ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
BY THE SAME AUTHOR
A HANDBOOK ON PIPING
359 Pages 359 Illustrations
8 Folding Plates Postpaid, $4.00
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
A TEXTBOOK ON MECHANICAL
DRAWING AND MACHINE DRAWING
WITH
CHAPTERS AND PROBLEMS ON MATERIALS
STRESSES, MACHINE CONSTRUCTION AND
WEIGHT ESTIMATING
BY
CARL L. SVENSEN, B. S.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ENGINEERING DRAWING IN THE OHIO STATE
UNIVERSITY, JR. MEM. A.S.M.E., MEM. S.P.E.E., FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR
IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN TUFTS COLLEGE AND HEAD
OF THE DEPARTMEMT OF MACHINE CONSTRUCTION
AT THE FRANKLIN UNION
SECOND PRINTING CORRECTED
NEW YORK
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
25 PARK PLACE
1919
COPYRIGHT, IQl8, IQIQ. BY
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
THE-PLIMPTON-PKESS
NOB WOOD-MA SS-U-S- A
T
35}
DEDICATED TO THE AUTHORS FRIEND
GARDNEK. CHACE ANTHONY
WHOSE INFLUENCE AS AN ENGINEER.
AND TEACHER. ON THE DEVELOPMENT
OF AMERJCAN MECHANICAL DRAWING
IS UNIVERSALLY RECOGNIZED
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PREFACE
THE evening technical school has been rapidly developing
during recent years. From a makeshift it is coming to occupy
a field distinctly its own. The ambitious man attending an
evening technical school is fully the equal of his brother at the
day technical school and his worth is being increasingly realized.
The foundation subjects mathematics, mechanics, and draw-
ing require particular attention in evening courses, where the
time may be somewhat limited and the needs of the student
varied. This book has been prepared for Ohio Technical Draw-
ing School students as part of a technical course.
Progress in engineering work of any kind depends upon an
intimate knowledge of mechanical drafting as the language of
the engineering world. Its possibilities must be understood.
The mere drawing of lines and more or less copying of exercises
or sketching from a few models is far from the purpose of a draw-
ing course. The value of drawing as one of the working tools to
be treasured and used during a lifetime in the most useful of
professions, ENGINEERING, should be realized. It is as an aid in
the study, and later use of engineering knowledge, that drawing
finds its place. These preliminary remarks may serve to explain
the makeup of the book.
The actual handling of the instruments can best be taught
by careful individual instruction of each student, after which
false or awkward motions should be immediately corrected.
Inefficiency in this respect is one of the most severe handicaps of
many "self -made" draftsmen. The treatment of the various
subjects is necessarily somewhat brief, as it is intended that per-
sonal instruction should be given in each subject.
In the first studies the student is taught to represent each object
in strict conformity to the laws of projection. All lines are
drawn, all intersections are shown, and invisible surfaces are all
viii PREFACE
indicated by dotted lines. For simple parts such drawings are
easily read and they are generally used in the drafting room.
When more complicated pieces are met with or where whole
machines or constructions are to be represented, such a method
would lead to great confusion and often would produce a drawing
which it would be almost impossible to read. The time nec-
essary would be very great even for an expert. In such cases
the full lines representing the visible surfaces are shown, but the
intersections and invisible surfaces are not all drawn in. The
selection of what lines to draw and what lines to leave out is an
important study in itself.
Furthermore there are many representations of parts which
are or appear to be violations of orthographic projection, which
are used because practice has shown that they convey the idea
to the workman more completely or easily. Other representa-
tions are used to save the draftsman's time, or in the interests
of simplicity. Almost anything which will make a drawing more
readily intelligible is justified. This statement must be used
with caution, as what will seem plain to a man familiar with the
work may not be so plain to the workman or other reader.
A drawing has one great purpose, and that is to be useful.
To this end lines may be added or left out, shading may be used,
or notes may be put on. As an expression in the engineering
language each drawing should have only one meaning, and
should state that meaning with the least possible chance for
misinterpretation. Many of these idiomatic expressions of the
engineering language will be considered in the later chapters.
The chapters on Materials and Stresses, Machine Construc-
tion, and Estimation of Weights are brief treatments of subjects
which are necessary for the making of intelligent drawings. Con-
siderable elementary machine design is included as belonging in
a practical treatment of mechanical drafting, for the author does
not look with favor upon fine distinctions between "subjects."
It is the "usability" which really counts.
The subjects are arranged to suit the author's convenience,
but they may be taken in a different order if desired. The
problems are placed in one chapter at the end of the book, so that
a selection may be easily made. These problems are suggestive,
and may be amplified by the teacher, who should make a free
use of actual shop blueprints and castings.
PREFACE ix
The author believes that the highest grade work can be done
by evening school men, and in an experience of many years has
always found that they are ever ready to meet the most exacting
requirements when satisfied that what they are receiving is really
worth while.
Appreciation of the helpful criticisms of Prof. Thos. E. French
is here expressed.
CARL L. SVENSEN
COLUMBUS, OHIO,
Sept. 1, 1917.
CONTENTS
PREFACE . .
CHAPTER I
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS 1
Instruments and Materials Use of the T Square and Triangles
Use of the Scale Drawing Pencils Use of the Compasses
Use of the Dividers Use of the Ruling Pen Character of Lines.
CHAPTER II
LETTERING 7
Lettering Gothic Letters Proportions and Forms Letter Spac-
ing Titles Bill of Material.
CHAPTER III
CONSTRUCTIONS 13
Essential Constructions Angles Circles Plane Figures To
Bisect a Line To Bisect an Angle To Divide a Line into any
Number of Equal Parts To Copy an Angle To Construct a
Triangle, having given the Three Sides To Construct an Equi-
lateral Triangle To Construct a Regular Hexagon To Con-
struct a Regular Octogon To Draw an Arc of a Circle, having a
Given Radius, and Tangent to Two Given Lines To Draw a
Circle, Passing through any Three Points not in the same Straight
Line To find the Length of an Arc of a Circle To Draw a Tan-
gent to a Circle at any Given Point To Draw the Arc of a Circle
of given Radius, Tangent to an Arc and a Straight Line The
Ellipse To Draw an Ellipse by the Concentric Circle Method
To draw an Ellipse by the Trammel Method To Draw a Curve
having the Appearance of an Ellipse by Means of Circular Arcs
The Involute To Draw the Involute of a Triangle To Draw
the Involute of a Circle The Parabola To Draw an Equilateral
Hyperbola.
CHAPTER IV
PROJECTIONS 23
Purpose of Drawings Orthographic Projection The Planes of
Projection Some Rules Dotted Lines Auxiliary Views
Required Views The Imaginary Cutting Plane Representa-
tion of Cut Surfaces.
xii CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER V
MATERIALS AND STRESSES 31
Materials Cast Iron White Iron Gray Iron Properties of
Cast Iron Wrought Iron Properties of Wrought Iron Steel
Bessemer Process Open Hearth Process Properties of Steel
Malleable Iron Suggestions for Selection of Material Loads
and Stresses Axial Stresses Unit Stresses Modulus of
Elasticity Ultimate Strength Factor of Safety Average
Values.
CHAPTER VI
SCREW THREADS 40
Uses of Screw Threads The Helix Parts of a Screw Right-
and Left-hand Screws Forms of Screw Threads Multiple
Threads Split Nut and Square Thread Conventional Repre-
sentation of Screw Threads Threaded Holes Strength of
Screw Threads.
CHAPTER VII
BOLTS AND SCREWS 48
U. S. Standard Bolts Bolts Studs Threaded Holes Machine
Screws Cap Screws Cap Nuts Set Screws Locking
Devices.
CHAPTER VIII
RIVETING 57
Riveting Rivet Heads Lap Joints Butt Joints Calking
Miscellaneous Connections Rolled Steel Shapes.
CHAPTER IX
WORKING DRAWINGS 62
Classes of Drawings Special Detail Drawings How to Make a
Drawing Tracing Order for Inking Lines Assembly Draw-
ings Exceptions to True Projection Blueprints.
CHAPTER X
SECTIONS 71
Sectional Views Broken and Revolved Sections Location of
Sectional Views Objects not Sectioned Dotted Lines on Sec-
tional Views Sections of Ribs and Symmetrical Parts.
CHAPTER XI
DIMENSIONING 77
Purpose of Dimensions Dimension Lines Elements of Dimen-
sioning General Rules Systems of Dimensioning Location
of Dimensions Shafting Tapers Small Parts Methods of
Finishing Checking Drawings.
CONTENTS xiii
>AOE
CHAPTER XII
MACHINE CONSTRUCTION 87
Machine Operations Drills The Steam Engine Pistons
Sliding Bearings Wear and Pressure Stuffing Boxes Use-
ful Curves and Their Application Fillets and Rounds Arcs and
Straight Lines Flanged Projections Flange Edges Flanges
and Bolting Keys.
CHAPTER XIII
SKETCHING 98
Uses of Sketching Materials for Sketching Making a Sketch
Taking Measurements Some Ideas on Sketching.
CHAPTER XIV
ESTIMATION OP WEIGHTS 105
Accuracy Weights of Materials Weight of Loose Materials
Weight of Castings Methods of Calculation Weight of Cylin-
der Head Weight of Plunger Barrel Weight of Forgings.
CHAPTER XV
PIPING 112
Piping Materials Pipe Fittings Standard Pipe Pipe Threads.
CHAPTER XVI
INTERSECTIONS 117
The Line of Intersection Intersection of a Vertical Prism and a
Horizontal Prism Intersection of a Vertical Prism and an Inclined
Prism, Visibility of Points Intersecting Cylinders Choice of
Cutting Planes Connecting Rod Intersection.
CHAPTER XVII
DEVELOPMENTS 123
Surfaces Development of a Prism Development of a Cylinder
Development of a Pyramid The Development of a Cone De-
velopment of a Transition Piece.
CHAPTER XVIII
PICTURE DRAWING 130
Isometric Drawing Isometric and Non-Isometric Lines Angles
Positions of the Axes Construction for Circles Oblique
Drawing.
xiv CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER XIX
SHADE LINE DRAWINGS 136
Shade Lines System in Common Use Surface Shading Shad-
ing Screw Threads and Gears Special Surface Representations
Patent Office Drawing.
CHAPTER XX
DRAWING QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS AND STUDIES 141
INDEX... 181
ESSENTIALS OF DKAFTING
CHAPTER I
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS
Instruments and Materials. Drawing instruments and
materials should be selected with care, and under the guidance
of an experienced draftsman or teacher. The really necessary
equipment consists of the following:
Set of case instruments comprising:
6-inch compasses with fixed needle point leg,
removable pencil leg and removable pen leg,
5-inch dividers,
5-inch ruling pen,
Bow pencil, bow dividers, bow pen.
24-inch T square.
16 " X 20 " drawing board.
6-inch 45 triangle.
10-inch 30 X 60 triangle.
Irregular curve.
12-inch architect's scale.
One dozen thumb tacks.
2 H and 4 H or 6 H drawing pencils.
Drawing paper.
Erasive and cleaning rubbers.
Pencil pointer.
Black waterproof drawing ink.
Lettering pens and pen holder.
Pen wiper.
Use of the T Square and Triangle. The T square is used for
drawing horizontal lines, with the head always against the left-
hand edge of the board, Fig. 1. The upper edge of the T square
blade is always used, and lines are drawn from left to right. The
1
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
triangles are used for drawing all other lines. Vertical lines are
drawn by placing a triangle against the upper edge of the T
square and drawing upward along the vertical edge, which should
be placed toward the head of the T square, as shown in Fig. 2.
Use of the Scale. The scale is used for laying off distances.
Whenever practicable, drawings should be made full size. If a
Fig. I
reduced scale must be used to accommodate the size of paper,
choose one which will show the object clearly, and which will
not require great crowding of dimensions. For mechanical
drafting, the architect's open divided scale, shown in Fig. 3, is
most used. There are many forms, both flat and triangular in
section. The following divisions are in general use, 1 / s , 1 /i, 3 /s,
1 /z, 3 /4> 1> iVa, and 3 inches to the foot. The scale 3 " =1' means
that the drawing is one fourth the size of the object, or that each
Fig. 3
one fourth inch on the drawing represents 1 inch on the object.
In this case, the 3 inches is divided up into 12 parts, each of
which represents 1 inch. These parts are further divided to
represent quarter inches and other fractions. The double mark
(") following a figure means inch or inches; the single mark (')
means foot or feet. A common scale graduated to y 32 of an
inch may be used for many reductions. In such cases use the
half inch for an inch in drawing one half size; the quarter inch
for an inch in drawing one fourth size, etc. For half size one
sixteenth becomes one eighth, and similarly for other divisions.
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS 3
Fig. 3 shows the distance 2 feet, &/2 inches, laid off with the
scale of 3" = 1'.
Drawing Pencils. It is necessary to have pencils of the
right degree of hardness and properly sharpened. For lettering,
Fig, 5
Fig. 6
figuring, laying out, etc., a long conical point should be used.
A 2 H pencil will be found satisfactory. For the drawing itself,
one 4 H pencil and one 6 H pencil, carefully sharpened, are needed.
After removing the wood, Fig. 4, the lead is made slightly conical,
Fig. 5, and then formed as in Fig. 6, using fine sandpaper or a
file. Fig. 7 shows enlarged side and front views of the lead.
Use of the Compasses. The compasses, Fig. 8, are used
for drawing large circles. The needle point should be adjusted
with the shoulder downward and so that the point extends about
VM inch beyond the pen point, Fig. 9. A 4 H or 6 H lead should
then be sharpened as for the drawing pencil, and placed in the
pencil leg. Remove the pen point from the compasses, insert
4 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
the pencil leg, and fasten it. Then adjust the lead so that the
end of it is about Vw inch above the needle point, Fig. 10. The
joints in the legs are for the purpose of keeping the point and
pencil perpendicular to the paper. The compasses should be
operated with one hand (the right hand). The needle point
should be placed in the center, and the marking point revolved
clockwise. Once around is enough, starting at the point in-
dicated in Fig. 11.
The bow instruments are used for small circles and divisions.
The method of setting the points and using is the same as for
the large compasses and dividers.
Use of the. Dividers. The dividers are used for transferring
distances and for dividing lines. They should be handled with
Full Size
J
Fig. 12.' Fig. 13-
the right hand. When dividing a line, the points should be
revolved in alternate directions, as indicated in Fig. 12. To
divide a line into three parts, first set the dividers at a distance
estimated to be about one third. Try it, and if too short, increase
the distance between the divider points by one third of the re-
maining distance. If too long, decrease the distance between
the divider points by one third of the .distance which they extend
beyond the end of the line. Repeat the operation if necessary.
The Use of the Ruling Pen. The ruling pen is used for inking
the straight lines, after the pencil drawing is finished. Ink is
placed between the nibs of the pen by means of a quill which is
attached to the ink bottle stopper. Care should be taken to
prevent any ink from getting on the outside of the pen. The
proper amount of ink is shown in Fig. 13. The pen should be
held in a vertical position, and guided by the T square or triangle.
It may be inclined slightly in the direction of the line which is
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS 5
being drawn, but the point must always be kept from the angle
formed by the paper and the guide. Do not hold the pen too
tightly, or press against the guide. Both nibs of the pen must
touch the paper. Frequent cleaning of the pen is necessary to
obtain good lines. The same methods apply to the compass
and bow pens.
Character of Lines. All pencil lines should be fine, clear, and
sharp. For most purposes continuous pencil lines may be used.
The character and weight of ink lines for use on drawings, may
be found by reference to Fig. 14.
A F
B G
C H
D J
E K
Fig. i '4-.
A . Full line for representing visible surfaces.
B. Dotted line used with A for representing invisible surfaces.
Dots about Vie inch long and very close together.
C. Center line very fine dot and dash.
D. Witness line short dashes.
E. Dimension line long dashes, or fine full line. D and E
are often made the same.
F. Fine line for shaded drawings.
G. Dotted line for shaded drawings.
H. Shade line for shaded drawings, about three times thick-
ness of fine line.
J. and K. for special purposes, representing conditions not
specified above.
When shade lines are not used, a fairly wide line should be
adopted as wearing better, and giving better blueprints. The
width of line will depend somewhat upon the drawing. Large
simple drawings require a wide line, while small intricate draw-
6 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
ings necessitate narrower lines. Drawings which are large and
still have considerable detail in parts require more than one
width of line. An experienced draftsman will use wide lines
for the large and simple parts, reducing them for the complicated
places in such manner that the different widths of lines are not
noticeable. The student is cautioned to proceed slowly and
strive for a uniform width of line until experience teaches discre-
tion.
Center lines are drawn very fine, and are composed of dots
and dashes. All symmetrical pieces should have a center line.
All circles should have both horizontal and vertical center lines.
Much information concerning the many different kinds of
drawing devices used by draftsmen for saving time and other
purposes can be found in the catalogues of drawing material
companies.
CHAPTER II
LETTERING
Lettering. The subject of lettering in connection with work-
ing drawings is of great importance. Neat, legible letters, made
free hand and with fair speed, are required. This chapter will
deal with such letters. Those who wish to pursue the subject
further should procure a good book on lettering, such as French
& Meiklejohn's "Essentials of Lettering," published by McGraw-
Hill Company, New York, or Daniels' "Freehand Lettering,"
published by D. C. Heath & Company, Boston, Mass. Either of
these books may be obtained for $1.00.
Great care and continual practice are necessary to do good
lettering, but the appearance of neatness, the greater ease of
reading, and lessened liability of mistakes, make up for the extra
time and work.
Commercial Gothic Letters. Commercial gothic and lower
case letters or small letters are the forms most used by engineers
and draftsmen. These are shown in Fig. 15, with the proportions
and directions for drawing the various lines. The vertical capi-
tals and lower case letters are shown in Fig. 16. The same pro-
portions and order of strokes apply to the vertical letters. The
inclined letters should have a slope of about 3 to 8, as shown in
Fig. 17. Some draftsmen use the 60 slope, but this does not
give as pleasing a letter (Fig. 18).
In all cases very light pencil guide lines should be drawn to
limit the tops and bottoms of the letters. The size of the letters
is determined to some extent by the character of the work, but
for most drawings the capitals should be Vs inch high, and the
small letters about two thirds as high (Fig. 17). For penciling
use a 2 H pencil, with a well sharpened round point. For inking,
a ball point pen may be used for fairly large letters, and Gillotts
404 or 303 for small letters. The pen may be dipped into the
ink and the surplus shaken back into the bottle, or the quill
may be used as with the ruling pen. For good work, the pen
7
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
\<5\
6 I U-5.P--J
,\\f
i Vi
Utf^l
Q'&
&' ""
r ^ 3-
c d ejf g h
\k I m n op q r
\s t u v w x = y z
Fig. 15
point must be kept clean, requiring frequent wiping. The pen
point should be kept pointed toward the top of the paper.
Proportions and Forms. The proportions and shapes of the
various letters should be studied and drawn to a large scale.
For purposes of study, the letters are divided into groups. The
following points should be observed. Rounded letters, such as
LETTERING
I LT H F E NM
Z YA K V-WX
O C G U "j D
B P R S I 2 3
4567898
abed efghij
klmnopqrs
t u v w x y z
Fig. 16
C, J, 0, Q, and S, may extend very slightly outside of the limiting
lines. Pointed letters, like A, V, and W, may have the point
extending very slightly above or below the guide lines. The
horizontal bar in the letters B, E, F, H, and R is very slightly
above the middle, and for the letter P it is very slightly below
10
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
the middle of the vertical height. For the letter A the bar is
placed about one third the height of the letter. The letter W
is wider than it is high. The two outside strokes of the M are
parallel.
Letter Spacing. The spacing between the letters when
combined to form words will vary with different arrangements.
The only general rule which can be given is that the area between
Fig. /8
the letters should be about equal. A few illustrations will be
given, showing the positions of some combinations of letters.
When such letters as A and T, or A and V, are used, they should
in general be placed close together, as in Fig. 19. A few words
are shown in Fig. 20. In the lines marked WRONG the letters are
equal distances apart. In the lines marked RIGHT the letters
are spaced so that the areas between them are about equal. The
AT A
combination of letters in each word, or the combination of words
in a line, will determine the spacing of the letters.
Titles. The matter of titles for drawings is subject to great
variation. The titles for detail drawings may or may not con-
tain the name and location of the concern. The name of the
machine, its size and number, the names of the details, scale,
date, and names or initials of the draftsman and engineer, should
be given. An example is shown in Fig. 21. Assembly drawings
generally have more elaborate titles. Good titles cannot be
made by rule, though a few suggestions may be of assistance.
Jt is often advisable to center the lines composing the title. This
LETTERING
11
RUN
RU
LAT
LAT
PA
PA
WRONG
RIGHT
WRONG
RIGHT
:R
R
WRONG
RIGHT
Fig. 20
may be done by counting from each end of each line toward the
center, and placing the middle letter or space on the center line.
The line can then be completed by working in opposite directions
from the center line. The important facts should be given due
500 GALLON
STEAM JACKETED KETTLE
SCALE l^
DRAWN BY
TRACED BY W. E.
CHECKED BY C.S.
APPROVED
DATE Sept. /2. J9/7
ORDER NO. B-462
R EV I S E D Jan.
Draw. No. 4-C-145
Fig. 21
12
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
prominence. This may be done by using large letters, by using
heavier or blacker letters, by wide spacing between letters, or
by using extended letters. The element of time should be con-
sidered in the selection of letters. In general, the title should
be placed in the lower right-hand corner of the drawing, and
OHIO TECHNICAL
DRAWING SCHOOL
COLUMBUS. OHIO.
CYLINDER FOR
4*5 VERT ENGINE
Fu/1 Size
Drawn by J. H
Traced by J f(. -
Approved by T^f"<f
Dote Sept. IS, 19 1 '7
rig. S2
may or may not be "boxed in" (Fig. 21). Some concerns use a
title extending across the end of the drawing, in which case it
forms a "record strip" (Fig. 22).
Bill of Material. A bill of material is often put upon each
detail drawing in connection with the title. Sometimes a separate
PART
No
NAME: OF PART
No
WANTED
MATERIAL
PATTERN
No.
1
Spind/e
/
Steel
2
Spur Center
1
Steel
3
Cap Screw
4
Steel
4
Cone Set Screw
1
Steel
5
Box Pins
2
Steel
6
Thrust Screw
1
Steel
7
Clamp Screw
1
Steel
a
Box
3
Brass
K-4-5
9
Washer
1
Brass
W-/33
to
Thrust Check Nut
t
Steel
Fig. 23
sheet is made containing a list of drawings, material, number
required, pattern number, location, etc., for the entire machine
or construction. Both methods may be used together. The
advantages of a separate list are apparent in certain classes of
machines where some drawings are used for many different ma-
chines. Bolts, pins, keys, and similar small parts are often
given a number, which is used to designate them. The applica-
tion and uses of lists are so varied that they must be learned for
the company where one is employed. A material list is shown
in Fig. 23.
CHAPTER III
CONSTRUCTIONS
Essential Constructions. Geometry forms the basis of the
constructions used in the making of drawings. A knowledge of
some of the principles of geometry is therefore' essential. A
point indicates position in space. W-hen a point is moved it
Fbra//e/ Lines
rig. 25
Fig. 26
generates a line, which may be either straight or curved. A
surface may be formed by moving a line. A plane surface is one
which will contain two intersecting straight lines. Two straight
lines are said to be parallel when they are everywhere the same
distance apart (Fig. 24).
Angles. When two lines cross they form angles. The size
of the angle is determined by the
amount of opening between the
lines. The angle A, in Fig. 25, is
greater than the angle B. If the
lines are revolved about their in-
tersection, so that the angle A is
made equal to the angle B, then
both angles are called "right"
angles (Fig. 26). The angles C
and D are also right angles, so
that all four angles are equal.
As shown, each angle is one
fourth the way around the point of intersection.
13
F'g. 2 7
When a right
14
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
angle is divided into 90 equal small angles, each of these small
angles is called a "degree." Then it takes 4 times 90, or 360,
degrees to go all the way around the point where the lines cross.
Circles. A circle is a curved line formed by moving one
point around another point and at a constant distance from it
(Fig. 27). The curved line is called the circumference. The
constant distance is called the radius, and the fixed point is called
Equilateral- A/I sides
Isosceles- Two
sides equal.
Scalene - All sides
different
Fig. 28
Right Triangle - One ong/e
is a right angle.
the center. Lines drawn from the circumference to the center
form angles, which are measured in degrees. Two lines crossing
each other at the center of the circle, and making equal angles
with each other, form four right angles, so that a circle is said to
contain 360 degrees (written 360). A piece of the circumference
is called an arc. Other features of a circle are indicated in
Fig. 27. The length of the circumference is equal to the diameter
times 3.1416. (3.1416 is called "pi," and is often written TT.)
Plane Figures. A plane figure made up of three lines is called
a triangle. There are several kinds of triangles (Fig. 28). All
three angles of any kind of a triangle, when added together, are
always equal to 180 degrees. The sides of the right triangle
have a very useful relation to each other, which is illustrated in
Fig. 28. If the length of each of the two sides is squared and
added together, the sum will be equal to the square of the length
of the hypotenuse; thus, in the figure,
or
(3) 2 +(4) 2 = (5) 2
9+16 =25
CONSTRUCTIONS
15
A plane figure made up of four lines is called a quadrilateral.
When the opposite sides are equal and parallel, the figure is
called a parallelogram. There are several kinds (Fig. 29.)
Other regular plain figures are shown in Fig. 30.
Solids may have almost any form. The names and appear-
ances of a number of solids are shown in Fig. 31.
There are many geometrical constructions which are of use in
Fig. 3O
mechanical drawing. Detailed instructions for the solution of
some of these problems follow. These problems should be studied
carefully and be fully understood. They should be worked out
with a very sharp pencil, fine lines, and extreme accuracy.
To bisect a Line. (To divide a line into two equal parts) :
Given the line AB (Fig. 32). Using points A and B as centers,
Righf Ob/ique Truncated Hexagonal Frustum of a Right Circular
Prism Prism Tr/anguJar Prism Pyramid 7r/angt//or Pyramid Can*
Fig. 31
and a radius greater than one half the length of the line, draw
the arcs 1 and 2. Through the points where these arcs cross
each other, draw the line CD, which will divide the line AB into
two equal parts. The lines CD and AB form right angles, and
are said to be perpendicular to each other. The steps used in
solving this problem are illustrated in Fig. 32. Any given line
is shown at a. At b is shown the given line and the arc of a circle
having a radius greater than one half the line, and its center at
the upper end of the line. At c another arc has been drawn,
having the same radius as before, but with its center at the lower
end of the line. At d a line has been drawn through the inter-
sections of the two arcs, dividing the given line into two equal
parts. It is not necessary to draw the whole of the arcs or the
16
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
usual appearance of the completed
intersecting lines. The
problem is shown at e.
To bisect an Angle (Fig. 33). Given the angle AOB. With
as a center, and any radius, draw an arc intersecting the sides
of the angle in points 1 and 2. With points 1 and 2 as centers,
and a constant radius, draw arcs cutting each other at C. The
line OC will bisect the angle.
To divide a Line into Any Number of Equal Parts (Fig. 34).
Fig. 3 2
Given the line 5'B. It is required to divide the line into five
equal parts. From one end of the line draw another line, making
an angle with it, such as B5. On B5, using any convenient
setting of the dividers, step off five equal spaces. Join the end
of the last space with the end of the given line. Through points
4, 3, 2, and 1 draw lines parallel to 5, 5', intersecting the given
Fig.35
line at points 4', 3', 2', and 1'. The line 5' will then be divided
into five equal parts.
Another method of dividing a line is illustrated in Fig. 35.
From one end of the given line draw a perpendicular such as
5' A, using the triangle and T square. Next place the scale in
such a position that one end of any five equal divisions is at
point B, and the other is on the line &A. Mark opposite each
of the divisions, and through each mark draw a vertical line
intersecting the given line, which will then be divided into five
equal parts.
To copy an Angle (Fig. 36). Given the angle AOB. To con-
struct another angle equal to it. Draw a line A'O'. With as
a center and any radius, draw an arc cutting the sides of the
CONSTRUCTIONS
17
angle at 1 and C. With 0' as a center, and the same radius,
draw the arc 1'C". With 1' as a center, and a radius equal to
the chord 1C, draw an arc cutting the arc 1'C" at C'. Draw
C'O'. Angle A'O'B' will then be equal to the angle AOB.
To construct a Triangle, having given the Three Sides (Fig.
37). Given the three lines A, B, C. Draw line A', equal to line
Fig. 36
Fig. 37
Fig. 38
A, With 1 as a center, and a radius equal to line B, draw an arc.
With point 2 as a center, and a radius equal to line C, draw another
arc, cutting the first arc at point 3. Join point 3 with points 1
and 2, completing the required triangle.
To construct an Equilateral Triangle (Fig. 38). Given one side
of the triangle, A. Draw line 1-2, equal in length to line A.
Fig. 4-1
With 1 and 2 as centers, and radius equal to line A, draw arcs
intersecting at 3. Join point 3 with points 1 and 2, completing
the required triangle.
To construct a Regular Hexagon (Fig. 39). If the distance
across corners is given, draw a circle having a radius equal to
one half this distance. Draw the diameter 102. With points
1 and 2 as centers, and the same radius, draw arcs cutting the
circle at points 3, 5, 4, and 6. Join these points to complete the
required hexagon. It will be noted that the radius used as a
chord divides the circumference into six equal parts. The 30 X
60 triangle may be used to construct a hexagon. Explain how.
18
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
To construct a Regular Octagon (Fig. 40). Given the square
1-2-3-4. With the corners of the square as centers, and a radius
equal to one half the diagonal, draw arcs cutting the sides of the
square. Join the points thus found, completing the required
octagon. An octagon may be constructed inside of a circle by
using the 45-degree triangle. Explain how.
To draw an Arc of a Circle, having a Given Radius, and tangent
to Two Given Lines (Fig 41). Given the lines AB and BC and
Fig. 4-4
the radius R. Draw DE parallel to BC, and at a distance equal
to R from it. Draw FG parallel to AB, and at a distance equal
to R from it. Where DE and FG cross, gives point 0, the center
of the required arc.
To draw a Circle, Passing through Any Three Points (not in the
Same Straight Line) (Fig. 42). Given points A, B, and C. Draw
lines AB and BC. Bisect lines AB and BC, using the construc-
tion of Fig. 32. Where the bisecting lines cross at is the center
of the required circle. The radius is the distance from to any
of the three points. .
To find the Length of an Arc of a Circle, and measure it on a
Straight Line (Fig. 43). First method (when angle AOB is
less than 60 degrees): Given arc AB with center at 0. From
one end of the arc draw the tangent line AC. Draw line A B
and extend it to D, making AD equal to one half of line AB.
With D as a center, and radius DB, draw arc BC. Then AC
will be a straight line equal in length to the arc AB. Second
method: Draw tangent AC as before. Set the dividers at a
small distance. Start at point B, and space off the points 1, 2, 3,
etc., along the arc, until point 5 is reached. (Point 5 may come
at any place near the point A.) Do not remove the dividers from
the paper. Step back along the line the same number of spaces,
as shown. The line AC will then be very close to the length of
CONSTRUCTIONS
19
the arc AB. By taking small spaces, the chords may be assumed
equal to the arcs.
To draw a Tangent to a Circle at a Given Point on the Circle
(Fig. 44). Given point P. Place one triangle with its hypotenuse
passing through the given point, and the center of the circle as
indicated in first position. Using the other triangle as a base,
turn the first triangle over into the second position, and move it
until its hypotenuse passes through point P, when the tangent
AP may be drawn. The base triangle must be held firmly in
place in the one position.
To draw the Arc of a Circle of Given Radius, tangent to an Arc
and a Straight Line (Fig. 45). Given arc AB, line CD and radius
R. Draw line EF parallel to CD, and at a distance R from it.
With radius #2 = #1+ R and center 0' , draw an arc cutting
line EF at 0, the center of the required tangent arc. Note the
points of tangency, which are marked T. The point of tangency
of any two arcs is always on the line joining their centers. This
is further illustrated in Figs.
46 and 47, where the points
of tangency are marked T.
The Ellipse. An ellipse
(Fig. 48), is a curve formed
by a point moving so that
the sum of its distances from
two fixed points is a constant.
Fig. 48
Each of the two points \ and
Fz is called a focus. The
longest line, AB, drawn through the center is called the major
axis. The shortest line, CD, is called the minor axis. The con-
stant distance is equal to the major axis. A tangent to an
ellipse at any point may be constructed by drawing lines from
20
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
the point to the foci. Extend the lines and bisect the angle
FiPE, or the angle F 2 PG. This bisecting line PH is the re-
quired tangent. A line through the point P and perpendicular
to the tangent is called a normal. The major and minor axes
of an ellipse being given, the
foci may be located by draw-
ing an arc with C or D as a
center, and a radius equal to
one half of the major axis.
B This arc will cut the major
axis at the foci.
To draw an Ellipse by the
Concentric Circle Method
(Fig. 49.) Given the major
and minor axes AB and CD.
With as a center, draw cir-
f/g. 49 c } eg Caving the major and
minor axes as diameters. Draw radial lines OeE, OfF, etc., divid-
ing the circles into a number of parts. Where the radial lines
cut the large circle, draw perpendicular lines. Where the radial
lines cut the small circle, draw horizontal lines. The intersection
of a vertical and horizontal line from the same radial line will
determine a point on the ellipse, as indicated at 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Determine as many points as necessary, and draw the curve
through them very lightly
free hand. It may then be
strengthened, using an ir-
regular curve.
To draw an Ellipse by
the Trammel Method (Fig.
50). Given the major and
minor axes AB and CD.
On a small strip of paper
mark off one half the minor
axis and one half the major axis, as shown in the figure. Place
the point 3 on the minor axis and the point 2 on the major
axis. Make a mark on the paper opposite the point 1. Move
the point 3 along the minor axis, keeping the point 2 on the
major axis and moving it as indicated by the arrows. The point
1 will then trace out the required ellipse. The usual method
. SO
CONSTRUCTIONS
21
is to place the trammel in a number of positions, and make
marks on the paper opposite the successive positions of point 1.
To draw a Curve having the Appearance of an Ellipse, by means
of Circular Arcs (Fig. 51). Given the major and minor axes AB
and CD. On the minor axis lay off 03 and 01, each equal to the
difference between the major and the minor axis. On the major
axis lay off 02 and 04, each equal to three fourths of 03. With
point 1 as a center, and a radius equal to 1C, draw the arc EGG.
With 3 as a center, and the same radius, draw the arc JDH.
With 2 and 4 as centers, and a radius equal to 2B, draw the arcs
GBH and EAJ.
The Involute. Tie a piece of string about a lead pencil point.
Place the triangular scale with its end resting upon a piece of
paper. Wind the string about the scale, keeping the pencil
point toward the paper. Hold the scale firmly with one hand.
Keeping the string tight, and the pencil point on the paper, un-
wind from the scale. The curve thus formed is the involute
of a triangle. The involute of any other figure may be obtained
by unwinding a string from the desired form.
To draw the Involute of a Triangle (Fig. 52). With A as a
center, and AC as a radius, draw an arc until it reaches the ex-
tension of side AB at point 1. With point B as a center, and
IB as a radius, draw an arc from 1 until it reaches the extension
of side CB at point 2. The curve may be continued by increasing
the radius each time that it passes the extension of one of the
sides. Compare this curve with the one drawn by means of the
triangular scale and string.
22 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
To draw the Involute of a Circle (Fig. 53). Divide the arc of
a circle into a number of equal parts. Draw the radial lines OA,
OB, etc. At the end of each radial line draw a tangent. Starting
at point A, lay off the distance Al on the tangent equal to the
arc AG, using the second method of Fig. 43. Starting at B, lay
off the distance B2 on the tangent, equal to the arc BAG. Con-
tinuing, lay off on each tangent a distance from the point of
tangency equal in length to the arc of the circle, measured from
the point of tangency to the point G.
The Parabola. A parabola is a curve formed by a point mov-
ing so that its distance from a line called the directrix is always
equal to its distance from a point called the focus (Fig. 54). To
draw a parabola, having given the directrix CA D, and the focus F.
Draw a line parallel to the directrix, and at any distance from it.
Using this distance as a radius, and F as a center, draw an arc,
cutting the parallel line at point 1. Draw as many lines as may
be necessary, parallel to the directrix, and using their distances
from the directrix as radii, with F as a center, draw arcs cutting
them, thus locating points on the required parabola.
To draw an Equilateral Hyperbola (Fig. 55). Given the point
P and the axes G and H. Draw horizontal and vertical lines
through point P. On each side of point P step off equal distances
PF, PA, AB, etc. Draw lines from to each of the points
thus determined. Where line OA crosses the vertical line at
point a, draw a horizontal line. Through point A draw a vertical
line intersecting the horizontal line just drawn at point 1, a point
on the required curve. Horizontal and vertical lines drawn
from the diagonals will locate other points on the curve, as shown
at 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.
CHAPTER IV
PROJECTIONS
Purpose of Drawings. The representation of objects and
constructions having three dimensions upon a surface having
two dimensions has been accomplished in many ways, some of
which are illustrated in Fig. 56.
Drawings have two principal uses which are:
I. To tell the shape,
II. To tell the size.
A drawing tells the shape by the position of the various lines,
Orthographic
Fig.
These numbers are called
while numbers are used to tell the size,
dimensions.
Orthographic Projection. Most engineering drawings are
made in "orthographic projection." By this -means the shape
and proportions of a construction may be
accurately defined. The number of views
depends upon the object or construction to
be described. This can be understood by
reference to Fig. 57, which shows two views
of a cylinder. The upper view shows the
circular form and the lower view shows
the height of the cylinder. Notice that the
diameter of the upper view is the width
of the lower view, and that the two views
are included between parallel vertical lines,
three views is shown on Fig. 58.
23
Height-
An object requiring
Note the arrangement of the
24
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
views. The top and front views are included between parallel
vertical lines, and the front and side views are included between
parallel horizontal lines.
The Planes of Projection. The method of obtaining the
views and getting them hi the correct relative positions will be
explained in con-
nection with Figs.
59 and 60. Con-
sider two glass
planes, one hori-
zontal and one
vertical (Fig. 59),
with an object
placed in the angle
thus formed. By
S/cfe
F/g.
looking through the vertical plane the front of the object may be
seen, and if this view is marked out on the glass, it is called the
front view, elevation, or vertical projection. If, instead of look-
Line
F/g. 59
ing through the glass, we consider that lines have been drawn
from every point in the object perpendicular to the vertical
plane, the object is said to be projected out to the vertical
plane. The lines are called projection lines. By joining the
PROJECTIONS
25
points in which the projection lines touch the vertical plane the
front view will be obtained. In the same manner the top view,
plan, or horizontal projection may be found by projecting up
\
Fig. 6O
to the horizontal plane. If the joint between the two planes is
now taken as an axis, the horizontal plane may be revolved up
about the axis until it is in the same plane with the vertical
plane. This brings the top view directly above the front view.
By placing a
third glass plane
at one side of the P
object, and per-
pendicular to the
other two planes,
as shown in Fig.
60, a side view a
r
t
1
L -
t
-
T
1
Right Side
may be obtained.
The plane con-
taining this side
view can be re-
volved about the
axis shown until
it is in the same plane with the vertical plane. This brings the
side view on the same line with the front view, as shown in Fig.
61, where the three views are in their correct positions.
Some Rules. The following points should be thoroughly
understood, as projection is the basis for all shop drawings.
26
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Note the three views of the point P in Figs. 59, 60, and 61.
Locate other points in the same manner until all points on the
object are accounted for in each of the three views.
Horizontal distances (as L) show the same in the top and
front views.
Vertical distances (as H) show the same in the front and side
views.
a
fnV fnl fPi
(^J Lr^J ^
r^-,
ITTI ||
Lj I 1 { 1
Fig. 62
Vertical distances (as W ) in top view are horizontal distances
(W) in the side view.
The top view is the same length as the front view.
The top view is the same width as the side view.
The front view is the same height as the side view.
The front of the side view is toward the front view.
The front of the top view is toward the front view.
The arrows (Fig. 61 ) indicate the relation of the front view to
the other views.
Note the difference between the left side view and the right
side view.
Lines which represent visible surfaces are full lines.
Lines which represent invisible surfaces are dotted lines. (See
left side view, where it is necessary to look through the object
in order to locate the horizontal dotted line.)
The top and front views of any point are always in the same
perpendicular line.
The front and side views of any point are always in the same
horizontal line.
Dotted Lines. The question of dotted lines is illustrated in
Fig. 62, where two views of several objects are shown. A is a
square prism with a square hole all the way through; B is a
cylinder with a circular hole all the way through; C is a square
prism with a square hole extending from the top down to the
depth shown in the front view (note that the top views of A
and C are the same, and that the front views show the extent
PROJECTIONS
27
of the holes); D is a cylinder with a hole extending up part
way from the bottom, as shown in the front view, therefore the
hole shows dotted in the top view; E is a square prism with a
cylindrical boss on top; F is a cylinder with a smaller cylinder
extending downward from the under side, thus the small cylinder
is dotted in the top view; compare F and D, which show
that it is necessary to read both views to determine the object.
A large number of all sorts of projection problems should be
solved to obtain a thorough understanding of orthographic pro-
jection.
Axis or Center i/'ne
rig. 63
Auxiliary Views. The three planes just described are per-
pendicular to each other, like the boards coming together at the
corner of a box. The faces of an object which are parallel to the
three planes are projected to these planes in their true size
and shape. It is often desirable to show the true shape of a face
which is not parallel to any of the three regular planes. In such
cases, Fig. 63, an extra plane called an auxiliary plane may be
used. This extra plane is placed so as to be parallel to the in-
clined face. The inclined face is then projected to the auxiliary
plane by perpendicular projecting lines, as shown in Fig. 63.
The distances W and S then show in their true length and the
hole shows the true shape in which it cuts the inclined face. Com-
pare the auxiliary plane with the side plane. Notice that the
distance W shows in its true length in the side plane, but that the
vertical dimension is H, which is shorter than S. The auxiliary
28
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
plane and the side plane may be revolved about the center line
or axis until they are parallel to the plane of the paper. This
has been done in Fig. 64, where the object is shown by its projec-
tions. Note the location of the points 1, 2, 3, and 4. The center
line of the auxiliary view
is parallel to the inclined
face. The width W is the
same in the auxiliary view
and in the side view. The
points 1, 2, 3, and 4 are
Tr -?r ^ 7* -s p ! 2TT located in the auxiliary
\^~ ^^\ ^^ ^' ~(^\ view by projecting lines
perpendicular to the in-
clined face which cross the
center line at right angles.
The distances on either
side of the center line are then obtained from the side view
and measured on the corresponding projection lines of the auxiliary
view, as illustrated for point 4.
Compare Figs. 63 and 64 carefully.
Required Views. A bracket is shown in pictorial form in
Fig. 65, together with its three views in orthographic projection.
Note the relation of the views. A picture of an object is shown
Pig. 64-
fig. 65 r/g. 66
in Fig. 66. Since most of its detail is inclined, a side view and
auxiliary view are used. In this way true shapes are shown.
Other views are not needed. They would be somewhat difficult
to_ draw and would not add anything to what is already shown.
Very good practice is to be had by deciding the number of views
PROJECTIONS
29
and proper treatment for such machine parts and constructions
as one encounters.
The Imaginary Cutting Plane. It is not always possible to
indicate easily and clearly the interior construction of a machine
Fig. 71
69
or part by means of dotted lines. In such cases resort is had to
imaginary cutting planes which reveal the hidden parts.
Such an imaginary cutting plane passing through the object
of Fig. 67 is shown in Fig. 68. The part in front of the cutting
plane is removed in Fig. 69, leaving the object as shown in Fig.
70, where the surfaces cut by the plane are indicated by parallel
inclined lines. Such a surface is said to be cross-hatched or
section-lined. The view is called a section, or sectional elevation.
In orthographic projection the two views are drawn as hi Fig. 71,
where the section occupies the same position relative to the top
view as the front view which it replaces. Note that the top
view is shown complete. The top edge of the cutting plane is
shown as a center line in the top view. The rules of projection
apply to sectional views. The object is imagined to be cut by a
plane and the part in front of the plane removed in order to show
the cut surfaces and the details beyond the cutting plane.
Representation of Cut Surfaces. The surfaces which lie in
the imaginary plane are indicated by a series of parallel lines.
Different pieces are shown by changing the direction of the lines.
The width of spacing for section lines is determined by the area
to be sectioned. Different materials are sometimes indicated by
30
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
different forms of section lining. Fig. 72 gives the forms sug-
gested by a committee of the American Society of Mechanical
Orig/na/ ftf/ing
Earfh '
Of her Moter/o/s
Fig. 72
Engineers. The character of sectioning should not be depended
upon to tell the material. It should always be given in a note
if it is not perfectly evident.
CHAPTER V
MATERIALS AND STRESSES
Materials. Engineering constructions must carry loads and
transmit motions. For such purposes various materials are made
use of according to their adaptability. The most used material
is iron in its different forms cast iron; wrought iron; steel;
and the steel alloys. In addition to iron there are the yellow
metals, or brass and bronze compositions, white metals or babbitt,
tin, lead, etc., and the various timbers.
It is important for the draftsman to know something of the
properties of these materials, the methods of forming into ma-
chine parts, and the relative expense, so that a proper selection
of material may be made for the particular case in hand.
Cast Iron. Cast iron is a hard, brittle, granular substance
obtained by burning the impurities from various ores, the most
common being
Magnetic Oxide, or Magnetite
Ferric Oxide, or Red Hematite
Brown Hematite
Spathic Ore
Cast iron contains carbon and various impurities, such as
silicon, manganese, phosphorus, sulphur, etc.
White Iron. There are two principal kinds of cast iron :
white cast iron, in which the carbon is chemically combined, and
gray cast iron, in which the carbon is free or mixed in the form
of graphite. White cast iron contains a small amount of carbon,
and is very hard and brittle. It is used in the manufacture of
wrought iron and steel. White cast iron is very difficult to
machine.
Gray Iron. Gray cast iron contains some carbon in chemical
combination and a considerable amount in the form of graphite,
which is mixed with the iron. Gray iron is softer than white
iron and is easily machined. It contains from 0.5 per cent to
1 per cent of combined carbon up to 2 per cent.
31
32
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Properties of Cast Iron. Cast iron is the most useful of
metals, as it can be readily melted and cast into any desired form
by first making a mold. For this reason it is adapted for making
complicated shapes. Its cheapness renders it available where
Fig. 73
Fig. 74
rigidity and weight are required. Cast iron cannot be welded
and has very little elasticity, so that it is not adapted for use
where shocks and sudden loads are to be cared for.
Cast iron has a crystalline structure, and when cooling the
crystals form at right angles to the surface. Where square
corners are encountered the arrangement is as indicated in Fig.
Fig. 75
73, in which fracture is likely to occur along a&, called the plane of
fracture. This may be prevented by rounding, as in Fig. 74.
Cast iron expands at the moment of solidifying, but shrinks upon
cooling. This action sets up cooling strains in the casting, espe-
cially if there exists a considerable variation in the thickness of
the section in the different parts of the piece. For this reason
a uniform cooling arrangement is always desirable, and sudden
changes in section should be avoided.
MATERIALS AND STRESSES
33
Cast iron is about four times as strong in compression as it is in
tension.
Wrought Iron. Wrought iron is almost pure iron, obtained
by melting pig iron and squeezing out the impurities while it is
in a plastic state. For such purposes a puddling furnace (Fig.
75) is used. Iron is put into the furnace and melted. When in a
plastic state it is taken in the form of a ball on the end of a puddle
bar and squeezed or pounded and heated again. This process is
UMDER PKE.SSUKE.
Fig. 76
continued until most of the impurities are burned or squeezed
out. It is then rolled into bars or billets. These billets are
further rolled into rods of various shapes and sizes called merchant
bars. This rolling process gives the iron a fibrous structure due
to a certain amount of impurities which remain after the puddling.
Wrought iron contains a very small amount of carbon.
Properties of Wrought Iron. Wrought iron is malleable and
is the best material to withstand shocks. It stretches and so
gives warning before breaking. It cannot be cast, but must be
rolled or forged into the forms required. For this reason it is
not adapted for complicated shapes. It can be welded, punched,
bent, etc. Owing to its method of manufacture, it is expensive
34 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
and is supplanted to a considerable extent by mild steel, which
has a similar composition. Wrought iron is almost equally strong
in tension and compression. It is stronger in the direction of the
fibers than across them.
Steel. Steel is made by burning carbon and impurities out
of pig iron and then adding the desired amount of carbon. An-
other method is to add carbon to wrought iron. There are two
processes of making steel from pig iron: the Bessemer process
and the open-hearth process.
Bessemer Process. In the Bessemer process from five to
twenty tons of melted pig iron is put into a converter (Fig. 76).
Air under a pressure of about twenty pounds per square inch is
caused to pass in streams up through the metal, and the carbon
and impurities are burned out. This requires about ten minutes,
and leaves practically pure iron, to which the proper carbon
content is added by putting in liquid spiegeleisen (white iron) or
ferromanganese. This makes it into steel, which is poured into
ingots. These ingots are rolled into blooms and other desired
Open-hearth Process. By this process large amounts of
steel are made at one time, generally about fifty tons. Steel,
scrap, and pig iron are melted on the hearth of a Siemens regen-
erative furnace. The metal is kept in agitation by chemical reac-
tions, caused by adding iron scale or scrap iron which furnish the
necessary carbon.
Properties of Steel. Steel is composed of iron and carbon in
chemical combination. It has a uniform granular structure and
may be formed to shape by forging, rolling, or casting. Steel
varies greatly in its qualities, depending upon the carbon content.
It is sometimes designated as
Soft Steel about 0.19 % carbon
Medium Steel " 0.30%
Hard Steel " 0.75 % up to 1.8 % carbon
Steel having less than 0.25% is frequently called mild steel.
Malleable Iron. Small parts of cast iron can be made less
brittle by being surrounded by iron scale or some form of an
oxide of iron and kept at a bright red heat for over sixty hours.
In this way some of the carbon is removed and the material is
made to resemble wrought iron. It is used for small pieces which
MATERIALS AND STRESSES 35
cannot be easily forged. Hardware castings, pipe fittings, etc.,
are often made of malleable iron.
Suggestions for Selection of Material. The best method of
learning the proper materials to be used is by observation. The
material best adapted cannot always be used, because of cost,
method of shaping, etc. Ask why, when a special material is
used. The "factor of cost" is always present the "factor
of safety" should always be considered first. Observe broken
parts of machines as a valuable means of obtaining sound in-
formation. The use of special metals is often one of trial and
observation. Some things which influence the selection of ma-
terial are given below :
Method of Shaping
Casting Cost of Pattern
Forging Drop Forging Die
Pressing Stamping
Extrusion Drawing
Rolling
Number Required
Method of Finishing
Strength Required
Kind of Loads
Moving or Stationary Parts
Lightness or Weight
Wear
Where liquids or gases are used the chemical action must be
considered.
Loads and Stresses. The materials used in machines are
subject to various loadings which must be resisted by these ma-
terials. The internal resistance must be equal to the external
or applied load, or the part will fail. There are many ways of
applying the load, each bringing into play a different form of
resistance by the material. This resistance is called stress.
Stress is a measure of the strength of the material to resist an
external load. There are three kinds of simple stresses: tension,
compression, and shear.
Axial Stresses. A bar is a portion of material having a
uniform section, such as a cylinder or prism. When a load is
applied to a bar so as to be uniformly distributed it is called an
36
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
axial load. Such a load produces a direct stress in the bar. The
section made by passing a plane at right angles to the axis of the
bar is called a cross section. The area of this section is the cross-
sectional area and is usually spoken of as the area. It is generally
measured hi square inches.
When a load is applied to a bar so that it tends to lengthen
the bar it produces a tensile stress (Fig. 77). When the applied
load tends to shorten or compress the bar it produces a com-
A7\
Fig. 7B
Fig. 79
pressive stress (Fig. 78). When the applied load acts at right
angles to the bar and tends to push one cross-sectional plane by
another it produces a shearing stress (Fig. 79).
Unit Stresses. In order that the strength of various materials
may be compared, the strength of a bar one inch square is used
as a unit. The strength of such a bar is called the unit stress,
or stress per square inch of cross-sectional area. The stress is
usually given in pounds per square inch. To find the unit stress,
divide the applied load by the cross sectional area, or:
Let A = area of cross section in square inches.
P = total load in pounds.
/ = stress in pounds per square inch.
Then the unit stress is
= P (load)
A (area)
MATERIALS AND STRESSES 37
Thus, if a rod has an area of 3 J /2 square inches and is subject to a
load of 35,000 pounds, it has a unit stress of
/ = - = 3 -^? = 10,000 Ib. per square inch.
A 3.5
Elastic Limit. From the formula given above it follows that
if the load is doubled, the unit stress will also be doubled. This
means that the unit stress is proportional to the load. By ex-
periment it has been found that this law does not hold for all
loads, but only up to a certain load (depending upon the material).
This load or limit is called the elastic limit and is expressed in
pounds per square inch. For stresses less than the elastic limit
the increase or decrease in length of the bar is directly propor-
tional to the stress. The increase or decrease in length is called
the strain, and the total strain divided by the length is called
the unit strain.
Let I = length in inches
e = change in length in inches
s = unit strain
Then
e
Modulus of Elasticity. Below the elastic limit both the
unit stress and the unit strain are proportional to the load, so
that they bear a constant relation to each other. This relation
is expressed as the quotient obtained by dividing the unit stress
by the unit strain, which will give a constant called the modulus
of elasticity and represented by E.
Then Stress" /
Ei = =
Strain s
p
Ultimate Strength. Ihe formula /= gives the unit stress
A
of a material for a given load. If the load is sufficiently large
the piece will break or rupture. The value of / when rupture
takes place is called the ultimate strength of the material.
Factor of Safety. The ultimate strengths of materials as
well as the elastic limits are not constants, although most of them
are pretty well known from large numbers of tests. However,
38
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
it is not desirable to stress a material too near its elastic limit,
as there may be imperfections or lack of uniformity. The manner
in which the load is applied also affects the stress which it is safe
to impose upon a given material. For this reason various "factors
of safety" are used. A factor of safety is a number obtained by
dividing the ultimate strength of a material by the unit stress
actually imposed upon it. The actual stress is referred to as
the safe working stress. Often the safe working stress is ob-
tained by dividing the ultimate strength by a suitable factor of
safety, depending upon the nature of the loading.
Average Values. The values given in the following tables
are averages and will serve for purposes of computation in the
absence of more definite figures.
ELASTIC LIMITS
Pounds per
Square Inch
Tension
Compression
Cast Iron
6000
20000
Wrought Iron
Steel
25,000
35,000
25,000
35,000
MODULI OF ELASTICITY
Pounds per Square Inch
Cast Iron
15000000
Wrought Iron
27000000
Steel
30000000
ULTIMATE STRENGTHS
Pounds per Square Inch
Tension
Compression
Shear
Cast Iron
Wrought Iron
Steel
20,000
50,000
60,000 to 100,000
90,000
50,000
60,000 to 150,000
18,000
40,000
50,000 to 80,000
MATERIALS AND STRESSES
39
FACTORS OF SAFETY
Live Load
Material
Dead Load
One Kind of
Stress
Alternate
Tension and
Compression
Varying
Loads.
Shocks
4
6
10
15
Wrought Iron
and Steel. . .
3
5
8
12
CHAPTER VI
SCREW THREADS
Uses of Screw Threads. A screw is a cylindrical bar having
a helical projection. The form of this helical projection varies,
according to the uses to which the screw is put. Screws are
used for the following purposes: To fasten parts of machines
together; to transmit motion; to convert rotation into transla-
tion, or vice versa; for the adjustment of parts in their relation
to one another.
The Helix. A helix is a curve generated by a point moving
equal distances lengthwise of a cylinder while it is moving equal
5 6 7 8 9 IO II 13 I
frg. 60
distances around the cylinder. If a right triangle is wound
around a cylinder the hypotenuse will form a helix. The points
1, 2, 3, 4, etc., of Fig. 80 will come at the same numbers on the
curve when the triangle is wound around the cylinder. The
pitch of a helix is the distance which the point moves parallel to
the axis while it goes once around the cylinder.
To draw the Projections of a Helix. In Fig. 80 let D be the
diameter and let the pitch be the distance indicated. Divide
the circle shown in the top view into any convenient number of
equal parts, and draw vertical lines through each point. Divide
the pitch into the same number of equal parts and draw horizontal
40
SCREW THREADS
41
lines. For each space around the cylinder the point will move
one of the spaces along the pitch, thus locating the curve as shown.
Parts of a Screw. A screw is known by its outside diameter,
Fig. 81
indicated in Fig. 81 by d. The diameter d\ is called the root
diameter. Point 6 is the top of the thread and point a the bot-
tom, or root. The area corresponding to di is called the root
area. One half the difference between the outside diameter and
the root diameter is called the depth of the thread.
Right- and Left-hand Screws. Screws may be either right -
or left-hand. A right-hand screw thread (Fig. 93) requires the
r
tera
h H H
/v^. 82
screw to be turned in a clockwise direction to enter the nut.
A left-hand screw thread (Fig. 99) must be turned counter-clock-
wise when entering. The pitch of a screw thread is the distance
which the screw will advance for one complete turn for a single
threaded screw.
Forms of Screw Threads. The forms of screw threads are
shown in the accompanying figures. Fig. 82 shows the Sellers,
Franklin Institute, or U. S. Standard thread, as used quite gen-
erally in the United States. The proportions are indicated on
the figures. The tops and bottoms of the V's are flattened so
that the depth of the thread is decreased 0.25 the depth of the
42
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
V. The flats make the thread less liable to injury on the sharp
V's and less liable to weakening at the bottom of the grooves
than the sharper V thread shown in Fig. 83. This form of thread
f/g.86
Hg. 89
is also in quite general use. It is conveniently formed on a lathe,
and does not require a special tool, or regrinding of the tool, as
is the case for the U. S. Standard. The angle for both the above
forms is 60 degrees.
The Whitworth thread, or standard of Great Britain, is illus-
trated in Fig. 84. In this form the angle is 55 degrees. The threads
are rounded off at the top and bottom, making a strong shape.
Fig. 91
The forms described above are the ones most commonly used
for fastening parts together.
Fig. 86 shows the square thread, a form well adapted for use
in transmitting motion.
The Acme thread, a modification of the square thread, is shown
in Fig. 87. The angle may be either 29 or 30 degrees. This
form is used for transmitting motion. The relieving of the
thread allows the use of a split nut. A common example is the
SCREW THREADS
43
lead screw of a lathe. Fig. 88 shows the buttress or breechlock
thread so called from its use in guns to take the recoil. It is
designed to take pressure in one direction only. This form has
the strength in shear of the V form, but avoids the tendency to
Fig.
split the nut. Fig. 85 shows the knuckle or rounded screw
thread. This form can be cast in a mold. It is used only for
rough work. Fig. 89 shows the common wood screw. An
attempt is made to consider the differences in strength of the
Fig. 95
Fig. 96
wood and steel. For adjustment, Figs. 82, 83, 84, 86, and 87
are used. Thrust screws for pillow blocks, crossheads, etc., are
familiar examples of adjusting screws.
Multiple Threads. Screws may have either single, double,
or other multiple threads. A single-threaded screw consists of
a single helical projection (Fig. 90). The pitch is the distance
from one thread point to the next thread point. The lead is the
44
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
distance which the screw will advance for one turn. When a
large pitch is required on a small diameter, the arrangement of
Fig. 91 would weaken the screw by reducing the root diameter
(Fig. 91) at point A. To avoid this, two parallel helical projec-
tions may be used, as shown at B (Fig. 91). This is called a double
f=
fig. 9 7
. 96
fig. -99
f/g. 100
thread. Similarly, a triple or quadruple thread may be formed.
In this manner a large lead may be obtained without lessening
the strength of the screw.
Split Nut and Square Thread. A portion of a square threaded
screw, and a section of a nut for^use with it are shown in Fig. 92.
Fig. 101
Fig. 102
F/g. 103
The method of drawing the helix has already been explained.
Note the dotted line a-b, which indicates the undercutting of
surface abc, and shows why a split nut cannot be removed from
a square threaded screw. The sloping side of the Acme thread
does away with this undercutting and allows the removal of a
split nut.
Conventional Representation of Screw Threads. It is not
often necessary to draw the helix in representing threads, as
there are a number of conventional representations in use. Figs.
93 to 100 are common methods. Figs. 93 to 98 are for right-
hand threads, Figs. 99 and 100 are for left-hand threads, and
Figs. 96 to 98 are for either right- or left-hand threads. It is not
SCREW THREADS
45
generally necessary to draw the pitch to scale. The distance
between lines may be estimated by eye and arranged to avoid
crowding of the lines. The number of threads per inch of other
than U. S. Standard should be given by note, as "12 threads per
Fig. 104
inch, right hand." This may be abbreviated to "12 Thds. R. H."
or " 12 Thds. L. H." Sometimes the number is given for U. S.
Standard as indicated in Fig. 96, or the Roman numeral may be
used, as in Fig. 95.
Three representations for square threads are shown in Figs. 101,
n /
J
S
~-JJ
i[
/
1
/
Fig. IO5
Pig. 106
102, and 103. The square threads are generally drawn to scale,
and if of large diameter the helix may be drawn in, as in Fig. 92.
Threaded Holes. Representations for threaded holes are
shown in plan, elevation, and section, in Fig. 104. It will be
observed that the lines representing the threads slope in the
46 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
opposite direction when the hole is shown in section. The reason
for this is that the far side of the thread is seen. As shown,
either single or double circles may be used in the plan view.
When the last two forms are used they should always be marked
"Tap" as indicated.
For small diameters,
the V's may be put
in free hand. The
lines representing the
F/g. 107 f/g. lOa r/g. 109
roots of the threads
when visible are sometimes made heavier, but when dotted all
lines should be of uniform thickness.
Strength of Screw Threads. There are three methods of
failure, shearing of threads, tension at the root of threads, and
bursting of the nut.
Let f s = unit shearing stress in pounds per square inch.
ft = unit tensile stress in pounds per square inch.
p = pitch in inches
I = length in inches
The shearing strength of the V thread (Fig. 105) will be
P s = TT d, If.
and for square threads (Fig. 106) having the same outside diameter
and pitch , , , ,
P 8 = ird 2 l /z f,
which shows that the square thread is much weaker in shear
than the V thread.
The tensile strength of the V thread (Fig. 105) will be
P t -V4irdi/
and for the square thread, Fig. 106, having the same outside
diameter and pitch p _ i / j 2 /
* == /4 TT C*2 jt
The V thread will have a considerable tendency to burst the
nut, as shown in Fig. 107. As the angle between the threads
decreases, this bursting tendency decreases until the square form
is reached, when it becomes zero (Fig. 109).
The following tables give some desirable data concerning screw
threads. Further information may be found in the handbooks
published by Machinery and American Machinist.
SCREW THREADS
47
DIMENSIONS OF U. S. STANDARD THREADS
Diameter
Threads
per Inch
Diameter
of Tap Drill
Root
Diameter
Root
Area
V4
20
Vl6
.185
.026
Vl6
18
V4
.241
.045
3 /8
16
Vl6
.294
.068
Vl6
14
23 /64
.345
.093
Vi
13
13 /32
.400
.126
Vli
12
15 /32
.454
.162
' V8
11
17 /32
.507
.202
3 /4
10
6 /8
.620
.302
'/
9
3 /4
.731
.420
1
8
27 /32
.838
.551
Wi
7
31 /32
.940
.693
IV 4
7
W32
1.065
.889
! 3 /3
6
IV 16
1.159
1.054
1V
6
!'/
1.284
1.293
IV.'
5V.
! 13 /32
1.389
1.515
W 4
5
iVi
1.491
1.744
! 7 /8
5
! 5 /8
1.616
2.049
2
4 1 / 2
1V4
1.711
2.300
TENSILE STRENGTH OF U. S. STANDARD SCREW THREADS
Diameter
Threads
per Inch
Total Strength of One Bolt for Unit Stresses of
4000
5000
6000
l /4
20
105
135
160
3 /8
16
270
340
405
Vi
13
500
625
750
5 /8
11
805
1010
1210
3 /4
10
1200
1500
1800
7 /8
9
1680
2100
2520
1V 8
8
2200
2750
3300
iVt
7
2770
3460
4160
Wi
7
3120
3900
4680
! 3 /8
6
4240
5300
6360
iVi
6
5120
6400
7680
! 5 /8
5 1 / 2
6120
7650
9180
IV 4
5
7040
8800
10560
r/8
5
8120
10150
12180
2
4 1 / 2
9200
11500
13800
CHAPTER VII
BOLTS AND SCREWS
THE most common fastening for holding parts of machines
together is some form of bolt or screw. There is a great variety
of forms, many of which are shown in this chapter.
U. S. Standard Bolts. Figs. 110 and 111 show the pro-
portions of the U. S. Standard hexagonal bolt head and nut.
As indicated, there are two general forms, chamf erred (Fig. 110)
and rounded (Fig. 111). The same proportions hold for both
types. The rounded type is used when the parts to be bolted
together are nicely finished. The distance across flats W is
made equal to one and one half times the diameter, plus one
eighth inch, or
w iy. ***/"
The thickness of the bolt head is made equal to one half the
distance across flats, or
T = 3 /4d+Vi6"
The thickness of the nut is made equal to the diameter in all
cases. These same formulae hold good for both the hexagonal
and square forms. Fig. 112 shows the square form.
The radii for the various arcs are shown on the figures, and
when not given in terms of the diameter are obtained from the
construction, as indicated. The distance across corners is gen-
erally found by construction, as indicated in Fig. 110, by drawing
a line xy at 30 degrees with the base of the head.
x-z = one hah" distance across flats
x-y '= one half distance across corners
It should be noted that the radii R and Ri of Fig. Ill, are both
drawn from the same center. The length of the radius Ri is
found by construction when drawing the bolt head or nut. When
48
BOLTS AND SCREWS
49
^r
fcsr^r
fiii
Fig. /IS
heads or nuts are finished or machined, the distance across flats
is often made Vie inch smaller than standard, in which case
W -I'd+
50
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
The proportions of bolt heads and nuts are collected in the
following list, which also gives some approximate values to be
used when drawing to small scale, or where exact size is not
important.
Exact
Approximate
Diameter of bolt
d
d
d
d
Distance across flats
W
3 /2<2 + 1 /&"
! 3 / 4 d
w
Thickness of bolt head
T
7 /s d
ft /i6 - 2
(Hex.) distance across corners. .
(7 H
1.155TF
P/4 d + 1 /8
2d
Thickness of nut
d
d
d
d
(Square) distance across corners
C s
1.414TF
2.3d
Bolts. A through bolt is one which extends through two
pieces, and carries a nut, as shown in Fig. 113. Care must be
taken to allow sufficient thread to insure the two pieces being held
firmly together. For this reason, the distance from the end of
fig. //-?
Fig. 114
r/g.H5
the thread at A to the under side of the head B must be less
than the thickness of the two flanges. Since the bolt head and
nut are standard only three dimensions are necessary when
specifying a bolt. These are, diameter, length from under side
of head to end of bolt, and length of thread measured from the
end of the bolt.
A tap bolt is a bolt which makes use of a part of the machine
to take the place of a nut, as shown in Fig. 114. To be sure that
the two pieces will be held firmly together, the distance AB must
be less than the thickness of the flange.
BOLTS AND
Studs. A stud bolt or stud is a cylindrical bar having threads
on both ends (Fig. 115). Studs are used when there is not room
enough for through bolts, and where there is danger of a tap
bolt rusting in. Cylinder heads for steam or water machinery
are familiar examples. In such cases the heads have to be taken
off frequently, and if tap bolts were
used, the threads might rust in, and
break when an attempt to remove
them was made. If successfully re-
moved several times, the thread would
be worn so as to become loose and
render the keeping of a tight joint
difficult. When a stud is put in place
it becomes part of the casting, and
the wear then comes on the nut and
stud, both of which are made of
wrought iron. The material will stand
the wear much better than cast iron. A small amount of oil
on the outer end of the stud will prevent the nut from, rusting
on.
Threaded Holes. Holes for bolts and studs are generally
threaded by using taps. Machinist taps come in sets of three,
Fig //7
designated as taper, plug, and bottoming taps (Fig. 116). The
operation is as follows: First a hole is made with a drill having
a diameter about equal to the root diameter of the screw. Such
a drill is called a tap drill. The thread is then cut by inserting
and turning in the taps illustrated, and in the order given. The
use of the bottoming tap is often omitted, as it is seldom neces-
sary to have threads to the very bottom of the hole (the reader
is referred to catalogs of machinists' tools for further informa-
52
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
tion). Unless it is desired to have a stud jam at the bottom of
a hole, clearance, CD, should be allowed, as shown in Fig. 117.
The depth of the hole is the distance A B. If necessary the
Plat Fillisf-er Head
Oral Pi/lister Head
=I.64/I-.OO9
I O ," C-- .66A-.002
I _Jj_i O- .173 A+. 015
2/1 -.003
- 008) + /. 739
J73A +.0/5
Fig.
thread may be carried to the bottom of the hole and even the
drill point may be ground off so that a flat bottom hole may be
obtained as in Fig. 118. This will prevent the drill from pointing
or breaking through, as indicated by the dotted lines. A better
D
/
4-
ft
3
e
7
/6
2
9
16
i
3
4
2
e
1
H
7
/6
/
a
^
16
ff~
4-
7e
G
1
/
1*
s5
3
^
/6
&
ii
~6
*
<?
7
e
/s
1*
method is to put a boss on the casting opposite the hole, and
then use a regular drill and plug tap (Fig. 119).
Machine Screws. Small screws are made with a variety of
forms of heads. They are especially adapted for use with small
parts of machines. Fig. 120 shows the various forms of heads,
and the proportions as recommended by the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers. The sizes of machine screws are
BOLTS AND SCREWS
53
designated by numbers. Diameters range from .060 inches to
.450 inches.
Cap Screws. For many purposes bolts having different
dimensions from the U. S. Standard are desirable. Hexagonal
and square cap screws are shown in Figs. 121 and 122. The
distance across flats is less than the U. S. Standard, and the
thickness is greater. Cap screws are also made with heads similar
to those shown for machine screws. Cap screws are designated
by their diameter in inches. The diameters are in even fractions
of an inch, starting at l /i".
Cap Nuts. - Where an especially finished appearance is de-
sired, cap nuts may
be used to conceal
the ends of studs.
They are frequently
seen on polished cyl-
inder heads, and similar places. Several forms of cap nuts are
shown in Figs. 123, 124, and 125.
Set Screws. For holding pulleys on shafts, and otherwise
preventing relative motion, set screws may be used. Several
forms are illustrated. Any combination of point and head may
/V= l/.S.SM. M> Thds. per inch.
Fig. I.
Fig. /26
fig. J2d
Fig. 131
be obtained. Some proportions are shown in Figs. 126 to 131.
A projecting set screw on a revolving pulley is a source of great
danger, and should be avoided. The many forms of headless
and hollow set screws on the market render the use of other
forms unnecessary in such cases.
The relative holding power of the different forms of ends of
set screw are given by Professor Lanza in the A. S. M. E. " Trans-
actions," Volume 10. Average results of tests on four kinds are
as follows:
54 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
A. Flat end, 9 /ie inch diameter, 2064 pounds
B. End rounded, l / z inch radius, 2912 pounds
C. End rounded, */4 inch radius, 2573 pounds
D. Cup shaped end, 2470 pounds
The set screws were all 5 / 8 inches in diameter, and were tightened
with a pull of 75 pounds on a 12 inch wrench.
Locking Devices. The vibration of machinery often causes
nuts to become loose if they are not provided with some form of
locking device. The commonest method is to use two nuts.
They may be full size, or one of the arrangements shown in Fig.
rig. 132
132. The castle nut illustrated forms a good method. Lock
washers consisting of a piece of sheet metal are effective. One
corner is turned down, and another corner is turned up, as
illustrated.
The following table gives the dimensions for U. S. Standard
bolt heads and nuts.
BOLTS AND SCREWS
55
DIMENSIONS OF U. S. STANDABD BOLT HEADS AND NUTS
d
Diameter
of Bolt
W
Flats or
Short
Diameter
c
Corners
or Long
Diameter
d
Thickness
of Nut
r
Thickness
of
Bolt Head
C S
Corners
or Long
Diameter
V4
/
37 /64
V*
'/
Z3 /32
Vl6
13 /32
U /16
Vl6
19 /64
27 /32
3 /8
/16
81 /64
V
tt /M
31 /32
Vl6
/M
29 /32
7 /16
25 /64
! 7 /64
'/I
7 /8
1V64
*/
Vl6
1V4
Vie
31 /32
1V
Vl6
31 /64
W 8
Vs
iVu
l 1S /64
5 /8
17 /32
1V2
3 /4
1V4
! 29 /64
3 /4
B /8
1V4
7 /8
F/16
l/64
7 /8
23 /32
/M
1
l B /8
l ? /8
13 /16
2V
IVs
1 13 /16
2P/ M
Vs
29 /32
2 9 / 16
1V4
2
2V i.
V4
1
2 S3 /64
! 3 /8
2Vie
2"/32
3 /8
i/.i
3 3 /32
iVi
2/8
2V4
v
IV 16
3 23 /64
! 5 /8
2'/16
2 15 /16
! 5 /8
P/32
3*/8
! 3 /4
2V4
3V 16
W4
! 3 /8
3 57 /64
l ? /8
2 16 /16
3 13 /32
l ? /8
! 15 /32
4 3 / 16
2
3Vs
3 5 /8
2
P/16
4^/64
56
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
DEPTH OP TAPPED HOLES AND DISTANCE FOR SCREW TO ENTER
d
Diameter
of Screw
D
Diameter
of Tap
Drill
B
Depth
of Hole
C
Allowance
for
Drill Point
A
Distance
for Screw
to Enter
v
/.
Vl6
Vl6
3 /8
Vl6
17 /32
Vl6
8 /64
Vl6
3 /8
Vl6
n /M
3 /32
Vl6
Vl6
3 /8
3 /4
7 /64
5 /8
Vi
"/64
13 /16
Vs
"/16
Vi
31 /64
15 /16
9 /64
13 /16
V
17 /32
1
5 /32
7 /8
3 /4
/64
W4
Vl6
1
Vs
3 /4
iVi
7 /32
1V4
1
55 /64
1V 8
V4
! 3 /8
iVt
61 /64
IV 4
9 /32
1V2
1V
1V64
2
8 /H
1V4
!/
l n /64
2V4
U /32
1V8
i/i
! 19 /64
2'/2
3 /8
2V
!/
l"/32
2 B /8
13 /32
2>/4
l'/4
IV
2 3 / 4
Vl6
2V.
iVi
! 5 /8
3
15 /32
2V
2
P 3 /32
3'/8
7i
2V 4
CHAPTER VIII
RIVETING
Riveting. Since machines and structures cannot be made in
one piece some means of fastening the parts together must be
used. For many purposes where a permanent fastening is re-
quired, rivets are used. A rivet is a bar of metal having a head
made on one end and a length sufficient to allow forming a head
on the other end after being put into place. The holes for rivets
may be either punched or drilled. As punching injures the
metal, drilled holes are better for boiler or other pressure work.
f>g. /33
Holes are made Vie inch larger diameter than the rivets used in
them. Thus a one-inch rivet is 15 /ie inch diameter before driving.
The computations for pitch and efficiency of joints, matters
relating to design, are beyond the scope of this work, but the
following articles will suffice for drawing purposes.
Rivet Heads. The forms of rivet heads are shown in Figs.
133, 134, and 135. The countersunk head and the button head
are illustrated in Fig. 133. These forms are used for structural
work. For pressure work the cone head or pan head of Fig. 134
may be used, or the common form of Fig. 135.
Lap Joints. When two plates lap over each other and are
held by a row of rivets as in Fig. 136 it is called a single riveted
lap joint. A double riveted lap joint is shown in Fig. 137. The
distance between the centers of two rivets in the same row is
57
58
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
called the pitch. The distance from the center line of the rivets
to the edge of the plate is called the lap. The lap is commonly
made equal to one and one half times the diameter of the rivet.
/3 7
The distance from the center of a rivet in one line to the center
of a rivet in the next line is called the diagonal pitch and may be
found from the formula:
P' =
Either chain riveting (Fig. 138) or staggered riveting (Fig. 139)
may be used when there are several rows of rivets.
fig. 138
. /39
Butt Joints. Three forms of butt joints are shown in Figs.
140, 141, and 142. In Fig. 140 a single butt-strap having a thick-
ness of about one and one fourth times the thickness of the plates
RIVETING
59
may be used. Figs. 141 and 142 show single and double riveted
butt joints with two butt-straps. In such cases the butt-straps
may be Vie inch thinner than the plates.
When three plates come together they must be arranged so
Section A-A
r/g.
as to maintain a tight joint. One method used is shown in
Fig. 143. In order to obtain a fit one of the plates must be
thinned out.
Calking. For many purposes rivets must make a leak tight
joint as well as hold the plates together. To assist in this a
60
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
blunt chisel is used to force or pound the edge of the plate down.
This is called calking and makes a water or steam tight joint
113k.
between the plates. The bevel of about 75 shown is to make
the calking easier.
Miscellaneous Connections. Some miscellaneous connections
are shown in Figs. 144 to 147. Angles may be used as in Figs.
144 and 147 or one of the plates may be bent as in Figs. 145 and
146. In this case the radius of curvature (r) may be about two
and one half times the thickness of the plate. Also note that a
short straight part (x) should be provided to allow easy calking
FCIIT
Angle (l_) Channel^ } Beam (I ) Z-Bar (Z )
Pig. 150
Tee (T)
(Fig. 145) . When drawing to a small scale thin sections are some-
times blacked in as shown in Figs. 148 and 149, which also il-
lustrate methods of closing the ends of cylindrical tanks. With
rounded ends the radius of curvature may be taken equal to the
diameter of the tank.
RIVETING
61
Rolled Steel Shapes. For many constructions, rolled steel
shapes are used. The dimensions and weights as well as other
properties can best be obtained from the handbooks issued by
CONVENTIONAL S/GNS fV/f RirT/N6
Shop
Fie/d
Ccn/stferyt/rr/r and f-~/affened
Titv Full Heads
o
Inside
Outside
BotoSides
High
Q
Q
Q
Countersunk & Chipped
/ns/de or Opposite side
8)
Countersunk S Ch/ppect
Outeic/e or This Side
a
ij'High
J
Coufersunk 3 Chipped
Both Sides
3
m
s'High
Q
^
Fig. I5/
the steel companies. The names of a few of the common sections
are given in connection with Fig. 150.
The pitch of rivets for structural purposes may be taken at
from three to six inches. The distance from the center of the
rivet to the edge of the plate should generally be about two times
the rivet diameter. The pitch for various sizes of rivets may be
taken from the table given below.
MINIMUM RIVET SPACING
Diameter of Ri
Pitch
is
i^A
The Osborn system of conventional representation for rivets
is shown in Fig. 151.
CHAPTER IX
WORKING DRAWINGS
Cksses of Drawings. The origin of a drawing is of interest,
and a knowledge of how drawings are produced is essential.
Roughly drawings may be divided into two classes; detail draw-
ings and assembly drawings. These names are sufficiently de-
scriptive in a general way. Drawings are sometimes made from
a machine or part by measuring and sketching. The usual
source of a detail drawing is the designer's board. Here the
whole machine is laid out to scale in a more or less complete
manner, the relation of one part to another is shown, and such
fixed dimensions as are necessary are determined. The shapes
of the various parts as required for strength and motion are
worked out and drawn. From such drawings the detail drafts-
man works and finishes the drawings of the separate parts.
A detail drawing shows each piece separately and completely
defines it (Fig. 152). The number of views is determined by
what is necessary to show the shape and size of the object. A
pin, shaft, or bolt can generally be shown in one view, while a
casting may require two, three, or more views together with
sectional and auxiliary views. The main views should always
be arranged in strict conformity to the rules of projection. The
third quadrant is used exclusively for this purpose. Auxiliary
views and sections may be placed in other positions but explana-
tory notes should always be used to define them as explained in
Chapter X.
The size of paper and the scales to use have been treated in
other chapters. Use a scale that will show the object clearly
and that will not require crowding of the dimensions. In general
it is better not to use more than one scale on the same sheet.
To this end large and small pieces would not be put on the same
sheet. There are many concerns where each part is drawn on
a sheet by itself. The character of the work will determine the
practice in this respect.
62
WORKING DRAWINGS
63
It is generally well to draw large castings separately and to
group small parts together as:
Small Castings,
Bronze and Composition Castings,
Forgings,
Bolts and Screws.
Fig. 152
Special Detail Drawings. Special detail drawings are some-
times made for the different classes of workmen. These might
be classed as follows:
Pattern Drawings,
Forging Drawings,
Machinist's Drawings,
Stock Drawings.
There are many advantages to this system where a large num-
ber of parts are made as each workman is given only such in-
formation as concerns him. As pattern dimensions are used
only when the pattern is made or for alterations they complicate
the drawing and can better be left off the machinist's drawing.
One method is to put the pattern dimensions and information on
the tracing in pencil, make several blueprints, and erase the pencil
64
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
f-
i
information from the tracing. Gasolene applied with a soft
cloth is excellent for this purpose. For forgings two separate
drawings will be necessary, one for the blacksmith and one for
the machinist. The saving in time will make up for the expense
of the extra drawing in most cases.
WORKING DRAWINGS 65
How to make a Drawing. A detail drawing is started by
first locating the main center lines as shown in Fig. 153 for the
necessary views. Next " block in" the fixed dimensions in all
views and from them work out the shape of the object. The
small circles, fillets, etc. should be drawn last. Figs. 153 to 158
show the drawing for a slide valve in the various stages of making.
After completing the drawing in pencil it is ready to be inked
on paper or traced.
Tracing. Most drawings are now inked on tracing cloth.
This is a translucent linen cloth. There are many grades, some
nearly transparent. One side of the cloth is generally shiny or
glazed and the other dull. Either side may be used but the dull
side is to be preferred. The cloth is tacked down over the pencil
drawing and the lines inked in as though they were on the cloth.
The surface of the cloth should be rubbed over with powdered
chalk and then the chalk thoroughly removed. A clean blotter
will serve the same purpose. The fine thread running at the
edges of the cloth should be torn off before using to prevent
wrinkling. As the cloth is absorbent it should be protected from
moisture.
Order for inking Lines. The weight of line to be used has
been discussed in the first chapter. First ink the center lines
using a fine dot and dash line. The order of inking then is:
1. Small circular arcs and circles.
2. Large circular arcs and circles.
3. Irregular curved lines.
4. Straight horizontal lines.
5. Straight vertical lines.
6. Dotted circular arcs.
7. Dotted lines.
8. Witness and dimension lines.
9. Dimensions, notes, title.
10. Section lining.
When a large or complicated drawing is to be inked it is ad-
visable to ink one view at a time or to start only so much as can
be completed on the same day. If a view is left uncompleted it
will generally be found very difficult to join the various lines,
because the cloth is very sensitive to atmospheric changes which
cause it to stretch.
66 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Assembly Drawings. An assembly drawing shows the parts
of a machine in their proper relation to one another. There are
many kinds of assembly drawings, some of which will be described.
An Outline or Setting drawing is frequently made to show the
appearance of the machine, give center distances, and overall
dimensions. Such drawings are used to illustrate the machine
to prospective customers, to lay out the foundation, and for locat-
rig. 159
ing the machine in its building. Fig. 159 shows one form of such
a drawing.
An Assembly Working Drawing is often made when only a few
of the machines are to be constructed. Such a drawing might
contain a number of part views or sections. It would be com-
pletely dimensioned so that no separate or detail drawings would
be required. Fig. 175 shows such a drawing.
Part Assembly Drawings are sometimes made giving a few
pieces in their proper relation to each other and either partly
or completely dimensioned. When completely dimensioned no
further detail drawings are made.
Assembly drawings made to show the sizes, location, and method
of fastening pipes and wires are called piping or wiring diagrams
or drawings, depending upon how completely they are figured.
Erection Drawings are an important class of assembly drawings.
They show the proper order of putting the parts together, dimen-
WORKING DRAWINGS
67
Pig. /GO
sions, such as center distances, which must be exact, give the
location of oil holes, valves, switches, etc., and methods of making
adjustments.
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Diagram Drawings are used by many concerns. These com-
prise a sectional or external view of the whole of the machine
upon which the parts can be numbered or named. Such a draw-
ing frequently contains a list of the parts, drawing numbers,
pattern numbers, materials, weight, and other information.
Outline drawings are often used for catalogs, advertising, and
similar purposes. Some of the points to be considered are given
Fig. /6I
Fig. 162
rig. 163
in the following list. The one upon which emphasis must be put
will depend upon the use to which the drawing is to be put.
1. Get the important points.
2. Sense of proportion.
3. Suggestion.
4. Simplicity (few lines).
5. Record peculiarities in shape or design.
6. Use notes if necessary.
7. Number of machine.
8. Name of manufacturer.
9. Trade names.
10. Use of shading.
11. Not necessarily to scale.
Show Drawings are sometimes made. These are often in the
nature of a picture in which the center lines and dimensions are
left off (Fig. 160) . Line shading as explained in a later chapter is
often used. A good effect may sometimes be obtained by mass
shading with a soft pencil, using the dull side of the tracing cloth.
For more particular work on paper, india ink tinting applied with
a brush can be used.
WORKING DRAWINGS
69
Exceptions to True Projection. There are many cases where
true projection is departed from in the interests of simplicity and
clearness. Figs. 161, 162, and 163 show a few cases. The slot
in the screw is drawn at 45 in the top view but is not projected
\ \
oil) I'-
1 SJi iji
i!i !;: II! !
i
ll 1: i
mi
Fig. 164
Fig. 165 Fig. 166
to the elevation. The same practice is followed for holes and
pins. The location of bolt holes is another illustration. The
front view of Fig. 164 shows the true projection of the bolt holes.
The front view of Fig. 165 shows the preferable method which
Fig 167
locates the centers of the bolt holes at a distance apart equal to
the diameter of the circle of drilling. In such cases the other
holes need not be projected as they add nothing to the information
conveyed by the drawing. When holes are drilled as in Fig. 165
they are said to be "Two Up" or off centers, and when located
as in Fig. 166 they are said to be "One Up" or on centers. Pipe
flanges on elbows and fittings are usually drilled "Two Up" and
70 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
with four, eight, or some multiple of four holes, so that the flanges
can be turned at right angles.
Other exceptions to true projection are discussed in the chapter
on sections.
Blueprints. The object of making tracings is to provide a
convenient means for obtaining several copies of the original
drawing. The most common method is by the blueprinting
process. Blueprint paper is paper which has been coated with
iron salts which are sensitive to light. The method of making
blueprints is as follows:
Place the tracing with the right side or inked side next to the
glass of a printing frame as shown in Fig. 167. Next place a
piece of blueprint paper on the tracing with the coated side down.
Follow this with the .felt pad and close the frame. Expose to
the direct sunlight as indicated in Fig. 168. The length of the
exposure varies from 30 seconds in strong sunlight with rapid
printing paper to three or four minutes under the same conditions
with slow printing paper. The time can best be found by trial,
as the age of the paper and the brightness of the light all exert
an influence. After exposing, the paper should be removed and
thoroughly washed. The excess water may be blotted off and
the print hung up to dry. New paper has a yellow color on the
coated side. After exposure this changes to a gray-bronze except
where the lines of the tracing prevent the light from reaching it.
Electric light is very generally used in the larger mechanical
factories for making blueprints. Machines for this purpose as
well as many other methods of duplication are described in draw-
ing supply catalogs to which the reader is referred.
CHAPTER X
SECTIONS
Sectional Views. Probably the most useful form of con-
ventional representation is the sectional view obtained by an
rig. 169
imaginary cutting plane described in Chapter IV. Free use
of sections often saves much time as well as possibility of mistakes
in reading drawings for constructions which have complicated
Fig. / 71
Fig. 17 2
cores. The choice of views should be made with care and for a
definite purpose, never for appearances. There are many special
sections, some of which are described in this chapter. An article
71
72
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
by the author, "Sections of Ribs and Symmetrical Parts," in
" Machinery/' June, 1915, gives further applications.
Broken and Revolved Sections. When a long piece of uni-
form cross section is to be represented, a larger scale can be used
Fig. 173
by "breaking" the piece. The manner of breaking generally
indicates the form of cross section and material as in Fig. 169.
The break is made free hand but should be carefully done. The
two sides should appear to match, that is, if the sectioning comes
on the upper side of one half it should come on the lower side of
'A
r-
Sect i en A A' ,',->
d/rcct/on of arrow
mm\\
Fig. 174
the other. A similar method of "set in" sections is often used
for such conditions as are present with wrench handles, pulley
arms, brackets, hand wheels, and rods. Figs. 170 to 173 show
some examples.
Location of Sectional Views. When conditions permit, sec-
tional views should be placed according to the laws of projection
SECTIONS
73
as explained in Chapter IV, and are drawn in the same manner
as the other views by assuming a part of the machine or parts to
have been removed. When many sections are required or other
74
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
reasons make it necessary to place the sectional views in another
location, arrows and notes should be used to explain them
as shown in Fig. 174.
Extra sectional views
are often very useful
in explaining parts of a
machine or details of a
part.
Since the cutting
plane is imaginary it
need not be continu-
ous; thus several sec-
tions may be used and
the views represented
as though occurring on
a single plane. This is
illustrated in Fig. 175,
where the cutting
plane is changed as
shown in the top view.
Thus the front sec-
tion is taken on the
plane A, B, C, D, E,
F, and the side section
on a plane through the
center.
Objects not Sectioned. When a full view will serve the same
purpose just as well a sectional view should not be used. This
is true in the case of shafts, bolts, nuts, screws, rivets, keys, pulley
,: ', : ' : :""
Fig. /77
179
arms, etc., which are very seldom drawn in section except when
the cutting plane is at right angles to the long dimension. This
treatment of a section is shown in Fig. 176.
SECTIONS
75
Dotted Lines on Sectional Views. Very often a sectional
view contains only the outline of the sectioned surfaces and the
full lines which appear. How much of the part behind the plane
Fig. 1 79 Fig.ldO F/g./QI
of the section should be represented must be determined for each
particular case. When an object is represented by a view made
up of one half in section and one half exterior most or all of the
Fig. 162
dotted lines may be omitted from both halves, as was done in
Fig. 175.
Sections of Ribs and Symmetrical Parts. Ribs, arms, and
gear teeth are not ordinarily sectioned even though they appear
76 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
on the plane of the section. Figs. 177 and 178 illustrate such
cases. In Fig. 177 the plane MN passes through the ribs, but is
not sectioned in the other view as it would give a false impression
of solidity. In Fig. 178 the true projection without sectioning
the rib is shown at A, while the usual conventional section is
shown .at B.
The representation of a cylinder head in Figs. 179, 180, and 181,
shows a similar case. A true section on the plane AB is given
in Fig. 179. In Fig. 180 the section is taken on CD and revolved
into the position of AB. The bolt holes and lugs are then located
at their true distances from the center. By this means one view
could be made to represent the cylinder head by adding a note
to give the number of lugs. An alternate method is shown in
Fig. 181, where the section FE is revolved. The idea in all cases
is to avoid a view which might in any way be confusing and to
convey the true shape clearly.
When a rib occurs on the plane of a section and it is necessary
to distinguish it, coarse sectioning may be employed as in the
cone pulley of Fig. 182 where the ribs are sectioned but alternate
lines are omitted. A note giving the number and thickness of
the ribs would allow the end view to be dispensed with. Observe
that the half end view is bounded by the center line and not by
a full line, as the pulley has not been actually cut in half.
CHAPTER XI
DIMENSIONING
Purpose of Dimensions. The purpose of dimensions is to
give the necessary figures for constructing machine parts and
putting them together. A drawing gives the shape of an object,
Fig. 183
the dimensions tell the size. These are two operations and both
should be kept in mind.
Dimension Lines. Dimension lines show where the figures
apply to the drawing. They are terminated by arrow heads.
The arrow heads should be about twice as long as they are wide.
Fig. 184-
Fig. /8S
Fig. 183 shows the construction of an enlarged arrow head, and
its proportions. Fine full red ink lines are sometimes used for
dimension, center, and witness lines. The arrow heads and
figures are always black. The figures and notes should always
be placed so as to read from the lower or right hand side of the
77
78
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
drawing. Never use slant fraction lines. In most cases it is
considered bad practice to place the figures upright as shown in
Fig. 184 where the figures may be easily read with the wrong-
dimension lines. Fig. 185 shows a better arrangement. The
witness and dimension lines should be as fine as possible so as
not to conflict with the lines of the drawing. In the interest of
clearness there should be as few lines as possible crossing each
/6Thd.U.SS
i Di
-
-f-i
r
L
Ori//
84
Fig. 186
other. The center lines and object lines have only one purpose
and should never be used as dimension lines. Generally the
dimension lines can be kept outside of the views, thus keeping the
size and shape of the object separate. In such cases place the
larger dimensions outside the smaller ones as in Figs. 186 and
188. Fig. 187 shows a poorly dimensioned drawing of a pump
plunger and Fig. 188 the same piece properly dimensioned. Fin-
ished surfaces are ordinarily indicated by a letter "/" placed
across the line which represents the surface to be machined.
Elements of Dimensioning. Constructions can be separated
into parts and these parts can then be divided into geometrical
DIMENSIONING
79
solids. Each of the solids can then be dimensioned and their
relation to each other fixed. Figs. 189 to 193 show a prism, a
pyramid, a cone, and a cylinder with dimensions. Figs. 194,
195, and 196 show combinations. Note that the same location
of dimensions is maintained. In dimensioning cylinders give the
diameters on the elevation as in Fig. 195. Placing of the five
Fig. 187
Fig. 188
diameters on the end view would result in crowding as well as
inconvenience in reading figures placed at an angle. Always
give a diameter in preference to a radius if the part is a complete
cylinder. For quarter rounds, fillets, and part circles give the
radius.
General Rules. To dimension a drawing successfully the
construction of the pattern, machining, fitting, and putting to-
gether of the machine must be gone over. It is necessary to keep
constantly in mind the person to whom the drawing is addressed
and the purpose for which it is to be used.
80
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Hints:
Do not hurry,
Give sizes of pieces for the pattern maker,
Give sizes and finish for the machinist,
Give assembly dimensions,
Give office dimensions,
Give notes where needed.
m 194.
Fig. 195
It is necessary to remember that surfaces and not lines are
being located. The dimensions of the piece must be kept in
mind. Detail drawings are generally made to serve both pattern
maker and machinist, and the figures indicate the size of the
finished piece. The pattern maker is left to make required
allowances for finish, shrink, and draft. In the case of forgings
two drawings are sometimes made, one for the blacksmith giv-
ing the rough sizes, and another for the machinist giving the
finished sizes.
Systems of Dimensioning. Four general systems of dimen-
sioning may be mentioned as follows:
1. All figures outside of the object lines.
2. All figures inside of the object lines.
3. All figures given from two reference lines at right angles to each
other.
4. A combination of the preceding three systems.
DIMENSIONING
81
The four systems are illustrated in Figs. 197 to 200. The
first method is to be favored as the dimension lines and figures
are kept separate from the interior and allow details to be easily
seen. The size and
shape are separated.
The second method
may be used when
there is little detail
within the view. It
preserves the outline
of the view but often
there is confusion due
to the crossing of the
lines and crowding of
the figures. The third method is particularly adapted to plate
work and laying out where holes must be carefully located.
The fourth method is the one generally used but making it
II
! i
t
*
i
\
^
1#-
at
te
**-D
\L
Fig. 196
. I9e
conform to the first system by placing dimensions outside when-
ever it is conveniently possible.
Location of Dimensions. Facility in manufacture should be
a motto in dimensioning. The figures must be so placed as to be
easily found and perfectly clear in their meaning when found.
Select that view which most completely defines the object and
start with it first. If an assembly drawing, dimension only one
piece at a time and finish all views of that one piece before starting
another. Put on similar dimensions at the same time, as diame-
ters, lengths, etc. Do not jump from one piece to another. Work
from the more important dimensions to those of less importance.
82
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
See that all center distances are given. Consider the effect of
location upon ease of reading the drawing. Similar pieces should
be dimensioned in exactly the same way. Fig. 201 shows a gland,
g. /99
Fig. 200
Fig. 202 a pump valve, and Fig. 203 a cylinder head. They are
all similar pieces and the dimensions are located in the same
places on each. In the three figures the similar dimensions are
indicated by the letters A, B, C, etc.
By observing such methods a system of dimensioning can be
Pig. 20 /
employed which will save a great deal of time and many mistakes
and omissions. It is seldom necessary to repeat the same dimen-
sion on a drawing. Drilling is generally best located in the
view where it shows in plan, that is, in the view where it is laid
out. Diameters are always clearer when shown on a section
DIMENSIONING
83
or elevation rather than on an end view. The drilling for flanges
is dimensioned by giving the diameter of the bolt circle and
the size of bolt holes or bolts. The holes are understood to be
equally spaced unless noted otherwise.
Shafting. Shafting should be dimensioned by giving the
diameters and lengths together with the sizes of keyways and
pins and their location. Shafting is made from various grades
of wrought iron and steel. For many purposes cold rolled shafting
is generally used. This is shafting which has been cleaned of
scale and rolled under pressure. It can be used without the
I
Fig. 202
necessity for turning and is considerably strengthened by the
surface skin which comes from the rolling process. Hot rolled
shafting is black and must be turned to size before using. Usual
sizes are:
NOMINAL DIAMETERS OF SHAFTING
l'/4
2V,
4
. IV.
2'/4
4V,
IV 4
3
5
2
3V,
5V,
2V4
3V2
6
These are nominal sizes and are Vie inch larger than actual
diameter. Thus a 2-inch shaft is I 15 /i6" actual diameter. Com-
mon lengths vary up to 24 feet. Special shafts have to be forged
of steel suitable for the particular purpose. A shaft drawing is
shown in Fig. 204 with the positions of the dimensions.
84
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Tapers. Various methods are in use for designating tapers.
Figs. 205, 206, and 207 show ways of indicating the two diameters
and the length. Sometimes a note is employed giving the taper
per foot of length as, "V/' per foot" When the slope is con-
siderable it may be given as 1 : 1, indicating a 45 slope. In other
cases the angle may be given in degrees. In addition there are
.
i
E i-
^tf
*
Fig. 2O4
a number of standard tapers in use such as B & S (Brown &
Sharpe), Morse Tapers, Reed Lathe Center Tapers, Jarno Tapers,
and Sellers Tapers. In such cases the taper is indicated by a
number which fixes the three dimensions, large diameter, small
diameter, and length. A machinist's handbook should be con-
sulted for complete information.
DIMENSIONING
85
Small Parts. There are many small parts such as shafts,
pulleys, etc., which can be defined in one view by using a note
to give the missing dimensions. When clearness is not sacrificed
it is better to use this method in many cases. Small details
which are standardized do not need to be completely dimen-
sioned. This is true for bolts and screws, standard tapers, piping,
wire, sheet metal, rope, chain, pins, rolled steel shapes.
Methods of Finishing. In connection with dimensions the
limits of accuracy for all fits should be given. The method of
Fig. 205
Fig. 20 6 \Fig.e07
finishing is given in another chapter, and should be indicated
by a note and arrow.
1. Rough.
2. Rough turned.
3. Ground.
4. Polished.
5. Reamed.
6. Cored.
7. Running fit.
8. Loose fit.
9. Driving fit.
10. Scraped.
11. Finished.
12. Drilled.
13. Chipped.
14. Spot faced.
Checking Drawings. The checking of a drawing is one of
the important duties of most draftsmen. Whenever possible it
should be done by someone who has not worked on the drawing.
The first thing to do is to see if the drawing can be used without
unnecessary difficulty, and to see if the parts are such as will fit
and operate successfully. There must be clearance for moving
parts. Then observe if sufficient views are given to completely
determine the parts, and that all dimensions necessary for machin-
ing and erecting are given and that they are properly located.
Check the correctness of all figures by use of the scale and by
computation. All notes should contain a clear statement and
86 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
be carefully located. Standard parts should be used where
possible. See that the fewest number of different sizes of bolts
and similar small parts are used. Consider the materials of
which the parts are made, the construction of the patterns and
cores, and the method of machining. A valuable article on
"How Machinery Materials and Supplies are Sized" is given in
"Machinery," February, 1916.
CHAPTER XII
MACHINE CONSTRUCTION
Machine Operations. The parts of machines which come
from the foundry, forge, or rolling mill generally require finishing,
such as machining to size, drilling, tapping of holes, etc., before
they can be assembled in the machine of which they are to be a
part. A knowledge of what is involved in the processes of ma-
chining is important to the machine draftsman. The principal
machine operations are turning, drilling, boring, planing, and
milling. The machines used are lathes, drills, boring mills,
planers, milling machines, shapers, etc.
In order to pursue the subject of drawing with profit at least
Pig. SO 8 Fig. 2O9
one book on machine tools should be purchased and studied.
The advertising pages as well as the reading pages of such mag-
azines as "American Machinist" and "Machinery" are further
sources of information which should not be neglected. Every
opportunity should be availed of to observe and study work as
it is carried out in pattern shop, forge, foundry, and machine shop.
Such knowledge is invaluable and will often enable the draftsman
materially to reduce the expense of production by simplifying or
adapting his designs.
Drills. Drills are used for making holes of comparatively
small diameter. Two forms of drills are shown in Figs. 208 and
209. The first is a flat drill and the second a twist drill. The
latter is the form in general use. Drills are used in different
forms of machines. Look up the following in the advertising
pages of "American Machinist" or "Machinery": Sensitive Drill,
Drill Press, Multiple Drill.
87
88
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
The Steam Engine. It is important for the draftsman to
learn the names of the parts of the steam engine. Fig. 210 shows
the principal parts.
Fig
1. Cylinder head.
2. Piston.
3. Casing or lagging strip.
4. Cylinder.
5. Piston rod.
6. Steam chest cover.
7. Steam port.
8. Slide valve.
9. Exhaust port.
10. Valve rod stuffing box.
11. Valve rod gland.
12. Valve rod.
13. Eccentric rod.
14. Eccentric.
MACHINE CONSTRUCTION
15. Outer bearing.
16. Main shaft.
17. Flywheel.
18. Inner bearing.
19. Crank.
20. Crank pin.
Steam is admitted to alternate sides of the piston by means of
the slide valve which is actuated by the eccentric through the
eccentric rod. The piston transmits the pressure of the steam
21. Frame.
22. Crosshead pin.
23. Crosshead.
24. Crosshead guide.
25. Connecting rod.
Fiq.
Fig. 2/2
through the piston rod, crosshead, and connecting rod to the
crank. The crank causes the shaft to revolve, carrying with it
the flywheel, from which power may be transmitted by means of
a belt.
Pistons. Pistons are used in many forms of machines and
vary accordingly. Some forms are shown in Figs. 211 and 212.
The names of the parts for the form of steam piston shown in
Fig. 212, are
1. Piston Body,
2. Follower,
3. Follower Bolts,
4. Bull Ring,
5. Packing Rings.
To prevent loss of pressure by leakage past the piston some form
of packing ring is generally employed. Pistons are most always
90
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
made of cast iron as are the rings. The rings are turned to a
slightly larger diameter than the cylinder. A piece is then cut
out and the ring is then sprung into place. For water pistons
Fiy. 213
Fig. 2/4
Fig. 2/5
a soft packing of hemp, fiber, or leather is used. For large vertical
engines steel pistons are sometimes used.
Sliding Bearings. Sliding bearings are of many forms, as
shown in the following figures. The general end sought is to
have the projected area of slide such that the pressure will not
force out the lubricant and allow the metals to come into contact
with each other. Smoothness of surfaces is only relative and
F/g. 216
F/g. 217
Fig. 2 16
surfaces in contact wear rapidly, hence the necessity for efficient
lubrication.
Fig. 213 shows a form of planer guide. It is self-adjusting for
wear and can be easily oiled. There is, however, considerable
pressure between the inclined surfaces, which means that the
power for operating the table increases as the angle A is de-
creased, and also the wear. A is commonly made 90 or less for
small planers, while for heavy planers it may be 110 or more.
The side pressure of the tool must be considered in selecting the
proper value of A since it exerts a tendency to raise the table
from the ways.
MACHINE CONSTRUCTION
91
Fig. 214 shows the form generally used for lathe ways. It is
self-adjusting, does not readily hold chips or dirt, but is not so
easily kept oiled as Fig. 213.
There are many other forms of such bearing surfaces, some of
which are provided with gibs for adjusting, as in Fig. 215. Com-
Fig. 22 1
mon forms of crosshead guides for steam engines are shown in
Figs. 216, 217, and 218. Fig. 218 is used on all sizes of engines,
and is satisfactory, since it allows the crosshead to adjust itself
to the crank pin and connecting rod if turned concentric with the
F/g. 223
cylinder. Sometimes, however, the guides are turned with centers
as in Fig. 219. This prevents turning.
For small pressures the form shown in Fig. 220 is often used,
sometimes with one rod only. Fig. 221 is another form of sliding
bearing. The pressure per square inch of projected area on cross-
head guides should not exceed 100 pounds per square inch and
may well be kept as low as 40 pounds per square inch.
Wear and Pressure. Where there is much wear care must
be used in the design of a sliding bearing and guide. Provision
should always be made for running over at the ends of the guide.
The same applies to the width of the guide. The effect of guides
which are too long is shown much exaggerated by the shoulder
92
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
"C" in Fig. 222. Fig. 223 shows the correct design in which the
slide runs over the guide at each end and causes more even wear.
If "A" and " B" are made of equal length there will be equal
wear. This same principle is involved in the piston and cylinder
of a steam engine which accounts for the counterbore over which
Fig. ^26
Pig. 236
the piston runs, "C" (Fig. 224), and similarly for slide valve seats
(Fig. 225).
Stuffing Boxes. Some common forms of gland and screw
stuffing boxes used on engines, pumps, etc., for preventing leakage
of steam or water around the piston rod where it passes through
the end of the cylinder are shown in Figs. 226, 227, and 228. For
rods P/4 inch in diameter or less the common screw stuffing
F/ange
fig.SS9
f/ff. ^
Fig. S3/
box, Fig. 228, may be used. They are generally made of com-
position although they are sometimes made of cast iron for cheap
work. The gland stuffing box (Figs. 226 and 227) is used for
rods iVa inch and more in diameter. The box should be deep
enough for four strands of packing and the gland so constructed
as to be able to compress it to about one half its original size.
These glands may have the bottom of the gland and box beveled
as shown in Fig. 227. They may be lined with composition in
which case the lining should be at least Vie inch thick, but for
rods less than 2'/2 inch diameter it is generally advisable to
make the gland entirely of composition. These are the com-
mon forms, but the student will do well to investigate some of
MACHINE CONSTRUCTION
93
the various types of metallic packings, since they are largely
used in good designs.
Useful Curves and Their Application. There are many small
details in the actual drafting of a design which often give trouble
out of proportion to their apparent importance when first en-
Fig. S3 2
/ff. 234-
countered. The following suggestions are made to facilitate
the drafting part of design, and not as rules to be strictly adhered
to. Various curves which are commonly used are shown.
Fillets and Rounds. The drawing of fillets and quarter
rounds deserves attention, since they are of so frequent occurrence.
Fig. 229 shows a portion of a machine. The centers and radii
of the various arcs are indicated. All radii are too large, but
fig. S39
especially 1 and 2. Radius 1 gives a point at y. Radius 2 is so
large that it cannot be used for the complete circumference of
the boss as indicated at x. Of course a changing radius of fillet
might be used, but this would not allow the use of ready made
fillet strips. Fig. 230, in which the limiting radii are used, is an
improvement. Fig. 231 shows a much better design. Note that
the radii 1 and 2 are less than the thickness of the flange and
boss respectively. The effect of a quarter circle is obtained by
this method in which the flange and boss each start with a straight
line. The straight line also produces a better appearance after
finishing off the surface of the boss. This is shown in Figs. 232,
233, and 234, where the effect of different fillets is indicated at B
94
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
in each of the views. In the first case there is an undercutting,
in the second view B shows the irregular outline produced, while
the third case shows the correct design.
Arcs and Straight Lines. When arcs are used in connection
with straight lines the fault shown at a in Figs. 235 and 237 should
be avoided. Do not run the arc past the tangent point "a",
and notice that the line a-b is a straight line in Figs. 236 and 238.
F/'g. s*?o
At A in Fig. 239 is shown the effect of not changing the radius
when two parallel lines are continued by arcs. At B the thick-
ness of material has been kept by maintaining the same center
and changing the radius by the distance t.
Flanged Projections. When flanged projections are used
with bolts or nuts they may take, a variety of shapes, some of
Fig. ^44-
Fig. ^<?5
Fig. 24- 7
Fig. 2 4 3
which are shown in Figs. 240 to 243. After locating the centers
of the bolt holes the extent of the flange may be found by adding
twice the bolt diameter to the distance between bolt centers.
Frequently the outline is obtained as in Fig. 240 in which an arc
is drawn from the center of the bolt hole with a radius equal to
the diameter of the bolt.
A much better appearance is obtained by using a larger radius
whose center is at the intersection of the bolt hole and the center
line, as shown in Fig. 241. Either straight or curved lines may
MACHINE CONSTRUCTION
95
be used to join the small and large arcs. Sometimes an ellipse
may be used. A gland is used for illustration, but similar cases
occur in pipe connections, the bolted feet of machines, etc.
Flange Edges. Flanges are often finished with curves so as
to avoid machining. Several forms are shown in Figs. 244 to
248. The radius R may be taken equal to the thickness T. The
centers for the various radii are indicated.
Flanges and Bolting. A method of finding the diameter of
bolt circle and diameter of flange is illustrated in Figs. 249, 250,
and 251. For through bolts consider Figs. 249 and 250. Draw
in a proper fillet at r\. For a trial the radius r v may be taken
as one fourth of the thickness of the cylinder wall t. Then lay
off X, equal to one half the distance across flats of bolt head,
and Y, equal to one half the distance across corners of nut. The
diameter of the bolt circle, DB, may now be found by laying a
scale on the drawing and selecting a dimension. This will be
equal to, or greater than, d+ 2( + TI + X), and may be taken
at the nearest Vsth inch. The flange diameter may then be
obtained by laying out the distance Y, as in Fig. 249, and using
the scale to find an even dimension equal to, or greater than,
D B + 2( Y + r 2 ). The radius r 2 may be taken at Vsth to Vwth
the thickness of the flange. When studs are used the diameters
D B and D F may be greatly decreased as shown in Fig. 251. The
distance C should be about equal to t, although if necessary it
can be made equal to one half the diameter of the bolt.
Keys. Keys of various forms are used to prevent relative
motion between shafts and pulleys, gears, crank arms, etc. The
common forms are here shown. Fig. 252 is called a saddle key
and may be used where only a small force is to be transmitted
96
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
and where close or frequent adjustment is required. Fig. 253 is
called a flat key, and requires a flat spot upon the shaft. Its
holding power is a little greater than the preceding form. Set
screws are sometimes used with Figs. 252 and 253 to secure a
closer contact. Fig. 254 is the most common form, and may be
either square or rectangular in section. The sides of the key
should fit closely in the hub and shaft. Various proportions
are given for keys. Square keys are often made with
Fig. 253
/g. 255
Other proportions are
F/'g. 256
F/g. 257
Unwin gives
W
T
The taper for keys may be from Vieth to Visths of an inch per
foot of length. One eighth inch is often used. The key should
MACHINE CONSTRUCTION 97
be half in the shaft and half in the hub. When the force to
be transmitted is very large two keys may be used. In such
cases they are generally placed 90 apart. The length of keys
I l ( )
Pig. 258 f/g. 259 F/ff.
should be one and one half or more times the diameter of the
shaft. Fig. 256 shows the Lewis key, invented by Wilfred Lewis.
The direction of rotation for the driving shaft is indicated. It
will be noted that this form is wholly under compression. Fig.
255 is a different way of locating a square key. The side S may
be taken as one fourth the diameter of the shaft. Fig. 257 shows
a round key. It is a desira-
ble form when it can be used,
as when located at the end
of a shaft. Fig. 258 shows
the ordinary plain key; Fig.
259, a key provided with a gib
to make its removal easier.
Fig. 260 shows a round end
key which may be fitted into a shaft. Such keys are often used
when it is desired to arrange for a part to slide on the shaft.
When a long key is secured in a shaft and used for this purpose it
is called a feather or feather key. Square end keys may be used
in the same way. Fig. 261 shows the Woodruff Key, which con-
sists of a part of a circular disc. They are made rn a variety of
sizes with dimensions suiting them to different purposes. The
circular seating allows the key to assume the proper taper when
a piece is put onto the shaft.
CHAPTER XIII
SKETCHING
Uses of Sketching. Freehand sketching is of particular
importance hi connection with drafting and will be briefly con-
sidered in this chapter. All that has been said in the previous
chapters concerning the theory and practice of drafting applies
to freehand sketching. The term sketching must not be con-
sidered as indicating incompleteness, for if anything a sketch
must be more complete than a mechanically executed drawing.
Sketching is the engineering language of the trained executive
as well as a convenient and quick method of representation.
Sketches are used to give information from which parts are to be
made; they are used for repair parts; new parts; as an aid to
reading drawings; as an aid to design; as a means of recording
ideas, and for many other purposes.
Accuracy of thought, observation, representation, and pro-
portion are essential. The four "P's" of sketching are practice,
patience, proportion, and proficiency. Too much emphasis can-
not be put upon the necessity of accuracy in proportion and
detail.
A most interesting example is shown in Fig. 262 which is a
reproduction of a sketch for the first steam hammer as drawn by
James Nasmith. Quoting from Nasmith's autobiography by
Samuel Smiles: * "I got out my 'scheme book/ on the pages of
which I generally thought outj with the aid of pen and pencil,
such mechanical adaptations as I had conceived in my mind, and
was thereby enabled to render them visible. I then rapidly
sketched out my steam hammer, having it all clearly before me
in my mind's eye. In a little more than half an hour after re-
ceiving Mr. Humphrie's letter, narrating his unlooked-for diffi-
culty, I had the whole contrivance in all its executant details,
before me in a page of my scheme book. The date of this first
drawing was November 24, 1839."
* Published by Harper and Bros., New York.
SKETCHING
99
Materials for Sketching. The materials necessary for sketch-
ing are a 2H drawing pencil, pencil eraser, art gum, and paper.
Either plain or squared paper may be used, but it is better to use
the plain paper at first so as not to be dependent upon the aid
m
fi
&*& '-**.. 3^ ftff ||
4-^ J^f,,^^ ; ft-
2fc '^ ^/i^/te^.
Fia. 262. FIRST DRAWING OF STEAM HAMMER, NOVEMBER 24, 1839.
which the squares give. The pencil should be kept well sharpened
with a long round point. It is desirable to have a small board
on which the paper may be tacked, or clip boards such as are
used by bookkeepers will be found very convenient as a means
of holding the paper. Every sketch should have a title, the date,
and the name of the person who made it.
100
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Making a Sketch. To make a sketch the following order
may be pursued. First examine the object, determine the num-
ber of views necessary completely to define it, and observe the
proportions. Then proceed to sketch very lightly, locating
center lines and blocking in the limits for all views. Sketch
in the details and then go over and brighten up wherever necessary
in order to make all parts clear and definite. Straight lines may
be drawn by making a succession of short straight lines or by
Fig. 263
Fig. 26S
marking points and drawing from one point to another. Views
should be blocked in completely with straight lines regardless of
the number of curves and circle arcs.
To sketch a circle draw center lines at right angles (Fig. 263),
space off radii, as shown in Fig. 264, on the center lines and in
between them. Another method is to block in a square made up
of four smaller squares (Fig. 265), then sketch in one fourth of
the required circle at a time.
Taking Measurements. There are a great many tools used
for determining the sizes of machine parts and constructions.
The names of some of the tools should be learned together with
the methods of using them and the conditions under which they
are used. For this purpose the reader is advised to secure a
catalog of machinist's tools. Some of the tools used for various
purposes are:
The two foot rule for comparatively rough work.
The standard steel rule for more accurate work. It should have
both binary and decimal divisions.
Steel tapes used for measuring rather long distances.
Straight edge, used for extending surfaces.
The square, used in a variety of forms; fixed, adjustable, com-
bination.
SEE
CHING
There are many forms;'
Calipers, used for obtaining distances,
outside, inside, spring, transfer.
Surface plate and surface gage.
Depth gage and hook gage or scale.
Plumb bob.
Micrometer.
Vernier caliper.
Plug and ring gages.
Wire and sheet metal gages.
Screw thread gages.
Radius gages.
The surfaces to be measured are flat surfaces and curved sur-
faces. These will appear in many combinations and will require
separate consideration in each case. Cylinders may be measured
directly with the calipers or scale. A steel tape may be used to
measure the circum-
ference of a large cyl-
inder and the diameter
calculated. Angular
. 266
measurements are
made with some form
of protractor. The bevel protractor and center square are useful
for this purpose. The use of chalk or a marking solution is often
necessary or convenient. Curved outlines may be obtained by
offset measurements, by rubbing an outline on paper, or by
making a template by such means as the conditions permit.
Center distances may be found by measuring from the edge of
one hole to the corresponding edge of the next hole as indicated
in Fig. 266.
The question of accuracy in taking measurements will arise
frequently. The finished or machined parts should be measured
as accurately as the means at hand will allow. Shafts or sliding
blocks, or wherever a fit is involved, should be measured with the
micrometer or similar accurate means. Rough castings of small
or medium size may be measured to the -nearest Vieth inch, while
larger ones may be near enough when measured to Vs or even
V-ith inch. In all cases judgment must be exercised, and when-
ever in doubt take measurements as closely as possible under
the conditions.
102
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Where the parts being sketched are for repairs or replacement,
very accurate measurements are often required, and in the case
of a fit allowance for wear must be made. If a whole new machine
or construction is to be built much time can often be saved by
less accurate measurements, as the parts will be dimensioned to
go together when the final drawing is made. Ingenuity and
common sense are the primary requisites.
In connection with measurements it will be necessary to know
something of standard nomenclature. For instance, the three
-Com
Groove - F~ile,
Chip or Scratch
Fig. 269
rig. 267
dimensions of a taper are indicated by a single number and a
name.
Some Ideas on Sketching. The difficulties which are to be
met and overcome when making sketches under trying circum-
stances with limited time, inaccessability, with a machine in
operation in close quarters, etc. is little understood or appre-
ciated by those accustomed to the conveniences of the drafting
room.
Many times sketches are made only for one's own use and
so can perhaps be made a little less presentable than when made
to take the place of a drawing. However, there is a warning
which must be sounded, and that is the unvarying rule "to pre-
serve definiteness under all circumstances." A sketch may be
hastily made, but a careless sketch is worse than useless. Be
sure that what is given is right and of certain meaning. The
steps which must be followed in making a sketch are:
SKETCHING
103
"Drill
-3 Lugs
Ui tEguo /I y Spaced
Sketch the parts.
Put on dimension lines and notes.
Measure the parts and fill in the figures.
Some considerations to be kept in mind are:
Use part views to show special features or details.
Use notes freely but not as a substitute for necessary views.
Show hexagons, octagons, etc., across flats using a note to tell
the number of sides or insert a revolved section.
Note identification marks, and mark parts to facilitate putting
them together and
for fixing relative
positions.
Note finished
surfaces and kinds
of finish.
Use templates
whenever in doubt
as to curves, loca-
tion of drilling, etc.
Note materials
of which machine
or p rts are made.
Measure sizes of
holes as well as of U
bolts, shafts, etc.
A small amount of surface shading is often of value.
Note the location of the machine in reference to other machines
or to building features if such information has any possibility of
being useful.
Rods, bolts, bars, and long pieces of uniform section can gen-
erally be shown in one view.
Most machin ,s and some parts of machines will carry the
manufacturer's name and identification, sometimes stamped into
the machine, and sometimes on a name plate. The information
given in this manner should always be noted in connection with
the sketch. Sometimes parts are either right or left hand, and
this fact should be noted. It is a good plan to examine all parts
very carefully for identification marks.
When parts bear a definite relation to one another, prick punch
marks or a filed groove will often be of great assistance in re-
12
104 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
assembling (Figs. 267 and 268). Oftentimes the top or bottom
of a part should be marked. Where a number of bolts are used
with reamed holes they are often numbered or otherwise marked
(both bolt holes and bolts, Fig. 269). Very often part views may
be used to save time by adding a note:
^ or ms ^ ance > a circular object with lugs,
as shown in Fig. 270. In the case of
\
f"
_ cylindrical objects the word "diameter"
will often save a view. A washer
would be sketched as in Fig. 271. Sections are rather freely
used in sketching as they give prominence to the sketch. It is
often desirable to make a separate outline sketch without dotted
lines in connection with a sectional drawing of a part, especially
when the sketches must be hastily made, as the two sketches
result in less confusion than when combined in one view.
When sketches are made in connection with diagrams for the
transmission of power, or a
mechanism of any sort, the com-
putations should be included k^x/' /-> L /
, . ,. - r>- ^ is/, Corbel
with the sketch, and existing
pulleys or other parts should be
clearly dimensioned and indi-
cated to distinguish them from
proposed additions. In the case usefu/ to /ocate\
of foundations where bolts are e/bo*/ p..
to be located, differences in level
must be considered as well as center line distances. When locat-
ing shaft hangers, or constructions to be fastened to a wall or
ceiling, the surroundings such as parts of the permanent struc-
ture, like beams or corbeling of the brick wall (Fig. 272),
should be measured and sketched with the part to be installed.
The principal point to be brought out in connection with sketch-
ing of any kind is to leave nothing to guess to have too much
rather than too little information, and to make every line and note
absolutely definite.
CHAPTER XIV
ESTIMATION OF WEIGHTS
Accuracy. It is often necessary to compute the weight of
machine parts or of piles of materials; for instance, to estimate
the amount of coal on hand. The annual stock taking of many
companies requires much of this work which must be accom-
plished accurately and expeditiously. Some of the methods used
should be known together with the degree of accuracy required.
For some purposes a result within 5 % or even 10 % may be suf-
ficiently close, while in other cases an accurate result may be
desirable, as when figuring a large number of pieces of expensive
material . The weights of many standard parts are well known
and are given in manufacturers' catalogs. The weights of steel
shapes are known and tabulated in pounds per linear foot, the
weight of bolts per 100, and similarly for other pieces.
Weights of Materials. The following weights are average
values for various materials and may be used for ordinary cal-
culations.
Material
Pounds per
Cubic Inch
Pounds per
Cubic Foot
Cast Iron
.26
450
Wrought iron
.28
480
Steel
.29
490
Brass
.30
530
Copper
.32
550
Lead
.41
710
Aluminum
160
Granite
170
Brick
120
Concrete
145
Water
.036
62.5
Spruce
30
White pine
30
Yellow pine
41
Maple
45
Lignum vitae
83
Oak
50
105
106
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Weight of Loose Materials. In estimating the amount of
material in a pile, its shape may be approximated to one or more
geometrical forms and its volume computed. This is best done
by making a sketch with dimension lines which are filled in with
measurements. Such sketches should be preserved for checking
purposes and as a record. The weight per cubic foot or yard is
then obtained by loading a car of measured volume and weighing
it or by filling a box containing a cubic foot or yard and finding
the net weight. The material should of course be disposed as
Fig.
near the density of the pile as possible. By careful judgment
and some experience a very close approximation of weight may be
obtained in this manner. For more accurate work, the surveyor's
transit may be used.
Weight of Castings. The computation of the weight of cast-
ings most frequently occurs either in connection with the cost or
where a machine must come within certain limits of weight.
The weight may be calculated from the drawings. For simple
objects this is not difficult, but for many shapes much loss of
time may be saved by systematic methods and proper division
into elementary forms. Two sets of weights must be considered;
one the object in the rough, and the other the finished piece.
Allowances for finish must be made. It is necessary to know
what holes or openings are to be cored and what ones are to be
machined. Cylindrical pieces are readily figured by dividing
ESTIMATION OF WEIGHTS
107
into separate cylinders. Limits as to weight are very important
when machines must be assembled in out of the way places, or
where transportation is by pack mules or other primitive means.
Methods of Calculation. The general method of finding the
weight of a piece is to compute its total volume in cubic inches
and then multiply this volume by the weight of a cubic inch of
the material. Most pieces may be divided into flat plates, cylin-
ders, and flanges, each of which should be lettered and tabulated.
Sometimes fillets may be balanced against bolt holes or against
rounded corners. In other cases the fillets may be considered
as a certain per cent of the whole. The weight as figured should
also be increased to allow for rapping the pattern in the mold.
The allowance for finish may be l / 8 " for general work but this
varies with different classes of work and with the degree of
accuracy required in the finished piece.
When a piece has a uniform thickness but irregular outline it
may be broken up into plane figures and the area of each found
separately (Fig. 273). After adding them together multiply by
the thickness to obtain the volume and then by the unit weight
to find the total weight, as illustrated. The dash lines divide the
flat surface into seven parts, each of which is lettered. These
may be listed in tabular form.
Designation
Part
Dimensions
Inches
Area
Square Inches
A
Rectangle
4x 3 /4
3.
B
11
! 3 /4 X 1
1.75
C
"
5 1 / 2 x l'/4
6.875
D
"
4 1 / 2 X 1
4.5
E
Triangle
V(2V* x 41/2)
5.625
F
1 / 4 (36 - 28.27)
1.93
G
Circle
l /4(3.1418)
.785
Total area square inches . . .
Volume = area x thickness
= 24.47 x 1.25 = 30.59 cubic inches
24.465
The area of part G is one fourth the area of a circle having the
radius indicated. The area of part F is found by subtracting one
108
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
fourth the area of a circle having the radius given from the area
of a square, one side of which is equal to the radius of the arc.
With irregular shapes the area is sometimes divided approxi-
mately into regu-
^ r- lar figures, the
I I dimensions for
; which are ob-
I tained by apply-
the drawing. This is illustrated in Fig. 274 where the dash line
x-x is drawn so that the area B appears to be equal to the area
A + A. The distance H is then measured and multiplied by L to
find the area. In the case of hollow pieces, find the volume as
though the piece was solid, then subtract the volume of the spaces.
Fig.2Y5
In Fig. 275 the volume would be found as tabulated, in which
the A and B are called plus (+) volumes and C is called a minus
( ) volume.
Volume in Cubic Inches
Designation
Part
Dimension
+
-
A
Square prism
3 X 3 X 2*/2
22.5
B
Rectangular plate
5x6x1
30.
C
Cylinder
1 x 3.1416 x 3
9.42
Totals.
52.. r
9.42
(A + B) - C = Net volume
52.5 - 9.42 = 43 + cubic inches
ESTIMATION OF WEIGHTS
109
For the ring shown in Fig. 276 find the area of the cross section A
and multiply by the circumference of the mean diameter. This
method is often a convenient one.
Weight of Cylinder Head. To find the approximate weight
of the small cylinder head of Fig. 277 it may be divided into
Mean Diameter
rig. S76
three cylinders, two positive and one negative. The round at
x may be balanced against the fillet at y for approximation pur-
poses. Allow say Vieth inch on each of the finished surfaces.
The calculations will be as tabulated.
Designation
Part
Dimensions Inches
Volume Cubic Inches
+
-
A
B
C
Cylinder
28.27 x Vie
9.62 x 3 /s
4.91 x 3 /s
15.90
3.61
1.84
Total
19.51
1.84
(A + B) - C = net volume
19.51 - 1.84 = 17.67 cu. in.
Vol. x wt. per cu. in. = total weight
17.67 x .26 = 4.60 pounds
110
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Weight of Plunger Barrel. To approximate the weight of
the pump barrel shown in Fig. 278. First divide it into parts as
indicated in the figure. The plus volume treats it as a solid.
The minus volume consists of the interior cylindrical spaces
ESTIMATION OF WEIGHTS
111
H, G, F, and J. The calculations for its cost at ten cents per
pound follow. For any other price multiply by the required
cents per pound and divide by ten. Since both ends are alike
only one half is figured and the result is then multiplied by two.
Designation
Part
Dimensions Inches
Volume Cubic Inches
+
-
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
J
Flange
Stuff box
Main cylinder
Port flange
Foot flange
Cylinder
Throat
Stuff box
Port
12 x 12 x I 1 / 4
T(7-5) 2
180
154
481
62
80
274
9
116
11
EW X1 4/
7 x7 x l/4
4x8 xl'/4
^X14
=SK.xV.
^ X4
'<3) ! r ,
Total volumes
957
410
Multiplied by 2 for two ends
1914
820
1094 cu. in. net volume
1094 x .26 = 285, pounds weight
285 x .10 = $28.50, cost of casting at 10 cents per pound
Weight of Forgings. Steel and wrought iron shafts may
be readily figured, especially when turned from stock bars or
rods. Forgings, however, require careful consideration as the
rough forging may weigh from 25 % to 50 % more than the "finished
piece, especially if the shape is at all complicated.
CHAPTER XV
PIPING
Piping Materials. Pipe made of various materials is used
for conveying liquids and gases. For a complete treatment of
the subject of piping and its uses, piping drawings, etc., see the
author's "Handbook on Piping," D. Van Nostrand Company,
N. Y. The illustrations for this chapter are from the above book.
' # Left Coi/p/ing
Fig. 279
Cast iron pipe is cheaply made and is used for underground
gas, water, and drain pipes, sometimes for steam and exhaust
pipes where low pressures are carried.
Wrought iron or steel pipe is most commonly used, especially
where high pressures are encountered. Copper is used to a certain
extent where there is limited room. For hot water or bad water,
brass pipe is to be preferred as it does not corrode like iron or
steel. Spiral riveted steel piping is often used for large pipes.
Pipe Fittings. For joining lengths of pipe and making turns
and connections, "fittings" are used, Fig. 279. Such fittings
consist of flanges, couplings, tees, ells, crosses, etc. Small pipe
is often "made up" by means of couplings and screwed fit-
tings large sizes use flanges and flanged fittings. Some general
information is given in the tables included in this chapter.
112
r
OH *.
p
X-
~~^~~
~~\^T
PIPING
/ -/re - P/f
G/ot>e V0/re
Gaf-s I4r/re
Gate Mr/re
Ya/re
F~ig.2dO
113
Throttle
p
Tee
Check Mr/re
'G/obe Va/re
3 'Check fo/re
Fig 262
114
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
The representations of Figs. 280 and 281 are often used when
making piping layouts.
Standard Pipe. Wrought pipe is known by its nominal inside
diameter. In the United States the Briggs Standard is in general
use. The nominal diameter differs from the actual diameter by
varying amounts, as indicated in the Table. Standard pipe is
_JL
I .075'
Fig. 263
used for pressures up to 125 pounds per square inch. Extra
strong and double extra strong pipe are made for use at higher
pressures. The extra thickness is obtained by reducing the in-
side diameter, the outside diameter remaining constant for a
given nominal diameter. The actual cross sections for the
three weights of 3 / 4 inch pipe are shown in Fig. 282.
Pipe Threads. Pipe threads are cut with an angle of 60,
with the top and bottom rounded, making the height .8 of the
pitch. The threads are also cut on a taper of three fourths inch
per foot as illustrated in Fig. 283.
DIMENSIONS OF STANDARD WROUGHT PIPE
Nominal
Diameter,
Inches
Actual Inside
Diameter,
Inches
Actual
Outside
Diameter,
Inches
Threads
per Inch
Length of
Perfect Thread,
Inches
Vs
.269
.405
27
.19
v
.364
.540
18
.29
3 /8
.493
.675
18
.30
v
.622
.840
14
.39
3 /4
.824
1.050
14
.40
1
1.049
1.315
iiVi
.51
l'/4
1.380
1.660
il/i
.54
!*/
1.610
1.900
HVt
.55
2
2.067
2.375
iiVi
.58
2 1 / 2
2.469
2.875
8
.89
3
3.068
3.500
8
.95
3/i
3.548
4.000
8
1.00
4
4.026
4.500
8
1.05
PIPING
115
DIMENSIONS OF WALWORTH MFG. Co. CAST IRON FITTINGS
Size of
Pipe,
Inches
A
Inches
A-A
Inches
B
Inches
C
Inches
D
Inches
E
Inches
F
Inches
G
Inches
'A
3 /4
iVi
Vl6
1
Vi
Vs
V
7 /8
W 4
Vl6
IVie
i/u
iVt
/If
Vl6
Vi
!Vl6
2'/8
"/16
! 7 /8
2Vi
!Vl6
3 /8
Vi
3 /4
l/M
2 5 /8
13 /16
2Vl6
2 3 /4
1V4
Vl6
Via
1
IVi
3
15 /16
2V2
3V4
2 1 / 16
Vi
5 /8
1V4
I 13 / 16
3 5 /8
!Vl6
3
3V 4
2'/2
Vl6
/!
IVi
2
4
P/16
3 1 / 4
4 3 / 4
2 3 /4
6 /8
13 /16
2
2/s
4V4
! 3 /8
4
5*/i
3 3 /8
U /16
V
2 1 / 2
2 7 /8
W4
! 5 /8
5
6 13 /16
4Vs
13 /16
1
3
3 5 / 16
6 5 /8
1V
6V,
7Vs
4V 4
15 /16
1
3'/2
3/u
7 3 /8
2Vl6
6 3 /8
8V 4
5 1 / 4
1
!Vl6
4
4
8
2 1 / 4
7^/8
9 3 / 4
6
!Vl6
1V
116
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
AMERICAN STANDARD PIPE FLANGES
125 Pounds Working Pressure
Pipe Size,
Inches
Diameter
of Flange,
Inches
Thickness
of Flange,
Inches
Diameter of
Bolt Circle,
Inches
Number
of
Bolts
Diameter
of Bolts,
Inches
1
4
Vl6
3
4
Vl6
iy
#/,
/
3Vs
4
Vl6
iVi
5
Vl6
3Vs
4
/l
2
6
/
4 3 / 4
4
6 /8
2Vi
7
"/16
5V2
4
'/
3
7>A
3 /4
6
4
6 /8
8/i
8A
13 /16
7
4
8 /8
4
9
15 /16
7V 2
8
8 /8
4>/i
9 1 / 4
15 /16
7 3 /4
8
3 /4
5
10
15 /16
8 1 / 2
8
3 /4
6
11
1
9 1 / 2
8
3 /4
7
I2/i
!Vl6
103/4
8
3 /4
8
/i
!*/
1P/4
8
3 /4
CHAPTER XVI
INTERSECTIONS
The Line of Intersection. The line of intersection of two
surfaces is that line which contains all the points which are on
both of the surfaces. Objects in general are made up of parts
and where these parts come together there is said to be a line of
intersection, as shown in Figs.
285 and 286. The chimney
intersects the roof and there is
also an intersection between
the dormer window and the
roof. The intersection be-
tween two cylinders is shown
in Fig. 286.
It is often necessary to determine the intersection of two sur-
faces, either to find the appearance or for purposes of develop-
ment.
The intersection between two planes is a straight line as shown
in Fig. 287. If these planes cut a cylinder or cone the lines of
intersection may be straight or
curved (Figs. 288 and 289). If
the plane is at right angles to
the axis a right section is cut as
shown by the horizontal planes
which intersect the cylinder and
cone in circles. If the plane
passes through the axis it inter-
of /nf&rsecf/on
F/g. 2 06
sects the cylinder in a straight line parallel to the axis called an
element. In like manner an element may be cut from the cone.
Note that all the elements of a cylinder are parallel, and that all
the elements of a cone pass through the apex.
Intersecting planes, elements, and cut sections are the basis
for finding lines of intersection of surfaces.
117
118
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Intersection of a Vertical Prism and a Horizontal Prism.
Fig. 290 shows a square prism intersecting a triangular prism.
Two methods of solution may be used. First method: Examine
the three views, then note that the top view shows where the
r/g 87
Fig. 286
Fig. 289
edge AB of the square prism pierces the front face of the tri-
angular prism at point B H . The front and side views of this
point may be obtained by projection and are shown at B v and B*.
Note that the front view shows the intersection of the edge EF
of the square prism
with a vertical edge of
the triangular prism.
Project to the other
views. Join the points
thus found which will
determine the projec-
tions of a line of in-
tersection between the
two prisms. Second
method: Imagine a
vertical plane to be
through the
edge AB. This plane
f/ff. 290 w in intersect the face
of the triangular prism in a vertical line xy shown in the front
view. Since the lines xy and AB are in the same plane, the
point in which they cross will show in the front view at B v . By
passing similar planes through each of the edges the other points
may be found.
Intersection of a Vertical Prism and an Inclined Prism
Visibility of Points. The intersection of two prisms, one of
INTERSECTIONS
119
which is inclined, is shown in Fig. 291. Either of the methods
just described may be used, but the second method is to be pre-
ferred. A cutting plane must be
passed through each edge of both
prisms within the limits of the curve
of intersection. This means all of
the edges of either prism through
which a plane may be passed that
will cut the other prism. A plane
passed through the front edge of
the vertical prism would not cut
the inclined prism, and so would
not locate any points on the line
of intersection. A vertical plane
through line AB will intersect the
front face of the rectangular prism
in line C V D V . The point in which /?" ^
these lines cross is shown in the
front view at B v . Since both lines are on visible faces of the
prisms the two lines are visible and the point B v is visible. Lines
Fjff.
of intersection in order to be visible must join two visible points
determined as stated. A vertical plane through the edge EF
will intersect the inclined prism in two lines parallel to the inclined
120
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
edges as shown. Each of these inclined lines intersects the edge
EF so that the two points G and H are located. The edge EF
would be visible if the inclined prism was not in front of it. The
two inclined lines, however, are on the back or invisible faces of
the inclined prism and so are invisible. The points G and H are
therefore invisible. A line joining
two invisible points or one visible
and one invisible point is invisible.
Lines which are visible in one view
may or may not be invisible in
another, and should be considered
separately.
Intersecting Cylinders. Two in-
tersecting cylinders are shown in Fig.
292. Divide the small cylinder into
equal parts and then pass planes
which will cut elements from both
cylinders. The planes w, x, y, and z
cut elements 1, 2, 3, and 4 from the
cylinders. The points in which ele-
Flg. 293
ments in the same plane cross are shown in the front view at
points 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., thus determining the curve of intersection.
Use as many planes as are necessary to obtain a smooth curve.
Be sure to pass planes through the contour or outside elements
of both cylinders in order to obtain the extreme limits of the
curve. This is very important, especially when the axes of the
cylinders do not intersect.
Choice of Cutting Planes. Whenever possible planes should
be passed so as to cut straight lines from both surfaces. The
lines (not parallel) on the same plane intersect in points which
are common to both surfaces and are therefore points in the
curve of intersection. The intersection between surfaces can
very often be found by horizontal cutting planes, as indicated
INTERSECTIONS
121
in Fig. 293, which would be employed for the cases presented in
Fig. 294 and similar conditions. Considering Fig. 293 it will be
observed that horizontal cutting planes are used. Each plane
cuts a straight line from the prism and a circle from the cone,
Fig. 295
as shown in the top view. Where the line and the circle cross is
a point common to the prism and the cone. Other points found
in the same way will complete the curve of intersection.
Connecting Rod Intersection. Fig. 295 shows a portion of a
connecting rod of circular cross section with a rectangular end.
122 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
The circular section is increased where it joins the rectangular
portion. The curves of intersection are found as described.
Notice that the centers for the radii RiRi are in the same per-
pendicular line. DI is the diameter of the rod. There are certain
"critical points" and these will be mentioned first. Where RI
cuts the width of the rectangular part in the top view gives point
a h and this point will fall on the center line in the side view and
so is projected to a v . In a similar manner point 6 V may be pro-
jected to the top view at point 6 h . The end view is needed to
obtain the other points. With as a center and the corner
distance OC as a radius, draw the arc CCi. Continue the radius
RI in the side view. A horizontal line through d will intersect
radius RI at 2 from which C v and C h may be projected. The
radius OC gives the largest circle which will touch the rectangular
section and so determines one end of the curve, as shown. A
plane passed through C^ or to left of point C v and perpendicular
to the axis will give a rectangular section. A plane to the right
of point C* will give other sections which will be described.
To determine the curve in top view. Two points b and c are
already determined. For any other point d in end view, draw
an arc ddi, with od as a radius. From d\ project horizontally to
dz and then as shown to d h in the top view.
To determine the curve in the side view. Two points a and c
are already determined. Take any point e in the end view and
with a radius oe draw arc ee\', project horizontally from e\ to e^.
The intersection of a vertical line through e z with a horizontal
line through e will give point e v , a point on the desired curve.
Point / and other points are found in the same manner. It will
be observed that a plane through e and perpendicular to the axis
would give the section indicated by section lines in the end view.
CHAPTER XVII
DEVELOPMENTS
Surfaces. Surfaces may be divided into two classes, plane
surfaces and curved surfaces. Plane surfaces show in their true
size and shape when they are parallel to one of the planes of
projection, so that an object bounded by plane surfaces can
have each of its faces brought into contact with a piece of paper,
either by wrapping the paper about the object or placing the
F/g. 296
object on the paper and then turning it until each face has touched
the paper. This is shown in Fig. 296 where the paper has been
cut so it will exactly cover the object when it is folded about it.
Such an outline is called a development. A curved surface does
not show in its true size no matter how it is placed with regard
to the planes of projection. Some kinds of curved surfaces
can be developed by rolling them on a plane as illustrated in
Fig. 297. The distance L is equal to the distance around the
cylinder and the height H of course remains equal to the length
of the cylinder. Other surfaces, such as the surface of a sphere,
cannot be exactly developed, but there are approximate methods
which are generally accurate enough.
123
124
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Development of a Prism. The prism of Fig. 296 is developed
by laying out in a straight line and in the proper order the distances
1-4, 4~$} 3-2, and 2-1, which added together are equal to the
Fig. 29 7
distance around the prism. At each of the points a line is drawn
equal to the long edge of the prism and the ends joined together.
Then the two ends of the prism are measured out as shown.
The development of the lateral surface of a hexagonal prism
is shown in Fig. 298. First lay off in a straight line and in proper
order the edges 1-2, 2-3, etc., all the way around the prism as
shown at the right. At points 1,2,3, etc., draw the perpendiculars
equal in length to the edges of the prism, thus obtaining the true
size and shape of each face of the prism and in such order that
DEVELOPMENTS
125
they might be folded to the form of the prism. Note that a
square prism intersects the hexagonal prism which has been cut
along the curve of intersection. To find the cut-out on the de-
velopment draw the vertical lines A, B, and C on the faces of the
hexagonal prism and locate them on the development by measur-
ing their distances from the edges 2 and 3. The points of inter-
Fig. 3OO
section may then be located by drawing horizontal lines as shown
or by measuring up or down the lines on the front view of the
hexagonal prism and measuring the same distances on the same
lines of the development. The development of the top and
126
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
bottom of the prism may be obtained from the top view and
added to the lateral surface.
Development of a Cylinder. The development of a cylinder
was illustrated in Fig. 297. One half of a square elbow is de-
veloped in Fig. 299. First divide the top view into a number of
equal parts. Through each point draw an elemen of the cylinder.
By taking the elements close enough together the arcs may be
considered as straight lines. The problem is then the same as
developing a prism
with a large num-
ber of sides. Lay
off the distances
between the ele-
ments along a
straight line. At
each point draw the
element in its true
length. Through
the ends of the elements draw a smooth curve, very lightly free-
hand, and then brighten it up using the irregular curve. The
lengths of the elements may be conveniently found by drawing
horizontal lines from the front view as illustrated. The develop-
ment of the bases may be found by an auxiliary view and from
the top view.
Development of a Pyramid. The development of a pyramid
with a part cut away is shown in Fig. 300. Assume the pyramid
to be complete. There are six equal faces, each one a triangle.
The development consists in laying out all the faces in their true
size and proper order. The short edges are shown in their true
length in the top view as 1-2, 2-3, etc. The long edges are all of
the same length and are equal to the distance O v -l v shown in
the front view. Observe that H -1 H is horizontal in the top view.
The faces may be constructed in their true size by drawing an
arc, with Oi as a center and O v l v as a radius. Starting at 1\,
space off the chords li-2i, 81-81, etc., equal to 1*-2 H , 2 H -3 H , etc.
Draw lines 0\ 1\, 0\ 2\, etc., representing edges of the pyramid.
Construct the development of the base so that it may be folded
into the proper position. Note carefully that the numbers on
the base will match the numbers on the edges when the develop-
ment is folded to form the pyramid. To show the part which
DEVELOPMENTS
127
has been cut away measure the distance 0\C\ on the edge 0\4\
equal to the distance V C V . Measure distances 5\Bi and 3\Ai on
the development of the faces and of the base equal to the distances
5 H B H and 3 H A H obtained from the top view. Join points AiCi
128 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
and BI on the development of the faces. On the development
of the base construct the triangle A\B\C\ obtaining distances
BiCi and Aid from the development of the faces. The com-
pleted development is shown by the heavy lines.
The Development of a Cone. The development of a cone
is shown in Fig. 301. Divide the base into a number of parts
and draw elements of the cone. By taking the small arcs as
straight lines the solution is the same as for a pyramid. The
surface is thus considered to be divided into a number of equal
triangles. This method is sufficiently accurate for most pur-
poses. With the radius R draw an arc of a circle. On the arc
space off the circumference of the base of the cone. The base
need not be developed as it shows in its true size in the top view.
Development of a Transition Piece. A transition piece is
shown in Fig. 302 connecting a circular pipe with a rectangular
one. The development of such a piece should present no diffi-
culties if the previous figures have been, carefully studied. Com-
paring the two views as given in Fig. 303 with the picture of
Fig. 302, it will be seen that the transition piece may be "broken
up" into triangles and parts of cones. The triangles are AB1,
BC5, CD9, and DAW, The parts of cones are the curved surfaces
between the triangles. Consider the apex of one cone as located
at B. Divide the portion of the base 1-5 into a number of parts
and draw the elements B-l, B-2, B-3, B~4, and B-5. The
triangles thus formed will approximate the surface of the cone.
The lines A B, BC, etc. show in their true length in the top view.
The true length of the elements may be found as follows: Con-
sider a line to be dropped from point B perpendicular to the base
of the cone. A line may then be drawn on the base of the cone
from point 1 to the perpendicular line, thus forming a right triangle
with the element B-l as the hypotenuse. By constructing this
right triangle in its true size the true length of B-l may be found.
This has been done in Diagram I. The length of the perpendicular
line is shown at BX and is found by drawing the horizontal lines
shown. The base of the triangle is equal to the length of the
horizontal projection of B-l. Point 1 in Diagram I is found
by making x-1 equal to B-l . In the same way find the lengths
of the other elements by laying off
x-2 equal to B-2
x-3 equal to B-3
DEVELOPMENTS 129
etc., obtained from the top view. Then draw B-2, B-3, etc.
the true lengths of the elements which are used in the construc-
tion described below. In the same manner construct Diagram II
for the other cone. Having found all the true lengths proceed
as follows: Construct the triangle AB1, in its true size. With
B as a center and B2 as a radius, draw an arc. With 1 as a
center and a radius equal to 1-2 obtained from the top view de-
scribe another arc cutting the first arc. This will locate point 2.
With B as a center and B-3 as a radius describe an arc. With
2 as a center and a radius equal to 2-3 obtained from the top
view describe another arc, thus locating point 3. Proceed until
the four triangles forming the conical surface are properly located,
then draw a smooth curve through the points 1,2, 3, etc. Con-
struct triangle CB5, using the element^ as a starting side. Then
develop the conical surface having C as an apex and 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
as part of the base. Construct the triangle CD9 in its true size.
Since the piece is symmetrical the remaining parts are the same
as those already developed.
All kinds of surfaces can be developed approximately by divid-
ing them into triangles, then finding the true size of each triangle
and arranging them in the proper relation to each other.
CHAPTER XVIII
PICTURE DRAWING
Isometric Drawing. By means of an isometric projection
three faces of an object can be shown in a single view. This is
possible by considering the object to be placed in the position of
a cube standing on one corner and having another corner exactly
F/ff. 3O4 r/'g. 305
in the center of the view. In Fig. 304 the cube is resting upon
point A in such a position that point B is located in the center of
fig. 30 6
Fig. SO 7
the view obtained by projecting onto a vertical plane. The
orthographic projection of this front view is shown in Fig. 305,
which is called the isometric projection of a cube. In this view
130
PICTURE DRAWING
131
the line AB is vertical and the lines BC and BD make angles of
30 with the horizontal. All the edges of the cube show equal
to each other in length. This length however is shorter than
. 308
. 309
on the actual cube. For drawing purposes the lines BD, BC,
and BA, etc. are made the same length as on the actual cube.
The angles formed by the three lines which meet at point B are
equal to 120 each. The three lines are called the isometric axes
and form the basis for isometric drawing.
Fig. 3/0. \A
rig. 31 1
Isometric and Non-isometric Lines. All measurements for
isometric drawings are taken along or parallel to the isometric
axes. Lines parallel to the isometric axes are called isometric
lines. All other lines are non-isometric lines and cannot be
measured directly.
To make an Isometric Drawing of the Object shown in Fig.
306. Draw the isometric axes, BC, BA, and BD (Fig. 307).
132
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
From B measure I 1 // 7 toward D, 1" toward C, and 7 / 8 " toward A.
From the points thus located draw lines parallel to the isometric
axes and lay off distances corresponding to the figures given in
Fig. 3/2
Fig. 306. Note that lines which are parallel in Fig. 306 are
parallel in Fig. 307.
To make an Isometric Drawing of the Object shown in Fig.
308. Draw the isometric axes (Fig. 309) as in the preceding
case. Locate the point F by measuring along BC. Locate
point E by measuring along BC and then down parallel to BA
r
as indicated in the figure. Join and E. Line FE is a non-
isometric line.
In Fig. 310 point E is located as before. Point T is located
by measuring along BC to point S and then parallel to line BD.
It is often convenient to think of the object as being placed in a
box. This box can be put into isometric and the points in which
the object touches it located. Other points can be located by
taking measurements parallel to the axes.
Angles. Angles do not show in their true size in isometric
drawings. This is evident from an inspection of Fig. 305 where
PICTURE DRAWING
133
the angle at B is 120 and that at C is 60 although on the cube
they are both 90. The method of constructing for angles is
shown in Fig. 311. First make the orthographic projection,
then transfer by taking distances parallel to the axes, as H and L.
Positions of the Axes. The axes may be placed in any posi-
tion provided the angles between them are kept equal to 120
as illustrated in Fig. 312.
Ffg. 317
Construction for Circles. When circles occur they appear as
ellipses and may be drawn by plotting points from the ortho-
graphic projection as in Fig. 313 or by the more usual approxima-
tion shown in Fig. 314, where the lines are drawn perpendicular
to the points of tangency of the circumscribing square. The
134
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
intersections of these perpendiculars locate the centers for circular
arcs which will approximate the ellipse sufficiently close for most
purposes. In the figure
TiT z T z Ti = tangent paints
Ci = center far arc TiT z and T 3 T 4
CiTi = radius for arc TiT 2 and T 3 T t
C 2 = center for arc TiT* and T 2 T 3
C 2 Ti = radius for arc T^ and T 2 T S
f/g. 3/8
The same construction is used for arcs of circles as shown in
Fig. 315.
The interior of objects may be shown by means of isometric
sectional views, Fig. 316 and Fig. 317, which are constructed by
Fig. 319
the methods already described for exterior views. As shown, the
sectioned surfaces are taken on isometric planes.
PICTURE DRAWING
135
Oblique Drawing. Another method of picture drawing often
useful is oblique drawing or projection, in which the view is
obtained by using projection lines oblique to the plane upon which
the object is to be represented. In Fig. 318 the orthographic
projection of a cube is shown and, on the same plane, the oblique
projection of the same cube. The three lines which meet at
point B are called oblique axes. Lines BC and AB are always
at right angles but the line BD may make any convenient angle
fig. 320
with the horizontal. It follows that if one face of an object is
parallel to the vertical plane, it will show in its true size and shape.
After locating the axes the methods of construction given for
isometric drawing apply to the making of oblique drawings.
Many examples of oblique drawing are given throughout this
book. The axes may be located in a variety of ways as shown
in Fig. 319.
The appearance of an object can often be improved by reducing
the measurements along the oblique axis, using one half or three
fourths of the full dimension. Measurements on the two per-
pendicular axes remain unchanged. Two such treatments of
a cube are shown in Fig. 320. Such views are called cabinet
projection.
CHAPTER XIX
SHADE LINE DRAWINGS
Shade Lines. The use of shade lines is a much discussed
question. Each drawing has a purpose and if that purpose is
better served by the use of shade lines they should be employed.
In many lines of work detail drawings are never shaded and this
seems to be the best practice. Outline drawings or assembly
drawings which serve partly, at least, as picture drawings are
often improved by shading.
136
SHADE LINE DRAWINGS
137
System in Common Use. In the United States a conven-
tional system of shading is generally employed, in which the
rays of light are assumed to be parallel, to come from the upper
f/y 324 F~,g.385 Fig 326 fig. 32 7 Fig 32 a
Fig. 33 1 Fig. 332
and left hand corner of the sheet at an angle of 45, and to lie in
the plane of the paper. The lower and right hand edges where
the light passes over them are made heavy lines called shade
lines. When two surfaces are in the same plane the line of division
between them is not shaded, Fig. 321. Circles follow the same
138
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
rules as shown, where A is a hole and B is a solid cylinder. In
all cases the extra thickness of line is without the surface which
it bounds (C, Fig. 321). Most all conditions of shading are
illustrated in the figures given in this chapter, which should
be carefully studied.
SHADE LINE DRAWINGS
139
Surface Shading. Various methods of line shading on surfaces
are used to show the shape of machine parts. Personal judgment
is an important element in the matter of successful surface shad-
ing. Fig. 322 shows a cylinder shaded by using fine lines and
varying the distances between them. These change approxi-
mately as the projections of equally spaced elements of a cylinder.
. 336
Another method is to space the shade lines about equally but to
vary the width of the lines as in Fig. 323. The air chambers
(Figs. 324 to 328) show a number of different ways of shading
conical, spherical, and cylindrical surfaces. As shown, either fine
lines near together or varying lines may be used with any of the
methods illustrated.
Shading Screw Threads and Gears. On elaborate drawings
Fig. 330
r/ff.337
it is sometimes desirable to shade screw threads. Five ways are
shown in Figs. 329 to 332.
When gears are to be shown without drawing in the teeth the
exterior is frequently represented by alternating heavy and fine
lines as in Figs. 333 and 334 which show a pair of bevel gears
and a pair of spur gears. The rest of the drawing may or may
not be shaded. A pair of bevel gears are shown in section in
Fig. 335.
Special Surface Representations. Other surfaces may be
represented as in Figs. 336 to 338. Three ways of indicating
a knurled surface are given in Fig. 336. For a scraped surface
Fig. 337 may be used, and for a polished surface, Fig. 338.
Patent Office Drawing. Probably the most general use of
shaded drawings is for Patent Office work. Such drawings must
140
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
be made on pure white paper of a thickness equal to two or three
ply Bristol board, using black ink. The outside dimensions of
the sheet are 10 by 15 inches. Inside of this is a one inch margin.
At the top of each sheet a clear space of one and one quarter
inches must be left for a title which is printed in by the Patent
Fig. 339
Office. Fig. 339 shows the layout of a patent drawing. The
fewest number of lines should be used; all dimension and center
lines should be left off. The plane upon which a section is taken
should be indicated. All parts are lettered or numbered. As
these drawings are reproduced by the photo zinc process, all lines
must be absolutely black and not too fine. If lines #,re too close
together they will run together when printed. The "Rules of
Practice " of the United States Patent Office may be had for the
asking and should be consulted by those interested.
CHAPTER XX
DRAWING QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES
MOST of the drawing studies included in this chapter can be
worked in an 11" x 14" space or in a division of the space as
indicated in Figs. 340 to 343. The layout with dimensions for a
regular size sheet is shown in Fig. 340. In some cases a large
scale may be advisable in which case the full sheet may be used.
An inspection of the problem will indicate the proper space where
it is not given in connection with the problem. The order in
.
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TA CK
,
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I
r
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TRIM LINE-p
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WORKING SPACE
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TRIM LINC-J
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Fig. 34 O
which the problems are given can be varied to suit the needs of
the class. The question of inking is left for the instructor to de-
cide. The author advises that it be delayed until the student
has attained considerable proficiency in making pencil drawings.
A variety of problems is included to allow a selection to be made
and so that the course may be varied from year to year. A
number of answers to questions should be neatly written or
141
142
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
lettered and numerical problems should be carefully worked out
to create a coordination between drawing and other subjects,
as well as to impress the student with the fact that the mera
drawing of lines is not the aim of a drawing course. It is thought
7*/7*
t
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-
*/<v
(tppr-Of)
___
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-
that such problems may create an interest and stir the student
with the ambition to seek an engineering education.
1. Describe the proper use of the T square.
2. Show by a sketch the proper method of sharpening a lead
pencil.
3. How are horizontal lines drawn?
4. How are vertical lines drawn?
5. Show by sketches the proper adjustment of the pen, pencil,
and needle points for a compass.
6. Draw a straight line. Draw short lines crossing this line,
and 2 3 /i 6 // apart. Draw another short line crossing the original
line, and I'/w" from the last line drawn. From this lay off
further distances of IVs" and 15 /ie". Add the four distances
and check the total length by scaling the line. In measuring a
line, place the zero of the scale opposite one end of the line and
read the scale opposite the other end of the line.
7. Draw a straight line. Set the dividers at Vie" and step
off 10 spaces. Scale the distance thus found and check with the
calculated length.
8. What is the purpose of the knee joints in the compasses?
9. Examine a drawing material catalog and list five tools in
addition to those which you already have, that you would consider
convenient for your work.
10. What kinds of pens are used for freehand lettering?
11. What kind of ink is used?
12. What is the slope for slant letters?
13. In what direction should the pen point?
14. How is the amount of ink on the pen regulated?
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 143
15. What hardness of pencil should be used for lettering?
16. How is the distance between letters regulated?
17. 11" x 14" space. Starting y 2 " from top border line
draw horizontal guide lines 3 /Y' apart. Use very light pencil
lines. Make each capital letter of Fig. 15 or 16 five times. Re-
peat the letters which cause most trouble. Use 2 H pencil.
18. 5Y 2 " X 7" space. Starting l / 2 " from top border line
draw horizontal guide lines Y 8 " apart. Make each of the lower
case letters of Fig. 15 or 16 five times. Height of letters a, c, e,
etc. to be V/'. Height of letter 6, k, etc. to be 3 / 8 ". Use 2H
pencil.
19. 5V2" X 1" space. Same as problem 18, but use ball
pointed pen.
20. 5 l /z" X 7" space. Starting l /i" from top border line
draw horizontal guide lines V/' apart. Make each capital letter
of Fig. 15 or 16 five times. Use 2H pencil.
21. 5Y 2 " x 7" space. Same as problem 20, but use ball
pointed pen.
22. 5Y 2 " X 7" space. Starting Y 2 " from top of space draw
horizontal guide lines Y 8 " apart. Letter the following words,
using a 2H pencil: HILL, LATE, LATHE, BOLT, QUENCH, WRENCH,
EQUIPMENT, TOOLS, CALIPERS
23. 5VV x 7 space. Same as problem 22, but using pen
and ink as directed.
24. 5 l /z" X 7" space. Draw horizontal guide lines near the
middle of the space for letters having l /" caps. Letter the
following, using a 2H pencil. Use caps and lower case of Fig.
15 or 16.
"Drawing is the education of the eye, it is more interesting
than words. It is the graphic language."
" Mechanical drawing is the alphabet of the engineer; with-
out this the workman is merely a hand, with it he indicates the
possession of a head."
25. Prepare a title and material list for the step bearing shown
in Fig. 175.
26. Same as problem 24, but using pen and ink as directed
by the instructor.
27. Name and illustrate three kinds of triangles.
28. Name and illustrate three kinds of quadrilaterals.
29. What is a right angle?
144
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
30. In order that the sills of a house may be square 6 feet has
been measured off along one sill and 8 feet along the other. Nails
are driven as in Fig. 344 at these points. What will be the dis-
tance AC measured along a steel tape when the angle ABC is a
right angle?
31. A circle has a diameter of 2 inches. What is its circum-
ference? Compare this distance with the sum of the sides of an
inscribed hexagon.
32. What is an ellipse?
33. Can a true ellipse be drawn with circular arcs?
34. Space 4 5 /s" wide, 5 l / 2 " high. Draw a line 2 15 /ie" long
and bisect it. See Fig. 32.
35. Space as for problem 34. Draw an angle and bisect it.
See Fig. 33.
36. Space as for problem 34. Draw a line 2 lz /u" long and
divide it into five equal parts, by method of Fig. 34.
37. Space as for problem 34. Same as problem 36, but use
method of Fig. 35.
38. Space as for problem 34. Draw any angle and construct
another angle equal to it. See Fig. 36.
39. Space as for problem 34. Construct a triangle, having
sides as follows: 2 5 / 8 "; SVs"; and 2". See Fig. 37.
40. Space as for problem 34. Construct an equilateral tri-
angle, one side 2 9 /ie" long. See Fig. 38.
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 145
41. Space as for problem 34. Draw an isosceles triangle
having a base of 2 7 /8 /r . Sides make 75 with the base. See
Fig. 28.
42. Space as for problem 34. Draw a right triangle. Hy-
potenuse 3 l /z" long. One angle is 30.
43. Space as for problem 34. Mark three points (+) not in
a straight line, and draw a circle passing through them. See
Fig. 42.
44. Space as for problem 34. Draw an arc of a circle. Radius
2", with center Va" from upper and left hand edges of space.
Make the angle AOB (Fig. 43) equal to 45. Find length of the
arc. Use first method of Fig. 43.
45. Space as for problem 34. Same as problem 44, but use
second method of Fig. 43.
46. Space as for problem 34. Draw a circle 2 5 /s" diameter.
Draw a tangent at any point on the circumference. See Fig. 44.
47. Space as for problem 34. Draw an arc with a radius of
I 1 //'. Draw a straight line intersecting this arc. Draw an arc
tangent to the arc and straight line just drawn, radius 5 /s". See
Fig. 45.
48. Space as for problem 34. Draw a hexagon in a circle
having a diameter of 2 7 /s". See Fig. 39.
49. Space as for problem 34. Draw a hexagon having a
measurement across flats (Fig. 39) of 2y 4 ".
50. Space as for problem 34. Draw a regular octagon inside
of a 3 l /s" square, See Fig. 40.
51. Space as for problem 34. Draw a regular octagon inside
of a 3 l / s " circle.
52. Space as for problem 34. Draw a right triangle having
a hypotenuse 3" long, and one side 2" long. Draw a circle pass-
ing through the points of the triangle.
53. Space as for problem 34. Draw a line 3 l /s" long and
divide it into parts proportional to 2, 3, and 5. Use a method
similar to Fig. 35.
54. Space as for problem 34. Use 30 X 60 triangle and
T square to draw a regular hexagon measuring 3 7 /i 6 " across
corners.
55. Space as for problem 34. Using the 45 triangle and
T square draw a regular octagon that will just contain a circle
SVie" diameter.
146
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
56. Space 5 l /z" X 7". Draw an ellipse by concentric circle
method (Fig. 49). Major axis 5". Minor axis 2". Find 24
points.
57. Space S 1 /*" x 7". Draw an ellipse by trammel method
(Fig. 50). Major axis S 1 //'. Minor axis 2 l / 8 ".
58. Space 5 i /2 /r X 7". Draw a figure having the appearance
of an ellipse by circular arcs, Fig. 51. AB = 5", CD = 2 3 /V'.
59. Space 5 1 /2 // X 7". Draw a V/' square in the center of
the space. Draw an involute of this square.
60. Space 5 l /z" X 7". Draw a semi-circle having its center
V/' from the left edge of the space and 3 1 /4 // down from the top
rig.
of the space. Radius of circle PA". Draw the involute of the
semi-circle. See Fig. 53.
61. Space 5 1 /*" X 7". Draw a parabola, Fig. 54. Distance
AF = 7 / 8 ". Directrix perpendicular.
62. Space 5 l /z" X 7". Draw a parabola, Fig. 54. Directrix
horizontal. Distance AF - l /i".
63. Space 5 l /z" X 7". Draw an equilateral hyperbola, Fig.
56. Point P is 1" from line OG and 2V 8 " from OH. Make
distances PA, AB, etc. Y 4 ".
64. Space 5Y 2 " X 7". Draw the two views given and the
side view of the prism, Fig. 345.
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 147
65. Space 5 1 /2 // X 7". Draw the two views given and the
top view of Fig. 346.
rig. 349
L
Fig. 351
Fig. 352
66. Space 5 l /z" X 1" . Draw the two views given and the
top view of Fig. 347.
67. Space 5 1 /z" X 7". Draw the top, front, and side views
of a regular hexagonal prism,
Fig. 348. Corners of hex 2 1 /*".
Height of prism .V 2 ".
68. Space S 1 /*" x 7". Draw
three views of the object shown
in Fig. 349.
69. Space 5 '/Y' X 1" '. Draw
three views of the object shown
in Fig. 350.
70. Space 5 l / 2 " x 1". Draw
three views of the object shown
in Fig. 351.
71. Space S 1 /^" x 7". Draw
three views of the object shown in Fig. 352.
72. Space o'/Y' X 7". Draw three views of the object shown
in Fig. 353.
148
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
VIW
' */'
_JL
*>i,
F/g. 356
! j ! i a i *
n'g.357
Fig. 3 59
F/g. 36 O
1 ^/
Fig. 36 7
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 149
73. Space 5y 2 " X 7". Draw three views of the object shown
in Fig. 354.
74. Space 5 l /t" X 7". Draw three views of the object sjiown
in Fig. 355.
75. Space 5y 2 " X 7". Draw
three views of the object shown
in Fig. 356.
76. Space S 1 //' x 7". Draw
three views of the object shown
in Fig. 357. , /.
77. Space 5 l / 2 " X 7". Draw -|f| 2j \ IP-
three views of the object shown Fig. 362
in Fig. 358.
78. Space 5y 2 " X 7". Draw three views of the object shown
in Fig. 359.
EEi
rig. 365
79. Space 5 1 /2 // X 7". Draw three views of the object shown
in Fig. 360.
80. Space 5 l /z" X 7". Draw three views of the object shown
in Fig. 361.
150
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Draw
object
Draw
object
81. Space5V 2 "x7". Draw
three views of the object
shown in Fig. 362.
82. Space 5Y2" X 7".
three views of the
shown in Fig. 363.
83. Space 5 1 /*" X 1" .
three views of the
shown in Fig. 364.
84. Space 5Va" X 7". Draw
three views of the object
shown in Fig. 365.
The drawing of objects in
other than their natural posi-
tions furnishes excellent prac-
tice in the study of projections.
It is a useful test of one's knowledge of the theory of drawing, and
every student should have some experience with such problems.
The method of solution for such problems calls for the loca-
tion of each point in its three views and particular attention to
relations of the lines.
Three views of a hopper are shown in Fig. 366. When the
topper is revolved to 30 about shaft A A, the front view will
QUESTIONS, PROBL
151
show as in Fig. 367. The top view is obtained by projecting
horizontally from the top view of Fig. 366 and vertically from the
front view of Fig. 367. The front view of Fig. 367 is changed
only in the position of the hopper. In the top view the distances
parallel to the shaft A A have not been changed, as the revolu-
tion has been about this axis. The side view of Fig. 367 is then
obtained in the usual manner from the top and front views.
With the apparatus in the position of Fig. 367, it may be re-
volved about the shaft BB forward or backward. In this case
/=~/'g.369
rig. 370
Pig. 37 1
rig. 372
the side view of Fig. 367 will be unchanged except for its position
as shown in Fig. 368. After drawing the side view the front
view may be drawn by projecting across from the side view and
down from the front and top views of Fig. 367. This is possible
because the horizontal distances in the front view are parallel to
the shaft or axis of revolution. The top view is obtained from
the other two views in the usual way.
85. Space 5VY' X 1". Draw three views of the hexagonal
pyramid in the position shown in Fig. 369.
86. Space 5 l / 2 " X 1". Draw three views of the pyramid of
Problem 85 after it has been revolved as shown in Fig. 370.
87. Space 5 l / 2 " X 7". Draw three views of the rectangular
prism in the position shown in Fig. 371.
152
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
/i" X 7". Draw three views of the rectangular
prism after it has been revolved from the position of Fig. 371
about a vertical axis. Top view is shown in Fig. 372.
89. Space 5y 2 " X 1". Draw three views and a complete
auxiliary view of the square prism shown in Fig. 373, after it has
been cut by plane A-A and the part above the plane removed.
90. Space 5y 2 " X 7". Draw two views and a complete
auxiliary view of the hexagonal prism shown in Fig. 374, after it
has been cut by plane A-A.
Fig. 374
Fig. 3 75
Fig. 376
91. Space 5y 2 " X 7". Draw the two views given and a
complete auxiliary view, Fig. 375.
92. Space 5 1 // X 7". Draw the two views given and a com-
plete auxiliary view, Fig. 376.
93. Space 5y 2 " X 7". Draw a complete auxiliary view, Fig.
377.
94. Space 5 1 / 2 // X 1". Draw a complete auxiliary view, Fig.
378.
95. Space 11" x 14". Draw the two views shown and an
auxiliary view of the foot pedal shown in Fig. 379.
96. Space 11" x 14". Complete the views and draw an aux-
iliary view of the molding, Fig. 380.
97. Why are sectional views used?
98. What is the relation of a sectional view to the other views?
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS AND STUDIES 153
Fig. 377
\
\
-
\
99. Space S 1 /*" X 7". Draw a sectional view of Fig. 381 on
a plane through the axis.
100. Space 5 l /z" X 7". Draw a sectional view of Fig. 382 on
a plane through the axis.
154
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Fig. 360
101. Space 5Y 2 " X 7", Draw a sectional view of Fig. 383 on
a plane through the axis.
102. Space 5 l / t " X 7". Draw three views of Fig. 384, chang-
ing the proper view to a section on plane A- A.
103. Space 5y 2 " X 7". Draw two views of Fig. 385, chang-
ing the proper view to a section on plane A-A.
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 155
EH
r
i
h
n g . set
104. Space o 1 /^" X 7". Draw three views of Fig. 386, chang-
ing the proper view to a section on plane A- A .
105. Space 5 l / 2 " x 7". Draw three views of Fig. 387, chang-
ing the proper view to a section on plane A- A.
106. Space 11" x 14". Draw three views of the slide valve,
Fig. 388. The missing view to be a section on plane A- A.
107. Draw three views of the shackle, Fig. 186.
156
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
ig. 363
108. Space 11" X 14". Draw
a plan view and a sectional ele-
vation for the elliptical cover
plate shown in Fig. 389. Out-
side dimensions 7" x 9". Six
u /i 6 inch holes for bolts. The
rise in the center is elliptical in
plan. The bolts are to be spaced
equal distances apart. Draw
full size.
109. 11" X 14" space. Draw
Ffg.389\ two views of the crank shown
in Fig. 390. This drawing is excellent as an inking or tracing
exercise.
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 157
110. Compare briefly wrought iron and cast iron.
111. What is cast iron? Name some of its properties. Com-
pare its strength in tension and compression.
112. What is wrought iron? How is it made? Name some of
its properties.
113. What is steel? How is it made? Name some of its
properties.
114. What material is used for bolts and nuts?
115. How is malleable iron made and what is it used for?
116. Of what material would you make the following and why?
a. Steam Engine Cylinder.
6. Water Pump Plunger.
c. Piston-rod.
d. Complicated form of Lever.
e. Shaft.
117. What is meant by unit stress? Axial stress? Compres-
sion? Tension? Shear?
118. A tie-bar has a diameter of 7 /Y' and supports a load of
8000 pounds. What is the unit stress?
119. What load will a rectangular tension member measuring
3 /s" X I" carry safely if it is made of wrought iron? (Live load.)
120. A hollow cast iron cylinder has diameters of 4" and 3".
What safe compressive load will it carry if the load is steady?
121. Compute the number of 3 /4" bolts for a cylinder head 15"
effective diameter. Steam pressure is 150 pounds per square
inch. Allowable working stress on bolts is 5000 pounds per
square inch. The effective root area of a 3 /Y' bolt is .302 square
inches.
122. A wrought iron bolt iVa" diameter has a head I 1 //' long.
Its effective diameter is 1.284. When a tension of 14000 pounds
is applied to the bolt, find the unit stress.
123. What are some of the uses of screw threads?
124. What advantage has the acme thread over the square
thread?
125. A triple threaded screw has a pitch of 1 / 3 inch. How many
turns must it make to move a nut 6 inches?
126. Express the following in terms of the diameter of the
bolt; distance across flats of hex, thickness of bolt head, and
thickness of nut.
158
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
127. In what way does a bolt head differ from a nut?
128. Draw a I" hex nut across flats and a 1" square nut across
corners. Compare them.
129. Space 5 1 /z" X 7". Draw one turn each of two helices as
started in Fig. 391.
130. Space 5 l / 2 " X 7". Draw the exterior of a square threaded
screw 3" long which enters 1" into the section of a square threaded
nut. Pitch I". Other dimensions as in Fig. 392.
Fig. 3 92 V//////////A :
BCD
F/g.393
H\ l\
\F~fg. 394\
131. Space 5 l /z" X 7", Draw four forms of screw threads in
section as directed by the instructor. 1" pitch. Fig. 393.
132. Space S 1 /?" X 1" . Fig. 394. At A, E, and C, draw
three different plan views of threaded holes. At D and E draw
two different representations of threaded holes in elevation.
At F draw a threaded hole in section. At G, H, and /, draw
three conventional representations of threaded bolt ends. Diam-
eter for all representations to be 1 inch.
133. Space 5Va" x 7". On axis A-B, Fig. 395, draw a 3 A"
through bolt, hex head across corners and hex nut across flats.
On axis C-D draw a P/s" bolt, hex head across flats and hex nut
across corners. Indicate required dimensions.
134. Space 5Va" x 1" '. On axis A-B, Fig. 396, draw a 7 /s"
bolt, square head across corners and square nut across flats.
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 159
On axis C-D draw a Vs" cap screw, head across flats. On axis
E-F draw a 7 /V' cap screw, head across corners.
135. Space 5 1 /2 // X 7". Draw the two views of collar and
-*.n-f
395
h/Hih.
shaft, Fig. 397. On axis A-Z? draw a 6 /s" set screw, head across
flats. On axis C-D draw same set screw, head across corners.
136. Space 5 l /z" X 1" Draw the gland and stuffing box of
Fig. 398. On axis A-B draw a VY' stud and nut. Show nut
across flats. Make provision
for the gland to enter one half
the depth of the stuffing box
when nut is screwed onto stud.
Show required dimensions.
137. Draw a plan and sec-
tion for a double riveted lap
joint as directed by the in-
structor.
138. Make a scale drawing of two plates joined together at
right angles.
139. Space 5y 2 " X 7". Draw sections on planes X and Y
and a development of the riveted joint of Fig. 399. See Chapter
VIII. Vie" plates; 15 /ie" rivets; pitch 2 7 /i 6 "; lap I 1 /*"; scale
3" = 1 foot.
140. How many views should a drawing contain?
160
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
mi
141. What scales are in general
use for working drawings?
142. What are the first lines
inked on a working drawing?
143. Is true projection always
used? Explain.
144. Sketch and describe one
form of stuffing box.
145. Space 11" X 14". Make
a working drawing showing three
views of the slide valve shown in
Fig. 400. One view may be a sec-
tion. Completely dimension.
146. Space 11" x 14". Make
a working drawing of the bearing
cap of Fig. 401. Show three views.
4OQ Completely dimension. One view
may be a section. Supply any
dimensions. See Chapter XV for size of 1 /4 // pipe.
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 161
147. Make detail working drawings for the parts of the eccen-
tric shown in Fig. 402. Supply any missing dimensions. Draw-
ing should include a properly dimensioned bolt and set screw.
Completely dimension the drawing.
148. Make detail working drawings for the parts of the step
bearing shown in Fig. 175. Scale 6" = 1 foot. Use two sheets,
11" x 14" space. Completely dimension.
162
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
149. Draw two views of Fig. 403. Each view should show
true distances. Completely dimension. Submit a preliminary
sketch to the instructor.
150. Make a working drawing for the piece shown in Fig. 404.
Submit a preliminary sketch to the instructor.
151. Space 5Y 2 " X 7". Make a detail working drawing of
the construction shown in Fig. 405, using one full view and such
parts of other views as are necessary to define its true shape.
152. Space 5Y 2 " X 7". Make a working drawing of the sleeve,
Fig. 406. One half view to be in section.
153. Make a working drawing of the valve shown in Fig. 407.
Show a proper treatment for a section on plane ABC.
154. Draw a sectional view of Fig. 408.
155. Make a detail drawing of the valve body of Fig. 409.
One view in section.
156. Make an assembly drawing of the 2" check valve shown
in Fig. 409. Draw a sectional elevation and an exterior end view.
This drawing may or may not be dimensioned.
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 163
157. The filling-in piece, Fig. 410, is shown one half size.
Scale the figure, draw full size, and completely dimension.
158. The guide, Fig. 411, is shown one half size. Scale the
figure, draw full size, and completely dimension.
Pig. 407
Scale the
Draw
159. The bracket, Fig. 412, is shown one half size,
figure, draw full size, and completely dimension.
160. The flywheel, Fig. 413, is shown one fourth size,
to a scale of 6" = 1 foot, and completely dimension.
161. The bearing, Fig. 414, is shown one half size. Scale the
figure, draw full size, complete the
views, and completely dimension.
162. Draw a half end view and
a sectional elevation of the pump
centerpiece, Fig. 415. Choose a
proper scale and completely dimen-
sion.
163. Space 5 l / 2 " X 7". Draw
two views of the lever shown in
Fig. 416. Both views are to show
the true size of the lever.
164. Make detail drawings of
each part of the screw stuffing box
of Fig. 417. Note that dotted
sectioning is used here to indicate the separate pieces. This
method is sometimes used to show the exterior and section in the
same view.
165. Make an assembly working drawing of the steam jacketed
kettle shown in Fig. 418. Draw a half top view and a sectional
164
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 165
F~ig. 410
elevation. Such dimensions as are
not given are to be supplied by
the student. The required bolts
are to be drawn and specified.
The bosses for the pipe may be
about twice the outside diameter
of the pipe. Com-
pletely dimension the
drawing. The outer
casing is supported by
four "feet" shown pic-
torially. The flange of
the kettle rests upon
the flange of the outer
casing, and is bolted
to it. Scale I 1 /*" = 1
foot. Space ll"x 14".
166. At what stage
should the dimension
lines be put on a draw-
ing?
167. Make an assem-
bly working drawing
from the details of the
connecting rod shown
in Fig. 419. Draw one
view in full and the
other half in section
and half full. Choose a suitable scale.
~
1
Six Arms
^
*
1
^
s
\
V
n
$$
Fig. 4-13
of the rod may be broken out.
If necessary a portion
Supply required bolts for wedge
166
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Fig. 414-
block. Submit sketch of treatment to instructor for approval.
Completely dimension.
168. Make a drawing for the steam cylinder shown in Fig. 420
as follows. Sectional elevation on plane A- A; half top view;
and section on plane B-B looking toward the left. The three
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 167
views are to be properly located and completely dimensioned.
Show depth of tapped holes. Supply any necessary dimensions
that are not given in the figure. Choose a suitable scale.
169. Compute the weight of
the Vee block shown in Fig. 335.
Tabulate all figures.
170. Compute the weight of
the cast iron foot for the steam
kettle, Fig. 418. Tabulate all
figures.
171. Compute the weight of
the outer casing for Fig. 418.
(cast iron). Tabulate all figures.
172. Compute the weight for the kettle, Fig. 418 (cast iron).
Tabulate all figures.
173. Compute the weight of the cast iron pulley shown in
Fig. 421. Tabulate all figures.
174. How is the diameter of wrought pipe specified?
// Thds. U.S.Std
T WAVs/l/s- \
Fig.
175. Sketch a 2" X 2" x IVY' Tee, and mark the size on each
opening.
176. Sketch a cross section of a standard pipe thread. Indi-
cate any special features.
177. Draw two views of the piping shown in Fig. 422; one
view as shown and the other in the direction of the arrow. Use
a double line representation. See Chapter XV.
178. Space 7" x 11". Find the curve of intersection between
the two cylinders, Fig. 423.
168
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
*
-0/
f-\
\J
1
xl
^
J
' ^1
QUESTIONS, STUDIES, AND PROBLEMS 169
179. Space 1" x 11". Find the curve of intersection between
the two cylinders, Fig. 424.
180. Space 5Y 2 " X 1". Find the intersection between the
prisms of Fig. 425.
181. Space S 1 /^" X 7". Find the intersection between the
two prisms of Fig. 426.
182. Find the line of intersection between the two cylinders.
(Fig. 294, first case.) Both diameters I 1 A". Altitude 2Y/'.
Axes intersect.
183. Same as Problem 182 but axes l / 2 " apart.
184. Find the intersection between two cones (Fig. 294, second
case). Diameters lYs" and altitude 2 3 /s". Axes intersect.
185. Same as Problem 184 but with axes l / 2 " apart.
186. Find the intersection of a cone and a cylinder (Fig. 294
third case). Diameter of cone = lYa". Diameter of cylinder
= I 1 / 4". Axes intersect. Altitude 2 l /z".
187. Same as Problem 186 but with axes 1 / 2 " apart.
188. Find the intersection of a cone and a cylinder (Fig.
294, fourth case). Diameter of cone 3". Altitude of cone 3".
Diameter of cylinder 1". Axes intersect.
189. Same as Problem 188 but with axes 1 / 2 " apart.
170
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
190. Space SVa" X 7". Find the line of intersection between
the cone and hexagonal prism of Fig. 427.
191. Space 5Y2" x 7". Find the line of intersection between
the sphere and hexagonal prism of Fig. 428.
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 171
-I
\
30\
Fig. 4 2''
172
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
429
8T '* k-
Fig.
192. Find the line of intersection between the cone and cylinder
of Fig. 429.
193. Make a working drawing of the joint shown in Fig. 430.
Find curves accurately.
194. Make a drawing for a connecting rod end (Fig. 295) with
dimensions as follows. Instructor will assign dimensions.
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 173
I. W = 2V 2 "
II. W = 3"
III. W =
H =4"
rr o//
fl = O
A = iV
A = 2"
A =
LU.
H r
fig.
v^j^-
LI
"I* Ffg.^-32
LJ_
4
h'a 1
/ A \
195. Space 5Y 2 " X 7". Develop the lateral surface of the
rectangular prism, Fig. 431.
196. Space 5y 2 " X 7". Develop the lateral surface of the
hexagonal prism, Fig. 432.
174
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
Fig. 439
Fig.
m
/ / <vi
B'
Fig.
197. Space 5 l / z " x 1". Develop the lateral surface and the
upper surface of the cylinder, Fig. 433.
198. Space 5Y 2 " x 1". Develop the vertical piece of the
square elbow, Fig. 434.
199. Space 5 l / 2 " X 7". Develop the lateral surface of the
pyramid, Fig. 435.
200. Space 5 l / 2 " x 7". Develop the lateral surface of the
frustum of a pyramid, Fig. 436.
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 175
201. Space 5 l /z" X 7". Develop the lateral surface and the
cut face of the hexagonal pyramid, Fig. 437.
202. Space &/*" X 1" . Develop the lateral surface of the
pyramid, Fig. 438.
203. Find the area in square feet of the surface of the tent,
Fig. 439.
Width Length Height
Size in in in
Feet Feet Feet
1777
II 9 12 7 1 /*
204. Find the area in square feet of the surface of the tent, Fig.
440.
- H f| t ot W 5Sf
13 777
II 3V 2 16 12 7 1 /*
III 4 20 14 9
IV 5 24 16 11
205. Find the area in square feet of the surface of the tent,
Fig. 441.
Size I 7 feet square 7 feet high
II 9 " 8 "
206. Find the area in square feet of the surface of the tent,
Fig. 442.
Size
Size of
Size of
Height Height
Base
Top
at Center at Side
Feet
Feet
Feet Feet
7 square
2 l /z square
7 i /z 6
8
3
8 6 l / 2
I
II
III 10 " 3Y 2 " 9 7V
207. Space 5 l / 2 " x 7". Develop the circular cone shown in
Fig. 443. Start with element A B.
208. Space 5 l / z " X 7". Develop the part of the surface of
cone above the plane CD, Fig. 444. Start with element A B.
209. Develop the portion of a conical surface shown in Fig.
445. First lay out the true length triangles. Then start with
element A B.
210. Develop the transition piece of Fig. 446.
211. Develop the transition piece of Fig. 447.
176
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
One ha/f ' c/ere/opment
r
Pig.
212. Find the intersection of the two cylinders in the three
views, Fig. 448. Develop each of the cylinders.
213. Space 572" X 7". Make an isometric drawing of the
brass bushing shown in Fig. 175, in section. Full size.
214. Space 11" X 14". Make an isometric drawing of the
main casting of Fig. 175, in section. Full size.
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 177
215. Make an isometric drawing of Fig. 195. Dimensions as
furnished by the instructor.
A = [ ] D* = [ ] A = [ ] A = [ ] A = [ ] D, = [ ]
Li - [ ] L z = [ ] L 3 = [ ] L 4 = [ ] L 5 = [ ] L 6 = [ ].
216. Space 5V2" x 7". Make an isometric section of a [ ]
diameter rivet and part of two plates each [ ] inches, thick.
Dimensions will be furnished by instructor. For forms of rivets
see Figs. 133, 134, and 135.
217. Space S 1 /^" X 7". Make an isometric drawing of the
object shown in Fig. 152. Scale 6" = 1 foot.
218. Space 5 l / 2 " X 7". Make a cabinet projection from Fig.
152. Scale 6" = 1 foot,
219. Space 5Y 2 " X 7". For scale of 6" = 1 foot. Space
11" x 14" for full size. Make an isometric drawing of the bear-
ing cap shown in Fig. 174.
220. Space b l /z" X 7". Make an isometric drawing of Fig.
275. Scale 6" = 1 foot.
221. Space 5 l /z" X 7". Make an oblique drawing of Fig.
275. Scale 6" = 1 foot.
222. Make an oblique drawing of Fig. 273.
223. Make an oblique drawing in section of Fig. 276. Outside
diameter = 4VY'. Width = 1 inch.
178
ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
-Knurled
224. Space 5 l / 2 " X 7". Make an oblique drawing in section
of Fig. 277. Scale 6" = 1 foot.
225. Space 5 1 /*" X 7". Make an isometric drawing in section
of Fig. 277.
Shade lines may be used on most any of the problems at the
discretion of the instructor.
226. Where should the extra thickness of a shade line be
allowed for?
227. About how wide should the
shade lines be compared with the
fine lines on a shaded drawing.
228. Make a drawing of Fig.
449, half in section, and half ex-
terior. On the exterior half repre-
sent the knurled surface.
229. Refer to Machinery, Power,
American Machinist, or other tech-
nical papers and make a freehand
copy of a simple drawing. Give
44-9 reference, Paper
Date Vol No Page
Give your criticism, favorable and unfavorable. Consider choice
of views; ease of reading and clearness; method of dimensioning;
location of dimensions; notes and other information.
Inking Exercises. Practice exercises are sometimes valuable
as a means of teaching accuracy, and for inking practice. The
following problems are designed for such purposes. They may
be inked with all lines of uniform weight, or with fine and heavy
lines as shown. Sharp pencil lines and a minimum of erasing
should be insisted upon. When inking, no erasures should be
allowed.
230. Exercise 1, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4" square. Divide the
side AC into 12 equal parts, using the bow spacers. Through
each point draw horizontal lines using the T square.
231 . Exercise 2, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4" square. Divide CD
into 12 equal parts with the dividers. Draw vertical lines through
each point using a triangle and the T square.
232. Exercise 3, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4" square. Divide AC,
CD, and BD each into 6 equal parts. Draw BC. Draw lines
through the points as shown, using the 45 triangle.
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, AND STUDIES 179
233. Exercise 4, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4" square. From each
corner draw lines making 30 and 60 with the horizontal. Use
the 30 x 60 triangle. Stop the lines so as to form the figure
shown.
234. Exercise 5, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4" square. Divide CD
and BD into 6 equal parts. Draw lines from point C to each
9 10 II
Fig. 450
point on line BD. Draw Hues from point B to each point on
line CD.
235. Exercise 6, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4" square. Divide A B
and AC each into 12 equal parts. Draw very light horizontal and
vertical lines through each point. Brighten up the lines so as to
form the figure shown.
236. Exercise 7, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4" square, a 3 1 //' square,
and a 2 l / 2 " square as shown in the figure. Join the middle points
of the 4" square. Join the middle points of the 3> l /\" square.
Erase the lines which are not required.
237. Exercise 8, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4" square. Draw AD
and BC. Divide AD and BC each into 8 equal parts. Join
180 ESSENTIALS OF DRAFTING
each point with the corners of the square. When inking be sure
to draw toward the corners and allow each line to dry before
drawing a second line.
238. Exercise 9, Fig. 450. Draw horizontal and vertical center
lines. Using their intersection as a center draw a circle with a
diameter of 4". Divide the radius into 6 equal parts. Through
each point thus found draw circles as indicated.
239. Exercise 10, Fig. 450. Draw horizontal and vertical
center lines. Draw concentric circles having diameters as follows:
4", 3Y/', 2Y 2 ", I 3 /*", and 1". Divide the 2Y 2 " circle into 8
equal parts and using each point as a center draw small tangent
circles having a diameter of 3 /Y' as shown in the figure.
240. Exercise 11, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4" square. Join the
middle points of each side by lines HF and EG. Using E, F, G,
and H as centers, and a radius of 2", draw semicircles. Using
same centers, and a radius of \ l /%", draw circle arcs. Erase lines
not required to form the figure.
241. Exercise 12, Fig. 450. Lay out a 4" square. Round
the corners with a 1 /z" radius. Find point E, the center of the
square. With E as a center, draw a circle having a radius of
Ya". With E as a center draw two semicircles, having radii of
3 /Y' and \ l /z" Join these semicircles with small circles having
a radius of 3 /&". Complete the figure as shown.
INDEX
Acme thread, 42
Alternate sectioning, 76
Angles, 13
isometric, 132
Angle, to bisect, 16
to copy, 16
Approximate ellipse, 21
Arcs and straight lines, 94
Arcs, tangent, 18, 19
Arrow heads, 77
Assembly drawings, 66
A. S. M. E. sectioning, 30
Auxiliary views, 28
Axes, isometric, 133
oblique, 135
Bearings, sliding, 90
Bessemer process, 34
Bill of material, 12
Blue prints, 70
Bolts and screws, 48
Bolts, U. S. Stardard, 48
Butt joints, 58
Buttress thread, 42
Cabinet projection, 135
Calculations of weights of materials,
107
Calking, 59
Cap, nuts, 53
screws, 53
Castings, weights of, 106
Cast iron, 31
properties of, 32
Checking drawings, 85
Circle, involute of, 22
to draw through three points, 18
Circle arc, length of, 18
Circles, 14
isometric, 133
Commercial gothic letters, 7
Compasses, use of, 3
Cone, development of, 128
Cones, intersection of, 120
Connecting rod intersections, 121
Constructions, 13
Conventional representation of screw
threads, 44
Cross hatching, 30
Curves, applications, 93
Cut surfaces, representation of, 30
Cutting plane, 30
Cutting plane, choice of, 120
Cylinder, development of, 126
Cylinder head, weight of, 109
Cylinders, intersection of, 120
Detail drawings, 62
special, 63
Development of cone, 128
of cylinder, 126
of prism, 124
of pyramid, 126
of transition piece, 128
Developments, 123
Diagram drawings, 68
sketches, 104
Dimensioning, 77
elements of, 78
general rules, 79
shafting, 83
small parts, 85
systems, 80
tapers, 84
Dimension lines, 77
Dimensions, location of, 81
of pipe fittings, 115
of pipe flanges, 116
of standard pipe, 114
purpose of, 77
Dividers, use of, 4
Dotted lines, 27
181
182
INDEX
Dotted sections, 163, 167
Drawing, cabinet, 135
isometric, 130
oblique, 135
picture, 130
Drawing, isometric, 130
Drawings, assembly, 66
assembly working, 66
checking, 85
detail, 62
diagram, 68
erection, 66
how to make, 65
how to make isometric, 131
outline, 66
part assembly, 66
patent office, 139
purpose of, 23
shade line, 136
show, 68
special detail, 63
working, 62
Drilling for flanges, 69, 82, 95
Drills, 87
Elastic limit, 37
table, 38
Elasticity, modulus of, 37
Ellipse, 19, 20, 21
approximate, 21
tangent to, 19
Engine, parts of steam, 88
Equilateral triangle, 17
Erection drawings, 66
Estimation of weights, 105
of castings, 106
of f orgings, 111
of Ioo33 materials, 106
Exceptions to true projection, 69
Factor of safety, 37
table of, 39
Fillets, 93
Finish, methods of indicating, 78, 85
Fittings, pipe, 112, 113
Flange edges, 95
Flanged projections, 94
Flanges, dimensions of pipe, 116
drilling, 69, 82, 95
Flanges and bolting, 95
Forgings, weights of, 111
Forms of letters, 8
Gears, shading of, 139
Geometry, 13
Glands, 92
Gray iron, 31
Helix, 40
Hexagon, to construct, 17
Hyperbola, 22
Imaginary cutting plane, 30
Inking, exercises, 178
order of, 65
Instruments, drawing, 1
measuring, 100
Intersections, 117
connecting rod, 121
cylinders, 120
prisms, 118
visibility of, 119
Invisible surfaces, representation of,
27
Involute, of circle, 22
of triangle, 21
Iron, cast, 31
malleable, 34
wrought, 33
Isometric axes, 133
drawing, 130
drawing, how to make, 131
Joints, butt, 58
lap, 57
Keys, 96
Knuckle thread, 41
Lap joints, 57
Left-hand screw, 41
Lettering, 7
Letter spacing, 10
Line, to bisect, 15
to divide into equal parts, 16
Line shading, 137, 139
INDEX
183
Lines, arcs and straight, 94
character of, 5
dotted, 27
dimension, 77
isometric, 131
non-isometric, 131
of intersection, 117
shade, 136
Loads and stresses, 35
Locking devices, 54
Lower case letters, 7
Machine construction, 87
operations, 87
screws, 52
Malleable iron, 34
Material, bill of, 12
Materials, 31
drawing, 1
for sketching, 99
piping, 112
selection of, 35
weights of, 105
Measurements, instruments used for,
100
Methods of finish, 85
Modulus of elasticity, 37
table of, 38
Multiple threads, 43
Nasmith, James, 98
Nuts, cap, 53
lock, 54
standard, 48-50
Oblique drawing, 135
Octagon, to construct, 18
Open-hearth process, 34
Osborn system, 61
Parabola, 22
Patent office drawings, 139
Pen, use of ruling, 4
Pencils, drawing, 3
Picture drawings, 130
Pipe, standard, 114
Pipe conventional representation, 113
dimensions of, 115
Pipe fittings, 112, 113
Pipe flanges, dimensions of, 116
Pipe threads, 114
Piping, 112
Piping materials, 112
Pistons, parts of, 89
Plane, cutting, 30
Plane figures, 14
Planes, cutting, 120
Planes of projection, 24
Plunger barrel, weight of, 110
Prism, development of, 124
Prisms, intersection of, 118
Problems, 141
Projection, exceptions to, 69
Projections, orthographic, 23
rules for, 25
Proportions and forms of letters, 8
Proportions of U. S. Standard bolts,
48-50
Pyramid, development of, 126
Questions, problems and studies, 141
Representations, surface, 139
Revolutions, 150
Ribs, sections of, 75
Rivet heads, 57
Riveting, 57, 58
Rivet spacing, 61
Rolled steel shapes, 61
Rounds, 93
Ruling pen, use of, 4
Scale, use of, 2
Screw, parts of, 41
Screws, right and left hand, 41
Screw threads, conventional rep-
resentation, 44
forms of, 41
shading of, 139
strength of, 46
uses of, 40
Sections, 71
broken, 72
conventional, 74
184
INDEX
Sections, dotted, 163, 167
revolved, 72
rib, 75
symmetrical parts, 75
Sectional views, dotted lines on, 75
extra, 74
location of, 72
Set screws, 53
holding power, 53
Shade line drawings, 136
Shading, line, 137
Shafting, dimensioning of, 83
nominal diameters of, 83
Sharpening pencils, 3
Show drawings, 68
Sketches, diagram, 104
Sketches, uses of, 98
Sketching, 98
general rules, 102
materials for, 99
procedure in, 100
taking measurements for, 100
Sliding bearings, 90
Small parts, dimensioning of, 85
Solids, geometrical, 15
Split nut and square thread, 44
Square thread, 42
Standard pipe, 114
dimensions of, 114
Steam engine, parts of, 88
Steel, 34
properties of, 34
rolled shapes, 61
Steel plate connections, 60
Strength of screw threads, 46
Strength, ultimate, 37
Stresses, axial, 35
unit, 36
Studs, 51
Stuffing boxes, 92
Surfaces, 123
Surface shading, 139
representations, 139
Symmetrical parts, sections of, 75
System of shading, 137
Table, depth of tapped holes, 56
Table, elastic limits, 38
factors of safety, 39
moduli of elasticity, 38
ultimate strength, 38
U. S. Standard bolts, 55
U. S. Standard threads, 47
Tangent arcs, 18, 19
Tangent to an ellipse, 19
Tap bolts, 50
Tapers, dimensioning of, 84
Tapped holes, depth of, 56
Taps, 51
Threaded holes, 45, 51
Threads, pipe, 114
Through bolts, 50
Titles, 10
Tracing, 65
Trammel method for ellipse, 20
Transition piece, development of, 128
Triangle, to construct, 17
involute of, 21
use of, 1
T square, use of, 1
Ultimate strength, 37
table of, 38
Unit strain, 37
Unit stresses, formula for, 36
U. S. Standard bolts, 48
U. S. Standard thread, 41
table, 47
Views, auxiliary, 28
required, 29
Wear and pressure, 91
Weight of cylinder head, 109
of plunger barrel, 110
Weight of materials, method of cal-
culation, 107
Weights of castings, 106
of forgings, 111
of materials, 105
White iron, 31
Whitworth thread, 42
Working drawings, 62
Wrought iron, 33
properties of, 33
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
25 PARK PLACE
NEW YORK
SHORT-TITLE CATALOG
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SCOTT, GREENWOOD & CO. JAMES MUNRO & CO., Ltd.
CONSTABLE&COMPANY,Ltd. TECHNICAL PUBLISHING CO.
BENN BROTHERS, Ltd.
for whoii D. Van Nostrand Company are American agents.
JULY, 1919
SHORT-TITLE CATALOG
OF THE
Publications and Importations
OF
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
25 PARK PLACE, N. Y.
All Trices in this lift are JVET.
All bindings are in cloth unless otherwise noted.
Abbott, A, V. The Electrical Transmission of Energy 8vo, *$s oo
A Treatise on Fuel. (^Science Series No. 9.) i6mo, o 75
Testing Machines. (Science Series No. 74.) i6mo, o 75
Abraham, Herbert. Asphalts and Allied Substances 8vo, 5 oo
Adam, P. Practical Bookbinding. Trans, by T. E. Maw i2mo, *2 50
Adams, H. Theory and Practice in Designing 8vo, *2 50
Adams, H. C. Sewage of Sea Coast Towns 8vo, *2 50
Adams, J. W. Sewers and Drains for Populous Districts 8vo, 2 50
Addyman, F. T. Practical X-Ray Work 8vo, 5 oo
Adler, A. A. Theory of Engineering Drawing 8vo, *2 oo
Principles of Parallel Projecting-line Drawing 8vo, *i oo
Aikman, C. M. Manures and the Principles of Manuring 8vo, 2 50
Aitken, W. Manual of the Telephone 8vo, *8 oo
d'Albe, E. E. F.,- Contemporary Chemistry i2mo, *i 25
Alexander, J. Colloid Chemistry i2ino, i oo
Alexander, J. H, Elementary Electrical Engineering i2mo, 250
Allan, W. Strength of Beams Under Transverse Loads. (Science Series
No. 19.) ,...i6mo, 075
Theory of Arches. (Science Series No. n.) i6mo,
Allen, H. Modern Power Gas Producer Practice and Applications. I2mo, *2 50
Anderson, J. W. Prospector's Handbook iimo, i 50
Andes, L. Vegetable Fats and Oils 8vo, *6 oo
Animal Fats and Oils. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *5 oo
Drying Oils, Boiled Oil, and Solid and Liquid Driers 8vo, *6 oo
Iron Corrosion, Anti-fouling and Anti-coir osive Paints. Trans, by
Lf., C. Salter 8vo, *6 oo
Oil Colors, and Printers' Ink. Trans, by A. Morris and H.
Robson 8vo, *4 oo
Treatment of Paper for Special Purposes. Trans, by C. Salter.
1 2 mo, *3 oo
Andrews, E. S. Reinforced Concrete Construction i2mo, *2 oo
Theory and Design of Structures 8vo, *3 50
Further Problems in the Theory and Design of Structures. .. .8vo, *2 50
The Strength of Materials 8vo, *4 oo
Elastic Stresses in Structures 8vo, g oo
Andrews, E. S., and Hey wood, H. B. The Calculus for Engineers. i2mo, *2 oo
D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 3
Annual Reports on the Progress of Chemistry. Twelve Volumes now
ready. Vol. I., ige/i, Vol. XII., 1914 8vo, each, *z oo
Argand, M. Imaginary Quantities. Translated from the French by
A. S. Hardy. (Science Series No. 52.) i6mo, o 75
Armstrong, R., and Idell, P. E. Chimneys for Furnaces and Steam Boilers.
(Science Series No. i.) i6mo, o 75
Arnold, E. Armature Windings of Direct-Current Dynamos. ,Trans. by
F. B. DeGress 8vo, *2 oo
Asch, W., and Asch, D. The Silicates in Chemistry and Commerce . 8vo, *6 oo
Ashe, S. W., and Keiley, J. D. Electric Railways. Theoretically and
Practically Treated. Vol. I. Rolling Stock i2mo, *2 50
Ashe, S. W. Electric Railways. Vol. II. Engineering Preliminaries and
Direct Current Sub-Stations i2mo; *2 50
Eleetricity: Experimentally and Practically Applied i2mo, *2 oo
Ashley, R. H. Chemical Calculations i2mo, *2 oo
Atkins, W. Common Battery Telephony Simplified lamo, *i 25
Atkinson, A. A. Electrical and Magnetic Calculations 8vo, *i 50
Atkinson, J. J. Friction of Air in Mines. (Science Series No. 14.) . i6mo, o 75
Atkinson, J. J., and Williams, Jr., E. H. Gases Met with in Coal Mines.
(Science Series No. 13.) i6mo, o 75
Atkinson, P. The Elements of Electric Lighting i2mo, i oo
The Elements of Dynamic Electricity and Magnetism i2mo, 2 oo
Power Transmitted by Electricity i2mo, 2 oo
Auchincloss, W. S. Link and Valve Motions Simplified 8vo, *i 50
Austin, E. Single Phase Electric Railways 4to, *$ oo
Austin and Cohn. Pocketbook of Radiotelegraphy (In Press.)
Ayrton, H. The Electric Arc 8vo, 5 50
Bacon, F. W. Treatise on the Richards Steam-Engine Indicator . .i2mo, i oo
Bailey, R. D. The Brewers' Analyst Svo, *5 oo
Baker, A. L. Quaternions Svo, *i 25
Thick-Lens Optics tamo, *i 50
Baker, Benj. Pressure of Earthwork. (Science Series No. 56.)...i6mo l
Baker, G. S. Ship Form, Resistance and Screw Propulsion Svo, *4 50
Baker, I. 0. Levelling. (Science Series No. 91.) i6mo, o 75,
Baker, M. N. Potable Water. (Science Series No. 61.) i6mo, o 75
Sewerage and Sewage Purification. (Science Series No. i8.).i6mo, o 75
Baker, T. T. Telegraphic Transmission of Photographs i2mo, *i 25
Bale, G. R. Modern Iron Foundry Practice. i2mo.
Vol. I. Foundry Equipment, Materials Used *3 oo
Ball, J. W. Concrete Structures in Railways Svo, *2 50
Ball, R. S. Popular Guide to the Heavens '. Svo, *5 oo
Natural Sources of Power. (Westminster Series.) . Svo, *2 oo
Ball, W. V. Law Affecting Engineers Svo, *3 50
Bankson, Lloyd. Slide Valve Diagrams. (Science Series No. 108.)
i6mo, o 75
Barham, G. B. Development of the Incandescent Electric Lamp.. Svo, 2 50
Barker, A. F. Textiles and Their Manufacture. (Westminster Series.) Svo, 2 oo
Barker, A. F., and Midgley, E. Analysis of Woven Fabrics Svo, 3 50
Barker, A. H. Graphic Methods of Engine Design i2ino, 2 oo
Heating and Ventilation 4to, *8 oo
4 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG
Barnard, J. H. The Naval Militiaman's Guide i6mo, leather i oo
Barnard, Major J. G. Rotary Motion. (Science Series No. go.)..i6mo, o 75
Barnes, J. B. Elements of Military Sketching i6mo. *o 75
Barrus, G. H. Engine Tests 8vo, *4 oo
Barwise, S. The Purification of Sewage I2mo, 3 50
Baterden, J. R. Timber. (Westminster Series.) 8\o, *2 oo
Bates, E. L., and Charlesworth, F. Practical Mathematics and
Geometry i2mo,
Part I. Preliminary and Elementary Course *i 50
Part n. Advanced Course .. *i 50
Practical Mathematics i2mo, * oo
Practical Geometry and Graphics lamo, oo
Batey, J. The Science of Works Management izmo, * oo
Steam Boilers and Combustion i2mo, * oo
Bayonet Training Manual i6mo, 30
Beadle, C. Chapters on Papermaking. Five Volumes i2mo, each, * oo
Beaumont, R. Color in Woven Design 8vo, *6 oo
Finishing of Textile Fabrics 8vo, *$ oo
Standard Cloths 8vo, *6 oo
Beaumont, W. W. The Steam-Engine Indicator 8vo, 2 50
Bechhold, H. Colloids in Biology and Medicine. Trans, by J. G.
Bullowa 8vo, 5 oo
Beckwith, A. Pottery 8vo, paper, o 60
Bedell, F., and Pierce, C. A. Direct and Alternating Current Manual.
8VO, 2 00
Beech, F. Dyeing of Cotton Fabrics 8vo, 5 oo
Dyeing of Woolen Fabrics 8vo, *3 50
Beggs, G. E. Stresses in Railway Girders and Bridges (In Press.}
Begtrup, J. The Slide Valve 8vo, *2 oo
Bender, C. E. Continuous Bridges. (Science Series No. 26.) . . . . i6mo, o 75
Proportions of Pins used in Bridges. (Science Series No. 4.)
i6mo, o 75
Bengough, G. D. Brass. (Metallurgy Series.) (In Press.)
Bennett, H. G. The Manufacture of Leather 8vo, *$ oo
Bernthsen, A. A Text - book of Organic Chemistry. Trans, by G.
M'Gowan i2mo, *3 oo
Bersch, J. Manufacture of Mineral and Lake Pigments. Trans, by A. C.
Wright 8vo, 600
Bertin, L. E. Marine Boilers. Trans, by L. S. Robertson 8vo, 5 oo
Beveridge, J. Papermaker's Pocket Book i2mo, *4 or.
Binnie, Sir A. Rainfall Reservoirs and Water Supply 8vo, *3 oo
Binns, C. F. Manual of Practical Potting 8vo, A oo
The Potter's Craft ; i2mo v *2 oo
Birchmore, W. H. Interpretation of Gas Analysis i2mo, *i 25
Blaine, R. G. The Calculus and Its Applications i2*no, *i 75
Blake, W. H. Brewers' Vade Mecum 8vo, *4 oo
Blanchard, W. M. Laboratory Exercises in General Chemistry. .i2mo, i oo
Blasdale, W. C. Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Van Nostrand's
Textbooks.) i2mo, *2 50
Bligh, W. G. The Practical Design of Irrigation Works 8vo,
D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 5
Bloch, L. Science of Illumination. Trans, by W. C. Clinton 8vo, *2 50
Blok, A. Illumination and Artificial Lighting i2mo, 2 oo
Blucher, H. Modern Industrial Chemistry. Trans, by J. P. Millington.
bvo, *7 50
Blyth, A. W. Foods: Their Composition and Analysis 8vo, 7 50
Poisons: Their Effects and Detection 8vo, 8 50
Bockmann, F. Celluloid i2mo, *2 50
Bodmer, G. R. Hydraulic Motors and Turbines i2mo, 5 oo
Boileau, J. T. Traverse Tables 8vo, 5 oo
Bonney, G. E. The Electro-platers' Handbook i2mo, i 50
Booth, N. Guide to the Ring-spinning Frame i2mo, *2 oo
Booth, W. H. Water Softening and Treatment 8vo, *2 50
Superheaters and Superheating and Their Control 8vo, *i 50
Eottcher, A. Cranes: Their Construction, Mechanical Equipment and
Working. Trans, by A. Tolhausen 4.to, *io oo
Bottler, M. Modern Bleaching Agents. Trans, by C. Salter. . . .i2ino, *2 50
Bottone, S. R. Magnetos for Automobilists I2mo, *i oo
Electro-Motors, How Made and How Use i2mo, i oo
Boulton, S. B. Preservation of Timber. (Science Series No. 82).i6mo, o 75
Bourcart, E. Insecticides, Fungicides and Weedkillers 8vo, *6 oo
Bourgougnon, A. Physical Problems. (Science Series No. ii3.).i6mo, o 75
Bourry, E. Treatise on Ceramic Industries. Trans, by A. B. Searle.
8vo (In Press.)
Bowie, A. J., Jr. A Practical Treatise on Hydraulic Mining 8vo, 5 oo
Bowls, 0. Tables of Common Rocks. (Science Series No. i25.).i6mo, o 75
Bowser, E. A. Elementary Treatise on Analytic Geometry i2mo, i 75
Elementary Treatise on the Differential and Integral Calculus . 1 2mo, 2 25
Elementary Treatise on Analytic Mechanics i2mo, 3 oo
Elementary Treatise on Hydro-mechanics 121110, 2 50
A Treatise on Roofs and Bridges i2mo, *2 25
Boycott, G. W. M. Compressed Air Work and Diving 8vo, *4 25
Bradford, G Whys and Wherefores of Navigation i2mo, 2 oo
Sea Teims and Phrases i2mo, fabrikoid (In ifccss.)
Bragg, E. M. Marine Engine Design I2mo, *2 oo
Design of Marine Engines and Auxiliaries 8vo, *3 oo
Brainard, F. R. The Sextant. (Science Series No. 101.) i6mo,
Brassey's Naval Annual for 1915. War Edition . ...8vo, & oo
Briggs, R., and Wolff, A. R. Steam-Heating. (Science Series No.
68.) i6mo, o 75
Bright, C. The Life Story of Sir Charles Tilso.i Bright 8vo, *4 50
Telegraphy, Aeronautics and War 8vo, 6 oo
Brislee, T. J. Introduction to the Study of Fuel. (Outlines of Indus-
trial Chemistry.) 8vo, *3 oo
Broadfoot, S. K. Motors: Secondary Batteries. (Installation Manuals
SeriesJ i2mo, *o 75
Broughton, H. H. Electric Cranes and Hoists
Brown, G. Healthy Foundations. (Science Series No. 80.) . . . . i6mo, o 75
Brown, H. Irrigation 8vo, *5 oo
Brown, H. Rubber 8vo, *2 oo
W. A. Portland Cement Industry 8vo, 3 oo
Brown, Wm. N. Dipping, Burnishing, Lacquering and Bronzing
Brass Ware i2mo, *i 50
Handbook on Japanning i2mo, *2 oo
6 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG
Brown, Wm. N. The Art of Enamelling on Metal i2mo, *2 oo
House Decorating and Painting i2mo, *2 oo
History of Decorative Art i2mo *o 50
Workshop Wrinkles 8vo, *i oo
Browne, C. L. Fitting and Erecting of Engines 8vo, *i 50
Browne, R. E. Water Meters. (Science Series No. 81) i6mo, o 75
Bruce, E. M. Detection of Common Food Adulterants i2mo, i 25
Brunner, R. Manufacture of Lubricants, Shoe Polishes and Leather
Dressings. Trans, by C. Salter 8vo, *3 50
Buel, R. H. Safety Valves. (Science Series No. 21.) i6mo, o 75
Bunkley, J. W. Military and Naval Recognition Book i6mo, i oo
Burley, G. W. Lathes. Their Construction and Operation i2mo, 2 oo
Machine and Fitting Shop Practice i2mo, 2 oo
Testing of Machine Tools lumo, 2 oo
Burnside, W. Bridge Foundations i2mo, *2 oo
Burstall, F. W. Energy Diagram for Gas. With Text 8vo, i 50
Diagram. Sold separately *i oo
Burt, W. A. Key to the Solar Compass i6mo, leather, 2 50
Buskett, E. W. Fire Assaying i2mo, *i 25
Butler, H. J Motor Bodies and Chassis 8vo, *3 oo
Byers, H, G,, and Knight, H, G, Notes on Qualitative Analysis 8vc, *i 50
*.
Cain, W. Brief Course ir> the Calculus i2mo, *i 75
Elastic Arches. (Science Series No. 48.) i6mo, o 75
Maximum Stresses. (Science Series No. 38.) i6mo, 075
. Practical Designing Retaining of Walls. (Science Series No. 3.)
i6mo, o 75
Theory of Steel-concrete Arches and of Vaulted Structures.
(Science Series No. 42.) i6mo, o 75
Theory of Voussoir Arches. (Science Series No. 12.) i6mo, o 75
Symbolic Algebra. (Science Series No. 73.) i6mo, o 75
Calvert, G. T. The Manufacture of Sulphate of Ammonia and
Crude Ammonia i2mo, 4 oo
Carey, A. E., and Oliver, F. W. Tidal Lands 8vo, 5 oo
Carpenter, F. D. Geographical Surveying. (Science Series No. 37.).i6mo,
Carpenter, R. C., and Diederichs, H. Internal Combustion Engines. . 8vo, *5 oo
Carter, H. A. Ramie (Rhea), China Grass i2mo, *3 oo
Carter, H. R. Modern Flax, Hemp, and Jute Spinning 8vo, *3 50
Bleaching, Dyeing and Finishing of Fabrics 8vo, *i 25
Cary, E. R. Solution of Railroad Problems with the Slide Rule . . i6mo, *i oo
Casler, M. D. Simplified Reinforced Concrete Mathematics i2mo, *i oo
Cathcart, W. L. Machine Design. Part I. Fastenings 8vo, *3 oo
Cathcart, W. L., and Chaffee, J. I. Elements of Graphic Statics . . .8vo, *3 oo
' Short Course in Graphics : i2mo, i 50
Caven, R. M., and Lander, G. D. Systematic Inorganic Chemistry. i2mo, *2 oo
Chalkley, A. P. Diesel Engines 8vo, *4 oo
Chalmers. T. W. The Production and Treatment of Vegetable Oils,
4to, 7 50
Chambers' Mathematical Tables 8vo, i 75
Chambers, G. F. Astronomy i6mo, *i 50
Chappel, E. Five Figure Mathematical Tables 8vo, *2 oo
Charnock, Mechanical Technology 3vo, *3 oo
Charpentier, P. Timber 8vo, :! 6 oo
D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 7
Chatley, H. Principles and Designs of Aeroplanes. (Science Series
No. 126.) i6mo, o 75
How to Use Water Power i2mo, *i 50
Gyrostatic Balancing 8vo, *i 25
Child, C. D. Electric Arc 8vo, *2 oo
Christian, M. Disinfection and Disinfectants. Trans, by Chas.
Salter i2mo, 2 50
Christie, W. W. Boiler-waters, Scale, Corrosion, Foaming 8vo, *3 oo
Chimney Design and Theory 8vo, *3 oo
Furnace Draft. (Science Series No. 123.) . i6mo, o 75
Water: Its Purification and Use in the Industries 8vo, *2 oo
Church's Laboratory Guide. Rewritten by Edward Kinch 8vo, *i 50
Clapham, J. H. Woolen and Worsted Industries 8vo, 2 oo
Clapperton, G. Practical Papermaking 8vo, 2 50
Clark, A. G. Motor Car Engineering.
Vol. I. Construction *4 oo
Vol. II. Design 8vo, *3 50
Clark, C. H. Marine Gas Engines. New Edition 2 oo
Clark, J. M. New System of Laying Out Railway Turnouts i2mo, i oo
Clarke, J. W., and Scott, W. Plumbing Practice.
Vol. I. Lead Working and Plumbers' Materials 8vo, *4 oo
Vol. II. Sanitary Plumbing and Fittings (In Press.}
Vol. in. Practical Lead Working on Roofs (In Press.)
Clarkson, R. P. Elementary Electrical Engineering (In Press.)
Clausen-Thue, W. A B C Universal Commercial Telegraphic Code.
Sixth Edition (In Press.)
Clerk, D., and Idell, F. E. Theory of the Gas Engine. (Science Series
No. 62.) i6mo, o 75
Clevenger, S. R. Treatise on the Method of Government Surveying.
i6mo, morocco, 2 50
Ciouth, F. Rubber, Gutta-Percha, and Balata 8vo, *6 oo
Cochran, J. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Specifications 8vo, *2 50
Treatise on Cement Specifications 8vo, *i oo
Cocking, W. C. Calculations for Steel-Frame Structures i2mo, *2 50
Coffin, J. H. C. Navigation and Nautical Astronomy 12:010, 3 oo
Colburn, Z., and Thurston, R. H. Steam Boiler Explosions. (Science
Series No. 2.) i5mo, o 75
Cole, R. S. Treatise on Photographic Optics lamo, i 50
Coles-Finch, W. Water, Its Origin and Use 8vo, *5 oo
Collins, C. D. Drafting Room Methods, Standards and Forms 8vo, 2 oo
Collins, J. E. Useful Alloys and Memoranda for Goldsmiths, Jewelers.
i6mo, I o 50
Collins, S. Hoare. Plant Products and Chemical Fertilizers 8vo,f| 3 oo
Collis, A. G. High and Low Tension Switch-Gear Design 8vo, *3 50
Switchgear. (Installation Manuals Series.) i2mo, *o 50
Colver, E. D. S. High Explosives 8vo, 12 50
Comstock, D. F., and Troland, L. T. The Nature of Electricity and
Matter 8vo, *2 oo
Coombs, H. A. Gear Teeth. (Science Series No. 120.) i6mo, o 75
Cooper, W. R. Primary Batteries 8vo, *6 oo
Copperthwaite, W. C. Tunnel Shields 4to, *g oo
Corfield, W. H. Dwelling Houses. (Science Series No. 50.) i6mo, o 75
Water and Water-Supply. (Science Series No. 17.) i6mo, o 75
8 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG
Cornwall, H. B. Manual of Blow-pipe Analysis 8vo, *2 50
Cowee, G. A. Practical Safety Methods and Devices 8vo, k 3 oo
Cowell, W. B. Pure Air, Ozone, and Water i2mo, *2 50
Craig, J. W., and Woodward, W. P. Questions and Answers About
Electrical Apparatus izmo, leather, i 50
Craig, T. Motion of a Solid in a Fuel. (Science Series No. 49.) .i6mo, o 75
Wave and Vortex Motion. (Science Series No. 43.) i6mo, o 75
Cramp, W. Continuous Current Machine Design 8vo, *2 50
Greedy, F. Single Phase Commutator Motors 8vo, *2 oo
Crehore, A. C. Mystery of Matter and Energy 8vo, i oo
Crocker, F. B. Electric Lighting. Two Volumes. 8vo.
Vol. I. The Generating Plant 300
Vol. II. Distributing Systems and Lamps
Crocker, F. B., and Arendt, M. Electric Motors 8vo, *2 50
Crocker, F. B., and Wheeler, S. S. The Management of Electrical Ma-
chinery i2mo, *i oo
Crosby, E. U., Fiske, H. A., and Forster, H. W. Handbook of Fire
Protection zarno, 4 oo
Cross, C. F., Bevan, E. J., and Sindall, R. W. Wood Pulp and Its Applica-
tions. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo
Crosskey, L. R. Elementary Perspective 8vo, i 25
Crosskey, L. R., and Thaw, J. Advanced Perspective 8vo, i 50
Culley, J. L. Theory of Arches. (Science Series No. 87.) i6mo, o 75
Cushiag, H. C., Jr., and Harrison, N. Central Station Management ... *2 oo
Dadourian, H. M. Analytical Mechanics I2mo, *3 oo
Danby, A. Natural Rock Asphalts and Bitumens 8vo, *2 50
Davenport, C. The Book. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 oo
Davey, N. The Gas Turbine 8vo, *4 oo
Davies, F. H. Electric Power and Traction 8vo, *2 oo
Foundations and Machinery Fixing. (Installation Manual Series.)
i6mo, *i oo
Deerr, N. Sugar Cane 8vo, 9 oo
Deite, C. Manual of Soapmaking. Trans, by S. T. King 4to,
De la Coux, H. The Industrial Uses of Water. Trans, by A. Morris . 8vo, *$ oo
Del Mar, W. A. Electric Power Conductors 8vo, *2 oo
Denny, G. A. Deep-level Mines of the Rand 410, *io oo
Diamond Drilling for Gold *5 oo
De Roos, J. D. C. Linkages. (Science Series No. 47.) i6mo, o 75
Derr, W. L. Block Signal Operation Oblong i2mo, *i 50
Maintenance-of-Way Engineering (In Preparation.)
Three Hundred Shades and How to Mix Them 8vo, *g oo
A. Sewer Gases. (Science Series No. 55.) i6mo, o 75
G. Mill and Factory Wiring. (Installation Manuals Series.)
i2mo, *i oo
Dibdin, W. J. Purification of Sewage and Water 8vo, 6 50
Dichmann, Carl. Basic Open-Hearth Steel Process i2mo, *3 50
Dieterich, K. Analysis of Resins, Balsams, and Gum Resins 8vo, *3 50
Dilworth, E. C. Steel Railway Bridges 4to. *4 oo
Dinger, Lieut. H. C. Care and Operation of Naval Machinery. .. i2mo, *s oo
Dixon, D. B. Machinist's and Steam Engineer's Practical Calculator.
i6mo, morocco, i 25
Maime
Desauit, A.
De \flrona,
Devey, R. G
D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.'S SHORT TITLE CATALOG 9
Dommett, W. E. Motor Car Mechanism i2mo, *2 oo
Dorr, B. F. The Surveyor's Guide and Pocket Table-book.
i6mo, morocco, 2 oo
DYaper, <J. H. Elementary Text-book of Light, Heat and Sound . . i2mo, i oo
Heat and the Principles of Thermo-dynamics izmo, *2 oo
Draper, E. G. Navigating the Ship i2mo. i 50
Dron, R. W. Mining Formulas iamo, i oo
Dubbel, H. High Power Gas Engines 8vo, *5 oo
Dumesny, P., and Noyer, J. Wood Products, Distillates, and Extracts.
8vo, *5 oo
Duncan, W. G., and Penman, D. The Electrical Equipment of Collieries.
8vo, *5 oo
Dunkley, W. G: Design of Machine Elements. Two volumes. .8vo,each, 2 oo
Dunstan, A. E., and Thole, F. B. T. Textbook of Practical Chemistry.
I2mo, *i 40
Durham, H. W. Saws 8vo 2 50
Duthie, A. L. Decorative Glass Processes. (Westminster Series.) .8vo, *2 oo
Dwight, H. B. Transmission Line Formulas 8vo, *2 oo
Dyke, A. L. Dyke's Automobile and Gasoline Engine Encyclopedia . 8vo, 4 oo
Dyson, S. S. Practical Testing of Raw Materials 8vo, *5 oo
Dyson, S. S., and Clarkson, S. S. Chemical Works 8vo. *g oo
Eccles, W. H. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony i2mo, *8 80
Eck, J. Light, Radiation and Illumination. Trans, by Paul Hogner,
8vo, *2 50
Eddy, H. T. Maximum Stresses under Concentrated Loads 8vo, i 50
Eddy, L. C. Laboratory Manual of Alternating Currents izmo, o 50
Edelman, P. Inventions and Patents i2mo, *i 50
Edgcumbe, K. Industrial Electrical Measuring: Instruments 8vo. 5 oo
Edler, R. Switches and Switchsear. Trans, by Ph. Laubach. . .8vo *4 oo
Eissler, M. The Metallurgy of Gold 8vo. 9 oo
The Metallurgy of Silver 8vo. 4 oo
The Metallurgy of Argentiferous Lead 8vo, 6 25
A Handbook on Modern Explosives 8vo, 5 oo
Ekin, T. C. Water Pipe and Sewage Discharge Diagrams folio, *3 oo
Electric Light Carbons, Manufacture of 8vo, i oo
Eliot, C. W., and Storer, F. H. Compendious Manual of Qualitative
Chemical Analysis 12010, *i 25
Ellis, C. Hydrogenation of Oils 8vo, 7 50
Ultraviolet Light, Its Applications in Chemical Arts i2mo,
(In Press)
Ellis, G. Modern Technical Drawing 8vo, *z oo
Ennis, Wm. D. Linseed Oil and Other Seed Oils 8vo, *4 oo
Applied Thermodynamics 8vo, *4 50
Flying Machines To-day i2mo, *i 50
Vapors for Heat Engines i2mo, *i oo
Ennen, W. F. A. Materials Used in Sizing 8vo, *2 oo
Erwin, M. The Universe and the Atom i2mo, *2 oo
Evans, C. A. Macadamized Roads . (In Press.)
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