital 
 of Judaea, and that Titus complied with his request. Among 
 those who were thus transported was a man of the name of 
 Baruch, who excelled in the art of weaving curtains for the 
 temple. This Baruch, who settled in Merida, was the 
 ancestor of the Ibn-Albalias, 3 Hadrian, who was a native 
 of Spain, transported to it a large number of prisoners from 
 Judaea, some authors say as many as 80,000 families, thus 
 greatly increasing the Hebrew population of those Roman 
 provinces. The sympathy of their free brethren undoubtedly 
 spurred on the latter to ransom them, and thus to fulfil the 
 most important of the duties prescribed by Talmudical 
 Judaism to its adherents. 
 
 How numerously the Jews had settled in many parts of 
 Spain, is proved by the names which they conferred upon 
 these localities. The city of Granada was called Jews'-town 
 in former times, on account of its being entirely inhabited 
 by Jews. 
 
 1 Epist. lib. I. 34. Concerning the Jews of Rome see Dr. H. Vogel- 
 stein, Geschichte der Juden in Rom ; Dr. A. Berliner, Geschichte der Juden 
 in Rom, 1894; Rieger, Geschichte der Juden in Row, E. H. Hudson, A 
 History of the Jews in Rome, London, 1882 ; and W. D. Morrison, 
 The Jews under the Roman Rule, New York, 1890. 
 
 2 E. H. Lindo, The History of the Jews of Spain and Portugal, p. 6. 
 
 3 Graetz, History, (E. T.), p. 44-45, t. iii.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 43 
 
 In Cordova there existed a Jewish gateway of ancient 
 date, and near Saragossa there was a fortress which at the 
 time of the Arabs was called Euta al Jahud. In the 
 neighbourhood of Tortosa, a gravestone was found with 
 both a Hebrew name and also a national patronymic. This 
 memorial was inscribed in three languages Hebrew, Greek, 
 and Latin. The Jews must therefore have emigrated from a 
 Grecian district to the north of Spain at an early period. 
 They had also acquired the Latin language, without for- 
 getting that of the Holy Writings. 
 
 In the Council of Elvira, assembled in the year 305, we 
 find decrees made concerning the relations between Jews 
 and Christians, which throw considerable light upon their 
 position in the country, and their customs at that period. 1 
 
 The anonymous author of the Memorias of Majorca, 
 considers the Jewish settling in the Balearic Islands to have 
 taken place in the time of the second temple. 2 
 
 The dominion of the Franks was in early times not less 
 merciful to the exiles of Palestine than that of the Goths. 
 The Gaulish Jews, whose first settlement was in the district 
 of Aries, enjoyed the full rights of Eoman citizenship ; they 
 were likewise treated as Eomans by the Prankish and 
 Burgundian conquerors. They were soon to be found in 
 every department of work, from state employments to tilling 
 the soil. 
 
 In the Frankish kingdom, founded by Clovis, the Jews 
 dwelt in Auvergne, in Carcassone, Aries, Orleans, and as 
 far north as Paris and Belgium. Numbers of them resided 
 in the old Greek port of Marseilles, and in B^ziers, and so 
 many dwelt in the province of Narbonne that a mountain 
 near the city of that name was called after them (Mons 
 
 1 See Lindo, History, p. 9-10. Concerning the early history of the 
 Jews in Spain and Portugal, see Lindo, History of the Jews of Spain 
 and Portugal, p. i 7, London, 1848; Amador de los Rios, Historia 
 social, politica y religiosa de los Judios de Espafia y Portugal, ch. 
 i ii, t. i., Madrid, 1875; Dr. M. Kayserling, Geschichte der Juden 
 in Portugal, Leipzig, 1867. 
 
 2 See Kayserling, Die Juden in Mallorca in Jahrbuch fur die 
 Geschichte der Juden, 1860; Revue des etudes juives, 7., p. 31 ; and 
 Don Juan de la Puerta Vizcaino, Historia de los judios de Malorca, 
 Valence, 1857.
 
 44 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Judaicus). The Jews of the Frankish and Burgundian 
 kingdoms were allowed to carry on agriculture, trade and 
 commerce without restraint, and to navigate the seas and 
 rivers in their own ships. They also practised medicine, 
 and the advice of the Jewish physicians was even sought by 
 the clei'gy. They were also acquainted with the art of war, 
 and took an active part in the battles between Clovis and 
 Theodoric's generals before Aries. 1 The Jews lived on the 
 best of terms with the population of the country. Some 
 traits of friendly feeling and of amicable correspondence 
 with respectable Jews occur in the elegant works of Sidonius 
 Apollinarius. 2 
 
 The good Hilary in his diocese of Poitiers in Gaul con- 
 stantly protected the Jews from all ill-treatment, so that at 
 his funeral the Israelites were heard chanting in Hebrew their 
 mournful psalms of lamentation for the Christian Bishop. 
 They mourned also over another Bishop, Gallus of Clermont. 3 
 
 The Jews of Gaul lived in strict accordance with the 
 precepts of their religion. Wherever they settled they 
 built their synagogues and constituted their communities in 
 exact agreement with the directions of the Talmud. A 
 spirit of hostility to the Jews spread from Burgundy, after 
 King Sigismund had embraced the Catholic faith (516), over 
 the Frankish countries. Already at the third and fourth 
 councils at Orleans (538 and 545), which sat at short 
 intervals, severe enactments were passed against them. 
 The Merovingian line at least threatened them with peculiar 
 rigour. As early as the year 540, King Childebert I. 
 forbade the Jews to appear in the streets of Paris during 
 the whole of Easter Week. 4 A little later, Clotaire II. 
 deprived them of the power of holding any dignity or office of 
 State, whether civil or military. The more the authority of the 
 Merovingian drones, as they have been called, declined, and 
 the more the power of the politic and cautious stewards, 
 
 1 Graetz, ibid., p. 36-37. 
 
 2 See Dom Vaissete, i. 243, Sidoine Appolinaire, in. epist. 4, 
 iv. epist. 5. 
 
 3 Boissi, Diss. sur les Juifs, t. n., p. 2, quoted by Milman, History 
 of the Jews, 1866, p. 37, 45. 
 
 * Leon Kahn, Les Juifs a Paris, 1889, p. 2.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS 45 
 
 Pepin's descendants, rose, the greater was the exemption 
 from persecution and torture enjoyed by the Jews. The 
 predecessors of Charlemagne seem to have had a presenti- 
 ment that the Jews were a serviceable class of men, whose 
 activity and intellectual capabilities could not but be 
 advantageous to the State. 1 
 
 The first settlement of the Jews in England is buried in 
 dim obscurity. Whether the Jews visited Britain with the 
 Phoenicians or not, it is certain that many of them were 
 living here after, and even before, the arrival of the Eomans. 
 At one time a cordial alliance existed between the Hebrew 
 and the Eoman, and many Jews served as soldiers in the 
 Eoman army. It is therefore probable that when the hosts 
 of Caesar landed upon our coast, the Jews were among the 
 invaders, and many, finding the country to their liking, 
 remained behind and took up their abode here. 2 
 
 Leaving on one side legendary times, we find the presence 
 of Jews in England under the Saxon kings fully attested. 
 The first mention made of the Jews in any document con- 
 nected with English history, is found in the canons of 
 Ecbright, Archbishop of York, which contain an ordinance 
 that no Christian shall presume to eat with a Jew, or shall 
 judaise, whatever that may have meant. These canons 
 were issued in the year 740 or 750, for the government of 
 the province of York. We see therefrom that not only 
 were there Jews in England at that period, but that they 
 were deemed of sufficient importance for the ruling powers 
 to warn the guileless Christians against their seductions. It 
 is related in the history of Croyland Abbey that in 833, 
 Whitglaff, King of the Mercians, having been defeated by 
 Egbert, took refuge in that Abbey, and in return for the 
 
 1 Graetz, ibid. p. 42. For references relating to the earlier history of 
 the Jews in Gaul, see Port, Histoire du commerce maritime de 
 Narbonne, p. 12, 13, 15, 168 ; M. E. Ouverleau, Notes et documents sur 
 les Juifs de Belgique sous 1'ancient Regime, Revue des etudes juives, 
 vii., 117 ; Vaissette, Histoire du Languedoc. t. i., liv. vi. ; G. Saige, Les 
 Juifs du Languedoc, p. 57, Paris, 1881 ; M. de Maulde, Les Juifs 
 dans les Etats francais du Saint-Siege, p. 3, note, Paris, 1886 ; Lelivre 
 des routes et des provinces d'Ibn Khordadieh, published by Barbier de 
 Meynard ; Leon Kahn, Les Juifs a Paris, depuis le vi e Siecle, Paris, 
 1889. 
 
 2 A. C. Ewald : Studies re-studied, London, 1885, p. 5-6.
 
 46 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 protection and assistance received, he granted a charter to 
 the monks of Croyland, confirming to them all lands, tene- 
 ments and gifts bestowed upon them by his predecessors 
 and their nobles, by Christians and by Jews. 1 
 
 Tradition assigns a very early date to the establishment of 
 the Jews in Germany. It is certain that a Jewish congre- 
 gation existed in the Eoman colony of the city of Cologne, 2 
 long before Christianity had been raised to power by Con- 
 stantine. The heads of the community and its most 
 respected members had obtained from the heathen emperors 
 the privilege of exemption from the onerous municipal 
 offices. The first Christian emperor, however, narrowed the 
 limits of this immunity, and only exempted two or three 
 families. The Jews of Cologne also enjoyed the privilege of 
 exercising their own jurisdiction, which they were allowed to 
 retain until the Middle Ages. A non- Jewish plaintiff, even 
 though he were a priest, was obliged to bring his suit 
 against a Jew before the Jewish judge. 3 
 
 1 J. Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History, p. i, London, 
 
 The only evidence from a Hebrew source, for the existence of Jews 
 in England in the ninth century, we find in Emek Habacha, p. 12, 
 Vienna, 1852, by R. Joseph Cohen, quoted in J. Jacobs, Jews of 
 Angevin England, p. 4, London, 1894. 
 
 Concerning the early history of the Jews in England, see Tovey 
 D'Blossiers, Anglia-Judaica, Oxford, 1738 ; John E. Blunt, History of 
 the Jews in England, p. 13, London, 1830; M. Margolioth, History 
 of the Jews in Great Britain, p. 179, London, 1846. J. Jacobs in 
 Jewish Quarterly Review, I, 286 8. 
 
 2 See Cod. Theodos. xvi, 8, c. 3 ; Das Judenschreinbuch der Lau- 
 renzpf zu Koln ; C. Brisch, Geschichte, der Juden in Coin, 1882. 
 
 3 Graetz, ibid. p. 43. For references relating to the history of the Jews 
 in Germany in the Middle Ages, see Elie Scheid, Histoire des Juifs 
 d' Alsace, Paris, 1887 ; Stobbe, Die Juden in Deutschland, Brunssvick, 
 1866 ; Wiener, Regesten zur Geschichte der Juden in Deutschland, 1862 ; 
 Hegel, Chroniken der Stadt Niirnberg, Leipzig, 1862 ; G. L. Kriegk, 
 Geschichte und Lage der Frankfurter Juden im Mittelalter, in Buch- 
 ner's Jahrbuch fur Israeliten, Leipzig, 1863, p. 49 seq ; M. Manheimer, 
 Die Juden in Worms, Frankfort, 1842, and in Halebanon, iv. 7; M. 
 Wiener, Zur Geschichte der Juden in der Residenzstadt Hannover, 
 incorporated in Jahrbuch fur die Geschichte der Juden, I. B., p. 
 169 216, Leipzig, 1860 ; J. C. Ulrich, Histoire des Juifs de Suisse, 1769. 
 G. Wolff, Geschichte der Juden in Wien, 1876; and Dr. J. Perles, Ges- 
 chichte der Juden in Posen, Breslau, 1865. Concerning the Jews of 
 Bohemia, see Dr. M. Grunwald, Geschichte der Juden in Bohmen.Pisek, 
 1885. J. Wertheimer, Die Juden in Oesterreich, Leipzig, 1842. On 
 the Jews of Saxony and Bavaria, see Sidori, Geschichte der Juden in 
 Sachsen, 1840, Leipzig; Aretin, Geschichte der Juden in Baiern, 
 Landshut, 1803.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 47 
 
 They seem to have come to Bohemia and Moravia, as emi- 
 grants from France and Italy. They were already to be 
 found at Prague before the end of the tenth century. Boles- 
 laus II. (967 999), granted them permission to build a 
 synagogue, in recompense for the assistance they gave him 
 in his wars with the Pagan inhabitants. 
 
 In the time of Leo the Isaurian, Emperor of Bysantium 
 (726), a large number of the Jews, whose ancestors had es- 
 tablished themselves in the land long before Christianity, fled 
 further afield to seek an asylum among the more tolerant 
 Pagans. Thus it came about that Jewish settlements were 
 formed in the Cimmerian Peninsula of Tauris (the modern 
 Crimea), and Hebrew communities were founded at Theo- 
 dosia (now Kaffa), Kareonpolis (Eski Krim), Phanegoria 
 (Taman), and Bosphorus (Kertsch). From the Crimea these 
 Graeco-Jewish communities spread to the Caucasus, the 
 Caspian Sea, and the mouth of the Volga. These are the 
 first authentic appearances of the Jews on Eussian soil. 
 The inhabitants of the region thus invaded were the Kho- 
 zares, or Togarmi (as they subsequently called themselves), 
 a Finnish tribe, who, after the break-up of the Empire of the 
 Huns, had established themselves in the neighbourhood of 
 Astrachan, whence they had gradually extended a powerful 
 dominion. Successful in a war with the Persians, they dis- 
 puted the sovereignty of the East with the Byzantine em- 
 perors, and both the Bulgars and Russins paid them tribute 
 Upon this semi-barbarous people the Jews exercised the 
 happiest influence, and ultimately one of their sages, Rabbi 
 Isaac Sangori, converted their king, Bulan, and a large 
 portion of the nation, to Judaism. In a subsequent reign, 
 that of a king named Obadiah, Judaism was formally ac- 
 knowledged as the religion of the State. Learned Jews 
 crowded the court; synagogues were built, and public col- 
 leges established for the study of the Bible and Talmud. 
 While the west and south were distracted by the anarchy 
 of sectarian wrangling, and the north and east were 
 shrouded in an impenetrable shadow of barbarism, the 
 shores of the Caspian and the Euxine flourished in the be- 
 nignant light of a Jewish civilisation. 1 
 
 1 L. Wolf in Sir Moses Montefiore, p. 128, London, 1884.
 
 48 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 The Jews persuaded the Khozares to abolish slavery, to 
 tolerate all races and religions, to acknowledge the sanctity 
 of family ties, and to cultivate literature and the sciences. 
 One of their kings, Joseph, corresponded with Eabbi Chasdai 
 Ibn-Shaprut, the famous Jewish Vizier of the Caliph 
 Abderrahman III., of Cordova. Even the Byzantine em- 
 perors paid tribute to them, and there was at one time a 
 chance of Khozar-Judaism spreading all over Russia. 
 
 The country was, however, converted to Christianity by 
 Sviatoslav of Kiev, who in 965, on the field of Sarkel, 
 inflicted a severe check on the power of the Togarmi. From 
 this date the importance of the Khozares gradually declined. 
 Under the influence of Judaism, they had become a peaceful 
 people, and they were no longer able to withstand the in- 
 roads of martial Slavs and Eussins by whom they were 
 surrounded. The kingdom shrunk until it became confined 
 to the Crimea. In the reign of a king named David, they 
 made a last effort to re-establish Judaism in the provinces 
 they had lost, by sending Jewish Eabbis to convert the 
 Eussin Prince, Vladimir the Great, but he, under the influ- 
 ence of his wife, a sister of the Emperor of Constantinople, 
 preferred the doctrines of the Greek Church, and was bap- 
 tised therein. David was the last of the Khozar kings. 
 
 In 1016, the Crimea was seized by the Eussins, and the 
 Jewish State was suppressed. The Khozar princes and 
 nobles fled to Spain, where many of their descendants be- 
 came distinguished for Talmudic learning. 1 
 
 Poland received at the end of the ninth century its Jewish 
 population from Germany. The German Jews sent a depu- 
 tation to the Pagan Leszek, Prince of Poland, in the year 
 
 1 Concerning the Khozares, see E. Carmoly, Des Khozares au x e 
 siecle, Bruxelles, 1833 ; A. Levy, Jahrbuch fur die Geschichte der 
 Juden, 1861, p. 273 ; Journal Asiatique, t. II. p. 416, viii. 266, 272; xii. 
 536 ; Bulletin de 1'Academie de S l Petersbourg, I. 1866, p. 244. Me- 
 moires de 1'Academfe de S*- Petersbourg, vii serie, t. ix. 1866, N- 7. 
 Melanges Asiatiques, t. v. p. 119164; Magyarische Alterthiimer, 
 p. 208 seq. Dr. Harkavy, Russische Revue, 1875 ; Graetz, History 
 (E.T.), t. iii. p. 140 144. Concerning the early history of the Bul- 
 garian Jews, see Steinschneider, Hebrai'sche Bibliographic, ix. 1869, p. 
 57, 58. References on the earlier history of the Roumanian Jews, see 
 M. J. Psantir, Lamberg, 1873, and I. Loeb, Situation des Israelites en 
 Turquie, en Serbie et en Roumanie, p. 142.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 49 
 
 893, asking to be permitted to take refuge in his dominions. 
 The names and condition of the members of this embassy 
 throw an interesting light on the degree of culture attained 
 by the Jews of Central Europe at this early epoch. They 
 were Eabbi Hezekiah Sephardi, Eabbi Akiba Estramaduri 
 the mathematician, Emanuel Ascaloni the rhetorician, Rabbi 
 Levi Baccari, and Eabbi Nathaniel Barceloni. At Gnesen, in 
 the year 893, they interviewed the Polish prince. Eabbi 
 Levi was the spokesman of the party, and delivered a short 
 address in Latin, describing the persecutions to which his 
 brethren were subjected in Germany. He prayed that they 
 might be allowed to find an asylum in Poland; and, anticipa- 
 ting some anti-Jewish prejudice among the subjects of 
 Leszek, suggested that a remote and unpopulated district 
 might be assigned to them to inhabit and cultivate in peace. 
 Leszek enquired what were the tenets of Judaism, and then 
 promised to take counsel with the national priesthood on the 
 petition. Three days later, Eabbi Levi and his companions 
 were summoned into the presence of the Polish potentate to 
 hear his decision. Not only did he open his dominions freely 
 to the persecuted Hebrews, but he declined to accept their 
 humble suggestion to limit their rights of residence. He 
 permitted them to settle freely all over Poland, and to follow 
 agricultural, industrial, commercial, or any useful avocations 
 without let or hindrance. In the following year, 894, a great 
 concourse of Jews settled in Poland. 1 
 
 The most important and best known of all the foreign 
 cities in which the Jews were dispersed, was undoubtedly 
 Alexandria in Egypt. 2 It was Alexander the Great who 
 
 1 L. Wolf, ibid, p. 130, 131 ; Sternberg, Geschichte der s juden in 
 Polen, Leipzig, 1878, p. 7 9, note 3 ; A. Kraushar, Historya Zydow w 
 Polsce, p. 51 54, Warszawa, 1865 ; Lelewel, Pol. Wiek Sredn., t. ii., p. 
 417 419; L. Lubliner, Des Juifs en Pologne, Bruxelles, 1839; Zunz. 
 Itinerary of Benjamin, t. ii., p. 226. See also die Volkerwanderung und 
 inre Folgen fur die Juden Europa's insbesondere Deutschland in Jahres- 
 bericht der Samsonschule zu Wolfenbiittel fur 1877 78. Concerning 
 the Jews of Lithuania, see S. Berschadski, The Lithuanian Jews, 1883, 
 in Russian ; Materials for the History of the Jews in Lithuania, Peters- 
 burg, 1892, in Russian, two vols. On the Jews of the Caucasus, see The 
 Travels of Joseph Tscharni, Petersburg, 1884. On the earliest settle- 
 ment of the Jews in Georgia, see Klaproth, Journal Asiatique, 1834, p. 47. 
 
 2 See M. Joel, Blicke in die Religionsgeschichte, Breslau, 1880 1883, 
 ii., Anhang ii. 
 
 4
 
 50 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 settled large numbers of Jews in the new capital, and 
 granted them equal civil rights with the Hellenistic colonists. 
 When, after Alexander's death, the storms of war gathered 
 over Palestine, thousands of Jews were forcibly removed 
 to Egypt by Ptolemy I. ; arjd many others migrated there 
 of their own accord, attracted by the goodness of the 
 soil and the liberality of Ptolemy. The position of the Jews 
 in Egypt was a very favourable one ; they were able to make 
 large gains in trade, handicrafts, and skilled labour, and also 
 to carry on agricultural industries. They formed a separate 
 community among themselves with an ethnarch at their 
 head, with whom, at a later period, was associated a council 
 of Elders. Their ancient national organization and customs 
 were preserved ; they had many synagogues, of which the 
 principal one in Alexandria is said to have been magnificent 1 ; 
 and at Leontopolis, in the district of Heliopolis, they were 
 even permitted to erect a temple of their own. More than 
 two centuries before the destruction of Jerusalem, Onias, the 
 son of the high priest, being rejected from the succession to 
 the office, 2 fled from Jerusalem to Alexandria, and was 
 favourably received by Ptolemy Philometor. The king gave 
 over to him an almost ruined temple at Leontopolis, which 
 he rebuilt on the model of that at Jerusalem, but on a smaller 
 and more simple scale. It had similar altars for sacrifice and 
 incense, and was furnished with similar vessels. Onias him- 
 self was established as the high priest of it, and the same 
 religious services were performed in it as at Jerusalem, until 
 two years after the destruction of that city. 
 
 The sun of prosperity was not to shine always on the 
 Jewish community in Egypt. Under the Emperor Caligula 
 they began to be oppressed, and when in the reign of Ves- 
 pasian the Egyptian Jews took part in the insurrection 
 against Rome, the celebrated colony came to an end. When 
 Benjamin of Tudela visited the place, 8 the number of Jews 
 was not more than 3,000. 
 
 1 Succa, 5ib. Separate portions of the building were assigned to the 
 silversmiths, weavers, and other trades, and when a foreign operative 
 came to that city, he seated himself next to the members of his own 
 craft, and was supported by them until he had obtained employment. 
 
 2 Menachot, iogb. 
 
 3 Itinerary, i., 158, ed. Asher. For details regarding Alexandrian 
 learning and philosophy, see Dane geschichtliche Darstellung d. Jiidisch- 
 Alexandrinischen Religion und Philosophic, Halle, 1834 ; Kitto's Cyclo- 
 paedia of Biblical Literature, i., p. 107 no, Edinburgh, 1862.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 51 
 
 In the regions of Abyssinia,, a Jewish population has long 
 existed, who emigrated to that country long before the 
 Babylonish captivity. It is conjectured that the Falashas 
 and the Agows were at one time the principal inhabitants of 
 the south-eastern parts of Abyssinia. In the tenth century 
 there flourished a powerful Jewish dynasty, founded by a 
 woman named Judith ; and even after the fall of this dynasty 
 the Jews continued to exercise great power. The Falashas 
 live under princes of their own, in the high ridge called the 
 mountains of Samen, bearing Hebrew names, and paying 
 tribute to the Negus. They all profess the Jewish religion. 
 The Falashas are a people whose present condition suggests 
 many curious inquiries, and the investigation of whose history 
 may hereafter throw light upon that of the Abyssinians and 
 of their literature. 1 
 
 From time immemorial they had been domiciled in large 
 numbers in the towns of Arabia. Independent alike of the 
 Palestinian and Babylonian regime, they existed as a distinct 
 branch of the Israelitish nation, strong in their numerical 
 force, wealth, and social influence. The death-defying zealots 
 who, after the destruction of the second temple, fled in 
 part to Egypt and Gyrene in order to continue there the 
 despairing struggle against the thraldom of Eome, also passed 
 in straggling bands to Arabia, where they were not required 
 to surrender their spirit of freedom or to abandon their war- 
 like bearing. From these fugitives sprang three Jewish- 
 Arabic tribes the Benu-Nadhir, the Benu-Kuraiza, and the 
 Benu-Bachdal, the first two of which were descended from 
 Aaron, and therefore called themselves Cohanim. Another 
 Jewish family the Benu-Kainukar were established in 
 North Arabia, and their mode of living was different from 
 that of the Nadhir and Kuraiza. These tribes had their 
 
 1 Concerning the Jews of Abyssinia, see Bruce, Travels in Abyssinia, 
 ii., p. 184,231, 232; Riippel, Reise nach Abyssinien, Frankfort, 1838; 
 Martin Flad, Kurze Schilderung der Abessinischen Juden, Falascha, 
 Basel und Stuttgart, 1869. H. Zotenberg, Journal Asiatique, fevrier 
 mars, 1867. J. Halevy on his return from Africa, brought with him a 
 ritual of the Falashas Jews in the Ethiopian language, which has been 
 issued, accompanied by a Hebrew translation, Paris, 1877. Halevy's 
 Travels in Abyssinia has been published in the Miscellany of Hebrew 
 Literature, ii., p. 177 256, London, 1877 ; see also Dr. M. Caster, 
 Jewish Chronicle, January 22, p. 19, 1897.
 
 52 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 centre in the city of Yathrib, which was situated in a fruitful 
 district, planted with palms and rice, and watered by small 
 streams. As the Jews were often molested by Beduins, they 
 built castles on the elevated sites of the city and the surround- 
 ing country, whereby they guarded their independence. To 
 the north of Yathrib was situated the district of Chaibar, 
 which was entirely inhabited by Jews, who constituted a 
 separate commonwealth. The Jews of Chaibar are supposed 
 to have been descendants of the Rechabites, who, in accor- 
 dance with the command of their progenitor Jonadab, the son 
 of Eechab, led a nomadic and Nazarite life; after the destruc- 
 tion of the first temple they are said to have wandered as 
 far as the district of Chaibar, attracted by its abundance of 
 palms and grain. The Jews of Chaibar constructed a line of 
 castles or fortresses, the strongest of which was Kamus, built 
 upon a hill difficult of access. These castles protected them 
 from the predatory incursions of the warlike Beduins, and 
 enabled them to offer an asylum to many a persecuted fugi- 
 tive. Wadil-Kora (the valley of the villages), a fertile plain, 
 a day's journey from Chaibar, was also exclusively inhabi- 
 ted by Jews. 1 
 
 They were numerously represented in South Arabia 
 (Yemen). Like the Himyarites, the Jews of South Arabia 
 applied themselves more particularly to the world's trade 
 between India, the Byzantine empire, and Persia. The Jews 
 of northern Arabia, on the contrary, led the life of the 
 Beduins ; they occupied themselves with agriculture, cattle 
 breeding, transport by caravan, and traffic in weapons. The 
 Arabian Jews likewise possessed a patriarchal tribal consti- 
 tution. Several families were united under one name, and 
 led by a chieftain (Shai'ch), who in times of peace settled 
 controversies and pronounced sentence, and in war com- 
 manded all the men who were able to bear arms, and con- 
 cluded alliances with neighbouring tribes. 
 
 The Arabian Jews strictly observed the dietary laws, and 
 solemnized the festivals, and the fast of Yom Kippur, which 
 they called Ashura. They celebrated the Sabbath with such 
 rigour, that in spite of their desire for war and the opportu- 
 
 1 Graetz, History, iii. p. 5557.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JfiWS. 53 
 
 nity of satisfying it, they would let the sword remain in its 
 scabbard on that day. Although they had nothing to com- 
 plain of in this hospitable country, which they were able to 
 regard and love as their fatherland, they yearned nevertheless 
 to return to the Holy Land of their fathers, and daily awaited 
 the coming of the Messiah. Like all the Jews of the globe, 
 therefore, they turned their face in prayer towards Jerusalem. 
 They were in communication with the Jews of Palestine, and, 
 even after the fall of the patriarchate, willingly subordinated 
 themselves to the authorities in Tiberias, whence they 
 received, as also probably from the Babylonian academies, 
 religious instructions and interpretations of the Bible. The 
 Arabian Jews made their neighbours acquainted with a 
 calendar, without which the latter were unable to set them- 
 selves right ; learned Jews from Yathrib taught the Arabs to 
 insert another month in their lunar year, which was far in 
 arrear of the solar year. The Arabs adopted the nineteen 
 years' cycle from the Jews, about 420, and called the inter- 
 calary month Nasi, doubtless from the circumstance that 
 the Jews were accustomed to receive their festival calendar 
 from their Nasi. The Jews even succeeded in instructing 
 the Arabs in regard to their historical origin, concerning 
 which their memories were void, and the latter accepted this 
 genealogy as the true one. An Arabian king of Yemen, 
 Abu-Kariba, is said to have adopted Judaism, thereto per- 
 suaded by two Jewish sages Kaab and Assad. His youngest 
 son Dhu-Nowas (520 530) was a zealous disciple of Juda- 
 ism, and for that reason gave himself the Hebrew name of 
 Yussuf. 
 
 Like the Arabs, the Jews of the peninsula extended their 
 hospitality to everyone who entered their tents, and held 
 inviolable faith with their allies. The Arabs used the pro- 
 verbial expression, "Faithful as Samuel." Samuel Ibn- 
 Adiya (500 560) had lived at first in Yathrib (Medina), until 
 he had built a castle in the neighbourhood of Taima. This 
 he named Al-Ablak, because of its many colours ; it has been 
 immortalised in Arabian poetry. Ablak was a refuge for the 
 persecuted and exiled. The owner of the castle defended 
 those under his roof to the utmost extent of his power. 
 Imrulkais Ibn Hojr, the then poet laureate of Arabia, and
 
 54 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 an adventurous son of the Kendite prince, was watched both 
 secretly and openly by his enemies. He was therefore 
 restricted in his movements, and could not find shelter any- 
 where except in Samuel's safe retreat. Imrulkais took his 
 daughter and what remained of his retinue to Ablak, and 
 lived there for some time. As the Kendite prince had no 
 prospect of obtaining the assistance of the Arabians to 
 avenge the murder of his father and to regain his paternal 
 inheritance, he endeavoured to win over Justinian, the 
 Byzantine emperor. Before starting on his journey, he gave 
 to his daughter, to his cousin, and to Samuel, five valuable 
 coats of chain armour and other arms with which to protect 
 themselves. Samuel promised to guard the persons and the 
 goods entrusted to him as he would the apple of his eye. 
 When the Ghassanid prince was in Hejas, he went to Ablak, 
 Samuel's castle, and demanded the surrender of Imrulkais' 
 arms. Samuel refused to surrender them according to his 
 promise. Harith, the Ghassanid prince, then prepared to lay 
 a regular siege to the castle. Finding it, however, impreg- 
 nable, the tyrant had recourse to a barbarous expedient to 
 compel Samuel to submit. One of Samuel's sons having 
 been taken outside the citadel by his nurse, Harith captured 
 him, and threatened to kill him if his father did not carry 
 out his wishes. The unfortunate father only hesitated for a 
 moment between duty to his guest and affection for his son ; 
 the former had the first place, and he said to the Ghassanid 
 prince : " Do what you will; time always avenges treachery, 
 and my son has brothers." Unmoved by such magnanimity, 
 the despot slew the son before his father's eyes. Neverthe- 
 less, Harith had to withdraw from Ablak without accom- 
 plishing his object. 1 
 
 1 On the poetry of Samuel Ibn-Adiya, see Allg. Zeitung des Juden- 
 thums, 1838, p. 112; Silv. de Sacy, les Memoires de 1'Academie des 
 Inscriptions, t. 50, p. 350 409. Concerning the early history of the 
 first settlements of Jews in Arabia, see S. L. Rapoport, Biccure-ha- 
 Ittim, 1823, p. 51 77, Vienna; Literaturblatt des Orients, 1841, p. 
 273. 295; 1842, p. 784; 1843, p. 238; Graetz, Jahrbuch fiir die 
 judischen Gemeinden Preussens, Berlin, 5619, pp. 143 158. More 
 recently and even more extensive work, dealing with the history of the 
 Jews in Arabia, has appeared in the Revue des fitudes Juives, vii., 
 p. 167 ; x., p. 10, by Dr. H. Hirschfeld, and in the Jewish Quarterly 
 Review, iii., p 604 622, on the " Literature of the Jews in Yemen." 
 See also Journal Asiatique, vi., 354; the Times, loth July, 1882; 
 Graetz, History, iii., p. 55 71.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 55 
 
 Beyond the boundaries of either the old Koman or the 
 Byzantine Empire, Jews have in early times been met with, 
 both in the most remote parts of the interior of Asia and 
 upon the coast of Malabar. An otherwise unknown person, 
 Joseph Rabban by name, who is recognisable as a Babylonian 
 by reason of this title, arrived in the year 4250 of the Jewish 
 era (490), with many Jewish families, at the rich and busy 
 coast of Malabar. Airivi (Eravi), the Brahmin king of 
 Cranganor, welcomed the Jewish strangers, offered them a 
 home in his dominions, and suffered them to live according 
 to their peculiar laws, and to be ruled by their own princes 
 (Mardeliar). The first of these chiefs was their leader Joseph 
 Rabban, upon whom the Indian monarch conferred special 
 rights and princely honours, to be inherited by his descen- 
 dants. He was allowed, like the Indian princes, to ride upon 
 an elephant, to be preceded by a herald, accompanied by a 
 musical escort of drums and cymbals, and to sit upon a 
 carpet. Joseph Rabban is said to have been followed by 
 a line of seventy-two successors who ruled over the Indo- 
 Jewish colonists, until quarrels broke out among them. 1 
 Cranganor was destroyed, many of the Jews lost their lives, 
 and the remainder settled in Mattachery, a league from 
 Cochin, which acquired from this fact the name of Jews'- 
 town. 2 The privileges accorded by Airivi to the Jewish immi- 
 grants were engraved in ancient Indian (Tamil), characters 
 accompanied by an obscure Hebrew translation, on a copper 
 table, which is said to be extant at the present day. 8 Towards 
 the close of the seventeenth century the Jews of Cochin held 
 some correspondence with the Portuguese synagogue at 
 
 1 See the Travels of Solomon Rinman in India, Haschachar, t. xii., 
 and Hamagid, viii., p. 32 34. A treatise in MS. on the religious cere- 
 monies, feast and fast-days of Malabar is preserved in the Bet Hamidrash 
 of London, no. 53 of the catalogue. 
 
 2 They are now settled to the number of 7,000 in Bombay and its 
 neighbourhood. They are divided into two classes or castes that never 
 intermarry, the white Jews and the black, who are descendants of former 
 proselytes. Closely connected with them are the Jews of Cochin, who 
 claim to have settled even earlier in India, and are likewise divided into 
 two castes, white and black. Cat. of the Anglo-Jewish Historical 
 Exhibition, p. 44, 1887. 
 
 3 Graetz, ii., p. 637. A Hebrew translation and English version is 
 given in Brit. Mus. Exhibits, No. 41 ; printed in Benjamin II. 's "Eight 
 years in Asia and Africa," p. 187.
 
 56 THE CELEBBITIES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 Amsterdam, and information was given of a series of Jewish 
 kings who had successively reigned in the country. 1 
 
 In the far-distant regions of China, a Jewish population 
 has long existed. Between the time of Ezra and the des- 
 truction of the second temple, Jews from Persia emigrated 
 to China, and established themselves in five of the principal 
 cities of that vast empire. Their Persian origin is attested 
 by the mixture of Persian words in their language. The 
 whole population of the Chinese Jews sprang from seven 
 tribes or families, whose names seem to be derived from 
 those of the different emperors under whom at successive 
 periods these families established themselves in China. The 
 synagogue at Kae-fung-foo possessed a beautiful manuscript 
 copy of the Books of Moses ; and by way of Haphtorah, a 
 collection of passages selected from the Books of Joshua, 
 Judges, Samuel, Kings, and the Prophets, the Books of 
 Esther and Nehemiah, and some other historical books. It 
 possessed also a book of commentaries, and numerous copies 
 of their ritual. Among these Jews some learned men had 
 risen to the rank of mandarins ; one especially named Chao, 
 was much praised for having rebuilt at his own expense a 
 synagogue destroyed by fire. 2 
 
 1 Concerning the Indian Jews, see Archives Israelites, 1850, p. 2g 35, 
 1856, p. 273 275. Moses Pereyra de Pai'va, Amsterdam, 1768, pub- 
 lished his celebrated book concerning the Jews of Cochin under the 
 title, Noticias de los Judios de Cochim. On the collection of MSS. 
 brought from India by Dr. Buchanan, see Thomas Yete's collation of 
 an Indian copy of the Hebrew Pentateuch, Cambridge, 1812 ; see also 
 Jewish Intelligence, July, 1842; and S. Rinman, Massaot Salomo, 
 Vienna, 1887. 
 
 2 Da Costa, Israel and the Gentile, p. 146. For references to the Jews 
 in China, see De Sacy , Traite de la Chronologic Chinoise par le P. Gaubil, 
 Paris, 1814; Jewish Expositor, pp. 101, 135. 414; Grosier, Description 
 de la Chine, Paris, 1819, t. iv., p. 484; Zeitschrift Jedidiah, t. v. p. 
 100 104; Berlin, 1820-21 ; Sionnet, Essai sur les Juifs de la Chine, 
 Paris, 1837 ; J. Finn, the Jews in China, London, 1843 ; Steinschneider's 
 Hamazkir, t. i., 13 ; the Jew. Chronicle, 1860, No. 264, p. 7; J. Finn, The 
 Orphan Colony of Jews in China, London, 1872 ; American Jewish 
 Record, i4th November, 1862 ; Jewish Record, London, June 17, 1870 ; 
 Dr. Neubauer, Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. viii. ; Cordier, Les Juifs 
 en Chine, Paris, 1891.
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 THE EPOCH OF THE GAONIM. 
 
 IN the course of the sixth century the rule of Asia had 
 changed hands, for, in the month of April, 571, Mo- 
 hammed was born at Mecca, and in September, 622, he fled 
 with Abu Bekr from Mecca to Medina. 
 
 The Jews in the ancient Babylon attained a great measure 
 of freedom through the victories of the Mohammedans. 
 During their campaigns against the last Persian kings, the 
 Jews had rendered them much assistance, because they had 
 been persecuted under the last Sassanian princes. Their 
 assistance must have been opportune, as we find even the 
 fanatical caliph Omar bestowing rewards and privileges upon 
 them. It was doubtless, in consequence of the services which 
 they had rendered that the Mohammedan generals recog- 
 nised the descendants of the exilarch, viz., Bostenai, as of 
 the house of David, and the chief of the Jews. 1 Omar re- 
 spected Bostenai so highly that he gave him a daughter of 
 the Persian king Chosru in marriage. The exilarch had both 
 civil and political functions, and several Jews of the Babylo- 
 nian district formed a peculiar community under him. 
 Bostenai also obtained the exceptional permission to wear a 
 signet ring (gushpanka). Hy this means he was able to give 
 his documents and decrees an official character. Omar died 
 at the hands of an assassin (644), and his successor, Othman, 
 was killed in an insurrection (655). Ali, Mohammed's com- 
 rade and son-in-law, was nominated caliph by the conspira- 
 tors, but had, however, to struggle against many bitter 
 opponents. The kingdom of Islam was divided into two 
 camps. The one declared for Ali, who resided in the newly- 
 built town of Kufa ; the other for Moawiyah, a relative of 
 the murdered caliph Othman. The Babylonian Jews and 
 
 1 Concerning Bostenai, see J. Ekrish, Maase Rabbi Bostenai, Con- 
 stantinople, 1557; Maase Beth David. Basel, 1589; Responsa Shaare 
 Zedek, 33, Salonicha, 1792; Dr. M. Lehmann, Aus Vergangenheit und 
 Gcgenwart, t. ii., B. i; Rapaport, R. Hai, note i.
 
 58 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Nestorian Christians sided with Ali, and rendered him their 
 assistance. A Jew, Abdalah Ibn-Saba, was a spirited par- 
 tizan of Ali. It is said that at the census of the town of 
 Firuz-Shabur or Anbar there were on the side of Ali 90,000 
 Jews. At the head of these was Mar Isaac, a head of a 
 school. Their object was to do homage to the caliph, who 
 was but indifferently supported by his own followers (658). 
 The unhappy Ali valued this homage, and doubtless accorded 
 privileges to the Jewish head of the school. With Bostenai 
 and Mar Isaac, the Jewish officials recognized by the caliph, 
 there begins a new period in Jewish history the epoch of 
 the Gaonim. 1 
 
 The Jewish community in Babylonia, which had the 
 appearance of a state, had a peculiar constitution. The 
 exilarch was at their head, and next to him stood the gaon. 
 Both together, they united the community. The exilarch 
 filled political functions. He represented the Babylonian- 
 Persian Judaism under > the caliphs. He collected the taxes 
 from the various communities, and paid them into the trea- 
 sury. The exilarchs, Jboth in their outer appearance and 
 mode of life, were like princes. 2 They drove about in a 
 State carriage ; they had outriders and a kind of body-guard, 
 and received princely homage. The religious unity of 
 Judaism, on the other hand, was represented in the two 
 chief schools of Sora and Pumbeditha. They expounded 
 the Talmud, giving it a practical application ; they made 
 new laws and institutions, and saw that they were carried 
 out by allotting punishments to those who transgressed 
 them. The exilarch shared the judicial power in common 
 with the gaon of Sora and the head of the school of 
 Pumbeditha. 
 
 Now that the exilarch enjoyed princely respect every- 
 where, his successors were installed with a certain festive 
 ceremony. Although the office was hereditary in the house 
 of Bostenai, the acquiescence of both schools was required 
 
 1 Graetz, iii., go 92. 
 
 2 Cf. I. Abrahams, Jewish Life, p. 287. The information here given 
 on the earlier history of the Gaonim, is taken from Graetz, History, 
 iii., p. 9499.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 59 
 
 for the nomination of a new exilarch, and thus there came 
 to be a fixed installation service. The officials of both the 
 schools, together with their colleagues, and the most re- 
 spected men in the land, betook themselves to the residence 
 of the designated exilarch. In a large open place, which 
 was lavishly adorned, seats were erected for him and the 
 presidents of the schools. The Gaon of Sora delivered an 
 address to the future Exilarch, in which he was reminded 
 of the duties of his high office, and was warned against 
 haughty conduct toward his brethren. The installation 
 always took place in the synagogue, and on a Thursday. It 
 consisted in both officials putting their hands upon his head, 
 and declaring amidst the clang of trumpets, " Long live our 
 Lord the Prince of the Exile." The people, who were 
 always present in great numbers on the occasion, voci- 
 ferously joined in. All present then accompanied the new 
 exilarch home from the synagogue, and presents flowed in 
 from all sides. On the following Saturday evening there 
 was a special festive service for the new prince. A pulpit 
 in the shape of a tower was erected for him in the syna- 
 gogue. This was decked with costly ornaments, that he 
 might appear like the kings of the house of David in the 
 temple, on a raised seat, apart from the people. He was 
 conducted to divine service by a numerous and honourable 
 suite. The reader chanted the prayers, with the assistance 
 of a well-appointed choir. Led to the pulpit, the Gaon of 
 Sora approached the exilarch, bent his knee before him, 
 and sat at his right hand. His colleague of Pumbeditha 
 having made a similar obeisance, took his seat on the left. 
 At the reading of the law they brought the scroll to the 
 exilarch, which was otherwise considered to be the privilege 
 of the king. He was also the first one called up to the 
 reading of the law, which was only done on ordinary occa- 
 sions to the descendants of the house of Aaron. In order 
 to honour him the president of the school of Sora acted as 
 interpreter, expounding the passage that had been read. 
 After reading the law it was customary for the Prince of the 
 Exile to deliver an address. But if the exilarch were not 
 learned enough, this might be done by the Gaon of Sora.
 
 60 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 In the final prayer for the glorification of God's name 
 (Kadish, Gloria), the name of the exilarch was mentioned: 
 " May this happen in the lifetime of the prince." There- 
 upon followed a special blessing for him (Yekum Purkan), 
 for the heads of the school and its members, and for the 
 names of the countries, places and persons, far and near, 
 that had advanced the welfare of the high schools by their 
 contributions. A festive procession from the synagogue to 
 the house or palace of the exilarch, and a sumptuous repast 
 to the officials and prominent personages, which often in- 
 cluded State officers, formed the conclusion of this peculiar 
 act of homage to the exilarch. 1 
 
 The president of the school of Sora was the second in 
 rank in the Judaeo-Babylonian community. He was the 
 only one who held the title of gaon officially, and he had 
 the precedence over his colleague of Pumbeditha on all 
 occasions, even though the former were a young man and 
 the latter an aged one. Next to the president came the chief 
 judge, who discharged the judicial duties, and was, as a rule, 
 the next in office. Below these were seven presidents of the 
 Assembly of Teachers, and three others who bore the title of 
 associate or scholar, and who seem to have composed the 
 Inner Senate. Then came a college of a hundred members, 
 which was divided into two unequal bodies, one of seventy 
 members, representing the "Great Sanhedrin," the other of 
 thirty forming the "Smaller Sanhedrin." The seventy were 
 ordained, and consequently qualified for promotion ; they 
 bore the title of teacher. The thirty or " Smaller Sanhedrin," 
 do not seem to have been entitled to a seat and vote, but 
 were simply candidates for the higher dignity. The mem- 
 bers of the college generally bequeathed their offices to their 
 sons, but the office of president was not hereditary. Twice 
 a year in March and September (Adar and Elul), the college 
 held a general meeting, in accordance with ancient usage, 
 and sat for a whole month. During this period the members 
 occupied themselves with theoretical points, inasmuch as 
 they discussed and explained some portion of the Talmud, 
 
 1 See Shevet Jehuda, edition of Dr. Wiener, p. 84 86, Hanover, 
 1855. N. Z. Getsov in his valuable book, " By the Rivers of Babylon," 
 Hebrew, p. 45 56, Warsaw, 1887.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 61 
 
 which had been given out beforehand as the theme. But the 
 principal attention of the meeting was directed to practical 
 purposes. New laws and regulations were considered and 
 decreed ; and points which had formed the subject of inquiry 
 by foreign communities, during the preceding months, were 
 discussed and answered by a declaration of the sense of the 
 meeting. Little by little the replies to the numerous in- 
 quiries addressed to them by foreign communities on points 
 of religion, morals, and civil law, came to occupy the greater 
 part of the session. At the end of the session, all opinions 
 expressed by the meeting on the points submitted for their 
 consideration were read over, signed by the principal in the 
 name of the whole college, confirmed with the seal of the 
 academy, and forwarded by messenger to each community, 
 with a ceremonious form of greeting from the college. 
 
 The further the dominion of the caliphate of the house of 
 Ommiyah was extended to the north beyond the Oxus, to 
 the east to India, in the west and the south to Africa and the 
 Pyrenees the more adherents were gained for the Baby- 
 lonian Jewish chiefs. Every conquest of the Mahometan 
 generals enlarged the boundaries of the dominion under the 
 rule of the Prince of the Captivity and the Gaonim. Even 
 Palestine, which was now robbed of its centre, subordinated 
 itself to Babylonia. The hearts of all Jews turned towards the 
 possessors of power on the Euphrates, and their presents 
 flowed in freely to enable the house of David to make a 
 worthy appearance, and the Talmudical academies to con- 
 tinue to exist in splendour. The pain arising out of their 
 dispersion to all corners of the earth, was mitigated by the 
 knowledge that by the rivers of Babylon, where the flower 
 of the Jewish nation in its full vigour had settled, and where 
 the great Amoraim had lived and worked, a Jewish common- 
 wealth still existed. 
 
 After Mar-Isaac, the first Gaon of Sora, Eab Hunai held 
 office contemporaneously with Mar-Eaba in Pumbeditha 
 (670 680) ; Mar Sheshna ben Tachlipha of Sora, with Mar 
 Bussai or Bostenai of Pumbeditha (680689). Mar Chaninai 
 of Nehar Pakod in Sora (689697), with Eab Hunai Mari 
 ben Joseph in Pumbeditha (689700) ; Eab Nahilai ha-
 
 62 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE .TEWS. 
 
 Levy of Nares in Sora (697 715), with Eab Chiya of 
 Mesene (700710) and Mar Eabya (710719) in Pumbeditha. 
 
 The successor of Mar Eabya was Eab Natronai ben 
 Nehemiah, surnamed Mar-Yanka (719 730), with the princi- 
 pal of Sora, Eab Jacob of Nehar Pakod (715732). Mar 
 bar Samuel was the principal of Sora (733 751), with Mar 
 Judah (730739) in Pumbeditha. 
 
 Eab Mari ha-Cohen (751759), Eab Acha, the author 
 of the Sheiltoth, 1 for a few months only, and Eab Jehudah, 
 the Blind (759 762), were the principals of Sora, with Mar 
 Joseph ben Chutanai, Mar Samuel ben Eab Mar, and Mar 
 Natroi Kahana ben Emuna (739 761), in Pumbeditha. The 
 successor of Mar-Kahana was Eab Dudai bar Nachman 
 (761764), the brother of Eab Jehudah the Blind. 2 
 
 About the middle of the eighth century there originated a 
 sect, which caused a division in Judaism lasting to the 
 present day namely, the sect of the Karaites. The exilarch 
 Solomon had died (761, 762) without issue, and the office 
 ought to have been conferred on his nephew, Anan ben David. 
 But the two brothers, sons of Nachman, who held the gaonic 
 office, united with their colleagues to prevent Anan from suc- 
 ceeding to the dignity of exilarch, and to choose in his stead 
 his younger brother Chananya, or Achunai. Anan became 
 hostile to the gaonate, and transferred all his animosity 
 to the Talmud, the principal source of their importance. 
 He considered everything in the Talmud reprehensible, and 
 was desirous of returning to the Bible for the ordering of 
 
 1 A question-and-answer exposition of the rites, ceremonies, and insti- 
 tutions of the Law, upon the basis of the weekly parashioth of the 
 Pentateuch, editio princeps, Venice, 1546. 
 
 2 The teachings of the Gaonim are incorporated in the following 
 works : (i) Halachot Pesukot, Constantinople, 1517. (2) Shaalot u- 
 Teshuboth, Constantinople, 1575. (3) Shaare Tsedek, Salonicha, 1792. 
 (4) Shaalot u-Teshuboth ha-Gaonim, edited by M. Meiyuchos, Salonicha, 
 1802, re-edited, Leipzig, 1858 ; and with a commentary by I. M. Chazan, 
 Leghorn, 1868. (5) Teshuboth Gaonim Kadmonim, edited by D. Cassel, 
 Berlin, 1848. (6) Chemdah Genuzah, Jerusalem, 1863. (7) Responsa 
 by Rabbi Jacob Musfaiya, Lyck, 1864. (8) Teshuboth Gaonim, edited 
 by N. Cornil, Vienna, 1871. (9) Toratan shel Rishonim, edited by 
 C. M. Horwitz, Frankfort, 1882. (10) Sikkaron Lerishonim, collated 
 by Dr. A. E. Harkavy, Berlin, 1887. (n) Teshuboth Gaonei Mizrach 
 u-Maarab, edited by Dr. J. Miiller, Berlin, 1888 ; see also his Einleitung 
 in die Responsen der Babylonishen Geonen, Berlin, 1891.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 63 
 
 religious life. On account of this return to the letter of the 
 Bible (Mikra), the system of religion which Anan founded 
 received the name of the religion of the Text, or Karaism. 1 
 In the strict observance of the Sabbath, Anan left the 
 Talmud very far behind. He pronounced it unlawful to 
 administer any medicines on the Sabbath, even in the case of 
 I. dangerous illness, or to perform the operation of circum- 
 cision, or to leave the house in those cities where the Jews 
 did not live separate from the non-Jewish population ; he 
 did not allow any warm food to be eaten, nor even a light or 
 fire to be kindled on the eve of the Sabbath by the Jews 
 themselves, or for their use on the Sabbath evening. Anan 
 introduced the custom among the Karaites of spending the 
 Sabbath eve in entire darkness. 
 
 Rab Jehudah, the blind, Gaon of Sora, who had done 
 much to oppose Anan's claim, composed a Talmudical com- 
 pendium under the title of, " Halachoth Pesukoth ; short 
 and Established Practice." 2 
 
 On the death of Chananya or Achunai, and hardly ten 
 years after Anan's defection from Rabbinism, a struggle for 
 the exilarchate broke out afresh between two pretenders, 
 Zaccai ben Achunai and Natronai ben Chabibai. The two 
 heads of the schools at this period, Rab Malka bar Acha, of 
 Pumbeditha (771 773), and Rab Chaninai Kahana ben 
 Huna, of Sora (765 -775), united to bring about the overthrow 
 of Natronai, and succeeded in procuring his banishment from 
 Babylonia. He emigrated to Maghreb (Kairuan), in which 
 city there had existed even since its foundation a numerous 
 Jewish population. 
 
 After Rab Chaninai Kahana, the names of the Gaonim of 
 Sora are : Mari Halevi ben Mesharshaya (775 778) ; Rab 
 
 1 Concerning the history and the literature of the Karaites, see S. 
 Pinsker's Likkutei Kadmonioth, Vienna, 1860. J. Fiirst, History of the 
 Karaites, Leipzig, 1862 1865 ; Professor D. Chwolson, Achtzehn 
 Hebrai'sche Grabschriften aus der Krim, St. Petersburg, 1865 ; Saturday 
 Review, May 5th, 1866 ; Neubauer's Beitrage und Dokumente zur 
 Geschichte des Karaerthums, Leipzig, 1866 ; H. Strack, A. Firkowitsch 
 und seine Endeckungen, Leipzig, 1876; Dr. A. E. Harkavy, Altjiidische 
 Denkmaler aus der Krim, 1876 ; Graetz, t. iii.. p. 129140; E. Deinard, 
 Massa Krim, Warsaw, 1878 ; S. Sachs, Hamelits, t. i. 
 
 - Edited by Schlossberg, Versailles, 1886.
 
 64 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Bebai Halevi ben Abba (778788) ; Eab Hilai ben Mari 
 (788797); Eab Jacob ben Mordecai (791811); Eab 
 Abumari ben Mordecai (811 819) ; Eab Zadoc or Eab 
 Isaac ben Ashi (819821) ; Eab Hilai ben Chaninai (821 
 824); Eab Kimai ben Ashi (824-827); Eab Moses ben 
 Jacob (827837) ; Mar Kohen Zedek I. ben Abima (839 
 859) ; and Mar Sar-Shalom ben Boas ; contemporaneously 
 with Eabba ben Dudai (773782) ; Eab Shinui, for a few 
 months only ; Eab Chananai ben Abraham Kahana (782 
 786); Eab Huna Mar Halevi ben Isaac (786788); Eab 
 Manasseh ben Joseph (788 796) ; Eab Isaiah ben A bba 
 (796-798); Eab Joseph ben Shila (798-804); Mar Kahana 
 ben Chaninai (804 810) ; Eab Abumari ben Abraham (810 
 814) ; Eab Joseph ben Abba (814816) ; Mar Abraham 
 ben Sherira (816 828J; Eab Joseph ben Chiya (828833) ; 
 Eab Joseph ben Eabbi (833842) ; Eab Paltoi ben Abayi 
 (842 858) ; and Eab Menachem ben Joseph ben Chiya 
 (858860), Gaonim of Pumbeditha. 
 
 About the same time 1 Eab Simon Caro or Cayara com- 
 piled his Halachoth Gedoloth* exhibiting a copious abstract 
 of the principal decisions of the Talmud. 
 
 After Mar Sar Shalom ben Boas, the first Gaon of Sora, 
 Eab Natronai II., son of Hillai (859 869), held office con- 
 temporaneously with Mar Mattathias (860869), in Pumbe- 
 ditha. Eab Netronai energetically opposed the Karaites just 
 as the Gaonim had done at the time of the rise of this sect, 
 " because they despised the words 'of the sages of the 
 Talmud, and set up for themselves a peculiar, arbitrary 
 Talmud of their own." 3 
 
 His pupil and successor, Mar Amram ben Sheshna (869 
 881), and Eab Nachshon ben Zadok (881889), held office 
 at Sora contemporaneously with Eabba bar Ami (869 872), 
 and Mar Zemach I. ben Paltoi (872890) at Pumbeditha. 
 Mar Amram ben Sheshna was the compiler of the liturgical 
 
 1 See Dr. Harkavy Revue des etudes juives, 14, p. 194, 195. 
 
 2 Editio Princeps, Venice, 1548 ; the best edition is that which has 
 been published by Dr. J. Hildesheimer, with his erudite introduction, 
 Berlin, 18851886. 
 
 3 See Dr. J. Miiller's Einleitung, p. 100, 101.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 65 
 
 order of prayers in use amongst European Jews. At the 
 request of a Spanish community, through the interposition 
 of their religious leader, Eabbi Isaac ben Eabbi Simeon, he 
 collected together everything that the Talmud and the 
 custom of the schools had ratified concerning prayer and 
 divine service, and arranged it in the order which the pro- 
 gress of time had perfected. This arrangement was con- 
 sidered permanent. 1 
 
 The gaon Zemach ben Paltoi of Pumbeditha arranged an 
 alphabetical dictionary of difficult words in the Talmud 
 under the title of " Aruch," 2 in which he shows his acquain- 
 tance with the Persian language. This dictionary forms 
 the first contribution to the ever-growing department of Tal- 
 mudical lexicography. His contemporary, Eabbi Nachshon 
 ben Zadok of Sora, wrote a book giving explanations of 
 difficult words in the Talmud. Eabbi Nachshon made him- 
 self famous through his discovery of a key to the Jewish 
 calendar, viz., that the order of the years and festivals 
 repeats itself after a cycle of two hundred and forty- seven 
 years, and that the form of the years could be arranged in 
 fourteen tables. This key is named after him, and is known 
 as the cycle of Eabbi Nachshon. 3 He also composed a code 
 of ordinances embracing the laws relating to the slaughter 
 of animals for food, under the title of Eeuma. 4 
 
 About the same time Eabbi Judah Ibn-Koreish, of Tahurt 
 in Morocco, skilled in languages, nourished in Fez. He 
 composed: (1) A Hebrew dictionary (Iggaron) in alpha- 
 betical order. 5 (2) Eisalet, or a letter to the congregation of 
 the Jews at Fez, among whom he stood in high estimation. 
 
 1 It has been published at the first time, Warsaw, 1865 ; see Miiller's 
 Einleitung, p. 121 129; I H. Weiss, Zur Geschichte, iv., p. 123; Dr. 
 Harkavy, Teschubot ha-Geonim, notes, p. 392. 
 
 2 This Dictionary is known to us by quotations in the Juchasin of 
 Rabbi A. Zaccuti ; see Rapaport's Rabbi Nathan, note n ; Zeitschrift 
 der D.M.G. xii., p. 144, xix., p. 320, note 2; Kohut in his Preface to 
 the Plenus Aruch, xvii. xxi., Vienna, 1878. 
 
 3 Editio princeps, Basle, 1527 ; see Rapaport's Rabbi Nathan, p. 82, 
 note 30. 
 
 4 Editio princeps, Constantinople, 1566; concerning Rabbi Nachshon, 
 see Miiller's Einleitung, p. 129 -137. 
 
 5 Quoted by Ibn Saruk, Ibn Labrat, Ibn Ganach, Rashi, Ibn Ezra, 
 and Kimchi. 
 
 5
 
 66 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 This Eisalet, which the author himself wished to be regarded 
 as the second part of the dictionary, exhorts the congregation 
 not to banish the Aramaic Targum from the schools and 
 synagogues, and to consider the great value which the 
 Aramaen has for a knowledge of Hebrew. After the intro- 
 duction follow three sections : (a) an explanation of difficult 
 Hebrew words, from the Targum, in alphabetical order ; (b) 
 an explanation of Hebrew words from the Mishna and 
 Talmud ; and (c) a comparison of Hebrew with Arabic. 1 
 
 The traveller Eldad ha-Dani, a narrator of the history of 
 the ten tribes, belonged to the list of interpreters of Hebrew 
 words, and was recognised as an expositor by his contem- 
 poraries Ibn Koreish, as well as by others afterwards. Mar 
 Zemach ben Chaim, the head of the school at Sora (889 
 896), communicated to the Keruanites (in his views respect- 
 ing Eldad 2 ) that a great difference prevailed between the 
 scholars of Palestine and Babylonia with reference to the 
 vowel signs and accents, and the Masora of the Scripture text. 
 
 After Mar Zemach, Eabbi Malchia held office only for a 
 month. 
 
 At the end of the ninth century lived at Tiberias, Aaron 
 ben Moses ben Asher, usually called Ben Asher. His most 
 important writings were: (1) Sepher ben Asher; the restora- 
 tion of a standard text of Scripture, furnished with accents 
 and vowels as well as the Masora. This Scripture copy of 
 Ben Asher gradually procured for itself general acceptation 
 for all times. 3 (2) A Masora-book, called Masoret ben Asher, 
 in which the Masora is noted both at the particular word of 
 Scripture, and as a whole, at the conclusion of the original 
 
 1 It was printed for the first time by B. Goldberg, Paris, 1857. 
 
 2 The Responsa of Mar Zemach concerning Eldad ha-Dani has been 
 published for the first time with the Narrations of Eldad, at Mantua, 
 before 1480 ; a translation in French is given by E. Carmoly, Paris, 
 1838. See Rapaport's Rabbi Saadiah, note 6, and Rabbi Nathan, note 
 ii ; see also his Introduction to Parchon's Aruch, p. x. xiii. ; Munk, 
 Journal Asiatique. juillet, 1850, p. 21 ; Frankel, Monatsschrift, 1873, p. 
 490; Dr. Harkavy, Revue des Etudes juives, 14, p. 195, 196 ; Dr. D. H. 
 Eldad, Vienna, 1892 ; and Miiller's Einleitung, p. 141. 
 
 3 Maimonides (Hil. Sepher Tora viii. 4), found this original writing 
 of Ben-Asher in Egypt, whither it had been carried from Jerusalem, 
 and reckoned it of sufficient importance to correct the Bible manuscripts 
 according to it.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 67 
 
 text, in a summary manner. 1 (3) The Book of Accents; a repre- 
 sentation of the accent-system for 21 books of Scripture, as 
 well as the doctrine of accents concerning the three books of 
 Scripture, Psalms, Proverbs, and Job, all like his Masora- 
 book, in hard, abstruse, Hebrew verses. 2 (4) A Treatise upon 
 Consonants and Vowels, of which only a few fragments have 
 come down to us, inserted in his small work upon accents. 3 
 
 As an antagonist of Ben Asher, Moses ben David ben 
 Naphtali appeared in Bagdad, He wrote a small work upon 
 the Doctrine of Vowels and Accents, as well as upon 
 Masoretic Variations belonging to Scripture, in strong opposi- 
 tion to Ben Asher. 
 
 In the ninth century the Masora-book, ' ' Achlah we Achlah," 
 was already known. It was a kind of lexical Masora, put 
 together in alphabetical order, and began with "Achlah," 4 
 and "We Achlah," 5 which appear only once (hence the 
 name), and contained grammatical remarks in addition to 
 Masora. The grammarians Ibn Balam Kimchi, Eabbi Joseph 
 Ibn Aknin and Eabbi Isaac ben Judah," mentioned this work. 7 
 
 1 A short chapter from the Masora-book is found in Dukes' Kontras 
 ha-Masoret, p. 36. 
 
 2 Editio princeps appeared in the Rabbinical Bible of Venice, 1518, 
 but only consisting of a few fragments. The subsequent copy of Dukes' 
 after a manuscript of Luzzato's under the name "Kontras ha-Masoret," 
 Tubingen, 1846, was not only a very divergent text, but also a piece of 
 his grammar, and particularly that upon the poetical accents, which 
 W. Heidenheim has correctly printed in his editions of the Psalms, 
 Rodelheim, 1842; a commentary upon the first chapter of Ben Asher 
 concerning the poetic accents was supplied by I. Baer in his Torath 
 Emeth, Rodelheim, 1852. 
 
 3 Fiirst's Introduction to his Hebrew Lexicon, p. xxiv. 
 
 4 Samuel i. 9. 
 
 5 Gen. xxvii. 19. 
 
 6 In his grammatical book under the title of Sepher ha-Eishel, MS. 
 in Bodleian Library. 
 
 7 Has been published and furnished with explanatory remarks by Dr. 
 S. Frensdorf, Hanover, 1864. 
 
 Fuller references on the Masora are to be found in the following 
 works ; Rabbi EHas Levita, Masoret ha-Masoret, Venice, 1538 ; 
 German translation by Semler, Halle, 1770. Jacob ben Chaim, Intro- 
 duction to the Rabbinic Bible, English, by Dr. Ch. Ginsburg, London, 
 1865 ; Buxtorf, Tiberias, Basle, 1620 ; Eichorn, Einleitung ins A. T., 
 vol. i., sec. 140 158; De Wette Einleitung, sec. 90 92; Havernick, 
 Introd. to the O. T., p. 279; Bleek Einleitung ins A. T., p. 803 ; Dr. Ch. 
 Ginsburg, The Masora compiled from MS. recently published, Vienna, 
 18801887. Joseph Kalman, Mebo ha-Masora, Warsaw, 1862 ; Stern's
 
 68 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Famous amongst the Eabbanites, towards the end of the 
 ninth century, was Eabbi Isaac ben Suleiman Israeli (840 
 940). He was physician, philosopher and Hebrew philolo- 
 gist. He was an Egyptian, and was called to Kairuan about 
 the year 904 to be physician to the last Aghlabit prince, 
 Ziadeth Allah. Eabbi Isaac Israeli entered his service and 
 enjoyed his full favour until the founder of the Fatimidic 
 dynasty, Ubaid- Allah, the messianic Imam Almadi conquered 
 the Aghlabite prince, and founded a great kingdom in Africa 
 (909933). 
 
 Israeli had a great reputation as a physician, and had 
 many pupils. At the request of the Caliph Ubaid-Allah, he 
 wrote eight medical works, the best of which is said to be 
 that on fever. His medical writings were translated into 
 Hebrew, Latin, and part of them into Spanish, and .were 
 zealously studied by many doctors. A Christian physician, 
 the founder of the Salernian School of Medicine, plagiarised 
 and took credit for Israeli's works. 1 Israeli was an important 
 contributor to the development of medical science. His 
 lectures must have made a greater impression upon his 
 hearers than his writings. He instructed two disciples, a 
 Mahometan Abu-Jafar Ibn-Aljezzar, who is recognised as an 
 authority in medicine ; and a Jew, Dunash ben Tamim, 2 who 
 worked in the spirit of his master. Israeli lived to be more 
 than 100 years old, and survived his patron the Caliph Ubaid- 
 Allah, who accelerated his death through neglecting the advice 
 of his Jewish physician. 8 
 
 Preface to the Liber Responsionum, p. i 40, Vienna, 1870; S. Baer, 
 Dikduke ha-Taamim, of Aaron ben Moses, Leipzig, 1879 ; Samuel 
 Rosenfeld's Mishpachat Sopherim, Vilna, 1883 ; and I. H. Weiss, Zur 
 Geschichte, iv. ch. 23 and 24. 
 
 1 Graetz, iii., p. 184. 
 
 2 Born about goo, and died about 960. He came from Irak and lived 
 in Kairuan. Like his teacher Israeli, he applied himself to the Hebrew 
 language as well as to other sciences, and wrote a special Hebrew Gram- 
 mar, containing a comparison of the linguistic phenomena characteristic 
 of the Hebrew and Arabic languages ; see Ibn Ezra in his Preface to the 
 Sepher Mosnaim ; he wrote also a commentary on Sepher Jecira, see 
 Dukes, Shire Shelomo, i., p. 4. 
 
 3 Israeli wrote : (i) Description of Fever, of which a Latin transla- 
 tion is given in the " Isaaci Opera Omnia, latine," Leyden, 1505-16. 
 
 (2) Description of Medicament, a Latin version, in the Isaaci Opera. 
 
 (3) Treatise on the Health, Latin, in the Isaaci Opera. (4) Sepher ha-
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 69 
 
 Meanwhile the institution to which the reminiscence of 
 the former political independence of Judaism had attached 
 itself was soon to be dissolved. The Exilarchate fell into 
 disregard through the rivalry of the school of Pumbeditha, 
 and also lost the revenue which served as its mainstay. Even 
 though questions from abroad continued to be directed to the 
 Gaonim of Sora, the sister academy was considered even in 
 Babylonia to be the chief aiithority and to have the most 
 influence. This influence was increased still more through 
 the choice as Gaon of Pumbeditha of Eab Hai ben David 
 (890 897), who had hitherto held the post of rabbi and 
 judge in the capital of the caliphate. It was just at this 
 time, at the end of the 9th century, that the Jews again 
 enjoyed a high position in the caliphate, under the Caliph 
 Al-Mutadhid (892902). His vizier and regent Ubaid-Allah 
 Ibn-Suleiman appointed Jews and Christians alike to State 
 offices. The community of Bagdad gained the most through 
 the favour shown by the vizier. Now that Eab Hai had 
 occupied his post in the capital for a long time, and had 
 made himself popular in the community, he was elected Gaon 
 of Pumbeditha by the influential members. Their object 
 was to make the school of Pumbeditha of greater importance. 
 His successors Eab Kimai ben Achai (897 906), and Mar 
 Jehudah ben Samuel (906 917), contemporary with Bab 
 Hai ben Nachshon (896906), and Eab Hilai ben Mishael 
 
 Jesodot, Book on the Elements, Latin, in the Isaaci Opera; a German 
 translation is given by Dr. S. Fried, Liepzig, 1884 ; see De Sacy, 
 Relation de 1'Egypt par Abdolatif, p. 43 45. Wiistenfeld, Geschichte, 
 p. 51; Munk, Journal Asiatique, juillet, 1850. (6) Treatise on the 
 Urine, Latin, in the Isaaci Opera. (7) Sepher ha-Gebulim, or Book of 
 Definitions; Latin, Isaaci Opera. See Maimonides' Letters, ed. Lichten- 
 berg, p. 28. (8) Introduction to medicine, MS. preserved in the Bib. 
 Nationale at Paris, No. 1190. (9) Treatise on the Pulse, mentioned by 
 Ibn Osaiba. (10) Treatise on the Theriaque quoted by the same, MS. 
 in Munich, No. 295. (n) Garden of Philosophy; see L. B. des Orients, 
 x. 658. (12) Introduction to Logic, mentioned by Ibn Osaiba. (13) 
 Treatise on Melancholy, MS. in the Bib. Nationale at Paris, 1173. See 
 Steinschneider's Alfarabi, p. 248. (14) Treatise on Hydropsy, MS. of 
 the Bib. Nationale in Paris, 1173. (15) Manhig ha Rophim, an Italian 
 translation is given by M. Soave, under the name of Guida dei medici, 
 Venice, 1861. See ha-Mazkir, iv., 140. (16) Commentary on Sepher 
 Jecira, a fragment of this commentary has been published by Dukes in 
 his Kontras ha-Masoret, p. 9, note, and p. 73. On the life and writings 
 of Israeli, see Dr. S. Fried. Leipzig, 1884 ; and Steinschneider, Hamaz- 
 kir, xii. p. 57.
 
 70 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 (906 914) of Sora, who like himself had commenced their 
 career with the Eabbinate of Bagdad, worked in the same 
 spirit, and were assisted by the powerful members of the 
 community. The school of Sora sank even deeper for this 
 very reason. The chief of the school of Pumbeditha desired 
 to make it the centre of the Babylonian community and of 
 Judaism generally, and to put an end to the exilarchate as 
 well as to the school of Sora. This man, Mar Kohen-Zedek 
 II. ben Joseph, held office (917 936), contemporaneously 
 with Eab Jacob ben Natronai (914 926) and Eab Yom 
 Tob Kahana (926 928) of Sora, was passionate and ener- 
 getic, and was one of those, who, free from personal selfish- 
 ness, seek increase of power for the benefit of the community 
 regardless of other duties. Mar Kohen Zedek, who did his 
 best to give exclusive authority to his school, made an agree- 
 ment with the Exilarch David ben Zaccai to close the school 
 of Sora, to transplant the members to Pumbeditha, and to 
 appoint a titular Gaon of Sora, who should have his seat in 
 Pumbeditha. The son of a gaon named Eab Nathan ben 
 Jehudai was invested with this titular dignity, but he died 
 suddenly. This sudden death seems to have been taken by 
 his contemporaries as a sign of evil omen. 
 
 The Exilarch David then determined to fill up the vacancy 
 and to restore the ancient school at Sora. He had two 
 candidates in view, Eab Saadiah and Eab Zemach ben 
 Shahin, who was of the old nobility. Eabbi David decided 
 for Eab Saadiah. He was called from Egypt to Sora and 
 formally installed as gaon (928). Eab Saadiah ben Joseph 
 ha-Pithomi, called in Arabic Said Ibn Jaakub al-Fayumi, who 
 shines like a star of the first magnitude in the firmament of 
 Jewish literature, was born at Fayum in Upper Egypt in 
 892. He was the founder of scientific Judaism amongst the 
 Eabbanites, and the creator of religious philosophy in the 
 middle ages. Very little is known of the events of his 
 youthful life beyond the fact that he distinguished himself 
 as a philosopher, Talmudist, theologian, orator, grammarian 
 and commentator, when scarcely more than twenty years of 
 age. In his twenty-third year he made a fierce attack upon 
 the Karaites, which was felt by them for centuries afterwards.
 
 THE OELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 71 
 
 Eabbi Abraham Ibn Ezra relates 1 a discussion which took 
 place about the verse " Eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand 
 for hand, foot for foot " (Exodus xxi. 24), between Eab 
 Saadiah and the Karaite Ibn Zuta. Eab Saadiah thinks 
 that the text cannot be taken literally, and that the Talmudi- 
 cal decision alone is acceptable. "How is it possible," he 
 argues, " to apply the law of retaliation in the case of a 
 blind man who has deprived a man possessing good eyes of 
 his sight ? How would you manage to make a wound which 
 would correspond exactly to that to which you have been 
 subjected ? Could you even be quite sure that it would not 
 prove more dangerous than the one which has been inflicted 
 on you ? " There is therefore no room for doubt that it is 
 merely a question of damages which the judge in his wisdom 
 is to assess. Ibn Zuta, on the contrary, as a fanatical 
 adherent to the letter, persists in his view, and in consequence 
 he can see nothing but the law of retaliation in it. 
 
 So great was the reputation of Eab Saadiah, that David 
 ben Zaccai sent for him to come to Sora, where he was 
 appointed gaon of the academy (928), a dignity which had 
 never before been conferred upon any but the sages of 
 Babylon, who were selected from the learned teachers of 
 their own academies. After occupying this high office a 
 little more than two years (928 930), he was deposed 
 through the jealousy of others and his own unflinching 
 integrity. He, however, retained his office in the presence 
 of an anti-gaon, Eab Joseph ben Satia, for nearly three 
 years more (930 933), when he had to relinquish his dignity 
 altogether. He then retired to Bagdad, where he resided as 
 a private individual for four years (933 937), and composed 
 sacred poems, compiled a prayer book, 2 after the manner of 
 Eabbi Amram, and collected the rules of the calendar, as 
 well as wrote these two philosophical works-The Commentary 
 on the Book Jecira, and the treatise entitled Creeds and 
 
 1 In his Commentary on the Pentateuch, Exodus xxi. 24 ; concerning 
 the Anti-Karaite writings of Rabbi Saadiah Gaon, see Dr. S. Poznanski, 
 the Jewish Quarterly Review, January, 1898, with an edition of certain 
 hitherto unprinted parts of the gaon's works. 
 
 2 Mentioned by Rabbi Isaac Or Zarua, t. i., 89. The Prayer Book 
 of Rab Saadiah has been published by Steinschneider, Berlin, 1864.
 
 72 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Opinions (Emunot w'deut) which were the foundation of 
 the first system of ethical philosophy among the Jews. He 
 wrote besides a work on Hebrew rhetoric, in which he treats 
 at length of word-building, style, grammatical anomalies, and 
 the use of Hebraism in rhetorical style. 1 
 
 Eab Saadiah was re-installed in his office as Gaon in 
 Sora, in 937, and laboured in the academy for five years, 
 raising it to the highest state of prosperity. 
 
 Eab Saadiah' s magnanimity showed itself in his conduct 
 to the family of his opponent David. When the latter died, 
 in 940, his son Judah was elected in his stead, through Eab 
 Saadiah' s influence, though he only filled the post for seven 
 months. On his death he left behind him a son fourteen 
 years old, whom Eab Saadiah appointed as his successor. 
 He received him into his house, and adopted him. In the 
 meanwhile a distant relative, a member of the Bene-Haiman 
 family, who lived in Nisibis, was appointed to the office. 
 He had scarcely been installed before he had a quarrel with 
 a Moslem. Witnesses testified that he had spoken disparag- 
 ingly of Mohammed. For this offence he was put to death. 
 When the last representative of the house of the exilarch 
 who had been brought up by Eab Saadiah, was raised to the 
 princedom, Moslem fanaticism was let loose against him. It 
 was determined to assassinate him whilst he was riding in his 
 state-carriage, because the mere shadow of princely power 
 among the Jews was disliked. The caliph tried to prevent 
 his murder, but in vain. Thus died the last of the exilarchs, 
 and the representatives of Judaism determined to leave the 
 office vacant, by which means they thought to subvert the 
 fanatical hatred. The two schools alone remained to repre- 
 sent the unity of the Jews, but even these were soon to be 
 no more. With Eab Saadiah's death, in 942, was extin- 
 guished the last glimmer of light for the academy of Sora. 8 It 
 is true that he left a son, Eabbi Dossa, who was both learned 
 in the Talmud and in philosophy and the author of several 
 works but he was not appointed his father's successor. 8 
 
 1 Fiirst's Introduction to his Hebrew Lexicon, p. xxv. 
 
 2 Graetz, t. iii., p. 206 207 Dr. Miiller's Einleitung, p. 169; S.Munk, 
 Guide des Egares, t. i., p. 462. 
 
 3 Rab Saadiah's most important writings were: (i) A book in refu- 
 tation of Chivi Albalchi's doctrines published by Polack, in his Halichot 
 Kedem, Amsterdam, 1846. (2) In refutation of Anan. This work has
 
 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 73 
 
 Rab Joseph ben Satia, who was formerly deposed, was 
 again made the chief of the school (942 948). He, how- 
 ever, was not able to maintain its superiority over the sister 
 academy, which had at its head, after Mar Kohen Zedek, 
 Eab Zemach ben Kafnai (936 938), Eab Chanina ben 
 
 not as yet been found, but from Solomon ben Jerucham's (a. celebrated 
 Karaite) rejoinder to it, we learn that the import of it was to refute 
 Anan's doctrines, and to show the necessity of the traditional explana- 
 tion of the Scriptures as contained in the Rabbinic writings; see S. 
 Pinsker, Likutei Kadmoniot, p. 13, ff. (3) A Translation of the Penta- 
 teuch, with annotations, which he completed (915 920), first appeared 
 in Hebrew characters with the reputed Chaldee paraphrase of Onkelos, 
 the Jewish Persian version of Jacob Tusi, the Hebrew text, and Rashi's 
 Commentary in the folio Tetraglott Pentateuch of Constantinople, in 
 the year 1546. Nearly a century later, an Arabic version of the Penta- 
 teuch was printed in the Polyglott of Paris, and was then reprinted in 
 the London Polyglott ; see L. Dukes' Beitrage zur Geschichte der 
 Aeltesten Auslegung der A. T. Stuttgart, 1844, t. ii., p. 43 73. The sur- 
 viving portion of this faithful and able translation is highly valued by 
 Biblical scholars. On the Persian version, see Kohut, Krit. Beleucht. 
 der Pers. Pentat., Leipzig, 1871. (4) A Translation of Isaiah, published 
 by Paulus, Jena, 1790 91 ; see Eichhorn's Allg. Bibliothek der bibl. 
 Literatur, vol. iii. p. 9, ff., 455, ff. Gesenius, Der Prophet Jesaia, vol. i. 
 part i, p. 88, ff., Leipzig, 1821 ; Rapaport has published some corrections 
 of Paulus' edition in his Biography of Rabbi Saadiah, Vienna, 1828 ; 
 S. Munk has published some emendations of Paulus' text, and has also 
 corrected sundry errors of Gesenius and Rosenmuller in Cahen's Bible, 
 vol. ix. p. 73 184, Paris, 1838. (5) A Translation of the Psalms of 
 David with annotations, Schnurrer published, 1790, in Eichhorn's Allg. 
 Bibliothek, vol. iii. p. 425 438 ; Haneberg published, Munich, 1841 ; 
 Ewald published with his critical remarks, in the above mentioned 
 Beitrage, vol. i. p. r 74. (6) A Translation of Job was published by 
 Ewald in the same Beitrage, p. 75 115 ; and by J. Cohn, Altona, 1881. 
 (7) A Commentary on the Song of Songs : a free translation into Hebrew 
 of Rab Saadiah's Arabic work, was first published together with Ibn 
 Caspi's and Jacob Provinciali's expositions of the same book by Isaac 
 Akrish, Constantinople, 1579 ; then separately by Solomon ben David 
 Moses, Prague, 1608, with an English translation, has been published 
 by Ch. Ginsburg, 1857. Rab Saadiah also made a commentary on the 
 other four Megilloth, as well as the Minor Prophets and the Book of 
 Daniel, which are only known by quotations from them in the works of 
 Ibn Ezra, Kimchi, Solomon ben Jerucham, and other Jewish expositors 
 and lexicographers. (8) A Commentary on the Sepher Jecira, published 
 with a French translation by Lambert, Paris, 1891. (9) Emunot 
 w'deut, Creeds and Opinions, translated into Hebrew by Rabbi Judah 
 Ibn Tibbon, editio princeps, Constantinople, 1562 ; with a German 
 translation by Ph. Bloch, Munich, 1879; see Guttmann, Die Religions 
 Philosophic des Rabbi Saadiah Gaon, Gottingen, 1881. 
 
 Rab Saadiah wrote also grammatical and lexical works on the lan- 
 guage of the Hebrew Scripture. His grammatical works commence 
 the series, viz. : (i) A Hebrew Grammar, consisting of ten treatises. 
 (2) Refutations and Criticisms upon the work of Ben Asher. See 
 Dr. J. Furst, Introduction to his Hebrew Lexicon, p. xxiv. All these
 
 74 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Jehudai (938 943), and Eab Aaron Ibn-Sarjadu. Ibn- 
 Sarjadu had not gone through a regular course of academic 
 instruction, but was a rich merchant of Bagdad. He was 
 chosen on account of his riches, as well as for his knowledge 
 and activity. He had received a good philosophical educa- 
 tion, and had written a philosophical work, a Commentary 
 on the Pentateuch and a Sepher ha-Nikkud. 1 
 
 After Ibn-Sarjadu, Eab Nehemiah ben Kohen-Zedek held 
 office in Pumbeditha. 
 
 The schools of the east were gradually closed, and the 
 scholars migrated to Spain. But before the final extinction 
 of the lamp, in the complete downfall of the college in 
 Pumbeditha, two celebrated men occupied the office of 
 
 works, however, have become a prey to time, and are only known 
 from quotations in other treatises on the same subjects, with the ex- 
 ception of his work on the seventy words and a comparison of them 
 with analogous words from the Mishna, Talmud, and Targum, written 
 against the Karaites, published by Dukes in the Beitrage. vol. ii., p. 
 no 115 ; and again with important corrections by J. Derenburg, Wis- 
 senschaftliche Zeitschrift, vol. v., p. 317 324, Leipzig, 1844. See Dr. 
 Harkavy, Stades Zeitschrift, ii., p. 7; W. Bacher, Die Anfiinge der 
 Hebraishe Grammatik, p. 2. 
 
 A Commentary of Rab Saadiah on the Thirteen Rules of Rabbi Ish- 
 mael has been published by S. Shechter in Beth-Talmud, 1885, p. 237 
 244 ; cf. Steinschneider's Hamazkir, t. xxi., p. 134. 
 
 Rab Saadiah's religious poems and hymns for the Feast of Weeks, 
 published under the name of" Aseret ha-Debarim " into Arabic, Oran, 
 1856. 
 
 Contemporary with Rab Saadiah was Jachya Ibn Zakarya Judah el- 
 Katib in Tiberias, who translated the Bible into Arabic ; see De Sacy, 
 Chrestomatie Arabe, i., p. 350. 
 
 For sources of information on Rab Saadiah Gaon, see Rapaport's 
 Rab Saadiah, Vienna, 1828 ; Munk, Notice sur Rab Saadiah Gaon, in 
 Cahen's Bible, vol ix., p. 73 184; Ewald und Dukes, Beitrage, etc., 
 vol. i., p. i 115; vol. ii , p. 5 115, Stuttgart, 1844; Steinschneider, 
 Cat. Bodl , 2156 2224; Giidemann, Geschichte, des Erziehungswesens, 
 p. 269, Vienna, 1880; Kitto's Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature, edit. 
 1 866, iii., p. 706,707; Steinschneider, Deutsche Literaturzeitung von 
 Rodiger, p. 1186, Berlin, 1881. 
 
 1 Ibn Balam, in his Commentary on the Pentateuch, cites Ibn 
 Sarjadus' linguistic explanations on the Pentateuch ; see ha-Chaluz, 
 ii., p. 60. Rab Hai gaon speaks of his Sepher ha-Nikkud in Sepher 
 ha-Kemizah ; and of his Halachite opinions, a few of which are cited in 
 Rashi's Sepher ha-Pardes (fol. 26). He wrote besides a Commentary on 
 the Sepher Jecira ; fragments of it are cited in Rabbi Moses' Botarel's 
 Commentary on the same book, and a philosophical dissertation against 
 the Aristotelian views concerning the eternity of the world, like his 
 contemporary Rabbi Dossa, the son of Rab Saadiah ; see Zeitschrift, 
 iv., p. 38990.
 
 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 75 
 
 gaon. These two men father and son, the last heads of 
 note of the school of Pumbeditha were Eab Sherira and 
 Eab Hai, to whom later generations gave the name of 
 " fathers and teachers of Israel." 
 
 Eab Sherira, son of the Gaon Chanina (930 1000), was 
 of noble parentage both on his father's and mother's side, 
 several members of both families having filled the office of 
 gaon. He boasted that he could trace his descent from 
 the line of the exilarchs before that of Bostenai. The seal 
 of the Eab Sherira family bore the impress of a lion, which 
 is said to have been the coat-of-arms of the Jewish kings. 
 Eab Sherira was sufficiently acquainted wifch the Arabic 
 language to answer questions in it which were directed to 
 him by the Jewish communities in Moslem countries. Eab 
 Sherira' s chief claim to fame may be ascribed to his letter, 
 which is the main authority for the history of the Talmudical, 
 post-Talmudical and Gaonic periods of Jewish history. 
 
 Eab Jacob ben Nissim Ibn-Shahin, a pupil of Eab Chu- 
 shiel, who had been taken captive to Africa, and who taught 
 the Talmud in Kairuan, sent a letter of historic import in 
 the name of the community of Kairuan to Eab Sherira. In 
 it the following questions were propounded: "In what way 
 was the Mishna written down ? If the tradition is of remote 
 origin, how comes it that only authorities of a comparatively 
 recent period are known to us as bearers of the same ? In 
 what order were the various books of the Mishna compiled ? " 
 Eab Jacob also asked about the order of the Saboraim and 
 the Gaonim, and about their respective functions. Eab 
 Sherira, on that occasion, wrote an answer (987), half in 
 Hebrew and half in Chaldee, in which he threw light upon 
 several dark portions of Jewish history with surprising clear- 
 ness. 1 The Chronicle of the Saboraim and Gaonim as given 
 by him is our guide for this epoch. Eab Sherira shows him- 
 self in this historical response, as a real chronicler imbued 
 with the necessary truth and trustworthiness, 
 
 1 The Responsa of Rab Sherira was published for the first time 
 with the Constantinople edition of the Juchasin, in the year 1566; 
 but the best edition is that which has been published by Dr. A. 
 Neubauer at Oxford, 1887; see Rapaport's Rabbi Nathan, note 24; I. 
 H. Weiss, Beth Talmud, i., p. 55; Dr. J. Miiller, Einleitung, p. 178 
 201 ; and with a Latin translation and notes, has been published. 
 Vratislaviae, 1861.
 
 76 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 The academy had so few scholars at this time that Eab 
 Sherira was compelled to promote his young son, Eabbi 
 Hai, who was only sixteen years old, to the high office of 
 chief judge. 
 
 The respect for the gaon had vanished. Some malicious 
 persons accused Eab Sherira before the then alkadir on 
 some now unknown charge. In consequence of this, father 
 and son were arrested (997), all their property was con- 
 fiscated, and there was not sufficient left to them for their 
 bare livelihood. 1 They were, however, liberated at the 
 intercession of an influential man and restored to their 
 dignity. Eab Sherira soon after abdicated in favour of his 
 son on account of old age (998), and died a few years later. 2 
 
 His son, Eabbi Hai, although he was only thirty years old, 
 was so popular that at the conclusion of the reading of the 
 law on Sabbath, they added in his honour the portion where 
 Moses asked God to appoint a worthy successor to him, and 
 at the conclusion they inserted the words : " And Eab Hai 
 sat on the throne of Eab Sherira his father, and his king- 
 dom was firmly established." He was compared to King 
 Solomon, and enjoyed a high prerogative, which foreign 
 communities, as well as the Babylonians, ceded to him. His 
 character was as noble as his mind was independent. He 
 was at home in all branches of science as it was then taught, 
 and displayed great literary activity in many of them. Like 
 the Gaon of Fayum he was a competent Arabic scholar, and 
 made use of that language as a medium for many of his 
 letters, and he also treated numerous scientific subjects in 
 it. He had frequent disputations with Mohammedan theo- 
 logians, and is said to have often silenced them by his 
 eloquence. 8 His main study, however, was the Talmud, 
 and in this he resembled his father, Eab Sherira, except 
 that he rendered more service to it than his predecessor. 
 He wrote a scanty commentary, in which he explained the 
 
 1 See Rabbi Abraham ben David of Toledo in his Sepher ha-Kabbala, 
 edit. Neubauer, p. 67. 
 
 2 See Sepher ha-Kabbalah, p. 67 ; Secher Zadik, edit. Neubauer, p. 
 92 ; and I. H. Weiss, Zur Geschichte, iv., p. 174. 
 
 3 Likkutei Kadmoniot, p. 152 ; Rapaport's Rab Hai Gaon, note 15 ; 
 Hammagid, 8th year, p. 199. Dr. A. Berliner, Personliche Beziehungen 
 zwischen Christen und Juden, p. 7.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 77 
 
 words in the most difficult portions of the Mishna and the 
 Talmud. 1 Eabbi Hai treated of civil rights according to the 
 Talmud, of contracts, loans, the fixing of boundary marks, 
 and of oaths, with systematic precision. 2 He did this as no 
 one before him had done, and he therefore became the 
 model and authority for later generations. Eab Hai was 
 universally acknowledged as an authority, and through his 
 influence the school of Pumbeditha somewhat recovered its 
 prestige. 8 
 
 The exilarchate had been practically extinct since the 
 death of the grandson of David ben Zaccai, and Kab Hai 
 stood at the head of Judaism. No fitter man could have 
 been found to represent it. 
 
 His father-in-law, Eab Samuel ben Chofni, was gaon in 
 Sora at the time when Eab Hai filled that office in Pumbe- 
 ditha. He was the author of a philosophical commentary 
 
 1 A Commentary on the Mishna, order Taharot, has been published, 
 Berlin, 1856. 
 
 2 On Oaths or Mishptei ha-Shebuoth, translated from Arabic into 
 Hebrew by Rabbi Nissim Sason, published at Venice, 1602. On Buying 
 and Selling or Meckach-u-Memkar, printed together with his Sepher 
 ha-Mashkon, or treatise on Pledges and Mortgages ; Mishpetei ha- 
 Tenaim, on Contracts, and Mishpetei ha-Levaoth, on Loans, the four 
 works being issued in one volume at Venice, also in 1602. The treatise 
 on Buying and Selling was afterwards printed, with notes by R. E. Piltz, 
 Vienna, 1800. His Poetical Works on the laws of personal property 
 and on oaths have been published by Halberstamm in " Jeshurun," 
 1868 ; see, however, S. Sachs, Hamagid, i6th year, No. 12. Rab Hai 
 wrote also a Dictionary under the name of ha-Measeph, which Ibn Ezra, 
 who had it before him when he wrote his grammatical treatise entitled 
 Moznaim, describes as "full of wisdom and perfect in beauty." This 
 work has not as yet come to light ; see Gurland, Hamagid, 8th year, 
 p. 198; Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, Longman, 1857, pp. 78, 125. 
 Sepher Musar Haskeil, an exposition of the Peutateuch, attributed to 
 Rab Hai, edition princeps, Fano, 1505 ; with a Latin translation, Paris, 
 1561 ; German translation by L. Dukes, in his Ehrensaule and 
 Denksteine, Vienna, 1837, p. 96. See Hamazkir, 1871, p. 105. Responsa 
 of Rab Hai, on the Release and Resurrection of the Dead ; a fragment 
 of it has been published in Kochbei Isaac, heft 5, p. 73 76. The 
 entire MS. is preserved in the Vatican Library, No. 181 ; and De Rossi 
 327/10, 1138/15. Concerning Rab Hai's Sacred Poetry, see Landshuth's 
 Amude ha-Aboda, Berlin, 1857, p. 62. 
 
 3 For sources of information on Rab Hai Gaon, see Rapaport, Rab 
 Hai Gaon, Vienna, 1830 1831 ; Nasher, Der Gaon Hai, Berlin, 1867 ; 
 Munk, Notice sur Ibn-Djanah, p. 69 70 ; Dr. Miiller, Einleitung, p. 
 201, seq. A collection of Poems and Hymns on various subjects of 
 Rab Hai Gaon is edited by Halberstamm in Kobak's Jeschurun, x., 
 p. 150 ; and by S. Philipp, in Beth-ha-Bechirah, Lemberg, 1889 ; see 
 also the periodical He-Asif, by N. Sokolow, p. 148, 1887.
 
 78 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 on the Pentateuch, and some Talmudical works. He, like 
 Rab Saadiah, attacked Karaism, especially as a keen con- 
 troversy broke out at that time between the Karaites and 
 the Eabbanites. He died in 1034, and thus ended the list of 
 Gaonim of Sora. 1 
 
 When Bab Hai died, in 1038, mourned by all the Jews, 
 and eulogised by the greatest poet of the time Ibn Gebirol, 
 and by his admirer Eab Chananael, in Africa, the time, too, 
 for the dissolution of the school of Pumbeditha had come. 
 It is true that the college immediately chose a successor in 
 whom the functions of gaon and exilarch were united, but 
 it ceased to exist when this individual died. Chiskiya, great 
 grandson of David ben Zaccai, was appointed head of the 
 school. But the splendour which it was thought would 
 accrue to it, through him, did not make itself visible. 
 Chiskiya had many implacable enemies, who envied his office. 
 They slandered him at the court, for what reason or under 
 what pretext is unknown. The last gaon was imprisoned, 
 tortured (probably that he might discover his treasures), 
 robbed of all his property, and then executed (1040). Thus 
 the gaonate came to an end through the oppression of the 
 weak caliphate. Babylonia's part in Jewish history was 
 played out, and learning sank into complete oblivion for a 
 long time. 
 
 Information was likewise laid against Chiskiya's two sons. 
 They escaped, and after travelling about for a long time, 
 settled in Spain, where they were respected as being the last 
 members of the House of David. They here devoted them- 
 selves to poetry, and were known under the name of Ibn- 
 Daudi. 
 
 1 Concerning the life and works of Rab Samuel ben Chofni, see 
 Zunz, Gesammelte Schriften, iii.,p. 313 ; Steinschneider, He-Chaluz.ii., 
 62; Dr. Harkavy Sichron Lerishonim, iii. ; Hamelitz, 1879; and in 
 " Mitzpah," ii., p. 2.
 
 CHAPTEK V. 
 
 THE JEWS IN SPAIN. 
 
 WITH Chiskiya, the grandson of David ben Zaccai, the 
 office Eesh Gelutha ceased; the school over which 
 he had presided was left without a head; the students 
 dispersed, and the learned republic of the Jews on the borders 
 of the Euphrates, which had subsisted and maintained itself 
 during nearly 1000 years, was extinguished and disappeared. 
 Had this extinction of the schools taken place while yet the 
 western world was unprovided with any seat of learning or 
 with competent teachers, the influence of that event must 
 have been severely felt by the Jews. But Divine providence, 
 through an accidental circumstance, ordained that, a short 
 time before that extinction took place, a branch of the learn- 
 ing of the east should be transplanted to Spain, where it 
 soon took root, and flourished so luxuriantly as to over- 
 shadow the fame of its parent stock. 
 
 It happened that an admiral, by name Ibn-Eumahis, who 
 cruised through the Mediterranean Sea in pursuit of Christian 
 ships, and probably also with the object of plundering coast- 
 towns, captured a vessel in the vBgean Sea, in which there 
 were four great Jewish scholars. The Moorish admiral, 
 however, had no regard for the learning and piety of these 
 men, who were obliged to share the fate of the other prisoners, 
 viz., to be sold as slaves. These four men who had been 
 sent from Sora to collect contributions from the various com- 
 munities, caused the seeds of the Talmudic spirit to blossom 
 in various places. One of these scholars, by name Eabbi 
 Shemarya ben Elchanan, was sold in Alexandria, redeemed 
 by the Jews there, and appointed Chief Eabbi in Cairo ; a 
 similar fortune befell a second, by name Eabbi Chushiel, who 
 was sold on the coast of Africa, and who came to Kairuan. 
 A son of this Eabbi Chushiel was Eabbi Chananel, who after-
 
 80 THE CELEBBITIES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 wards became famous as a commentator on the Pentateuch, 1 
 and also for his glosses on the Talmud. 2 A third, Eabbi 
 Moses by name, whose virtuous wife threw herself into the 
 sea in order to escape the persecutions of the admiral, was 
 brought to Cordova by Ibn-Eumahis, with his son Eabbi 
 Chanoch, and here they also were redeemed by the Jews. 
 The fourth was probably Eabbi Nathan ben Isaac Kohen, 3 
 who regained his liberty and became teacher at Narbonne. 
 Eabbi Moses, with unpretending appearance, in the garb of 
 a slave, repaired to the house of instruction of Cordova, the 
 president of which, Eabbi Nathan, was discoursing on the 
 Talmud, section Yoma, concerning the day of Atonement, 
 whilst Eabbi Moses sat listening in a corner unobserved. 
 But when the Eabbi came to a difficult passage which he 
 could not well explain, Eabbi Moses stepped forward, and 
 with a few pithy words, by way of explanation, attracted 
 universal attention. At once the listeners, and Eabbi Nathan 
 himself, saw that the stranger far excelled them in knowledge, 
 and question after question was put to him, which he 
 answered to the satisfaction and surprise of all. At the door 
 two litigants were standing, who wished to submit their 
 differences to Eabbi Nathan, but who, according to the estab- 
 lished rules, were obliged to await the termination of the 
 lecture. When the lecture was over and the parties appeared 
 before Eabbi Nathan, he exclaimed aloud, " I am no longer 
 judge. The stranger whom you see here in his garment of 
 sackcloth, is my teacher; I am but his disciple. Choose him 
 for your judge." This humility on the part of Eabbi Nathan 
 was generally approved of. Eabbi Moses was by unanimous 
 consent appointed chief of the Jewish community, had a 
 considerable revenue assigned to him, and received as a 
 present a very splendid carriage. 
 
 1 Rapaport has collected the surviving fragments of his Commentary 
 and published them with explanatory notes, and a biography of the 
 author in Bikkure ha-Ittim, vol. xii... 183 1 ; as has also been done by Dr. 
 A. Berliner in his Migdal Chananel, Berlin. 1876. 
 
 2 Has been published in the edition of the Talmud, Vilno, 1880. 
 
 3 Graetz, iii., p. 213; see, however, Steinschneider's Hamazkir, iii., 
 p. 4, who objects to Graetz's theory as to the fourth emissary.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS 81 
 
 When the admiral, Ibn-Eumahis, heard that his prisoner 
 was so precious to the community of Cordova, he wished to 
 retract the sale in order to get a higher ransom. The Jews 
 appealed to the just caliph, Abdul-Rahman III. (911 961), 
 by means of the Jewish statesman Rabbi Chasdai, and repre- 
 sented to him that they would be able, through Rabbi 
 Moses, to sever themselves from the Gaonate of the eastern 
 caliphate. Abdul-Rahman, who to his intense regret had 
 seen considerable sums of money yearly taken out of his 
 land for the Gaonate, i.e., to the land which was hostile to 
 him, was glad that a place would now be founded in his own 
 kingdom for the study of the Talmud, and signified to his 
 admiral his wish that he should desist from his demand. 
 Thus Cordova became the seat of an important school that 
 was independent of the Gaonate. 
 
 Italy, too, felt a similar impulse towards a revival of Rab- 
 binical learning. At the end of the eighth century the schools 
 of Bari and Otranto acquired celebrity ; and in the following 
 century, Rabbi Sabbatai ben Abraham Donolo, a physician 
 of Modena (913 980), greatly distinguished himself by his 
 works on natural science and medicine, which obtained a 
 wide circulation in other lands. 1 
 
 Among those who were specially attached to Rabbi Moses 
 of Cordova was Rabbi Chasdai. Owing to his powerful pro- 
 tection, Rabbi Moses ended his life peaceably (960), un- 
 disturbed by the envy which doubtless prevailed on many 
 sides, after having trained a number of pupils who had come 
 to him from Spain and Africa, attracted by his fame. 
 
 Rabbi Chasdai (with the Arabic surname, Abu-Jussuf), the 
 son of Isaac ben Ezra, of the family of Shaprut, was born in 
 Jaen. He first of all devoted himself to the calling of a 
 physician, and to this fact, together with his remarkable 
 intellectual gifts, he owed his elevation to the dignity of 
 
 1 His Commentary on the Sepher Jecirahas been published, Warsaw, 
 1883 ; Dr. Jellinek edited his Commentary on the Verse " Naase Adam " 
 (Gen. i. 26), as an Introduction to the Sepher Jecira, Leipzig, 1854. 
 Concerning his life, see Steinschneider, S. Donolo, Berlin, 1868; A. 
 Berliner. Personliche Beziehungen, p. 4 ; I. Abraham's Jewish Life, 
 p. 419. 
 
 6
 
 82 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 vizier, an office which he occupied at the court of the 
 caliph, Abdul-Eahman III., and his successor, Hakem (961 
 976). 1 
 
 The Byzantine Emperor, Romanus II., driven into straits 
 by the Abbaside Caliph at Bagdad, courted the friendship of 
 Abdul-Eahman, who cherished a hatred not less intense 
 against the Abbasides, and in the year 949 he sent him, 
 among other costly presents, a work by the Greek Dioscorides 
 on medical remedies. But as no one in Cordova was master 
 of the language, Abdul-Rahman requested Romanus to send 
 some one who was acquainted both with the Latin and Greek 
 languages, in order to instruct his learned men in the latter 
 tongue by the medium of the former. The monk, Nicolaus, 
 whom Romanus sent with this object, soon entered into close 
 and friendly intercourse with Rabbi Chasdai, and the latter 
 was particularly successful in his attempt at discovering the 
 significance of various medicaments which had formerly been 
 unknown. 
 
 The caliph, Abdul-Rahman III., who stood in diplomatic 
 relationship with the small Christian courts of North Spain, 
 perceived Rabbi Chasdai's value and usefulness, and ap- 
 pointed him as interpreter and diplomatist (940). At first 
 Rabbi Chasdai only had to accompany the principal ambas- 
 sadors to the Spanish Christian courts. But the more able 
 he proved himself, the more was he honoured and advanced. 
 On one occasion Rabbi Chasdai's diplomacy proved very 
 useful. He once induced the king of the province of Leon 
 (Sancho Ramirez), and the queen of Navarra (Toda), together 
 with the clergy and other great people, to visit Cordova, in 
 order to conclude a lasting treaty of peace with Abdul- 
 Rahman. The caliph rewarded his services by appointing 
 him to various offices. Rabbi Chasdai was in a certain sense 
 
 1 How instructive is the well-known Arabic memorandum penned by 
 the hand of Abdul-Rahman III., and found in his cabinet after his 
 death ! " I have now reigned above fifty years in victory or peace, 
 beloved by my subjects, dreaded by my enemies, and respected by my 
 allies. Riches and honours, power and pleasure, have waited on my 
 call ; nor does any earthly blessing seem to have been wanting to com- 
 plete my felicity. In this situation I have diligently numbered the days 
 of pure and perfect happiness which have fallen to my lot : they amount 
 to fourteen ! O man, place not thy confidence in this present world! " 
 Quoted by J. W. Etheridge, Hebrew Literature, p. 242, London, 1856.
 
 THE CELEBKITIES OP THE JEWS. 83 
 
 minister of foreign affairs. He had to receive foreign 
 ambassadors and their presents, and to give them presents 
 from the caliph in return. He was, at the same time, the 
 minister of trade and finance, and the revenue that arose 
 from the various taxes and tolls, that went to the treasury, 
 passed through his hands. Eabbi Chasdai, too, had a part 
 in the embassy which was sent by the powerful German 
 Emperor, Otto I., to the court of Cordova. The head of 
 this embassy, the Abbot John of Gorze (Jean de Bendieres), 
 testified his warm admiration of the wisdom of " the Jew, 
 Chasdai." 
 
 If Rabbi Chasdai had been nothing more than a minister 
 of finance and diplomatist, his name would certainly have 
 passed into oblivion. The rich and the great among the 
 Jews, who have been rich only for themselves and great 
 only for their own aggrandizement, have left no memory 
 behind them. That which rendered Eabbi Chasdai worthy 
 of the immortality he obtained was the position which he 
 occupied towards Judaism, and especially towards its spiritual 
 interests. 
 
 Eabbi Chasdai stood to his brethren in the relation of nasi 
 or prince. The first use which he made of his position and 
 the favour in which he stood with Abdul-Eahman and his 
 successor, Hakem, was to protect his co-religionists from 
 the injuries done to them by the Moslem. Imbued as he 
 was with the Jewish national lore and crowned by his 
 panegyrists with the rabbinical title of honour, 1 Eesh-Kallah 
 (head of the college), he sought to advance Jewish studies 
 in every possible way ; assembled scholars and poets about 
 him, supported needy orphans, and provided copies of 
 religious books. . 
 
 The celebrated grammarian, Menachem ben Saruk, en joyed 
 an especial share of his protection, but some years later he 
 completely lost the favour of his patron, and had to make 
 way for a more successful rival, Dunash ben Labrat. 
 
 Eabbi Menachem ben Jacob Ibn Saruk (910 970), called 
 from Tortosa to Cordova by Eabbi Chasdai, wrote a copious 
 
 1 See S. G. Stern, Liber Responsionum, p. Ixv. viii., notes 2426, 
 
 Vienna, 1870.
 
 84 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Hebrew dictionary of Holy Scripture, called Machbereth 
 Menachein, 1 by the help of the scientific works of Ibn- 
 Koreish and Eab Saadiah, a work which was highly 
 esteemed, especially among French scholars of the following 
 centuries, and is very frequently quoted, principally by 
 Rashi. 
 
 Dunash Ibn Labrat, the other protege of Rabbi Chasdai, 
 was born in Bagdad about 920, lived at Fez, and died about 
 980. He wrote a kind of anti-dictionary, Teshuboth or 
 Sepher ha-Sherashim, 2 following the alphabetical order of 
 Menachem, consisting of 160 criticisms ; besides a large 
 introductory poem against Menachem, consisting of 180 
 strophes, as well as a panegyrical poem, comprising 41 
 strophes, dedicated to Rabbi Chasdai. Upon these lexical 
 anti-criticisms Ibn Saruk, or rather his disciples, Rabbi 
 Jehudah ben Daud Ibn Chayyug, Isaac Ibn Chiquitilla, and 
 Ephraim ben Kafron, wrote refutations of the attacks, and 
 also wrote in defence of it. 3 
 
 The contest begun between Menachem and Dunash, and 
 continued between their followers already mentioned, is of 
 great interest in relation to a knowledge of Hebrew philo- 
 logy, of the new Hebrew poetry, and of the state of Jewish 
 culture in Spain, in the tenth century. 
 
 The lively sympathy which Rabbi Chasdai felt for Jews 
 and Judaism did not, however, limit itself to Spain, but 
 extended beyond the borders of his country, as was to be 
 expected from a man of such eminence. He was particularly 
 interested in hearing from time to time from oriental tra- 
 vellers that there was a Jewish kingdom in Asia, ruled by a 
 Jewish king. When ships came from distant lands, Rabbi 
 
 1 Editio princeps by H. Philopowski, London, 1855. 
 
 2 Edited by H. Philopowski, with the grammatical and lexical anim- 
 adversions of Rabbi Jacob ben MeYr Tam, to reconcile the differences 
 of Dunash and Menachem on points of grammar and exegesis, London, 
 
 3 This work, entitled " Liber Responsionum," has been published, 
 with notes, by S. G. Stern, Vienna, 1870. Dunash's work against Rab 
 Saadiah is contained in Ibn Ezra's " Sephat Yeter," edit. Lipman, 
 Frankfort, 1843 ; see Dukes' Mittheilungen, p. 149 ; Pinsker, Likkutei 
 Kadmoniot, p. 66, and notes, p. 157. Concerning E ben Kafron, see he- 
 Chaluz, vi., 80; Dr. Harkavy, Zichron Lerishonim, i , p. 166; and the 
 periodical, "Mitzpa," 1885.
 
 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 85 
 
 Chasdai never neglected to ascertain whether Jews dwelt in 
 the native country of these strangers, and how they fared. 
 Once he was told by merchants from Choresvan that such a 
 Jewish kingdom did really exist, and that the land was 
 called Cusar. Rabbi Chasdai decided to send a letter to the 
 king of the Khozar with the ambassadors, who came from 
 the king of the Slavonians to Abdul-Rahman, among whom 
 were two Jews, Saul and Joseph. In this letter to King 
 Joseph, Rabbi Chasdai told how he had come to write to 
 him, and begged him for information respecting the Khozaric 
 kingdom, its condition, extent, and institutions, how the 
 people conducted themselves in warfare, on the Sabbath, &c. 
 Fortunately, not only was Rabbi Chasdai' s letter received 
 but the answer of the Khozaric king also reached Rabbi 
 Chasdai. A German Jew, by name Jacob ben Eliezer, 
 deserves the credit of having accomplished this happy result. 1 
 The letter was to this effect : the king tells him that his 
 nation is derived from Yefeth, and then from Togarmah, 
 who had ten sons, one of whom was named Chazar, two of 
 the others being named Bulgar and Avar. One of the kings, 
 called Bulan, once had a remarkable dream. He was a 
 good man, but a heathen, and an angel appeared to him in 
 the night with a message that God had heard his prayers, 
 and would lead him in the right path. At the request of the 
 king, the same message was given by the angel to a certain 
 great man, and both declared their intention to the people, 
 and they all embraced the Jewish religion. With divine 
 assistance he was enabled to build a great temple similar to 
 that at Jerusalem. The Greek emperor and the Moham- 
 medan caliph sent their representative to convert the king 
 to their beliefs. The manner in which he convinced them 
 of the superiority of the religion he had embraced was in- 
 genious. He first asked the Christian which of the two 
 
 1 It was first published with the Constantinople edition of " Kol 
 Mebasseir," in 1577, by Rabbi Isaac Akreish. An English translation 
 of this letter is given in the Miscellany of Hebrew Literature, vol. i., 
 p. 92 112. Not only are the whole contents of the letter literally true, 
 and confirmed by historical testimony as appears from the savant 
 Vivier's remarks in the Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, juin et juillet, 
 1851, but all the names of places which occur in it are proved correct 
 from Massudi and Ibn-Houkal, contemporaries of our Rabbi Chasdai ; 
 see Bakni, Notices et extraits des Manuscrits, ii., p. 582.
 
 86 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 was preferable Mohammedanism or Judaism, and in which 
 book they placed the greater confidence the Koran or the 
 Bible. The answer was that Judaism being the fountain- 
 head, was in every way preferable. He received the same 
 answer from the Mohammedan, who was asked whether he 
 would prefer Christianity to Judaism. He thus convinced 
 them out of their own mouths that he had chosen the best 
 religion. The king then named in order the kings who 
 had succeeded Bulan, from which it appeared that he was 
 the twelfth descendant from the first convert to Judaism. 
 He also mentions the establishment of schools and syna- 
 gogues. Then follows a description of the country and the 
 power wielded by him. It was situated on the river Itil, i.e., 
 the Volga, and extended to the Black Sea, which for a long 
 time afterwards continued to be called the Sea of Chazaria. 1 
 The above mentioned Eabbi Moses was succeeded as chief 
 Babbi by his son, Eabbi Chanoch, who was no less worthy 
 of this position than his father. Eabbi Chasdai continued to 
 the son the same benevolence and friendship which he had 
 shown to the father; and before so mighty a protector every 
 hostile voice was hushed. 2 But when Eabbi Chasdai was 
 dead (970), there arose a strife in the community, some 
 wishing to raise a pupil of Eabbi Moses to the dignity of 
 Chief Eabbi, viz., Eabbi Joseph Ibn-Abitur, famous as a poet. 
 Hundreds of Jews, magnificently dressed, proceeded to 
 Medinat Alsara, the summer residence of the caliph, on 
 horses and in chariots, with turbans like the Moors, the one 
 party with Eabbi Chanoch, the other with Abitur. The party 
 of the latter was unsuccessful, and he himself was excom- 
 municated. In vain he appealed to the caliph for assistance ; 
 the caliph explained to him that he did not wish to interfere 
 
 1 Dr. M. Gaster, the Jewish Chronicle, February 26, 1897, p. 15 ; see 
 also Dr. A. Harkavy, Erzahlungen der hebraischen Schriftsteller uber 
 das Chasarenreich, Petersburg, 1874. 
 
 2 Concerning the life of Rabbi Chasdai, see Philoxene Luzzato, 
 Notice sur Abou Jousouf Hasdai Ibn Shaprut, Paris, 1852 ; Silv. De 
 Saey, Abdolatif, p. 497 500 ; Zedner, Auswahl historischer Stiicke, p. 
 26-27, Berlin, 1840; Gayangos, the History of the Mahometan Dynas- 
 ties in Spain, 1843, t. ii., Appendix A ; t. v. p. xii. ; Munk, Archives Israel- 
 ites, 1848 ; Melanges, p. 480 ; Miscellany of Hebrew Literature, vol. i. 
 P- 73Qi ; Graetz, v. 359367. 37 1 385-
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 87 
 
 in the affairs of the Jews. " If my subjects treated me," he 
 said, " as the Jews have treated you, I should fly. I can 
 only give you the same counsel." Abitur followed his advice 
 and went to Damascus. During the reign of Hisham, Alha- 
 kim's feeble successor, the government was carried on by his 
 grand vizier Almanzor ; the latter appointed Jacob Ibn Gav, 
 the owner of a large silk manufactory, to be head of the Jews 
 in secular matters. Eabbi Chanoch was deprived of his 
 office of Chief, and Abitur was invited to return. But Abitur 
 refused to do so, and himself acknowleged the merit of Eabbi 
 Chanoch, who in consequence retained his position, which 
 he filled most worthily until his death in 1014. 1 
 
 During the sanguinary struggles carried on between the 
 sons of Almanzor, the city of Cordova was repeatedly 
 plundered and devastated by the troops of the rival brothers 
 and their hostile competitors. The Jewish community there 
 suffered severely in every respect. Many of the learned 
 Eabbis, who had been formed in the schools of Eabbi Moses 
 and his son, Eabbi Chanoch, left Cordova, and dispersed and 
 sought refuge in the various cities of Spain. One of the 
 most learned, Eabbi Samuel Levi, repaired to Malaga. 
 
 Eabbi Samuel ha-Levi ben Joseph Ibn-Nagrela, born 
 about 993, was descended from an old and distinguished 
 Jewish family, which belonged to Merida, and had afterwards 
 settled in Cordova. In the school of Eabbi Chanoch, the 
 young Samuel was instructed in the doctrine of the Talmud 
 and in the history of his people from the time of the destruc- 
 tion of the Temple. Into the niceties of the Hebrew language 
 
 1 The new form of liturgical hymns (Piyutim) was confirmed and de- 
 veloped by Ibn Abitur. He translated the Mishna into Arabic for the 
 Caliph Alhakim. He wrote also a Commentary on the Psalms ; see Dr. 
 Harkavy in " Mitzpa," ii., p. 3-4, 1885 ; Lebrecht, Ueber Joseph's 
 Zunamen ben Satnas, Frankel's Zeitschrift, iii., p. 430 433 ; and Lands- 
 huth, Amude ha-Aboda, p. 92. 
 
 When Jacob Gav died and a friend of Rabbi Chanoch's hastened to 
 tell him the news of his enemy's death, in the expectation of giving him 
 pleasure, Rabbi Chanoch began to weep aloud. " I thought I was 
 telling you joyful news," said the friend, " but I see that you love your 
 enemies." "I am troubled and weep," said Rabbi Chanoch, "on 
 account of the poor, who always found an open hand and a plentiful 
 table with Jacob Gav ; what will they do now ? If you will provide for 
 them, I shall cease to lament." Miscellany of Hebrew Literature, 
 i., p. 90.
 
 88 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 he was initiated by the founder of Hebrew grammar, Rabbi 
 Judah Chayyug. 1 
 
 Eabbi Judah ben David, commonly called Chayyug, and in 
 Arabic, Abukaria Jachya ben Daud el-Fasi el-Kartubi, was 
 born in Fez, and lived in Cordova, where he became the 
 teacher of Rabbi Samuel. He was the first who established 
 the triliteralness of Hebrew stems, as up to his time some of 
 the chief etymologists and expositors, e.g., Rab Saadiah 
 Gaon and Menachem ben Saruk, maintained that there were 
 biliteral and even monoliteral stems. He, too, was the first 
 who discovered the true relation of the quiescent letters, and 
 their changes. It was he, too, who arranged the verbs 
 according to their conjugations. 2 His views have been 
 accepted by all later Hebrew philologers who proceeded from 
 the Spanish school, Ibn Ezra, Ibn Balam, both the Kimchis, 
 Parchon and others, even down to our own time. 
 
 In the meantime Rabbi Samuel earned a scanty subsis- 
 tence in Malaga by a small retail trade. His poverty, how- 
 ever, proved no obstacle to his literary activity. Just at that 
 time a lively controversy broke forth respecting the rules of 
 Hebrew grammar. A young man, a physician, also from 
 Cordova, and driven to Saragossa by the civil war, had set 
 forth entirely new views with regard to the structure of the 
 Hebrew tongue, and had by this means, perhaps unintention- 
 ally, eclipsed the merits of Chayyug. This was Rabbi Jona 
 (Mervan) Ibn-Ganach, a most profound Hebrew philologist. 
 
 1 The chronographer, Rabbi Abraham ben David, in his Book of 
 Tradition, edit. Neubauer, p. 81, says : " Rabbi Judah ben David Fasi, 
 named Chayyug, has restored the holy language to its purity, after it 
 had been already forgotten in all the dispersion." 
 
 2 These discoveries Chayyug propounds in three books : (i) Sepher 
 Otiot ha-Noach, Treatises on Verbs containing feeble letters ; (2) Sepher 
 ha-Kaphul, Treatises on Verbs whose second and third radicals are 
 alike doubled ; (3) Sepher ha-Nikud, Treatises on Punctuation, trans- 
 lated into Hebrew from the original Arabic by Rabbi Moses Chiquitilla 
 and by Ibn Ezra; these have been published by L. Dukes in his Beitrage, 
 etc., with elaborate sketch of the author's life, p. 155 163, Stuttgart, 1844 ; 
 and by J. Nutt, with an English translation. Chayyug also wrote a 
 Hebrew Lexicon, which is often quoted by Ibn Ganach and Parchon, but 
 the work has not yet come to light ; see Munk, Notice sur Abulwalid, 
 p. 64; Steinschneider, Catal. Bodl., 1301 1306; Bacher, Die Gram- 
 matische Terminologie des Jehuda ben David Hajjug, Vienna, 1882 ; 
 and Jastrow, Stades Zeitschrift, t. v. p. 193.
 
 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Eabbi Samuel looked upon Ibn-Ganach's polemic against his 
 master, Chayyug, as a wilful detraction from his merits, and 
 zealously took up the cause. He wrote small pamphlets 
 against Ibn-Ganach, both in a serious and in an ironical 
 style, and challenged him to reply. Ibn-Nagrela composed 
 twenty small grammatical works, which, however, perished, 
 being superseded by the works of Ibn-Ganach. Whilst 
 engaged in these polemical works, all of which are valuable 
 contributions to Hebrew lexicography and Biblical exegesis, 
 Ibn-Ganach prepared himself for his chef d'auvre, called 
 Kitab el-Tankich, that is, Book of Enquiry, which he finished 
 in his advanced age, and divided into two parts ; the one 
 being a treatise on grammar as connected with exegesis, 
 entitled Kitab el-Luma, the Book of Embroidery, 1 and the 
 other a lexicon, entitled Kitab el-Azul, that is, Book of 
 Boots. 2 The mastery of the science of the Hebrew language 
 in all its delicate points which Ibn-Ganach therein displays, 
 the lucid manner in which he explains every grammatical 
 difficulty, and the sound exegetical rules which he therein 
 propounds, have few parallels up to the present day. He 
 was not only the creator of the Hebrew syntax, but almost 
 brought it to perfection. 3 
 
 A fortunate circumstance transferred Eabbi Samuel Ibn- 
 Nagrela from this literary occupation, and from his needy 
 circumstances, to the sphere of politics. His shop was near 
 the palace of the Granadian vizier, Abulkasim, who was the 
 right hand of the king, Habus. Abulkasim's housekeeper, 
 who frequently sent in accounts to her master, had the 
 letters written by Eabbi Samuel, and so gave the vizier an 
 
 1 Translated into Hebrew by Ibn Tibbon ; has been published, Frank- 
 fort, 1856. 
 
 2 Or Sepher ha-Sherashim, edited with an appendix containing ex- 
 tracts from other Hebrew-Arabic dictionaries by Dr. A. Neubauer, 
 Oxford, 1875 ; Ibn-Tibbon's Hebrew translation of the same dictionary 
 is preserved in the Vatican, no. 54. 
 
 3 For sources of information on Ibn-Ganach, see Dukes, Beitrage, p. 169 
 175 ; S. Munk, journal asiatique, juillet, 1850; Neubauer, Notice sur 
 la lexicographic hebraique, 1863 ; W. Bacher, Leben und Werke des 
 Abul-Walid, Leipzig, 1885 ; Die hebraisch-arab. Sprachvergleichung, 
 Vienna, 1884 ; D. Morgenl. Gesel., 1884, p. 620 629 ; Revue des etudes 
 juives, t. vi. p. 208 ; Steinschneider, Catal. Bodl. p. 1415 1420; Deren- 
 bourg, Introduction to Opuscules, 1880.
 
 90 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 opportunity of admiring his beautiful Arabic style and elegant 
 handwriting. As soon as Abulkasim learnt the name of the 
 writer, he invited him to Granada, offering him a dwelling in 
 his palace. In this way Samuel became secretary to the 
 vizier (about 1025). Abulkasim soon perceived that he not 
 only wrote in an elegant style and a good hand, but that he 
 was also a clear thinker, who looked on the political compli- 
 cations of the Pyrenean peninsula with an accurate eye, and 
 knew how to give excellent advice. From this time he under- 
 took nothing in state affairs without first consulting his 
 Jewish secretary; and Eabbi Samuel's counsels always 
 approved themselves by the happy issue. Abulkasim now 
 fell ill, and the king, Habus, sat despairing by his bedside, 
 asking who should advise him in the present critical state of 
 his kingdom. The vizier most earnestly recommended his 
 Jewish secretary, and was honest enough to confess on his 
 deathbed, that the good measures he had suggested for some 
 years had been Rabbi Samuel's inspirations. Habus, who 
 as a Berber, had no deep-rooted prejudice against Jews, and 
 was in need of a wise head at this critical time, did not hesi- 
 tate to appoint Rabbi Samuel Ibn-Nagrela to be minister of 
 state and vizier (nagid), 1 and to assign him a dwelling in 
 his palace (1027). 
 
 King Habus had no reason to repent of his choice. 
 Affairs of state prospered under the guidance of the prudent 
 and active Jewish vizier. By his noble character and his 
 clear understanding, Rabbi Samuel knew how to turn aside 
 the caprice of the oriental ruler, and to disarm the prejudices 
 of the Mohammedan population against a Jewish minister. 
 
 His wisdom and deep piety preserved him from that arro- 
 gance which is common to favourites and upstarts, often leading 
 to their downfall. He was not, indeed, without enviers and 
 enemies. Moreover, the status of the Jews of the kingdom 
 
 1 Concerning the position and the power of the viziers of that time, 
 see Professor D. Chwolson's Die Semitischen Volker, Berlin, 1872, p. 
 39. Rabbi Samuel addressed King Habus, of Granada, in a poem of 
 seven beit, each of which was in a different language ; see I. Abraham's 
 Jewish Life, p. 361. Such an extensive knowledge of languages at this 
 time implied great mental power and perseverance, for there was no ex- 
 pedient to facilitate the study of language. Rabbi Samuel was perhaps 
 the first Mezzofanti ; cf. Chemda Genuza, p. 29.
 
 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 91 
 
 of Granada was raised by him, and they were now admitted 
 to offices of state, and even served in the army. This placing 
 of them on an equality with the Mohammedan population 
 gave great offence to the Mussulmans. Two high officers of 
 state, Ibn-Abbas and Ibn-Abu-Musa, entered into a con- 
 spiracy against the Jewish minister, and sought to effect his 
 overthrow. But the king held so firmly to him, and found 
 his fidelity so spotless, that he had one of the conspirators, 
 Ibn-Abbas, executed. 
 
 Eabbi Samuel himself drew a masterly sketch of a true 
 ruler; and this ideal was his guiding star. 1 "He whose 
 counsel is free from the stains of lust, pure as the sun, whose 
 eyelids do not succumb to sleep, whose thoughts are firm as 
 towers, whom dignity surrounds with a brightness like the 
 flashing of weapons, enabling him to command the wills of 
 others, and who keeps aloof from all that brings shame, he 
 only is worthy of dominion." 
 
 King Habus died (1037) without having made arrange- 
 ments as to which of his sons should succeed him. At once 
 two parties formed themselves in Granada, the one declaring 
 itself for Badis, the elder son of Habus, the other for Balkin, 
 the younger. As the Jews of this kingdom now enjoyed 
 equal political rights with their fellow-citizens, they could 
 join either one party or the other. Rabbi Samuel declared for 
 Badis; other Jews, Eabbi Joseph Ibn Migash (the elder), 
 Eabbi Isaac ben Leon, and Nehemiah Ashkafa, gave their 
 support to Balkin. Already the Berberic magnates were 
 assembled with their partisans to do homage to the younger 
 son, when he himself withdrew and left the kingdom to 
 Badis. His opponents were therefore obliged to swear alle- 
 giance to him, and Eabbi Samuel remained at his post. 
 Balkin afterwards repenting of his magnanimity, entered into 
 a conspiracy with his adherents against Badis, and put 
 obstacles in the way of his government. In the meantime, 
 however, Balkin fell suddenly ill, and his royal brother com- 
 manded the physician who attended him to administer no 
 remedies, in consequence of which his death was accelerated. 
 After Balkin's death, the supremacy of Badis, and the 
 
 1 Miscellany of Hebrew Literature, vol. i., p. 6.
 
 92 THE CELEBKITIES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 vizierate of Eabbi Samuel remained undisputed. As the new 
 king was indolent and addicted to pleasure, Eabbi Samuel con- 
 ducted all the affairs of government, and was in fact king. 
 
 Occupation with government affairs and with politics did 
 not prevent the Jewish minister from working as a rabbi 
 and author ; on the contrary, this activity formed the centre 
 of his life. He collected youths about him to whom he 
 explained the Bible and the Talmud. Individuals and com- 
 munities applied to him, as the first Talmudic authority, with 
 questions, which he answered from the sources with much 
 learning. With the pen he employed in drawing up govern- 
 ment decrees, he wrote also a Commentary on the Penta- 
 teuch and Talmudic treatises. He was the first to introduce 
 a scientific method into the study of the Talmud. 1 Eabbi 
 Samuel also laid the foundation for a sketch of Jewish history 
 after the destruction of the temple. As a preface to his 
 Talmudic introduction, he brought together the links of the 
 chain of tradition, through the Talmudic, Saburaen, and 
 Gaonaic epochs down to his own time. 2 His knowledge of 
 the Talmud was so profound and comprehensive that he 
 wrote a commentary on those portions of the Talmud which 
 treat of religious, civil, judicial and matrimonial law, under 
 the title of " Hilchata Gabriatha." 3 He was also a Hebrew 
 poet, and understood rhyme and metre. He composed 
 elevating prayers in the words of the holy tongue, after the 
 manner of the Psalms, and called them Ben Tehillim (Son of 
 the Psalms). He composed maxims full of meaning and 
 thought, as the fruit of his deep observation of men and 
 things, and called them Ben Mishlei (Son of the Proverbs). 
 Finally he set forth a philosophy of life after the pattern of 
 Ecclesiastes, under the title of Ben Kohelet (Son of the 
 Preacher). 4 
 
 !His Introduction to the Talmud is printed in every edition of it. 
 This treatise, of which a condensed German translation is given by Dr. 
 E. M. Pinner, in his Introduction to the Masechet Berachot, Berlin, 1842. 
 
 2 See Rapaport's Rab Hai, note 2. 
 
 3 Meiri in Bet ha-Bechira, Vienna, 1854, preface, p. n. 
 
 4 Fragments of Ben Tehillim and Ben Mishlei have been published 
 by Dr. Harkavy under the title of " Studien und Mittheilungen," Peters- 
 burg, 1879 ; see also Munk, Journal Asiatique, September. 1850, p. 203 
 210; and Dukes, Nachal Kedumim, p. 31.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 93 
 
 For his co-religionists this great statesman had an open 
 heart. He spread hlessings far and near, and encouraged 
 Jewish science and poetry with a princely hand. He shared 
 his riches with every disciple of Jewish erudition, not merely 
 in Spain, but also in Africa, Sicily, Babylonia, and Judaea. 
 He employed a number of transcribers to make numerous 
 copies of the Holy Scriptures and of the Talmud, which he 
 bestowed on needy youths who were anxious for knowledge. 
 
 Eabbi Samuel kept up a brisk correspondence with all dis- 
 tinguished Jews in Syria, Africa, Egypt and Irak, and took 
 the warmest interest in their studies. With true devotion he 
 inquired of a Sicilian judge, Rabbi Mazliach Ibn-Al-Bazak, 1 
 a disciple of the last intellectual, learned, philosophic gaon, 
 Rab Hai, who died 1038, how this gaon lived and taught. 
 Rabbi Samuel stood in close relation to the African authorities 
 of Judaism. Rabbi Nissim ben Jacob Ibn-Shahun, in 
 Kairuan, 2 was a great Talmudist who had imbibed the culture 
 of his age. Although rabbi of one of the largest Jewish 
 communities, Rabbi Nissim lived in poverty, because the 
 rabbis of that time looked upon it as a sin to receive any 
 salary for their office. But he was so richly supported by 
 the Jewish minister of Granada, that he felt no want. Rabbi 
 Samuel did not even hesitate to ally his noble son, Rabbi 
 Joseph, who had been instructed in every branch of know- 
 ledge and was destined to succeed him in the vizierate, to 
 the virtuous daughter of the poor Rabbi Nissim (about 1048). s 
 
 Contemporary with Ibn-Nagrela was the poet Abu-Omar 
 Joseph Ibn Chasdai. 4 
 
 The death of Rabbi Samuel, which took place in the sixty- 
 second or sixty-third year of his age, was justly lamented far 
 and near. His noble son Hussain Joseph succeeded him in 
 
 1 See Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, 1857, p. 78, 125. 
 
 2 He wrote : (i) Mafteach ha-Talmud, a key to the Talmud, printed 
 by Goldenthal, Vienna, 1847. (2) Megillat Setarim, the Concealed 
 Leaves, on three treatises of the Talmud which have been published 
 in the editions of the Talmud, Vilno, 1880 ; see Hamazkir, 1873, p. 132 ; 
 Nitei Naamanim, Breslau, 1847. 
 
 3 See Chemda Genuza, p. 29. 
 
 4 Of whom only one ode has survived and reached us ; it has been 
 published in Nachal Kedumim, i., p. 17, Hanover, 1857 ; but it bears the 
 stamp of masterly abilities.
 
 94 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 the vizierate of Granada. Unfortunately, however, the long 
 suppressed envy of the population of Granada ended in a 
 terrible outbreak, almost the whole of the Jewish community 
 of Granada, including Rabbi Joseph ha-Nagid, falling victims 
 to the popular fury (1066). 
 
 This Spanish-Hebrew era, which extended over many 
 centuries, may rightly be called the Golden Age in the Post- 
 Biblical History of the Jewish people ; for at no other period 
 after the final breaking up of their nationality, had the Jews 
 enriched the world of letters to such an extent as they did 
 at that time known in modern phraseology as the " dark 
 ages." 
 
 In religious poetry the Spanish Jews greatly excelled ; 
 hymns for the service of the Synagogue, moral poetry, the 
 defence of Judaism against Greek philosophy, lamentations 
 over the misfortunes of their countrymen these formed the 
 fertile subjects of their verse. The most distinguished poet 
 in the eleventh century was Eabbi Solomon Gabirol. 
 
 Eabbi Solomon ben Jehudah-Ibn-Gabirol or Abu Ayub 
 Suleiman Ibn-Yachia, born in 1021 at Malaga, studied and 
 wrote at Saragossa. He is only known to us by his writings, 
 which show him to have been a man of deep feeling, great 
 poetical talent, and extensive learning. From his poems we 
 learn that he was early left an orphan, and that he found a 
 friend and protector in a certain Rabbi Jekuthiel Ibn-Hassan, 1 
 the chief minister of the reigning caliph. There are verses 
 in existence which tell us of this friendship, and verses, 
 too, of a sadder sort, which tell us of that friendship's 
 ending. Rabbi Jekuthiel died when the boy he loved, and 
 who loved him in return as only boys and poets can, was but 
 eighteen, and the sorrow that came thus early in Gabirol's 
 life shadowed it henceforth. Gabirol, in his nineteenth year, 
 wrote a Hebrew grammar, 2 in verse a work which Ibn-Ezra 
 has since pronounced worthy of the highest praise. In this 
 
 1 Frankel's Monatsschrift, 1858, p. 454 ; D.M.G. 1859^.515. Ginzei 
 Oxford, London, 1850, p. 26,27. Dukes' Shirei Shelomo, Hanover, 1858. 
 
 2 This grammar, entitled " Anak," which originally consisted of 400 
 verses, is not extant in its entirety. Part of it is given by Parchon in 
 his Hebrew Lexicon, Presburg, 1844, p. 23, and with some corrections 
 by L. Dukes, Shire Shelomo, part ii., p. 56.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 95 
 
 work, the author complains, " That the study of the sacred 
 tongue, honourable above all others, had been too long 
 neglected, so that by a great multitude of his brethren the 
 words of the prophets were no longer understood." 
 
 At the age of twenty-four he wrote in Arabic an ethico- 
 philosophical work, which was translated into Hebrew, 
 under the name of Tikkon Midot ha-Nephesh, by Eabbi 
 Judah Ibn-Tibbon. 1 Ibn Gabirol propounds in this work a 
 peculiar theory of the human temperament and passions, 
 enumerates twenty propensities corresponding to the four 
 dispositions multiplied by the five senses. In consequence 
 of some personal allusions which he made in this work, 2 
 Gabirol was obliged to quit Saragossa in 1046, and for some 
 time to wander about Spain, till he was taken up by the 
 celebrated Eabbi Samuel ha-Nagid, when he wrote in Arabic 
 his grand philosophical work, called in Hebrew, " Mekor 
 Chayim," the Fountain of Life. The Fountain of Life and 
 its philosophy were so wise and so original that the book 
 grew more celebrated than the author. It was translated 
 about 1150 from the Arabic language into Latin, and under 
 its name of Fons Vitae it was greatly prized by learned school 
 men of the period, as William of Auvergne, Bishop of Paris 
 (died 1248), Thomas Aquinas (died 1274), Albert the Great 
 (died 1280), and Duns Scotus (died 1308). And in time it 
 became a puzzle to identify the writer. "Avicebron" was 
 received as the name of the author, but who "Avicebron" 
 might be was only conclusively solved in our days, when 
 the French savant, Munk, proved to the satisfaction of all 
 who knew most about the facts that the unknown and cele- 
 brated "Avicebron" of general fame, and the known and 
 beloved Gabirol of Jewish fame, were identical. 8 
 
 1 Editio princeps, Constantinople, 1550. 
 
 2 He said, " I need not mention names, for they are sufficiently well 
 known." He describes the haughty men, who carry themselves above 
 their fellow-citizens, and who always hold their own counsel for the 
 best, and those who, actually, filled with hate, yet bear words of love 
 on their lips. 
 
 3 The fragments of a Hebrew translation, of Ibn-Falaquera, have been 
 published by S. Munk in his Melanges de Philosophic juive et arabe, 
 Paris, 1857 1859. The philosopher, Ali ben Joseph Habilto, in the 
 fifteenth century, declared explicitly the name of Avicebron to be Ibn 
 Gabirol; see Dr. Bloch, Die Juden in Spanien, p. 34 note i, Leipzig, 
 1875-
 
 96 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 The poetical talents of Gabirol were exercised on many 
 different subjects : hymns, elegies, confessions of sin, and 
 descriptions of the future. In all these we find a noble and 
 affecting echo of the poetry of his ancestors. The Keter 
 Malkut, or Kingly Crown, is looked upon as his masterpiece, 
 a poem which the Israelites recite during the night before 
 the Great Day of Atonement. This poem, in honour of the 
 goodness and power of God, after a brilliant introduction, 
 contains first a description of the universe, rich in details, 
 which give us much interesting information on the ideas 
 held by the Talmudists concerning the laws of creation ; 
 then follow praises of the greatness and wisdom of God, as 
 manifested in the construction of the human body, and he 
 then dwells, with equal richness of language and poetry, on 
 the nothingness and misery of human nature, and the neces- 
 sity for humiliation before God on account of sin. The whole 
 closes with a prayer for the temporal and eternal preserva- 
 tion of Israel, their restoration to their country, and the 
 rebuilding of their sanctuary, followed by a magnificent 
 doxology. 1 
 
 A short extract from it will enable the reader to form a 
 fair estimate of the poetical genius of its composer " Man, 
 from his existence, is distressed, needy, mortified, and 
 afflicted ; from his beginning he is chaff, that the wind 
 blows. From the time he came from his mother's womb, 
 his night is sorrow, his day sadness. To-day he is elevated, 
 to-morrow he breeds worms ; a straw makes him draw back, 
 a thorn wounds him. If in abundance, he becomes wicked; 
 if hungry, a loaf of bread renders him criminal. He comes 
 into the world, but knows not whence ; he rejoices, but 
 knows not why ; he lives, but knows not how long. In his 
 youth he walks in his depravity. When reason begins to 
 give strength to his mind, he diligently seeks to accumulate 
 wealth. He is constantly liable to trouble and the endless 
 
 1 The Keter Malkut has been translated into almost every European 
 language, into Latin by Fr. Donate, in Tappuchei Zahab, Rome, 1618 ; 
 into French by M. Venture, Nizza, 1773 ; into Italian by M. Bollofi, 
 Leghorn, 1809 ; into Dutch by G. Polak, Amsterdam, 1839 ; into English 
 by A. de Sola, London, 1840; and into German by L. Dukes in his 
 Ehrensaiilen und Denksteine, p. 5870, Vienna, 1837.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 97 
 
 changes of events, subject to evil occurrences that happen 
 every moment, until his life becomes a burden to him; in 
 his honey he finds the venom of vipers. As the infirmities 
 of age increase, his intellectual powers diminish; youths 
 mock him; they rule him; he becomes a burden to those 
 who sprang from his loins, and all his acquaintance are 
 estranged from him." 
 
 Ibn Gabirol also composed a small collection of wise and 
 witty saws and sayings, under the name of Mibchar ha- 
 Peninim, or a Choice of Pearls. 1 
 
 Gabirol died at Valencia before he was quite fifty years 
 old (1070). His death is said to have been caused by the 
 sanguinary envy of an Arabian rival in song, and the legend 
 tells that the poet was buried by his murderer under a fig- 
 tree, which produced in consequence so great an abundance 
 of fruit of such exquisite flavour as to attract the attention 
 of the caliph, and lead to the discovery of the body, and a 
 detection of the crime which had been committed. 2 
 
 Another Jewish philosopher of this time, which was so 
 rich in great men, pursued a different course from Ibn 
 Gabirol, and whilst introducing new elements, took his 
 stand by the fundamental principles of Judaism. Eabbi 
 Bechaya ben Joseph Ibn Pakuda revealed in his personality 
 a pattern of deeply earnest religiousness and cheerful, re- 
 signed morality, and established an entirely original moral 
 theology of Judaism. 3 
 
 1 This little book has been translated into Hebrew by Rabbi Judah 
 Ibn-Tibbon, editio princeps, Soncino, 1484 ; an English translation is 
 given by B. H. Asher, London, 1859. 
 
 2 For references to the life and works of Ibn-Gabirol, see Raymund 
 Lullund, Die Anfange der Catalonischen Poesie. Berlin, 1858 ; L. Dukes, 
 Salomo ben Gebirol, Hanover, 1860 ; Dr. H. Adler, Chief Rabbi, 
 London, 1865 ; Hanberg, Ueber das Verhaltniss Ibn Gebirols zur 
 Encyklopaedia der lautern Briider, 1866; Graetz, Geschichte, vi., p. 21 
 and 29 ; Stossel, Salomo ben Gebirol, Leipzig, 1881 ; Munk, Melanges, 
 p. 158 164 ; Ginzei Oxford, p. 5 8 ; I. Myer, The Philosophical 
 Writings of Ibn Gabirol, Philadelphia, 1888 ; and Dr. Steinschneider in 
 Berliners Pletat Soferim, p. 4550. 
 
 Concerning the poetry of Ibn Gabirol, see M. Sachs, Die Religiose 
 Poesie der Juden in Spanien, p. 3 29, 213, Berlin, 1845 ; S. Sachs 
 Shir-ha-Shirim, with elaborate notes, Paris, 1868; Shirim-u-Zemiroth, 
 Constantinople, 1545 ; and Edelmann's Chemda Genuza, p. 14, Konigs- 
 berg, 1856. 
 
 Ibn Gabirol's Hymns on the 613 precepts, surnamed Azharoth, editio 
 princeps, Venice, 1525. 
 
 3 Graetz, History, iii., p. 277. 
 
 7
 
 98 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 He is only known to us through his work, "Instruction 
 in the Duties of the Heart," which he wrote in Arabic, and 
 which still enjoys the highest reputation among the Jews, 
 both on account of its pure diction and sublime morality. 
 It treats on spiritual life and the duty of man towards God, 
 himself, and his fellow creatures. 1 
 
 Concerning prayer, Ibn Pakuda expressed himself as fol- 
 lows:- "All the thoughts that our sacred prayers awaken in 
 thee will lead thee to chain thy tongue, to subdue thy mind, 
 to restrain thy desires, to direct thy sentiments, and to weigh 
 thy actions ; and it is then that God, in His mercy and His 
 greatness, will shield thee with the wing of His love. 2 
 
 At this period, Cordova boasted of five sages, all having the 
 name of Isaac. 
 
 Eabbi Isaac ben Baruch Albalia (1035 1094), having 
 happily escaped the massacre at Granada, settled first at 
 Cordova under the protection of Ibn Nagrela and Eabbi 
 Joseph ha-Nagid, but afterwards removed to Seville. His 
 great talents as an astronomer gained him the friendship of 
 Abulkassim Mahomet, called Almutamed " The Mathema- 
 tician," King of Seville, who appointed him to the high and 
 confidential office of steward to the royal household. He 
 was at the same time rabbi over the communities of the 
 realm of Seville, and was moreover acknowledged abroad as 
 such. Beautiful Seville became through him the centre of 
 Jewish Spain, as Cordova and Granada had been in the past. 
 Ibn Albalia had scarcely attained his thirtieth year, when 
 he produced a commentary to elucidate the most difficult 
 
 1 Rendered into Hebrew by Rabbi Judah Ibn Tibbon, editio princeps, 
 Naples, 1490. Fragments of Rabbi Joseph Kimchi's translation, edited 
 by Dr. Jellinek, Leipzig, 1846. A German translation has been made by 
 Fiirstenthal, Breslau, 1836 ; Spanish by Pardo, 1610 ; Portuguese by 
 Sam. Abbas, Amsterdam, 1670. Ibn Pakuda wrote also, a "Tokacha," 
 or an Exhortation, printed in the editions of the Chobat ha-Lebaboth, 
 which has been translated into Italian by DeboraAscarelli, Venice, 1610; 
 into German by M. Sachs, in his Religiose Poesie der Juden in Spanien, 
 p, 273, and by M. Stern, at the end of his translation of the Chobat ha- 
 Lebaboth, Vienna, 1853 ; see Munk, Guide des Egares, i. 339 ; Stein- 
 schneider, Catal. Bodl., 780 ; D. Kaufmann, Die Theologie des Bachja 
 Ibn Pakuda, Vienna, 1874. 
 
 2 At the end of the Chobat ha-Lebaboth, translated by A. Abraham, 
 Tales for the Young, London, 1846, p. 74.
 
 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 99 
 
 portions of the Talmud. 1 He worked at the same time at an 
 astronomical treatise on the principles of the Jewish Calen- 
 dar, under the title " Ibbur," which he dedicated to his 
 patron, Eabbi Joseph Ibn Nagrela, in 1065. 2 
 
 Almutamed, the last noble ruler of the Arab race in Spain, 
 had also another Jewish functionary at his court, Ibn-Mishal, 
 whom he employed on diplomatic missions, and who was 
 known to his contemporaries as Eabbi Isaac ben Judah Ibn- 
 Giat (1030 1089). He belonged to a rich and illustrious 
 family, whose residence was Lucena, not far from Cordova. 
 Both the Ibn-Nagrelas gave him in his youth many proofs of 
 their respect, and he was devoted to them heart and soul. 
 After the tragic end of Eabbi Joseph ha-Nagid, Ibn-Giat gave 
 himself much trouble to raise Eabbi Joseph's son, Abunassar 
 Azaria, to the rank of Eabbi of Lucena. But death deprived 
 this noble house of her last scion. The community selected 
 Eabbi Isaac Ibn-Giat to be their spiritual chief on account 
 of his learning and virtues. 3 Liturgical poetry, philosophy, 
 and the Talmud, were the three domains that he sedulously 
 cultivated. In the year 1089, the learned rabbi was taken 
 ill, and removed for change of air to Cordova, where he 
 shortly afterwards died. 
 
 The third was Eabbi Isaac ben Moses Ibn-Sakni, greatly 
 celebrated for his Talmudical learning. In his infant years, 
 he frequented the lectures of Eabbi Chanoch. When he 
 came to man's estate, he was appointed chief of the congre- 
 
 1 Under the name of Kuppat ha-Rochelim, or the "Merchant's Chest," 
 which has not as yet come to light. 
 
 2 Graetz, in., p. 290-291. 
 
 3 He wrote a Sepher Halachot, a collection of decisions from the 
 Talmud and the Responsa of the Gaonim down to his own time, of 
 which a part has been published at Fiirth, 1861 1862, and at Berlin, 
 1864. See J. Derenburg, Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Theologie, 
 t- v - 3971 Dukes, L. B. des Orients, 1848, p. 536. Ibn-Giat composed, 
 also, hymns which are used in the Jewish service to the present day, 
 extant in the Machzor. Some of his poetry was published in Sach's 
 Religiose Poesie der Juden in Spanien, pp. 46, 255 ; and in Chofes 
 Matmonim, Berlin, 1845 ; see Kaempf, Nichtandalusische Poesie, ii. p. 
 191, Prague, 1858. 
 
 Ibn-Giat's Commentary on Ecclesiastes has been published by J. 
 Lovy, Leyden, 1884. To Ibn-Giat succeeded as poets Rabbi Joseph ben 
 Jacob Ibn-Sahl, his disciple, who died 1124, at Cordova, and his own 
 son Rabbi Judah, and grandson Rabbi Solomon Ibn-Giat.
 
 100 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 gation at Denia, on the coast of the Mediterranean. There 
 he continued ministering to his people until the arrival at 
 Denia of Eabbi Isaac ben Eeuben Albergeloni, who found 
 great favour in the eyes of the congregation, whereupon 
 Ibn-Sakni showed his high appreciation of the abilities of 
 Albergeloni by yielding to him his post and departing from 
 Denia. He wended his way eastward, and in Pumbeditha 
 became a teacher of the law under the name of gaon. 
 
 Eabbi Isaac ben Eeuben Albergeloni (1043 1103) was, as 
 his name indicates, a native of Barcelona, and one of the 
 most distinguished pupils of the Granadine school. His know- 
 ledge was alike extensive and varied ; and he is celebrated, 
 not only for the purity and elegance of his Hebrew and 
 Arabic poems, but likewise for his notes on the Talmud. 1 
 
 There was, however, a fifth Eabbi Isaac, whose fame not 
 only eclipsed his four namesakes, but whose works rank high 
 among the productions of Hebrew literature. This was 
 Eabbi Isaac ben Jacob Alfassi or Alkalai, born at Kala- 
 Ibn-Hammad, in the neighbourhood of Fez (1013). He 
 heard the last African authorities, Eabbi Nissim and Eabbi 
 Chananel, and after their death in 1056 he became the bearer 
 of the Talmud in West Africa. On the occasion of some 
 disputes he had with one Barazan Alkalfa ben Al-Anab, and 
 his son Hayim, he was induced to quit his native land about 
 the year 1088 for Cordova. His great talents gained him the 
 friendship of Eabbi Joseph ben Meir ben Stomikos, one of 
 the leaders of the Jewish community at Cordova. Joining 
 its academy, he taught and lectured on the Talmud. After 
 being chief of the synagogue for some years, he retired to 
 Lucena. Eabbi Isaac formed an attachment for a certain 
 young man, Eabbi Joseph ben Eabbi Meir ben Migas, whose 
 father determined to confide the future hopes of his son to 
 the guardianship of the great African teacher. Alfassi received 
 the youth, adopted him as his own child, and devoted every 
 care and attention to perfect his education. He was so satis- 
 fied with the progress of his pupil that after the expiration of 
 
 1 He translated the work of Rab Hai Gaon from Arabic into 
 Hebrew under the name of Mekach u-Mimkar on "Buying and Selling," 
 published at Venice, 1602 ; his Azharot hymns on the 613 precepts, 
 editio princeps, Venice, 1593.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 101 
 
 fourteen years, he gave the young Eabbi Joseph a certificate 
 of his merits, in which he praises him as gifted with the 
 highest mental endowments. 1 The same noble devotion and 
 solicitude which Alfassi displayed towards his adopted son, 
 he likewise exercised towards the son of his adversary. 2 
 Shortly before the death of Eabbi Isaac ben Baruch Albalia, 
 this great opponent of Alfassi caused his only son Eabbi 
 Baruch, then seventeen years of age, to be called to his 
 couch, and said to him in a feeble voice, " Go and tell 
 Eabbi Isaac Alfassi that I quit this world for another and a 
 better state. At this important moment, when I am about 
 to appear before my Maker and my Judge, I forgive him all 
 the harsh and offensive expressions which, either in writing 
 or verbally, he has made use of against me. Eequest of him, 
 in my name, that he will likewise forgive me and pardon 
 every injurious expression to which in the frenzy of excite- 
 ment, I have given utterance against him. When thou hast 
 acquitted thyself of thy errand, stay with him, and profit by 
 his instructions. I know that he will not withhold his pro- 
 tection from thee." After his decease, the youth, in obedience 
 to the paternal commands, departed for Lucena, in order to 
 execute the commission his father had entrusted to him. 
 Alfassi was deeply affected when he received the last message 
 from his dying antagonist. He burst into tears, and, having 
 attempted to console the youth under the great loss he had sus- 
 tained, he exclaimed, " Thou art bereaved of thy father ! but I 
 will supply his place to thee. Henceforth I am thy father." 
 Eabbi Isaac is the author of a great work known and cele- 
 brated under the name of Alfassi, which contains a com- 
 pendium and illustration of the Talmud. 3 His object was to 
 
 1 Rabbi Bezalel Ashkenasi in his Responsa, ch. 28, mentioned Ibn 
 Migas' Commentary on the Talmud. A collection of Ibn Migas' 
 Responsa has been published at Salonicha, 1791, again at Warsaw, 
 1870 ; and in Teshubot ha-Rambam, edit. Lichtenberg, p. 46 48. 
 
 2 Hebrew Review, ii., p. 255, 256 ; cf. Sepher ha-Kabala, edit. Neu- 
 bauer, p. 77. 
 
 3 Editio princeps, Constantinople, 1509. His three Helachot in the 
 Arabic language have been translated and published in the Sepher 
 Tumat Yesharim, ch. 218 220, Venice, 1622. The Responsa of 
 Alfassi was published at Leghorn, 1781. His grandson, Rabbi Isaac ben 
 Rabbi Reuben, wrote a treatise on the " Oath," under the title of 
 "Shaare Shebuot," published at Cracow, 1597; see Rapaport's Rav 
 Hai, 92, note 23.
 
 102 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 place in the hands of the rabbis an abridgment of the 
 Talmud, omitting those laws that were only obligatory in the 
 Holy Land. Accordingly his work became a standard guide. 
 It is much esteemed by the great Maimonides, and still 
 regarded as one of the most useful productions of rabbinical 
 learning. 1 
 
 Eabbi Isaac Alfassi survived all his namesakes, surpassed 
 them and all contemporary rabbis in fame as well as in in- 
 fluence, and died universally respected and lamented, at the 
 advanced age of ninety years, at Lucena, where he was 
 buried. 2 
 
 His disciple Eabbi Joseph ben Meir Ibn Migas succeeded 
 him in the presidency of the college of Lucena, which post he 
 held for thirty-eight years, and was the instructor of Eabbi 
 Maimun, the father of Eabbi Moses Maimonides. 
 
 Meanwhile Christianity was becoming more and more 
 paramount in Spain. Alfonso VI., king of Castile, who em- 
 ployed several Jewish diplomatists, and continued to do so 
 in spite of the remonstrances of Pope Gregory VII., had 
 taken possession of Toledo in 1085. Almutamed applied for 
 help to the Almoravian prince Jussuf, 8 from the north of 
 Africa, but though the latter defeated Alfonso, he at the same 
 time put an end to the power of the native Moslem rulers, 
 and Almutamed himself lost both his crown and his life. 
 The Jewish inhabitants of the south of Spain suffered con- 
 siderably during these wars, but their social freedom was 
 not diminished, and Jewish doctors and ministers of State 
 
 1 See Maimonides' letter to his disciple Rabbi Joseph ben Judah, 
 Journal Asiatique, 1842, juillet, p. 28. 
 
 2 The inscription on his monument shows the high estimation in 
 which he was held : " Write with a pen of steel on a tablet of diamond 
 to perpetuate the memory of our loss that the remotest generations may 
 mourn, and all our descendants weep for him. Tell them the fountain 
 of wisdom lieth here, buried and hidden. Mankind gropes about in 
 darkness. Come, ye daughters of Zion, weep and mourn ; mourn for 
 him with bitter lamentations : for this tomb is the cause of your grief; 
 here lieth the ark of the covenant broken, and the tables of testimony 
 shattered to fragments ! Here lieth enshrined the chief of chiefs, the 
 prince of saints, the teacher of the wise, the divine philosopher and 
 sage, Rabbi Isaac ben Jacob Alfassi," etc. Hebrew' Review, ii., p. 256. 
 
 3 Jussuf was very much attached to his physician Abu Mervan Ibn- 
 Zohar, the preceptor of Ibn-Roshed ; see Steinschneider in Virchow's 
 Archive, xxxvi xxxvii.
 
 THE CELEBBlTIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 were employed at the court of the Almoravian rulers. A 
 Jewish doctor and poet, Abu Ayub (Solomon Ibn Almuallem), 
 of Seville, was physician to the Caliph Ali, the second ruler 
 of the Alrnoravide dynasty (1106 1143), and bore the title 
 of prince and vizier. 1 A doctor named Abulhassan Abraham 
 ben Meir Ibn Kamnial, of Saragossa, likewise occupied a 
 high place at Ali's court, and also bore the title of vizier. 2 
 The prince Solomon Ibn Farusal was likewise praised by his 
 contemporaries. Abu Ishak Ibn-Mohagir also bore the title 
 of vizier, and was immortalized by the poets. 
 
 An astronomical writer, Rabbi Abraham ben Chija Albar- 
 geloni (1065 1136), also occupied a high position under 
 another Mohammedan prince. He was a kind of minister 
 of police (Zachib-al-Shorta), and bore the title of prince. He 
 was held in high consideration by the ruler on account of 
 his astronomical knowledge, and had disputes with learned 
 priests, to whom he demonstrated the accuracy of the Jewish 
 Calendar. He wrote a description of the form of the earth, 
 of the arrangement of the firmament, and of the revolutions 
 of the planets. His moral work, entitled " Higayon Hane- 
 fesh " (or Meditations of a Penitent Soul on reaching the 
 Gates of Repentance), is held in high estimation. He com- 
 posed also a work on geometry, with an explanation of 
 spherical triangles, and the conversion of angles and circles. 8 
 
 1 Rabbi Jehuda Charizi in Tachkemoni, ch. iii. ; see Rosin, Abraham 
 Ibn Ezra, 119. 
 
 2 Rabbi Moses Ibn Ezra, in the beginning of his Tarshish, eulogised 
 Ibn-Kamnial in verse on account of his noble sentiments, his generosity, 
 and commiseration for the future of his co-religionists. 
 
 3 The works of Rabbi Abraham ben Chija are : (i) Sepher Zurat ha- 
 Aretz, an astronomical treatise, editio princeps with a Latin version, 
 Basle, 1546. (2) Sepher ha-lbbur on the Jewish Calendar, published by 
 H. Philipowski, London, 1851. (3) Sepher Mishnat Hamidot, a treatise 
 on geometry, published by Steinschneider, Berlin, 1864. (4) Sepher 
 Megillat ha-Megalle, a treatise on the redemption, preserved in MSS. 
 in the Bodleian Library; see Steinschneider, Abraham Judaeus 
 Savasorda, etc., p. 5 ; Goldenthal, Journal Zion, 1845, N- i. (5) Sepher 
 Higayon Hanefesh, Meditations of a Penitent Soul, published by E. 
 Freimann, with an introduction by S. L. Rapaport, Leipzig, 1860. (6) 
 Cheshbon ha-Mahalachot, on the planets and the two spheres, MS. 
 preserved in Turin, cod. 66; see Jewish Literature, p. 351; and W. 
 Wardheim's Kebutsat Chachamim, Vienna, 1861, p. 8. Concerning 
 the work entitled Yesodei ha-Tebuna Umigdol Haemuna or Cyclopaedia 
 of Knowledge, attributed to Rabbi Abraham ben Chija, see Hamazkir, 
 vii., p. 84 95.
 
 104 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Eabbi Abraham ben Chija and his contemporary Eabbi 
 Jehuda ben Barzillai Albergeloni, 1 author of the celebrated 
 Talmudic work, " Sepher ha-Ittim," 2 afterwards lived in Mar- 
 seilles. 
 
 Amongst poets worthy of record, and who also occupied 
 themselves with other matters, were Rabbi Judah Ibn Giat, 8 
 Rabbi Judah Ibn Abbas, 4 Rabbi Solomon Ibn Jektiel, Rabbi 
 Joseph Ibn Sahl, liturgical poet, and Rabbi Solomon ben 
 Zikbel, a relative of Rabbi Joseph Ibn Sahl. 5 
 
 About the same time the Jews in the north of Africa suf- 
 fered terrible persecutions at the hands of the Almohades, 
 followers of the fanatical Abdallah Ibn Tumart. Under the 
 leadership of Abdulmumen, the Almohades crossed over to 
 Spain, took Cordova (where the successor of Joseph Ibn Sahl 
 in the rabbinate, was Rabbi Joseph Ibn Zadik) in 1148, and 
 spent their proselytising fury on Jews and Christians alike. 
 Rabbi Judah Ibn Ezra, governor of Calatrava, sheltered and 
 protected many fugitives. Although Rabbi Joseph Ibn Zadik 
 was celebrated as being deeply read in the Talmud, his works 
 consist of philosophical treatises in the Arabic language. 
 His treatise on religious philosophy and ethics, under the 
 name of " Sepher ha-Olam-ha-Katon," or Microcosmos, 6 is 
 greatly esteemed by Maimonides and Bedersi. 
 
 The four brothers Ibn Ezra of Granada were richly en- 
 dowed ; they were noble, learned, and wealthy. Their 
 names were Abu Ibrahim Isaac, Abu Harun Moses, Abul- 
 
 1 Disciple of Rabbi Isaac ben Reuben Albergeloni, cf. Tashbats, i., 
 ch. 15. 
 
 2 A collection of Talmudical prescriptions, see Sepher Tmim Deim, 
 ch. 104 ; Orchot Chaim, Hilchot Shabbath, ch. 22, and Gross, Monats- 
 schrift, 1868, p. 524. Rabbi Jehuda's other works as the Sepher Yichus 
 Sheer Basar on the Talmud Seder Nashim, and his Sepher Shetarot on 
 Seder Nezikin have not as yet come to light. His Commentary on the 
 Sepher Jecira has been published by S. Z. Halberstam, Berlin, 1885, 
 with his introduction. 
 
 3 See D. Halub in his Pardes David, ii., p. 14. 
 
 4 Pardes David, ii., p. 15, 81. 
 
 5 See Kaempf, Nichtandalusische Poesie, 195. Zikbel's Poetry has 
 been published in He-Chalutz, iii., p. 154. 
 
 6 It was translated from Arabic into Hebrew by Rabbi Moses Ibn 
 Tibbon and edited with an introduction by Dr. Jellinek, Leipzig. 1854 ; 
 see Zunz, in Sach's Religiose Poesie, p. 289, and D. Kaufrr.ann, 
 Geschichte der Atributenlehre, p. 255.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 105 
 
 hassan Jehuda, and Abu Haja Joseph, the youngest. Their 
 father, Eabbi Jacob, occupied a post under King Habus, or, 
 rather, under his vizier Ibn Nagrela. One might know, said 
 a contemporary historian, that these four princely sons of 
 Ibn Ezra were of David's blood, and of noble lineage, from 
 their nobility of character. The chief amongst them was 
 Abu Harun Moses (1070 1140), who was the pupil of Eabbi 
 Isaac Ibn Giat. He was the most prolific poet of his time. 1 
 Eabbi Moses Ibn Ezra closely resembled Eabbi Solomon Ibn 
 Gabirol. He also complained of deception and jealousy, and 
 the hardships and faithlessness of the time. His works are 
 remarkable not only for the intrinsic excellence of the matter, 
 but for the purity, sweetness, and aesthetic grace of their 
 style. He wrote verses which he called a Eow of Pearls, 2 
 composed of 1,210 verses in ten divisions; they were dedica- 
 ted to his patron Ibn Kamnial. Ibn Ezra composed three 
 hundred poems for special occasions, comprising more than 
 ten thousand verses, 3 and also two hundred prayers for New 
 Year and the Day of Atonement. 4 He also wrote a work on 
 the philosophy of religion, in seven parts. 5 
 
 The following extract may serve as a specimen of his 
 penitential hymns : " O seek not after grandeur, for thou art 
 ensnared in a net. Hast thou words to reply, or darest thou 
 lift up thy face ? Lo ! thou mayest raise thine eyes to 
 heaven, yet thine heart clings to earthly pursuits, and thy 
 
 1 Although, like his contemporary poets, he excelled in sacred song, he 
 also tuned his lyre and sang in praise of the beauties of nature. Alex- 
 ander von Humboldt in his Kosmos, ii., 119, has praised his sublime 
 description of natural scenery. 
 
 2 Sepher Anak, or Tarshish, from the number of its stanzas, 1210, 
 expressed by the numerical value of the letters Tarshish, has been pub- 
 lished a part of it in Kerem Chemed, iv., p. 65 74, by Luzzato, another 
 part in Dukes' "Moses ben Ezra," Altona, 1839, p. 17 29; and the 
 whole recently by Dr. D. GUnzburg. 
 
 3 A part of his Diwan has been published by Luzzato in Kerem 
 Chemed, iv., p. 82 96 ; and in Ginzei Oxford, London, 1850. 
 
 * In the Sephardim Ritual the Selichot or Penitential Hymns are 
 greatly esteemed, which give to Ibn Ezra the epithet of " Hasaloch," or 
 the Selichot poet, par excellence. 
 
 5 Under the title ot Arugot Habosem, a part of which has been 
 published in Journal Zion, by L. Dukes, p. 117, Frankfort, 1842 ; exten- 
 sive specimens are given in Dukes' Moses ben Ezra and in Sachs' 
 Religiose Poesie der Juden.
 
 106 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 prayers are empty sounds ; thy tongue is soft, but thy heart 
 is obdurate and impure. Thy lips utter praise, and evil 
 dwelleth within thee. Thy tongue prayeth, whilst thy heart 
 deviseth blasphemy. Such is thy practice of the divine pre- 
 cepts. O spare Him the noise of thy songs ! Shall theft 
 and murder be expiated by bowing low in feigned prayer ? 
 Put away profligacy from thy mind, and lustful wickedness 
 from thy sight. O plead not, ' I am yet young,' but give 
 glory unto the Eternal thy God, ere He causeth thy light to 
 be darkened and thy lamp to be put out ; ere thy feet 
 stumble, and thy natural force abate ; ere thy gums grow 
 dry and thy breath short; ere thy brow wrinkleth and thy 
 vigour declineth; ere care weighs heavily on thee, and life 
 becomes a trouble to thee, like a burdensome stone." 1 
 
 The great star and most important writer of this period 
 was Abulhassan Jehuda ben Samuel Halevi. His name 
 deserves to be inscribed in a book with a border of gold. He 
 was a perfect poet, a perfect thinker, and a worthy son of 
 Judaism, which he ennobled and idealised by his poetry and 
 ideas. 2 
 
 Eabbi Jehuda Halevi was born in Toledo about the year 
 1085. He attended the college of Alfassi at Lucena. When 
 but a youth, as in the case of Ibn Gabirol, the muse aroused 
 him, not, however, like the latter, with mournful tones, but 
 with pure joyful strains. Rabbi Moses Ibn Ezra expresses 
 his wonder at Halevi's early proficiency, in the following 
 words : 
 
 " How can a boy so young in years 
 
 Bear such a weight of wisdom sage, 
 Nor 'mongst the greybeards find his peers, 
 While still in the very bloom of age ? 3 
 
 Eabbi Jehuda seems to have possessed an almost magnetic 
 attraction, due to his bright affectionate nature, that shines 
 forth in all the poems of his early period, and is echoed in 
 the poems addressed to him. 4 
 
 1 Tochacha, or Penitential Poem of Rabbi Moses Ibn Ezra, published 
 in Asher's Book of Life, p. 95, London, 1847 ; see I. Abrahams' Jewish 
 Life, 163. 
 
 2 Graetz, History, iii., p. 328. 
 
 3 Dr. Harkavy's edition of Rabbi Jehudah Halevi's Anthems and Miscel- 
 laneous Poems, i., p. 17., Warsaw, 1893 ; translated by J. Jacobs in his 
 Jewish Ideals, p. 107. 
 
 4 Jewish Ideals, p. 107.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 107 
 
 Halevi appears to have been still in Lucena when Alfassi 
 died, and Eabbi Joseph Ibn Migash succeeded him in the 
 office of Eabbi (1103). On the occasion of his death, Halevi 
 composed a beautiful elegy, 1 and at the same time celebrated 
 the accession of his successor in a poem, expressing his 
 homage and deep respect. 2 Halevi obtained a thorough 
 knowledge of the Talmud, occupied himself in natural science, 
 penetrated even the depths of metaphysics, and was skilled 
 in all branches of learning. He obtained a livelihood as a 
 physician, 3 and he practised on returning to his native place. 
 He spent his manhood at Toledo, where he founded a college 
 and had many disciples. 
 
 Rabbi Jehudah Halevi is the author of the much read and 
 highly valued book called " Kusari," which treats of the 
 most important parts of Judaism. It is grounded on the 
 already mentioned circumstance of a king of the Chozars, 
 together with his people, having embraced the Jewish 
 religion. 4 The whole book goes to prove that all the doctrines 
 of the Jews, their customs and ceremonies, are perfectly 
 reconcilable to human reason, and that all their peculiar and 
 exclusive observances, serve but to maintain and confirm them 
 in those religious principles which, being alone worthy of the 
 Deity, should be universally embraced by all mankind. 
 
 The condition of slavery into which Israel had fallen whilst 
 scattered among the nations of the earth is, according to the 
 view of the poetical philosopher, no evidence of its decay or 
 a reason for abandoning hope. The greatest sufferer how- 
 ever, is Israel, since he is among men what the heart is in 
 
 1 See Dr. Harkavy's edition, i., p. 143. 
 
 2 Ibid, p. 77. 
 
 3 J. Jacobs in Jewish Ideals, p. 120, reproduced in translation a letter 
 of Rabbi Jehudah Halevi, written about 1130, to one David ben Joseph 
 of Narbonne, concerning his daily occupation as a physician. 
 
 4 The work was at first composed in Arabic, in the form of a dialogue, 
 with the title : " The Book of Evidences and of Arguments for a help to 
 the true Religion." It was rendered into Hebrew by Rabbi Jehuda Ibn 
 Tibbon, who gave it the name of Sepher Hacusari, and it was first pub- 
 lished in Fano, 1506 ; with a Latin translation and dissertations by 
 J. Buxtorf, fil., Basle, 1660 ; a Spanish translation, by Abendana, 
 Amsterdam, 1663 ; with a commentary, various readings, index, &c., by 
 G. Brecher, Prague, 18381840 ; and lastly with a German translation 
 and explanatory notes, by D. Cassel, Leipzig, 1853.
 
 108 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 the human organism. Just as the heart sustains the most 
 acute share of bodily pain, the Jewish nation was most 
 unmercifully treated in every calamity that was inflicted, 
 whether owing to its own fault or not. The Jewish people, 
 in spite of the unspeakable agonies it has gone through, has 
 not perished ; it may be likened to a person who is dan- 
 gerously ill, whom the physician has entirely given up, but 
 who expects to be saved by some miracle. The picture of the 
 scattered lifeless bones, which at the word of the prophet 
 unite together and are clothed with flesh and skin, have a 
 new breath breathed into them, and again stand erect, 
 applies to Israel ; it is a complete description of Israel 
 in its despoiled and low condition. The dispersion of Israel 
 is a miraculous and divine plan devised to impart to the 
 nations of the earth the spirit with which Israel is endowed. 
 The race of Israel resembles a grain of seed, which, placed 
 in the ground, apparently rots away for some time ; it then 
 appears to have become changed and absorbed into the 
 elements of its surroundings, leaving no traces of its former 
 existence. It next buds and blossoms forth, again assumes 
 its original nature, and bursts asunder the disfiguring husk 
 which envelops it. It finally displays its own vital force, 
 which flourishes according to the wonted manner of the seed, 
 till it arrives step by step at its highest development. 1 
 
 When Rabbi Jehuda Halevi had concluded his immortal 
 work, the dialogue of the Cusari, about 1140, he entertained 
 serious thoughts of his holy journey. He exchanged a 
 peaceful, comfortable life, for one of disquietude and uncer- 
 tainty, and left behind his only daughter and his grandson, 
 whom he loved most dearly. He gave up his college, which 
 he had established in Toledo, and parted from a circle of 
 pupils whom he loved as his own sons, and who in turn 
 revered him as a father. There were not wanting some 
 friends who urged the dangers he was about to brave, and 
 these he answered in tones of earnest conviction, " Shall a 
 
 1 See the Second Dialogue of the Cusari. In the course of the discus- 
 sions of the book " Cusari," all subjects bearing upon the exposition of 
 the Scriptures, Jewish literature, history, philosophy, &c., are in turn 
 reviewed and discussed in this work, which De Sacy has pronounced to 
 be one of the most valuable and beautiful productions of the Jewish pen.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE .JEWS. 109 
 
 body of clay stop a soul urged by eagle's wings ? M1 He passed 
 through Cordova, exchanging civilities with Eabbi Joseph 
 Ibn Zaddik, travelled on to Granada, and then took ship for 
 Alexandria. Of the sea, he sang songs which for faithfulness 
 of description and depth of feeling have few equals. 
 
 One of his best known songs on the sea is the following : 
 
 THE STORM.' 
 
 The waters roar 
 As their wheels roll o'er, 
 Becoming less and more 
 On the face of the sea. 
 
 The waters grow black, 
 Grim lowers the rack, 
 The breakers rear back 
 
 Till the depths you can see. 
 
 The cauldron boils o'er 
 With a hiss and a roar, 
 And none can restore 
 Its tranquility. 
 
 And brave men must fear 
 As the waves disappear, 
 And a mountain is here, 
 And there a valley. 
 
 The ship turns like a vane. 
 Bows and rises again ; 
 And the eye asks in vain, 
 Where, pilots, are ye ? 
 
 And my heart then stands still, 
 But bows down to His will 
 Who to Moses gave skill 
 To divide the Red Sea. 
 
 To the Lord I would call, 
 But to sin I've been thrall, 
 And I fear to recall 
 The punishment due. 
 
 Delayed by adverse winds, the ship arrived at Alexandria 
 at the time of the Feast of Tabernacles (September), and 
 Eabbi Jehuda betook himself to his co-religionists with the 
 
 1 Jewish Ideals, p. 129. 
 
 2 Dr. Harkavy's edition, i,, p. 35; translated by J. Jacobs, Jewish 
 Ideals, p. 129, 130.
 
 110 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 .firm determination to spend but a short time with them, and 
 never to forget the aim of his journey. But as soon as his 
 name became known, all hearts were drawn towards him. 
 The most distinguished man of the Alexandrian congregation, 
 the physician and rabbi, Aaron Ben-Zion Ibn Almani, who 
 was blessed with prosperity and children, and was himself 
 a liturgical poet, hastened to receive him in his house, as a 
 noble guest, showed him the highest honour, and placed his 
 hospitable mansion at the disposal of Halevi and his com- 
 rades. 1 
 
 The family of Ibn Almani were so urgent in their desire 
 to keep him with them, that, in spite of his great longing for 
 Jerusalem, he remained for nearly three months at Alexandria 
 till the Feast of Dedication. He tore himself away by force 
 from such dear friends, and travelled towards the port of 
 Damietta, where dwelt one of his best friends, Abu Said ben 
 Chalfon Halevi, whose acquaintance he had already made in 
 Spain. 2 He was, however, compelled to alter the course of 
 his journey, for the Jewish prince Abu Mansur Samuel ben 
 Chananya, who held a high post at the court of the Egyptian 
 caliph, 8 sent him a pressing letter of invitation. Abu Mansur, 
 who dwelt in the palace of the caliph, appears to have been 
 head of the Jewish congregations in Egypt, bearing the title 
 of Prince (Nagid). Eabbi Jehuda Halevi was the less able 
 to decline this flattering invitation, as it was necessary for 
 him to obtain from the Jewish prince, whose fame was wide 
 spread, letters of recommendation for the continuance of his 
 pilgrimage towards Palestine. The intimation of Abu Mansur 
 that he was willing to aid him with large supplies of money, 
 he delicately put aside in a letter saying "that God had 
 blessed him so munificently with benefits, that he had brought 
 much with him from home, and had still left plenty behind." 
 He followed his letter in a Nile boat. The wonderful river 
 awoke in him memories of the Jewish past, and reminded 
 him of his vow. He immortalised this remembrance in two 
 beautiful poems. 4 
 
 1 See Dr. Harkavy's edition, i., p. 37, 38. 
 3 Ibid. p. 39 40, 44 45, 115 116. 
 
 3 Ibid, p. 117 123, 123 125, 45 46. 
 
 4 Ibid, p. 45, 46.
 
 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. Ill 
 
 He was warmly received by the prince, Eabbi Samuel, in 
 Cairo, basked in the sunshine of his splendour, and sang 
 of his liberality and renown and of his three noble sons. 1 
 He made but a brief stay in Cairo, and hastened to the port 
 of Damietta, which he reached on the Fast of Tebet (Decem- 
 ber, about 1142). There he was well received by many friends, 
 and especially by his old friend Abu Said Chalfon Halevi, a 
 man of great distinction. At length he parted from his friends 
 and admirers, determined to carry his project into effect. It 
 is not known at what place he next stopped. Halevi appears 
 to have reached the goal of his desire and to have visited 
 Jerusalem, but only for a short time. The closing adventures 
 of his life remain unknown, beyond the fact that he was at 
 Tyre and Damascus. The Jewish community at Tyre ren- 
 dered great honour to him, and the memory of this treatment 
 was impressed on his grateful heart. In a poem to his Tyrian 
 friend he grieves over his faded hopes, his misspent youth, 
 and his present wretchedness, in verses which cannot be 
 read without stirring up emotions at the despondency of this 
 valorous warrior. 2 
 
 The year of his death and the site of his grave are both 
 unknown. A legend says that a Mohammedan horseman 
 rode over him as he was chanting his mournful songs of 
 Zion. 
 
 His writings, besides his hymns, many of which are incor- 
 porated in the Liturgy of the Synagogues, consist of elegies 
 and epithalamiums. 8 
 
 1 Dr. Harkavy's edition, i., p. 123 125. 
 
 3 Ibid. p. 126128. 
 
 3 On the life and poetry of Rabbi Jehuda Halevi, see S. D. Lnzzato's 
 selection under the title of Betulat bat Jehuda, Prague, 1846 ; L. Dukes, 
 Zur Kentniss der Neuhebraischen Religiosen Poesie, Frankfort, 1842 ; 
 M. Sachs, Die Religiose Poesie der Juden in Spanien, 1845; Divan of 
 Rabbi Jehuda Halevi, Breslau, 1851 ; Dr. Harkavy's edition of the Poems 
 of Rabbi Jehuda Halevi, t. i., Warsaw, 1893 ; t. ii., 1896. Benedetti, Can- 
 zionnero sacro di Guido Levita, Pisa, 1871; Kaempf, Nichtandalusische 
 Poesie andalusischer Dichter, 1858 ; D. Kaufmann, Jehuda Halevi. 
 Breslau, 1877, and in Graetz's Monatsschrift, xx., p. 89 94; Joseph 
 Jacob's Jewish Ideals, p. 103 134, London, 1896; I. Abraham's Jewish 
 Life, p. 125, 164, 188, 352, 386, 390, 414 ; Good Words, December, 1885, 
 P 777-783-
 
 112 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Halevi's far-famed Zionide, in which great beauty and 
 elegance of diction is expressed, induces me to transcribe a 
 few stanzas of it : 
 
 O Zion. perfect of beauty, thou combinest love and grace 
 From of old, and in thee unite the souls of thy companions : 
 They rejoice in thy prosperity, they are pained 
 At thy desertion, and they are weeping for thy ruin. 
 From the depths of the captivity they are longing for thy presence ; 
 Each from his place is bowing towards thy gates. 
 
 The flocks of thy own host, that are exiled and are spread 
 Over mountain and o'er plain, yet do not forget thy folds : 
 They are clinging to the fringes of thy garments, and they hasten 
 To rise up and to seize the branches of thy palms. 
 
 Shinar and Patmos, can they near thee with all their greatness ? 
 Nay, vanities are they, compared with thy light and thy right : 
 To what compare thy anointed, and to what thy seers. 
 And to what compare thy Levites and thy singers ? 
 Mutable and transient is the sov'ranty of idols, 
 Thy power eternal, from age to age thy crown. 
 Thy God desires thee for His dwelling, and blessed the man 
 He has chosen to be brought near to dwell in thy court. 
 Blessed is he that awaits and draws near and sees the rising 
 Of thy lights, and upon him breaks forth thy dawn, 
 And that sees the welfare of thy saints, and exults in 
 Thy joy and thy return to the old ways of thy youth. 1 
 
 To the same period of Eabbi Jehuda Halevi also belongs 
 Eabbi Abraham ben Meir Ibn Ezra, to whom he is said 
 to have been closely related. Ibn Ezra was born in Toledo, 
 in 1093, and very soon distinguished himself as a mathe- 
 matician, astronomer, philosopher, poet, physician, traveller, 
 theologian, grammarian, and commentator. His commentary 
 on Scripture has rendered his name famous, and handed 
 it down to the admiration of all subsequent generations. 
 He made good use of his great talents as a linguist, and 
 
 1 Dr. Harkavy's edition, i.. p. 10 14; translated by J. Jacobs. Jewish 
 Ideals, p. 131 133. It has been translated into German by M. 
 Mendelsohn, into French by S. Munk, and into English by Theodores, 
 Hebrew Review, ii., p. 295, 296. Some of the poems of Rabbi Jehuda 
 Halevi have been introduced to the literary world by H. Heine, who 
 speaks of their author as follows : " When his soul was on the point of 
 leaving heaven for her earthly career, she was kissed by the Creator. 
 This kiss re-echoed later on in the poet's soul, and vibrated in all the 
 outpourings of his genius." H. Heine's Sammtliche Werke, n ter Band, 
 p. 116, and Dr. Chotzner, Zichronoth, p. xii.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 113 
 
 was skilful in detecting the meaning of the text ; while 
 his expressions were elegant, and sometimes lively and 
 full of wit. He also highly distinguished himself as a poet. 1 
 
 As long as he remained in Spain, he was only known as a 
 clever mathematician and astronomer, not as an exegetist. 
 He produced little evidence of his literary powers in his 
 native land, at the most only some Hebrew poems of a 
 religious or satirical character. Whilst living in Toledo, 
 which town had become impoverished owing to the continual 
 wars, his means of existence grew very straitened, and Ibn 
 Ezra was obliged to look elsewhere for support and to leave 
 his native town. He was never possessed of much wealth. 
 In his epigrammatic way, he made merry over the misfor- 
 tunes which condemned him to poverty : "I strive to become 
 wealthy, but the stars are opposed to me. If I were to 
 engage in shroud-making, I verily believe that men would 
 cease dying ; or if I adopted candle-making as a trade, the 
 sun would never again sink to its rest even unto the hour 
 of my death." 2 
 
 As he was unable to earn his livelihood at home, he started 
 on his travels. His son Isaac, who was already grown up, 
 accompanied him. He visited Africa, Egypt and Palestine, 
 and communed with the learned men of Tiberias, who prided 
 themselves on the possession of carefully-written copies of 
 the Torah. As he could find no rest in any place, he 
 journeyed further, towards Babylonia ; paid a visit to the 
 city of Bagdad, where a Prince of the Captivity, with the 
 consent of the caliph, once again exerted complete sway 
 over certain Eastern congregations ; and is said to have 
 been carried as a captive to India. 8 He afterwards returned 
 to Europe, and in 1140 we find him at Rome, where he spent 
 several years, and where he published commentaries on the 
 Five Megilloth, 4 and on Job. 
 
 1 See Rabbi J. Alcharizi, Tachkemoni, ed. Vienna, p. 76. 
 
 2 Dibrei Chakamim, Metz, 1849, p. 85. 
 
 3 Rabbi David Abudraham.ed. Warsaw, 1877, p. 118; cf. Steinschneider, 
 Zeitschrift der deutsch morgenlandischenGesellschaft, xx.,p. 427 432. 
 
 * The Commentary is given in the Rabbinic Bibles. Zedner has 
 published the Commentary on Esther, after another recension, London, 
 1850. There are Latin versions of the Song of Songs, by G. Gereboard, 
 8
 
 114 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Ibn Ezra was the first to convey to the Koman Jews a 
 conception of the importance of Hebrew grammar, of 
 which they were completely ignorant. He translated the 
 grammatical works of Chayyug from the Arabic into Hebrew, 
 and wrote an independent work under the title of " The 
 Balance" (Moznaim), 1 in which the beautifully composed 
 historical introduction concerning the performances of his 
 predecessors in the sphere of Hebrew philology is even now 
 of interest. In the summer of 1145 he was at Mantua, and 
 here he composed a new grammatical work upon the purity 
 of Hebrew style, entitled "Zachot." 2 In this book he 
 directed a charge of heresy against those who deviated from 
 the Massoretic authorities. From Mantua, Ibn Ezra emi- 
 grated to Lucca, where he dwelt for several years, and 
 gathered a circle of pupils about him. Here he occupied 
 himself very much with the study of astronomy, drew up 
 astronomical tables, and paid great attention also to the 
 empirical science of astrology. He wrote many books under 
 different titles on this subject in 1148. 8 He was also the 
 author of several works on mathematics. 
 
 Paris, 1585 ; Latin of Ruth, by J. Carpzov, 1722 ; and Latin of Lamen- 
 tations, by F. Taylor, London, 1615. An English version of the first 
 chapter of the Song of Songs is given by Ch. Ginsburg, London, 1857, 
 and of the first chapter of Kohelet, by the same, London, 1861. 
 
 1 Editio princeps, Augsburg, 1521 ; the best edition is that which has 
 been published by W. Heidenheim, Offenbach, 1794. 
 
 2 It has been published, Berlin, 1769 ; and by G. Lippmann, Furth, 
 1827. 
 
 3 The following is an enumeration of his astronomical, astrological, 
 and mathematical works : (i) Sepher Reshit Chachma, divided into 
 five parts : (a) Sepher Mishptei ha-Mazalot, Rules on the Planets. 
 (b) Sepher ha-Taamim, on Astrology, a Latin version is given under 
 title of "Liber Rationum," preserved in MSS. in National Library of 
 Paris, no. 189, 4 ; see Steinschneider, Jew. Lit., p. 186. (c) Sepher 
 Hamoldot, the Book of Nativity; a Latin version was made by Petrus 
 Paduanus, in 1292, and published in Venice in 1507, under the title of 
 " Abrehae Avenaris Judaei Astrologi, Opera." (d) Sepher Hashaalot, the 
 Book of Consultations, a Latin version by the same Paduanus, entitled 
 " Interrogations, " preserved in MSS. in the same library, no. 189, 6. 
 And (e) Sepher ha-Mibcharim, the Book of Choosing ; a Latin version is 
 given in " Carivet Amicus Medicorum," published, Frankfort, 1614. 
 
 (2) Sepher Hamearot, the Book of Lights, a Latin version by Paduanus, 
 published, Leyden, 1496 ; see Steinschneider, Catal. Leyde, p. 366. 
 
 (3) Klei Nechoshet, the Vessels of Copper, on Astrology, published by 
 H. Edelmann, Konigsberg, 1845. (4) Sepher Hamachberet, on the 
 Planets. (5) Sepher Haolam, Book of the World ; there is a Latin
 
 THE CELEBBITIES OP THE JEWS. 115 
 
 When he had been taken dangerously ill, he made a vow 
 that if restoration to health were vouchsafed to him, he 
 would engage in a Commentary on the Pentateuch. It is to 
 this vow that the world is indebted for this masterly work. 
 He was now in the sixty-ninth year of his age, 1162. But 
 there are no signs of approaching old age to be found in the 
 work, which bears rather the stamp of freshness and youth- 
 ful vigour. The exposition of the Pentateuch by Ibn Ezra 
 is an artistic piece of work, both in contents and in form. 
 The language is vigorous, flowing and witty, the interpreta- 
 tion profoundly penetrating and temperate, and impregnated 
 with a spirit of devotion. His rich store of knowledge, his 
 extensive reading and experience, enabled him to make the 
 Book of Books more intelligible. He furnishes us with an 
 exposition the most luminous, and a guide the most satis- 
 factory and congenial to our reason of all and any that have 
 attempted to comment on Holy Writ. 1 
 
 The highest and most precious testimony to his great 
 talents and the importance of his writings is afforded to 
 Ibn Ezra by his great contemporary Maimonides, who, in 
 a letter to his son, Eabbi Abraham, directs the attention of 
 the youthful student to the writings of Ibn Ezra, of which he 
 says, 2 " And thou, my faithful and obedient son, I command 
 
 version under the title, " De Conjunctionibus planetarum et annorum 
 revolutione ;" see Munk, Melanges, p. 485 ; Steinschneider Catal. Leyde, 
 p. 366. (6) Sepher Haibbur, on the Calendar, published, Lyck, 1874. 
 
 (7) Luchot, or Astronomical Tables, which has not as yet come to light. 
 
 (8) Sepher ha-M ispar, the Value of Numbers ; has been published in the 
 periodical journal Jeshurun, by Kabak, t. i., and by M. Silberberg, 
 Frankfort, 1895. (9) Jesod ha-Mispar, published, Vienna, 1863. (10) 
 Sepher Haechad, Book of the Unity, published in Kabak's Jeshurun, 
 t. i., Lemberg, 1855. (n) Sepher ha-Tishboret, the Book of Fractions, 
 MSS. in the Vatican. 
 
 1 The Commentary is given in the Rabbinic Bibles, the best edition 
 of which is the one edited by Jekuthiel Lasi ben Nachum, Amsterdam, 
 1721, under the title of " Margaliot Tobah," the Pearl of Great Price, 
 with square letters, and the Super Commentaries of Rabbi Joseph ben 
 Eleazar Sefardi, Rabbi Samuel Motot, and Rabbi Samuel Zarza. The 
 introduction of this valuable commentary has been translated into 
 Latin by Voisin, Disputa Rabbi Israelis de Anima, Paris, 1635, p. 151 
 167 ; and the Commentary on the Decalogue was translated into 
 Latin by Seb. Munster, Fraben, 1527. 
 
 2 Letters of Maimonides, edit. Lichtenberg, p. 39, Leipzig, 1859; see 
 however, I. Kabak's Jeshurun, t. i., 3rd part, p. 47.
 
 116 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 thee that thou shalt not fatigue thy understanding with the 
 voluminous works of commentators. The only commentaries 
 I wish thee to read and diligently to study are those of Ibn 
 Ezra, which, like all his writings, are most valuable and 
 useful to whosoever studies and understands them ; for his 
 works require diligent reading, profound meditation, and 
 persevering assiduity." 
 
 In Lucca, Ibn Ezra wrote his brilliant Commentary to 
 Isaiah (1154 1155), 1 and a grammatical work under the title 
 " Sephat Yeter," 2 on difficult words in the Old Testament, 
 in defence of Eabbi Saadiah against Ibn Librat's attack. In 
 this book, Ibn Ezra esteemed and admired the works of his 
 predecessor, Ibn Chayyug. It runs as follows: "The 
 grammar of the Hebrew language was not known until 
 Eabbi Jehuda ben David, the chief of grammarians, arose." 
 
 Having completed his Commentary on the Pentateuch, he 
 quitted Italy, visiting southern France. He spent several 
 years at Beziers, where he was treated by the Jewish com- 
 munity with the greatest distinction. The greatest Eabbin- 
 ical authority of the time, Eabbi Jacob Tarn, sent him a 
 poem of homage, in a metrical form, at which Ibn Ezra 
 was so surprised, that he replied to him in a half-flattering, 
 half -violent epigram. 8 
 
 In the town of Ehodes he stayed for many years, and 
 wrote his Commentaries to the Book of Daniel, the Psalms, 
 and the Twelve Prophets. 4 
 
 In the year 1158 he visited England, and remained some 
 time in London, enjoying the patronage of some of the in- 
 fluential members of his community. Here he composed a 
 
 
 1 The Commentary on Isaiah is given in the Rabbinic Bibles ; the 
 best edition with an English translation is by Dr. M. Friedlander, 
 with notes, London, 18731877. 
 
 a It has been published in Presburg, 1838, and in Frankfort, 1843, by 
 G. Lipmann. 
 
 3 See A. Gavison, Omer ha-Shikcha, p. 127, Leghorn, 1748. Kerem 
 Chemed, vii. 35. 
 
 4 The Commentaries are given entire in the Rabbinic Bibles, a Latin 
 translation of Hosea, by Mercer, Leyden, 1621 ; of Joel and Obadiah, 
 by Leusden, Utrecht, 1657 ' f Jonah, by Leusden, Utrecht, 1656 ; of 
 Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah and Haggai, by Don. Lund, Upsala, 
 1705 1708; and of Malachi, by And. Borgwall, Upsala, 1707.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 117 
 
 philosophical work, " Yesod Moreh," 1 Foundation of Reli- 
 gion. Eabbi Abraham Ibn Ezra dedicated this work to 
 Joseph ben Jacob, in London. 
 
 We insert the following translation of the lines of his 
 dedication : 
 
 God is One ; through all His Spirit flows, 
 
 So high is He, no man His greatness knows. 
 
 Only man's mind in the work the Worker spies ; 
 
 E'en the sceptic's doubt proves what he denies. 
 
 His people, when on Sinai's Mount arrayed, 
 
 Saw in the flames His Majesty displayed ; 
 
 No image beheld : one was chosen to receive 
 
 What each should know and all believe. 
 
 I long have sought for wisdom in His Law, 
 
 Till some of its secrets I thought I saw ; 
 
 And now will I build for it a mansion fair, 
 
 And reverence I place for its supporters there. 
 
 Thanks be to God that I've brought it to an end ; 
 
 Thanks for supporting me to Joseph Jacobs, His friend. 2 
 
 He wrote also in London his " Igeret ha-Shabbath," or 
 Epistle on the Sabbath, a somewhat fantastical production, 
 in defence of the Sabbath. 8 Shortly afterwards he returned 
 to France. In the autumn of 1160 he visited Narbonne, 
 and later on, he was again in Rhodes, where he recast his 
 Commentary on the Pentateuch, abridged it, and composed 
 a grammatical work, under the title of " Safah Berurah," 4 
 on diverse points of Hebrew grammar. In the year 1167 
 
 1 Editio princeps, Constantinople, 1530, and with a German trans- 
 lation by Kreuznach, Frankfort, 1840 ; extracts in English are given by 
 J. Jacobs, The Jews of Angevin England, p. 29 35. 
 
 2 J. Jacobs, The Jews of Angevin England, p. 29. This Joseph ben 
 Jacob, of Moreil, concludes J. Jacobs, wrote a super-commentary on 
 Ibn Ezra's Commentary on Genesis, in which he says, " I, Joseph ben 
 Jacob of Moreil, heard viva voce from this sage (Abraham Ibn Ezra), 
 the explanation of this passage, and wrote it down in my own words ; " 
 see Dr. Neubauer's Catal. of Bodleian Heb. MSS., no. 1234, 9, 486. 
 
 3 Published at the end of the Book of Mibchar ha-Maamarim, by 
 Rabbi Nathan Tibbon, Leghorn, 1840; and in Kerem Chemed, iv., p. 
 159. The Introduction to the Epistle has been translated into English 
 by J. Jacobs, The Jews of Angevin England, p. 3538. 
 
 4 Editio princeps, Constantinople, 1530 ; and by Dr. G. Lipmann, 
 Fiirth, 1839; at the end of this edition we find an enigma of Ibn Ezra 
 on the " Letters of Mem and Nun," with a commentary of G. Lipmann. 
 A grammatical enigma in poetry on the quiescent letters is given at the 
 beginning of Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch, which has 
 been translated into Latin by De Lara, London, 1658. When Ibn Ezra 
 was staying in Beziers, he composed his Sepher Hashem, on the Tetra-
 
 118 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 he set out to revisit his native country. But he was not 
 destined to see it, for death overtook him at Calaharra, on 
 the frontier of Navarre and Aragon. 1 
 
 In 11701190, lived in Toledo Eabbi Jehuda Ibn Balam, 
 the commentator and grammarian, one of the most distin- 
 guished philologians of the Spanish school. 2 
 
 grammaton, which has been published by G. Lipmann, with a com- 
 mentary, Fiirth, 1834. He is said to have invented the Ecliptic; see 
 Biblioteca Espagnola, vol. i , p. 21. Besides his above-mentioned 
 valuable works he wrote also: (i) Sepher Shaar ha-Shamaim, the 
 Gate of Heaven, on Astronomy, the Introduction to which has been 
 published in Betulat bat Jehuda ; the first chapter of it in Kerem Che- 
 med, iv., p. 6 g ; and the second chapter in Sepher ha-Techiah, i., p. 
 63, by S. Sachs, Berlin, 1850. (2) Arugat ha-Chachma u-Pardes ha- 
 Mezima, the Gardenbed of Wisdom and the Garden of Thought, a 
 philosophical work, published in Kerem Chemed, iv., p. i 15. (3) Se- 
 pher ha-Atzmim, a philosophical work on nature, composed in Arabic, 
 translated into Hebrew by Jacob Alfandari, preserved in MSS. in 
 Parma, no. 1355. (4) Sepher Gerolot, a Treatise on Geomancy, pub- 
 lished. Amsterdam, 1781. He also highly distinguished himself as a 
 poet ; he has left sacred poetry, hymns, and prayers, some of which 
 have been added to the Liturgy of the Sephardim, and in the Shirim 
 u-Zemirot, Constantinople, 1545. He has left also other descriptions 
 of poetry, as Epithalamiums, Satires, and Enigmas ; see Halichot 
 Kedem, Amsterdam, 1847 ; M. Sachs, Rel. Poesie, p. 130 ; Egers, 
 Divan des Ibn Ezra, Berlin, 1886, S. Rosin, Reime des Abraham Ibn 
 Ezra, and I. Abrahams in the Jewish Life, p. 134, 189, 385 ; see also 
 the edition of his poetry in Achiasaf, Warsaw, 1893. The same author 
 is said to have written an arithmetical riddle on the subject of chess, 
 published with a Latin version by Th. Hyde, Oxford, 1694, see Stein- 
 schneider, Hamazkir, 1872, p. 60. On the mathematical works of Ibn 
 Ezra, see Dr. M. Friedlander, Essay on the Writings of Ibn Ezra, 
 London, 1877, and Steinschneider, Leipzig, 1880. On Grammar and 
 Commentaries, see Bacher, Ibn Ezra als Grammatiker, Budapest, 1881. 
 On Travels, see Zunz, Itinerary, p. 250 ; Graetz, Geschichte, vi., 440 
 450; Derenbourg. Revue des etudes juives, v. 139; and Academy, 
 vol. i., Dec., 1873, p. 451. Ibn Ezra's short Commentary on Daniel, edited 
 in the Miscellany of Hebrew Literature, second series, p. 257, 1877. 
 
 1 Cf. J. Jacobs, The Jews of Angevin England, p, 263. 
 
 2 He wrote on denominative verbs in the Hebrew language, on the 
 Hebrew particles, and on the Hebrew homonyms. Never fully edited ; 
 portions of them may be found in Fiirst's Orient, t. vii., p. 454 659; 
 t. ix., p. 458; see Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift, t. v., p. 408. His 
 Taamei ha-Mikra, a treatise on the accents of the Bible, was published 
 by Jo. Mercer, Paris, 1565 ; and twelve chapters of it at Rodelheim, by 
 W. Heidenheim, in his Mishptei ha-Taamim, 1808 ; see Dukes, Beit- 
 rage, 186189; Zunz, Additamenta, cod. xv. The Imperial Library of 
 St. Petersburg has two large fragments, almost complete, of his work on 
 the Prophets, and one leaf on the Psalms ; the Bodleian, fragments on 
 Numbers and Deuteronomy; the Vatican, a few leaves on Job and Daniel, 
 see Neubauer in the Oxford University Gazette, Nov. 21, 1876; Journal 
 Asiatique, December, 1861 ; Steinschneider, Hechaluz, n., p. 60; Monat- 
 schrift, 1885, p. 287 ; Ein unbekanntes Werk von Jehuda Ibn Balam.
 
 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 119 
 
 Toledo about this time gave birth to an eminent historian 
 among the Jews : this was Rabbi Abraham Ibn Daud 
 Halevi. Ibn Daud Halevi (born about 1110, died a martyr 
 1180), who claimed descent on the maternal side from Eabbi 
 Isaac Ibn Albalia, was not only well versed in the Talmud, 
 but was also initiated in all the different branches of the 
 science of the time. His work, Sepher ha-Kabbala, 1 the 
 Book of Tradition, shews the uninterrupted transmission of 
 the Oral Law. After the death of the Emperor Alfonso, 
 and the probably subsequent downfall of his favourite, Eabbi 
 Jehuda Ibn Ezra, the Karaites of Spain again raised their 
 heads and recommenced issuing their polemical writings. 
 Thereupon Ibn Daud undertook to prove historically that 
 Eabbinical Judaism was based on an unbroken chain of 
 traditions which began with Moses and reached to Eabbi 
 Joseph Ibn Migash. The information which he imparts 
 concerning the rise and formation of the Spanish congrega- 
 tions is of the highest importance ; he draws his knowledge 
 either from the original labours of Eabbi Samuel Ibn Nagrela, 
 or from independent historical researches. Ibn Daud also 
 wrote : (1) A History of Eome, from its foundation to the 
 King Eeccardus of Spain, collected from Arabic and Spanish 
 sources. 2 (2) The History of the Jews during the Second 
 Temple. 8 (3) A philosophical work under the title of " Emuna 
 Eama,"* the High Belief, on the elements of nature and 
 how faith is attainable through them, and on medicine for 
 the soul. (4) An astronomical work. 6 
 
 1 The first edition is that of Mantua, 1514, but the best edition is 
 that which has been published by A. Neubauer, supplemented down to 
 the year 1525 by a certain Rabbi Abraham ben Solomon of Torrutiel 
 in Spain, an eye witness of the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 
 1492 ; and with an addition from a MSS. concerning the formation of 
 the congregation at Narbonne, Oxford, 1887. 
 
 2 A Latin translation is given by Zeller, Stuttgart, 1724; and to his 
 Sepher Hakabbala, by Genebrand, Paris, 1572. 
 
 3 Editio princeps, Mantua, 1515. 
 
 4 Published, Frankfort, 1853. 
 
 3 See Munk, Isr. Annalen, 1841, p. 93; Gugenheimer, Die Religions- 
 Philosophic des Rabbi Abraham ben David, Augsburg, 1850, S. Pins- 
 ker, Hamitzpa, iii., p. 2 10. 1885. Concerning his Astronomical Work, 
 see Rabbi I. Israeli in his Jesod Olam, sec. iv., ch. 18. Concerning his 
 Emuna Rama, see M. Eisler, Geschichte der Juden in Bomen, p. 22 32.
 
 120 THE CELEBBtTIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Under Alfonso VIII., called the Noble (11661214), who 
 at an early age had been married to Eleanor, daughter of 
 Henry II. of England, many talented Jews obtained high 
 positions, and were appointed officers of the State, the latter 
 greatly benefiting by their work for the greatness of their 
 beloved fatherland. Eabbi Joseph ben Solomon Ibn Sho- 
 shan, called " The Prince" (born about 1135, died 1204-5), 
 was a distinguished personage at the court of Alfonso. 
 " Favour was bestowed upon him, and goodwill manifested 
 towards him by the king and the grandees." 1 With his 
 usual liberality, he encouraged the study of the Talmud, and 
 erected, in princely magnificence, a new synagogue in 
 Toledo. His son Solomon equalled him in many virtues. 
 Another highly honoured man at Alfonso's court was Rabbi 
 Abraham Ibn Alfachar (1160 1223), " who was crowned 
 with noble qualities and magnanimous deeds. He was ex- 
 alted in word and deed, an ornament to the king, and of 
 renown to the princes." Thoroughly proficient in the Arabic 
 language, Ibn Alfachar wrote choice prose and well-sounding 
 verse, whose high merit induced an Arab author to make a 
 collection of them, amongst them being a panegyric upon 
 King Alfonso. This noble king once despatched Ibn Alfachar 
 upon an embassy to the court of Morocco, where ruled Abu 
 Jacob Yussuff Almostansir. 8 
 
 A kinsman of this favourite of Alfonso, named Eabbi 
 Juda ben Joseph Ibn Alfachar, also bore the title of prince. 
 
 When Alfonso assembled his immense army, in order to 
 subdue the great power of the Almohades, who under Jacob 
 Almansur were again trying to penetrate into the heart of 
 Spain, the Jews poured forth their riches into the coffers of 
 the impoverished monarch, so as to enable him to equip his 
 forces. The battle of Alarcos (19th July, 1195) terminated in 
 a defeat for him. The Almohades ravaged fair Castile far 
 and wide, and Alfonso was compelled to shut himself up in 
 his capital, where the Jews fought in emulation of the other 
 inhabitants, in order to repel the onslaughts of the enemy. 
 They materially assisted in the forced retreat of the foe. 
 
 1 See Alcharizi in Tachkemcni, xlvi. ed., Vienna, p. 56 b - 
 3 Graetz, History, t. iii., p. 395.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS 121 
 
 They witnessed with joy the withdrawal of the Almohades, 
 which was caused by the kings of Castile and Aragon, who 
 entered into a confederacy to harass the army of the Almo- 
 hades. Through this union, however, the Jews of the 
 kingdom of Leon suffered severely when the allied forces, 
 ravaging the land, marched through their territory. In this 
 campaign, the oldest Hebrew copy of the Bible in Spain, 
 called Hillali, 1 which had hitherto served as a model for 
 copyists (and is said to have been written about the year 
 600), fell into the hands of the enemy (9 Ab., 1197). 8 
 
 In Aragon, to which Catalonia was attached from the 
 time of Eamon Berengua IV., the Jews lived under favour- 
 able circumstances, and were able to develop the activity of 
 their minds. Alfonso II. (1162 1196), a promoter and 
 patron of the Provencal poetry, favoured men who were 
 famed for word and thought, and amongst these the Jews at 
 this time took a foremost place. Although Saragossa was 
 the capital of Aragon, and of old had a Jewish congregation, 
 yet at this time the city of Barcelona was considered the 
 centre of Northern Spain, owing to its favourable position 
 by the sea and the nourishing state of its commerce. At 
 its head stood Eabbi Sheshet Benveniste, who had a liking 
 for philosophy, and was physician, diplomatist, Talmudist, 
 and poet (born 1131, died about 1210) . 3 Well acquainted 
 with the Arabic language, he was employed by the King of 
 
 1 Concerning Hillali, see Ozar Nechmad, t. ii., p. 159. The explana- 
 tion of Hillali is given by J. Fiirst in his Introduction to the Hebrew and 
 Chaldee Lexicon, 1807, p. 19, and runs thus:" About 600 we first meet 
 with the intelligence of a Hillali-manuscript, which was made at Hilla 
 or Helala, a town built in the vicinity of the ruins of the old Babel, and 
 which was furnished not merely with vowels and accents, but also with 
 Masora copiously. About 1500, when a part of it was sold into Africa, 
 it was already 900 years old ; about 1 196, when a great persecution of 
 the Jews took place in the kingdom of Leon, it had been brought from 
 thence to Toledo, where the grammarian Rabbi Jacob ben Eleazar made 
 use of it in his work Sepher ha-Shaleim, whence Kimchi quoted it, who 
 had not seen it himself." See Neubauer, the Jewish Chronicle, 2.2 Janu- 
 ary, 1886, and Studia Biblica, 1891, showing that the name of the scribe 
 was Hillel. Concerning Rabbi Jacob ben Eleazar, see Zeitschrift der 
 Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, xxvii. p. 553. 
 
 3 Graetz, t. iii., p. 398 399. 
 
 3 Concerning the Benveniste family from old time to the seventeenth 
 century see D. Holub, Geschichte der judishen Arzte, t. ii., p. 33 36. 
 Vienna, 1882.
 
 122 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Aragon on diplomatic service, obtained honours and wealth, 
 and expressed his gratitude for this prosperous state of 
 existence, as Rabbi Samuel Ibn Nagrela had done, with his 
 pen. Like this Jewish prince, Rabbi Sheshet Benveniste 
 supported men of science and the students of the Talmud. 
 The poets laud his noble mind and his liberality in excessive 
 terms. 1 Benveniste himself, when in his seventy-second year, 
 composed a long song of praise of one hundred and forty-two 
 verses in honour of Rabbi Joseph Ibn Shoshan of Toledo. 2 
 
 Next to him in importance in Barcelona stood Rabbi 
 Samuel ben Abraham Ibn Chasdai Halevi (1165 1216), 
 "the fountain of wisdom and the sea of thought," as the 
 poet Charizi exaggeratedly calls him. 3 
 
 The community of Tudela, a small town on the Ebro, 
 which was the apple of contention between the kings of Ara- 
 gon and Navarre, had on two occasions courageously fought 
 for equal privileges with the Christian and Mohammedan 
 inhabitants, and possessed a castle of their own for their 
 security. It produced a learned traveller, Rabbi Benjamin 
 ben Jonah of Tudela, to whom not alone Jewish history, but 
 also the general history of nations, owes thanks for his inter- 
 esting and authentic information. Benjamin travelled (1165 
 1179) from Saragossa by way of Catalonia, the south of 
 France, Italy, Greece, the Archipelago, Rhodes, Cyprus, and 
 Cilicia, to Syria, Palestine, the lands of the caliphate, and 
 Persia. His return route took him to the Indian Ocean, the 
 coast towns of Yemen, Egypt, Sicily, and Castile, whither 
 he returned, after an absence of about fourteen years. His 
 " Itinerary " furnishes the oldest material for the history of 
 the commerce of Europe, Asia, and Africa in the twelfth 
 century. In several Asiatic and southern European districts 
 Benjamin found Jews engaged in handicrafts. Naturally the 
 Jews had their favourite arts. In Asia, as Benjamin shows, 
 
 1 See Alcharizi in his Tachkemoni, xlvi. ed., Vienna, p. sya. Rabbi 
 Joseph Sabbara composed in his honour his Sepher Shaashuim, the 
 Book of Dallying, editio princeps, Constantinople, 1577, and again 
 Paris, 1866. See also Steinschneider's edition of the Testament of 
 Rabbi Juda Ibn Tibbon to his son Rabbi Samuel, p. xi. Berlin, 1852 ; 
 Neubauer, Mlechet ha-Shir, p. 43, Breslau, 1865. 
 
 2 See Maimonides' Letters, edition Lichtenberg, t. iii., p. 7. 
 
 3 Tachkemoni, edition Vienna, p. 573.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 123 
 
 the Jews were specially noted as dyers and manufacturers of 
 silk. In Italy the Jewish dyers were only less noted than 
 their Sicilian brethren who plied the same art. 1 Jerusalem 
 and Damascus are depicted vigorously and vividly. Bagdad, 
 he says, contained a thousand Jews, who lived in peace, 
 comfort and honour, and it also contained ten colleges. 
 These were presided over by four rabbis, one of them being 
 lineally descended from the prophet Samuel, and he and his 
 brethren, it is remarked, were acquainted with the melodies 
 which had been sung in the Temple of King Solomon. Daniel 
 ben Chisda, descended from the house of David, was then 
 Prince of the Captivity. 
 
 In Gerona there was a small Jewish community, whose 
 members were devoted to the study of the Talmud. Here 
 Eabbi Serachya Halevi Gerundi was born in 1125, and died 
 in 1186. He appears to have possessed a certain amount of 
 knowledge of philosophy. He chiefly studied the Talmud, 
 and, being acquainted with the labours of the French and 
 Spanish schools, he combined in himself the studies of Alfassi 
 and Eashi, Eabbi Joseph Ibn Migash and Eabbi Jacob Tarn. 
 He was a thoroughly critical and deductive scholar, his mind 
 being at the same time analytic and synthetic in its tendency. 
 In his youth, at the age of nineteen, he composed Talmudical 
 works and wrote commentaries on those of Alfassi. Eabbi 
 Serachya appears to have suffered persecution from the com- 
 munity of Gerona, for which he avenged himself by a satire 
 which he composed on them. In Lunel, where he possessed 
 many friends, and where he was maintained by a patron of 
 learning, he composed various writings against a Talmudical 
 authority of the south of France Eabbi Abraham ben 
 David ; 2 and here also, at an advanced age, he compiled his 
 
 1 I. Abrahams' Jewish Life, p. 211, 217, 219. The first edition of 
 this curious book of travels, " Massaot," is that of Constantinople, 1543 ; 
 with a Latin translation by Arias Montanus, Antwerp, 1575 ; and by 
 1'Empereur, Leyden, 1633 ; with a French translation by Barratier, 
 Amsterdam, 1784; with a German translation by Martinet, Bamberg, 
 1858; with an English translation by B. Gerrans, London, 1783; but 
 the best edition is that which has been published by A. Asher, translated 
 and edited with valuable notes on the geographical literature of the 
 Jews, London, 1840-41. 
 
 2 A polemical criticism on the work of Rabbi Abraham ben David, 
 entitled Sepher Baalei ha-Nephesh was published at Berlin in 1762.
 
 124 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 acute commentaries on Alfassi's work on the greater part of 
 the Talmud. These he published under the name of Maor. 1 
 In this critical work, Eabbi Serachya displayed his indepen- 
 dence of spirit, and showed throughout his comprehension of 
 the Talmud. 2 
 
 Amongst the earliest grammarians and lexicographers 
 worthy of record, was Eabbi Solomon ben Abraham Parchon. 
 He flourished about 1130, at Calatajud, in Aragon. After- 
 wards he emigrated to the peninsula of Salerno. Being 
 anxious to furnish his co-religionists in southern Italy with 
 the results of the grammatical and exegetical labours of his 
 brethren in Spain, he compiled, in the year 1160, a Hebrew 
 lexicon, entitled " Machberet ha-Aruch." 8 The work is 
 divided into two parts, the first containing a grammar of the 
 Hebrew language, and the second a lexicon. Though it is 
 substantially a translation of Ibn Ganach's celebrated lexi- 
 con, yet Parchon also introduces in it the labours of Chayyug, 
 Eabbi Jehuda Halevi, Ibn Ezra, &c., and explains many 
 words by the aid of passages from the Targumim, the 
 Mishna, Tosephta, and the Talmud. He wrote also a com- 
 mentary on the Prophets and Hagiographa, and translated 
 the medical and astrological works of Ali Ibn Eaghl, which 
 have not as yet come to light. 
 
 1 Printed in the editions of that work. 
 
 a Graetz, iii., p. 401. R. Serachya wrote also a terminology of logic 
 on the Talmud, under the name of Sepher ha-Tsaba ; it has been pub- 
 lished in the collection of Rabbi Benjamin Mutal, entitled Temim Deim, 
 Venice, 1622, p. 255, and separately at Shklov, 1803. Rabbi Serachya 
 distinguished himself by a collection of poems, and several hymns 
 extant in the liturgy. Extensive specimens of Rabbi Serachya's poems 
 are given in Jacob Reifman's Biography of Serachya, Prague, 1853. 
 See Zunz, Zur Geschichte, p. 476; Luzzato in Meged Jerachim, iii., 
 p. 156, iv. 5. 
 
 3 It has been published by Stern, Presburg, 1844, with a valuabta 
 introduction by S. L. Rapaport, in which this erudite scholar gives a 
 succinct history of the study of the Hebrew language, and of the 
 different periods in which the great grammarians lived. See Stein - 
 schneider, Hamazkir, 1859, p. 108 ; Dr. M. Weiner, "Parchon als 
 Grammatiker und Lexicograph," Ofen, 1870.
 
 CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 RABBI MOSES MAIMONIDES AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES. 
 
 IN Babbi Jehuda Halevi, the Jews could boast a poet of 
 great powers and originality of genius. In Ibn Ezra 
 they have a universal student, conversant with every branch 
 of learning cultivated in his day. But in the great man of 
 whose life and works we are now going to treat, they have a 
 profound philosopher and divine, who not only has exercised 
 the greatest influence on his contemporaries and on his 
 nation, but, also, on the civilized world in general. 
 
 Eabbi Moses Ibn Maimun (with the long Arabic name Abu 
 Amran Musa ben Maimun Obaid Allah) was born on the Eve 
 of Passover (30th March, one o'clock p.m., 1135), in Cor- 
 dova. 1 The youthful training of Maimonides (as he is often 
 called), the man who was destined to bear the future of Juda- 
 ism on his strong shoulders, was calculated to imbue him 
 with studious habits in the most emphatic manner. His 
 father, Eabbi Maimun ben Joseph, a pupil of Ibn Migash, 
 was, like his ancestors for eight generations back (as far as 
 his progenitor Eabbi Obadiah), a learned Talmudist and 
 member of the rabbinical college of Cordova. 
 
 Eabbi Maimun also took an interest in the sciences, was 
 versed in mathematics and astronomy, and wrote books on 
 those subjects as well as on Talmudical topics. 2 It was he 
 who planted in his son an enthusiastic love for learning, and 
 awakened his feeling for an ideal life. 
 
 1 So memorable did everything connected with this great personality 
 appear in the eyes of his contemporaries that even the day and the hour 
 of his birth have been recorded. 
 
 2 He wrote: (i) A Commentary on Esther, quoted by Rabbi Sol. 
 Duran in his Tipheret Israel, Venice, 1632. (2) Decisions on the Prayer, 
 and Festival Observances, quoted by Rabbi Simon Duran in Tashbatz, i., 
 ch. 2. (3) Commentary on the Talmud, mentioned by Maimonides in his 
 Introduction to the Mishna, Order Zeraim. (4) Commentary on the
 
 126 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Maimonides had scarcely passed his thirteenth year, when 
 great misfortune overtook the community of Cordova, owing 
 to that city having been captured by the Almohades (1148), 
 who forthwith promulgated fanatical edicts against Jews and 
 Christians, and put before them the alternatives of embrac- 
 ing Islamism, expulsion, or death. Eabbi Maimun and his 
 family went into exile with the great majority of the Cordo- 
 van congregation. They are said to have established them- 
 selves at Port Almeria, which a year before had been 
 conquered by the Christians. 1 In the year 1151, Almeria also 
 fell into the power of the Almohades, whose fanatical king, 
 of course, did not fail to impose on the Jewish and Christian 
 inhabitants of the city the necessity of changing their reli- 
 gion, as in the other conquered cities of southern Spain. 
 From that time the family of Maimun was obliged to lead a 
 wandering life for many years, without being able to find a 
 permanent residence anywhere. 
 
 Maimonides learnt from his father the Bible, the Talmud, 
 the Jewish branches of learning, mathematics and astro- 
 nomy ; he attended lectures on science and medicine by 
 Mohammedan professors, and was introduced into the temple 
 of philosophy. 
 
 Although he was attracted by many branches of learning 
 which cohered in his mind as one united whole, still there 
 were four special subjects on which he centred most of his 
 attention : the whole range of Biblical and Talmudical writ- 
 ings, philosophy, medicine, mathematics and astronomy. In 
 his twenty-third year he drew up in Hebrew for a friend a 
 Jewish Calendar based on astronomical principles (1158). a 
 In the same year he commenced a work, the undertaking of 
 which already gives evidence of greatness and boldness of 
 
 Astronomy of Fergani, quoted by Azarya De Rossi in Maor Einaim, 
 ch. xl., p. 126, a. (5) An Epistle on Religious Persecution, published by 
 H. Edelmann in Chemda Genuza, Konigsberg, 1856, p. Ixxiv. ; and by 
 S. I. Halberstam in Kebod Halebanon, 1872, p. 199 ; with an English 
 translation, by Rev. M. Simmons, under the name of " Letter of Con- 
 solation," in Jewish Quarterly Review, ii. 
 
 1 Leo Africanus, cited in Fabricus, Bibliotheca Graeca t. xiii., c. 28, 
 P- 295- 
 
 2 Has been published under the title of "Maamar ha-Ibbur," by E. 
 Ashkenasi in Dibrei Chachamim, Metz, 1849, and in the Collection of 
 the Letters of Maimonides by A. Lichtenberg, p. 17 20, Leipzig, 1859.
 
 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 127 
 
 intellect. He began to explain the Mishna independently 
 and in a new light, at an age when most men have scarcely 
 finished their college career, a gigantic task in which he had 
 no model to guide him. He worked at it amidst continual 
 wanderings, and while battling with hardships ; but so 
 thoroughly was the whole compass of the Talmud before 
 him that he could manage to dispense with books. A year 
 or two later (1159-1160) his father emigrated with him, his 
 younger brother Eabbi David and his sister, from Spain to 
 Fez. In Fez, as in all North Africa, wherever the bigoted 
 Abdul-Mumen ruled, no Jews were allowed to declare them- 
 selves as Jews, but had to profess their belief in the first 
 article of the Mohammedan faith. This filled Eabbi Maimun 
 with pain, and he sought to counteract the apathy of the 
 pseudo-Mohammedan Jews as much as lay in his power, 
 and to confirm the belief in Judaism in their hearts. With 
 this object he addressed to the community an exhortation 
 (1160), which is full of mournfulness and instinct with a 
 deep sense of religion. 1 Soon his son, Eabbi Moses, also found 
 an opportunity to enter for the first time into the arena, to 
 give expression to his original views on Judaism, to offer 
 encouragement to his comrades in affliction, and to trace out 
 for them a line which they should pursue. 2 Eabbi Moses 
 Maimonides zealously endeavoured to induce the Jewish 
 pseudo-Mohammedans to remain in their ancient religion. 
 On this account he exposed himself to extreme danger, and 
 might have been put to death if a Mohammedan theologian 
 and poet, named Abul-Arab Ibn Moisha, had not interceded 
 for him and saved him. 8 The feeling of insecurity induced 
 the family of Eabbi Maimun to leave Fez, and travel to 
 Palestine. In the depth of night they embarked (4th Yyar, 
 1165). After they had voyaged for six days on the Mediter- 
 ranean, a terrible storm arose, of which the fury was so great 
 as to render the vessel unmanageable, and rescue seemed 
 
 1 Published by Edelmann in Chemda Genuza, p. Ixxiv., and in the 
 Jewish Quarterly Review, ii. 
 
 2 His views on Judaism are published under the title of " Maamar 
 Kiddush Hashem," Treatise on Glorifying God, in Chemda Genuza, 
 p. 6 13, and in Lichtenberg's edition, p. 12 15. 
 
 3 S. Munk, Archives Israelites, 1851, p. 329.
 
 128 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 impossible. But the storm abated, and, after a voyage of 
 one month, the ship sailed into the harbour of Acco (3d 
 Sivan). This day Kabbi Maimun dedicated as a family fes- 
 tival. The emigrants from Spain were received in a friendly 
 manner by the congregation of Acco. After a residence of 
 nearly half a year in this town, the family travelled amid 
 dangers to Jerusalem, to pray at the ancient site of the 
 Temple (4th Marcheshvan). The family remained in Jerusa- 
 lem for three days, then journeyed to Hebron, and from that 
 place to Egypt, which at that time bade fair, through the 
 Ajubides, to become the centre of Islam. Some months after 
 their arrival in Egypt the head of the family died (beginning 
 of 1166). So highly esteemed were both father and son by 
 all who knew them, that letters of consolation were sent to 
 the latter by his friends in Africa and Christian Spain. 1 
 
 On the other hand, in Egypt, in old Cairo (Postat), where 
 the family of Kabbi Maimun had settled, the name of 
 Maimonides had not as yet become famous. The two brothers 
 lived quietly and carried on together the jewellery trade, but 
 in such a manner that the younger brother took a far more 
 active share than the elder, and travelled on business as far 
 as India. Eabbi Moses, on the other hand, devoted himself 
 to study. 2 Severe misfortunes, which would have brought a 
 mind less strong than his to despair, tore him from this quiet 
 life. Physical sufferings threw him on a bed of sickness ; 
 heavy losses diminished his fortune, and informers appeared 
 against him and brought him to the brink of death. Lastly, 
 his brother David perished in the Indian Ocean, and with 
 him not only both their fortunes, but also the money which 
 had been entrusted to them by others for business purposes. 
 These accumulated misfortunes aggravated his sufferings 
 and filled him with melancholy. The death of his brother 
 afflicted him the most. His unbounded trust in God, his 
 enthusiastic love for learning, and his anxiety for his family 
 and for the widow and daughters of his brother roused his 
 courage once more, and moved him to enter on an active life. 
 
 1 See Letter from Maimonides addressed to Rabbi Yephet ben Elijah, 
 in Dibrei Chachamim, p. 60, and in Lichtenberg's edition, p. 37 ; trans- 
 lated into English by A. Benish, Life of Maimonides, p 47. 
 
 2 See his Letter addressed to Rabbi Yephet, Lichtenberg's edition, p. 
 37 ; and Alkifti in Casiri's Bibliotheca Arabico-hispafia, i., p. 293.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 129 
 
 Maimonides appears from this time to have gained a liveli- 
 hood by the practice of medicine. About this time he also 
 gave public lectures on philosophical subjects. 1 
 
 His whole mind, however, was bent on the completion of 
 the gigantic work with which he had been occupied since 
 his twenty-third year, whilst roaming about on sea voyages, 
 and in the midst of numerous adversities. He finished this, 
 his first great work, in the year 1168, in Arabic, under the 
 title of " Siraj, The Light." 2 The characteristic feature of 
 this commentary of Maimonides consists in this, that it 
 follows the analytical method, laying down at the beginning 
 of each section the principles and general views of the sub- 
 ject, and thereby throwing light upon the particulars to be 
 explained. 
 
 The luminous introduction to the commentary especially 
 gives evidence of its scientific character. Maimuni treated, 
 with special predilection, those points of the Mishna which 
 have a scientific colouring, and in which the principles of 
 mathematics, astronomy, physics, anatomy, ethics and philo- 
 sophy could be introduced. In such parts he could show 
 that the doctors of the Mishna, the upholders of tradition, 
 knew science also, and based their works upon it. Especially 
 did he aim at establishing that the Mishna contains a sound 
 ethical and deep philosophical conception of God. 
 
 " Know," says Maimonides, 3 " that everything under the 
 Lunar sphere is created for the use of man. If there are 
 
 1 Alkifti, ibid. 
 
 2 Translated into Hebrew by several scholars who flourished in the 
 thirteenth century, namely Seder Zeraim, by Rabbi Jehuda Charizi ; 
 Seder Moed, by Joseph Ibn Alfual ; Seder Nashim, by Rabbi Jacob 
 Achsai ; Seder Nezikin, by Rabbi Solomon ben Joseph, with the excep- 
 tion of Perek Chelek in Sanhedrin and the treatise Aboth (including the 
 ethical treatise Shemone Perakim, introducing the latter) which were 
 translated by Rabbi Samuel Ibn Tibbon ; Seder Kadashim, by Rabbi 
 Nathanel Ibn Almuli ; the translator of Seder Taharoth is not known, 
 editio princeps with the text of the Mishna, Naples, 1492. Portions of 
 it were translated by Pocock, chiefly consisting of the introductions to 
 the different tractates ; see Theological Works, vol. i., ed. Twells, Lon- 
 don, 1748. Syrenhusius has given an abridged version of the whole 
 commentary in his edition of the Mishna, Amsterdam, 1678. 
 
 3 In his Introduction to the Mishna, Seder Zeraim. The above ex- 
 tract is given by E. H. Lindo, History of the Jews of Spain, p. 6364. 
 A German translation is given by E. M. Pinner in his Masechet 
 Berachot, p. i 12, Berlin, 1842. 
 
 9
 
 130 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 animals and plants, the utility of which is not apparent, it is 
 because our ignorance has not been able to discover it. The 
 proof is that every age makes discoveries of the utility of 
 certain animals and plants ; objects that to us seem poisonous 
 possess their salutary qualities : we have an evident proof in 
 vipers, which, although noxious reptiles, have been rendered 
 useful to man. Then since man is the end of all the creation, 
 we must examine for what purpose he exists, for what end 
 he is created. We see every object of the creation produce 
 the effect for which it is created ; the palm yields its 
 dates, the spider weaves its cobwebs. All their qualities 
 render the animal or plant proper to attain its purpose. Then 
 what is that of man ? It cannot be to eat, drink, propagate, 
 build walls, or to command ; for these occupations are 
 separate from him and add not to his essence, and he 
 possesses nearly the whole of them in common with other 
 animals. It is then intelligence only that augments his 
 being and elevates him from a lowly condition to a sublime 
 state. It is but by reason that man distinguishes himself 
 from the other animals : he himself is but a rational animal. Ky 
 reason, I mean the understanding of comprehensible subjects, 
 and above all of the unity of God ; all other knowledge tends 
 to conduct him to that ; but to arrive at it he must avoid 
 luxury, for too much care bestowed on the body destroys the 
 soul. The man who abandons himself to his passions, who 
 renders his understanding subservient to his corporal de- 
 sires, does not demonstrate the divine power that lies within 
 him, that is to say reason, which is a matter floating in the 
 ocean of space. 
 
 " It results from what has been said, that the purpose of 
 our world, and of the objects contained therein, is man en- 
 dowed with knowledge and goodness. For a man to be 
 perfect, he must combine in himself science and actions, that 
 is the knowledge of truth, with the practice of virtue. This 
 is what not only our prophets, but the ancient philosophers 
 taught us, and it will be found more detailed in my expo- 
 sition of the ' Ethics of the Fathers.' Throughout the law 
 you find this precept, ' Learn and then practice ' ! It incul- 
 cates that knowledge precedes action, for knowledge leads to
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 131 
 
 actions, while they do not lead to knowledge. This is the 
 reason why our sages have said that ' learning begets practice.' 
 But probably, some persons will say, If the purpose of man 
 is to acquire knowledge and perform good actions, why do 
 we see the major part of mankind deficient in knowledge 
 and even despising it ; giving reins to their passions, and 
 devoting themselves to mundane occupations ? To this I 
 answer : Man has many material wants ; it requires the 
 labour of a multitude to satisfy them. The length of 
 Methusalem's life would not suffice were every one obliged 
 to exercise all the arts necessary to supply his physical 
 wants. The study of philosophy can only be the portion of 
 a small number. Were every one to apply himself to that 
 study, in a short time the human race would become 
 extinct." 
 
 The tractate of the Mishna, which combines, like a string 
 of pearls, the sayings of the fathers (Aboth), appeared in 
 the eyes of Maimonides a veritable treasure. In explaining 
 these he could display the whole wealth of his world of 
 thought, and he thus saturated Talmudical Judaism with 
 philosophical ideas. 
 
 In the special introduction to the tractate Sanhedrin he 
 for the first time defined and formally laid down the Jewish 
 creed, which consists of the following thirteen articles : 
 
 (I) There is One God, who is a perfect Being, the Creator 
 and Preserver of all things ; (2) He is an indivisible unity ; 
 (3) He is incorporeal and immutable ; (4) He is eternal, and 
 no being existed before him ; (5) He alone is to be wor- 
 shipped; (6) He endowed chosen men with the gift of 
 prophecy ; (7) Moses was incomparably the greatest of all 
 prophets ; (8) The Torah was given by God to Moses ; (9) This 
 Law is complete and unalterable ; (10) God is omniscient, 
 and takes cognizance of all the thoughts and deeds of man ; 
 
 (II) He will judge both the righteous and the wicked ; (12) 
 Messiah is to come, and he may appear any day ; and (13) 
 There is to be a general resurrection of the dead. 1 
 
 1 For fuller particulars concerning the Thirteen Articles, see Dr. M. 
 Friedlander, The Jewish Religion, p. i 232. Maimonides' work on 
 ethics and psychology, entitled Shemone Perakim, the Eight Chapters, 
 editio princeps, Naples, 1492 ; a Latin translation by Vythage, Leyden,
 
 132 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 The fortunes of the Jews of Egypt and of the neighbouring 
 countries had taken a favourable turn. The Fatimide Caliph 
 died or was deposed, and the great Saladin, the model of 
 royal magnanimity and chivalry in that barbarous age, suc- 
 ceeded to the government (September, 1171). The first office 
 that the celebrated Ajubide held was that of Vice-Field- 
 Marshal of Nureddin ; gradually he acquired absolute supre- 
 macy over Egypt and a part of Palestine, and Syria, and even 
 the districts about the Euphrates, and the Caliphate of Bagdad 
 obeyed his rule. His empire became a safe asylum to the 
 oppressed Jews. Saladin behaved justly towards them, as 
 indeed he did towards every one, even his bitterest enemies. 
 Under him the Jews rose to great prosperity and importance. 
 
 Maimonides' greatness only obtained gradual acknowledg- 
 ment. In the year 1175, already he was looked upon as an 
 authority in determining Eabbinical laws; and religious-legal 
 questions were addressed to him from all parts, a circum- 
 stance from which we may infer the universal recognition of 
 his authority. Maimonides appears to have been officially 
 recognised in 1177 as Eabbi of Cairo, on account of his pro- 
 found knowledge of the Talmud, his character and fame. 
 He formed an ecclesiastical board, with nine colleagues. 
 His office he regarded as a holy priesthood, and exercised it 
 with characteristic conscientiousness and circumspection. 
 
 His pupils, to whom he gave lectures, and who revered 
 him as the incarnation of wisdom, spread his reputation 
 abroad. One of his earliest disciples, Eabbi Solomon Cohen, 1 
 who travelled to South Arabia (Yemen), was full of his praise, 
 and impressed on the congregation there that in the time of 
 need they should apply to Maimonides for consolation and 
 support. In that place, two Schiites had seized upon the 
 government and compelled the Jews to embrace Islamism 
 under threat of heavy penalties. Eabbi Jacob Alfayumi, the 
 most learned and most respected man among them, turned 
 to Maimonides, of whom he had heard through his disciples, 
 
 1683 ; German, by Falkenheim, Konigsberg, 1832 ; and French, by M. 
 Beer, Paris, 1811. See Die Ethik des Maimoides, by D. Rosin, Breslau, 
 1876. A brief outline of the eight chapters in English is given by the 
 Rev. B. Spiers in " The Threefold Cord," p. 113 127, London, 1891. 
 
 1 See Iggeret Teiman, ed. Lichtenberg, p. i.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 133 
 
 for counsel and consolation, described to him their sufferings 
 and apprehensions, and begged him to send a reply. Mai- 
 monides accordingly sent a letter of consolation, in Arabic, 1 
 to the congregation of Yemen, directed personally to his 
 correspondent, but having reference to all the members. He 
 sought in it to elevate the sufferers to the height of spiritual 
 consciousness, through which suffering for religion's sake loses 
 its sting and darkness and appears as an inevitable antecedent 
 to the break of light. This interesting letter of consolation, 
 which was written with much warmth, made so favourable 
 an impression on the Jews of South Arabia, that they, far 
 from growing indifferent to their religion, were strengthened 
 in it, and were moved to take an energetic share in all the 
 proceedings of the whole Jewish community. In later times, 
 when Maimonides attained greater importance, he found the 
 means of putting a stop to the political oppressions and 
 bigoted persecution suffered by the Jews. For this the con- 
 gregation of Yemen clove to him with enthusiastic love and 
 veneration. They included his name in their daily prayers, 
 a demonstration of honour which was formerly only accorded 
 to the exilarchs when in their zenith. 2 
 
 In the midst of his energetic activity in communal affairs, 
 practising as a physician and devoting himself to the constant 
 study of philosophy and science, Maimonides completed 
 his second great work (8 Kislev, 1180), his epoch-making 
 " Mishne-Torah," or religious code. 8 If, as he states, he 
 
 1 Translated into Hebrew by Nachum Maarabi, published under the 
 name of " Iggeret Teiman," Basel, 1629, and in Lichtenberg's edition, 
 p, i 17 ; but the best edition is by D. Halub with an introduction and 
 notes, Vienna, 1874. A Latin translation is given by H. Vorst in his 
 Observations in Zemach David, p. 293, Leyden, 1644 ' an d by Chr. Grafe 
 in his Politicus Orientalis, Altenburg, 1679. 
 
 2 Nachmanides in his Letter to the Rabbis of France, Lichtenberg, 
 p. 9. 
 
 3 Editio princeps of this work appeared in Italy from the printing 
 office of Solomon ben Jehuda and Obadia ben Moses, about 1480 ; then 
 in Soncino; the text with different commentaries, Constantinople, 1509; 
 Venice, 1524, 1550-51, 1574-75 ' with an alphabetical index and many 
 plates, 4 vols., Amsterdam, 1702. Translations of portions of this work 
 in Latin have been published ; also a German translation comprising the 
 part called Hilchot Deiut, by Lazaron, Konigsberg, 1832; Sepher ha- 
 Mada, the first part, by E. Soloweiczyk, Konigsberg, 1846 ; the second 
 part, 1847. An English translation, The Tractate on the Repentance, 
 by Skinner ; Sepher ha-Mada by B. Hurwitz, London, 1870. A selec-
 
 134 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 laboured at it continuously for ten successive years, the time 
 stands in no relation to the magnitude of the performance. 
 It is impossible to give the uninitiated an idea of this gigantic 
 work, in which he collected the most remote things from the 
 immeasurable mine of the Talmud ; classified all details 
 under their appropriate heads ; showed how the Talmud was 
 based on the Bible, brought the details under general rules, 
 and combined apparently unconnected parts into one orga- 
 nised whole, and cemented it into a work of art. He justly 
 laid special emphasis, in the Mishne-Torah, on the necessity 
 of artistic grouping, of which the difficulties can only be 
 estimated by a specialist deeply versed in the subject. Apart 
 from the technical excellence, and the incomparably well- 
 proportioned architecture, the work has, as far as the contents 
 are concerned, a most important influence on the develop- 
 ment of Jewish history. All the various lines which his 
 predecessors had partially traced out on the ground of 
 Judaism, Maimonides united in the greatest harmony. 
 Nothing therein is superfluous, nothing wanting. The philo- 
 sophical, the ethical and the ceremonial sides, and, so to speak, 
 the emotional side of Judaism, which the aspiration for a 
 Messianic period of redemption expresses, are treated in the 
 book and raised to a just position. There breathes in this 
 work the spirit of true wisdom, calm reflection, and deep 
 morality. Maimonides, in the Mishne-Torah, treats of the 
 precepts of the Torah under the following fourteen heads : 
 (1) Fundamental principles of our faith; (2) Divine worship ; 
 (3) Sabbath and festivals ; (4) Marriages ; (5) Forbidden 
 food and forbidden relations of the sexes ; (6) Vows ; (7) 
 Agriculture ; (8) The Temple and the regular sacrificial ser- 
 vice ; (9) Occasional sacrifices ; (10) Cleanness and unclean- 
 ness ; (11) Compensation for damages ; (12) Transfer of 
 property ; (13) Contracts ; (14) Administration of the law. 1 
 
 tion from the Mishne-Torah has been made by Hermann H. Bernard, 
 published under the name of " The Main Principles of the Creed and 
 Ethics of the Jews," Cambridge, 1832. An English translation of the 
 laws relating to the Poor and the Stranger from the Mishne-Torah is 
 given by I. W. Peppercorne, London, 1840. Concerning the MSS. 
 of the Mishne-Torah, preserved at Frankfort, see Neubauer, Jewish 
 Chronicle, 4 June, 1886. 
 
 1 See Dr. M. Friedlander, The Jewish Religion, p. 241, London, 1891.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 135 
 
 It was only after a residence in Egypt of more than twenty 
 years that Maimonides obtained an appointment as physician 
 at the court of Saladin, whereas till that time he had ac- 
 quired only a slight connection with the court. He was 
 not, indeed, by any means Saladin's physician-in-ordinary, 
 for the sultan, on account of the constant wars with the 
 adherents of Nureddin and with the Christians, could not 
 visit his capital for a long time. But the favour of the noble 
 vizier, the wise and mighty Alfadhel, who was also a great 
 promoter of learning, and of whom a contemporary said, 
 " He was entirely head and heart," was of as much value to 
 Maimonides as the distinction he received from his connection 
 with Saladin. Alfadhel caused Maimonides to be placed on 
 the list of royal physicians, settled upon him a yearly salary, 
 and loaded him with favours. Inspired by his example, the 
 great men of the country who lived in Cairo likewise bestowed 
 upon him their patronage, so that Maimonides' time was 'so 
 fully occupied that he was obliged to neglect his studies. 
 Maimonides elaborated the writings of the medical oracle in 
 the middle ages Galen ; he abridged and arranged them 
 without allowing himself the least variation. The same 
 character is borne also by his medical aphorisms, which con- 
 tain nothing further than extracts and classifications of older 
 theories. 
 
 Maimonides' works on medicine are too numerous to set 
 down here, but the chief of them are : 
 
 (1) Aphorisms on Medicine. Rendered into Hebrew by 
 Babbi Nathan Hamati, from the original Arabic, under the 
 title of Pirke Moshe, embodying the doctrines of Galen and 
 Hippocrates, and some of the more eminent Arabian physi- 
 cians, has been published, Lemberg, 1834. Latin translation, 
 Bologna, 1489, and Basle, 1579. Eabbi Immanuel Aboab 
 states, Nomolog, P. II., c. xxiv., p. 284, that he has heard 
 from skilful physicians, and particularly from Mercurial, that 
 the Aphorisms of Maimonides are not inferior to those of 
 Hippocrates. 
 
 (2) Compendia from twenty-one books, viz., sixteen from 
 Galen, and five from the works of other authors. They are 
 written in Arabic, MS. preserved in the National Library of 
 Paris, No. 1203,1. See S. Munk, Annal, vol. iii., p. 97; 
 De Sacy, Eelation, 466.
 
 136 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 (3) Treatise on the Hemorrhoid.es and their Treatment. 
 Translated from the Arabic into Hebrew by Rabbi Samuel 
 Ibn Tibbon ; MSS. of both the original and Hebrew version 
 are preserved in the same library, No. 1202; 335,8, and 
 1173,3. 
 
 (4) Consultation on the Snoring of the Nose and Throat. 
 Translated from the Arabic into Hebrew by the same, and 
 preserved MSS. in the same library. 
 
 (5) Treatise on Poisons and Medicines which may cause 
 death. A Hebrew version, made also by the above-named. 
 Dr. I. M. Babbinowicz translated it into French, and pub- 
 lished it, 1865, Paris. See M. Steinschneider, " Gifte und 
 ihre Heilung," in Virchow's Archiv, Band 57, Heft, i. p. 21, 
 February, 1873. 
 
 ( 6) Treatise on Coitus. A Hebrew version made by Zera- 
 chya Chen exists, MSS. both in Paris, No. 335,7, and in De 
 Eossi's Library at Parma, 1280. 
 
 (7) Treatise on Asthma, and the remedies for curing it. 
 Translated into Hebrew by Rabbi Samuel Benveniste, pre- 
 served MSS. in Paris, No. 1173,2, and in Parma. See Stein- 
 schneider, Hamazkir, viii., p. 85. 
 
 (8) Consultation on Constipation. Translated into Hebrew 
 by Rabbi Moses Ibn Tibbon, MSS. in the National Library 
 of Paris, No. 1120,3. 
 
 (9) Commentary on Hippocrates' Aphorisms. Rendered 
 into Hebrew by Rabbi Moses Ibn Tibbon, MSS. in the Arabic 
 language, preserved in Paris, No. 1202. 
 
 (10) Hanhagot ha-Beriot, on the Preservation of Health. 
 Epistle addressed to the Sultan El-Melik-el-Afdhal, son of 
 Saladin, rendered into Hebrew by Rabbi Moses Ibn Tibbon, 
 has been published in "Kerem Chemed," iii. p. 9 31. A 
 Latin version, under the title of "Regimen Sanitatis," has 
 been published, Venice, 1514 ; and German by D. Winter- 
 nitz, Vienna, 1848. See Hamazkir, 1865, p. 88. 
 
 (11) Sepher ha-Nimtsa, the Book of Existence: a medical 
 and moral treatise, editio princeps, Salonicha, 1596. Con- 
 cerning this book see S. Sachs, Hatechiah, i. 38 ; Kerem 
 Chemed, viii., p. 23-34. 
 
 (12) Compendium of the Canon of Avicenna. A beautiful 
 Hebrew MS. of this work is preserved at the Dominican
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 137 
 
 convent at Bologna. The following remarkable words are 
 prefixed to it in Hebrew : " Eben Cinna, from the transla- 
 tion of Rabbi Moses Maimon (blessed be his memory), made 
 in Egypt from the book of Eben Cinna, which he received 
 from the great Sultan, the king of Egypt, in the year 4946, 
 from the creation." Bened. Montfaucon, who relates this in 
 his diary on Italy, p. 402, subjoins that an Italian epistle 
 added at the end states that Ferdinand I. had offered in vain 
 two hundred gold pieces for this copy. 
 
 (13) Exposition of Drugs ; an Arabic Pharmacopoeia, 
 quoted by Ibn Abi Osaiba. 
 
 ( L4) Consultation of Medicine, composed for a prince of 
 his acquaintance, who was a valetudinarian and a hypochon- 
 driac. MS. of a Hebrew version made by Eabbi Moses Ibn 
 Tibbon is preserved at Paris. 
 
 (15) Method of Curing those who have been Bitten by 
 Venomous Beasts, or have been Poisoned. This treatise, 
 written in 1198, at the command of the Sultan, and quoted 
 by Dr. Herbelot, under "Mocalat al-Hasliat," has been 
 translated into Hebrew by Eabbi Moses Ibn Tibbon, and MS. 
 of the version exists in the Library of Vienna, clii. ; and in 
 Parma, 1280. 
 
 (16) Treatise on the Causes of Maladies, written in Arabic, 
 and extant in the Bodleian. 
 
 (17) On the Podagra ; a Spanish translation exists at the 
 Escurial (Wolf, iii., xxi., b.) Steinschneider first called 
 attention to this writing, which is perhaps only a portion of 
 some other work. Oester. BL, p. 119, 1845. 
 
 On the medical works of Maimonides, see Carmoly, His- 
 toire des Medecins juifs, p. 52 53 ; Wiistenfeld, Geschichte 
 der Arabischen Aerzte, No. 198 ; Steinschneider, Medicin- 
 ische Schriften von Maimonides, in Oester. Bl. fur Lit. und 
 Kunst, 1845, No. 12 ; and Dr. A. Benish, Two Lectures on 
 the Life and Writings of Maimonides, 1847, p. 37 40. 
 
 The celebrated Mohammedan physician and theologian, 
 Abdellatif of Bagdad, who enjoyed the favour of Saladin in 
 a high degree, confessed that his wish to visit Cairo was 
 prompted by the desire to make the acquaintance there of 
 three men, among whom was Musa ben Maimun. 1 The poet 
 
 1 See Abdellatif, edition De Sacy, p. 539.
 
 138 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 and cadi, Alsaid Ibn Sina Almulk, sang of Maimuni's 
 greatness as a doctor in ecstatic verse. 1 Maimuni's reputa- 
 tion was so great that the English king, Eichard Coeur de 
 Lion, the soul of the third Crusade, wanted to appoint him 
 his physician-in-ordinary, but Maimuni refused the offer. 2 
 
 In consequence of his favour with the vizier, Maimonides 
 was appointed supreme head of all the Egyptian congre- 
 gations, and this honour descended in his family from 
 father to son and grandson. It is certain that Maimonides 
 drew no salary for this office, for nothing appeared to him 
 more discreditable and sinful than to receive payment for the 
 discharge of spiritual duties, or to degrade knowledge into a 
 money-making business. 3 He sought this prominent posi- 
 tion not for himself, but for the sake of his co-religionists, 
 in order to avert injustice from them. It was through his 
 means that the heavy yoke of persecution was removed from 
 the congregation of Yemen. When Saladin had once more 
 wrested Jerusalem from the hands of the Christians, who 
 had held it for nearly a century, he allowed the Jews to 
 settle in the city of their fathers (October, 1187) ; and from 
 all sides there streamed once more ardent sons to visit their 
 mourning and forsaken mother. 4 
 
 Enjoying a firmly established reputation, placed in most 
 favourable circumstances, and engaged in the discharge of 
 duties so congenial to a benevolent heart and powerful mind, 
 one might have expected that Maimuni would have spent his 
 latter years in happiness ; yet was his life not exempt from 
 the miseries of the common lot of man, nor from those petty 
 annoyances attendant upon merit, as shadow upon substance. 
 Habitual debility and serious illness but too frequently in- 
 terrupted the activity of a mind for which no task was too 
 arduous. He was attacked with violent controversy by 
 some Talmudists, among whom we find the names of Eabbi 
 Samuel ben Ali, the head of the college of Bagdad, and Mar 
 
 1 Graetz, iii., p. 488. 
 
 2 Alkifti, ibid, see also Weill, Les Califes, iii., p. 423. 
 
 3 See Maimuni's Commentary on Aboth, iv. 5. 
 
 4 See E. Carmoly Itineraires de la Terre Sainte, p. 119-120. Brux- 
 elles, 1847
 
 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 139 
 
 Sacharya in Aleppo, who feared the rivalry of Eabbi Joseph 
 Ibn Aknin, the favourite scholar of Maimuni, and who 
 worked with equal hostility against master and disciple. 
 Maimuni repelled all attacks that came to his notice with 
 calmness and dignity. 1 
 
 And yet amidst all these fatigues and interruptions, Mai- 
 monides found leisure to compose a religious and philosophical 
 work, "Guide to the Perplexed" (More Nebuchim, Delalat 
 al Hairin), about 1190. 2 It is divided into three parts : the 
 first contains seventy-six chapters, and treats of the various 
 synonyms, homonyms, metaphors, allegories, and similes 
 found in Scripture, and moreover comments on prophecy, 
 heaven, the universe, and angels. The second part dis- 
 courses in forty-eight chapters on God, on the celestial 
 bodies and their influence, and on the law. The third, 
 divided into eighty-four chapters, treats on the vision of 
 Ezekiel, Providence, and the reasons for the divine command- 
 ments. This treatise became of extraordinary importance, 
 not only for Judaism, but for the history of philosophy in 
 the middle ages generally. Maimonides appears at the 
 summit of his intellectual power in this work, which contains 
 the vindication of his profoundest convictions. He sought 
 to answer the question, which the human mind starts ever 
 anew, about the existence of a higher world, the destiny of 
 our being, and the imperfections and evil of the earthly 
 
 1 See the Epistle of Maimuni, directed to Rabbi Joseph Ibn Djabar, 
 edition Lichtenberg, p. 15 ; and to his disciple Rabbi Joseph Ibn Aknin, 
 p. 31. Rabbi Samuel ben AH of Bagdad had no sons, but only a 
 daughter, who was expert in the Scripture and Talmud ; see Travels of 
 Rabbi Petachya, ed. Benisch, p. 19. 
 
 2 The More Nebuchim, originally written in Arabic, was translated 
 into Hebrew during the lifetime of the author, by Rabbi Samuel Ibn 
 Tibbon, editio princeps about 1480, Lisbon, 1497. It was also translated 
 into Hebrew about the same time by Rabbi Jehuda Alcharizi, which 
 translation was first published in London by L. Schlosberg, 1851-79. 
 Justinian rendered it into Latin, Paris, 1520 ; then again by Buxtorf, 
 jun., 1629 ; into German, the first part by Fiirstenthal, Krotoschin, 1839 ; 
 the second by M. E. Stein, Vienna, 1864; and the third by Scheyer, 
 Frankfort, 1838. Part III., ch. 2649, has been translated into English 
 by Dr. Townley, London, 1827 ; Dr. M. Friedlander translated it from 
 the original into English, with annotations, 3 vols., London, 1885; the 
 original Arabic has for the first time been published with a French 
 translation by S. Munk, Paris, 1856 66. An Italian version is given 
 by D. J. Maroni, Leghorn, 1871.
 
 140 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 world. The doubts which, to the thinking Jew, clash with 
 the truth of his hereditary religion, he endeavoured to remove 
 in a persuasive manner. He, whose thoughts were ever 
 directed to the loftiest subjects, could with justice assume 
 the character of guide to the perplexed and wavering. The 
 external form of this epoch-making work makes it appear as 
 though the author elaborated for his favourite pupil, Eabbi 
 Joseph Ibn Aknin, of Fez, 1 separate treatises on important 
 points which had disquieted and tortured the latter. But it 
 was dictated by the desire to express clearly his philosophical 
 conception of the world and his views of the place which 
 Judaism finds in it, and thoroughly to analyse their mutual 
 relations. 2 
 
 Maimuni's philosophical work, being written in Arabic, 
 also exercised considerable influence beyond the Jewish 
 world. A Mohammedan wrote a searching explanation of 
 the axiom established by Maimuni to prove the existence of 
 God. 3 The chief founders of the Christian scholastic philo- 
 sophy, Albert the Great (died 1280) and Thomas Aquinas 
 (died 1274), not only used Maimuni's work, which was 
 translated into Latin at an early period, but for the first time 
 learnt from it how to reconcile the diverging tendencies of 
 belief and philosophy. 4 
 
 Maimonides made an attempt to show that the six hundred 
 and thirteen laws of the Torah, or of Judaism, tend to 
 establish a true theory as to the Deity and His relation to the 
 world, to oppose false and generally pernicious opinions, to 
 uproot incorrect but received ideas, to remove wrong and 
 violence, to accustom men to virtue, and finally to eliminate 
 perverted morals and vices. Maimonides arranged all the 
 obligations of Judaism into fourteen groups according to his 
 
 1 Concerning the life and works of Rabbi Joseph Ibn Aknin, see 
 S. Munk, Rabbi Joseph ben Jehuda, Paris, 1842 ; Steinschneider, 
 Hamazkir, xiii., p. 38 ; and Neubauer, Graetz's Monatsschrift, xxix., 
 P- 348. 
 
 2 See Graetz, History, iii., p. 492-493 ; 493 503 ; Steinschneider, 
 Allgemeine Encyclopaedic, sect. 2, vol. xxxi., p. 47, note n. 
 
 3 See S. Munk, Notice sur Joseph ben Jehuda, Paris, 1842, p. 23. 
 
 * See Annalen, 1840, no. 40. For fuller particulars see D. Kaufmann 
 in the Archiv fur Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. xi., part 3.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 141 
 
 scheme. Besides these he also recognised a group of 
 religious duties which aim at inculcating a spirit of bene- 
 ficence and compassion for the poor and helpless. 1 
 
 In the year 1191, Maimonides composed a Vindication in 
 the form of a Treatise on the Eesurrection of the Dead. 2 
 
 Maimonides wrote also : (1) Treatise on Eternal Bliss, 3 
 Pirkei ha-Hatzlacha, an esoteric teaching to the disciple to 
 whom it is directed, perhaps for his beloved disciple Rabbi 
 Joseph ben Jehuda Ibn Aknin, to whom he had also dedi- 
 cated the "Guide." 4 (2) Maamar hayichud, on the Unity of 
 God. 8 (3) Milot Higayon, on the Terminology of Logic. 
 
 Nowhere did Maimuni's ideas find a more fruitful ground, 
 and nowhere were they adopted with more readiness than in 
 the Jewish congregations of the South of France, where 
 prosperity, the free form of government, and the agitation of 
 the Albigenses against austere clericalism, had awakened a 
 taste for scientific investigation, and where Ibn Ezra, the 
 Tibbon and the Kimchi families, had scattered the seeds of 
 Jewish culture. Not only laymen, but even profound Tal- 
 mudists like Rabbi Jonathan Cohen, of Lunel, eagerly 
 watched for every word of his, and paid him homage. 7 
 
 The great veneration which the congregations of South 
 France felt for Maimuni's writings, and especially for his 
 Code, aroused against him a violent antagonist in the person 
 
 1 This exposition of the six hundred and thirteen precepts was origin- 
 ally written in Arabic and rendered into Hebrew by Moses Ibn Tibbon. 
 under the name of Sepher " ha-Mitswot," editio princeps, Constantino- 
 ple, 1517. A German translation has been made by M. Peritz. Breslau, 
 1882, and English, with the life of the author, Edinburgh, 1849. 
 
 2 Written in Arabic, translated into Hebrew by Samuel Ibn Tibbon 
 under the title of Maamar-Techiyat ha-Metim," editio princeps, Venice, 
 1546, Constantinople, 1569. 
 
 3 See Steinschneider, Die Hebr. Uebersetzungen des Mittelalters p. 
 437. It was printed for the first time, Salonica, 1567, as appendix to a 
 dictionary of terms, composed by Rabbi Menachem ben Abraham of 
 Perpignan ; translated into English by W. Bacher in the Jewish 
 Quarterly Review, vol. ix,, no. 34, p. 270 289. See, however, Graetz 
 Geschichte der Juden, vii., p. 461, and Schmiedl, Studien iiber judische 
 Religions-philosophic, p. 233. 
 
 * Bacher, ibid, p. 273. 
 
 5 Published by Steinschneider, Berlin, 1847, 
 
 6 Editio princeps, Venice, 1550 ; a Latin translation by Munster, 
 Basle, 1572 ; German by Neumann, Vienna, 1822. 
 
 7 See Responsaof Maimuni, p. 6, edition Lichtenberg.
 
 142 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 of Eabbi Abraham ben David, of Posquieres. This profound 
 Talmudist subjected Maimuni's Mishne-Torah to an un- 
 sparing criticism, and treated him in a repellent tone. He 
 reproached him for desiring to bring Talmudical authorities 
 into oblivion by reducing the Talmud to a code, and, lastly, 
 for smuggling philosophical notions into Judaism. But he 
 never treated Maimonides as an innovator ; on the contrary, 
 he did justice to his point of view and his noble aim. Eabbi 
 Abraham ben David's strictures (Hassagot) upon Maimuni's 
 work gave a great impulse to the taste for disputation of the 
 Talmudists of a later time. 
 
 The polemic of Eabbi Abraham ben David against Mai- 
 monides in no way prejudiced the latter's consideration 
 among the congregations of Provence ; he remained for 
 them an infallible authority. The chief representative of 
 Jewish-Proven9al culture, Eabbi Samuel Ibn Tibbon, wrote 
 to Maimuni to inform him that he was busying himself with 
 the rendering of the "Guide" from Arabic into Hebrew, 
 and he was longing to see the greatest man in the Jewish 
 world face to face. Ibn Tibbon thereby anticipated in part 
 a wish of Maimuni's, for the latter already contemplated 
 translating his work into Hebrew. Full of joy he replied to 
 Ibn Tibbon, and gave him some advice, how to handle so 
 difficult a theme (8 Tishri, 1199). 1 He dissuaded him, how- 
 ever, from making the perilous voyage from France to Egypt 
 on his account, as he would scarcely be able to devote to 
 him an hour of his time. He took advantage of the occasion 
 to inform him of his own over- worked condition, which 
 allowed him scarcely a moment to rest. " The Sultan lives 
 in Cairo, and I in Fostat ; the two towns lie at a distance of 
 two Sabbath journeys (about one mile and a half). With the 
 Sultan I have a difficult lot ; I must visit him daily in the 
 morning, and when he or any of his children or one of the 
 women of his harem is suffering I may not leave Cairo. 
 
 1 This letter was first published in a collection entitled " Peeir ha- 
 Dor," by Rabbi Mordecai Tama, Amsterdam, 1765 ; again in Lichten- 
 berg's edition, p. 2729. A portion of it, rendered into English by 
 E. H. Lindo, in his History of the Jews of Spain, p. 62 ; and, with elabo- 
 rate notes, by Dr. H. Adler, Chief Rabbi, in the Miscellany of Hebrew 
 Literature, i., p. 219 228; and by I. Abrahams, Jewish Life, p. 235.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 143 
 
 Even when nothing particular happens, I cannot come home 
 till after mid-day. When I enter my house, dying of hunger, 
 I find the hall thronged with people Jews, Mohammedans, 
 illustrious and otherwise, friends and foes, a motley crowd 
 who await my advice as a physician. There scarcely remains 
 time for me to alight from my horse, wash myself, and take 
 some refreshment. Thus it continues till night, and then, 
 worn out with weakness, I must retire to bed. Only on 
 Sabbath have I time to occupy myself with the congregation 
 and with religion. I am accustomed on this day to dispose 
 of the affairs of the community for the following week and to 
 hold a discourse. Thus my days glide away." 1 
 
 Maimonides had now attained his seventieth year and the 
 time had come when he was to complete his earthly pilgrim- 
 age (20 Tebet, 1204), deplored by many congregations 
 throughout the whole globe. His earthly frame was con- 
 veyed to Tiberias. There is a legend concerning the funeral 
 of Maimonides to this effect : " While the remains of Mai- 
 monides were being removed, a band of robbers rushed into 
 the midst of the disciples who formed the funeral procession 
 and tried to throw into the sea the precious remains which 
 they attended. But a miracle was wrought ; thirty of those 
 sacrilegious robbers vainly tried to lift up the coffin, and, 
 soon tired of their impotence, they were suddenly struck with 
 
 1 Graetz, iii., p. 506507. Concerning Maimonides' correspondence 
 on rabbinical and other subjects, see Igg'rot ha-Rambam. Constanti- 
 nople, 1522 ; Peeir ha-Dor, Amsterdam, 1765 ; Lichtenberg's collection 
 of Maimonides' letters and smaller works, Leipzig, 1859 ; Dibrei Chacha- 
 mim, Metz, 1849 ; Taam Zkeinim, Frankfort, 1855 ; Chemda Genuza, 
 by Z. H. Edelmann, Konigsberg, 1856. A portion of it has been trans- 
 lated into Latin by J. Buxtorf. in his Institutio Epistolaris, Basle, 1629. 
 Maimonides' Testament, addressed to his son, Rabbi Abraham, pub- 
 lished by M. Steinschneider, Berlin, 1842 ; and by Z. H. Edelmann. 
 under the title Derech Tobim, London, 1852. For references on the life 
 of Maimonides, see M. Berr, Notice sur Maimonide, Paris, 1815; Munk, 
 Notice sur Joseph ben Jehuda, Paris, 1842 ; Carmoly in Univers 
 Israelite, 1850, May and June; Peter Beer, Leben undWirkendes Rabbi 
 Moses ben Maimon, Prague, 1834 ; Derenburg, Wissensch. Zeitschrift, 
 i., p 97 123, 210 224, 414 427, Frankfort. 1835 ; A. Kohn Israelit. 
 Annalen, 1839, no. 35 36; M. Joel, Breslau, 1859; J. Perles, Breslau, 
 1875; A Jaraczewski, Halle, 1865; Rosin, Breslau, 1876; M Wolff, 
 Leipzig, 1863; Falkenheim, Konigsberg, 1882; Ad. Frank, Die. de 
 science philosophique ; and Neubauer, Documents inedits sur Maimo- 
 nides et David Alroi, Revue des etudes juives, no. 8, p. 173 191.
 
 144 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 terror, and immediately restored to the Israelites their pre- 
 cious relics, saying : ' We plainly see that he whom you 
 carry is a divine man whom God protects ; go in peace, and 
 accomplish your holy mission.' M1 
 
 1 A. Zacuti, Juchassin, edition H. Filipowski, p. 220, London, 1857. 
 Concerning Joseph Ibn Abdallah Abul-Maali, nephew of Rabbi Moses 
 Maimonides, see Revue des etudes juives, no. 13, p, 152.
 
 CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 RABBI MOSES MAIMONIDES AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 
 (CONTINUED). 
 
 MAIMONIDES left only one son, Eabbi Abraham, who 
 inherited his father's character, his mildness, his 
 sincere piety, his medical knowledge, his place as physician- 
 in-ordinary, and his dignity as chief 1 (Nagid) of the Egyptian 
 community. 
 
 Eabbi Abraham Maimonides (11851254), who was likewise 
 a Talmudical scholar, defended the learning of his father with 
 Talmudical weapons, and delivered rabbinical judgments. 
 He was also well versed in philosophy, and composed a work 
 in this spirit to reconcile the Agada with the philosophical 
 ideas of the time. He was skilled in medicine, was physician- 
 in-ordinary to the Sultan Alkamel a brother of Saladin 
 and presided over the hospital of Cairo, together with the 
 physician and Arabian historian, Ibn Abi Osaibiya. 2 
 
 Maimuni's death not only produced a gap and brought 
 about a standstill in the spiritual aspirations of the Jews, 
 
 1 His son, Rabbi David Maimuni (12231300), who, like his father, 
 was the prince over all the congregations in Egypt, wrote a Midrash on 
 the Pentateuch and on the Haftarot. See Abba Mari in Minchat Kenaot, 
 p. 88 ; see, however, S Munk, Annalen, iii. 
 
 2 Rabbi Abraham Maimuni wrote : (i) A Commentary on the Penta- 
 teuch. On Genesis and Exodus are preserved MS. in the Bodleian 
 Library. (2) Kitab el Kafaya. an extensive exposition of the Jewish 
 Law, of the Creed and Ethics, in the order of his father's Mishne- 
 Torah ; 3 volumes MSS. kept in the same library. A portion of it was 
 published under the title of " Maamar al Derashot," treatise on the 
 explanations, in Kerem Chemed, ii., p. 716, and in Lichtenberg's col- 
 lection, p. 40 43. (3) Responsa, directed to Rabbi Daniel of Babylon, 
 published by B. Goldberg, under the title of Birkat Abraham, Lyck, 
 1859. (4) Maase Nissim, correspondence of Rabbi Abraham to the 
 same Rabbi Daniel, edited by B. Goldberg, Paris, 1867. (5) Milchamot 
 Hashem, letter apologetic on the attack of his father's More-Nebuchim, 
 published Vilna, 1821, and in Lichtenberg's collection, p. 15 21. In 
 his Birkat Abraham, ch. 8 and 22, he quotes his commentary on the 
 treatise Pesachim. Concerning his life and works see Steinschneider, 
 Jewish Literature, p. 91. See Kerem Chemed, v., p. i 25. 
 
 10
 
 146 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 but deprived them of a dignified and mighty leader, who 
 had been able to unite under one standard a people scattered 
 all over the universe. To him the congregations in the East 
 and West freely submitted. 1 He had prudent counsel for 
 every contingency, but after his departure the Jews were 
 without a leader and Judaism without a guide. 
 
 The opposition to his philosophical doctrines had begun 
 already duiing Maimonides' life, but he responded only 
 gently and modestly. A young, intellectual, and learned 
 man, Eabbi Meir ben Todros Halevi Abulafia, of Toledo 
 (1180 1244), had at an early period already shown signs of 
 his religious objections to Maimuni's theory in a missive to 
 the wise men of Lunel, which was intended for publication. 2 
 He made, however, but little impression by this letter. 
 Instead of finding supporters, Rabbi Meir met with a sharp 
 rebuff from Eabbi Aaron ben Meshullam, of Lunel, who was 
 learned in science and the Talmud, and a warm adherent of 
 Maimuni. He charged him with presumption, in that he, 
 who was so unripe in years and wisdom, should dare to pass 
 an opinion on the greatest man of his time. 3 Amongst his 
 opponents of the North French Talmudists we find the name 
 of Eabbi Samson, of Sens, so long as he remained in his 
 native land. 4 
 
 The hostility against Maimonides appeared also in the 
 East, but not so strongly. A disciple of that Eabbi Samuel 
 ben AH, who had conducted himself so maliciously against 
 the sage of Fostat, named Eabbi Daniel ben Saadiah, a learned 
 Talmudist, had settled in Damascus, and was animated by 
 the same spirit as his master against the Maimunist ten- 
 dency, conceiving it to be his duty to pursue it with his 
 
 1 Graetz, iii., p. 510 511. 
 
 2 Kitab el-Reseil, p. i 25, Paris, 1871. 
 
 3 Ibid, p. 25 40. 
 
 4 See Kitab el-Reseil, p. 107 137. Abulafia wrote : - (i) Commentary 
 on the treatise Baba Batra, published Salonica, 1785. (2) On the 
 treatise Sanhedrin, Salonica, 1798. (3) Lifnai we-Lifnim, a Cabalisti- 
 cal work, a portion of which has been published by Rittangel, Amster- 
 dam, 1662. (4) Masoret Seiyag Lattorah, on the Masorah, published 
 Florence, 1750, and in Berlin, 1761. (5) A letter to Rabbi Moses Nach- 
 manides, published Constantinople, 1522, and in Lichtenberg's edition, 
 iii., p. 6. (6) Kitab el-Reseil, edited by J. Brill. Paris, 1871. See Zunz, 
 Zur Geschichte, p. 432-433.
 
 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 147 
 
 hostility. Maimuni's admirers, however, were so exaspera- 
 ted at these attacks of Eabbi Daniel that Eabbi Joseph, 
 Maimuni's pupil, wanted to have his opponent visited with 
 severe punishment. He urged Eabbi Abraham Maimon to 
 pass sentence of excommunication on Eabbi Daniel. Eabbi 
 Abraham, however, who had inherited his father's love of 
 justice and disinterestedness, would not hear of it. He 
 expressed himself on the subject with meritorious impartiality. 
 He did not think it right to excommunicate Eabbi Daniel, 
 whom he considered a religious man of refined belief, who 
 had only made a mistake. Maimuni's admirers, and espe- 
 cially Eabbi Joseph, were not, however, disposed to take the 
 same view. They laboured to induce the exilarch, Eabbi 
 David of Mosul, to exclude from the community the blameless 
 and esteemed scholar of Damascus until he humbly recanted 
 his strictures upon Maimuni. Eabbi Daniel was excom- 
 municated and died in grief. From this time all opposition 
 to Maimuni became silent for a long time in the East. 
 
 Very different was the state of affairs in Europe, and 
 especially in the south of France and Spain. Here Maimuni's 
 theories had taken root and dominated the men of learning 
 and most of the influential leaders of congregations ; hence- 
 forth they regarded the Bible and Talmud only in the 
 Maimunist light. 
 
 The tocsin of alarm was sounded at Montpellier against 
 the Maimonists by Eabbi Solomon ben Abraham, a distin- 
 guished Talmudic scholar. In his endeavours he was 
 zealously assisted by his two disciples, Eabbi Jonah ben 
 Abraham Gerundi (the elder), of Gerona, 1 and Eabbi David 
 ben Saul. These three pronounced the ban (at the beginning 
 of 1232) against all those who read Maimuni's compositions, 
 
 1 He wrote : (i) A commentary on the Alfasi's Talmudical decisions, 
 treatise Berachot, published in the editions of Alfasi. (2) Sepher 
 Issur-we-Hetter-ha-Aruch, a work on prohibited and lawful things, 
 editio princeps, Ferrara, 1555. (3) Dat ha-Nashim, ordinances con- 
 cerning the women, edited Cracow, 1609. (4) Commentary on the 
 treatise Aboth, published by S. Dolitzki, Altona-Berlin, 1848. (5) 
 Shaare Teshuba, the Gates of Repentance, editio princeps, Fano, 1505. 
 
 (6) Sepher ha-Yera, on the Fear of God, editio princeps, Fano. 1505. 
 
 (7) A commentary on Proverbs, MS. preserved in Michael's Library, 
 no. 96. See Rabbi Bechay ben Asher's Preface to his commentary on 
 the Pentateuch.
 
 148 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 especially the philosophical parts, More and Madda. Eabbi 
 Solomon and his allies explained the reasons for their 
 sentence of excommunication in a missive. 
 
 This excommunication, the proscription of science and 
 defamation of Maimuni, excited the most violent indignation 
 of his followers. It seemed to them an unheard of audacity, 
 an unparalleled impudence. The three chief congregations 
 of Provence Lunel, Beziers, and Narbonne in which the 
 Maimunists were in the "ascendency, rose in arms against 
 Rabbi Solomon, and on their side excommunicated him and 
 his two disciples, and hastened to send a missive to the other 
 congregations of Provence, bidding them unite in rescuing the 
 honour of the great Moses. The flame of discord grew more 
 violent, and spread over the congregations of Provence, 
 Catalonia, Aragon, and Castile. 
 
 Two men had a share in this passionate quarrel whose 
 names are celebrated in Jewish literature, Eabbi David 
 Kimchi and Eabbi Moses Nachmanides. 
 
 The former, already an old man and at the zenith of his 
 fame as a grammarian and expositor of the Bible, belonged 
 to the enthusiastic admirers of Maimonides. Old and weak 
 as he was, he nevertheless did not hesitate to undertake a 
 journey to Spain, in order personally to bring the congrega- 
 tions of that country over to the side of the Provencals against 
 Eabbi Solomon of Montpellier. When he arrived at Avila, 
 he became so ill that he had to abandon the journey, but on 
 his bed of sickness wrote with trembling hand, through his 
 nephew, to the chief representative of the Toledo congrega- 
 tion, Eabbi Jehuda Ibn Alfachar. 1 He blamed him for his 
 obstinate silence in an affair which stirred the French and 
 Spanish communities so deeply, and importuned him to per- 
 suade his congregation to make common cause with the 
 Maimonists. Alfachar at first would not reply to Kimchi at 
 all, but ultimately deciding to do so, he treated him in so 
 repellent a manner that the Maimonists, who were expecting 
 the support of Toledo, were quite disconcerted at the result. 2 
 
 1 Cf. Lichtenberg's collection, iii., p. i 2. 
 
 2 Ibid, 14.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 149 
 
 The other man of commanding influence in this struggle, 
 Eabbi Moses ben Nachman, or Nachmanides (Eamban) 
 Gerundi, likewise issued a circular, in which he implored 
 the principal rabbis of Aragon, Navarre, and Castile to de- 
 sist from a dispute which had lasted so long and caused so 
 much evil. 1 Nachmanides was a great admirer of Maimonides, 
 whose virtues and great merits in the service of Judaism he 
 describes in his letter to the French rabbis. 9 
 
 Before proceeding to speak of the course of this struggle, 
 let us first cast a glance at the life and work of Nachmanides. 
 
 Eabbi Moses ben Nachman, or Bonastruc de Portas, as he 
 was called by his fellow-countrymen, or Nachmanides, as 
 he is commonly called now, was born in Gerona about the 
 year 1195. s He was initiated by Eabbi Judah ben Yakar, 
 the commentator of the prayers, 4 and by Eabbi Meir ben 
 Nathan of Trinquintaines. 5 
 
 So extraordinary was his proficiency in the Biblical and 
 Talmudical writings, that he wrote an elaborate Treatise on 
 the Eights of Primogeniture and Vows, 6 when he was scarcely 
 fifteen years of age (1210). In this work he shows such an 
 astounding intimacy with the Talmud that no one would 
 recognise it as the production of a youth. It bears the stamp 
 of complete maturity, shows a thorough command of the 
 subject, and reveals profound acumen. Not less splendid in 
 its way was his second youthful work, in which he sought 
 to justify Alfasi's Talmudical decisions in respect of the 
 tractate dealing with the civil and marriage laws against the 
 attack of Eabbi Zerachyah Halevi Gerundi. 7 Nachmanides 
 had already commented upon several Talmudical tractates, 
 and continued this labour indefatigably till he had furnished 
 the greatest portion of the Talmud with explanations (chidu- 
 shim). 8 Nachmanides' merits are universally acknowledged 
 
 1 Ibid, p. 4 7. 
 
 2 Ibid, p. 8 ii. 
 
 3 S. Schechter, Studies in Judaism, p. 121. 
 
 4 See Nachmanides' Glosses on the treatise Baba Batra, 36 b 
 
 5 See his Glosses on the treatise Shebuoth, 3y a - . 
 
 6 Published in the editions of the Talmud. 
 
 7 Edited under the title of Milchamot Hashem in the editions of the 
 Alfasi. 
 
 8 See Benjacob's Ozar ha-Sepharim, p. 180, nos. 394 404, Vilna, 1880.
 
 150 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 " whose words were held in Catalonia in almost as high 
 authority as the Scriptures." 1 
 
 He delivered a discourse in Saragossa, before James I., 
 King of Aragon, and the magnates of the church and state, 
 in defence of Judaism. 2 He was a profound philosopher, 
 cabalist, and physician ; and particularly famed for his 
 abilities in the obstetric art. 8 
 
 His reputation as a learned doctor in the law led to his 
 being nominated on the part of the Jews to the public dis- 
 putation with Fr. Pablo Christiani, a converted Jew, which 
 lasted four days (July 20-23, 1263), by the decree of James I., 
 King of Aragon. The conference took place at Barcelona, 
 in the presence of the king and court. The king was so 
 pleased with his conduct and talents that he presented him 
 with 300 crowns. Christiani published a false version of 
 the controversy, and Nachmanides, in self-defence, issued a 
 truthful statement of the affair. Nachmanides' story must 
 have proved unpleasant reading for his opponents, for it led 
 to his banishment from Spain.* Whereupon the septua- 
 genarian Eabbi Moses Nachmanides had to leave (1266) his 
 native place, his two sons, his college with numerous disciples, 
 and his friends, and betake himself to the Holy Land, which 
 he reached August 12, 1267. In Palestine Nachmanides com- 
 pleted and revised his stupendous Commentary on the Pen- 
 tateuch, which he had begun nearly twenty years before. 8 
 
 In a letter to his son he gives an account of the feelings 
 excited by his residence in that country. " My son Nach- 
 
 1 See Rabbi Isaac bar Sheshet, ch. 415. 
 
 2 This remarkable Address was first published 1582, Constantinople, 
 then in Prague, 1600 ; but the best edition with corrections and notes 
 is by Dr. Jellinek, Leipzig, 1853 ; and Vienna, 1872. 
 
 3 See Rabbi Solomon ben Adereth, Responsa, ch. 120. 
 
 * It was first published with a Latin translation by Wagenseil, in his 
 Tela Igne Satanae, Altorf, 1681 . Then it was published in the collection 
 of polemical writings, entitled Milchemet Choba, Constantinople, 1710, 
 and again by M. Steinschneider, Berlin, 1860, to which are added 
 learned notes by the editor, and Nachmani's exposition of Is. liii. See 
 Loeb, Revue des etudes juives, xv., i seq., and xviii. 52 ; and Neubauer's 
 Essay on Jewish Controversy in the Expositor, vol. vii., p. 98 seq. 
 
 5 The editio princeps of this commentary was printed before 1480, 
 then in Lisbon, 1489; Naples, 1490; Pesaro, 1514; Salonica, 1521, and 
 many other editions. His Commentary on Job is published in the Rab- 
 binical Bibles
 
 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 151 
 
 man," he writes, " may the Lord bless you and grant you to 
 see the peace of Jerusalem, and your children's children. I 
 date this letter from Jerusalem, the Holy City. I give 
 thanks and praise to the God of my salvation that I was 
 enabled to reach this place in safety on the ninth of the 
 month Elul. I have remained here till now, the day follow- 
 ing the great Day of Atonement. My plan is to visit Hebron, 
 to prostrate myself upon the sepulchres of our fathers, and 
 there to prepare my own tomb. What can I say of this 
 country ? Great is its desolation and its sterility. The more 
 holy the spot, the more completely is it abandoned. Jerusalem 
 is the most degraded of all Judea more so than Galilee. 
 Yet even in its desolation it is a blessed country. The city 
 contains 2000 inhabitants, 300 of whom are Christians, who 
 have escaped the sword of the sultan. Since the invasion of 
 the Tartars, no Jews have been settled here. Only two 
 brothers, dyers by trade, are Jews. At their house we 
 assembled, to the number of ten, and celebrated the Sabbath 
 with prayers. We have now succeded in procuring a deserted 
 house, with marble pillars and a fine vaulted roof, and have 
 transformed it into a synagogue. The city has, properly 
 speaking, no government, and he that wishes may take 
 possession of the parts that are unoccupied. We have con- 
 tributed the needful expense to ensure possession of the 
 house for the purpose I mentioned. We have also pro- 
 cured from Sichem some volumes of the law, which had 
 been concealed there at the time of the Tartar invasion. 
 Thus we shall have a synagogue, and shall pray here. Men 
 and women flock from all parts to Jerusalem from Aleppo, 
 Damascus, and all parts of the country to behold the 
 sanctuary and to weep. May He who has permitted me to 
 see Jerusalem in her desolation grant, that we may see her 
 restored, rebuilt, and filled with the glory of the Lord. May 
 you, my son, see the welfare of Jerusalem and be witness of 
 the consolation of Zion ! " 
 
 1 Published at the end of his Sepher Torat ha-Adam, Warsaw, 1841, 
 p. 69. A German translation is given by M. Sachs, Religiose Poesie, 
 p. 324325 ; an English version, in Da Costa, Israel and the Gentiles, 
 p. 299 301 ; and by S. Schechter, Studies in Judaism, p. 131 132. 
 Another letter of Nachmanides, published in the appendix to his Com- 
 mentary on the Pentateuch, Venice, 1545 ; translated by S. Schecter in 
 his Studies, p. 133. The same author translated another of Nachmanides' 
 letters from the Holy Land to his son; see Studies, p. 134 171.
 
 152 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 His work on mourning rites, burial customs, and similar 
 topics, entitled Torat ha-Adam, the Law of Man, 1 gained the 
 esteem of succeeding generations. In the preface he says : 
 " My son, be not persuaded by certain propositions of the 
 great philosophers, who endeavour to harden our hearts and 
 to deaden our sensations by their idle comfort, which consists 
 in denying the past and despairing of the future. One of 
 them has even declared that there is nothing in the world 
 over the loss of which it is worth crying, and the possession 
 of which would justify joy. This is an heretical view. Our 
 perfect Torah bids us to be joyful in the day of prosperity 
 and to shed tears in the day of misfortune. It in no way 
 forbids crying or demands of us to suppress our grief. On 
 the contrary, the Torah suggests to us that to mourn over 
 heavy losses is equivalent to a service of God, leading us, as 
 it does, to reflect on our end and ponder over our destiny." 2 
 
 As a poet, he is chiefly famed for his magnificent hymns, 
 used by many of the synagogues in the service for the solemn 
 days of the year. 8 
 
 Meanwhile Eabbi Solomon of Montpellier had not remained 
 inactive. Finding that the south was not favourable to his 
 anathema and that the partizans of the " More" were con- 
 
 1 Editio princeps, Constantinople, 1519, Venice, 1595, Warsaw, 1841 
 and 1876. 
 
 2 Translated into English by S. Schechter, Studies, p. 139 140. 
 
 3 See Zunz, Synagogale Poesie, p. 478 ; Landshut Amude ha-Aboda, 
 p. 234 239; Luzzato, Ozar Nechmad, ii. 27. Nachmanides wrote also : 
 
 (1) Commentary on the Sepher Jecira, editio princeps, Mantua, 1562. 
 
 (2) Haeumna we-ha Bitachon, incorporated and first published in the 
 book " Arzei Lebanon," Venice, 1601, Giov. di Gara; cf. J. Reifmann, 
 Hammagid, 1861, p. 222. (3) Responsa. editio princeps, Venice, 1523. 
 (4) Keitz ha Geulah, the end of the Redemption which is extant in the 
 British Museum, MS. Add. 26,894. (5) Annotations on Maimuni's Sepher 
 ha-Mitzwot, editio princeps, Constantinople, 1510. (6) Sepher ha-Zakut, 
 justifying Alfasi's Talmud ical decisions against the attacks of Rabbi 
 Abraham ben David on the three treatises, Yebamoth, Ketuboth, and 
 Gittin, was first published in A. Meldola's Shibah Einaim, Leghorn, 
 I 745- (?) An Epistle on the Sanctity of Marriage, Igeret ha-Kodesh, 
 editio princeps, Rome. 1546. (8) Commentary on the Song of Songs, 
 which is ascribed to him, belongs to his teacher, Rabbi Ezra, was first 
 published Altona, 1765. (9) Shoshan Sodot, the Lilac of Mysteries, a 
 cabalistical work, editio princeps, Koretz, 1784. (10) A Hymn of 
 Nachmanides on the Day of Atonement, an English translation by 
 Mrs. Henry Lucas, Studies, p. 165 166. (u) A Sermon for the New 
 Year, ed. by H. Berliner, Libanon, v., 564, and another sermon by 
 Schorr, Hechaluz, xx. 13.
 
 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 153 
 
 tinually gaining ground and increasing in numbers and 
 influence, he, in order to check their progress, implored the 
 aid of the Catholic clergy, and called upon them to put a 
 stop to the spread of a heresy which sapped alike the funda- 
 mental truths of both creeds. The Dominicans and Fran- 
 ciscans did not wait to be invited twice to interfere. The 
 Papal Cardinal Legate, who was of the same fanatical dis- 
 position as Gregory IX., promptly took up the matter. 
 Maimonides' works, at least in Montpellier, were hunted up 
 in the Jewish houses and publicly burnt. In Paris also 
 Maimonides' antagonists copied the example of the Mont- 
 pellerians and burnt his works. 
 
 These proceedings, as was natural, excited the horror of 
 all the Jews on both sides of the Pyrenees. Rabbi Solomon 
 and his partizans were assailed with general condemnation. 
 Rabbi Abraham ben Chasdai of Barcelona, an enthusiastic 
 admirer of Maimonides, who had already censured Rabbi 
 Jehuda Alfachar for his insulting treatment of Kimchi and 
 for his championing the cause of Rabbi Solomon, 1 together 
 with his brother, despatched a missive denouncing Rabbi 
 Solomon's action in unmeasured terms to the communities 
 of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Leon. 2 When Kimchi, who 
 was already in Burgos on his journey home, heard of this 
 affair he inquired of Alfachar whether he still thought of 
 keeping the informer and traitor under his protection. Rabbi 
 Meir Abulafia was deeply abashed, and remained silent. The 
 
 1 See Lichtenberg's collection, iii., p 78. 
 
 2 Rabbi Abraham ben Chasdai, of Barcelona, left the following learned 
 works : (i) Sepher ha-Tappuach, the Apple, from the Arabic, con- 
 taining numerous moral sayings and sentences of philosophers, editio 
 princeps, Venice, 1519 ; a Latin version is given by Manfred, the son of 
 the Emperor Frederick II. ; see Rev. Dr. Adler, Miscellany of Hebrew 
 Literature, 1872, p. 225. (2) Sepher ha-Nephesh, an imaginary dis- 
 course of Galen with his disciples, translated from Greek into Arabic ; 
 Rabbi Jehuda Charizi rendered it into Hebrew, editio princeps, Venice, 
 1519 ; and with notes by Dr. Jellinek, Leipzig, 1852. (3) Sepher 
 Mooznei Tsedek, the Just Balances, a moral work of Algazali, rendered 
 from Arabic into Hebrew, published by Goldenthal, Leipzig, 1839; a 
 German translation by J. Musen, Lemberg, 1873. (4) Ben ha-Melech 
 we ha-Nazir, the Prince and the Nazirite, a moral dialogue between a 
 worldly-minded and a penitent man, translated from Arabic, editio 
 princeps, Constantinople, 1508. See Veislovitz, Prinz und Derwisch, 
 and M. Steinschneider, Jahrbuch fur Israeliten, von I. Busch, iv. 
 p. 221, v. 335, Vienna, 1845-6.
 
 154 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 rabbis of Saragossa now issued a synodal epistle, a kind of 
 apology in defence of the writings impugned and of the 
 calumniated character of Maimonides, whose learning and 
 piety they extolled. This epistle was accompanied by a 
 private letter of a similar tenor, written by Eabbi Bechay, 
 chief of the college. 1 The documents were circulated among 
 the congregations of Aragon, and produced the desired effect. 
 The informers, now without any Jewish support, were also 
 abandoned by their Christian party, and a cruel mutilation 
 (the cutting out of the tongue) inflicted on the slandering 
 organ at the command of those who had ordered the burning 
 of the books, was to expiate the crime of calumny. 2 
 
 By public opinion Rabbi Solomon and the cause he repre- 
 sented were already condemned. Eabbi Jonah Gerundi 
 publicly confessed his sincere repentance in the synagogue, 
 and announced his intention of making a pilgrimage to the 
 grave of Maimonides, and there, veiled in mourning, of pros- 
 trating himself and imploring the pardon of this great and 
 pious man in the presence of ten persons. For this purpose he 
 set out on his journey, left Paris, and arrived at Montpellier, 
 where he also made public confession of his remorse for his 
 procedure against Maimonides. 8 This act reconciled the 
 minds of the people. His opponents cast aside all their feel- 
 ings of rancour against him, and received him as a brother. 
 In . his discourses he repeatedly mentioned the name of 
 Maimuni with the respect due to that of a holy man. This 
 conversion possessed so much the greater importance since 
 Eabbi Jonah was a rabbinical authority and the author of 
 several Talmudical works, which were held in high estima- 
 tion. The fame of his great piety and morality brought him 
 to the notice of James I., of Aragon, who commanded him to 
 write a work to instruct man in the duties of religion and 
 piety, which he did, under the title of " On the Fear of God. 4 " 
 He died and was buried at Toledo (Marcheshvan, 1263) . 6 
 
 1 Ibid, p. 56. 
 
 2 Ibid, p. 17, and the letter of Rabbi Hillel of Verona, p. 13 15, in 
 the same collection ; see also Chemda Genuza, p. xxiv., note 3. 
 
 3 See the Epistle of Rabbi Hillel of Verona, in Lichtenberg's collection, 
 iii., p. 1315. 
 
 4 See Briill, Jahrbuch, 1883, p. 83. 
 
 5 See Rabbi Solomon Duran, Responsa, ch. 291, Leghorn, 1742.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 155 
 
 For the time the dispute was settled, yet the flame of 
 discord was not entirely extinguished. Seventy years after, 
 it again broke forth at Montpellier, when Eabbi Abba Mari 
 ben Moses of Lunel, surnamed En Doran Astruc de Lunel, 
 author of the book Minchat Kenaoth, 1 sent circulars to many 
 congregations, especially to Eabbi Solomon ben Adret, 2 for 
 the purpose of obtaining their concurrence in the prohibition 
 of the study of philosophy. His endeavours were successful, 
 and the application to the study of philosophy was interdicted 
 for the next fifty years to persons under twenty-five. 
 
 Amongst poets worthy of record at this period were Eabbi 
 Jehuda Charizi, Eabbi Joseph Ibn Sahara, Eabbi Jehuda ben 
 Isaac Ibn Sabbatai and Eabbi Isaac ben Solomon Ibn Sahula. 
 
 Eabbi Jehuda ben Solomon Charizi lived in Spain, 1170 
 1230. He travelled extensively in the south of Europe, 
 Greece, Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Babylonia, and laboured 
 as an author, being a translator and poet of the first order. 
 Besides his translation of Maimuni's works, he rendered 
 selections from the Greek philosophers and also from the 
 Arabic of Honein bar Isaac into Hebrew, 3 under the title of 
 Musarei ha-Philosophim ; he likewise translated the De 
 Anima from Galen under the title Sepher Hanephesh ; 4 com- 
 posed Eefuot ha-Geviya, a didactic poem on healing and medi- 
 cine ; 6 and translated Igeret ha-Musar, Epistle on Morality, 
 from the Arabic of Ali Ibn Eodhwan. But the true fame of 
 Charizi rests on his own poetical works. His principal work, 
 Tachkemoni, 7 is not exactly a translation or imitation of 
 
 1 (i) Containing a collection of letters and documents relating to the 
 controversy going on at that time among the rabbis on the study of 
 philosophy; (z) Sepher Hayareyach, on the same topic; and (3) A 
 treatise on the Articles of Faith, Presburg, 1838. See Neubauer 
 Archives des missions scientifiques, 3 e serie, t. i., p. 572; Saige, les 
 Juifs du Languedoc, p. 108 112 ; and Les Rabbins frangais, p. 647. 
 
 2 See Perles, Rabbi Solomon ben Adereth, p. 15, 1868. 
 
 3 Editio princeps, Riva di Trento, 1562, again Luneville, 1807, and 
 Frankfort, 1896, by Lowenthal. 
 
 * Editio princeps, Venice, 1519, and with notes by Dr. Jellinek, 
 Leipzig, 1852. 
 
 5 Editio princeps, Venice, 1519. 
 
 6 Editio princeps, Riva di Trento, 1560 ; again in Benjacob's Debarim 
 Attikim, i., Leipzig, 1844. 
 
 7 Has been published, Constantinople, 1540; Amsterdam, 1720; 
 Vienna. 1854; and at Gottingen, 1883, by P. de Lagarde, contains fifty 
 sections, partly prose and partly verse, in the form of dialogues and
 
 156 THE CBLEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Hariri, though written in the style of the Arabian poet. The 
 author describes human life in a multitude of its phases, re- 
 lates his own adventures as a traveller, and takes a critical 
 survey of Hebrew poetry. The poem is quite a panorama, 
 and abounds with picturesque scenery and wise disquisitions. 
 In the eighteenth section of the Tachkemoni he gives precepts 
 on the art of versification. He recommends in the first 
 place, purity and severity of diction, not overgrown with a 
 mixture of strange weeds, for which he blames the Grecian- 
 Jewish poets ; regularity in versification ; unity and utility 
 in the choice of a subject, and the manner of treating it ; 
 lastly, clearness of expression, "which is not to be found 
 among the French Jews, who need a commentator to explain 
 their works." He desires the poet "not to publish imme- 
 diately to the world the fruit of his talents, lest it should 
 prove abortive ; ' ' neither must he give all he has to the 
 public, but only the best. " Lastly he must be popular in 
 his language, and not write only for the learned, like Eabbi 
 Solomon, who pleases only the latter, while ordinary readers 
 cannot understand him." 1 
 
 The following is the expression of Charizi on Eabbi Jehuda 
 Halevi : ' ' The poetry of Eabbi Jehuda the Levite is like 
 a diadem on the head of the synagogue, and a necklace 
 of pearls around its neck ; it is the pillar of the temple of 
 poetry ; he is the man armed with a lance, who overthrows 
 all the giants of the art ; his songs take away courage from 
 the prudent ; he has exhausted the storehouse, he has 
 carried off precious spoil ; he is gone out and has closed the 
 door after him, so that none may enter. All the poets who 
 follow him have his words in their mouth he rends the 
 heart, he takes possession of it by his songs of supplication ; 
 his lays of love are gentle as the dew, yet fervent as the 
 'burning coal. In his letters and his writings all poetry is 
 contained." 2 
 
 discourses on the most varied subjects. Portions of this deserving work 
 have been translated into Latin by Ure, London, 1772; into German 
 by Kaempf, Berlin, 1845 ; Prague, 1885 ; Dukes' Ehrensaulen and 
 Delitzsch, Zur Geschichte der jud. Poesie, Leipzig, 1836; into French 
 by De Sacy, Extrait du Sepher Tachkemoni, Paris 1833; and Carmoli, 
 Revue Oriental, Hi., 1843, 1844. 
 
 1 Tachkemoni, edition Vienna, 1854, p. 31 32. 
 
 2 Tachkemoni, edition Vienna, p. 7 b -
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 157 
 
 Charizi wrote also the Machberet Ittiel, an adaptation in 
 Hebrew from the Makamen of the Arabian poet Hariri. 1 
 
 Eabbi Joseph Ibn Sabara of Barcelona (1200), composed 
 poetry in an exactly similar manner to Charizi in his Tachke- 
 moni. Ibn Sabara wrote an interesting and attractive piece 
 of Hebrew^ literature under the name of Sepher Shaashuim, 
 the Sources of Delight. 2 
 
 The third poet of this class, Eabbi Jehuda Ibn Sabbatai of 
 Burgos, was considered by Charizi himself to be one of the 
 best masters of the art at that time. He composed a dialogue, 
 "Between Wisdom and Riches," 3 and a satirical romance 
 under the title, " The Women-hater." 4 
 
 And finally the fabulist Eabbi Isaac ben Solomon Ibn 
 Sahula, of Guadalaxara (1244 1298). He has left us a 
 pleasing volume of moral fables and apologues, under the 
 title of Mashal ha-Kadmoni, Fables of Ancient Times. 5 
 
 About the same time (1265 1280) the distinguished gram- 
 marian, lexicographer and commentator, Eabbi Tanchum ben 
 Joseph Joshua Jerushalmi, from Jerusalem, wrote a com- 
 mentary in Arabic on the whole Scripture. 6 
 
 1 Of the fifty Makamen (Cantos, or "Gates"), twenty-seven are 
 extant and preserved in the National Library of Paris. The third may 
 be found in De Sacy's Seances de Hariri, Paris, 1822 and in Dukes' 
 Ehrensaulen ; and the eighteenth in German, in Zedner's Auswahl 
 historischer Stiicke, p. 67. Prof. Chenery edited the Machberet Ittiel, 
 with an introduction. On the life and works of Charizi, see Krafft, 
 Jiidische Sagen und Dichtungen, p. 206; Th. Chenery, London, 1872; 
 Munk, Journal Asiatique, t. xiv., p. 540. Dukes', Altona, 1879 ; Kaempf, 
 Leben Charizis, Berlin, 1845; Steinschneider, Manna, p. 109; Cat. 
 Bodl., 2302 ; Z. d. M. G., ix. 838. 
 
 2 Editio princeps, Constantinople, 1517, by Isaac Ekrish, and with a 
 preface on the life and works of Ibn Sabara by S. Sachs, Paris, 1866; 
 See I. Abrahams, in ihe Jewish Quarterly Review, vi., and Steinschneider, 
 Catal. Bodl. 
 
 3 Editio princeps, Constantinople 1543. 
 
 4 Editio princeps, Constantinople and in Sepher Taam Zkeinim, by 
 Aschkenasi, Frankfort, 1855. 
 
 5 Editio princeps, Soncino, 1480, and many others ; a portion of it 
 has been translated into German, by Steinschneider, in Manna, p. 58 
 65, Berlin. 1847. 
 
 6 Entitled Kitab-el-Bian, the Book of Exposition. The Commentary on 
 the Pentateuch has not as yet come to light. His commentary on Joshua 
 was edited by Haarbriacker, Berlin, 1862. Commentary on Judges, 
 ch. i. xii., edited by Shnurrer, Tubingen, 1791 ; ch. xiii. xxi., edited 
 by Haarbrucker, Leipzig, 1844. Commentary on Habakkuk, edited by
 
 158 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Munk, in Cahen's Bible, vol. xii., Paris, 1843 ; and his commentary on 
 Lamentations, edited by Cureton, London, 1843. In the Bodleian 
 Library are preserved M$S. of Rabbi Tanchum's Commentaries on 
 Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Minor Prophets, Commentaries on the Five 
 Megilloth, the Haftaroth, translated into Arabic, and an Arabic Lexicon 
 to the Mishna, treating on the relation of the language of the Mishna 
 and of Maimonides' Mishna Torah to the Hebrew of the Bible. 
 
 Concerning his life and works see J. Goldziher, Leipzig, 1870. Rabbi 
 Moses Taku or of Tachau who died at Vienna, 1290, wrote a curious 
 work against the evils of philosophical speculation, entitled Ketab 
 Tamim, incorporated in the periodical Ozar Nechmad, iii., p. 54 ; cf. 
 Benjacob, Debarim Attikim, ii., p. 9; Zunz, Synagogale Poesie, p. 251 ; 
 Landshut, Amude ha-Aboda, p. 223224; and I. M. Zunz, Geschichte 
 der Krakauer Rabbinate, notes p 8, Cracow, 1874.
 
 CHAPTEE VIII. 
 
 THE JEWS IN FRANCE AND GERMANY. 
 
 LEAVING Spain for the present, let us advert to some 
 of the prominent Jews who figured at about this time 
 in France, Germany, Italy, and England. 
 
 Under the dynasty of the Carlovingians in France we find 
 the Jews of the eighth and ninth century enjoying a great 
 degree of prosperity. Pepin had already granted to the Jews 
 of Languedoc the right of acquiring landed property, and his 
 son Charlemagne pursued the same indulgent policy. Their 
 prosperity and influence increased considerably in the king- 
 dom of France under this monarch. 
 
 Lucca was at this time one of the principal seats of Jewish 
 learning, and from this place in 787 the emperor transplanted 
 Eabbi Kalonymos, with his son, Eabbi Moses, and a nephew, 
 to Mainz, where they opened schools, which continued to 
 flourish under the care of their successors, and much in- 
 fluenced the Jews of northern France. With the same 
 object of introducing learning into his empire he employed a 
 Jew, named Isaac, on an embassy to Harun-al-Eashid, and 
 the caliph, at his request, sent him Eabbi Machir, who 
 founded an important school at Narbonne, 1 which must have 
 received a still greater impulse when later, about 950, Eabbi 
 Nathan ben Isaac, the Babylonian, took charge of it. Under 
 Louis the Pious (814 840) the Jews were highly favoured 
 by the emperor and his wife Judith ; a high official, termed 
 the magister Jud&orum, protected their interests, and they 
 could trade freely from one part of the empire to the other 
 without payment of toll. Charles the Bold (840-877) shewed 
 them special favour ; a Jew, Zedekiah, was his physician, 
 and another, named Judah, his trusted adviser. 
 
 1 See gr. Rab. Zadoc Kahn, Etude sur le livre de Joseph le Zelateur, 
 P- 13-
 
 1GO THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 This improvement in the material condition of the Jews of 
 France continued with some interruptions till nearly the end 
 of the twelfth century, and the great wealth they acquired 1 
 was partly expended in founding a multitude of schools, 
 which produced a long succession of teachers, whose works 
 in some cases still survive, although most frequently their 
 names only can be recovered. 2 
 
 The first founder of the scientific study of the Talmud, 
 which henceforth nourished in France and Germany, was 
 Leon or Leontin (Eabbi Jehuda ben Meir). His famous 
 pupil, Eabbi Gershom, confessed that he owed all his know- 
 ledge to Eabbi Leon. 8 Eabbi Gershom together with his 
 brother, Eabbi Machir, spread the seeds of Talmudic know- 
 ledge from the south of France to the Ehine. 
 
 Eabbi Gershom ben Jehuda (960 1028) emigrated from 
 France to Mayence. In Mayence Eabbi Gershom founded 
 a school, which soon attracted numerous pupils from Ger- 
 many and Italy. The respect for Eabbi Gershom was so 
 great that he was named " The Light of the Exiles." He 
 wrote some very lucid commentaries on the Talmud. 4 Eabbi 
 Gershom was the first of the learned Jews of Germany 
 acquainted with the Masora, which was the first step for 
 understanding Hebrew grammar. 5 He contributed also 
 several liturgical prayers to the synagogue ; 6 and many of 
 his decisions on points of law are still extant. He is chiefly, 
 
 1 Half Paris is said to have belonged to them in the twelfth century; 
 see Leon Kahn, Les Juifs a Paris, p. 8, Paris, 1889. 
 
 2 In Les Rabbins frani;ais, p. 448, is to be found a long list of authors 
 whose works have for the most part perished ; see Giidemann, Ges- 
 chichte des Erziehungswesen, Vienna, 1880, p, icy, 113. 
 
 3 See Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg, Responsa, section 264, ed. Prague, 
 and Tashbats, Responsa, section 574 575. 
 
 4 Published in the editions of the Talmud by Ram, Vilna, 1880. 
 
 5 See De Rossi, Var. lect. t ii. p. 59. 
 
 fi Which fire extant in the Machsor and Selichot of the rite of the 
 Ashkenazim. Rabbi Gershom gave utterance to his grief at the severe 
 persecution of the Jews in Germany by the emperor, Henry II. See 
 Landshuth, Amude ha-Aboda, p. 57 58; Kerem Chemed, viii. p. 106, 
 209 ; F. Wicken, Geschichte der Kreuzziige, i. p. 41 ; and J. Reitmann, 
 Frankel's Monatsschriit, 1854, p. 231.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 161 
 
 however, remarkable for having assembled a council at 
 Worms, and there passed, among other important regulations, 
 a prohibition of polygamy. 1 
 
 His brother, Rabbi Machir, composed a Hebrew and 
 Chaldee lexicon under the name of " Alpha Betha," of con- 
 siderable merit. 2 
 
 His pupil, Eabbi Elijah ben Menachem the elder, the 
 husband of the sister of Eabbi Hai Gaon, was a skilful and 
 prolific Hebrew poet (Poetan). The most valuable and 
 interesting of his contributions is the Azharot, or poetry on 
 the six hundred aud thirteen precepts. 3 His contemporary, 
 Eabbi Simon ben Isaac ben Abun, who was of French 
 descent, from Le Mans, wrote a number of liturgical com- 
 positions, in the style of Kaliri, in which he introduced the 
 Hagadic literature, often in an enigmatical way. 4 
 
 The school that had been founded by Eabbi Gershom in 
 Mayence flourished for more than 180 years, and became the 
 centre of Talmudic activity for Germany, France and Italy. 
 
 About the same time Eabbi Simon ben Chelbo Kara wrote 
 his famous work " Yalkut Shimeoni, 5 a collection of agadic 
 explanations by previous rabbis, on various portions of the 
 Bible. In it he gives the substance of more than fifty works, 
 many of which are lost. 
 
 His brother, Eabbi Menachem ben Chelbo Kara, is the 
 author of a commentary on the Pentateuch, which he ex- 
 plains in a simple and natural manner. He appears to have 
 written comments on the whole Bible, though only fragments 
 of them remain in the writings of Eashi and his (Eabbi 
 
 1 His Tekanot Constitutions were published at Venice, 1519; in 
 Sepher " Kolbo ; " in Responsa of Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg ; and in 
 Responsa of Rabbi Moses Minz. 
 
 2 See Rapaport, Rabbi Nathan, p. 26; Zunz, G.V., p. 163; Kerem 
 Chemed, viiJ., p. 109. 
 
 3 Published in L.B. des Orients, 1850, no. 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, and in 
 Kobeits-Maase Yedei ha-Geonim, p. 55-73, Berlin, 1856. His sister, 
 Killet, was famous as being well versed in the Talmud. 
 
 4 See Landshuth Amude ha-Aboda. p. 312314. 
 
 5 Editio princeps, Salonica, 1521, and the last edition, Warsaw, by 
 J. Goldmann, 1876; see Kerem Chemed, vii., p. 4 14; Horowitz, 
 Frankfurter Rabbinen i., p. 3, Frankfort, 1882. 
 
 11
 
 162 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Menachem's) nephew, Eabbi Joseph Kara, 1 the son of Eabbi 
 Simon ben Chelbo. Rabbi Joseph Kara holds a conspicuous 
 place between the Bible commentators and exegetists of 
 the eleventh century. 2 The contemporary learned men were 
 Eabbi Joseph ben Samuel Tob-Elem (Bonfils), a prolific 
 writer of ritual hymns, 8 and a collector of previous rabbini- 
 cal decisions, 4 and Eabbi Meir ben Isaac Sheliach Zibbur, 6 
 precentor at Mayence and Worms. 
 
 Amongst the great learned men at this period were Eabbi 
 Eleazar ha-Gadol ben Simon from Le Mans, disciple of Eabbi 
 Simon ben Isaac ben Abun, and his son Eabbi Tobiah from 
 Mayence, who distinguished himself by his composition of a 
 traditional interpretation on the Pentateuch under the name 
 of Lekach Tob. 6 
 
 The earliest attempts at Biblical exegesis, in the South of 
 France were, as those of the North, in accordance with the 
 traditional interpretation of the Midrash. The names of 
 Eabbi Moses ha-Darshan of Narbonne, who, about 1050, 
 composed Midrashic notes on Genesis, 7 and of Eabbi Judah 
 
 1 See the extracts in Levy, Die Exegese bei den franz. Israeliten vom 
 10 bis 14 Jahrh., p. 9. Dr. A. Berliner, Pleitat Sopherim, Breslau, 
 1872 ; and in Hashachar, ii., Heft 7, p. 289. 
 
 2 Fragments of his commentaries on the Pentateuch were published 
 in Nitei Naamanim, and in Pleitat Sopherim. On the Bible, see Dukes' 
 Kobeiz al-Yad, Eslingen, 1846. On Job, Kerem Chemed, vii., p. 58 61. 
 On Echa, Lamentations, editio princeps, Naples, 1487 ; again in the 
 Book Dibrei Chachamim, p. 16 23. On Jeremiah, the edition pub- 
 lished at Paris, 1881. See Darmsteter, Archives des miss, scient. 1871, 
 p. 91 ; Romania, i. 148. 
 
 3 See Amude ha-Aboda, p. 96 98. 
 
 4 Published by D. Cassel, Berlin, 1848. He is the author of the 
 Sepher Tikkon Shetarot, a collection of forms of contracts, quoted by 
 Rabbi Moses from Coucy, Rabbi Mordechai ben Hillel and by Rabbi 
 Asher, which has not as yet come to light. Concerning his commentary 
 on the Pentateuch, see Zunz, Zur Geschichte, p. 61, Luzzato Bet ha- 
 Ozar, p. 55a, 66 b , and concerning his Seder Tanaim. published for the 
 first time, Leghorn, 1775, see Rapaport's "Introduction to the Responsa 
 of the Gaonim Kadmonim," and Weiss, Toldot Rashi, p. 2, note 5. 
 
 5 See Amude ha-Aboda, p. 162 167. 
 
 6 The second part was first published, Venice, 1546, and both parts 
 by S. Bober, Vilna, 1880. 
 
 7 His notes on the Blessing of Jacob were published at Venice, 1602, 
 and Vilna, 1878 ; A. Epstein has collected the surviving fragments of 
 his writings which he found in the works of the ancient authors, and 
 published them with an introduction and explanatory notes, Vienna, 
 1891.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 163 
 
 ha-Darshan of Toulouse, 1 have descended to us as authors 
 of note in this line, but only fragments of their works remain 
 to us in the writings of Eashi. 
 
 Amongst the disciples of Eabbi Moses ha-Darshan was 
 the lexicographer Eabbi Nathan ben Jechiel. Eabbi Nathan 
 was president of the academy at Eome in the eleventh cen- 
 tury. His name is held in universal repute among Hebrew 
 scholars as the author of the Aruch, 2 an arrangement of the 
 words of the Mishna, both the Gemaroth, the Midrashim 
 and all the Chaldee paraphrases of the Bible in alphabetical 
 order. This lexicon became the key to the Talmud. His 
 works are still the only clue to the ancient Jewish writings 
 which are so important to Biblical literature and exegesis. 
 
 Eabbi Kalonymos ben Eabbi Shabbatai from Eome is also 
 mentioned as a Talmudic authority of that time. Eashi 
 spoke of him with great respect ; the community of Worms 
 elected him as their rabbi after the year 1096. 8 
 
 In the same year as the last gaon suffered martyrdom, a 
 star of the first magnitude began to shine in the firmament 
 of Jewish literature in France an eminent commentator 
 and Talmudist known under the name of Eashi, as if to 
 intimate that the new impetus given by Eashi would fully 
 compensate for the downfall of the old institution. 
 
 Eabbi Solomon ben Isaac Yitschaki (Eashi) was born 1040, 
 at Troyes, 4 in Champagne. His mother was the sister of 
 Eabbi Simon ben Isaac from Le Mans, 6 who was highly 
 respected on account of his services to the community of 
 
 1 See Rashi, Jer. xxxi. 22. 
 
 2 Editio princeps, Italy, about 1480; the next Pisuari, 1517; Venice, 
 1531 1553; Basle, 1599; Amsterdam, 1655; M. J. Landau published 
 an edition of Rabbi Nathan's Aruch, with Musafia's supplement, with 
 his own notes, in five volumes, entitled " Maarche Lashon," Prague, 
 1819 1824 ; ibid, 1834 18 35 but the best edition is that which has 
 been published by Dr. Alexander Kohut, with his elaborate introduction, 
 Vienna, 1878 1880. On the life of Rabbi Nathan, see Rapaport's 
 Rabbi Nathan, Vienna, 1829 1830. D.M.G.. xii. 142, 357; xiv. 318; 
 Zunz, Itinerary, p. 18 ; Steinschneider, Catl. Bodl. 20402043. 
 
 3 See Rashi, Beitsa, 24 at the end, and Aguda, 172". 
 
 4 The Jewish family of Treves is alleged to descend from Rashi ; the 
 name is said to be a corruption of Troyes ; see L. Wolf, Jewish Chronicle, 
 September 18, 1896. 
 
 5 See Weiss Toldot Rashi, p. 3, note 6; Shibbalei Leket, ii., ch. 73, 
 ed. Vilna, 1887.
 
 164 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Mayence and for his liturgic poetry. His father was also 
 well versed in the Talmud. In order to perfect himself in 
 the study of the Talmud, he frequented the Talmudical school 
 of Mayence, which was founded by Eabbi Gershom, and 
 which was then conducted by Eabbi Jacob ben Yakar. He 
 afterwards attended the lectures of Eabbi Isaac ha-Levi, 
 and Eabbi Isaac ben Jehuda at Worms, as well as the school 
 of Eabbi Eliyakim at Spires, 1 leaving his home and wife, and 
 suffering from want of food and garments in order to acquire 
 divine knowledge. 2 At the age of twenty-five he permanently 
 settled at Troyes, where he was already recognised as a high 
 authority in rabbinical learning, and was consulted by some 
 of the most distinguished Talmudists about difficult civil and 
 religious questions. Consequently his teachers lavished on 
 him the most nattering eulogies in their letters. Eabbi Isaac 
 ha-Levi, of Worms, wrote to Eashi, "Thanks to you, this 
 age is not orphaned, and may many like unto you arise in 
 Israel." He soon after became rabbi of the Jewish com- 
 munity in Troyes, and founded a school to which numerous 
 disciples resorted both from Germany and France (1070). 
 Here he delivered those famous lectures on the Talmud and 
 the Bible which form the substance of his commentary 
 on the Talmud and the Scriptures, and which secured for 
 him the distinguished title of Interpreter of the Law. He 
 was certainly a master in Israel in the ordinary learning of 
 his people, the Scriptures, and the whole circle of Talmudic 
 lore. It was rightly said that without him the Babylonian 
 Talmud would have been neglected like that of Jerusalem." 
 Through Eashi and his school the north of France, 
 especially Champagne, became the home of Talmudic lore 
 as Babylon had been of old. It laid down the law for the 
 rest of Europe. The leadership, which Jewish Spain had 
 taken over from Babylonia, had to be shared with France 
 from Eashi' s time. Whilst Spain remained the classic ground 
 
 1 Graetz, iii., p. 293 ; see, however, Weiss, Toldot Rashi, p. 5, note 7, 
 who objects to the teaching of Rabbi Eliyakim. 
 
 2 See Rashi's letter addressed to Rabbi Nathan ben Rabbi Machir, 
 in Chofes Matmonim, p. i 2. 
 
 3 See Rabbi Bezaleel Ashkenasi, Responsa, section 14.
 
 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 165 
 
 with respect to Hebrew poetry, linguistic attainments, 
 exegesis and philosophy, it had to yield the palm to France 
 with regard to the study of the Talmud. 
 
 Eashi in his commentary combines the traditional exposi- 
 tion contained in the Talmud and Midrashim with a simple 
 and literal explanation of the text. For the same end he 
 employs all the resources of lexicography and grammar 
 which he has at his disposal, and often explains the sense of 
 the Hebrew by French equivalents. 1 
 
 He incorporated in his commentaries all the lore contained 
 in the cyclopaedias of Jewish tradition, as well as the learning 
 of the French expositors. 2 His work at once attained the 
 highest honour among his countrymen. The celebrated Ibn 
 Ezra praised him. 8 More than seventy works have been 
 written with a view of explaining his writings. 4 Christians, 
 such as Gilb. Genebradus, Ar. Pontacus, Henry d'Aquine, 
 the Buxtorfs, Lightfoot, and Carpzov, and in later times 
 Eabe and Tychsen, have not been less ready to recognise his 
 merits, and to express their obligations to him. Luther drew 
 largely upon Nicholas de Lyra (1270 1340) in his translation 
 of the Bible, and this great scholar was formed in the school 
 of Bashi and his successors, the Tosaphists. 5 
 
 Before the Crusades the Jews of Germany dwelt in peace ; 
 they were neither excluded from the possession of land 
 nor were they despised and humiliated. When Bishop 
 Eiidiger Huozmann, of Speyer, included old Speyer within 
 the limits of the town he knew no better way of giving 
 respectability to the town than by allowing the Jews to have 
 privileges and dwellings therein. Bishop Eiidiger gave a 
 special jurisdiction to the Jews, and their chief or rabbi had 
 
 1 The works of Rashi have furnished Arsene Darmesteter with more 
 than 2,000 old French words of the eleventh century. See his article in 
 Romania, 1872, p. 146, and his reports in their Archives des Missions 
 Scientifiques, serie 2, vol. 7, p. 87 ; serie 3, vol. 4, p. 387 ; see also 
 Ecrivains Juifs francais du xiv e siecle, p. 389. 
 
 2 See Zunz, Rashi, p. 292 322 ; Weiss, Toldot Rashi, p. 10 16. 
 
 3 See Hamagid, n, 10. 
 
 4 See Dr. A. Berliner's edition of Rashi on the Pentateuch, preface 
 p. ix. 
 
 5 See Les Rabbins franpais, p. 433 ; the Thinker, vol. vi , no. 4, 
 October, 1894, p. 299 300.
 
 166 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 equal rights with the burgomasters to decide law-suits. In 
 order to protect them from the intrusion of the mob, Riidiger 
 gave them a special quarter, which they might fortify and 
 defend. Riidiger adds, in the document that he had granted 
 to the Jews, the same favourable conditions which they 
 enjoyed in other German towns. The emperor, Henry IV., 
 confirmed these privileges and added other favourable con- 
 ditions. This emperor issued a decree (6th February, 1095) 
 which was remarkably beneficent to the Jews. No one was 
 permitted under fear of punishment to compel either the 
 Jews or their slaves to be baptised. In a law-suit between 
 Jews and Christians, the Jewish laws and oaths were to be 
 followed. They could not be compelled to undergo ordeals 
 by fire and water, and yet not long after this they were cut 
 down by the Crusaders. 1 
 
 The enraged populace, especially the hordes of Flagellants 
 sweeping over South Germany and the Rhenish provinces, 
 murdered in those days many thousand Jews, torturing 
 others, 2 or baptising them by force. The Emperor Henry 
 was at that time occupied in war with Italy, and the wildest 
 anarchy prevailed in Germany. This terrible fate succes- 
 sively befell the congregations of Mayence, Metz, Treves, 8 
 Speyer, Worms, Cologne, and many smaller places. The 
 slaughter extended to Regensburg. The majority of the Jews 
 died for their faith, many killed themselves and their 
 children, set fire to their houses and synagogues and perished 
 in the flames, or threw themselves into the Rhine ; only a 
 few feigned conversion to Christianity. 4 
 
 When the Crusaders traversed Bohemia, its powerful duke, 
 Wratislaw II., who was occupied in a foreign war, could do 
 nothing to stem the evil. The crusading miscreants were 
 therefore at liberty to gratify their fanacticism by dragging off 
 the Jews of Prague to baptism or killing those who resisted. 
 Bishop Cosmo preached in vain against such excesses. 
 
 1 Graetz, iii., p. 304 305. 
 
 2 See Dr. Berliner's Kobeitz al Yad, iii. 
 
 3 See the Cr ronicler of Treves in the Jews of Europe in the Middle 
 Ages; Oxford Essays, 1857; and the Jewish Chronicle, May 15, 1896^.23. 
 
 4 See the very touching piyut of Rabbi Kalonymos ben Jehuda, in 
 Miscellany of Hebrew Literature, i., p. 175.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 167 
 
 Meanwhile the Emperor, Henry IV., had returned from 
 Italy, and at the news of the atrocities perpetrated against 
 the Jews by the Crusaders, he had publicly announced his 
 horror, and owing to the intervention of the head of the 
 congregation of Speyer, Moses or Gutthiel, he had permitted 
 those who had been forcibly baptised to return to Judaism. 
 This was a gleam of joy for the Jews of Germany. The 
 converts did not fail to make use of their liberty to throw 
 off the mask of Christianity (1097). These unhappy people 
 were regarded as renegades by those who had remained 
 Jews ; they would not intermarry nor mix with them, nor 
 eat nor drink with them, although the latter had shown 
 their attachment to Judaism by a prompt return to it. When, 
 however, Rashi heard of this, he exclaimed: "Far be it 
 from us to separate and shame those who have returned. 
 All that they did was done from fear of the sword, and they 
 lost no time in returning to Judaism." 1 
 
 Rashi died 29 Tamuz, 1105, in the sixty-fifth year of his 
 
 1 Pardes Hagadol, p. $gb, ed Warsaw, 1870. 
 
 2 See A. Chaikin, Apologie des Juifs, p. 96, 258, from a MS. pre- 
 served in the National Library of Paris no. 73, at the end. 
 
 The Works of Rashi are: (i) The Commentary on the Pentateuch, 
 editio princeps, Calabria, 1475, then before 1480, then again 1487, and 
 since printed in almost every Jewish edition of the Hebrew text. 
 The edition of Rashi on the Pentateuch by Dr. A. Berliner, Berlin, 
 1866, is very meritorious. The German translation of Rashi's com- 
 mentary was made by L. Dukes, Prague, 1833 1838. His comments 
 on the other portions of the Bible are given in the Rabbinic Bibles. 
 Breithaupt translated the whole of Rashi's commentaries into Latin, 
 Gotha, 1710 1714. (2) A Commentary on the Babylonian Talmud, 
 printed in the editions of that work. (3) Commentary on the Midrash 
 Bereshit Rabba, editio princeps, Venice, 1568, and the last edition, 
 Vilna, 1878; see Weiss' Toldot Rashi, p. 61 62. (4) Sepher ha- Pardes, 
 and Sepher ha-Orah, collections of legal decisions, were published, Con- 
 stantinople, 1802, and Warsaw, 1870 ; an extract of the Sepher ha-Pardes, 
 made by Rabbi Samuel Bamberg, published Venice, 1519, under the 
 title of Likutei ha-Pardes ; see Weiss' Toldot, p. 49. (5) Dinei Nikkur, 
 legal decisions on the removal of the forbidden fat and of the purging 
 of the veins, published, Venice, 1605. 
 
 His epistolary correspondence is incorporated in the following works : 
 Melo Chofnaim, p. 33, Berlin, 1840 ; Chofes Matmonin, p. i 14, Berlin, 
 1844; Zichron Jehuda, p. so a 52 b , Berlin, 1846; Ozar Nechmad.ii., p. 
 174 180, Vienna, 1857; and in the Responsa of the Geonei Mizrach 
 and Maarab, edited by Dr. Joel Muller, Berlin, 1888. We have from 
 Rashi various Selichot hymns on the severe persecution of the Jews in 
 his time ; cf. Weiss, Toldot, p. 4748. His disciple, Rabbi Menachem
 
 168 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Eashi left no sons to take up his labours, but only three 
 daughters, one of whom was so deeply versed in the 
 Talmud that during her father's illness she read to him all 
 the questions concerning the Talmud that had been sent to 
 him, and wrote down the answers which he dictated to her. 1 
 The three daughters were married to men of note as 
 rabbinical scholars : Rabbi Meir of Rameru, Rabbi Jehuda 
 ben Nathan, and Rabbi Eleazar Joslin. 2 Rabbi Meir of 
 Rameru, not far from Troyes, became the father of three 
 distinguished sons : Rabbi Samuel ben Meir (Rashbam), 
 Rabbi Isaac ben Meir (Ribam), and Rabbi Jacob ben Meir, 
 surnamed Rabbenu Tarn. They have immortalized them- 
 selves among the learned Jews by their Tosafot, or supple- 
 mentary commentaries on the Talmud. 
 
 Rabbi Samuel ben Meir, born at Rameru about 1080, is 
 one of the most distinguished expositors of the Scriptures 
 belonging to the French school. 3 The extraordinary influence 
 which his literal, grammatical, and exegetical efforts had on 
 his fellow-labourers may be judged of from the fact that no 
 less a person than his own grandfather the immortal Rashi 
 was convinced by the soundness of Rashbam's principles 
 of interpretation, and declared to him that if he had to re- 
 write his own expositions he would adopt those principles of 
 interpretation. Rashbam completed the commentaries on 
 certain tractates of the Talmud which his grandfather Rashi 
 had left unfinished. 4 
 
 bar Machir, wrote an elegy on the persecution of the Jews by the first 
 Crusaders; cf. Amude ha-Aboda, p. 189 192 
 
 Concerning the life and works of Rashi, see Zunz Rashi, 1822 ; S. 
 Bloch, Toldot Rashi, Lemberg, 1840; Parschandata, Leipzig, 1855, p. 
 12; Steinschneider, Catl. Bodl., 2340 2357; Weiss, Toldot Rashi, 
 Vienna, 1882 ; N. Kronberg, Rashi als Exeget, Halle, 1882 ; Siegfried, 
 Archiv. f. Wiss. Erforschung d. A. T., i., p. 428; Dr. M. Giidemann, 
 Geschichte des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur der Juden, p. n 12, 
 t. i., Vienna, 1880. 
 
 1 See Sepher ha-Pardes, section 242. See, however, Zunz Zur Ges- 
 chichte, p. 567 ; and Berliner, Monatsschrift, iv. p. 288. 
 
 2 Carmoly in Lebanon, iv. no. 7 ; cf. Sepher ha-Yashar, section 599. 
 
 3 His Commentary on the Pentateuch, editio princeps, Berlin, 1705, 
 begins with Gen. xviii. ; Dr Rosin published and completed the missing 
 portion, with an elaborate introduction, Breslau, 1882. His Com- 
 mentary on the Five Megillot. was published by Jellinek, Leipzig, 1855. 
 Rashbam completed also Rashi's Commentary on Job. 
 
 4 See Rosin's Rashbam, xii. xvii. ; and Weiss, Toldot Rabbenu Tam,
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 169 
 
 The distinguished Talmudist, Tosaphist, grammarian, and 
 commentator, Rabbenu Tam, was born about 1100. Being 
 the youngest of the three learned grandchildren of the great 
 teacher of Troyes, Eabbi Tam was unable to acquire any- 
 thing from his grandfather, whom he only knew when a 
 child. He attained, however, to such a degree of excellence 
 in the study of the Talmud that he outshone his contem- 
 poraries. He united clearness of intellect with acuteness in 
 reasoning, and was the chief founder of the school of the 
 Tosaphists. None of his predecessors had revealed such 
 profoundness of knowledge and so marvellous a dialectical 
 ingenuity in the sphere of the Talmud. Although living as 
 a private person and engaged in business, he was still 
 esteemed the most famous rabbi of his time, and his renown 
 travelled as far as Spain and Italy. Questions upon difficult 
 points were exclusively sent to him, not only from his own 
 land but also from Southern France and Germany ; and the 
 rabbinical authorities of the period, and even those of Paris, 
 bowed to him with the deepest reverence. Already in his 
 youth he was surrounded by numbers of pupils who regarded 
 him with veneration as their ideal. He was so overwhelmed 
 with the task of giving answers to questions sent to him that 
 he was sometimes tempted to put aside the burden. 1 
 
 The fanatics of the Second Crusade, who almost deprived 
 him of life, robbed him of all his possessions and left him 
 nothing more than his bare life and his library. 2 Neverthe- 
 less he composed his Glosses on the Talmud just at this 
 troublous period. 8 
 
 He wrote verses with such elegance as to excite the 
 astonishment of Ibn Ezra when he made a journey into 
 
 p. 5, 6. On the life and work of Rashbam, see Nitei Naamanim, p. 
 29 39; Parschandata, p. 20 24; and Rosin's introduction, p. i xliii. 
 
 1 Graetz, iii. p. 385 386. Cf. Responsa of Rabbi Isaac bar Sheshet, 
 section 394; and Rabbi Tarn's Sepher ha-Yashar, p. 6j a , S^ 3 . 
 
 2 Sepher ha-Yashar, p. 8i 3 . 
 
 3 Concerning his Sepher ha-Yashar, annotations on the Talmud and 
 legal decisions, published Vienna, 1810, see I. H. Weiss, Toldot Rabbenu 
 Tam, p. 14 22 ; and J. Jacobs, The Jews of Angevin England, p. 25 26. 
 Concerning the First and Second Crusades, see Hefele, Concilien- 
 geschichte, v. 224, 270, 498 ; and C. U. Hahn, Geschichte der Ketzer im 
 Mittelalter, iii. p. 17.
 
 170 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 France j 1 and he became so far advanced in the knowledge 
 of grammar that he was able to act as arbiter in the gram- 
 matical controversy between Menachem ben Saruk and his 
 opponent Dunash. 2 
 
 The large number of learned rabbis in northern France 
 and Germany, and the universally acknowledged authority 
 of Babbenu Tarn, brought about a new departure which now 
 for the first time made its appearance in post-Talmudical 
 times. Under the presidentship of the master of Rameru, 
 the first rabbinical synod assembled for the purpose of de- 
 ciding, in common, upon certain important resolutions which 
 were neccessary at the time. Probably the council which 
 had been convoked in France by the fugitive popes, Pascal, 
 Innocent II., Calixtus and Alexander III., gave this impulse 
 to the rabbis. The decisions of the rabbinical synods con- 
 cerned not only religious and communal matters, but touched 
 also upon civil laws in accordance with the feeling of the 
 people and for the welfare of the community. 8 
 
 In his old age Eabbenu Tarn lived to witness a bloody 
 persecution of the Jews in his vicinity in Blois, which is not 
 so memorable on account of the severity with which the 
 martyrs were treated, as of the lying accusation, fiercely 
 levelled against them, that the Jews at Easter used the 
 blood of Christians. It was a base intrigue which kindled 
 the fire at the stake for the innocent. Thirty-four men and 
 seventeen women died amid the flames whilst chanting the 
 prayer which contains the confession of the existence of the 
 One God (Wednesday 20 Sivan, 26 May, 1171). 4 
 
 When the news of the martyrdom of the Jews reached 
 Rabbi Jacob Tarn, he decreed that the day should be observed 
 as a strict fast and day of mourning. The congregations of 
 
 1 He corresponded with Ibn Ezra ; cf. Tosaphot Kidushin; 370 ; and 
 exchanged poems with him ; see Kerem Chemed, iii. p. 35. 
 
 2 Published by H. Philipowski, London, 1855. Concerning his 
 liturgical prayers, see Landsrmth, Amude ha-Aboda, p. 106 108. 
 
 3 Concerning the Takanot or Ordinances of Rabbi Tarn, see Kol Bo, 
 section 117; Responsa of Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg, p. in, Prague, 
 1608; cf. Revue des etudes juives, t. xvii., p. 69, S. Schechter, Jews 
 of Angevin England, p. 47 49, and I. Abrahams, Jewish Life, p. 49, 
 54, 58, 88, 183, 254, 394. 
 
 4 Cf. Emek ha-Bacha, p. 37 40 ; the Elegy on the Martyrs, com- 
 posed by Rabbi Hillel ben Jacob, incorporated in the Selichot of the 
 Day of Atonement has been translated into English by Dr. A. Lowy, 
 Miscellany of Heb. Lit., p. 182.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 171 
 
 France, Anjou, and the Ehine country at this intimation of 
 the great teacher, which was conveyed by letter, willingly 
 obeyed his commands. This fast day in memory of the 
 martyrs of Blois is at the same time connected with the first 
 outbreak in France of the utterly false and groundless fabri- 
 cation that the Jews used blood on their Passover, which in 
 the course of half a century was the cause of the death of 
 hecatombs of victims. This was the last public act of Eab- 
 benu Tarn, for a few days afterwards he died (Wednesday 
 4th Tamuz). 1 
 
 The first charge in Europe of the so-called "blood accusa- 
 tion" was especially brought against the Jews of Norwich, 2 
 in 1146, just at the time when the mind of Europe was 
 particularly inflamed against the Jews, as was shown by the 
 persecutions in Germany. 3 
 
 "The charge," says the Eev. Charles H. H. Wright, 4 "has, 
 indeed, in modern times generally been regarded by en- 
 lightened public opinion in the most civilised parts of 
 Europe as a foul slander, as one of the base falsehoods 
 preferred against the Jewish people during the middle ages, 
 deliberately invented, or, if not invented, maliciously made 
 use of for the purpose of inflaming the popular indignation 
 against the Jewish people, in order the more easily to seize 
 hold of the wealth and property of that hated race, or to get 
 rid of debts superinduced by wanton extravagance." 
 
 "We would, however," concludes the Eev. Ch. H. H. 
 Wright, 5 "call special attention to the elaborate opinion of 
 
 1 Concerning the life and works of Rabbi Tarn, see Zunz. Zur Ges- 
 chichte, p. 32, 109; Dessauer in Rahmer's Literaturblatt zur Wochen- 
 schrift, 1873, p. 19; G. Klemperer, in Paschele's Calendar, Prague, 1880; 
 I. H. Weiss, Toldot Rabbi Tarn, Vienna, 1883 ; Graetz, iii., p. 389397. 
 Concerning the Elegy on the Martyrs of Troyes in 1288, cf. Les Rabbins 
 fransais, p. 475 482. 
 
 2 Cf. Joseph Jacobs, Jews of Angevin England, p. 19. 
 
 3 Cf. Rabbi Ephraim ben Jacobs' Jewish Martyrology of the Second 
 and Third Crusades, at the end of "Wiener's edition of the Emek ha- 
 Bacha of Rabbi Joseph Cohen, and in Hebraische Berichte iiber die 
 Judenverfolgungen, wahrend der Kreuzziige, published by Dr. Neubauer 
 and Stern, Berlin, 1892. 
 
 * The Nineteenth Century, p. 765, Nov., 1883. 
 
 5 Ibid, p. 778. See also A. Chaikin, Apologie des juifs, p. 201 207, 
 the opinions of the following scholars, Ph. Jalabert, Glasson, Ch. Beu- 
 dant, and E. Renan.
 
 172 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Professor Dr. Hermann L. Strack, of Berlin, in favour of 
 the Jews ('which is contained in two pamphlets), in which 
 he points out the absurdity of the charge of using human 
 blood as being utterly opposed to all the directions of the 
 Mosaic law. He refers to the extreme care taken by the 
 Jews, even in the middle ages, to abstain from anything with 
 blood in it, and among other facts, to the curious directions 
 given with regard to the minute atoms of blood sometimes 
 found in eggs, which were ordered to be carefully shunned 
 by pious Jews, as well as to the directions given as to what 
 to do when, in the act of eating, the gums might accidentally 
 bleed. Professor Strack also points out that the accusations 
 of this kind brought against the Jews were originally pre- 
 ferred also against the Christians by their pagan assailants. 
 The opinions in these pamphlets of Professor Noldecke of 
 Strasburg, Professor Merx of Heidelberg, Professor Stade of 
 Giessen, Professor Siegfried of Jena, all Hebrew scholars of 
 the highest eminence and men not likely to be influenced 
 by any theological prepossessions on the subject, ought to 
 be sufficient in the eyes of all rational men to clear the Jewish 
 nation from this odious charge. The theological faculties of 
 Amsterdam and of Leyden have also given strong opinions 
 in favour of the Jews. The only strange thing about the 
 matter is that in the nineteenth century of the Christian era 
 the charge which, like that of witchcraft, ought long since 
 to have been thrown into the lumber-room of exploded 
 opinions should still be believed in by many persons." 
 
 The crime of child murder for ritual purposes was first 
 brought against the early Christians. 1 Athenagoras found 
 himself compelled to appeal to Marcus Aurelius for protec- 
 tion against the calumny, and Origen, 185 250, in his reply 
 to Celsus, was obliged to cite from the Old Testament, the 
 many prohibitions of the use of blood as evidence of the 
 impossibility of the alleged practice. In course of time, how- 
 ever, Christians themselves adopted the fable, together with 
 many other of the superstitions of paganism, and by a 
 
 1 See Tertnllian in his Apology for the Christians, chap. ix. ; Justinus 
 Martyr in his apologia ad Anton., p. 2 ; Eusebius, Ccesarensis, vol. i., 
 p. 5, ch. i and 4; Pineda in his Monarchid Ecclesiastica, vol. i., p. u, 
 ch. 52 ; and several other authors.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 173 
 
 triumph of prejudice, fastened it on the very people whose 
 traditions they had relied on to rebut it when it was related 
 of themselves. Notwithstanding that the popes Clement III. 
 (1190), Honorius III. (1217), Gregory IX. (1227), Innocent 
 IV. (1243), Clement VI. (1342), Urban V. (1365), Sixtus 
 IV., and Alexander VII. disproved the blood accusation, 
 and the most able scholars have shown its utter baselessness, 1 
 the anti-Jewish agitators obstinately persisted in repeating 
 the charge through all the middle ages, even to the end of 
 the nineteenth century. 
 
 "It is a singularly creditable proof," said Professor J. 
 Clark Murray, 2 " of the liberal government of Stephen Batory 
 one of the ablest monarchs who ever sat on the throne of 
 Poland that so long ago as 1576 he issued an edict pro- 
 hibiting the imputation of this crime to the Jews, as being 
 utterly inconsistent with the principles of their religion. Yet, 
 in spite of this enactment, the fanatical suspicion continued 
 to display itself at frequent intervals. Milman supposed it 
 had been finally quelled by the ukase of the Eussian govern- 
 
 1 On this subject cf. Samuel Ibn Usque, Consolagam de las Tribula- 
 tiones en Israel, Ferrara, 1553; Wolf, Bib. Hebr. ii., p. 1131 1135; 
 iii., p. 1071 1075; Jehuda Karmi, De Charitate, Amsterdam, 1643; 
 Rabbi Manasseh ben Israel, Vindiciah Judaeorum, 1653 ; J. Cph. 
 Wagenseil, Benachrichtigungen Wegen einiger die gemeine Judischheit 
 betreffenden Sachen, p. 126 206, Leipzig, 1705 ; Isaac Cantarini, 
 Vindex Sanguinis, Amsterdam, 1680 ; W. Dohm, Ueber die biirgerliche 
 Verbesserung der Juden, Berlin, 1781 ; Zunz, Damascus, ein Wort zur 
 Abwehr, 1840; H. L. Biesenthal, Ueber den Ursprung der wider die 
 Juden erhabenen Beschuldigung, Berlin, 1840 ; I. B. Levinson, Efes 
 Damim, or Conversations at Jerusalem, on the malicious charge of using 
 Christian blood, translated into English by Dr. L. Loewe, London, 1841 ; 
 Dr. M'Caul, Reasons for believing that the charge lately revived 
 against the Jewish people is a baseless Falsehood, London, 1840 ; I. 
 Tugendhold," Der alte Wahn vom Blutgebrauch, Berlin, 1858 ; Der 
 neue Piteval, t. ii., p. 14 19, Leipzig, 1858; Professor D. Chwolson, 
 Ueber einige mittelalterliche Beschuldigungen gegen die Juden, St. 
 Petersburgh, 1861, second edition, 1880; A. Cahen, Ephemerides des 
 Israelites, Paris, 1861 ; Kayserling, Die Blutbeschuldigung von Tisza- 
 Eszlar, Budapest, 1882; G. Valbert, Revue des Deux Mondes, Avril, 
 1883, p. 681 692 ; H. Friedlander, Zur Geschichte der Blutbeschuldi- 
 gungen, Briinn, 1883 ; Christliche Zeugnisse gegen die Blutbeschuldigung 
 der Juden, Berlin, 1883 ; Blutbeschuldigung gegen die Juden von Christ- 
 licher Seite beurtheilt, Vienna, 1883; Professor Strack. Der Blut-Aber- 
 glaube, Berlin, 1892 ; and an article by Rev. Dr. Charles H. H. Wright, 
 On the Jews and the Malicious Charge of Human Sacrifice, the Nine- 
 teenth Century, November, 1883, p. 753 778. 
 
 2 In his Monography on Solomon Maimon, p. 18, London, 1888.
 
 174 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 ment in 1835, which went in the same direction as the earlier 
 prohibition of the Polish king (History of the Jews, vol. iii., 
 p. 389). What would have been his astonishment had he 
 lived to learn that, half a century after he thought it ex- 
 tinguished, this ancient delusion was to revive, that an 
 Hungarian court was to spend thirty-one days in the solemn 
 trial of a Jewish family on the charge of the sacrificing a 
 Christian girl in their synagogue, that a learned professor in 
 the Imperial and Eoyal University of Prague was to write 
 in defence of the charge, and that the trial was to form the 
 subject of an extensive controversial literature in the language 
 of the most learned nation in the world ! " 
 
 "The atrocious and murderous lies," says Dr. M'Caul, 1 
 ' ' which envelop this charge of using blood give us strong 
 reason for suspecting that it is as devoid of truth, as calum- 
 nious, and as devilish as those image and wafer stories by 
 means of which so many thousands of unhappy Israelites 
 were put to the sword, whose blood still cries to heaven for 
 vengeance." 
 
 The following remarkable illustration will exemplify the 
 foundation of the ridiculous story attributed to the Jews : 
 " A few days back two Greeks presented themselves at the 
 palace of the grand Eabbi of Smyrna, and asked to see him 
 on very important business. The venerable Abraham Palacci 
 being unwell, they were asked to come another day. Next 
 day they called again ; the rabbi not having yet recovered, 
 his son, a man of forty-five, learning that the business was 
 urgent, asked if they could not explain it to him. After 
 some desultory conversation they consented, at the same 
 time requesting to be conducted to some remote compart- 
 ment where there was no danger of being overheard. This 
 being done, one of them said to him : ' Every one has his 
 particular religion; we are aware that part of yours is to 
 offer at Easter a Christian child in sacrifice ; now we are 
 ready, for the sum of 1,400, to furnish you with a fine, 
 plump, and healthy Christian child, a little Greek girl of 
 four years old, for your sacrifice, and the child shall be ob- 
 
 1 In his " Reasons for believing that the charge lately revived against 
 the Jewish People is a baseless Falsehood," p. 16 24.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 175 
 
 tained in such a manner as to insure the most profound 
 secrecy.' The Eabbi's son, as may be supposed, was thun- 
 derstruck at the proposal, but he dissembled his feelings and 
 stated that before he could enter into any definite arrange- 
 ments with them it was necessary he should consult his 
 father. They having consented to this, he withdrew to his 
 father's room and briefly related to him the story of the grim 
 proposal. Speaking in the Hebrew tongue, for fear the men 
 outside should understand, the father told him to despatch 
 a messenger immediately to the head-quarters of the police, 
 requesting the chief of police to send immediately an officer 
 with a body of gendarmes, and then to go back and keep the 
 Greeks, under the pretence of discussing the price of their 
 crime. Emin Effendi speedily answered the summons, and 
 on the arrival of the zaptiehs the rabbi posted them behind 
 a door concealed by a heavy curtain, and sent word to his 
 son that the men had come, this message, like the previous 
 one, being delivered in Hebrew. One of these individuals 
 asking what the man had said, Nissim Palacci answered that 
 his father, although ill, wished to see them. Ushered into 
 the presence of the rabbi, he began asking them in Turkish, 
 so that the officials might understand the affair, how and 
 where they got the child, how the sale was to be effected, 
 and many other particulars. The examination of the case 
 satisfactorily concluded, he whistled, the police came in, and 
 having manacled the men, led them off to prison. As they 
 were led through the streets some inkling of the affair seems 
 to have got abroad, and the police had to be strengthened to 
 repress the people, who looked as if about to take vengeance 
 on the miscreants." 1 
 
 1 Charles Godfrey Leland, from the Levant Herald, in the Works of 
 Heinrich Heine, t. i , p. 179, London, 1892.
 
 CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 THE JEWS IN FRANCE, GERMANY AND ITALY. 
 
 THE absorption in the Talmud became the balm for the 
 wounds caused by the crusading mob amongst the 
 communities of the Ehine district. In the school the 
 pleasures of thought obtained, and no sorrow or despair 
 was to be found. 
 
 The disciples of Eashi, Eabbi Shemaya, Eabbi Isaac ben 
 Asher ha-Levi of Speyer, Eabbi Nathan ha-Machiri, and his 
 brother, Eabbi Menachem, Eabbi Simon, and Eabbi Simcha 
 bar Samuel of Vitry, 1 founded a multitude of schools, which 
 produced a long succession of teachers. 
 
 Amongst the learned men worthy of record at this period 
 were Eabbi Jehuda ha Cohen, 2 Eabbi Meshullam ben Moses, 
 Eabbi Eleazar ben Nathan from Mayence, who described 
 the revolting cruelties of the first Crusaders, 8 Eabbi Solomon 
 ben Samson of Worms, and Eabbi Eleazar ben Samuel from 
 Metz. 4 
 
 1 He wrote the famous book " Machzor of Vitry," which has recently 
 been published in Berlin. 
 
 2 The author of Sepher ha-Dinim ; cf. the periodical Hammebasseir 
 
 3 This Martyrology, under the title of Gzeirot Tatnu, 1096, was pub- 
 lished by Dr. Jellinek, Leipzig, 1854 ; enlarged by Neubauer, Revue des 
 etudes juives, no. 7, p. i 3 ; see Levin in the same Revue, viii., 134; 
 see also Lowe, the Memorbook of Nurenberg, London, 1881. 
 
 Rabbi Eleazar ben Nathan gives therein a vivid account of the terrible 
 events at Spiers, Worms, Mayence, and Cologne. There are many 
 tales of individual heroism which stand out in their singularly impressive 
 horror with a strange lurid light. The story of Rabbi Simcha Cohen 
 surpasses in its weird, tragic elements anything that the Greek dramatists 
 could have conceived ; cf. the Jewish Chronicle, i5th May, 1896, p. 23, 
 and L. Levysohn, Scenen aus dem Jahre, 1096, in Frankel's Monatschrift, 
 1856 ; Rabbi Eleazar was also the author of Piyutim, dealing with those 
 times ; cf. Zunz, Synagogale Poesie, p. 246 ; and is also famous as the 
 composer of the Sepher Eben ha-Eizer, on the Rabbinical Constitutions, 
 edited Prague, 1610 : cf. Zunz, Zur Geschichte, p. 72. 
 
 4 Author of the Sepher Yereim, editio princeps, Venice, 1566 ; re- 
 printed correctly, Vilna, 1895; c f- Azulai's Shem ha-Gedolim, p. 24, t. i., 
 edit. Vilna, 1852.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 177 
 
 Bohemia must also be enumerated as being in the list of 
 Talmudical centres at this period, for it produced many men 
 famous for Jewish knowledge. Eabbi Isaac ben Jacob 
 Halaban, of Prague, takes an important place among the 
 Tosaphists. His brother, Eabbi Petachya, made distant 
 journeys (about 1175 90) through Poland, Russia, the land 
 of the Chozars, Armenia, Media, Persia, Babylonia, and 
 Palestine. His abridged description of his journeys gives 
 interesting notices of the Jews in the East. 1 
 
 The small town of Eameru continued to be the centre of 
 study. Here Eabbi Isaac ben Samuel of Dampierre (Ei), a 
 great grandson of Eashi, held his school. He was the chief 
 authority after the death of his uncle, Eabbenu Tarn. 
 Learned and acute, like his ancestors, Eabbi Isaac occupied 
 himself with completing Eashi' s commentary, with collecting 
 and arranging his notes on the whole Talmud, and with 
 determining the questions and solutions of difficult passages 
 in the Talmud by the Tosaphists. The story is told later 5 
 that in the college of Eabbi Isaac the elder, there were sixty 
 learned members, all of whom were not only proficient in 
 the whole of the Talmud, but each one of whom knew by 
 heart and in a masterly manner one of the sixty tractates. 
 Eabbi Isaac's first collection of the glosses was called " the 
 oldest Tosaphot." 
 
 In consequence of the hostile spirit which began to prevail 
 in North France through Philip Augustus, Eabbi Isaac's 
 son, named Eabbi Elchanan, 8 who although young had gained 
 renown among the Tosaphists, fell a martyr to his religion 
 in the lifetime of his father (1184). 
 
 1 His Travels, editio princeps, Prague, 1595 ; rendered into Latin, 
 Altdnrf, 1687; into German by Ottensosser, Fiirth, 1844; into French 
 by Carmoly, Paris, 1831 ; and into English by Benish, London, 1856, 
 
 2 Preface to the Sepher Zeida La Derech, by Rabbi Menachena Ibn 
 Zerach. 
 
 3 Rabbi Solomon Luria, Responsa, section 29 ; cf. Zunz, Literaturg. 
 d. S. Poesie, p. 288. Rabbi Jehuda ben Eleazar in his Minchat Jehuda, 
 Gen. xxi., 2, mentioned that Rabbi Elchanan is the author of an astrono- 
 mical work entitled Sod ha-Ibbur. On the identity of Rabbi Elchanan 
 with the Deodatus Episcopus Judseorum of the Latin records, see Rev. 
 Dr. H. Adler in his " Chief Rabbis of England," p. 12. London, 1887 ; 
 and J. Jacobs, Jews of Angevin England, p. 81. A separate collection of 
 Tosaphot, compiled by Rabbi Elchanan ben Isaac, is extant in a MS. 
 now at Ramsgate, from which a quotation is given by J. Jacobs, Jews of 
 Angevin England, p. 269. 
 
 12
 
 178 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Among the victims of the year 1197 was the Tosaphist 
 Eabbi Samuel ben Natrunai (Shebet), pupil and son-in-law 
 of Eabbi Eleazar ben Nathan. 1 
 
 After the death of Eabbi Isaac the elder (about 1200) the 
 study of the Talmud in North France was represented by 
 three men who had sprung from his school : Eabbi Jehuda 
 Sir Leon ben Isaac, the Pious (ha-Chasid), in Paris, 1166 
 1224 ; Eabbi Samson ben Abraham in Sens, 1226 ; and his 
 brother, Eabbi Isaac the younger (Eizba), in Dampierre. All 
 three expounded the Talmud in their schools in the usual 
 manner, decided on religious questions that were submitted 
 to them, and solved the original Tosaphot, of which those of 
 Eabbi Samson exist in a separate form under the name of 
 Sens Tosaphot. Eabbi Jehuda Sir Leon, 2 the Pious, became 
 the master of many pupils, who afterwards acquired renown, 
 as Eabbi Solomon of Montpellier, Eabbi Moses of Couci, 3 
 Eabbi Isaac of Vienna, the author of Or Sarua, 4 and others 
 who became rabbis and promoters of the study of the Talmud 
 in Spain, France and Germany. 
 
 1 Cf. The Chronicles of Rabbi Joseph ben Joshua Meir ha-Cohen, the 
 Sephardi, translated into English by Bialloblotzky, London, 18341836. 
 
 2 Rabbi Jehuda's father-in-law was Rabbi Abraham ben R. Jehoseph 
 of Orleans. Sir Leon's Tosaphot are frequently quoted ; a portion of 
 his Tosaphot has recently been published under the title of " Beracha 
 Meshuleshet," Warsaw, 1863 ; cf. Zunz, Zur Geschichte, p. 35 ; Dr. 
 Gross, in Berliner's Magazin, 1877, p. 173 187. 
 
 A learned article by Joseph Jacobs is given in his Jews of Angevin 
 England, p. 406416, wherein he endeavours to trace Sir Leon in London 
 in the time of Philip Augustus, who drove all the Jews out of Paris in 
 1182, and did not allow them to return till 1198, after which time Sir 
 Leon returned to his native place and founded there an important 
 school of Tosaphists. Concerning his liturgical prayers, see Zunz, 
 Literaturgeschichte, p. 238. 
 
 For references on the life and work of Rabbi Samson of Sens, see 
 Gross, Revue des etudes juives, vi., p. 167 ; vii., p. 40, and in Graetz's 
 Monatsschrift, xxvii., p. 6; xxviii.. p. 17; xxix., p. 58; Zunz, Leteratur- 
 geschichte, p. 302 ; Zur Geschichte, p. 35 ; Halichot Kedem, p. 46 ; 
 and J. Jacobs, Angevin England, p. 241 242. 
 
 3 The author of the Sepher Mitswot Gadol, on the six hundred and 
 thirteen precepts, editio princeps, about 1480 ; again by Gershon 
 Soncino, 1489, Venice, 1522, 1547, Kopust, 1807. 
 
 * An Halachic or legal compilation, of which the first two parts have 
 been published, Zitomir, 1862, and the third part in Jerusalem, 1887. 
 Extracts are quoted by J. Jacobs in the Jews of Angevin England, 
 pp. 146, 241-2. Responsa of his son, Rabbi Chaim, Or Sarua, was pub- 
 lished, Leipzig, 1865.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 179 
 
 Eabbi Moses ben Jacob of Couci travelled from one congre- 
 gation to another in South France and Spain (1235), and 
 was accordingly called the " preacher." He was successful 
 on his side in bringing many thousands who had neglected 
 several rites, or had never observed them, to repentance and 
 atonement, and in persuading them to remain constant to 
 their practice. 1 
 
 The first real attempt to suppress the Talmud occurred in 
 the thirteenth century as a direct consequence of the anti- 
 Jewish zeal of the zealous convert Nicholas Donin. He 
 betook himself to Pope Gregory IX., and brought charges 
 against the Talmud, saying that it distorted the words of 
 Holy Writ. The Pope immediately commanded that all 
 copies of the Talmud should be confiscated and handed over 
 to the Dominicans and Franciscans. The Talmud was then 
 put on its trial. Louis IX. of France arranged a public 
 controversy in which Eabbi Jechiel of Paris, disciple and 
 successor of Eabbi Jehuda Sir Leon, Eabbi Moses of Couci, 
 Eabbi Jehuda ben David of Melun, and Eabbi Samuel ben 
 Solomon took part. 2 The disputation was held in Latin at 
 the Eoyal Court (on the 5th of Tamuz, 1240), in the presence 
 of the bishops of Paris and Senlis, of many Dominicans, and 
 of the queen-mother Blanche, who for all practical purposes 
 was at the head of affairs. As the result of three days' dis- 
 cussion, the commission, which had been appointed to make 
 an enquiry upon the Talmud, condemned it to be burnt. The 
 sentence of condemnation, however, remained unfulfilled. It 
 appears that a prelate, having great influence with the king, 
 named Archbishop Walter (Gautier) Cornutus of Sens, inter- 
 ceded on behalf of the Jews, with the result that the confis- 
 cated volumes were altogether or partly restored to their 
 owners. But after the death of the prelate,, the monarch 
 
 1 Cf. Semag, ii., ch. 3. A Commentary on the Pentateuch of Rabbi 
 Moses of Couci is repeatedly quoted by Rabbi Jehuda ben Eleazar in 
 the preface of the Sepher Daat Zekeinim, and also pp. 86 b , 87, Leghorn, 
 1783- 
 
 2 Dr. Gross in Berliner's Magazin,iv.,p. 179, identified Rabbi Samuel 
 ben Solomon with Sir Morel, who came from Falaise in Normandy to 
 England; cf. Monatsschrift, 1869, p. 148; J. Jacobs' article in the Jewish 
 Chronicle, Jan. 25, 1889, P- l6 ) ar >d i n Jews of Angevin England, pp. 53, 
 146.
 
 180 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 commanded that the volumes of the Talmud should be sought 
 for and taken from their possessors by force. Four-and- 
 twenty cart-loads of them were brought together in one spot 
 in Paris and committed to the flames (Friday, Tamuz, 1242). 
 Two young men, 1 one a Proven9al and the other a German, 
 named respectively Eabbi Abraham Bedersi and Eabbi Meir 
 of Bothenburg have written elegies on this event. 2 
 
 Eabbi Jechiel felt himself obliged to leave his native land 
 and to journey towards Palestine (to Jean d'Acre). 
 
 His two sons-in-law were the famous Tosaphist, Eabbi 
 Isaac of Corbeil, and the celebrated Eabbi Mordecai ben 
 Hillel. Eabbi Isaac ben Joseph of Corbeil (died 1280) was 
 the author of the sepher "Amude Gola," or Sepher Mitswot 
 Katon on the six hundred and thirteen precepts, an abridg- 
 ment of Eabbi Moses of Couci's Semag, which was com- 
 mentated by Eabbi Peretz ben Elijah (1300) . s 
 
 Eabbi Mordecai ben Hillel, who died in a riot, Nurenberg, 
 1298, collected a number of decisions of previous authorities 
 on Talmudical questions. 4 
 
 The reign of the Emperor Frederick II. was, on the whole, 
 favourable to the Jews, as the frequent hostilities between 
 himself and the Pope led him to disregard the anti-Jewish 
 edicts of the latter. In the year 1223, a large rabbinical 
 assemblage was held in Mayence for the purpose of discussing 
 taxes and other subjects connected with the various congre- 
 
 1 Zunz in Geschichte der Syn. Poesie, p. 332, and Amude ha-Aboda, 
 p. 51. named a third young man, Rabbi Benjamin ben Abraham de 
 Mansi. 
 
 2 For accounts of this disputation, see Les Rabbins francais, p. 506 ; 
 Kish, Monatsschrift, 1874, p. 66 ; I. Loeb, Revue des etudes juives, 2, 
 p. 247 ; Gr. Rabbi Zadok Kahn, Joseph le Zelateur, p. 26 29 ; Neu- 
 bauer, Jewish Controversy, Expositor, 3 d series, vii., p. 81, and Noel 
 Valois, Guillaume d'Auvergne, 118, 137. 
 
 3 Editio princeps, Constantinople ; and with the annotations of Rabbi 
 Peretz, Cremona, 1556; Cracow, 1596; Ladi, 1805, and Kopis, 1820; 
 cf. Zunz, Die Ritus, p. 211. Another abridgment was made by Rabbi 
 Abraham ben Ephraim, preserved MS. in the Library of Baron Horace 
 de Gunzburg, in St. Petersburg. 
 
 4 There have been several editions since the editio princeps of Alfasi's 
 codification of Talmudic Law at Constantinople, 1509, on which the 
 Mordecai, as it is called, is a running commentary. A monograph on 
 him and his sources was written by Dr. Kohn, Breslau, 1878. Cf. 
 J. Jacobs, Jews of Angevin England, p. 53, 54, 399.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 181 
 
 gations. 1 It was attended by Rabbi David ben Kalonymos, 2 
 Rabbi Baruch ben Samuel, 8 Rabbi Simcha of Speyer, 4 Rabbi 
 Eleazar ben Joel Halevi, 5 Rabbi Eleazar ben Jehuda and 
 others. 
 
 The last mentioned Tosaphist, Rabbi Eleazar ben Jehuda 
 of Worms, was distinguished by his original didactic works. 6 
 His principal work is the Sepher Rokeach, on the ritual rules, 
 with a masterly preface on Jewish ethics. The following 
 maxims taken from the preface will give some idea of what 
 Jewish ethical doctrine was at a time when morality was 
 not the world's strong point, and when, moreover, persecu- 
 tion was doing its best to crush out every noble aspiration 
 from the Jewish soul : 
 
 " No crown surpasses humility, no monument a good 
 name, no gain the performance of duty. The good man 
 leads others in the right path, loves his neighbour, gives his 
 charity in secret, does right from pure motives and for God's 
 sake ; he indulges in no idle talk ; he is free from the lust of 
 the eye ; he is reviled yet answers not. He shuts his heart 
 
 1 Cf. Responsa Maharam, Prague, 1608, at the end. 
 
 2 Rabbi Kalonymos was the son of Rabbi Meir and the grandson of 
 Rabbi Kalonymos the elder ; cf. Zunz, Literaturgeschichte, p. 325. 
 
 3 Disciple of Rabbi Eleazar of Metz, composed a compendium of 
 rabbinical prescriptions, under the name of Sepher ha-Chachma, quoted 
 by Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg, and Rabbi Mordecai ben Hillel. He 
 wrote also liturgical hymns and elegies. Great beauty and elegance of 
 diction is displayed in his Zulat to the weekly Parasha, of Behar, which 
 begins with the words: " Achrei Nimkar;" see Seder Abodat Israel, 
 edition S. Baer, Rodelheim, 1868, p. 715. 
 
 4 His Rabbinical Constitutions are extant in the Responsa of Mahram 
 and in the book of Rabbi Mordecai ben Hillel. 
 
 5 Author of the Sepher Abi-ha-Ezri, MS. in the Bodleian Library, 
 and Sepher Abi-Asaph, on the Rabbinical Constitutions ; cf. Gross, 
 Monatsschrift, 1885. The first part of Abi-ha-Ezri has been published, 
 Cracow, 1882. 
 
 6 He wrote: (i) Seder darke ha-Teschuba, on Penitence, editio 
 princeps, Venice, 1580. (2) Commentary on the Song of Songs, editio 
 princeps, Cracow, 1583. (3) Sepher Rokeach, on the ritual, editio 
 princeps, Fano, 1505. (4) A Commentary on the Sepher Jecira, editio 
 princeps, Mantua, 1562. (5) Likkutim: Explanations on the Penta- 
 teuch, large extracts given in Azulai's Nachal Kedumim, Leghorn, 1800. 
 (6) Sodei Raza, a Kabbalistical work, Shaarei Bina, a gematrical 
 method on the Scripture, and Sepher ha-Shearim of the same author 
 have not as yet come to light. (7) Rimzei Haphtarot, annotations on 
 the Haphtarot, has been published, Warsaw, 1875; cf. les Rabbins 
 fran^ais, p. 469 ; Kochbei Isaac, xxvii., 7.
 
 182 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 against all envy save that excited by another's virtues ; he 
 makes the righteous his example ; he deceives no one by 
 word or deed." 1 His wife, Dulcie, gave public discourses on 
 the Sabbath. She supported her husband and family, and 
 with her two daughters suffered a martyr's death in 1213 or 
 1214 at the hands of two knights of the Cross. 2 
 
 Eabbi Eleazar ben Jehuda of Worms was one of the disci- 
 ples of Eabbi Jehuda ben Eabbi Samuel Chasid of Speyer, 3 
 who had composed the famous Sepher Chasidim, 4 a collection 
 of ethical instructions, enriched with excerpts from the 
 older moralists ; he wrote also an additional hymn, called 
 Shir ha-Kabod, to his father's celebrated Shir ha-Yichud, 5 on 
 the unity and unchangeableness of God, and Sepher ha- 
 Kabod, the book of glory, 6 on Penitence. 
 
 Here are a few sayings chosen from the Sepher Chasidim : 7 
 " Serve not thy Maker because thou hopest for Paradise, 
 but from pure love of Him and His commands. Give thy 
 life for His service like a soldier in battle. Deceive no one, 
 neither Jew nor Gentile ; quarrel with no one whatever his 
 creed. If one would borrow of thee and hast doubts of 
 being repaid, do not lie, saying thou hast no money. On him 
 that oppresses the poor or buys stolen goods no blessing 
 
 1 The above extract is taken from an Address on the Jewish Ethics, 
 p. 12, London, 1889. 
 
 2 I. Abraham's Jewish Life, p. 344, and Zunz, Zur Geschichte, p. 172. 
 
 3 Rabbi Samuel was the son of Rabbi Kalonymos, grandson of the 
 great Rabbi Eleazar. 
 
 * Editio princeps, Bologna, 1558; cf. Zunz, Hamazkir, 1858, p. 42. 
 His Testament has also been published in the same edition. 
 
 5 Editio princeps, with a Commentary of Rabbi Lipman Miihlhausen, 
 Thiengen, 1560. 
 
 6 Mentioned in his Sepher Chasidim, ch. 197, 321, 449, 462, 808. 
 
 7 Cf. Sepher Chasidim, ch. 63, 358, 426, 665, 666, 667, 683, 684, 1073, 
 1074, 1076 ; the translation is taken from the Address on the Jewish 
 Ethics, p. 12. A treatise concerning the Jewish slaying of animals, 
 attributed to Rabbi Jehuda Chasid, is preserved MS. in the National 
 Library, no. 446, 2 at Paris. Responsa from Rabbi Jehuda Chasid, 
 addressed to Rabbi Eleazar of Worms, is preserved MS. in the same 
 Library, no. 335, ii. An Exhortation Hymn, called Shir Tochacha, of 
 Rabbi Jehuda, was published by Rabbi Moses Chagis, Venice, 1703. 
 Cf. Rabbi Shem Tob, Sepher Emunot, section 7, ch. 14 ; Zunz, Zur 
 Geschichte, 125 ; Literaturgeschichte, p. 298, 300. Giidemann, Ges- 
 chichte des Erziehungswesens, p. 153, 167, 219, t. i., and J. Briick, 
 Rabbinische Ceremonial Gebrauche, Breslau, 1837.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 183 
 
 rests. If a murderer would take refuge with thee, consent 
 not to hide him, yea, though he be a Jew. Honour the 
 virtuous Gentile, not the irreligious Israelite. In morals 
 Jew and Christian, as a rule, are alike. On those that clip 
 the coin, on usurers, on such as have false weights and 
 measures, or who are in any wise dishonest in business, there 
 is no blessing. The worst failing is ingratitude, it must not 
 be shown even to the brute. More guilty even than those 
 who are cruel to animals are the employers that ill-treat 
 their servants. Pay thy debts before thou givest alms. If 
 one has cheated or injured thee in any way, let not revenge 
 tempt thee to do the same to him." 
 
 It remains a noteworthy fact that the domestic activity of 
 the French Jews, and the ingenious exposition of the Talmud 
 by the Tosaphists, in no way ceased on account of their 
 miseries, but continued undisturbed for some time longer. 
 The Talmud was burnt ; the teaching of it was again pro- 
 hibited by Louis ; and still during this very time the pious 
 travelling preacher, Eabbi Moses of Couci, composed his 
 great work on the Law. In this, proceeding on the basis of 
 the code of Maimonides, he combined in a clear synoptical 
 manner the elements of the Talmud, together with the reli- 
 gious ordinances of the Bible. Another famous Talmudist, 
 Eabbi Samuel ben Solomon Sir Morel, of Falaise, prepared a 
 new collection of Tosaphot, just at the time when the Talmud 
 was proscribed (1252 1259). As he possessed no copy of the 
 Talmud to work from, because the officers of the Dominicans 
 had deprived him of it, he was compelled to rely upon his 
 memory. Moreover, Eabbi Jechiel of Paris had three hun- 
 dred students of the Talmud in his academy to whom he 
 delivered discourses probably from memory. The French 
 congregations had become impoverished by the frequent 
 demands for money and the confiscation of their property. 
 Eabbi Jehiel was compelled to send a messenger to Palestine 
 and the neighbouring lands to procure supplies for the main- 
 tenance of his academy. 1 
 
 1 Graetz, History, iii. p. 605 606. The name of the messenger was 
 Rabbi Jacob, who brought back a list of the celebrated tombs of 
 Palestine, preserved MS. in the National Library of Paris, no. 312.
 
 184 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Eabbi Isaac ben Joseph of Corbeil, the pupil and son-in- 
 law of Eabbi Jechiel, wrote a concise manual of such religious 
 duties as were of practical importance to the Jews in their 
 dispersion (Semak). 
 
 Eabbi Isaac ben Joseph declares that : " A Jew sins more 
 against God by cheating and robbing a Christian than when 
 he cheats or robs a Jew, because though both acts are dis- 
 honest and criminal, in the case of a Christian the Jew 
 offends not only against the moral law, but profanes the 
 sacred name of God." 1 
 
 In order to render his book as popular and pleasing as 
 possible, he sent a letter to the congregations of France and 
 Germany asking them to take the trouble of making copies 
 of his work and of spreading the knowledge of it. Besides 
 these we may mention Eabbi Baruch ben Isaac, disciple of 
 Eabbi Isaac the elder, who composed a work on the rabbini- 
 cal prescriptions ritual and legal, under the name of Sepher 
 ha-Teruma. 2 His son Eabbi Samuel of Mayence was one of 
 the teachers of the celebrated Eabbi Meir of Eothenburg. 
 
 Eabbi Meir ben Baruch of Eothenburg on the Taube, born 
 1220, was the greatest rabbinical authority of that time. He 
 was indeed the first official chief rabbi in the German king- 
 dom, and probably received this title from the hands of the 
 Emperor Eudolph, the first of the House of Hapsburg. 8 
 
 The Jews of several congregations resolved to shake off the 
 dust of Germany from their feet, and, together with their 
 wives and children, to wander forth and seek a new home. 
 Many families from the cities of Mayence, Worms, Speyer, 
 Oppenheim, and others, in the Wetterau, left their rich pos- 
 sessions in order to cross the sea. At the head of these 
 emigrants was the most famous Eabbi Meir of Eothenburg. 
 He also wandered forth, together with his whole family, in- 
 tending to make his way to Syria (spring, 1286). Many 
 wealthy Jews of the districts of the Ehine and the Maine 
 
 1 Semak, 85 and 275, quoted by I. Abrahams, Jewish Life, p. 106. 
 
 2 Editio princeps, Venice, 1523, again Zolkow, 1811. 
 
 3 Cf. Les Rabbins francais, p. 452. His brother Rabbi Abraham 
 Rothenburg wrote a casuistical work under the name of Sinai, pre- 
 served MS. in the Bet ha-Midrash of London, cf. Revue des Etudes 
 juives, N. 23, p. 94.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 had already started on their journey. Eabbi Meir reached 
 Lombardy with his family, and was only waiting for the 
 members of his community in order to take ship in Italy, 
 and together with other exiles to steer towards the East into 
 the haven of safety. Unfortunately Eabbi Meir was recog- 
 nised by a baptised Jew, who, in the train of the Bishop of 
 Basle, was passing through the same town. At the instigation 
 of the bishop, Captain Meinard of Gorz took him prisoner, 
 and delivered him to the authorities. The Emperor Rudolph 
 ordered him to be placed under arrest in the tower of Ensis- 
 heim, in Alsace (4th Tamuz, 1286). The Emperor did not 
 intend by this course to punish the runaway rabbi, but to 
 keep him safe and prevent him from exiling himself. He, 
 indeed, was afraid lest by the departure of the Jews en masse 
 the imperial income obtained from these serfs of the chamber 
 would suffer heavy loss. Eabbi Meir's imprisonment was, 
 therefore, not a severe one. He was permitted to receive 
 visits, to instruct his pupils, 1 and to perform all the functions 
 of a rabbi, provided that he did not go away from the place. 
 The German Jews were, however, unable to feel at ease 
 as long as their highly respected chief remained in custody ; 
 they, therefore, sent deputies to the Emperor Eudolph, when 
 he paid a visit to the Ehine country in the year 1288. Being 
 then, as usual, in need of money, he entered into negotiations 
 with them. The Jews offered him 20,000 marks of silver if 
 he would inflict punishment upon the murderers of the Jews 
 of the Upper Weser and Boppard, release Eabbi Meir from 
 custody, and guarantee to them security against murderous 
 outrages at the hands of the populace The emperor acceded 
 to their terms, and laid a heavy fine upon the citizens of the 
 
 1 His favourite pupil in Ensisheim was Rabbi Simson ben Zadok, who 
 collected all the ritual and casuistical constitutions which he had re- 
 ceived from Rabbi Meir under the title of " Tashbats," editio princeps, 
 with annotations of the Tosaphist Rabbi Peretz, Cremona, 1556, again, 
 1558, Cracow, 1559, Kopis, 1816 and Lemberg, 1858. 
 
 Rabbi Meir was in correspondence with the famous Rabbi Avigdor 
 ben Elijah ha-Kohen, spiritual head of the congregation of Vienna ; cf. 
 his Responsa, ed. Cracow, section 12 and ed. Prague, section 102. Rabbi 
 Avigdor composed a commentary on the Pentateuch, combining the 
 religious ordinances corresponding to the sections of the law and the 
 explanations of it ; see Steinschneider, Catl. in der Stadtbibliothek zu 
 Hamburg, p. 15.
 
 186 THE CELEBBITIES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 Upper Weser and Boppard. Eabbi Meir was not, however, 
 released from prison, either because the emperor thought to 
 make capital of the respect of the Jews for their rabbi by 
 extracting large sums of money from them, or, as is related, 
 because Eabbi Meir himself refused to be liberated on these 
 terms. He feared that the precedent of imprisoning the 
 rabbis to extort ransoms from the Jews would be frequently 
 resorted to in after times, and therefore continued for five 
 years longer under arrest. From prison he sent replies to 
 inquiries addressed to him, and composed several works 
 there. 1 He died in prison, and the successors of Eudolph 
 kept his corpse unburied for fourteen years, in order to extract 
 money from the congregations. At length, a childless man 
 of Frankfort, named Eabbi Siisskind Alexander Wimpfen, 
 ransomed the body for a large sum, and interred it in Worms. 
 The only reward which the noble Wimpfen demanded for 
 himself was that his bones might be laid by the side of the 
 pious rabbi. 2 
 
 As Biblical exegetists of northern France we may mention 
 Eabbi Joseph Bechor-Shor, whose commentary on the Penta- 
 teuch shews that he was a sound exponent of Scripture ; s his 
 
 1 Besides his Tosaphot on the Talmud we have from him ; (i) Re- 
 sponsa, 315 sections, published Cremona, 1557. (2) Responsa, 1,022 
 sections, Prague, 1608 and Sdilkow, 1835. (3) Responsa, edited by 
 Rabbi N. Rabbinowitz, with notes, Lemberg, 1860. (4) Annotations to 
 the Sepher Mishna Tora of Maimonides, finished by his pupil Rabbi 
 Meir ha-Cohen, printed in the editions of that work under the title of 
 Hagahot Maimuni. (5) Birchat Maharam, a Ritual Work on the Bles- 
 sings, editio princeps, Riva di Trento, 1559 ; cf. Tashbats of Rabbi 
 Simson ben Zadok, section 322. (6) Hilchot Semachot, Ordinances 
 concerning the time of mourning, edited with a commentary by Rabbi 
 Jehuda Halevi, Leghorn, 1819 (7) Treatise on the Masora, MS. in the 
 Vatican Library, 183, no. 2. (8) Beeir Maim Chayim, a moral book, 
 MS. in the Munich Library, 45, no. 2. (9) Annotations on the Semak 
 of Rabbi Isaac of Corbeil, MS. in the National Library of Paris, 
 no. 378. His legal decisions are incorporated in the Sepher ha-Parness 
 of Rabbi Moses Par ness of Rothenburg, published, Vilna, 1891; cf. 
 Responsa of Maharil, sections 156, 181. Concerning his liturgical 
 writings, see Zunz, Literaturgeschichte, p. 361 and Amude ha-Aboda, 
 p. 160 161. 
 
 2 Graetz iii., p. 661 662 ; cf. Rabbi Solomon Luria, in his Yam Shel 
 Shloma Gittin, p. 41, ed. Prague, 1812; Levysohn, Nafshot Zadikim, 
 P- 35 39 an d Wiener's Regesten, note at the end of the preface. 
 
 3 His Commentary, editio princeps, Constantinople, 1520; Dr. Jellinek 
 republished the first part, containing Genesis and Exodus, Leipzig, 
 1856; extracts are given in J. Jacob's Jews of Angevin England, pp. 
 23 25, who identified him with the " Rubi Gotsce," the father of the
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 187 
 
 son, Rabbi Saadiah, the author of Sepher Otiot j 1 Rabbi 
 Bleazar of Beaugenci, the author of a commentary on Isaiah, 2 
 who was probably a pupil of Rashbam ; the author of the 
 Sepher Haggan, a commentary on the Pentateuch, which 
 consists of fifty-three weekly Parashiyoth ; 8 the author of 
 Daat Zkeinim, 4 Tosaphot on the Pentateuch, which contains 
 the commentaries of several writers ; Rabbi Isaac ben 
 Jehuda Halevi, grandson of Rabbi Samuel of Falaise, who 
 made a collection of the commentaries of his predecessors of 
 the north French school ; 5 Rabbi Joseph Chazan of Troyes, 
 the author of a Hebrew Grammar under the title of Sepher 
 " Yedidut," mentioned by his pupil, Rabbi Jehuda ben 
 Eleazar in his Minchat Jehuda, a commentary on the Penta- 
 teuch, compiled from previous exegetists ; G and finally 
 Rabbi Chiskiah ben Manoach, the author of the Sepher 
 Chiskuni. 7 
 
 The eminent French rabbis of the southern school were : 
 Rabbi Abraham ben Isaac and his son-in-law, Rabbi Abraham 
 ben David. 
 
 Rabbi Abraham ben Isaac of Narbonne, called Ab-bet-din 
 (about 1140), is the author of the book Eshkol, 8 on the ritual 
 
 Isaac fil Rabbi and Abraham fil Rabbi Joce, who play such important 
 roles in England in the latter half of the twelfth century ; see also Revue 
 des etudes juives, iii., p. 6 and Zunz, Zur Geschichte, p. 33. 
 
 1 On the letters of the Alphabet, in verse, incorporated in Rabbi Elie 
 Levita's Massoret ha-Massoret, Venice, 1538 ; again in Responsa of the 
 Geonim, Prague, about 1590 ; and in Rabbi Joseph del Medigo's Noblet 
 Chachma, Basle, 1626; cf. Steinschneider, Catl. Bodl., 2225 and his 
 Man. Bibl., p. 121. 
 
 2 Published by J. W Nutt, London, 1879 ; cf. Zunz, Zur Geschichte, 
 p. 79 and Neubauer, Catl. Bodl., 1606, 12, 
 
 3 Preserved MS. in the Bodleian Library ; cf. Zunz, Zur Geschichte, 
 p. 78 and Neubauer, Monatsschrift, xxi., p. 230. 
 
 * Editio princeps with the Sepher Minchat Jehuda of Rabbi Jehuda 
 ben Eleazar, Leghorn, 1783. 
 
 5 Under the title of Paaneiyach Rasa, editio princeps, Prague, 1607; 
 see Zunz, Zur Geschichte, p. 92 94; Kerem Chemed, vii., p. 69; les 
 Rabbins fran^ais, p. 437 and Dr. Berliner, Magazin, iv., 73. 
 
 6 P. 19, 24 a , 35 b ; extracts in English from the Sepher Minchat 
 Jehuda are given in Joseph Jacob's Jews of Angevin England, pp. 81, 98. 
 
 7 Editio princeps, Venice, 1524 ; cf. Zunz, Zur Geschichte, p. 91 92. 
 
 8 Published for the first time with a lucid commentary and an elaborate 
 introduction by Dr. H. B. Auerbach, Halbertstadt, 1868 1869. Re- 
 sponsa of Rabbi Abraham ben Isaac is preserved MS. in the Library of
 
 188 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 and rabbinical decisions, which was much appreciated by 
 the great rabbis. He was looked upon as an authority in 
 determining rabbinical laws, and religious-legal questions 
 were addressed to him from the learned Eabbi Meshullam 
 ben Jacob of Lunel. 1 
 
 His son-in-law was Rabbi Abraham ben David of Posquieres 
 (1125 1198), the celebrated author of critical Annotations 
 on Maimonides' Talmudical Code, esteemed by his contem- 
 poraries as the greatest authority on the Talmud. 2 The rich 
 and learned rabbi of Posquieres supported a college of his 
 own, which attracted many students 8 from far and near, and 
 provided not only for the Talmudical education of his disciples 
 but also for their material requirements. While still in his 
 youth he composed Talmudical works of deep importance, 
 and wrote, among other works, a commentary on a part of 
 the Mishna, being persuaded thereto by Eabbi Meshullam 
 ben David. 4 
 
 Baron Horace de Giinsburg in St. Petersburg. Concerning Rabbi 
 Abraham ben Isaac, see the Introduction of Dr. Auerbach to the Sepher 
 ha Eshkol, Gross, Frankel Monatsschrift, 1868, and G. Saige, les juifs 
 du Languedoc, p. 43. 
 
 1 Concerning Rabbi Meshullam ben Jacob, see Literaturblatt d. Or., i., 
 p. 760 ; his son-in-law was Rabbi Moses ben Jehuda of Beziers, the 
 father of Rabbi Meshullam, the author of "Sepher ha-Hashlama," an 
 additional work to the writings of Alfassi, published on the treatise 
 Baba Kama, Paris, 1885; and on the treatise Berachot, Berlin, 1893. 
 The author of Sepher ha-Terumot mentioned, section 335 b a Responsa 
 of Rabbi Meshullam ben Jacob. 
 
 2 Cf. Rabbi Abraham bar Nathan, in Sepher ha-Manhig, ed. by 
 Goldberg, pp. 34 b - 73 b - 
 
 3 Cf. Itinerary of Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela (ed. by Asher), in the 
 beginning. 
 
 4 In addition to the critical annotations on Maimonides' Mishna Tora, 
 he wrote also : Polemical notes on Alfassi, incorporated in the Book 
 Temim Deyim of Rabbi Benjamin ben Abraham Motal, section 234 239; 
 Commentary on the Siphra, editio princeps, Constantinople, and repub- 
 lished with annotations by I. H. Weiss, Vienna, 1862 ; Sepher Baalei 
 ha-Nephesh, which treats of legal uncleanness, editio princeps, Venice, 
 1602 ; Polemical notes on the Sepher ha-Maor of Rabbi Zerachiah 
 Halevi, incorporated in the book Temim Deyim, section 240 248 ; Com- 
 mentary on the treatise Eduyoth, editio princeps, Prague, 1725 ; Com- 
 mentary on the treatise Kannim, editio princeps, Constantinople, 1751 ; 
 Commentary on the treatise Tamid, Prague, 1715 ; cf. Frankel's Darkei 
 ha-Mishna, p. 333. The Rashba in his Responsa, i., section 440, quoted 
 Sepher " Issur Mashehu," as written by Rabbi Abraham ben David. 
 Concerning Rabbi Abraham ben David, see G. Saige, les Juifs du 
 Languedoc, pp. 57, 72, 73, 75, 167.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 189 
 
 One of his disciples was Eabbi Abraham ben Nathan, who 
 was born in Lunel, 1150, and settled in Toledo in 1204. 
 Eabbi Abraham ben Nathan who wrote his book Hamanhig? 
 on Jewish customary rites, describing the differences of ritual 
 observance among the Jews of the various lands he had 
 visited, seems to have been a great traveller, and to have 
 even reached England. 2 
 
 Bourg de St. Gilles, the second chief town of Duke Eay- 
 mond V. of Toulouse, had a congregation of a hundred 
 members. This congregation, as well as the others under 
 Count Eaymond, whom the Troubadours called " the good 
 Duke," lived under the most happy conditions, members of 
 it being frequently promoted to offices of State. Eabbi Abba 
 Mari ben Isaac of St. Gilles, who had obtained a certain 
 importance through his son, was the sheriff of the town. 
 His son, Eabbi Isaac ben Abba Mari, who was probably a 
 pupil of Eabbenu Tarn, had adopted from the celebrated 
 master of Eameru a solid treatment of the Talmud. Already 
 in his seventeenth year, he had composed at the instance of 
 his father, 8 a compendium of certain ritual laws, and com- 
 bined in a work entitled Ittur* all the results of his investi- 
 gations in the Talmud upon the rabbinical civil laws and 
 rites. 
 
 Eaymond VI. of Toulouse favoured the Jews almost more 
 even than his father, and promoted them to official places. 
 
 To this period belongs the famous Talmudist, Eabbi 
 Jonathan ben David ha-Kohen of Lunel, author of the com- 
 mentary on Alfassi's Talmudical code. 5 In his old age he 
 left his native place and went to the Holy Land. 
 
 1 Editio princeps, Constantinople, 1519; re-published Berlin, 1854; 
 Warsaw, 1885. A full account of the book was given by D. Cassel in 
 the Yubelschrift in honour of Zunz, pp. 122 197. 
 
 2 See Hamanhig, Book of Customs, ed. Goldberg, p. 83 b ; a translated 
 extract is given in Joseph Jacob's Jews of Angevin England, p. 224. 
 
 3 Mentioned by his son Rabbi Isaac in the Preface to his Sepher ha- 
 Ittur. 
 
 4 Editio princeps, Venice, 1608; again Warsaw, 1801, and with 
 another work of the author under the name of Aseret ha-Debarim, by 
 S. Schonblum, Lemberg, 1860. 
 
 Rabbi Isaac wrote also a Sepher Dinei Nikkur, rules on the removing 
 of the forbidden fat, and of the veins, published, Offenbach, 1712. See 
 Les Rabbins fran<;ais, p. 520 and Saige, Les juifs du Languedoc, p. 16. 
 
 5 His commentary on the treatise Erubin, printed in the editions of 
 that work; on the treatise Chullin, published, Frankfort, 1871, under
 
 190 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Eabbi Meir of Trinquentaille and his son Eabbi Nathan of 
 Trinquentaille, of the thirteenth century, were esteemed as 
 profound Talmudists. The favourite pupil of Eabbi Nathan 
 was Eabbi Samuel ben Isaac ha-Sardi. 1 Eabbi Samson ben 
 Isaac of Chinon, who wrote a methodological treatise on the 
 Talmud under the title of Sepher Keritut ; 2 Eabbi Manoach 
 of Lunel, the author of the annotations on the Mishna Torah 
 of Maimonides ; 8 and Eabbi Aaron ben Jacob Hacohen of 
 Lunel, the author of the Sepher Orchot Chayim on the 
 ritual prescriptions, 4 are also to be ranked amongst the great 
 Talmudists. 
 
 The greatest exegetists in the south of France were the 
 family of the Kimchis. The founder of the family, Eabbi 
 Joseph ben Isaac Kimchi, was one of the numerous Jews 
 who were obliged to flee from Spain to escape the cruel 
 persecutions of the Mohades about the middle of the twelfth 
 century. Having a knowledge of Arabic, he translated Eabbi 
 Bachya's moral-philosophical work and many others into 
 pure fluent Hebrew, and composed two Hebrew grammars, 
 under the title of Sepher ha-Galuy, 5 and Sepher ha-Zik- 
 
 the title of Abodat ha-Leviyim ; his commentary on the Alfassi on the 
 section Nezikim, preserved MS in the Bodleian Library, see Les rabbins 
 fran^ais, p. 500 ; concerning the date of his death, see Graetz, Geschichte 
 der Juden, vi., p. 403, note 19. To this period belongs Rabbi Meir 
 Hakohen, who emigrated from Narbonne to Toledo, where he died, 
 1264 ' he is the author of a ritual work entitled Sepher Hameorot, MS. 
 in the library of Baron H. Gvinzburg. 
 
 1 The author of the Sepher ha-Terumoth, on the civil rites, editio 
 princeps, Salonica, 1596, again 1628 and Prague, 1605, Rabbi Samuel 
 ha-Sardi quotes a book of his teacher Rabbi Nathan under the title of 
 Shaar ha-Tefissa. Rabbi Meir of Trinquentaille wrote a book entitled 
 Sepher ha-Eser against the attacks of Rabbi Zerachya on the Alfassi ; 
 cf. Steinschneider, Catl. Bodl., 1654. 
 
 3 Editio princeps, Constantinople, 1516. 
 
 3 Editio princeps, Constantinople, 1718, and recently by Rabbi Simon 
 Sidon in Presburg. 
 
 * In two parts ; the first part has been published, Pirinzi, 1750. Con- 
 cerning the second part, see S. D. Luzzato, Meged Yerachim, i. 5 ; 
 Benjacob Kerem Chemed, viii., p 167 169 ; and Hamebasser, ii. 2. 
 Rabbi Aaron quotes a Sepher ha-Minhagot or Sepher ha-Manhig of the 
 celebrated Rabbi Asher of Lunel, 1170 1205, preserved in MS. in the 
 University of Cambridge, Add. Dd. 5-38. 
 
 5 Published by Mathews, 1887 ; cf. -J. Jacob's Jews of Angevin 
 England, p. 281 282.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 191 
 
 karon. 1 He wrote also a commentary on Holy Writ, 2 a 
 moral work under the name of Shekel Hakodesh (the Sacred 
 Shekel), and finally penned many liturgical poems. A polemi- 
 cal work entitled Sepher ha-Berit, being a dialogue between 
 a believer and an apostate, is also ascribed to him. The 
 believer maintains that the true religion of the Jews is 
 attested by the morality of its professors. The ten Com- 
 mandments at least, they observe with the utmost conscien- 
 tiousness. Not only do they adore no other being but God, 
 but they avoid taking false oaths. Among them are no 
 murderers, adulterers, nor robbers. Jewish children are 
 brought up in purity and fear of God ; no low word is allowed 
 to escape them. Jewish girls sit modestly at home. A 
 Jew observes brotherly hospitality towards his neighbours, 
 ransoms prisoners, clothes the naked, and feeds the hungry. 8 
 Eabbi Joseph left two sons, who both followed his favourite 
 studies. The elder, Eabbi Moses, who nourished 1170 1190, 
 distinguished himself as a commentator and grammarian, 4 
 
 1 Published by Prof. Bacher, 1888. A full account of these two books 
 was given by Dr. S. Epenstein in his article on Rabbi Joseph Kimchi 
 in the Periodical Journal, Keneset ha-Gedola, i. 117, Warsaw, 1890. 
 
 2 His commentary on Job was published by Dr. I. Schwarz, Berlin, 
 1868 ; his commentary on the Proverbs is preserved in MSS. in Munich, 
 no. 242, and in Vatican, 89. 
 
 3 The Sepher ha-Berit is incorporated in the Polemical Book, entitled 
 " Milchemet Choba," Constantinople, 1710. His contemporary, Rabbi 
 Jacob ben Reuben, wrote his Milchamot Hashem, on the same subject, 
 of which the preface has been published in Otsrot Chaim, Hamburg, 
 1848, p. 370 373, and the twelfth chapter in Vikkuach ha-Ramban; cf. 
 Hamazkir, 1860, p. 44. Concerning the book of Shekel ha-Kodesh, 
 which is preserved in MSS. in the National Library of Paris, no. 983, 3, 
 see Carmoly, Annalen, 1839, no. 24 ; a part of which has been published 
 in the Periodical Journal Zion, ii. p. 97 ; and in Derech.Tobim, sections 
 7 and 23, London. 1852. Concerning the life and works of Rabbi 
 Joseph Kimchi, see Ozar Nechmad, i., 97 119. A disciple of Rabbi 
 Joseph Kimchi, Rabbi Menachem ben Simon of Posquieres, wrote a 
 commentary on Jeremiah and Ezekiel, MS. in the National Library of 
 Paris, no. 192. In proof of the words of Rabbi Joseph in his Sepher 
 Haberit, cf. Professor Dollinger in his lecture delivered before the 
 Academy of Sciences in Munich on the 25th July, 1881 ; see the Article' 
 by Dr. H. Adler in the Nineteenth Century, December, 1881, p. 822. 
 
 4 He wrote an exposition of the Proverbs. Ezra and Nehemiah, which 
 are incorporated in the rabbinical Bibles. These works of Rabbi Moses 
 Kimchi's are sometimes wrongly ascribed to Ibn Ezra ; cf. J. Reifmann, 
 Zion, i., p. 76; Lipmann, Zion, ii., p. 113 117. Rabbi Moses Kimchi 
 composed a grammatical work entitled " Mehalech Shebilei ha-Daat,"
 
 192 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 and has the credit of having educated his younger and illus- 
 trious brother Rabbi David, whose Hebrew grammar and 
 dictionary continued in general use among scholars for 
 centuries. 
 
 The younger brother, Rabbi David Kimchi, 1160 1235, 
 is greatly esteemed for his masterly commentaries on the 
 Scriptures, and for his valuable labours in the grammar and 
 lexicography of the holy tongue. He was the first who dis- 
 covered the distinction between the long and short vowels, 
 whereby the understanding of the changing of vowels has 
 been greatly facilitated. 1 
 
 In Lunel lived about this time the Tibbon family, who dis- 
 tinguished themselves from father to son by their translations 
 of the Arabico-Jewish works, and made themselves famous 
 in the history of Jewish literature. 
 
 Eabbi Judah ben Saul Ibn Tibbon, 11201190, originally 
 came from Granada, and had emigrated to the south of 
 France on account of the persecution of the Jews by the 
 Almohades. In Lome! he pursued the profession of physi- 
 cian, and in that capacity made himself so popular that his 
 
 or " Journey on the Paths of Knowledge," edited by Elias Levita with 
 a Commentary, Pesaro, 1508 ; a Latin version is given by Sebastian 
 Munster, Basle, 1^31. 
 
 1 The works of Rabbi David Kimchi are : (i) A commentary on the 
 Pentateuch, of which, however, Genesis only has been published by A. 
 Giinsburg, Presburg, 1842. (2) A commentary on the earlier Prophets, 
 incorporated in the rabbinical Bibles. An earlier edition issued sepa- 
 rately, Leira, 1494. (3) A commentary on the later Prophets, Pesaro, 
 1515, also incorporated in the rabbinical Bibles. (4) A commentary on 
 the Psalms editio princeps, 1477; and other editions since. This precious 
 work on the first book of the Psalms has been republished by S. M. 
 Schiller-Szinessy from a MSS., Cambridge, 1883. (5) A. commentary 
 on Ruth, published by Mercier, Paris, 1563. 16) A commentary on 
 Chronicles, incorporated in the rabbinical Bibles. (7) Michlol or Per- 
 fection, which consists of two parts a, a Hebrew grammar, usually- 
 bearing the name Michlol, edited with notes by Elia Levita, Venice, 
 1545, and by Hechim, Fiirth, 1793 ; republished with notes by Ritten- 
 berg, Lyck, 1862 ; and b, a Hebrew lexicon, commonly called the Book 
 of Roots, the best editions of which are by Elias Levita, Venice, 1546, 
 and Biesenthal and Lebrecht, Berlin, 1847 ; the Latin version of the 
 Michlol was translated by Guidacier, Paris, 1540, and of the Roots in 
 I 535- Editio princeps of the Roots was about 1480. (8) A commentary 
 on the treatise Aboth, editio princeps, Trino, 1525. (9) Et Sopher, a 
 massoratical work, published Lyck, 1864. do) His controversies are 
 incorporated in the Sepher Milchamot Choba, Constantinople 1710, 
 p. i3a i8b. Concerning his life, see Dukes, in the " Orient," 1850, 
 Ozar Nechmad, p. 157, and Tauber, Breslau, 1867.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 193 
 
 services were sought by princes, knights, and bishops, and 
 he was even sent for from across the sea. He knew Arabic 
 thoroughly and studied Hebrew with enthusiasm. At the 
 instigation of Eabbi Meshullam of Lunel with whom he 
 lived on friendly terms and of other friends, he translated 
 in succession from Arabic into Hebrew Kabbi Bachya's 
 " Duties of the Heart;" Ibn Gabirol's "Ethics," and "Pearl- 
 strings;" Rabbi Jehuda Halevi's religious-philosophical 
 work ; Ibn Janach's important grammatical and lexicogra- 
 phical work; and lastly Eabbi Saadiah's "Religious Philo- 
 sophy," 1161 1186. 1 
 
 His son, Rabbi Samuel Ibn-Tibbon, was born about 1160, 
 and died about 1239. Rabbi Judah had spent the utmost 
 care on his education, had instructed him himself and put 
 him under highly-salaried masters. Thus Rabbi Samuel 
 Ibn-Tibbon learned the profession of medicine, the Arabic 
 language, the Talmud and the other departments of know- 
 ledge belonging thereto. 
 
 Rabbi Judah trained his son to attend the poor without 
 charge. " Thou mayest accept fees from the rich," said 
 Rabbi Judah Ibn-Tibbon to his son, " but heal the poor 
 gratuitously." He adds : " Examine thy drugs and medicinal 
 herbs regularly once a week, and never apply a remedy 
 which thou hast not thoroughly tested." 2 There is another 
 noble remark of Rabbi Judah to his son : " Avoid bad 
 society," he says, "but make your books your companions. 
 Let your bookcases and shelves be your gardens and your 
 pleasure grounds. Pluck the fruit that grows therein, gather 
 the roses, the spices and the myrrh. If your soul be satiate 
 and weary, change from garden to garden, from furrow to 
 furrow, from sight to sight. Then will your desire renew 
 itself and your soul be satisfied with delight." 3 
 
 1 Cf. Steinschneider, Hebraische Uebersetzungen des Mittelalters, 
 1893. 
 
 2 Cf. The Testament of Rabbi Judah, edited by Steinschneider, Berlin, 
 1852. p. 7; and with an English translation, entitled Derech Tobim, 
 London, 1852 ; see I. Abrahams' Jewish Life, p. 331. 
 
 3 Testament, ed Steinschneider, p. 6 ; see Jewish Life, p. 353 354. 
 There exists an epistle of Rabbi Judah addressed to Rabbi Meshullam, 
 published in the Book Otsrot Chayim, p. 366 367, Hamburg, 1848. 
 
 13
 
 194 THE CELEBKITIES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 Eabbi Samuel rendered into Hebrew not only works of 
 Jewish authors, but also some of Aristotle's compositions, 
 wrote a philosophical exposition of Ecclesiastes, 1 and a treatise 
 on a chapter of Genesis. 2 
 
 The son of Eabbi Samuel was Eabbi Moses Ibn-Tibbon, 
 who flourished 1244 1274. Like his father and grand- 
 father, he was a diligent and successful translator of Greek 
 and Arabic works on Jurisprudence, Philosophy, Astronomy 
 and Medicine; and those of Maimonides, Averroes, Aristotle, 
 Alphagran, and Euclid's Elements. 3 
 
 1 Which exists in MS. He translated the Meteorologica of Aristotle 
 under the name of Othoth ha-Shomayim, MS. in the British Museum. 
 
 2 Entitled " Maamar Yikkavu ha-Mayim," a philosophical work, 
 solving the problem why the sea and waters do not inundate the earth, 
 published, Presberg, 1837; cf. Revue des etudes juives, no. 6, p. 238 
 
 275- 
 
 To this period belongs the physician Rabbi Jacob Hakkaton, who 
 translated for his teacher, Rabbi Moses Nachmanides, a treatise of 
 Averroes on Purgation, published by I. Goldblum in his Tresors d'Israel, 
 i., p. 24 32. Rabbi Jacob wrote also an exposition of Drugs, a 
 Pharmacopoeia of the University of Montpellier, MS. in the National 
 Library of Paris, no. 1173,5. Cf. Carmoly Histoire des medecins Juifs, 
 p. 78 ; Steinschneider, Jeschurum, 7, p. 82, and Goldblum in Tresors 
 d'Israel, p. 24, note i. 
 
 3 The works of Rabbi Moses Ibn-Tibbon are as follows : (r) Sepher 
 Olam ha-Katon, Microcosmos, of Rabbi Joseph Zadik, rendered by 
 Rabbi Moses from Arabic into Hebrew, published with an Introduction 
 by Jellinek, Leipzig, 1854 ; cf. Les Rabbins fran<?ais, p. 598. (2) Sepher 
 ha-Techalot ha-Nimzaot, the principles of all existing things, of Abuna- 
 zar Alfarabi, translated into Hebrew by Rabbi Moses, edited by H. 
 Philipovske, in his Sepher he-Assif, vol. i., London, 1847, and Leipzig, 
 1849. (3) Notes on the Pentateuch, MS. in the Bet-Hamidrash of 
 London ; cf. Hamazkir, xiv., p. 103. (4) Commentary on Canticles, pub- 
 lished, Lyck, 1874. (5) Sepher Chush-u-Muchash, De Sensu et de 
 Sensibili of Averroes, rendered into Hebrew by Rabbi Moses, preserved 
 in MS. in the Bet-Hamidrash of London. (6) Abi al-Hasan ben Al- 
 Haitham's Commentary on Euclid, translated into Hebrew by Rabbi 
 Moses, MS. in the Library of Munich ; fragments of this book preserved 
 MS. in the Bet-Hamidrash of London. (7) Averroes' Commentary on 
 the Ccelo et Mundo of Aristotle, rendered into Hebrew by Rabbi Moses, 
 MS. in the National Library of Paris, no. 918, 3. (8) Commentary 
 of Averroes on Meteorologia of Aristotle, translated into Hebrew by 
 Rabbi Moses, MS. in the same Library, no. 918, 5. (9) Fragments on 
 Isagoge of Porphyrius, and many parts of Organon, preserved in MS. 
 in the same Library, no. 898. (10) His translation of Averroes' 
 Abridgment of Aristotle's Phisica, MS. in the same Library, 918, 12. 
 (n) His translation of Averroes' Abridgment of Aristotle's De Anima, 
 MS. in the same Library, no. 918, 6. (12) His translation of Averroes' 
 Abridgment of Aristotle's Metaphysics, MS. in the same Library, 918, 
 8. (13) His translation of Averroes' Commentary on De Generatione
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 195 
 
 The son-in-law of Eabbi Samuel Ibn-Tibbon was the well- 
 known Eabbi Jacob ben-Abba-Mari ben Simon Anatoli, who 
 flourished about 1200 1250. The most cultured German 
 Emperor, Frederick II., invited him to come to Naples, and 
 granted him an annual salary so that he should be at leisure 
 to apply himself to the interpretation of Arabic works of a 
 scientific character. This monarch entrusted Anatoli with 
 the task of translating the writings of Aristotle together with 
 the commentaries of the Arabic philosopher, Averroes (Ibn 
 Eoshed) , which latter had hitherto been unknown to Christians. 
 A Christian doctor, probably Michael Scotus, the Court 
 Astrologer of the Emperor, translated these works into Latin, 
 perhaps under the guidance of Anatoli. Anatoli delivered 
 public discourses on Sabbaths and Festivals, which he col- 
 lected into one volume, under the name of Maimed ha- 
 Talmidim, 1 which became the cherished book of the orthodox 
 Provencal congregations. 
 
 The Emperor carried on a correspondence with a young 
 Jewish scholar, Jehuda ben Solomon Cohen Ibn Matka, of 
 Toledo, 1215 1247. His learning produced such an im- 
 pression on the Emperor Frederick that he sent him a number 
 of scientific questions, and expressed his pleasure at the 
 answers returned to them ; the Emperor then probably 
 induced him to come to Italy (Tuscany). Jehuda Ibn Matka 
 possessed the right of free entry to the Imperial Court. 2 
 
 The fourth connection of Ibn Tibbon, Eabbi Jacob ben 
 Machir, or Don Prophiat Tibbon, from Montpellier, 1271 
 1303, also distinguished himself in the labour of translation. 8 
 
 et Corruptione of Aristotle, MS. in the same Library, 918, 4. (14) 
 Sepher Peyah, a commentary on the Midrash, MS. in the Bodleian 
 Library. (15) A Treatise on Measure and the Weight in the Bible 
 and in the Talmud, MS. in the Vatican Library, ccxcviii., 4. 
 
 1 Published Lyck, 1868. In the Preface on the treatise of the 
 Categories of Prophyrius of Rabbi Jacob Anatoli, MS. in the National 
 Library of Paris, the author quotes his other works which he translated 
 as follows: (i) Sepher ha-Maamarot, on the Categories. (2) Sepher 
 ha-Melitsah, on the Interpretations. (3) Sepher ha-Hekash, Analytical 
 work ; and (4) Sepher ha-Mofeit, on the Topic. Concerning the Sepher 
 Ruach Chein, which is attributed to Anatoli, cf. Mlo Chofnayim. p. 13 ; 
 he-Chaluz, ii., p. 24 25. Concerning his life and works, see S. Munk, 
 Melanges, p. 487 488, and Hamazkir, vii., p. 62 66. 
 
 2 Graetz, History, iii., 583 584. 
 
 3 Rabbi Jacob ben Machir carried on a correspondence with the 
 celebrated Rabbi Solomon ben Adret ; cf. Responsa, i., section 355, and
 
 196 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Eabbi Shem-Tob ben Isaac of Tortosa (11961264), a 
 distinguished writer on medicine and a practical physician, 
 delivered public discourses on the healing art to Christian 
 audiences in Marseilles, and made them acquainted with the 
 results of the Arabian schools. This physician presents an 
 instructive instance of the Jewish zeal for knowledge. 
 
 Eabbi Shem-Tob Shaprut, as a rich merchant, was always 
 engaged in his trade, and made journeys across the sea. In 
 1226 he went as far as the last remaining seat of the former 
 Christian kingdom of Jerusalem, Jean d'Acre (Acco). Here a 
 co-religionist, who was engaged in the study of mathematics, 
 upbraided him for his neglect of the study of the law of his 
 fathers, and for having considered science as subordinate to 
 the earning of his livelihood. Owing to this rebuke, although 
 thirty years of age, Eabbi Shem-Tob Tortosi changed his 
 plan of life, hastened from Acco to Barcelona, and made 
 study his primary pursuit under the tuition of the Eabbi Isaac 
 ben Meshullam of Barcelona, and his livelihood a subsidiary 
 
 Sepher Minchat Kenaot, ch. 21, 26, 39, 40. He wrote: (i) Sepher 
 Mozney ha-Yiunim, of Algazali, translated into Hebrew by Rabbi Jacob, 
 of which the 10 12 chapters have been published in Ozar Nechmad, 
 ii.,p. 196 198 (2) Translation of the De Animalibus of Averroes, of 
 which the nth book is preserved MS. in the Bet-Hamidrash of London. 
 
 (3) Roba Israel, an astronomical work, MS. in the Bodleian Library. 
 
 (4) Translation of an Abridgment of Almageste, by Djaber-lbn Alfah ; 
 cf. Melo Chofnayim, p. 12 ; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sepharim, pp. 37, 650. 
 
 (5) Translation of an astronomical work of Ibn Abu Ali Haitham. (6) 
 Translation of an astronomical work of Quosta Ibn Louqua. (7) 
 Translation of the treatise on the Astrolabe of Abu-Isaac Ibn al- 
 Zarquala. (8) Translation of the treatise on the Astrolabe of Alsafar. 
 (9) Astronomical Tables, MS in the National Library of Paris. A 
 Treatise on Euclid by Rabbi Jacob ben Machir, entitled Sepher ha- 
 Matanot, MS. in Madrid, no. 126. His translation of Averroes' Abridg- 
 ment on Logic, published at Riva de Trento, 1559. His relative and 
 disciple Estori ben Moses ha-Parchi. the first and most important author 
 on the topography of Palestine, who spent seven years in exploring the 
 country in all directions, afterwards collected his observations into one 
 volume, entitled Kaftor va-Pherach, of which portions were printed in 
 Venice about 1549. and again by Edelmann in Berlin, 1852. In this 
 work Estori refers to an astronomical treatise of Rabbi Jacob ben 
 Machir, entitled Ikker ha-Dechiyot; cf. Kaftor va-Pherach, ed. Berlin, 
 p. 56 b , ii3 b . Concerning Estori ha-Parchi, see Zunz, Itinerary of 
 Benjamin of Tudela, ii , p. 260 and Neubauer-Renan Ecrivains Juifs. 
 About the same time Rabbi Solomon Melgueiri translated Averroes' 
 Paraphase of the " De Somno et Vigilia," MS. in the Bet-Hamidrash of 
 London, and portions of Averroes' De Coelo et Mundo, MS. in many 
 libraries ; see Saige's Les Juifs du Languedoc, p. 126.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 197 
 
 one. He learned the art of medicine, and arrived at such a 
 pitch of excellence in it, that he was able to translate the 
 writings of the best Arabian doctors, and to deliver lectures 
 upon the healing art. 1 
 
 Eabbi Joseph Ezobi ben Chanan, of Orange, near Avignon 
 (about 12301250), occupies an important place among the 
 Jewish poets of France. He dedicated to his son, Samuel, 
 an epithalamium, called "The Silver Dish" (Kaarat Kesef), 
 as a wedding gift, in which he laid down admonitions and 
 regulations how to live. Among other things he commanded 
 him "to hold himself aloof from the wisdom of the Greeks, 
 which resembled the vine of Sodom, and only implanted the 
 seeds of disease in a man's mind." 2 
 
 The most popular ethical prose-poem writer was his 
 countryman Eabbi Yedaya Bedaressi. Eabbi Yedaya Beda- 
 ressi (1280 1340), lived in B6ziers. He was the son of the 
 celebrated Eabbi Abraham Bedaressi, the author of a Dic- 
 tionary of Hebrew Synonyms, entitled Chotam Tochnit. 3 
 
 1 Carmoly, Histoire des medecins Juifs, p. 78 79, and Graetz, History 
 iii., p. 601. The Works of Rabbi Shem-Tob are as follows : (i ) Sepher 
 ha-Shimush, a treatise on medicine, from Abul Quasim-Khalaf Al- 
 Zahravi, rendered into Hebrew by Rabbi Shem-Tob, published with a 
 Latin translation, Oxford, 1778 (2) Translation of Almansuri de 
 Rhazes' treatise on medicine, preserved MS. in the Vatican Library. 
 (3) Sepher ha-Nefesh, translation of Averroes' commentary on " De 
 Anima," MS. in the National Library of Paris, no 940; see Revue des 
 etudes juives, 10, p. 256. (4) Sepher Pardes Rimonim, explanatory 
 notes on the Agada, editio princeps, Sabbionetta, 1554. (5) Tsafnat 
 Paaneiyach, Revealer of Secrets, commentary on Ibn Ezra's explanation 
 of the law, and a treatise on the Agada, preserved in MS. in the 
 National Library of Paris, no. 852, 2. (6) A polemical work entitled 
 " Eben Bochan." MS. in the same Library, no. 831, 4. Cf. Stein- 
 schneider, Catal. Leyden, p. 115 119. 
 
 In the year 1262, Rabbi Solomon ben Ayub, of Beziers, wrote his 
 Sepher ha-Shomaiym Ve-ha-Olam, an intermediate commentary on the 
 " De Coelo et Mundo," preserved MS. in the Bet-Hamidrash of London ; 
 he also wrote a treatise on the Leprosy, MS. in the Library of Munich, 
 no. 110/5. 
 
 2 Editio princeps, Constantinople, 1523 ; has been translated into 
 Latin, by Reuchlin, Tubingen, 1512; into French, by Carmoly, in Re- 
 vue Orientale, iii., p. 185 ; and into English, by D. I. Freedman, Jewish 
 Quarterly Review, vol, viii. 
 
 3 Published, Amsterdam, 1863 ; his poetry is incorporated in Sepher 
 Maskiot Keseph, Amsterdam, 1765; in Sepher Bechinot Olam, of his 
 son, edition Mantua, 1556 ; and in Kerem Chemed, iv., p. 57 65.
 
 198 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Eabbi Yedaya Bedaressi was satisfied to prove in a letter 
 to the famous Eabbi Solomon, 1 that secular and scientific 
 occupations were not inconsistent with a complete belief in 
 God or devotion to the demands of religion. His principal 
 work, Bechinat Olam, Examination of the World, is a most 
 interesting and attractive piece of Hebrew literature. 2 The 
 following extract from the eighth chapter of the Bechinat 
 Olam will give some idea of the mode of his elegant style 
 of composition: 3 "This world is a tempestuous sea; un- 
 fathomably profound; and the boundaries are without com- 
 prehension. Time forms the bridge over which man must 
 pass. The extremities are suspended by attenuated cords. 
 While travelling its extent, the object should be to behold 
 the beauties of God and discover the splendour of the Eternal, 
 which shines conspicuous. The breadth of the bridge is the 
 measure of a man, and the borders fail. From the moment 
 man exists, he begins his journey. The path is narrow, and 
 the road direct. There exists no avenue to the right hand 
 or the left. In what, man, wilt thou glory? In what 
 wilt thou rejoice? The rampart on thy right hand is death! 
 on thy left, destruction ! Can, then, thy heart sustain its or- 
 dinary courage ? or thy hands remain firm ? Wilt thou exult 
 in avarice, and the covetousness which creates riches? Or, re- 
 joice in those things, which, with violence thou hast attained, 
 and gathered with thy net of wickedness? In the tempests 
 of the great sea, what wilt thou do? When the foaming 
 surge flows and arises, and thy lodging house is doomed to 
 
 1 Ben Adret, disciple of Nachmanides, president of the school of Bar- 
 celona, paramount in religious affairs affecting Judaism, not alone in 
 Spain but also in other parts of Europe, as well as in Asia and Africa. 
 Questions for his decision were sent to him from France, Germany, 
 Bohemia, Italy, and even from St. Jean D'Acre in Palestine and from 
 North Africa. Students from Germany sat at his feet to hear him 
 expound the Talmud; cf. Graetz, iii., p. 641 ; J. Perles, 1863 ; and Les 
 Rabbins frangais. His countryman, Rabbi Aaron Halevi, is the author 
 of the famous Sepher ha-Chinuch, the Book of the Initiation on the 
 six hundred and thirteen precepts, editio princeps, Venice, 1523. 
 
 2 Editio princeps, Mantua, 1476, by Abraham Canato, has been trans- 
 lated into French by Philippe d'Aquin, Paris, 1629; and by Munk, 
 Melanges, p. 495 ; in German, the best edition is by M. Stern, Vienna, 
 1847 ; and in English by Tobias Goodmann, London, 1806. See Renan- 
 Neubauer, Les Ecrivains Juifs frangais du xiv e Siecle, p. 25. 
 
 Translated by Tobias Goodmann, p. n 13, London, 1806.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 199 
 
 destruction, where wilt thou rest? This sea thou hast to 
 encounter! Why dost thou hope to come off conqueror? 
 What will become of thee in the day, when the wine of arro- 
 gance stupefies thee, and the juice of the pomegranate fills 
 thee with haughtiness ? By an inclination to the right hand 
 or the left thou mayest destroy thyself. In the mighty abyss 
 thou wilt be lost. From one precipice to another thou wilt 
 go ; no one will retrieve thee ! Floating in the floods of the 
 deep, no one will exhort thee to return." 1 
 
 The ecclesiastical laws were nowhere less strictly observed 
 than in Italy, where the Papal Court and its surroundings 
 were best known. In consequence of this the condition of 
 the Jews there was fairly satisfactory, and actual persecution 
 was rarer in Italy than in any other country ; cultured 
 princes and sovereigns valued learning and learned men 
 without distinctions of creed. Eabbi Jacob Anatoli was in 
 the service of Frederic II.; the physician Farraj Ibn 
 Solomon, who was held in high repute as a scholar, under 
 the name of Farragut, 2 translated Arabic works into Latin 
 for Charles of Anjou, the King of Sicily. One of the four 
 popes who reigned during the short period of thirteen years 
 (1279 to 1291) entrusted his holy person to the care of a 
 Jewish physician, Isaac ben Mordecai, who bore the title of 
 Maestro Gajo. 8 
 
 1 Rabbi Yedaya wrote also: (i) Ktob Hadaat, a translation of Alfa- 
 rabi's De Intellectu et Intelligibili, MS. in the National Library of Paris, 
 no. 984 ; cf. Steinschneider, Alfarabi, St. Petersburg, p. 91 92, 1869. 
 (2) Hadeot Besechel Hachomri, Opinions on the Material Intellect, MS. 
 in the same Library, no. 984, 2. (3) Ktob ha-Hitatsmot, Book of Con- 
 solidation, MS. in the same Library, 984, 4; cf. Zunz, Zur Geschichte, 
 p. 468. (4) Commentary on the Midrash Raba, Tanchuma, Pirke di 
 Rabbi Eleazar, MS. in the same Library; cf. Zunz, ibid p. 467. (5) 
 Sepher ha-Pardes, a collection of ethical sentences of Hebrew, Greek, 
 and Arabian philosophers, published Constantinople, 1516. Crescas in 
 his commentary on the More Nebuchim, ii. ( ch. 30, mentioned a com- 
 mentary on the same book of Rabbi Yedaya. Concerning the book 
 Maadanei Melech, treatise on the game of chess, generally attributed to 
 Rabbi Yedaya, published with a Latin translation by T. Hyde, Oxford, 
 1694, see Zunz, Zur Geschichte, p. 468, and Steinschneider, Schach bei 
 den Juden, Berlin, 1873. Concerning Rabbi Yedaya's Oheb Nashim, 
 see Steinschneider, Israelitische Letterbode, iv., p. 120122. 
 
 2 Cf. Graetz, History, iii., p. 650; Steinschneider, in the Archive of 
 Virchow, t. xxxix., p. 296; L. Leclerc, Histoire de la medicine Arabe, 
 t. ii. p. 464 ; and Les Rabbins fran9ais, p. 628. 
 
 3 Graetz, ibid., p. 650.
 
 200 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 The family of the Anavim occupied a high position in 
 Eome at the time of the Pope Innocent III. Eabbi Zedekiah 
 Anav, a physician of Eome, about 1250, compiled earlier 
 decisions on ritual questions in his Shibbole Haleket. 1 A 
 relation of Zedekiah, Eabbi Yechiel ben Yekutiel, made an 
 abridgment of the Shibbole Haleket under the name of 
 "Tanya," 2 and compiled a moral book entitled " Maalot 
 Hamidot." 8 The greatest Talmudic authorities in Italy in 
 the thirteenth century were Eabbi Isaiah de Trani and his 
 grandson of the same name. 4 
 
 The philosophical writings of Maimonides made their 
 influence felt in favour of the nobler sentiments upon the 
 minds of Italian Jews. About this time they began to occupy 
 themselves in real earnest with the " Guide," and intellectual 
 men delivered discourses upon this profound work. If the 
 origin of this revival may be traced back to Anatoli, at all 
 events Eabbi Hillel of Verona must be considered as the 
 founder and promulgator of the method of scientific thought 
 among the Italian Jews. 
 
 Eabbi Hillel ben Samuel of Verona, 1220 1295, was the 
 pupil in Talmudical knowledge of the famous Eabbi Jonah 
 Gerundi. He had been a witness of the latter' s genuine 
 
 1 The complete edition of this celebrated work has been recently 
 published by S. Buber. Vilna, 1887. 
 
 2 Editio princeps, Mantua, 1514, and many others, but the best edition 
 is with additions and a commentary by S. Hurwitz, Warsaw. 1879. 
 
 3 Editio princeps, Cremona, 1556. 
 
 * The works of Rabbi Isaiah are : (i) Tosaphot or Glosses on the 
 treatise Keduschin, editio princeps, Sabbionette, 1553, by Rabbi Joshua 
 Boaz Baruch. (2) Sepher ha-Machria, legal decisions, and Glosses on 
 the treatise Taanit, published Leghorn, 1779. (3) Glosses on the treatises 
 Chagiga, Rosh-ha-Shanah, incorporated in the Sepher Ohlei Isaac by 
 Rabbi Isaac Bonans, Leghorn, 1821. (4) Decisions on ritual questions 
 contained in the treatise Berachot, incorporated in the Sepher Bet 
 Nathan of Nathan Coronel, Vienna, 1854. (5) Decisions concerning 
 Mezuza Tsitsis, and Tephilin ; also the ritual questions contained in 
 the treatise Succa, incorporated in the Sepher Sam Chayim, Leghorn, 
 1805. His epistolary correspondence is incorporated in the following 
 works : Responsa of Rabbi Elie Mizrachi, section 35, Constantinople. 
 1546, and in the Sepher he-Agur, ed. Naples, 1480. His Annotations 
 on the Pentateuch are incorporated in Azulai's Penei David. The 
 Annotations of his grandson on the Alfassi are incorporated in Shiltei 
 Hagiborim. Decisions of Rabbi Isaiah the Elder on Yebamoth, 
 Ketuboth, Nedarim and Niddah are preserved in MS. in the British 
 Museum.
 
 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 201 
 
 atonement for his error in calling in the aid of the Dominicans 
 in his onslaught against the writings of Maimonides, and 
 since that time Rabbi Hillel held Maimonides in very great 
 reverence. He made himself so thoroughly acquainted with 
 the Latin language that he was able to compose in Latin 
 with great ease ; he translated a work upon surgery by 
 Maestro Bruno from this language into Hebrew. 1 At first 
 he practised the profession of medicine in Rome ; afterwards 
 in Capua and Ferrara. 
 
 About this time in Italy there lived tw r o logical thinkers, 
 one a native-born Italian, Sabbatai ben Solomon of Rome, 
 in his time a very distinguished personage ; and the other a 
 Spaniard, who had emigrated to Rome, Serachya ben Isaac, 
 a member of the renowned family of Ben Shaltiel-Chen, 
 whose home was in Barcelona. The latter of these two was 
 especially famous as a physician, was proficient in the 
 Aristotelian philosophy, and contributed to Biblical exegesis. 2 
 
 To this period belongs the celebrated Rabbi Nathan Hamati. 
 Rabbi Nathan had emigrated from Hamat, Syria, to Rome, 
 and pursued the profession of physician. He made himself 
 
 1 Entitled Sepher Keritut, MS. in the National Library of Paris, 
 973,2. He wrote also a philosophical treatise on the soul under the 
 name of Tagmulei Hanephesh, edited by S. J. Halberstamm, with an 
 introduction by Steinschneider, Lyck, 1874. His epistolary correspon- 
 dence is incorporated in Chemda Genuza, p. 17, seq., and Ozar 
 Nechmad, ii., p. 45, 232, 237. See Renan, Averroes, p. 190, 240. Rabbi 
 Hillel translated also a treatise on Medicine of Galen, MS. in Turin, 
 no. 80. In his Tagmulei Hanephesh, he mentioned his work on the 
 
 2 The works of Rabbi Zerachya are : (i) Treatise on the 
 quality of the soul, edited in Chemda Genuza, p. 45, seq. ; cf. Stein- 
 Schneider's Memoire, St. Petersburg, 1869, pp. 109, 247. (2) Translation 
 of Avicenna's Canon, consecrated to the physician Rabbi Isaac Halevi 
 of Rome, preserved in MS. in several European libraries. (3) Trans- 
 lation of the "Liber de Causis," entitled " Biyur Batob Haggamur," 
 MS. in the Bet-Hamidrash of London ; cf. Steinschneider's Hamazkir, 
 iii., p. 99. (4) Explanations on the difficult places of the " Guide," 
 published in the periodical Ozar Nechmad, ii., p. 124 143. (5) Com- 
 mentary on the Proverbs, mentioned in his letter to Rabbi Hillel of 
 Verona. (6) Commentary on Job, published by I. Schwartz, Berlin, 
 1868. (7) Translation of Aristotle's Metaphysica, MS. in the Bet- 
 Hamidrash of London. (8) Translation of Aristotle's Physica, MS. in 
 the same library. (9) Translation of Aristotle's De Coelo et Mundo, 
 MS. in the same library. Concerning his life and work, see Stein- 
 schneider, Ozar Nechmad, ii., p. 229 245.
 
 202 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 famous by his skill as translator of Greek and Arabic works 
 on philosophy and medicine. 1 
 
 The services of the Italian Jews were great as translators 
 of medical, scientific, philosophical and even folklore litera- 
 ture, such as the popular Kalila we-Dimna. 2 The Jews turned 
 the Arabic into Hebrew, and helped their Christian friends 
 to render the Hebrew into Latin ; and through them was 
 brought to Europe the literature and science of ancient Greece. 
 
 Of the literary intimacies between Jews and Christians in 
 Italy, no more remarkable instance is recorded than that be- 
 tween Dante and his Jewish imitator, Immanuel of Borne. 8 
 Immanuel ben Solomon Ziphroni, born in Borne, 1272, 
 is the author of a collection of poems, tales, parables, and 
 chants, called " Machberet Immanuel." 4 His brilliant talents, 
 his charming poetry, and his delightful company, made him 
 a general favourite, and attracted the notice of Dante, so that 
 
 1 Rabbi Nathan wrote: (i) Translation of Hippocrates' Aphorisms, 
 MS. in the National Library of Paris, no. 1135, 2. (2) Sepher 
 Happerakim, Hippocrates' Aphorisms with the commentary of Galen, 
 translated by Rabbi Nathan- in the year 1283, MS. in the same 
 Library, no. 1106. (3) Translation of the Pronostic of Hippocrates, 
 MS. in the same Library, no. 1106,2. (4) Translation of a Physical 
 treatise of Hippocrates, MS. in the same Library, no. 1106,3. (5) 
 Pirke Moses, embodying the doctrines of Galen and Hippocrates by 
 Rabbi Moses Maimonides, rendered into Hebrew by Rabbi Nathan, 
 published, Lemberg, 1834. (6) Translation of Avicenna's Canon, 
 preserved in MS. in several European libraries. (7) Translation of 
 Abulkasim Alzahravie's treatise on medicine, MS. in the National 
 Library of Paris, no. 1165. (8) Translation of Abulkasim Alzahravi's 
 treatise on remedies for the eye, MS. De Rossi, no. 1344. 
 
 2 Concerning Kalila we-Dimna, see Steinschneider, Zeitschrift d, 
 deutsch-morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, xxvii , p. 553, " Zu Kalila we- 
 Dimna;" and J. Jacobs, Jewish Ideals, p, 135 161. 
 
 3 I. Abraham's, Jewish Life, p. 419. 
 
 4 Editio princeps. Brisa, 1492 ; again, Constantinople, 1535 ; Berlin, 
 1796 ; Lemberg, 1870, with the biography of the author by Stein- 
 schneider, a part of which has been translated into German by Stein- 
 schneider in his "Manna," Berlin, 1847; and the sixth section in 
 Sabbat-Blatt, no. 44, Leipzig, 1844. His Commentary on Proverbs, 
 editio princeps, Naples, 1486 ; and his annotations on the Psalms, 
 published Parma, 1806; see Zunz, Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift, 1839, 
 iv., p. 194, and Steinschneider, Letterbode, vii., p. 165 176, " Ein 
 Brief des Immanuel ben Salomo an Hillel." A part of Immanuel's 
 commentary on the Pentateuch has been published by P. Perreau in 
 the Archives de Merx, i er vol., 1870; his commentary on Job, edited 
 by the same in the Annuar. della societa ital. per gli studii orientali, 
 anno i, 1872 ; and on the Song of Songs, Rome, 1878.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 203 
 
 the two spirits formed a mutual and intimate attachment. 
 In his commentary on the Bible, he gives not only a grammati- 
 cal and archaeological explanation of the text, but makes 
 also some of the most valuable remarks upon the nature and 
 spirit of the poetical books. 1 
 
 His contemporary, Eabbi Kalonymos ben Kalonymos, who 
 was born in Aries, in 1287, was celebrated as a sweet and 
 satirical writer. In 1319, Eobert of Anjou, King of Naples, 
 entrusted him with the task of translating the Arabic philo- 
 sophical works. 
 
 He translated the Arabian poem, Eisale Ichwan el-Ssafa, 
 in five cantos, under the title of Iggeret Baalei Chayim. 2 He 
 also translated Averroes' Commentary on Aristotle's " De 
 Generatione et Corruptione," 3 and wrote besides a moral 
 satire on the manners of the age, entitled Ebn Bochan 4 ; a 
 treatise on medicine under the name of Sepher Eefua, 5 from 
 the Arabic of Honein Ibn-Ishak-el-Abadi, and Galen ; and 
 a treatise for the Feast of Purim. 6 
 
 1 Cf. Azulai in his Shem ha-Gedolim, edition Vilna, 1852, ii., p. 22. 
 
 2 A series of dialogues on natural history, editio princeps, Mantua, 
 1557. Cf. Dukes' Annalen, 1839, p. 131. Has been translated into 
 German by Dr. J. Landsberger, Darmstadt, 1882. 
 
 3 Preserved in MS. in the Bet Hamidrash of London. 
 
 * Editio princeps, Naples, 1489, and with annotations by the Rev. 
 Joseph Kohen-Zedek, Lemberg, 1865. 
 
 5 Published, Amsterdam, 1610. 
 
 6 Editio princeps, Venice, 1552. 
 
 Concerning his life and writings, see Steinschneider, Frankel's 
 Zeitschrift, iii., p. 374; and in his Memoires de 1'Academie Imperials, 
 St. Petersburg. 1869. 
 
 Rabbi Kalonymos' translation of Averroes' treatise on Aristotle's 
 Eight Books of Physics is preserved in MS. in the British Museum.
 
 CHAPTEE X. 
 
 THE JEWS IN GBEAT BEITAIN. 
 
 WILLIAM THE CONQUEEOE, soon after he had 
 obtained possession of the throne of England, invited 
 the Jews to come over in large numbers from Eouen and to 
 settle in England; and he is reported to have appointed a 
 particular place for their residence * 
 
 Under him and his successor, and the first kings of the 
 House of Plantagenet, they flourished in the new land. 
 There, as almost at that time everywhere, they were the 
 guardians of knowledge, the doctors and physicians, the 
 honoured friends of kings, dilectus et familiaris noster. 
 
 In 1090 William II. summoned a convocation at London 
 of Christian bishops and Jewish rabbis for the purpose of 
 discussing the evidence of their respective creeds, and we 
 are told by William of Malmesbury (De Gestis, p. 122) that 
 the Jewish disputants stood their ground with vigour. 2 
 
 At the end of the eleventh century there began to spread 
 throughout Europe a movement which, when it reached 
 England, converted the vague popular dislike of the Jews 
 into an active and violent hostility. While the Norman 
 conquerors were still occupied in settling down in England, 
 the king organising his realm, and the barons enjoying, dis- 
 sipating or forfeiting their newly- won estates, popes and 
 priests and monks had been preaching the Crusade to the 
 other nations of civilised Europe. 3 
 
 1 Fuller, History of Cambridge, p. 8, fixes the date of the first Jewish 
 settlement in that town in 1073. Anthony a Wood, i., p. 129, fixes 
 their settlement in Oxford in 1075, quoted by J. Jacobs, Angevin 
 England, p. 4 5; for the first mention of the Jews in Ireland (in 1079), 
 see W. Stokes, Academy, 22nd March, 1890; for the first mention of 
 the London Jewry (in 1115), see J. Jacobs, Angevin England, p. 13; 
 Ideals, p. 180. 
 
 2 Cf. The Chief Rabbis of England, p. 6 7, written by the chief 
 rabbi, Dr. H. Adler, London, 1887. 
 
 a 13. L. Abrahams, The Expulsion of the Jews, in 1290, p. 8, London, 
 1895.
 
 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 205 
 
 England was so closely related to the churches of the 
 Continent that it could not fail to be affected by the great 
 movement. It is narrated in Peck's " Antiquarian Annals of 
 the Town of Stamford " (Lib. iv., c. xv., p. 18) that Joffred, 
 Abbot of Croyland, in the tenth year of Henry I. (1109), 
 sent some monks from his abbey to Cottenham so that they 
 might publicly preach against Judaism in the neighbouring 
 city of Cambridge. He also sent ecclesiastics to the convent 
 of Wridthorst, near Stamford, in order to preach in Stamford 
 against Judaism. 1 
 
 Throughout the years 1146 1 148 the Jews were persecuted 
 in France, Spain, and Germany, but in England they seem 
 to have escaped, even though the " blood accusation" had 
 just been raised against them for the first time in the case 
 of William of Norwich. 2 
 
 It seems from the entry of Eabbi Ephraim ben Jacob, of 
 Bonn, 3 that this was due to the favour of Stephen, who 
 recovered power in England in 1146. 4 
 
 Under the firm reign of Henry II. an ti- Jewish feeling 
 found no further expression in act. The king, like his pre- 
 decessors, gave and secured to the Jews special privileges, 
 so great as to arouse the envy of their neighbours. They 
 were allowed to settle their own disputes in their own Bet- 
 Din, or ecclesiastical court, and in so far to enjoy a privilege 
 that was granted only under strict limitations to the Christian 
 church. They were placed, apparently, under the special 
 protection of the royal officers of each district. They lived 
 in safety, and they made considerable contributions to the 
 Eoyal Exchequer. 8 
 
 1 The Chief Rabbis of England, p. 6. 
 
 2 Cf. Joseph Jacobs, Jews of Angevin England, p. 19. The story was 
 supported by no evidence more trustworthy than that of an apostate 
 Jew, which was so worthless that the sheriff refused to allow the Jews 
 to appear in the Bishop's Court to answer the charge brought against 
 them, and took them under his protection; cf. J. Jacobs, Jews of 
 Angevin England, p. 257, and B. L. Abrahams, The Expulsion of the 
 Jews, p. 10 ii. 
 
 3 Cf. Hebraische Berichte iiber die Judenverfolgungen wehrend der 
 Kreuzziige, p. 64. 
 
 4 Cf. Angevin England, p. 259. 
 
 5 B. L. Abrahams, The Expulsion of the Jews, p. n.
 
 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 He allowed them to have cemeteries at the outside of every 
 town they inhabited, for until that time they had only one 
 place of interment, which was near London, in the parish of 
 St. Giles, Cripplegate, commonly designated in ancient deeds 
 " the Jews' Garden." 1 
 
 The Jews had schools in London, York, Lincoln, Lynn, 
 Norwich, Oxford, Cambridge, and other towns. Some of 
 these seminaries, indeed, were rather colleges than schools. 
 Besides the Hebrew and Arabic languages, arithmetic and 
 medicine are mentioned among the branches of knowledge 
 that were taught in them ; and the masters were generally 
 the most distinguished of the rabbis. 2 
 
 In the year 1158 the celebrated Spanish- Jewish commen- 
 tator, poet, philosopher and traveller, Eabbi Abraham Ibn 
 Ezra, visited London He composed here his Epistle on 
 the Sabbath, and a philosophical work, Yesod Moreh, dedi- 
 cated to Eabbi Joseph ben Jacob of Moreil. 8 
 
 On the day when Kichard the Lionhearted ascended the 
 throne, September 3rd, 1189, the leaf was turned. When, 
 after his coronation, a deputation from the whole body of the 
 Jews of England did homage to him, and desired to bring 
 rich and gracious gifts, they were turned away upon the 
 instance of the Archbishop of Canterbury. None should 
 receive presents from Jews, neither should Jews tread the 
 court of the castle. The roughness of the common people, 
 who had never loved them, was thus sanctioned and unfettered 
 by a holy mouth. Unwillingly had they seen the small com- 
 munity increase and grow, progressing towards wealth and 
 
 1 Cf. Jacobs' Jewish Ideals, 181. 
 
 2 M. Margolioth, The Jews in Great Britain, p. 109, London, 1846. 
 J. Jacobs in his Angevin England, p. 23, 253, 403, asserts that the 
 martyr, Rabbi Simon Chasid of Treves, lived in England for some forty 
 years, 11061146. Concerning the Jews of Oxford, see Neubauer's 
 Notes on Oxford Jews in Collectanea ii. of the Oxford Hist. Soc., p. 282. 
 Concerning the Jews of Norwich, see the Rev. H. Gollanz, " The 
 Norwich Jewry " in the Jewish Chronicle, 28th June, 1895, p. 21 22. 
 
 3 This Rabbi Joseph ben Jacob of Moreil wrote a super-commentary 
 on Ibn Ezra's Commentary on Genesis, in which he says : " I, Joseph 
 ben Jacob of Moreil, heard viva voce from this sage, Rabbi Abraham Ibn 
 Ezra, the explanation of this passage, and wrote it down in my own 
 words." Cf Neubauer, Catalogue of Bodleian Heb. MSS., no, 1234 (9), 
 col. 486, and Joseph Jacobs, Angevin England, p. 30.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 207 
 
 power. They had become their debtors in money, and found 
 it inconvenient to repay them ; therefore they laid upon them 
 taxes which they could not afford to pay, and accused them 
 as usurers when they took high interest in order to meet the 
 requirements of their borrowers. 
 
 This mischievous sentiment spread itself from the court 
 of the king at Westminster over the whole of England. 1 
 
 The persecutions of the Jews at once began. They were 
 hunted and massacred with inhuman insensibility by their 
 foes and adversaries, who in those times were usually their 
 debtors and hoped to become their inheritors. 
 
 In the more populous towns Crusaders were continually 
 gathering together in order to set out for the Holy Land in 
 company ; and they, aided by the lower citizens, clerics, and 
 poor countrymen, and in some cases by ruined landholders, 
 fell on and killed the Jews wherever they had settlements in 
 England at Norwich, York, Bury St. Edmunds, Lynn, Lin- 
 coln, 2 Colchester, and Stamford. 
 
 But most tragic of all was the lot of the Jews of York, 
 because among them were two men who enjoyed princely 
 fortunes, had built magnificent palaces, and had accordingly 
 aroused the envy of the Christian inhabitants. One of these 
 was Joceus, the other was Benedict, who had been so brutally 
 ill-treated at Eichard's coronation. The latter, who had 
 reverted to Judaism after his compulsory baptism, died from 
 the wounds which had been inflicted on him in London. 
 Crusaders who wanted to obtain wealth, citizens who looked 
 unfavourably at the prosperity of the Jews, noblemen who 
 owed money to them, and priests who were animated by a 
 blood-thirsty fanaticism, all entered into a conspiracy to 
 destroy the Jews of York. In the dead of the night, during 
 
 1 Concerning the massacre of the Jews at London, see J. Jacobs, Jews 
 of Angevin England, pp. 99, 106, 107; at Lynn, p. 113; at Norwich, 
 Stamford, York, and St, Edmunds, pp. 112, 115, 117, 123, 130, 385 ; and 
 Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II., and Richard I. (Rolls 
 Series), i., 309-10, 312 322; see also Graetz, iii., p. 425 429; and 
 Isaac Disraeli, Curiosities of Literature, " The Jews of York." 
 
 a The Jews remembered gratefully the interference of St. Hugh, 
 Bishop of Lincoln, on their behalf during the riots ; for their behaviour 
 at his funeral, cf. J. Jacobs, Jews of Angevin England, pp. 116, 207. 
 Concerning the Jews of Lincoln, see M. D. Davis' paper on " The Jews 
 of Lincoln."
 
 208 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 a conflagration which had arisen, the conspirators broke into 
 the house of Benedict, which was inhabited only by his wife 
 and daughters, carried away all the valuables, and set the 
 house on fire. Joceus, who had foreseen the danger threaten- 
 ing him, repaired with his family and most of the members 
 of the congregation to the tower watchman, and demanded 
 protection in the fortress. But few Jews remained behind 
 in the town, and these were attacked by the conspirators, 
 who made their appearance on the day following their 
 successful experiment, offering them the choice between 
 baptism and death. The Jews in the tower, however, were 
 formally besieged by a huge multitude of people of all ranks, 
 and were called upon to embrace Christianity. One day the 
 watchman sauntered out of the fortress, and as the Jews 
 feared that he would betray them and give them over to their 
 enemies, they resolved to refuse him re-admittance into the 
 fortress. The latter made complaint before a high royal 
 officer, the governor of the fortress, who happened to be 
 present at the time, that the Jews had had the audacity to 
 shut him out of the fortress which had been entrusted to him, 
 and the governor, infuriated in the highest degree, now gave 
 orders to the besieging multitude to demolish the fortress 
 and take vengeance on the Jews. He even brought up 
 reinforcements in order to ensure his victory. The siege 
 lasted six days ; the Jews repulsed all attacks bravely. 
 Already the governor began to repent of having given orders 
 to storm the place. Many noblemen, and sober and prudent 
 citizens had begun to withdraw from an enterprise which, 
 when the king should hear of it, promised so many evil con- 
 sequences to them, when uprose a monk in a white robe, 
 who exhorted the besiegers by voice and example to continue 
 their work. He was nevertheless struck to the ground by a 
 stone hurled by a Jewish hand, and yielded up his fanatical 
 spirit. 
 
 The Jews had in the meantime exhausted their provisions, 
 and death stared them in the face. When the men deliberated 
 what step they should then take a learned rabbi, who had 
 come over from France, Eabbi Yom Tob of Joigny, counselled 
 them to slay one another, saying, "God, whose decisions are
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 209 
 
 inscrutable, desires that we should die for our holy religion. 
 Death is at hand, unless you prefer for a short span of life 
 to be unfaithful to that religion. As we must one day prefer 
 a glorious death to a shameful life, it is advisable that we 
 take our choice of the most honourable and noblest mode of 
 death. The life, which our Creator has given us, we will 
 render back to Him with our own hands. This example 
 many pious men and congregations have given us in ancient 
 and modern times." Many were of the same way of thinking ; 
 the timid, however, would not abandon the hope of being able 
 to save their lives. In the meantime the heroic Eabbi made 
 preparations for the carrying out of his self-sacrifice. 1 All 
 valuables were burnt, fire was applied to the doors, and the 
 men with the courage of zealots passed the knife across the 
 throats of those dearest to them. Eabbi Joceus, as leader 
 of the congregations, first slew his beloved wife, Anna, and 
 to him was allotted the honour of being sacrificed by the 
 rabbi. The Tosaphist, Eabbi Elias, 2 took also a prominent 
 part in the tragedy enacted beneath the smoking ruins of the 
 castle a deed of heroism well worthy of the spirit of the 
 Maccabees. 8 
 
 Eabbi Jacob of Orleans, a disciple of his famous namesake, 
 the illustrious Eabbi Jacob Tarn of Eameru, also met a 
 martyr's death at the massacre which took place shortly 
 after the coronation of Eichard I. 4 
 
 1 Rabbi Yom Tob is therefore named in the Tosaphoth (Yoma, 48*") 
 with the appellation of Martyr. Cf. the account of Rabbi Ephraim of 
 Bonn, edition Wiener, p. 10, translated into English by J. Jacobs in 
 Angevin England, p. '130 131. 
 
 2 Pupil of Sir Morell, is also named in the Tosaphoth (Zebachim, I4 b ) 
 with the appellation of the Martyr ; cf. Les Rabbins francjais, pp. 446, 736. 
 
 3 Rabbi Yom Tob of Joigny is the author of the Penitential Hymn 
 " Amnam Kein " for the Day of Atonement, which is still used in all 
 the Synagogues of the Ashkenazic or so-called German rite, translated 
 by I. Zangwill into English, who has preserved the metre, the rhyme 
 system and the alphabetical acrostic of the original, published in the 
 Jews of Angevin England, p. 109 110. 
 
 4 See account of Rabbi Ephraim of Bonn in Wiener's " Emek 
 Habacha," p. 9, rendered into English by J. Jacobs in the Angevin 
 England, p. 107108 ; see also Dr. Gross, in his biography of Rabbi 
 Jacob of Orleans in the Magazin fur judische Geschichte und Literatur, 
 i., p. 87, who conjectures that he came to England on the occasion of 
 the coronation as the delegate of the French Jews, who were under the 
 suzerainty of England ; cf. The Chief Rabbis of England, p. 78. 
 
 14
 
 210 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Other French Jews of distinction, who helped to kindle 
 the torch of learning in this country, were Eabbi Samuel ben 
 Solomon of Falaise, known as " Sir Morell of England " ; 
 Rabbi Elchanan ben Isaac of Dampiere ; l his most important 
 pupil, Eabbi Jehuda ben Isaac, called " Sir Leon of Paris "; 2 
 Rabbi Chaim of Paris ; 8 Rabbi Isaac 4 ben Yom Tob of Joigny, 
 the martyr of York ; Rabbi Joseph ben Jacob of Morell, 5 for 
 whom Rabbi Abraham Ibn Ezra wrote his Yesod Moreh in 
 London; Rabbi Moses of Paris; 6 and Rabbi Benjamin of 
 Canterbury, who was likewise a disciple of Rabbi Jacob Tarn 
 of Rameru. 7 
 
 King John in the first year of his reign (1199), to sho\v 
 the Jews that they would not be molested by reason of any 
 antipathies which he entertained towards them on account 
 of their creed, granted them permission to nominate a person 
 to the office of Chief Rabbi of England, and confirmed the 
 appointment by the following charter: "The King to all 
 his faithful, both to all the Jews and the English, greeting : 
 Be it known that we have granted and by our present charter 
 confirmed to Jacob, the Jew of London, Presbyter, super- 
 vision of all the Jews throughout all England, to be had and 
 be held by him during his lifetime freely and quietly, honour- 
 ably and entirely, so that no one may presume to molest or 
 trouble him in any way. We wish therefore and firmly 
 
 1 According to the views of J. Jacobs in his Angevin England, pp. 45, 
 64, 65, 81, 269 ; see The Chief Rabbis of England, p. 12. 
 - See the Jews of Angevin England, p. 406 416. 
 
 3 Cf. Angevin England, pp. 240, 363. 
 
 4 Rabbi Isaac was in London, 1186 1194; cf. J. Jacobs in Angevin 
 England, pp. 88, 241, 242. who gives a translation of a passage of the 
 Sepher Or Zarua. ii., p. 50, in which is mentioned the name of Rabbi 
 Isaac. 
 
 5 Cf. the Jews of Angevin England, pp. 29263. 
 
 6 Cf. Revue des etudes juives, t. iv. p. 7 8; and Angevin England, pp. 
 225, 229. 
 
 7 Rabbi Benjamin of Canterbury is mentioned in a list of mediaeval 
 rabbis drawn up by Rabbi Solomon Luria, section 29 ; cf. Angevin Eng- 
 land, pp. 54, 281. See also Rabbi Jehuda ben Eleazar in his Minchat 
 Jehuda, Deut. xxvi., 2, in which he mentions another English rabbi, 
 Rabbi Aaron of Canterbury ; see Angevin England, p. 98, 
 
 Concerning a MS. on decisions, supposed to be written by Rabbi 
 Benjamin of Canterbury, see the Address of Dr. H. Adler, Chief Rabbi, 
 in the Jewish Chronicle, 25 December, 1896, p. 12.
 
 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 211 
 
 command that the same Jacob, Presbyter of the Jews of all 
 England, may live secure, shielded and peaceably defended." 1 
 King John also favoured him with a charter of safe conduct 
 throughout his dominions, calling him dilectus ct familiaris 
 noster (our well beloved and intimate friend). Both these 
 charters were granted by the hand of the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, the Chancellor of the kingdom. 2 
 
 The king in the second year of his reign also signed two 
 charters, one extending to the Jews of England alone, and 
 the other comprising those of Normandy. The Jews might 
 dwell freely and honourably where they chose. They might 
 hold lands and be entitled to all their privileges as in the 
 time of Henry II. If a Jew died, the king would not disturb 
 his possessions, provided he had heirs who could answer for 
 his debts and forfeitures. The oath of a Jewish witness was 
 to be as valid as that of a Christian witness. Actions at law, 
 where Jewish interests were attacked, were to be tried before 
 a jury of Jews. All the king's subjects were bidden to de- 
 fend the Jews and their chattels as the property of the king. 
 The Israelites paid the king for these privileges a sum of 
 4,000 marks. When in the fifth year of his reign the citizens 
 of London heaped indignities on the heads of the Jews, John 
 sent a sharp reprimand to the mayor, in which he stated that 
 he attributed the late outrages to the fools and not to the 
 wise men of the city, and he ended by placing the Jews 
 under the mayor's protection. 3 
 
 These measures of conciliation had the desired effect. 
 Jews came over from the continent, and, relying on the 
 king's favour, applied themselves to the pursuit of wealth. 
 True, their position was insecure, and the people scowled at 
 them with hatred and jealousy. But they looked upon the 
 promises of the king as their safeguard, and they were 
 
 1 The Chief Rabbis of England, p. 12 13. 
 
 a Ibid, p. 13. 
 
 3 J. Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History, p. 9 10, London, 
 1875. The Rev Dr. H. Adler, in his Chief Rabbis of England, p 13, 
 identified this Rabbi Jacob of London with the Rabbi Jacob mentioned 
 by Rabbi Moses Isserl in the Darkei Mose on the Orach Chaim, ch. 
 473, wherein is stated that Rabbi Jacob of London translated the Hagada 
 into the vernacular for the sake of women and children ; cf. Zunz, Ritus, 
 p. 62 63.
 
 212 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 tolerably easy. A sudden change came over John. He met 
 opposition on every side, and here were subjects for whom 
 no one would lift up a finger. The Jews became his victims. 
 If formerly they were scourged with whips, now they were 
 scourged with scorpions. A tallage of 66,000 marks was laid 
 upon them, which was an immense sum for those days. 
 Nearly every Jew, man, woman, or child, was dragged to jail 
 and put to torture. 1 
 
 The Tosaphist, Eabbi Joseph ben Baruch, 2 visited England 
 in 1211, and induced many English Jews to go on a pilgrimage 
 to the Holy Land. While he was in England he commis- 
 sioned Eabbi Jehuda ben Kardinal to make a new translation 
 of Eabbi Jehuda Halevi's Kusari." 
 
 Thus the memory of their past and the commonplace 
 occurrences of their daily life continually strengthened the 
 bonds that bound Jews together after twelve centuries of 
 dispersion. In the thirteenth century, as in the first, they 
 still regarded the Holy Land as their true home. Three 
 hundred rabbis from France and England went thither in 
 1211. There Eabbi Jehuda Halevi ended his days. There 
 Nachmanides taught that it was the duty of every Jew to 
 live, and, true to his own lesson, he set out on his pilgrimage 
 in the seventieth year of his age ; and in his own and the 
 next generation many Jews from Spain and Germany fol- 
 lowed his example. 4 
 
 Happier days for the Jews seemed to break in the beginning 
 of the reign of Henry III. The Earl of Pembroke and after- 
 wards his successor, Hubert de Burgh, administered the 
 kingdom for the royal minor with fairness and impartiality. 
 The Jews were treated as members of a common humanity, 
 and not as wild beasts to be hunted down and killed. 
 Measures were adopted for their especial safety. Those 
 who were confined in prison were released. In each town 
 where Jews lived, twenty-four burgesses were chosen to 
 
 1 Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History, p. 10. 
 
 2 Cf. Zunz, Zur Geschichte, p. 52, and his Abhandlung uber die 
 Geographishe Literatur der Juden, p. 256. 
 
 3 J. Jacobs, Jewish Ideals, p. 181. 
 
 4 B. L. Abrahams, The Expulsion, p. 81.
 
 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 213 
 
 protect their persons and property. The Jews were exempted 
 from the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts. The old 
 Justices in the Exchequer were dismissed for corruption and 
 others, supposed to be more immaculate, were appointed. 1 
 
 The Lateran Council of 1215 accentuated the isolation of 
 the Jews by ordering them to wear a distinctive mark, which 
 in England took the characteristic form of a piece of cloth 
 attached to the upper garment, in the shape of the two 
 tablets of the law, as seen in the synagogues to the present 
 day. 2 
 
 A certain Rabbi Josceus, or Joseph, was appointed in the 
 year 1217 to the office of chief rabbi as successor of Rabbi 
 Jacob of London. 8 His successor was Rabbi Aaron of York 
 (1237), who is described by the chroniclers and recorded in 
 the documents as having been a man of great wealth. 
 Mathew of Paris states that this Rabbi solemnly assured him 
 that the king had exacted from him during a period of seven 
 years the sum of 30,000 marks in silver ; that he had paid 
 the queen 200 marks of gold, and that he afterwards agreed 
 with the king to pay him the annual sum of 100 marks. 4 
 
 As soon as the goverment of the country was taken out of 
 the hands of Hubert de Burgh the Jews began to experience 
 very great persecutions and grievous exactions from the 
 king. From thenceforth the Jews, in place of the security 
 they had previously enjoyed, were subjected to continual 
 violence and arbitary exaction. The change of feeling on 
 the part of the government towards them was first mani- 
 fested in the fourteenth year of the reign. In this year they 
 were compelled to give up a third part of their movables to 
 the crown. Immediately after the imposition of this tax the 
 Jews in London were subjected to an unexpected act of 
 injustice and oppression. By permission of the king they 
 had lately completed a synagogue upon a scale of great 
 magnificence. No objection whatever was made to the work 
 
 1 J. Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History, p. n. 
 
 2 Concerning the Jewish badges, see I. Abrahams, Jewish Life, p. 
 291 306 ; and B. L. Abrahams, Jewish Quarterly Review, viii., 360. 
 
 3 The Chief Rabbis of England, p. 1315. 
 
 4 Ibid, p. 15.
 
 THE CELEBEITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 during its progress, but as soon as it was finished the king 
 sent directions to have it seized, and forthwith granted it to 
 the brothers of St. Anthony of Vienna to be by them con- 
 verted into a church. From this time scarcely a year was 
 allowed to pass without taxes to a grievous amount being 
 exacted. These taxes were enforced by imprisonment, by 
 seizing the property and possessions of the Jews, and by 
 taking from them their wives and children, and punctuality 
 of payment was secured by obliging the richest of their 
 community to become sureties for the rest under similar 
 penalties. 1 
 
 Rabbi Elyas was elected as chief rabbi in place of Rabbi 
 Aaron of York in the year 1237. 
 
 In the year 1240 a Jewish parliament was summoned of 
 six of the chief Jews of each Jewry to consult with the king, 
 chiefly on taxation and tallage. The members of Parliament 
 for London were Benedictus Crispin, Jacobus Crispin, Aaron 
 F. Abraham, Aaron le Blund, Elias le Evesk, Leo Blund ; 
 Elias Blund was substituted for Benedictus Crispin. 2 
 
 The hopes of the Jews rose high on their being called to 
 take part in the king's counsels. Perhaps their years of 
 bondage were over, perhaps better days were about to dawn 
 for down-trodden, persecuted Israel. Great was their dis- 
 appointment and sore was their trouble when they found 
 that supplies were the burthen of his most gracious Majesty's 
 speech. He had brought them together to think of the ways 
 and means of furnishing him with 20,000 marks. Six 
 among them were appointed collectors. They might assess 
 the sum among themselves as they pleased, but the cash 
 must be forthcoming in two instalments within a stated 
 period, otherwise their persons would be answerable to the 
 king. The required amount was not delivered on the stipu- 
 lated day, simply because the funds could not be gathered, 
 and the unhappy collectors paid the penalty of disobedience 
 to impossible commands. They were thrown into prison 
 with their wives and children until the whole sum was 
 squeezed from the Jews. 8 
 
 1 J. E. Blunt, History of the Jews in England, p. 3739. London, 
 1830. 
 
 2 J. Jacobs, Jewish Ideals, p. 182. 
 
 3 Picciotto, Sketches, p. 14 15.
 
 THE CELEBBITIES OF THE JEWS. 215 
 
 When the principal among them had been summoned in 
 the year 1254 before the Earl Eichard of Cornwall (the king's 
 brother) and the council, and were threatened with imprison- 
 ment and death unless they forthwith supplied the sum 
 required of them, the venerable chief rabbi, Rabbi Ely as, 
 stood up and spoke warmly in expostulation. He prayed for 
 a safe conduct to quit the country, as his brethren had 
 determined to leave rather than submit to impossible de- 
 mands. Their trade was ruined, they could scarcely exist, 
 they were beggared, and if they sold their skins, they could 
 not gather the sums exacted. The poor rabbi, exhausted by 
 his own energy, was carried away fainting. 1 
 
 The king must have been greatly incensed, for we find 
 that a few years afterwards Rabbi Elyas was deprived of his 
 office, although no specific offence is charged against him. 2 
 His brother Rabbi Hayam or Hagin was appointed his suc- 
 cessor. This Hagin did not enjoy his honour for many 
 years. After his death, Hagin, the son of Deulacres, was 
 appointed at the instance and through the intercession of 
 Queen Eleanor. 3 
 
 The request of the Jews to be allowed to leave England 
 was not granted, and it was not till the year 1290 that 
 Edward I., in accordance with a proposal from the Parlia- 
 ment, gave sentence for their perpetual banishment. 
 
 The heart shudders to read how 16,000 poor Jews quitted 
 the island kingdom ; how even the boatmen on the Thames 
 maltreated them ; how the inhabitants of the Five Ports took 
 from them, as travelling money, that which the rapacity of 
 the people had yet left to them ; how thereon the shipowners 
 refused to admit them on board ; and how by hundreds they 
 perished in sight of the open sea. 4 
 
 1 Ibid, p. 16 ; Blunt, History of the Jews of England, p. 42 43 ; cf., 
 The Temptations of the Jews, in B. L. Abrahams' Expulsion of the 
 the Jews, p. 44 53; concerning Rabbi Elyas, see J. Jacobs, Jewish 
 Ideals, p. 188 191. 
 
 2 The Chief Rabbis of England, pp. 17, 18 19. 
 
 3 Cf. Miscell. of Heb. Lit., ii., p. 169. 
 
 * J. Rodenberg, England from a German Point of View, p. 266, Lon- 
 don, 1575 ; cf. B. L. Abrahams, The Expulsion of the Jews, p. 69 73. 
 For a fuller account of the inner life of the Jewish communities before 
 the Expulsion, see Tovey D'Blossiers, Anglia-Judaica. Oxford, 1738;
 
 216 THE CELEBRITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 One body of the exiles set sail for France. 1 During their 
 voyage fierce storms swept the sea. Many were drowned, 
 many were cast destitute on the coast that they were seek- 
 ing, and were allowed by the king to live for a time in 
 Amiens. Another body, numbering 1,335, and consisting to 
 a great extent of the poor, went to Flanders. Many, too, 
 may have thrown in their lot with their 850,000 co-religion- 
 ists of Spain. 2 
 
 Among the learned Jews who lived in England during the 
 last century before the expulsion, were Eabbi Moses ben E. 
 Yomtob of London (Hanacdon, or Punctator, Massorite, and 
 grammarian) ; s his disciple Rabbi Moses ben B. Isaac Han- 
 nasiah (Comitissa), of England, who is celebrated by his 
 famous work on the Hebrew grammar and lexicon entitled 
 Sepher Hashoham, or Book of the Onyx, 4 which is the most 
 important product of Anglo-Jewish literature before 1290; 
 
 J. E. Blunt, History of the Jews in England, London, 1830 ; Margolioth, 
 History of the Jews in Great Britain, London, 1851 ; Dr. Goldschmidt, 
 Geschichte der Juden in England. L. 1887; J. Picciotto, Sketches of 
 Anglo-Jewish History, London, 1875 ; Hebrew Shetaroth of English 
 Jews, 1190 1290, edited, with English abstracts, by M. D. Davis, Lon- 
 don, 1887 ; Bibliotheca Anglo-Judaica, a Bibliography of Anglo-Jewish 
 History, compiled by J. Jacobs and L. Wolf, London, 1887; Exhibition 
 Papers, 1887, London ; Transactions of the Jewish^ Historical Society of 
 England, 18871897, 2 vols. ; J. Jacobs, Jews of Angevin England, up 
 to 1206, London, 1893; J- Jacobs, the London Jewry, in his Jewish I deals, 
 p 162 191, London, 1896; and B. L. Abrahams, Expulsion of the 
 Jews, 1290, Oxford, 1895. 
 
 1 Cf. B. L. Abrahams, Expulsion of the Jews, p. 71 72 ; Lauriere, 
 Ordonnances des Rois de la France, i., 317; and Revue des etudes 
 juives, i., pp, 66, 67, 69. 
 
 2 Graetz, Geschichte, vii., 155. 
 
 3 Author of the Darkei Nikkud, Rules of Punctuation appended to the 
 Rabbinical Bibles, published separately, Vilna, 1822, and by Frensdorf, 
 Frankfort. 1854. With Samuel Berachya, Moses ben Isaac and Moses 
 ben Yom Tob, all important Nakdanim (Punctuators or Massorites), it 
 is clear that there was a most important Massoretic school in England 
 in the latter half of the twelfth century ; cf. J. Jacobs, Angevin England, 
 p. 283 ; Jewish Quarterly Review, i., 182, ii., 322 7 ; Revue des etudes 
 juives, xii., 73 9 ; and Dr. Berliner, Heb. Poesien des Rabbi Meirs aus 
 Norwich, p. vi. 
 
 4 The first portion of the work has been edited by G. W. Collins, 1882. 
 His grammar, entitled " Leshon Limmudim," is lost. Cf. J. Jacobs. 
 Angevin England, pp. 251, 253 ; Bacher in his Preface to the edition of 
 Rabbi Joseph Kimchi's Sepher Zikaron ; and in Winter Wiinsche's 
 Judische Literatur, vol. ii., p. 205 7.
 
 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 217 
 
 Eabbi Samuel Nakdan or Samuel le Pointur, 1 living at Bristol 
 in 1194; and Eabbi Berachyah ben Natronai Crispia Nak- 
 dan, or Benedict le puncteur de Oxen, 2 exegete, grammarian, 
 translator and literateur, who rendered into Hebrew a treatise 
 on mineralogy corresponding to the mediaeval Lapidaria, as 
 well as Adelard of Bath's Quaestioncs Naturales.* Besides 
 these translations of scientific works, he commented on 
 several books of the Scripture, wrote an ethical treatise called 
 " Matzref," 4 and above all, was the author of the Mishle 
 Shualim or "Fox Fables." This was a collection of 107 
 Fables of the ^Esopic kind, many of which were dei'ived 
 from the East, and bear the marks of adaptation or transla- 
 tion. They are written in rhymed prose with much vigour 
 and wit, and stamp Rabbi Berachyah Nakdan as one of the 
 most original and striking figures in mediaeval Jewish litera- 
 ture. 3 
 
 The following is a selection from the morals attached to 
 Berachyah's " Fox Fables " : 
 
 " Prefer one in hand to two in hope : a little certainty is 
 better than a great perhaps." 
 
 " Sooner a servant among the noble than leader among 
 the common ; for some of their honour will stick to you, 
 while you must share the contempt of your contemptible 
 followers." 
 
 1 Author of a Hebrew grammar, MS. in the Royal Library at Berlin ; 
 see Steinschneider, Cat. Heb. MSS. Berlin, p. 100 ; and Jews of Angevin 
 England, 162. 
 
 2 The only work of Berachyah's yet printed is his Mishle Shualim, 
 " Fox Fables," the editio princeps of which appeared at Mantua, 1557, 
 and a complete Latin translation by M. Hanel, Prague, 1661. An intro- 
 duction of Rabbi Berachyah's Mishle Shualim, which is only printed in 
 the editio princeps. has been translated into English by J. Jacobs in 
 Angevin England, p. 278 280. 
 
 3 Under the title of "Dodiwe-Nechdi," a series of sixty-two dialogues 
 between uncle and nephew on Natural History, selected and freely ren- 
 dered from Adelard of Bath's Quaestiones Naturales, MS. in Munich, 
 no. 42 ; cf. J. Jacobs, Angevin England, p. 165 174. 
 
 * Divided into thirteen chapters : i. Introduction, ii. Lust, iii. Affec- 
 tion, iv. Restraint of the Will, v. Justice, vi. Misfortune, vii. Poverty, 
 viii. Honour, ix. Position, x. Rank, xi. Soul, xii. Hope, xiii. Immortality; 
 preserved in MSS. at Munich, no. 64/4. and Parma, no. 482, 2 ; cf. J. 
 Jacobs, Jews of Angevin England and Zunz, Zur Geschichte, p. 127 
 128. Concerning his Commentary on the Scriptures, see S. Szinessy 
 Cat. Cambridge, i., 40 2, 245. 
 
 5 J. Jacobs, Angevin England, p. 406,
 
 218 THE CELEBRITIES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 " If you pursue after power and might, they fly before you ; 
 regard yourself as only a passing guest in this world, and 
 honour and riches will come of themselves." 
 
 " Most men despise those who deserve more honour than 
 they : they wish evil to the good, and only come to him when 
 they need him 
 
 " The proud cedar is felled ; the lowly bush is untouched." 
 
 " Fire rises and dies away ; water flows down and for 
 ever." 
 
 ' ' If for what beauty or riches you have you raise your 
 head i*c we neighbour or brother, you feed hateful envy, and 
 the beggar whom you despise may yet triumph over you." 
 
 ' ' Who stands by his honour, would sooner die than set 
 a price on it : better enough in freedom than plenty at the 
 table of another." 
 
 " Love thy children with impartial love: the hope oft errs 
 that you place on the more promising, and all your joy may 
 come from him that you have kept in the background." 1 
 
 To this period belongs Rabbi Elia Menachem of London, 
 a great rabbinical authority. Questions upon difficult points 
 were sent to him. 2 Eabbi Jacob ben Jehuda Chazan of 
 London was also of this period ; his liturgical work, entitled 
 " Sepher Etz Chaim," Tree of Life, 8 contains a full account 
 of the early English Jews' Prayer-Book 
 
 Next to London the principal city inhabited by Jews was 
 Norwich ; this name occurs again and again in the Shetaroth 
 and the records of the chroniclers. We possess abundant 
 
 1 Translated by J. Jacobs in his Jews of Angevin England, p. 172 173 ; 
 a German translation is given by Zunz, Zur Geschichte, p. 144 145. 
 
 2 Mentioned in Minchat Jehuda, Hagahoth Asheri and in Sepher 
 Hashoham ; cf. J. Jabobs, Tews of Angevin England, p. 287. A frag- 
 ment of the Decisions of Rabbi Menachem of London, extant in MS. has 
 been translated by I. Abrahams in Angevin England, p. 288 ; also of 
 the Decisions of Rabbi Moses of London, translated by the same, p. 291. 
 Rabbi Moses ben Isaac quotes in his Sepher Hashoham, Rabbi Isaac 
 of Tchernigov. This Rabbi Isaac of Russia was possibly the first 
 Russian in historic times who put foot on English soil ; cf. J. Jacobs, 
 Angevin England, pp. 73, 252 ; and Dr. Harkavy, Die Juden und die 
 Slavischen Sprachen, p, 62. 
 
 y The MS. of which is still extant at Leipzig. It was written about 
 1287, and has been fully described by Prof. Kaufmann in two articles 
 in the Jewish Quarterly Review, iv., pp. 20 seq., 550 seq. ; see also J. 
 Jacobs, Angevin England, p. 289.
 
 THE CELEBKITIES OF THE JEWS. 219 
 
 proof that, despite oppression and exactions, the Jews in 
 England devoted themselves with ardour to the study of the 
 law. Norwich in England may claim, like Touque, Evreux, 
 and Sens in France, to have produced a small band of 
 scholars who pursued zealously their Talmudical studies 
 according to the method of their great masters. 1 The 
 authority of " The wise men of Norwich " was held in as 
 high consideration as that of France and Germany." 2 Amongst 
 the great learned men of Norwich at this period was Rabbi 
 Meir ben Elias, of Norwich, who composed a didactic poem, 
 embodying the Scripture narrative from the Creation to the 
 Passage of the Red Sea ; 3 this and some other compositions 
 stamp the author as having possessed a thorough mastery of 
 the Hebrew tongue and as being thoroughly versed in 
 Midrashic lore. 4 
 
 1 Cf. The Chief Rabbis of England, p. 23. 
 
 2 There is a manuscript of the iTosaphot of Norwich in the Library 
 of Baron Horace Giinzburg in St. Petersburg. 
 
 :i Has been published by Dr. A. Berliner under the title " Hebraische 
 Poesien des Meir ben Elia aus Norwich," London, 1887. 
 
 4 Cf. Rev. Dr. H. Adler in the Chief Rabbis of England, p. 2122 ; 
 and in the Jewish Chronicle, 25th December, 1896.
 
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