UC-NRLF 
 
 SB ESfl SQfl 
 
 
 
 yPTAlN .RALPH ,M. PARKER 
 
 
An Officer s Notes 
 
 (Third Edition) 
 
 by 
 
 Captain R. M. Parker 
 U. S. Cavalry 
 
 Compiled by 
 
 Lieut. C C. Griffith, C. A. C. 
 
 Copyright 1917, and Published by 
 
 George U. Harvey 
 109 Lafayette Street, New York 
 
 Printed by THE HARVEY PRESS 
 109 I^afayette St., N. Y. City 
 
 Price Two Dollars 
 
Dedicated to the 
 
 Prophet of Preparedness 
 
 Major-General Leonard Wood 
 United States Army 
 
A' 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The need has long been felt for a small pocket manual col- 
 lecting in one volume the essential parts of military informa- 
 tion required by a young officer before he can properly per- 
 form his duties. The basic subjects have been outlined by 
 the War Department in the course prescribed for a commis- 
 sion in the Officers Reserve Corps. Endeavor has been made 
 to condense and compile the military information covering 
 all these subjects in the simplest, briefest, and clearest manner 
 possible. 
 
 Captain Parker's experience has particularly fitted him for 
 a work of this kind. For the past twenty years he has been 
 constantly with troops, has seen active service, and has gained 
 much valuable information and experience. During the sum- 
 mer of 1916 he was an instructor at the Military Training 
 Camps, and during the winter has been in charge of a cor- 
 respondence course for officers along the lines prescribed by 
 the War Department. Since the creation of the Officers Re- 
 serve Corps he has been conducting a series of lectures on 
 these same subjects. 
 
 "An Officers Notes" is a compilement of the lectures given 
 by Captain Parker on 
 
 Army Regulations (Company administration), 
 
 Military Laws, 
 
 Small-Arms Firing, 
 
 Field Service Regulations, 
 
 Military Topography, 
 
 Drill Regulations (Infantry and Cavalry), 
 
 Hippology. 
 
 These lectures are compiled from official publications, 
 emphasizing the important points, and expressing the ideas 
 in simple phraseology. The chapters on Drill Regulations 
 and Hippology have been drawn largely from practical ex- 
 perience, and contain helpful suggestions which Captain 
 Parker had acquired during his long experience in the Army. 
 To these notes have been added some plates and tables of 
 military infotitnation which a young officer will find useful to 
 him in active service. 
 
 C C. GRIFFITH, 
 359184 1st Lieut., C. A. C. 
 
HEADQUARTERS EASTERN DEPARTMENT, 
 GOVERNORS ISLAND, N. Y. LW-p 
 
 March 23, 1917. 
 My dear Captain Parker: 
 
 I wish to express to you and to 
 Lieut. C. C. Griffith my appreciation of 
 the very excellent work which you have done 
 in "An Officer's Notes". This Uttle book 
 contains in limited space and well arranged 
 a vast amount of most useful information. 
 It will be of great value not only to 
 those who are attending the military train- 
 ing camps but especially to those who are 
 preparing to take the examination for the 
 Officers Reserve Corps. It is extremely 
 compact, useful and a. very valuable addition 
 to the list of booto/iow so much in demand. 
 
 Major General, U.S.A. 
 
 Captain Ralph M. Parker, 
 Governors Island* N. Y. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 COURTS MARTIAL 
 
 MILITARY LAW 
 
 1. Source The Constitution of the United States. 
 
 2. Kinds (a) Military Government, which is military 
 power exercised by a belligerent in occupied territory of the 
 enemy. (Part of International Law.) 
 
 (b) Martial Law at Home, which is military power ex- 
 ercised in time of war, insurrection, or rebellion over persons 
 and things not ordinarily subjected to it. 
 
 (c) Martial Law as applied to the Army; which is, mili- 
 tary power extending in time of war over persons in the 
 military service, as to obligations arising out of such emer- 
 gency and not falling within the domain of military law, not 
 otherwise regulated by law. 
 
 Note. The last two divisions (b) and (c) are applica- 
 tions of the doctrine of necessity to a condition of war, and 
 spring from the right of national self-preservation. 
 
 (d) Military law. This is the legal system that regu- 
 lates the government of the .military establishment. Its 
 sources are written military law in the form of the Articles 
 of War; the other statutory enactments pertaining to the 
 military service ; the Army regulations ; general and special 
 orders and decisions promulgated by the War Department 
 and by law of military commanders. The unwritten military 
 law is the "custom -of war," consisting of customs of service 
 in time of peace and war. 
 
 3. Military Tribunals (a) Military commissions and 
 provost courts, for the trial of offenders against the laws of 
 war and under martial law. 
 
 (b) Courts-martial general, special and summary 
 for the trial of offenders against military law. 
 
 (c) Courts of inquiry, for the examination of trans- 
 actions of, or accusations or imputations against, officers or 
 soldiers. 
 
2 Parrvonc Uu'ject to Military Law 
 
 PERSON? SUBJECT TO MILITARY LAW 
 
 (a) All officers and soldiers belonging to the regular army 
 of the United States, all volunteers from the dates of their 
 muster or acceptance -into the military service of the United 
 States, and all other persons lawfully called, drafted, or 
 ordered into or to duty, or for training in the said service 
 from the dates they are required by the terms of the call, 
 draft, or order to obey the same. That includes the Regular 
 Army, entire; Volunteers when mustered into the United 
 States Service; National Guard, from the date of the order 
 and the draft into the federal service; members of the Of- 
 ficers' Reserve Gorps when ordered for duty with the army 
 of the proper authority; Enlisted Reserve Corps when or- 
 dered into active service. 
 
 (b) Cadets of the United States Military Academy. 
 
 (c) Officers and soldiers of the Marine Corps when de- 
 tached for service with the Army. 
 
 (d) Officers and enlisted men of the Medical Department 
 of the Navy, when on duty with marines which have been 
 detached for duty with the Army. 
 
 (e) All retainers to the camp and all persons accompany- 
 ing or serving with the armies of the United States without 
 the territorial jurisdiction of the United States, and in time 
 of war all such retainers and persons accompanying or serv- 
 ing with the armies in the field, both within and without the 
 territorial jurisdiction of the United States. 
 
 (f) All persons under sentence of a courts-martial. 
 
 (g) Army field and quartermaster field clerks. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF COURTS-MARTIAL 
 
 (a) General courts-martial. 
 
 (b) Special courts-martial. 
 
 (c) Summary courts-martial. 
 
 COMPOSITION 
 
 Officers in the military service of the United States, and 
 in the Marine Corps when detached for duty with the army. 
 
 Exceptions No officers shall be eligible to sit as a 
 member of a general or special court when he is the accuser 
 or a witness for the prosecution ; when there is only one 
 
Authorities for Courts-Martial 3 
 
 officer present with a command, however, he shall be the 
 summary court-martial of that command and shall try cases 
 brought before him. Chaplains, veterinarians, dental sur- 
 geons and 2nd Lieutenants, Quartermaster Corps, are not in 
 practice, detailed as ( members of courts-martial. 
 
 Number of Members (a) General courts-martial 
 Any number of officers from 5 to 13, and shall not consist 
 of less than 13 officers when that number can be convened 
 without manifest injury to the service. The decision of the 
 officer appointing the court is final as to the number 
 which can be convened without manifest injury to 
 the service. If a court is reduced to less than 5 members it 
 will direct the Judge Advocate to report the facts \o the 
 convening authority and await his orders. Such report will 
 always be made through the commanding officer of the post, 
 command, or station where the court is sitting. The com- 
 manding officer in forwarding a report will submit the names 
 of the officers in his command who are available for detail 
 to the court. 
 
 (b) ^Special courts-martial Any number of officers from 
 3 to 5 inclusive. 
 
 (c) Summary courts-martial, shall consist of one officer. 
 The word "officer" means commissioned officer. 
 
 An officer suspended from rank is not eligible for detail 
 upon a court. A retired officer, performing active duty in 
 time of war, is eligible for courts-martial duty. At other 
 times he is not eligible for such duty, except when placed in 
 command of a post, or when assigned to recruiting duty, 
 when he may act as summary court-martial. 
 
 Volunteer officers and officers of the Reserve Corps or- 
 dered into active service are eligible. 
 
 Note. No distinction exists between Regulars and other 
 forces as to eligibility for courts-martial duty. 
 
 Unless unavoidable, no officer shall be tried by officers in- 
 ferior to him in rank. The convening authority decides as 
 :o whether or not it is avoidable. 
 
 
 AUTHORITIES FOR APPOINTING GENERAL 
 COURTS-MARTIAL 
 
 (a) The President of the United States. 
 
 (b) The Commanding Officer of a territorial division. 
 
 (c) The Commanding Officer of a territorial department. 
 
4 Special Courts-Martial 
 
 (d) The Superintendent of the Military Academy, 
 
 (e) The Commanding Officer of an Army. 
 
 (f) The Commanding Officer of an Army Corps. 
 
 (g) The Commanding Officer of a (tactical) division. 
 (h) The Commanding Officer of a separate brigade. 
 
 (i) The Commanding Officer of any District, or of any 
 force or body of troops, when empowered by the President 
 to do so. 
 
 Exceptions to the Above That when any of the fore- 
 going Commanders is the accuser or the prosecutor, the court 
 shall be appointed by superior competent authority. The 
 Superintendent of the Military Academy cannot convene a 
 court for the trial of an officer. 
 
 SPECIAL COURTS-MARTIAL 
 
 Authorities Competent to Appoint (a) The Com- 
 manding Officer of a District 
 
 (b) The Commanding Officer of a Garrison. 
 
 (c) The Commanding Officer of a Fort. 
 
 (d) The Commanding Officer of a Camp. 
 
 (e) The Commanding Officer of any place where troops 
 are on duty. 
 
 (f) The Commanding Officer of a Brigade. 
 
 (g) The Commanding Officer of a Regiment. 
 
 (h) The Commanding Officer of a Detached Battalion. 
 
 (i) The Commanding Officer of any other detached 
 command. 
 
 When any of the foregoing Commanders is the accuser or 
 the prosecutor, the court shall be appointed by a superior 
 authority. The above mentioned authorities may appoint 
 special courts-imartial for any portion of their commands. 
 
 Rank of Appointing Authority Authority to appoint 
 courts-martial is entirely independent of any particular rank. 
 
 Commanding Officer as a Member When but two of- 
 ficers, in addition to the Commanding Officer, are available, he 
 will not detail himself as a member. In such a case if superior 
 authority desires to appoint a special court-martial for such 
 command, the Commanding Officer may be detailed as a 
 member of the court. 
 
Summary Courts-Martial 5 
 
 SUMMARY COURTS-MARTIAL 
 
 Authorities Competent to Appoint (a) The Com- 
 manding Officer of a Garrison. 
 
 (b) The Commanding Officer of a Fort. 
 
 (c) The Commanding Officer of a Camp. 
 
 (d) The Commanding Officer of any other place where 
 troops are on duty. 
 
 (e) The Commanding Officer of a Regiment. 
 
 (f) The Commanding Officer of a Detached Battalion. 
 
 (g) The Commanding Officer of a Detached Company. 
 (h) The Commanding Officer of any other detachment. 
 Superior authority may appoint a summary court in any case 
 
 where deemed advisable. When more than one officer is 
 present the Commanding Officer will not detail himself as a 
 summary court. 
 
 JUDGE ADVOCATE 
 
 Power to Appoint For each general or special court- 
 martial the convening authority shall appoint a judge ad- 
 vocate, and f-or each general court-martial when necessary, 
 one or more assistant judge advocates. 
 
 JURISDICTION IN GENERAL 
 
 Jurisdiction Defined The jurisdiction of a court-martial 
 is its power to try and determine cases leerallv referred to 
 it and, in case of a finding of guilty, to award a punishment 
 for the offence within the prescribed limits. 
 
 NATURE OF COURTS-MARTIAL 
 
 Courts-martial form no part of the federal judicial system 
 referred to in the Constitution of the United States. They are 
 established under the constitutional power, however, to make 
 rules for the government and regulation of the land forces, 
 and are recognized in the provisions of the fifth amendment 
 expressly exempting' "cases arising in the land and naval 
 forces" from the requirement as to presentment and indict- 
 ment by grand jury. They are tribunals appointed by mili- 
 tary orders issued under authority of law. Their jurisdiction 
 is entirely criminal. They have no power to adjudge 
 
6 To Show Jurisdiction 
 
 damages for personal injuries or private wrongs, nor to col- 
 lect private debts. No appeal can be made from them, nor 
 can they be set aside by any other court. The United States 
 Courts, however, may on a writ of habeas corpus inquire into 
 the legality of detention of a person held by military au- 
 thority and may order him discharged, if military jurisdic- 
 tion does not exist. Sentences of courts-martial have no 
 legal effect until they have received approval or confirma- 
 tion of the proper commanding officer. 
 
 CONDITIONS NECESSARY TO SHOW 
 JURISDICTION 
 
 (a) That it was convened by competent authority. 
 
 (b) That it was composed of persons legally competent. 
 
 (c) That it was vested with power to try the person and 
 the offence. 
 
 (d) That its sentence was in accordance with law. 
 
 PROCEDURE WHEN MILITARY AND CIVIL JUR 
 ISDICTION ARE CONCURRENT 
 
 In accordance with the principle of comity as between the 
 civil and military tribunals in cases of concurrent jurisdic- 
 tion that which first attaches in a particular case is entitled to 
 proceed to its termination. This is, however, not an inflex- 
 ible rule. 
 
 Cannot be divested by act of accused A court-martial 
 having assumed jurisdiction of a case, cannot be prevented 
 from discharging its duty by any wrongful act on the part 
 of the accused, For instance, if the accused has escaped 
 from military custody and furnishes no grounds for the 
 court's not proceeding to a finding, the court should find and, 
 in the event of conviction, sentence him as in any other case. 
 In such a case it is proper for the counsel to represent the 
 accused as though he were present. 
 
 Jurisdiction Not Territorial It extends to persons 
 legally subject to it and to offences committed by them in any 
 place whatsoever; i. e. in the case of an attache committing 
 an offence, when on foreign duty. 
 
 Jurisdiction When Terminated Usually military juris- 
 diction ceases when military persons sever their connection 
 
General Courts-Martial 7 
 
 legally with the military service of the United States. There 
 are exceptions to this, however, as follows: 
 
 (a) Persons being guilty of fraud, embezzlement etc., 
 though dismissed or discharged from the service continue to 
 be liable for an act not known at time of discharge. 
 
 (b) When an officer in time of war, dismissed by the 
 President, applies in writing for a trial on the grounds that 
 he was wrongfully dismissed, the President shall convene a 
 court-martial to try the officer on the charges for which he 
 was dismissed. If the court-martial is not convened within 
 six months of the making of the application by the officer, 
 or after being tried, the court does not award dismissal or 
 death, the President's order of dismissal shall be void. 
 
 (c) All persons undergoing sentence of a court-martial. 
 
 (d) Where a soldier obtains, a discharge by fraud. 
 
 (e) Even though discharged from a term of enlistment, 
 it does not relieve the soldier from the consequence of de- 
 sertion committed during a former term of enlistment. 
 
 JURISDICTION OF GENERAL COURTS-MARTIAL 
 
 As to Persons and Offences (a) Any person subject 
 to Military Law, for 
 
 (b) Any crime or offence punishable under the Articles 
 of War. 
 
 (c) Any other person subject to trial by military tribunals 
 for violations of law of war. 
 
 Limits of Punishment Punishment upon conviction is 
 discretionary with a general court-martial, except 
 
 (a) When mandatory by law. 
 
 (b) When limited by order of the President. 
 
 (c) Death punishment can only be imposed when specifi- 
 cally authorized. 
 
 JURISDICTION OF SPECIAL COURTS-MARTIAL 
 
 As to Persons and Offences (1) Any person subject 
 to military law, excepting 
 
 (a) Commissioned officers. 
 
 (b) Any person subject to military law belonging to a 
 class excepted by the President. 
 
8 Summary Courts-Martial 
 
 (2) Any crime or offence not capital, punishable by ar- 
 ticles of war. 
 
 Note. Cadets and soldiers holding certificates of eligi- 
 bility for promotion are excepted from the jurisdiction of 
 Special Courts-Martial. 
 
 The following are capital crimes and offences under the 
 Articles of War 
 
 (1) Peace offences : 
 
 (a) Assaulting or disobeying a superior officer. (A. W. 64) 
 
 (b) Mutiny or sedition. (A W. 66) 
 
 (c) Failure to suppress mutiny or sedition. (A. W. 67) 
 
 (2) War offences: 
 
 (a) Desertion. (A. W. 58) 
 
 (b) Advising or aiding another to desert. (A.-W. 59 7 
 
 (c) Misbehavior before the enemy. (A. W. 75) 
 
 (d) Subordinates compelling commander to surrender. 
 (A. W. 76) 
 
 (e) Improper use of countersign. (A. W. 77) 
 
 (f) Forcing a safeguard. (A. W. 78) 
 
 (g) Relieving, corresponding with or aiding the 
 enemy. (A. W. 81) 
 
 (h) Spies. (A.W.82) 
 
 (i) Misbehavior of sentinels. (A. W. 86) 
 
 Limits of Punishment A special courts-martial shall 
 not have power to adjudge, 
 
 (a) Dishonorable discharge, nor. 
 
 (b) Confinement in excess of 6 months nor 
 
 (c) Forfeiture of more than 6 months pay. 
 
 Note. Reduction to the ranks of non-commissioned of- 
 ficers and reduction in classification of first-class privates may 
 be adjudged by a special courts-martial. 
 
 JURISDICTION OF SUMMARY COURTS-MARTIAL 
 
 As to Persons and Offences Same as for Special courts- 
 martial, except that a non-commissioned officer, who objects 
 to trial by a summary court will not be tried by such court, 
 except upon the order of authority competent to bring him 
 before a general courts-martial. 
 
Other Military Tribunals 9 
 
 Any crime not capital, made punishable by the articles of 
 war. 
 
 Limits of Punishment A summary court shall not ad- 
 judge : 
 
 (a) Dishonorable discharge. 
 
 (b) Confinement in excess of three months, nor 
 
 (c) Forfeiture of more than three months pay. 
 
 Note. When summary court officer is the Command- 
 ing Officer, no sentence of such summary court adjudging 
 confinement or forfeiture, or both, for a period in excess of 
 one month, shall be carried into execution until approved by 
 superior authority. 
 
 JURISDICTION OF OTHER MILITARY 
 TRIBUNALS. 
 
 When Concurrent With Courts-Martial The provisions 
 of the Articles of War shall not be construed as depriving 
 military commissions, provost courts, or other military tribun- 
 als of concurrent jurisdiction in respect to offenders or of- 
 fences that may be lawfully tried by such tribunals. 
 
 ARRESTS AND CONFINEMENTS 
 
 (a) An officer charged with crime or serious offence shall 
 be placed in arrest, or may be placed in confinement by the 
 same authority. 
 
 (b) A soldier charged with crime or serious offence shall 
 be placed in confinement. When charged with a minor of- 
 fence, he may be placed under arrest. 
 
 (c) Any other person subject to military law, charged 
 with crime or serious offence may be placed under arrest. 
 
 Note. Persons under arrest may be confined; may be re- 
 stricted to barracks, quarters or tents, except when such 
 limits are extended by proper authority. An officer who 
 breaks his arrest or escapes from confinement shall be dis- 
 missed, or suffer such other punishment as a court-martial 
 may direct. Other persons who escape from confinement or 
 break arrest shall be punished as the court-martial may direct. 
 
 Who May Order Arrests (a) Only Commanding Of- 
 ficers are empowered to place officers in arrest, except as 
 provided in Article of War 68. 
 
10 Arrests and Confinements 
 
 Note. Under A. W. 68, all officers or non-commis- 
 sioned officers have power to part and quell all quarrels, 
 frays, and disorder among persons subject to military law. 
 They may order officers! taking part in such fray or disorder 
 into arrest, and place other persons subject to military law 
 in arrest or confinement, as the case may require, until their 
 proper superior officer is acquainted with the facts. Who- 
 soever refuses to obey such an officer or non-commissioned 
 officer, or threatens violence to him, shall be punished as a 
 court-martial may direct. 
 
 (b) Judge advocates of courts-martial have no power to 
 place officers or soldiers in arrest, who are about to be tried 
 by a court, or to compel the attendance of the accused before 
 a court. These duties pertain to the convening authority, 
 commanding officer, or officer having custody of the accused. 
 
 (c) Courts-martial have no control over the nature of the 
 arrest, or other status of restraint of the prisoner, except in 
 regard to his personal freedom in its presence. The Com- 
 manding Officer has entire control in such matters. 
 
 Arrest How Executed An officer is placed under ar- 
 rest by his Commanding Officer in person, or through another 
 officer by a verbal or written order advising him that he is 
 under arrest, or will consider himself under arrest, or words 
 to that effect. 
 
 Status of Officer in Arrest A person in arrest cannot 
 exercise command. He will not wear a sword, nor visit 
 officially his Commanding Officer or other superior officer, 
 unless directed to do so. His applications and requests of 
 every nature will be made in writing. 
 
 * Arrest of Officer Without Preferring Charges Officers 
 will not be placed in arrest for light offences. Usually the 
 censure of the Commanding Officer will be sufficient. When 
 the Commanding Officer places an officer in arrest without 
 preferring charges, he will make a written report to his 
 Brigade or Coast Artillery District Commander. Such Com- 
 mander will, if he thinks necessary, call upon the officer ar- 
 rested for any explanation he may desire to make, will take 
 such other action within his authority as he may think neces- 
 sary, and forward all the papers with his recommendation 
 to the Department Commander. The Department Commander 
 will decide whether or not trial is advisable and, either con- 
 
Arrests and Confinements 11 
 
 vene a court for his trial, or" forward the papers to the War 
 Department for file with the officer's record, or for other 
 action. In the case where officers concerned do not 'belong 
 to a Brigade or Coast Artillery District, the report will be 
 made to the officer having general courts-martial jurisdiction. 
 
 Arrest of Medical Officer In ordinary cases, where in- 
 convenience to the service will result from it, a medical officer 
 will not be placed in arrest until a court-martial for his trial 
 convenes. 
 
 Arrest and Confinement of Soldiers Except under 
 A. W. 68, or when restraint is necessary, no soldier will be 
 confined without the order of an officer who shall previously 
 inquire into his offence. It is proper, however, for a Com- 
 pany Commander to delegate to non-commissioned officers 
 of his Company the power to 'place enlisted men in arrest as 
 a means of restraint at the instant when restraint is necessary. 
 Such action must be reported to the Company Commander at 
 once. 
 
 Status of Non-Commissioned Officer in Arrest A non- 
 commissioned officer will not be confined in company with 
 privates, if it can be avoided. When in arrest, they cannot 
 exercise authority or control over others. When in confine- 
 ment they will do no work. 
 
 Abuse of Authority to Arrest No person shall be con- 
 tinued in confinement more than 8 days or until such time as 
 a court-martial can be assembled. The officer by whose order 
 he is arrested will see that he is furnished with a copy of 
 the charges within 8 days after his arrest, and that he is 
 brought to trial within 10 days thereafter unless the neces- 
 sities of the service prevent; in this event, he shall be brought 
 to trial within 30 days after the expiration of the said ten 
 days. If the charges be not served, or the arrested person be 
 not brought to trial, in accordance with the above, his arrest 
 shall cease, but such persons having been released from ar- 
 rest, under the provisions of Article 70, should be tried when 
 conditions permit, within twelve months' after release from 
 arrest. Provided, that in time of peace no person shall, 
 against his objection, be brought to trial before a general 
 court-martial within a period of five days subsequent to the 
 service of the charges upon him. 
 
12 Arrest of Deserters 
 
 Refusal to Receive and Keep Prisoners No provost 
 marshal, or commander of a guard, shall refuse. to receive 
 or keep any prisoner committed to his charge by an officer, 
 provided the officer, shall at the time deliver an account in 
 writing, signed by himself, of the offence charged against the 
 prisoner. 
 
 Note. Every commander of a guard is required to ren- 
 der a report to his commanding officer within 24 hours, or 
 as soon as he is relieved from his guard, showing the names 
 of prisoners confined, the charges against them, and the name 
 of the officer committing them. The report ordinarily con- 
 tained in the guard report book is sufficient. 
 
 Placing Prisoners in Irons Prisoners shall not be 
 placed in irons, except when the commanding officer considers 
 the case a desperate and dangerous one. Such action and 
 the circumstances will be reported immediately to the De- 
 partment or Tactical Division Commander. When a prisoner 
 is removed from irons a similar report is made to the same 
 officers. When necessary to prevent the escape of a prisoner, 
 he may be shackled or handcuffed when being transported 
 from one place of confinement to another. 
 
 Releasing Prisoner Without Proper Authority Any 
 
 person in the military service who releases a prisoner, with- 
 out proper authority, or who through neglect or design, 
 suffers a prisoner to escape, shall be punished as the court- 
 martial may direct. 
 
 ARREST OF DESERTERS BY CIVIL 
 AUTHORITIES 
 
 Authority for Apprehension Any civil officer having 
 authority under the laws of the United States, of any State, 
 Territory, District or possession of the United States, to 
 arrest offenders, is authorized to arrest a deserter from the 
 military service of the United States, and deliver him into 
 the custody of the (military authority. 
 
 Authority of Citizens Other Than Peace Officers to 
 Arrest Deserters The statute authorizing civil officers to 
 apprehend deserters shall not be construed as taking away 
 the authority for their apprehension by any citizen under an 
 order or direction of a military officer. The offer of reward 
 for the apprehension and delivery of a deserter coupled with 
 

 Preparation of Charges 13 
 
 the Act of Congress, which provides for the payment of such 
 a reward, is considered sufficient authority . for the arrest of 
 the deserter by a citizen. 
 
 Minority of Deserter The right of the United States 
 to arrest and bring to trial a deserter is paramount to any 
 right of control over him by a parent on the ground of his 
 
 inority. 
 
 PREPARATION OF CHARGES 
 
 ' 
 
 Definitions A charge corresponds to a civil indictment. 
 It consists of two parts the technical "charge," which de- 
 scribes the alleged crime or offence as a violation of a par- 
 ticular Article of War. or other statute, and the "specifica- 
 tion," which sets forth the facts constituting the same. The 
 requisite of a charge is that it shall be laid under the proper 
 article of war or other statute; and the requisite of a speci- 
 fication is that it shall set forth in simple and concise langu- 
 age facts sufficient to constitute, the particular offence and in 
 such manner as to enable a person of common understanding 
 to know what is intended. 
 
 Who May Initiate Charges Military charges, though 
 commonly originating with military persons, may be initiated 
 by civilians. The charge may likewise originate with enlisted 
 men. The formal preferring of the charge, however, should 
 be authenticated by the signature of a commissioned officer. 
 Charges initiated by persons outside the Army, and based 
 upon testimony not in the possession of the military authori- 
 ties, should be sustained by affidavits or other reliable evi- 
 dence. 
 
 Who May Prefer Charges Any person may prefer 
 charges. The fact that an officer is himself under charges, 
 or under arrest, does not disqualify him from preferring 
 charges. 
 
 Signing Charges The officer preferring charges will 
 sign his name following the last specification, adding his rank 
 and organization in the Army. The signing of charges, like 
 orders, with the name of an officer, adding "by order of" his 
 commander, is unusual and not to be recommended. The 
 signature forms n-o part of the charges, but will nevertheless 
 be copied into the record, so that it may appear to the review- 
 
14 Preparation of Charges 
 
 ing authority whether or not the officer preferring the charges 
 sat as a member of the court. 
 
 Accumulation of Charges The accumulation or saving 
 up of charges through hostile animus on the part of the 
 accuser, is discountenanced by the sentiment of the service. 
 It may be expedient, however, where offences are slight in 
 themselves and it is desirable to exhibit a continued course 
 of misconduct to wait, before preferring charges, till aperies 
 of similar acts have been committed, provided the period be 
 not unreasonably prolonged. In general, charges should be 
 preferred and brought to trial immediately after the com- 
 mission of the offence. 
 
 Duplication of Charges Duplication of charges for the 
 same act will be avoided except when, by reason of lack of 
 definite information as to available evidence, it may be neces- 
 sary to charge the same act -or omission as constituting two 
 or more distinct offences. Even though the court finds the 
 accused guilty in respect to two or more specifications de- 
 scribing the same act, punishment should only be given with 
 reference to the act in its most serious aspect. 
 
 Consolidation of Charges Ordinarily, all the charges 
 against the accused should be consolidated into one set of 
 charges and trial had upon them as a whole. To avoid taking 
 up unnecessary time of a court with minor offences, they 
 should not be joined with the more serious charges, unless 
 they serve to explain the circumstances surrounding the more 
 serious charges. For instance, charges for desertion should 
 .not ordinarily be joined with charges for losing property of 
 small value; nor should charges of wilful disobedience of * 
 the orders of an officer ordinarily be joined with charges for 
 an absence from a routine duty. 
 
 Refusal to Submit to Medical Treatment An officer or 
 soldier may be charged for refusing to submit to a surgical 
 operation, or medical treatment, at the hands of military 
 authority, if it is designed to restore or increase his fitness 
 for service, and is without risk of life. If the attending 
 surgeon is in doubt as to whether the proposed operation in- 
 volves risk of life, the soldier will not be tried, but will be 
 discharged on the surgeon's certificate of disability, under 
 the provisions of Army Regulations. 
 
Preparation of Charges 15 
 
 Joint Charges When two or more persons jointly and 
 in pursuance of a common intent commit a crime or offence, 
 which can be committed by several persons acting in con- 
 cert, they may be separately charged and tried for such crime 
 or offence, or may t be jointly charged and jointly tried. The 
 actual commission of the offence is not necessary. All those 
 who take part in the enterprise are equally guilty, though 
 they may be absent from the actual place* of commission of 
 the offence. The fact that justice may require that different 
 degrees of punishment be awarded to the different parties 
 constitutes no objection, to a joint prosecution. 
 
 Note. The mere fact of their committing the same of- 
 fence together and at the same time, although material as 
 going to show concert, does not necessarily establish it. For 
 instance, the fact that several soldiers have absented them- 
 selves without leave, together and at the same time, does not 
 necessarily prove any concert of action, but may be the result 
 of their individually availing themselves of the same con- 
 venient opportunity of leaving. In the case of joint charges, 
 the right of challenge is exercised by each of the accused 
 persons separately. 
 
 Charges Not to be Preferred Upon Uncorroborated 
 Confession In the case of a confession, charges should 
 not be preferred for an offence, unless there is some evidence 
 other than the confession of the accused that the offence has 
 been committed. This applies particularly, in cases of fraudu- 
 lent enlistment. The mere confession by the accused that he 
 had prior service, or was disqualified for enlistment at the 
 time he enlisted and concealed that fact, should not be made 
 the basis of charges, unless there is something else confirm- 
 ing his confession. The case should be investigated, how- 
 ever. 
 
 Charges For Private Indebtedness Military authorities 
 will not attempt to discipline officers or soldiers for failure 
 to pay disputed private indebtedness or claims ; nor will the 
 military authorities attempt to decide upon such disputed in- 
 debtedness or claim. If the indebtedness is disputed, the 
 creditor should resort to civil courts. If, however, an officer 
 or soldier reflects discredit upon the service by his failure to 
 pay just indebtedness, he may be brought to trial for viola- 
 tions of A. W. 95, or A. W. 96, as the case may require, but 
 no action will be taken by the military authorities^ to enforce 
 the payment of the debt. The action of the court in this case 
 
Action Upon Charges 
 
 xild be purely disciplinary and not the act of a court of 
 
 uity. 
 
 Numbering Charges and Specifications Whore there 
 eral specifications, which aiv violations of one ;ntuK 
 ;il procedure is to place them all under one 
 arge, so that they will be known as 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th. 
 ecification, "such" article of \var. Where there are se\ 
 tides of war violated, a charge will be made for each. 
 
 Additional Charges New and separate charges, \\-hirh 
 e preferred after others have been preferred, are known 
 
 "additional charges." Such charges may relate to 
 nch were not known by the authorities at the time of tlu 
 eferring of the original charges; or they ma\ more 
 
 rquent, arise from acts of the accused subsequent to liU 
 rest or confinement on the original chan i \,!,!it 
 arges must be brought to trial as such, at the satin- tinu 
 the original charges. After the court has been duly sworn 
 
 try the original charges, any charge* that arise must be 
 e subject of a separate trial. 
 
 ACTION UPON CHARGES 
 
 Submission of Charges All charges for trial by conrt- 
 artial will be prepared in triplicate, usin^ the prescribed 
 arge sheet as the first sheet and such a hcets of 
 
 dinary paper as are required. Charges will be accompanied 
 ' the following, except when trial is to be had by sum: 
 urt. 
 
 (a) A brief statement of the substance of the evid 
 Bailable, both for the prosecution and for the defence, and 
 so any probable evidence. 
 
 (b) In the case of a soldier by properly authentic 
 idcnce of previous convictions, if any, of an offence or 
 fences committed by him during his current enlistment 
 ithin one- t preceding the date of the alleged c 
 ission of the offences set forth in the charges. They will 
 i forwarded by the officer preferring the charges to the 
 immanding officer exercising summary court jurisdiction 
 rer the command to which the accused belongs. This officer, 
 id every superior commander into whose hands they come, 
 ill either refer them to a court-martial within his jurisdic- 
 >n, or forward them to the next superior authority cxercis- 
 
- 
 
 
 It if tibc 4a*r lor t! 
 
 A-^ ^ . V . ,; . 
 
 1) Wkern tri 
 fceoMfl 
 
13 The Members 
 
 as the record of the trial. A copy of the record thus com- 
 pleted will be sent to the Company Commander and the other 
 copy, likewise completed, will be transmitted with the least 
 practicable delay to the officer exercising general court-mar- 
 tial jurisdiction over the command, in whose office it will be 
 filed and at the end of two years it will be destroyed. 
 
 (b) When trial is to be had by special or general 
 court-martial, the charges and one copy thereof will be re- 
 ferred to the trial judge advocate (the judge advocate of the 
 court-martial which tries the case). The trial judge advocate 
 will furnish the accused or his counsel with a copy and the 
 other copy will be retained in the office of the officer appoint- 
 ing the court. The top fold of this copy of the charge sheet, 
 in case of trial by a general court-martial, will be detached 
 at the proper time and forwarded with the record of the trial 
 to the Judge Advocate General of the Army. 
 
 Service of Charges Upon Accused In order that the 
 accused may have time to prepare for -his defence, it is pro- 
 vided that, in time of peace no person shall, against his 
 objection, be brought to trial before a general court-martial 
 within a period of five days subsequent to the service of 
 charges upon him if he objects thereto. 
 
 THE MEMBERS 
 
 Place and Time of Meeting The authority appointing 
 general or special courts-martial designates the place for hold- 
 ing the court, the hour of meeting, the members of the court, 
 and the judge advocate. A general or special court-martial 
 assembles at its first session at the time and place designated 
 in the order convening it; thereafter, according to adjourn- 
 ment. A member of a court-martial stationed at a place 
 where the court sits is liable to duty with his command dur- 
 ing adjournment. Subject to the orders of the convening 
 authority, the court determines the hours of holding this 
 session. 
 
 Uniform It is customary for members of general 
 courts'-martial and witnesses to appear in court in dress uni- 
 form with side arms. The judge advocate should wear the 
 uniform of the court without side arms. The accused is 
 usually required to appear in dress uniform, if he possesses 
 one, and if the court is so uniformed. The President of the 
 court, however, may decide that it is impracticable for the 
 
The Members 19 
 
 court to sit in dress uniform and direct that they appear in 
 service uniform. When practicable a deserter will be tried 
 in the clothing in which he was apprehended. 
 
 Call to Order When the court is ready to proceed, it 
 is called to orderly the President. 
 
 Sitting of the Court Members will be seated according 
 to rank, alternately to the right and left of the president. 
 The judge advocate, the accused, and his counsel, are seated 
 so as to be most easily seen and heard by all the members 
 of the court. The reporter should be seated near the judge 
 advocate. 
 
 Roll Call At the beginning of each session the judge 
 advocate verifies the presence or absence of the members of 
 the court by calling each officer's name or by informally 
 noting his presence or absence. This verification is noted in 
 the record. 
 
 Introduction of the Accused When the accused and 
 
 his counsel appear before the court for the first time, the 
 judge advocate will announce their names to the court. 
 
 Absence of a Member When a member of a court- 
 martial has reason to believe that he will, for a proper rea- 
 son, be absent from a session of the court, he will inform 
 the judge advocate accordingly. When a member of a court- 
 martial is absent from a session thereof, the judge advocate 
 win cause that fact and the reason for the absence to be 
 shown in the record of the proceedings. If the reason be 
 unknown it will be so stated. In the case of absence, the con- 
 vening authority will take such action as he deems proper. 
 
 Voting Members of a general or special court-martial, 
 in giving their votes, shall begin with the junior in rank. A 
 tie vote on the findings is a vote of "not guilty;" a tie vote 
 on any question is the equivalent of a vote in the negative. 
 
 When the offence charged includes a minor offence, voting 
 will be first had upon the major offence. All convictions and 
 sentences (other than those involving death), whether by 
 general or special court-martial may be determined by a ma- 
 jority of the members present. Refusal to vote on any ques- 
 tion arising during the proceedings constitutes conduct to 
 the prejudice of good order and military discipline; and is 
 punishable under A. W. 96. 
 
20 The Members 
 
 Decorum to be Observed Trials before courts-martial 
 will be conducted with the decorum observed in civil courts. 
 Members should be dignified and attentive. Reading of news- 
 papers or other evidence of inattention on the part of mem- 
 bers during session is a neglect of duty to the prejudice of 
 good order and military discipline. The president of the 
 court will admonish against improper conduct on the part of 
 members and prefer charges when necessary. 
 
 Punishment of Members A court-martial cannot 
 punish its own members. Members are liable to charges and 
 trial for improper conduct as for any other offence against 
 military discipline. 
 
 The Opening of the Case and Arraignment During the 
 reading of the order appointing the court and the arraign- 
 ment of the accused, the judge advocate, the accused and his 
 counsel, will stand. The arraignment consists of reading to 
 the court and to the accused the charges upon which the 
 accused is to be tried. While the court and the judge advo- 
 cate are being sworn, all persons concerned with the trial, 
 including any spectators present, will stand. When the re- 
 porter, an interpreter, or a witness, is being sworn, he and 
 the judge advocate will stand. When the judge advocate, the 
 accused, or his counsel addresses the court, he will rise. 
 
 Control of Court Over Accused A court-martial has 
 no control over the nature of the arrest or other status of 
 restraint of a prisoner, except as regards his personal free- 
 dom in its presence. 
 
 Note. Prisoners will not be brought before a court- 
 martial in irons, unless it be necessary as a means of re- 
 straint to prevent violence or escape. However, the fact 
 that a prisoner has been tried in irons cannot in any case 
 affect the validity of the proceedings. 
 
 Duties of the President The president of the court will 
 not be announced. The officer, senior in rank, present will 
 act as such. The president does not by virtue of being such 
 exercise command of any kind. As the organ of the court 
 he directs the necessary regular and proper conduct of the 
 proceedings. Should a member of the court disobey an 
 order of the president, he is not chargeable under the sixty- 
 fourth Article of War, but may be court-martialed for con- 
 duct to the prejudice of good order and military discipline. 
 Neither the court nor the president may place the judge 
 

 The Members 21 
 
 advocate in arrest. The president has an equal vote with 
 other members in deciding all questions. He speaks and acts 
 for the court in every instance when necessary. He has no 
 authority to open or close the court or make any ruling 
 whatsoever, without the acquiescence of the court, or by 
 custom of the service. 
 
 He administers the -oath to the judge advocate and authen- 
 ticates all acts, orders and proceedings of the court, by his 
 signature. It is his duty to insure prompt trial and dis- 
 position of all charges referred to the court for trial. 
 
 % Closed Session To avoid disclosing the vote or opinion 
 of a member on any question arising, the court will go into 
 closed session. Closing the Court is effected in two ways : 
 
 1. The usual method is to cause the judge advocate, 
 the accused, his counsel, the witness, the reporter, and the 
 interpreter, if any, and all spectators, to withdraw from the 
 courtroom, leaving only the members of the court proper in 
 the room. 
 
 2. It may be more convenient, however, and is permis- 
 sible for the court to withdraw to another room. 
 
 It is not necessary to close the court in every case requir- 
 ing the action of the court 
 
 Where action may be had by unanimous consent without 
 disclosing the vote or opinion of a member the President 
 may announce that without objection the so and so For 
 example should the judge advocate request a recess the 
 President may announce that "If there is no objection the 
 court will take a recess". 
 
 Sitting With Closed Doors While it is customary for 
 courts-martial proceedings to be conducted with doors open 
 to the public, it is nevertheless authorized, in the discretion 
 of the court, to close the doors to the public, when the case 
 being tried is of a scandalous nature. 
 
 Change of Membership While it is undesirable to 
 change the membership of a court during a trial the appoint- 
 ing authority has power to relieve members and to add new 
 members to the court at any time when necessary. 
 
 The promotion of a member does not affect his status 
 with the court, except that he will sit according to his new 
 rank. The rule is that no member who has been absent 
 during the taking of evidence in a case shall take part in 
 the trial, but non-observance of this rule shall not invalidate 
 
22 The Judge Advocate 
 
 the proceedings, if no objection has been made to his sitting. 
 The rule will be complied with when practicable. When a 
 member is permitted to resume his seat after an absence 
 during which important testimony has been taken, all pro- 
 ceedings and evidence presented during his absence shall be 
 read to him in open court and the record should so indicate. 
 
 THE JUDGE ADVOCATE 
 
 Selection The Judge advocate should be carefully 
 selected for his efficiency in that capacity. Where it can be 
 avoided, a judge advocate will not be selected unless he has 
 had experience as an assistant judge advocate. 
 
 General Duties The judge advocate of courts-martial 
 shall prosecute in the name of the- United States and shall, 
 under the supervision of the court, prepare the record of 
 its proceedings. He will attend to the following matters : 
 
 (a) Arrange for a suitable room. 
 
 (b) .Procure and arrange furniture, statiorery, etc. 
 
 (c) Summons witnesses and make preliminary exam- 
 inations of them. 
 
 (d) Execute the orders of the court. 
 
 (e) Read the orders affecting the personnel of the 
 court. 
 
 (f) Administer oath to members, reporter, interpreter 
 and all witnesses. 
 
 (g) Arraign the accused. 
 
 (h) Examine witnesses in court. 
 (i) Keep, or superintend the keeping of, the record. 
 (j) Sign each day's proceedings. 
 (k) Notify members of subsequent meetings. 
 (1) Prepare record and present it to president for sig- 
 nature. 
 
 (m) Will sign record and forward to Reviewing au- 
 thority. 
 
 (n) Prepare vouchers for payment of reporters, inter- 
 preter and witnesses. 
 
 Authentication of Record The record is authenticated 
 by the signature of the president and of the judge advo- 
 
1 
 
 The Judge Advocate 23 
 
 cate. If, on account of death or other cause, the judge 
 advocate cannot sign the record, it will be signed by the 
 assistant judge advocate if there be one. If there be none, 
 it shall be signed by one other member of the court. 
 
 Duty of Judge Advocate Toward the Accused Should 
 the accused not be represented by counsel, the judge ad- 
 vocate will, from time to time, advise him of his legal rights. 
 He should acquaint the prisoner of 
 
 (a) The accusations against him. 
 
 (b) Right to counsel. 
 
 (c) Right to testify in his own behalf. 
 
 (d) Right to a copy of the charges. 
 
 While he may ask a prisoner how he intends to plead, he 
 must not try to induce him to- plead guilty by inferring that, 
 if he does so, his sentence will be lighter. If the accused 
 intends to plead guilty, the judge advocate should inform him 
 of his right to introduce evidence in explanation of his 
 offence and should assist him in securing it. During the 
 trial, he will see that the accused has every right to which 
 he is entitled. He will assist the accused in his defence 
 and endeavor to bring out the facts in the case. 
 
 Examination of Charges The judge advocate will care- 
 fully examine the charges and report to the convening au- 
 thority any irregularities which appear to exist. He will 
 himself correct slight errors, but will not without authority 
 of the convening officer, ,make any substantial changes in 
 the 'charges or specifications. 
 
 Truth to be Presented The judge advocate will do 
 his best to present the whole truth in the matter in question. 
 He will not distort or suppress facts and will oppose any 
 effort to do so. 
 
 As Legal Adviser of the Court The judge advocate 
 should respectfully call the attention of the court to appar- 
 ent irregularities in its action or proceedings and will only 
 give legal advice when asked for it by the court. In case 
 the accused pleads guilty, when necessary, he will invite 
 the attention of the president of the court to the fact that 
 the effect of such a plea ( must be explained to the accused. 
 
 Conduct of the Case The judge advocate should be 
 left free to conduct the case as he sees fit. The court, how- 
 
24 Assistant Judge Advocate 
 
 ever, is responsible for the thorough investigation of the 
 case and need not content itself with the evidence presented 
 by the prosecution or defence. It is proper for the court as 
 a body, or for any member, to ask questions of a witness. 
 Such questions, however, are not asked until the prosecu- 
 tion and defence have completed their questioning of the 
 witness. The court may direct the judge advocate to recall 
 any witness at any time, or to take any action whereby the 
 facts in the case may be more clearly presented. 
 
 The Judge Advocate Not to be Challenged The ac- 
 cused has no right to challenge the judge advocate. In case 
 of interest in the case, or personal hostility to the accused, 
 he should apply to be relieved from duty as judge advocate 
 in the case. 
 
 Weekly Reports The judge advocate of a general 
 court-martial will report through the president of the court 
 and commanding officer of the post to the appointing au- 
 thority on Saturday of each week, a list of charges on hand 
 with the date of receipt of each, and if any case has been 
 in his possession for one week or more, without trial, an 
 explanation will be rendered. 
 
 Detail of Orderlies, &c. The commanding officer will 
 detail, when necessary, suitable soldiers, or clerks, or or- 
 derlies, to assist the judge advocate. 
 
 ASSISTANT JUDGE ADVOCATE 
 
 Appointment The authority appointing a general 
 court-martial shall appoint one or more assistant judge ad- 
 vocates, when necessary. The assistant shall be competent 
 to perform any duty devolving by law, regulation -or custom, 
 upon a judge advocate. 
 
 It is usual for the assistant judge advocate to perform 
 routine duties such as the preparation of the court-room, 
 notification of members, summoning of witness, &c., leaving 
 the conduct of the case to the judge advocate. 
 
 COUNSEL 
 
 Appointment The accused has the right to be repre- 
 sented by counsel. Civilian counsel will not be provided at 
 government expense. Should the accused request the ap- 
 
Questioning 1 of Witnesses 25 
 
 pointment of an officer stationed where the court sits and 
 the officer be not a member of the court, he will be detailed 
 as counsel by the commanding officer, if practicable. Should 
 the officer requested be not available to the commanding of- 
 ficer, the accused may appeal to the appointing authority, 
 whose decision is final. It is customary foi the commanding 
 officer of the post or camp where the trial is held to detail 
 a suitable officer to act as counsel for the accused. The 
 right to counsel does not exist in case of trials by a sum- 
 mary court. 
 
 Duty of Counsel The officer acting as counsel shall 
 perform the duties which usually devolve upon the counsel 
 for the defence before civil courts, in criminal cases. He 
 shall guard the interests of the accused by all honorable 
 and legitimate means, but shall not obstruct the proceedings 
 by frivolous and useless objections and discussions. 
 
 Right of the Accused to Interview The accused will 
 be permitted to interview his counsel and witnesses for the 
 defence as often as is necessary for the proper preparation 
 of his defence. 
 
 QUESTIONING OF WITNESSES 
 
 When there is no reporter all questions will be reduced to 
 writing. If the court has a stenographic reporter, all ques- 
 tioning may be done orally. 
 
 REPORTER 
 
 Employment Under such regulations as the Secretary 
 of War prescribes, the president of a court-martial or mili- 
 tary commission, or a court of inquiry, has power to appoint 
 a reporter, who shall record the proceedings of, and testi- 
 mony taken before the tribunal. 
 
 Reporters are only employed when especially authorized 
 by the appointing authority. This authorization is usually 
 stated in the order appointing the court. Reporters for 
 special courts-martial will not be authorized, except when 
 the appointing authority requires the testimony to be re- 
 duced to writing. The reporter of a court-martial is usually 
 a civilian stenographer. A soldier may be detailed to serve 
 as a reporter before the above mentioned military tribunals, 
 
26 Interpreter 
 
 who shall receive a certain pay differing from that paid a 
 civilian reporter. 
 
 Completion of Record The judge advocate or recorder 
 shall require the record of the proceedings for each session 
 to be finished, together with one carbon copy of the same, 
 not later than twenty-four hours after the adjournment of 
 the session. The complete record will be completed and 
 ready for authentication not later than forty-eight hours 
 after the final adjournment in the case. 
 
 Extra Compensation For Clerical Duties No person in 
 the military or civil service can lawfully receive extra com- 
 pensation for clerical duties performed for a court, except 
 as provided for in a detail of a soldier as reporter. 
 
 INTERPRETER 
 
 Under such regulations as the Secretary of War may pre- 
 scribe, the president of a court-martial, military commission, 
 court of inquiry, or summary court, may appoint an inter- 
 preter, when necessary. It is not necessary to obtain the 
 authority of the appointing -officer as in the case of reporter. 
 They are paid at the same rate as civilian witnesses. 
 
 CHALLENGES 
 
 When the names of the members of the court-martial who 
 are present, have been read to the accused, upon his intro- 
 duction to the court, he is asked by the judge advocate 
 whether he objects to being tried by any member present. 
 Should he reply in the negative, the court and judge advo- 
 cate will be sworn. If he states that he objects to being 
 tried by a member, he will state also the grounds upon which 
 he makes his objection, to which the challenged member is 
 given an opportunity to reply. The challenged member 
 withdraws and the court is closed and decides as to whether 
 or not the objection is to be sustained. When the court is 
 opened the president announces the decision and the member 
 is either excused or permitted to continue to sit in the case. 
 In this ,matter the accused is given the right to challenge 
 individually any and all members of the court. Neither a 
 summary court officer nor a judge advocate is subject to 
 challenge. 
 
Grounds for Challenge 27 
 
 GROUNDS FOR CHALLENGE: 
 
 (a) Principal Challenges. 
 
 (1) That he took part in the investigation of the 
 charges, officially. 
 
 (2) That he personally investigated the charges and 
 had expressed an opinion in the matter as to the guilt or 
 innocence 'of the accuse v d. 
 
 (3) That he is the accuser. 
 
 (4) That he is a witness for the prosecution. 
 
 (5) That upon a re-hearing of the case, he sat as a 
 member on the former trial. 
 
 (6) That in the case of the trial of an officer, the 
 member will be promoted by the dismissal of the accused. 
 
 (7) That he is related to the accused. 
 
 (8) That he has a declared enmity against the ac- 
 cused. 
 
 (b) Challenges For Favor. 
 
 Where prejudice, hostility, bias, or intimate personal 
 friendship are alleged, it is for the court, after hearing the 
 grounds of challenge stated and the reply of the challenged 
 member, or any other evidence presented, to determine 
 whether or not the member is disqualified. 
 
 Challenge of New Member When new members join 
 the court, the accused shall be given the opportunity to chal- 
 lenge them. The record in each case must show that the right 
 to challenge has been given the accused, not only at the 
 original session, but at any time that new members join the 
 court. 
 
 Challenge By Judge Advocate By a custom of the 
 service the judge advocate may also challenge, for cause, in 
 the sa,me manner as the accused. 
 
 Member Cannot Challenge There is no authority for 
 a member of a court-martial to challenge another member, 
 but when a member has knowledge of the fact that another 
 member is the accuser or a witness for the prosecution, he 
 will so notify the court in order that proper action may be 
 taken. 
 
 Member Disqualified But Not Challenged In the ab- 
 sence of a challenge, the court cannot excuse a member from 
 
28 Oaths 
 
 sitting on a case. A member not challenged, 'who thinks him- 
 self disqualified for certain reasons, may announce in open 
 court his supposed disqualification in order that he may be 
 challenged, or he may apply to the appointing authority to 
 be relieved. 
 
 Waiver of Objection The rule is challenges should 
 be made before the arraignment, but if an objection to the 
 competency of a member was known and not made at that 
 time, it is considered to be waived. If the incompetency, 
 however, was not known at the time of the arraignment, the 
 challenge may be made at any stage of the proceedings. 
 
 Liberality in Matters Pertaining to Challenges The 
 
 court should be liberal in passing upon challenges, but the 
 objections must be specific, and should not be sustained upon 
 the mere assertion of the accused, except where it is ad- 
 mitted by the challenged member. 
 
 Invalidated Cases In cases which are invalidated be- 
 cause of failure to excuse a member who is the accuser or 
 a witness for the prosecution, a new trial may be ordered. 
 
 Member. Witness For the Defence The fact that a 
 member is a witness for the defence does not necessarily 
 disqualify him. 
 
 Member Called As Witness By the Court Should a 
 member of the court be called as a witness for the prose- 
 cution, the character of his testimony should be carefully 
 considered and, in case of doubt as to the justice of his sit- 
 ting as a member, he should be excused. 
 
 OATHS 
 
 Oaths of Members After the challenges have been dis- 
 posed of, the judge advocate will administer the oath to the 
 court. In cases where members object to taking an oath, 
 the closing sentence of adjuration may be omitted. Mem- 
 bers of the court are sworn for each case tried. 
 
 Oath of Judge Advocate The court having been sworn 
 by the judge advocate, the president administers the oath to 
 the judge advocate. During the administering of oaths ^all 
 persons in the courtroom are required to stand. In taking 
 an oath the head and the right hand will be bare and the 
 right hand raised. 
 

 Continuance 29 
 
 Other Oaths The judge advocate administers all other 
 oaths in connection with the trial, including witnesses, re- 
 porters, interpreters, &c. 
 
 Oaths to Test Competency When a member of a 
 general or special court-martial is challenged and it is de- 
 sired to question him regarding his eligibility, the judge ad- 
 vocate will administer to him the following oath: 
 
 "You swear that you will true answers make to all ques- 
 tions touching your competency as a member of the court in 
 this case. So help you God?" 
 
 This is called placing a member upon his voire dire. 
 
 CONTINUANCE 
 
 Continuance A continuance is a delay granted to the 
 prosecution or defence in proceeding with the trial. It is 
 usually given in order to allow the judge advocate or the 
 counsel to procure evidence, or to otherwise prepare the 
 case. 
 
 Authority For A court-martial may, for reasonable 
 cause, grant a continuance to either party for such time and 
 as often as may appear to be just. If an application for an 
 extended delay appears to be well founded it should be re- 
 ferred to the appointing authority for his decision. If the 
 counsel for the accused has not taken proper advantage of 
 opportunities to prepare his case, the court may decide that 
 the right to a continuance does not exist. 
 
 ARRAIGNMENT 
 
 The arraignment consists of the reading by the judge ad- 
 vocate to the court and to the accused, of the charges and 
 specifications against the accused. 
 
 PLEAS 
 
 Procedure Charges and specifications having been 
 read, the accused is required to plead to each specification of 
 the first charge separately, and then to the first charge. He 
 then pleads to each specification of the second charge sepa- 
 rately and then to the second charge, and so on. 
 
30 Attendance of Witnesses 
 
 Kinds of Pleas Special Pleas are pleas to the jurisdic- 
 tion, pleas in abatement, and pleas in bar of trial. Then 
 there is what is known as a plea to the general issue. 
 
 A plea to the jurisdiction denies the right of the court 
 to try the case for certain reasons given. Pleas in abate- 
 ment are based upon some defect in the charge or specifi- 
 cation and usually only operate to delay the trial. 
 
 Pleas in bar of trial, if sustained, are substantial and 
 conclusive answers to particular charges or specifications. 
 One of the most usual pleas in bar is the Statute- of Limi- 
 tations, which deprives the Government of the power to 
 try and punish an offender after a specified period has elapsed 
 since the offence was committed and under certain condi- 
 tions. 
 
 Another plea in bar often arises by reason -of the law 
 prohibiting the trial of a person a second time for the same 
 offence. A pardon may also be the basis of a plea in bar. 
 
 Pleas to the General Issue This term is applied where 
 the accused pleads guilty or not guilty to each charge in 
 the specification, or guilty to a portion of a specification and 
 not guilty of the other portion, etc. 
 
 Change of Plea A court-martial may permit an ac- 
 cused to withdraw a plea of guilty and substitute one of not 
 guilty, or vice versa. 
 
 Taking of Testimony on Plea of Guilty The mere fact 
 that the accused pleads guilty does not necessarily pre- 
 clude the taking of testimony upon behalf of either the 
 prosecution or the defence. It may be desirable to introduce 
 witnesses to show the extent or degree of guilt of the ac- 
 cused or the seriousness of the offence. The accused may, in 
 making his plea, plead guilty of a lesser kindred offence, that 
 is, guilty of an offence of the same general nature, but less 
 serious. (Statute of limitations, see app.) 
 
 ATTENDANCE OF WITNESSES 
 
 Process to Obtain Witnesses Every judge advocate of 
 a general or special court-martial, and every summary court- 
 martial, shall have power to issue process to compel wit- 
 nesses to appear and testify, as in the case of courts of the 
 United States with criminal jurisdiction. Such process shall 
 
Attendance of Witnesses 31 
 
 run to any part of the United States, its territories and 
 possessions. The court, in its discretion may also direct the 
 judge advocate to require the presence of a witness. 
 
 Subpoena For the attendance of civilian witnesses a 
 subpoena will he issued in duplicate. It may be legally served 
 by a person in the military service or a civilian. Usually 
 it is served by an officer or a non-commissioned officer. 
 Proof of service is made by indorsing on the remaining 
 copy a sworn statement that the service was made. If the 
 witness cannot be found the judge advocate should be in- 
 formed. A judge advocate cannot subpoena a civilian wit- 
 ness to appear before himself for preliminary examination. 
 
 Summoning of Witnesses The judge advocate will 
 summon the necessary witnesses for the trial, but will not 
 do so where expense to the Gov.ern,ment is involved without 
 the order of the court, unless satisfied that their testimony 
 is material and necessary. The summoning of witnesses for 
 the prosecution and the defence is done by the judge ad- 
 vocate. Where the summoning of a number of witnesses at 
 the request of the defence will result in unreasonable in- 
 convenience or expense to the government, the judge advo- 
 cate will use his discretion in the matter. 
 
 Advance Notice to Witnesses The judge advocate will 
 endeavor to issue subpoenas to civilian witnesses at such 
 time as to give them at least twenty-four hours notice be- 
 fore starting to attend th^ court. 
 
 Attendance of Military Witnesses The attendance of 
 military witnesses stationed where the court is sitting, 
 or where no expense will be involved in getting to and from 
 the court, will ordinarily be obtained by informal notice sent 
 by the judge advocate to the person concerned. If for any 
 reason a formal notice is required, the judge advocate will 
 request the proper commanding officer to order the witness 
 to attend. 
 
 The attendance of witnesses involving cost for travel must 
 be issued by the department or other proper commander. No 
 fee will be paid to military witnesses. Military witnesses 
 are given only such mileage allowance as is due them under 
 ordinary travel orders. Retired persons (officers or soldiers), 
 not on active duty, appear before courts under the same rules 
 and are entitled to the same fees as civilian witnesses who 
 are not in the govenmejit employ. 
 
32 Attendance of Witnesses 
 
 Procedure to Secure Attendance of Civilian Witnesses 
 
 Ordinarily the judge advocate will endeavor to secure the 
 attendance of a civilian witness by informal means, sending 
 him the duplicate subpoena properly filled out, with a request 
 to accept service thereon and to return it to the judge ad- 
 vocate. A penalty envelope shall be enclosed for the pur- 
 pose. If such informal methods are ineffective, formal sub- 
 poena will be issued, with a view to service by the proper 
 person. Should the person desired as a witness reside else- 
 where than at or near the place where the court is sitting, 
 but is near another military post, the subpoena will be sent 
 to the commander of that post with request that he cause 
 it to be served. Should travel be necessary for the service 
 of this subpoena, it will be sent to the authority competent 
 to issue the travel order with request that it be served. 
 
 Accused to be Confronted With Witnesses The ac- 
 cused must be confronted with witnesses in capital cases. 
 Depositions cannot be introduced in capital cases. When the 
 judge advocate believes that the interests of justice demand 
 that the accused be confronted by a witness against him or 
 believes for any reason that a witness should testify in the 
 presence of the court, he will take the necessary steps to 
 secure the attendance of such witness. 
 
 Books, Documents or Papers If a civilian has in his 
 possession a book, document, or paper, desired to be intro- 
 duced in evidence, what is known as a subpoena duces tecum 
 will be prepared and issued by the judge advocate, directing 
 the person to appear in court and to bring with him such 
 book, document or paper. Should a person in the military 
 service possess such a book, document or paper, he will be 
 directed by proper authority to appear in court with the 
 desired book, document or paper. 
 
 Warrants of Attachment Should a civilian witness fail 
 to comply with the law in regard to obeying a subpoena his 
 attendance may be brought about by means of what is 
 termed a Warrant of Attachment. When it becomes neces- 
 sary to issue a Warrant of Attachment, the judge advocate 
 or summary court will direct or deliver it for execution to 
 an officer designated by the department commander for the 
 purpose. 
 
 As the arrest of a person under a Warrant of Attachment 
 deprives him of his liberty, the authority for such warrant 
 
Habeas Corpus 33 
 
 may be inquired into t>y a writ of habeas corpus, therefore, 
 the officer executing the Warrant of Attachment should be 
 provided with the following papers: 
 
 (a) Copy of charges properly authenticated. 
 
 (b) Copy of the order appointing the court-martial. 
 
 (c) The original subpoena with proof of service. 
 
 (d) The affidavit of the judge advocate or summary 
 court, that the person is a material witness; that he has 
 failed to appear; that he has offered no valid excuse and 
 that he has received the original Warrant of Attachment. 
 
 HABEAS CORPUS 
 
 Habeas Corpus and Warrant of Attachment Should 
 the officer executing the Warrant of Attachment be served 
 with a writ of habeas corpus from a United States Court 
 or Judge, for the production of the person attached, the writ 
 will be promptly obeyed and a return ,made stating the 
 reasons for his restraint. The officer upon whom the writ is 
 served will report by telegraph the facts to the Adjutant 
 General of the Army and the Department Commander. If 
 the writ of habeas corpus be issued by a State Court or 
 Judge, the officer shall make a respectful return in writing, 
 informing the court or judge that he holds the person named 
 in writ by authority of the United States, pursuant to a 
 writ of attachment issued by the judge advocate of a court- 
 martial, and that the Supreme Court of the United States 
 has decided that State Courts and Judges have no jurisdic- 
 tion in such cases. The officer will hold the prisoner in 
 custody under his warrant and refuse obedience to the 
 mandate of any government, except that of the United States. 
 
 Punishment For Refusal to Qualify as Witness There 
 is no power in a court-martial itself to compel a witness to 
 testify or to punish him for not testifying. Procedure in 
 such case will be ( made by the United States District At- 
 torney, or officer prosecuting for the Government. Upon 
 proper information, the District Attorney or other prosecu- 
 ting officer for the United States will file an information 
 against and prosecute the person so offending. The punish- 
 ment shall be a fine not to exceed $500, or imprisonment 
 not to exceed six months, or both. 
 
 Tender of Fees Preliminary to Prosecution In case of 
 a civilian witness, who has been duly subpoenaed and wil- 
 
34 Contempt 
 
 fully neglects or refuses to appear or qualify as a witness, 
 he will be tendered or paid by the nearest quartermaster one 
 day's fee and the mileage to and from the court, and again 
 called upon to comply with the requirements of the law. 
 Should he fail to comply the second time, a report of the 
 case will be made to the officer having general court-martial 
 jurisdiction over the command, with a view to presenting 
 the facts to the Department of Justice for punitive action. 
 
 CONTEMPT 
 
 (a) Authprity to Punish The court-martial may pun- 
 ish at discretion, subject to certain limitations, any person 
 who uses menacing words, signs, or gestures, in its pres- 
 ence, or who disturbs its proceedings by riot or disorder. 
 Power is vested in general, special and summary courts to 
 punish for contempt, while other punishments require the 
 approval of the reviewing authority. 
 
 (b) Persons Who May Be Punished For Contempt 
 Any persons, whether they be in the military service or no':, 
 may be punished for contempt of a military court. 
 
 DEPOSITIONS 
 
 When Admissible Depositions may be read in evi- 
 dence before a military Court or Commission, in any case 
 not capital. Depositions itnay be taken when the witness re- 
 sides beyond the limit of the State, territory or district in 
 which the court is sitting, or is actually unable by reason of 
 age, sickness, etc., to appear before the court. 
 
 Before Whom Taken Depositions may be taken be- 
 fore, and authenticated by any officer, military or civil, au- 
 thorized by the laws of the United States to administer 
 oaths. 
 
 THE EVIDENCE 
 
 Requirements of the Oath The oath taken by the 
 members of general and special courts-martial requires them 
 to try and determine, according to the evidence, the matter 
 before them. A summary court, although it takes no oath, 
 is bound by the same rule. The evidence referred to, upon 
 which the court must decide the case, means all the matters 
 of fact which the court permits to be introduced, of which 
 it takes judicial notice, with a view to proving or disproving 
 
The Evidence 35 
 
 the charges. Any personal information in the possession of 
 individual members, or in, fact in the possession of the court 
 itself, unless it has been received in accordance with the law 
 and accepted as evidence, should not be considered in the 
 case whatever. 
 
 Burden of Proof The burden of proof rests entirely 
 with the United States. It is always assumed that the accused 
 is innocent until the proof of his guilt is established. 
 
 Protection of Witnesses It is the duty of the court to 
 protect every witness from irrelevant, insulting or improper 
 questions, or from harsh or insulting treatment, and from 
 unnecessary inquiry into his private affairs. The intimida- 
 tion of witnesses is also forbidden. 
 
 Character of Accused The question of character can 
 only be raised by the accused. Should the accused bring up 
 the matter of his character the judge advocate or court can 
 then proce"ed to investigate and bring out by questioning all 
 the facts in the case; but unless the accused has brought up 
 the matter himself, neither the judge advocate nor the court 
 is permitted to question the character of the accused. Where 
 the accused takes the stand as a witness, however, his char- 
 acter for veracity may be attacked in the same manner as 
 that of any other witness. There is one other exception to 
 the rule of inadmissibility of evidence as to character on 
 the part of the prosecution where proof exists of the 
 laccused having committed acts similar to that for which 
 he is being tried, said proof may be admitted to show 
 the motive or the tendency toward the committing of that 
 particular kind of crime. 
 
 Interest or Bias The fact that a person is interested 
 in or hostile to the accused, does not in any way disqualify 
 him as a witness. The weight of his testimony, however, 
 must be decided by the court. 
 
 Accused as Witness The accused shall, at his own 
 request but not otherwise, be a competent witness and his 
 failure to make such request shall not create any presump- 
 tion against him. The prosecution and the court have a 
 right to examine and cross-examine the accused as in the 
 case of any other witness. He can, however, only be cross- 
 examined upon those matters upon which he has voluntarily 
 testified. 
 
36 The Evidence 
 
 Dying Declarations While hearsay evidence is not as 
 a rule admissable, there is an exception in the case of dying 
 declarations, and it is permitted that the dying declaration 
 of a person, against whom violence has been committed, be 
 received as evidence before a court. Owing to the mental 
 depreciation of persons giving a dying declaration much 
 caution, however, must be exercised in giving weight to 
 testimony involved. 
 
 . Incriminating Questions A witness is privileged to re- 
 fuse to respond to a question the answer to which may in- 
 criminate him. If there is a questi-on, however, as to whether 
 or not the answer would incriminate the witness, the matter 
 is decided by the court and the witness will answer or be 
 excused from answering the question according to its de- 
 cision. The right to refuse to answer such questions is a 
 personal one and may be waived in the discretion of the 
 court. 
 
 Physical Examination It is not considered a violation 
 of the rule permitting a witness to refuse to answer questions 
 when the answers would incriminate him, for the court to 
 require a physical examination of the accused, though he 
 be a witness in his own defence. 
 
 Examination of Witnesses Witnesses will be examined 
 apart from each other, no witness being allowed to be pre- 
 sent during the examination of another who is called before 
 him. This rule, however, is not inflexible. 
 
 Number of Witnesses Required The general rule is 
 that there must be two witnesses to the act. 
 
 Order of Examination The regular sequence in the ex- 
 amination of witnesses is as follows: 
 
 Witness for the prosecution, 
 
 Direct examination by the judge advocate. 
 
 Cross examination by the counsel for the accused, 
 
 Re-direct examination by the judge advocate, 
 
 Re-cross examination by the counsel for the accused. 
 
 Examination by the court. 
 
 Witness for the defence. 
 
 Direct examination by the counsel for the accused. 
 
 Cross examination by the judge advocate, and so on. 
 
Statements and Arguments 37 
 
 When a witness for the defence is called the judge advo- 
 cate will ask the following questions of a civilian witness : 
 
 "State your name, 'business, profession or occupation." 
 
 He will ask of all witnesses : 
 
 "Do you know the accused, if so, state who he is?" 
 
 In the case of a person in the military service as a wit- 
 ness, the judge advocate will announce his name, rank and 
 organization. 
 
 Witnesses will only be cross-examined on matters upon 
 which they were questioned in the direct-examination. Should 
 either side desire to bring out any matter which has not 
 been touched upon in the direct-examination, they may recall 
 the witness for their particular side and then by direct-ex- 
 amination bring out the matter desired. 
 
 Leading Questions By the term "leading question" is 
 meant a question which suggests the answer the witness shall 
 make. In the direct examination leading questions will not 
 be asked. They may be asked, however, in the cross-ex- 
 amination. 
 
 Swearing of a Recalled Witness The administering of 
 an oath to a witness a second time in the same case is not 
 necessary. It is customary to require that the judge advo- 
 cate caution and remind him that he is under oath for the 
 present case. 
 
 STATEMENTS AND ARGUMENTS 
 
 Statements After the introduction of evidence has 
 been completed, the accused personally, or his counsel, may 
 make an unsworn or written statement as to the case. It 
 may be a brief summary of the evidence, or it may be a 
 statement of extenuating circumstances or a complete oral 
 statement -or story of the whole affair. Such a statement 
 is not subject to cross-examination. While such a state- 
 ment has not the weight of testimony, it should be taken into 
 consideration by the court. 
 
 Arguments After the accused has made a statement, 
 or waived his right to do so, the judge advocate and the 
 accused, through his counsel, may present arguments. The 
 judge advocate has the right to the opening and the closing 
 argument, but the court may permit the defence to answer 
 any new matter in the closing argument of the judge advo- 
 cate. 
 
38 Findings 
 
 FINDINGS 
 
 Voting Beginning with the youngest in commission, the 
 court will vote upon the specifications of the first charge in 
 order, and then the first charge, followed by the specifica- 
 tions in order and then the second charge, and so on. A 
 two-thirds vote is necessary to conviction in capital cases. 
 A tie vote is equal to a vote of not guilty and, 'except in 
 capital cases, a majority is necessary to convict. 
 
 Reasonable Doubt A member in voting guilty should 
 be satisfied beyond any reasonable doubt as to the guilt of 
 the accused. 
 
 Guilty of a Lesser Included Offence If the evidence 
 prove the commission of an offence which is included in that 
 with which the accused is charged, the court may except 
 words of the specification and if necessary substitute others 
 instead, pronounce the innocence of the accused of the ex- 
 cepted words and the guilt of the accused of the substituted 
 words. 
 
 An example of such a finding would be the case of a 
 charge of desertion. The following might be the finding: 
 
 "Of the specification guilty except the words 'did desert* 
 and 'in desertion' substituting therefor respectively the words 
 'absent himself without leave from' and 'without leave,' of 
 the excepted words not guilty, of the substituted words guilty 
 and -of the charge, not guilty but guilty of violation of the 
 Sixty-first Article of War." 
 
 Guilty Without Criminality A finding of "guilty with- 
 out criminality" is not consistent and should not be made. 
 If the accused is found to have committed the act, but with- 
 out guilty intent or knowledge sufficient to constitute the 
 offence, the court should, as to the specification, find the 
 accused "not guilty." 
 
 Recording of Finding or Sentence The judge advocate 
 will himself write in the finding and sentence in every case. 
 The fact that the sentence, or finding, or both, have been 
 made known to a reporter or clerk, however, cannot affect 
 the legality of the proceedings or sentence. 
 
 PREVIOUS CONVICTIONS 
 
 After the court has come to a finding of "guilty" in a 
 case, the court will open and -the judge advocate will be 
 

 Previous Convictions 39 
 
 called upon to state whether or not there is any evidence of 
 previous convictions, and if so, to read them to the court 
 in the presence of the accused. The accused will be called 
 upon to state any legal objection he might have to any of 
 the evidence. 
 
 SENTENCE 
 
 Voting After the rinding has been determined upon 
 and resulted in a conviction of an offence, the court will close 
 and decide upon a sentence. Those .members desiring to pro- 
 pose sentences write them on slips of paper and hand them 
 to the president. The president then reads them commenc- 
 ing with the lightest, and each in turn is voted on, and the 
 first sentence that received the necessary majority becomes 
 the sentence to the accused. Where the sentence is specific 
 and mandatory fpr a single charge, that sentence is adopted. 
 If, in addition to the finding pf "guilty" on a charge where 
 the specification is mandatory, there be other specifications, 
 :he mandatory sentence and in addition such other necessary 
 punishment may be awarded as the case may seem to require. 
 
 Sentences For Officers Legal and customary sentences 
 for officers are death, dismissal, confinement at hard labor, 
 loss of rank, suspension from rank, suspension from com- 
 mand, suspension from duty, fine of forfeiture of pay, con- 
 finement within certain limits, reprimand and admonition. 
 
 Sentences For Soldiers For soldiers legal and custom- 
 ary sentences are : Death, dishonorable discharge, confine- 
 ment at hard labor, confinement, forfeiture of pay, detention 
 of pay, reduction, reprimand, deprivation of certificate of 
 eligibility to promotion. 
 
 Recommendations to Clemency When a court-martial, 
 or any member thereof, desires to submit a recommenda- 
 tion to clemency, including a recommendation for the sus- 
 pension of all or part of the sentence, such recommendation 
 will be signed by each member concurring therein. The 
 communication will contain a statement of the reasons upon 
 which the recommendation is based and will be appended 
 to the record of the trial. 
 
 CONFINEMENT IN A PENITENTIARY 
 
 When Authorized Under the Federal Penal Code any 
 offence is a felony which is punishable under the Code or 
 
40 Confinement in a Penitentiary 
 
 other Statute of the United States by confinement in excess 
 of one year. But no person may be confined in a penitentiary 
 unless the punishment actually adjudged for an offence of 
 which he has been convicted exceeds one year. A sentence 
 to confinement in a penitentiary will be awarded in those 
 cases only where the act committed is punishable by penal 
 servitude in the State, Territory, or District in which the act 
 was committed. In awarding the punishment the place of 
 confinement will not be mentioned by the court-martial, but 
 will be left to the discretion of the reviewing authority. 
 
 ACTION ON PROCEEDINGS 
 
 Sentence Not Effective Until Approved No sentence 
 of court-martial shall be carried into execution until the 
 same shall have been approved by the officer appointing the 
 court or by the officer commanding for the time being. 
 
 Effect of Approval and Disapproval While approval 
 gives life and operation to a sentence, disapproval, on the 
 other hand, nullifies it. 
 
 Power to Mitigate Punishment The reviewing author- 
 ity has the power to reduce the sentence in quantity or 
 quality, provided that the general nature of the punishment 
 remain the same. He has also power to remit the whole 
 or unincluded part of the sentence. The power of remission 
 and mitigation extends to all uncollected forfeitures also. 
 
 Commutation of Sentences The power to commute 
 sentences imposed by ,military tribunals, can be exercised by 
 the President of the United States alone. 
 
 Adding to Sentences There is no authority that exists 
 which can in any way increase a sentence given by a court- 
 martial. The only way in which this can be effected is for 
 the reviewing authority to return the proceedings in the case 
 to the court for reconsideration, with a statement to the 
 effect that the sentence is inadequate. Should the court 
 adhere to its former decision, there is no power which can 
 increase it. 
 
 Sentence in Excess of Legal Limit Where a sentence 
 is in excess of a legal limit, such portion of it as is legal 
 may be approved and executed, the illegal portion of the 
 sentence being disapproved, is without effect. 
 

 Action on Proceeding's 41 
 
 Suspension of Sentence Any officer who has authority 
 to carry into execution the sentence of death, or of dismissal 
 of an officer, may suspend the same until the pleasure of 
 the President be known. The authority competent to order 
 the execution of a sentence adjudged by a court-martial may, 
 if the sentence involve neither dismissal or dishonorable dis- 
 charge, suspend the execution of the sentence in so far as 
 it relates to the forfeiture of pay or to confinement, and the 
 person may be restored to duty during his suspension of 
 confinement. Within one year after suspension, such order 
 of suspension, for sufficient cause, may be vacated and the 
 execution thereof directed by the military authority issuing 
 it. If the order of suspension be not vacated within one 
 year, it shall have the effect of a remission of the sentence. 
 The authority competent to order the execution of a sentence 
 including dishonorable discharge may suspend such dishonor- 
 able discharge until the soldier is released from confinement, 
 but the order of suspension may be vacated at any time and 
 the execution of the dishonorable discharge directed by the 
 officer suspending the discharge. In cases of suspended sen- 
 tences the United States Disciplinary Barracks and peniten- 
 tiaries are excluded from these rules. 
 
 Date of Beginning of Sentence The order promulga- 
 ting the proceedings of the court and the action of the re- 
 viewing authority will, when practicable, be of the same 
 date. When this is not practicable, the order will give the 
 date of the action of the reviewing authority, which date 
 will be the beginning of the sentence of confinement. A 
 sentence of confinement is continuous until the term expires, 
 except where the prisoner is absent without authority, or 
 on a parole, which proper authority revoked, or is delivered 
 over to the civil authorities. The amount of time spent in 
 confinement prior to the promulgation of a sentence does 
 not form a part of a sentence, but due consideration should 
 be given to such time when the sentence is passed upon t>y 
 the reviewing authority. 
 
 Applications For Clemency will not be made in excess 
 of one in every six months. 
 
 x COURTS OF INQUIRY 
 
 When and By Whom Ordered A court of inquiry to 
 examine into the nature of any transaction of, or accusation 
 or imputation against any officer or soldier, may be ordered 
 
42 Courts of Inquiry 
 
 by the President or by any commanding officer, but a court 
 of inquiry shall not be ordered by any commanding officer 
 except upon the request of the officer or soldier whose con- 
 duct is to be inquired into. 
 
 Neither the President nor a commanding officer is obliged 
 to order a court of inquiry on demand of an officer or 
 soldier. He will use his discretion in the matter and act 
 according to the necessities of the case. 
 
 MEMORANDA FOR TRIAL JUDGE 
 ADVOCATES 
 
 1. UPON RECEIPT BY AN OFFICER OF AN 
 ORDER APPOINTING HIM JUDGE ADVOCATE 
 OF A COURT-MARTIAL 
 
 (a) Examine the order carefully and take appropriate 
 acti-on to cause the correction of any substantial irregularity 
 therein. 
 
 (b) Examine and study such portions of the Manual 
 for Courts-Martial, Digest of Opinions of the Judge Advo- 
 cates General, Army Regulations, and War Department or 
 other orders affecting courts-martial as may appear desirable. 
 He should, in this connection, give particular attention to 
 the duties of trial judge advocates, to the procedure of 
 courts-imartial, and to the matter of evidence. 
 
 2. UPON RECEIPT OF CHARGES IN A CASE 
 
 (a) Prepare an envelope to contain the papers per- 
 taining thereto. 
 
 (b) Examine the charges and all papers received to 
 see that none appear to be missing, that the charges appear 
 to be correctly drawn, that the evidence of previous convic- 
 tions is complete and correct, especially as to dates, authenti- 
 cation, proper signatures, etc. 
 
 (c) Make authorized necessary changes in charges and 
 take proper action, in connection with defects, if any, found 
 in evidence of previous convictions. 
 
 (d) Report to the appointing authority necessary or 
 desirable changes which the judge advocate is not authorized 
 to make. 
 
Memoranda 43 
 
 (e) Furnish the accused, if he so desires, a copy of the 
 charges ; and, if he desires to state, ascertain from him how 
 he intends to plead. 
 
 (f) Ascertain whether accused desires counsel; and if 
 so, ascertain whether he wishes a particular person ; and if 
 so, whom. 
 
 (g) Arrange for counsel, if desired to do so. 
 
 (h) Prepare case for trial, investigating it thoroughly, 
 and determining upon plan of prosecution. 
 
 (i) Arrange with president date and time of meeting 
 of court. 
 
 (j) Arrange for court-martial room, see that it is in 
 order, provided with necessary chairs, tables, stationery, and 
 room to be heated, if necessary. 
 
 (k) Notify all members of date and time of meeting 
 and arrange for presence of other necessary persons, includ- 
 ing the accused and his counsel, reporter, interpreter, if re- 
 quired, and witnesses. 
 
 (1) Arrange to have at trial such books, etc., as may 
 be required. The following are frequently found necessary 
 or useful : 
 
 Manual for Courts-Martial. 
 
 Digest of Opinions, Judge Advocates General. 
 
 Standard Text on Military Law. 
 
 Ordnance Price List. 
 
 Clothing Price List. 
 
 (m) Determine maximum punishment, if any, impos- 
 able upon conviction of each of the several offences charged, 
 and note same on slip for use of court in the event of a 
 conviction. 
 
 3. UPON THE ASSEMBLING OF THE COURT 
 
 (a) Note officers present and absent. 
 
 (b) When court appears to be ready to proceed, an- 
 nounce the readiness of the prosecution to proceed with 
 
 trial of , who desires to introduce as counsel, 
 
 or does not desire to introduce counsel. 
 
 (c) Swear reporter, if any. 
 
 (d) If a general court-martial, ask accused if he de- 
 sires a copy of the record of his trial. If he does not, do 
 
44 Memoranda 
 
 not have copy made; if he wishes copy, direct reporter to 
 prepare one. 
 
 (e) Read aloud to accused the order appointing the 
 court and each modifying order. 
 
 (f) Ask accused if he objects to being tried by any 
 member present named in the order or orders. 
 
 (g) After action on challenge, if any has been made, 
 again ask the accused whether he objects as above. Con- 
 tinue this until accused has no further objections. 
 
 (h) Swear members of court. 
 
 (i) Be sworn by president. 
 
 (j) Read charges and specifications aloud slowly to 
 the accused, and, having done so, ask him how he pleads to 
 the first specification, first charge if necessary rereading to 
 him the specification; then how he pleads to the second 
 specification, first charge, etc.; then to the first charge, etc. 
 
 (k) If there be a plea of guilty, the president makes 
 to accused the required explanations and asks him the re- 
 quired questions. 
 
 (1) Read to court from chapter on punitive articles 
 the gist of each of the several offences charged. 
 
 (m) Introduce and swear witnesses for the prosecu- 
 tion. In some cases it may be desirable to acquaint the court 
 with the particular specification with which the testimony 
 of a particular witness is connected. 
 
 (n) In all cases attempt to establish by evidence each 
 of the several specifications, except such elements as may be 
 the subjects of judicial notice or as are admitted. 
 
 (o) Examine each witness, having careful regard for 
 the rules of evidence. 
 
 (p) Offer opportunity to cross-examine. 
 
 (q) Re-examine, if desirable. 
 
 (r) Ask court if there are any questions by the court. 
 
 (s) If any witness is recalled, remind him that he is 
 still under oath. 
 
 (t) When the prosecution has nothing further to offer 
 for the time, announce that the prosecution rests. 
 
 (u) Swear witnesses for defence, in succession, and 
 cross-examine so far as desirable. 
 
Memoranda 45 
 
 (v) After defence rests, swear and examine witnesses, 
 if any, in rebuttal for prosecution. 
 
 (w) If the accused neither testifies nor makes a state- 
 ment, the president makes to him the required explanation 
 and asks him the required questions. 
 
 (x) Offer accused opportunity to make a statement. 
 (y) Make closing statement, if any. 
 
 4. ADJOURNMENT DURING TRIAL 
 
 (a) Note time of adjournment. 
 
 (b) Arrange, if practicable, to have completed record 
 of proceedings to date ready before next assembling of court. 
 
 (c) Subscribe the record of proceedings for the day. 
 
 5. FINDINGS 
 
 (a) After both prosecution and defence have con- 
 cluded, the court closes for findings, and in the case of a 
 person not a soldier to award sentence upon conviction. 
 
 (b) Upon conviction of a soldier, the court opens for 
 the purpose of receiving evidence of previous, convictions, 
 if there be any. 
 
 (1) Read aloud duly authenticated evidence of pre- 
 vious convictions referred to the court by the appointing 
 authority. 
 
 (2) Invite attention of court to any apparent irregu- 
 larity in the evidence of previous convictions. 
 
 (3) Ask the accused whether the evidence of the 
 several previous convictions and the statement of service as 
 shown on the charge sheet are correct. 
 
 (4) Invite the attention of the court to any apparent 
 irregularity in the findings. 
 
 6. SENTENCE 
 
 (a) The court will then close to determine upon and 
 award the sentence. 
 
 (b) After awarding sentence the court notifies the 
 judge advocate of the same. 
 
 (c) Invite the attention of the court to any apparent 
 irregularity in the sentence. 
 
46 Memoranda 
 
 7. ADJOURNMENT AT CLOSE OF TRIAL. 
 
 (a) After sentence has been awarded the court either 
 proceeds to other business or adjourns. 
 
 (b) Note time of proceeding to other business or of 
 adjournment. 
 
 8. AFTER TRIAL 
 
 (a) Complete vouchers for civilian witnesses and de- 
 liver same, if practicable, before the witness leaves. 
 
 (b) Take proper measures to insure the security of the 
 findings and sentence, if recorded, and that they are not dis- 
 closed to any but the proper authority. 
 
 (c) When record is received back from reporter: 
 
 (1) Examine carefully to see that it is in proper form, 
 c.omplete, and correct as to both form and substance. 
 
 (2) Make proper notation on index sheet as to copy 
 of record. 
 
 (3) See that copies of evidence of previous convic- 
 tions are correct, certify same, and return originals to or- 
 ganization. 
 
 (4) If not so attached, attach index sheet and all ex- 
 hibits. 
 
 (5) See that record is securely bound. 
 
 (d) Enter findings and sentence. 
 
 (e) If findings and sentence are typewritten, add 
 proper certificate. 
 
 (f) Authenticate record. 
 
 (g) Have president authenticate record. 
 
 (h) Certify original voucher and send it to reporter 
 or to a near disbursing quartermaster, and inclose copy with 
 record. 
 
 (i) Verify completeness and correctness of record by 
 seeing that, so far as necessary in the particular case, each 
 requirement stated in Chapter XV, Section I, paragraph 
 357 (b) has been complied with. 
 
 (j) Indorse and forward charges, accompanied by 
 record of trial and all other papers received with the case, 
 to the appointing authority. 
 
Memoranda 47 
 
 9. WEEKLY REPORT 
 
 Each Saturday report through the president of the court 
 and the commanding officer, all charges which have not been 
 returned to the appointing authority, showing date of receipt 
 of each and reasons for delay in trial. 
 
 10. RECORD WHICH MAY BE KEPT 
 
 It is suggested that when deemed desirable at least the 
 following record be kept by the trial judge advocate in each 
 case. This record may be conveniently kept on an envelope 
 to be used as a container for the charges and various papers : 
 
 Date of receipt by him of charges or other papers. 
 
 Date of preliminary consultation by him with the accused. 
 
 How accused intends to plead, if stated by him. 
 
 Counsel: Desired? If so, name. If so, date on which 
 commanding officer so informed. 
 
 Date on which judge advocate informed of appointment of 
 counsel. 
 
 Result of examination in preparing for trial, and dates and 
 other necessary facts pertaining to each other incident con- 
 nected with the case, such as mailing interrogatories, sub- 
 poenaing witnesses, etc. 
 
 Date of trial. 
 
 Date and hour record received back from reporter. 
 
 Date and hour record forwarded to appointing authority. 
 
 Date of return to commanding officer of evidence of pre- 
 vious convictions, if any, to be so returned. 
 
 The Statute of Limitations (1) Definition Statutes 
 of limitation in criminal law are statutes of which the ac- 
 cused may take advantage and deprive the Government of 
 the power to try and punish him, after the lapse of a specific 
 period since the offence was co,mmitted. They are enacted 
 to secure the prompt punishment of criminal offences and 
 with a view to obtain the attendance of the witnesses at the 
 trial while the recollection of the event is still fresh in their 
 minds. In court-martial prosecutions are limited both as to 
 time and as to number. (A. W. 39, 40.) * 
 
 (2) Limitations as to time. (a) In the following 
 cases there is no limitation as to time upon trial by court- 
 martial (A. W. 39) viz : 
 
 * Time, Statute of Limitations. Number, Constitution: "No person will be tried 
 twice for same offence." This does not prevent the trial of a soldier by the military authorities 
 after trial by civil courts for the same act, which sometimes constitutes two offences, i. e. dis- 
 gracing: the uniform, a purely military offence, and breach of peace, a civil offence. 
 
48 Memoranda 
 
 (1) Desertion committed in time of war; 
 
 (2) Mutiny; or 
 
 (3) Murder. 
 
 (b) The period of limitation upon trial and punish- 
 ment by court-martial shall be three (3) years in the fol- 
 lowing cases (A. W. 39) viz. : 
 
 (1) Desertion in time of peace; 
 
 (2) Any crime or offence punishable under A. W. 93; 
 or 
 
 (3) Any crime or offence punishable under A. W. 94. 
 
 (c) No person subject to military law shall be liable 
 to be tried or punished by a court-martial for any crime or 
 offence not enumerated in paragraph (a) -or paragraph (b), 
 supra, committed .more than two (2) years before the ar- 
 raignment of such person (A. W. 39). 
 
 (d) Computation of the period of limitation. The 
 point at and from which the period of limitation is to begin 
 to run is the, date of the commission of the offence. The 
 point at which the period of limitation is to terminate and 
 from which said period is to be reckoned back is the date 
 or arraignment of the accused. There must be excluded in 
 computing this period : 
 
 (1) The period of any absence of the accused from 
 the jurisdiction of the United States; and 
 
 (2) Any period during which by reason of some mani- 
 fest impediment the accused shall not have been amenable 
 to military justice. 
 
 Notes. "Manifest impediment", means only such im- 
 pediments as to operate to prevent the court-martial from 
 exercising its jurisdiction, and includes such conditions as 
 being held as a prisoner of war in the hands of the enemy, 
 or being imprisoned under the sentence of a civil court 
 upon conviction of crime (In re Davison, 4 Fed. Rep., 510) ; 
 but any concealment of the evidence of their guilt or other 
 like fraud on their part while they remain within the juris- 
 diction of the United States, by which the prosecution is 
 delayed until the time the bar has run, did not deprive them 
 of the benefit of the statute. (14 Op. Atty. Gen. 268.) 
 
 The thirty-ninth article of war did not have the effect to 
 authorize trial or punishment for any crime or offence 
 barred by the provisions of law existing at the date of its 
 exactment, August 29, 1916. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 COMPANY ADMINISTRATION 
 
 Discipline All military persons are required to obey 
 promptly their superiors in the fulfillment of all lawful 
 orders. Orders which are manifestly illegal have no force. 
 Between the easily recognized extremes of legal and illegal 
 orders, where there is doubt as to legality or propriety, the 
 order should be obeyed. In serious cases and cases involv- 
 ing the expenditure of public funds, such doubtful orders 
 should be demanded to be given in writing. 
 
 Military Courtesy Superiors are forbidden to injure 
 those under them or to abuse them in any way. Care should 
 always be taken not to be offensive in tone, speech or man- 
 ner. Orders should always be made impersonal and those 
 to whom they are given should be coached to understand 
 especially those new in the service that personal feeling 
 plays no part in the issue of orders. 
 
 It is important always to distinguish between just com- 
 ptoints and useless complaints. Organizations should be kept 
 up through the pride of the men in their organization, which 
 is called "esprit de corps". Respect for and pride in an 
 organization can only be maintained where the organization 
 possesses merit. Military -organizations without discipline 
 possesses nothing in which to take pride. Whether discipline 
 be maintained by the Company Commander by firm treat- 
 ment or whether he maintains it by gaining the zealous co- 
 operation and self-discipline on the part of his men matters 
 little results are what count. 
 
 Courtesy is indispensable between military persons, and 
 must not be confined to official business, but should be ex- 
 tended at all times and in all places. 
 
 RANK 
 
 Rank is that character or quality conferred upon military 
 persons which marks their station and confers eligibility to 
 command. It is given usually by virtue of office in an arm, 
 corps or department, but may be conferred without refer- 
 
 49 
 
50 Enlistments 
 
 ence to arm or branch of the service. For example : Retired 
 or brevet officers. These have rank, but not command. 
 Brevet is merely an honor, carrying no increase of pay and 
 is usually conferred for some distinguished service. 
 
 ENLISTMENTS 
 
 Only those specially designated pursuant to authority of 
 the War Department can bind the Government to the con- 
 tract of enlistment and if the government is not bound the 
 individual cannot be held. Recruiting Officers are divided 
 (a) for regiments, detachments or posts ; designated by the 
 War Department to recruit for their organizations ; (b) By 
 special authority of the War Department, officers of such 
 organizations may be detached to recruit for these organiza- 
 tions; (c) Officers constituting the Recruiting Service, who 
 recruit without reference to any particular post or organi- 
 zation. 
 
 COMMAND 
 
 Command is exercised by virtue of office, and special as- 
 signment to duty of officers holding rank who are eligible by 
 law to command. 
 
 The designation "company" applies to troops of cavalry, 
 batteries of field artillery, and to companies and bands of 
 all arms and corps. Any officer properly placed in command 
 of any such unit is called the "company commander." 
 
 An officer- relieved from any office will turn over to his 
 successor all orders, public property, and funds pertaining 
 to his command or duty. 
 
 FURLOUGHS 
 
 Furlough on the prescribed form may be granted for 
 periods of three months by post commanders, brigade and 
 district commanders of territorial departments, chiefs of War 
 Department bureaus, to enlisted men of their respective de- 
 partments or corps. Furloughs for one ( month may be 
 granted by mine planters, or by regimental commanders if 
 the companies to which the men belong are under their con- 
 trol. Soldiers on furlough will not take with them arms or 
 accoutrements, will not leave the country, and will not be 
 paid while actually on furlough except on special authority 
 from the War Department. Enlisted men reporting at their 
 
Furloughs 51 
 
 proper stations before the expiration of their furlough will 
 receive in addition to their pay 30 cents per diem allowance 
 for rations for the period of the furlough. 
 
 Passes are given at the discretion of company and post 
 commanders to the men directly under the,m. No commuta- 
 tion -of ration allowance is given to men on pass. 
 
 Transfer of Enlisted Men Transfer of enlisted men 
 will be made as follows : 
 
 1. When not involving change of station: 
 
 (a) Within a regiment, by the regimental commander, 
 
 (b) Within detached battalion, when more than fifteen 
 days are required for exchange of correspondence, by bat- 
 talion commander. 
 
 (c) Within a coast defence command, by the coast 
 defence commander. 
 
 2. When change of station, is involved: 
 
 As in the first instance but with the approval of authority 
 competent to direct the travel. 
 
 3. Between organizations of the line of the Army: 
 
 (a) Within any post, by the post commander. 
 
 (b) Within any department, by department com- 
 mander. 
 
 (c) Within tactical division, by division commander. 
 Deserters When a soldier deserts, his immediate com- 
 manding officer will : 
 
 1. Ascertain whether public property has been lost in 
 consequence ; if so, call a survey. 
 
 2. Charge the value of such articles against the de- 
 serter. 
 
 3. Turn over abandoned clothing to the quartermaster, 
 with certificate showing its condition and deserter's name. 
 
 4. Turn over personal property to a council of admin- 
 istration for sale. The proceeds of the sale will be .turned 
 over to the company commander, who will deposit them with 
 a quartermaster, and in no case give the,m to relatives or 
 other claimants. 
 
 Discharges An enlisted man will not be discharged 
 before the expiration of his term of service except : 
 1. By order of the President or Secretary of War. 
 
62 Furloughs 
 
 2. By sentence of a general court-martial or military 
 commission. 
 
 3. By direction of commander of department or mo- 
 bilized division, by purchase ; under rules governing such 
 discharge; (These rules are published from time to time by 
 the War Department), on account of disability; on account 
 of imprisonment under sentence of civil court. 
 
 4. Through order of a United States court on writ of 
 habeas corpus. 
 
 Three blank forms for the discharge of soldiers are used 
 as follows : 
 
 1. Honorable discharge for 
 
 (a) Expiration of enlistment where service has been 
 honest and faithful. 
 
 (b) Certificate of disability, where service has been 
 honest and faithful. 
 
 (c) Prior to expiration of enlistment, for the con- 
 venience of the Government, when the soldier's conduct has 
 been honest and faithful. 
 
 2. Dishonorable discharge, by sentence of court-mar- 
 tial or military commission. 
 
 3. Discharge, except as specified under 1 and 2. 
 
 If a company commander believes a soldier's re-enlistment 
 should not be recommended, he should notify the soldier at 
 least thirty days prior to his discharge, and the commanding 
 officer will cause a board of officers to be convened to make 
 final decision in the case. 
 
 Deceased Soldiers Upon the death of a soldier, his im- 
 mediate company commander will : 
 
 1. Secure his effects and make inventory of them. 
 
 2. Notify nearest relative. 
 
 3. Send duplicates of the inventory with final state- 
 ment and medical report to the Adjutant General. 
 
 4. Deliver effects to legal representatives of the de- 
 ceased. 
 
 5. If effects are not claimed they will be sold by a 
 council of administration appointed by the commanding 
 officer. The proceeds of the sale will be turned over to 
 the quartermaster with statement as to what they are. 
 
'furloughs 53 
 
 Extra and Special Duty Enlisted men performing 
 duties which remove them from the duty roster will be 
 reported on "extra duty" if receiving extra pay therefor from 
 the United States, otherwise on "special duty." 
 
 Private work done for officers or in post exchange is not 
 termed, or reported, as extra duty even though the men re- 
 ceive pay from the party employing them. 
 
 Non-commissioned officers cannot be detailed without au- 
 thority from the Department Commander. 
 
 Detached Service When a person in miltiary service is 
 placed on duty which separates him from his proper organ- 
 ization he is said to be upon detached service. 
 
 Medals of Honor and Certificates of Merit Medals of 
 Honor are awarded by Congress to officers and enlisted men 
 for distinguished acts of gallantry in action, beyond that 
 which would be required in line of duty and involving risk 
 of life. Recommendation must be ( made within one year 
 and should be accompanied by written testimony of at least 
 two witnesses. 
 
 Certificates of Merit are granted by the President to en- 
 listed men upon recommendation of commanding officer of 
 regiment or corps to which such man belongs. This recom- 
 mendation must be made within one year and for distin- 
 guished service seen preferably by the immediate commander. 
 The man must be in the military service when the recom- 
 mendation is made. 
 
 Two dollars per month is allowed to men holding certifi- 
 cates of Merit throughout their service, both active and 
 retired. 
 
 A Certificate of Merit is forfeited by desertion. 
 
 Flags, Colors, and Standards The "flag" of the United 
 States is used on masts and flag poles. 
 
 "Standards" are carried by mounted troops. "Colors" are 
 carried by all other branches of the service. 
 
 The difference between standards and colors is in size only. 
 
 Duties of the Company Commander The commanding 
 officer of a company is responsible for its proper instruction 
 and administration. 
 
54 Company Records 
 
 COMPANY RECORDS 
 
 The following reports and records are made : correspond- 
 ence file and index ; sick report ; morning report ; property 
 cards; company council 'book; muster rolls; pay roils; de- 
 scriptive lists; clothing issue slips and records of sizes; 
 company fund book; duty roster; target reports; field firing 
 reports ; monthly returns ; delinquency book ; property re- 
 turns ; memorandum receipts ; statement of clothing issued ; 
 rations returns ; efficiency reports. 
 
 Duties of Squad Leaders Squad leaders are responsi- 
 ble for : bunks and bedding being overhauled ; floors, benches, 
 tables scoured; arms and accoutrements cleaned; leather 
 articles polished; cleanliness of men; everything in order 
 when going on duty; proper dress of men when leaving 
 post on passes; preparation of squads for inspection. 
 
 The Company Council of Administration The council 
 of administration consists of all officers present for duty 
 with the company. The junior officer present will record its 
 proceedings. 
 
 Company Funds The company fund consists of gross 
 amounts from all sources, it is received by the company 
 commander, and with the concurrence of the company coun- 
 cil is disbursed by hi,m solely for the benefit of the company. 
 
 Route Maps and Journals of March Every command- 
 ing officer of troops on the march will require a suitable 
 officer, preferably a mounted officer, to make a complete 
 sketch of the route of march and to make a report of the 
 march giving all necessary data concerning the country 
 through which the march was made. 
 
 Property Accountability and Responsibility A com- 
 pany commander is responsible for public property pertain- 
 ing to his company and cannot transfer such responsibility 
 to enlisted men. Responsibility without accountability de- 
 volves when the officer is not required to make returns 
 therefor. 
 
 An accountable officer is relieved from responsibility for 
 property for which he holds a proper memorandum receipt. 
 A responsible officer is not relieved from responsibility for 
 property for which he has given a memorandum receipt, 
 until he has returned the property to the accountable officer 
 or has secured receipt from his successor. 
 
Company Records 55 
 
 Serviceable property is classified as follows: 
 
 1. That which is worn out by fair wear and tear and 
 is of no salable value. 
 
 2. That which is worn out by fair wear and tear and 
 is of salable value. 
 
 3. That rendered unserviceable from causes other than 
 fair wear and tear. 
 
 Property of the first class may be submitted to a survey- 
 ing officer or an inspector, and the following classes may be 
 destroyed: (1) clothing infected with contagious disease, 
 
 (2) deteriorated stores which endanger health or other stores, 
 
 (3) other property adjudged unsalable by officer as above. 
 His decision is final as to whether property has salable value. 
 
 A surveying officer is appointed by the regimental or post 
 commander to inspect and report upon the circumstances of 
 the destruction or loss of property. 
 
 Under this authority ordnance stores will be limited to 
 utterly worthless articles constituting soldiers* personal equip- 
 ment (not arms), horse equipment, and target ,materials and 
 supplies. 
 
 When in the application of this paragraph under (3), to 
 ordnance stores, the value of the stores to be destroyed on 
 any survey shall bring the total for the quarter for any 
 organization in excess of the amounts hereinafter given, the 
 approval of the next higher administrative commander shall 
 first be obtained. 
 
 Cavalry troops and engineer and signal corps companies, 
 $300.00. 
 
 Batteries of Field Artillery, $500.00. 
 
 Infantry and coast artillery companies and all other cases, 
 $150.00. 
 
 When the disposition of unserviceable articles is covered 
 by specific instructions of any of the supply departments, 
 they will be disposed of in accordance with such instructions 
 in lieu of being destroyed under the provisions of this para- 
 graph, but requests for specific instructions will not be sub- 
 mitted in individual cases instead of placing the property 
 before a survey officer or inspector. 
 
 Before ordering the destruction of property or stores under 
 the provisions of this paragraph the commanding officer will 
 personally inspect the same and will be held responsible that 
 
56 Issue of Rations 
 
 the conditions justify the action. A certificate of the wit- 
 nessing officer that the property has been destroyed as author- 
 ized will be appended to the report. 
 
 Property of the second class will be submitted to an in- 
 spector without prior action of a survey officer. 
 
 Property of the third class will be submitted to a survey- 
 ing officer except in the case of public animals and, unless 
 destroyed, will subsequently be submitted to the action of 
 an inspector. In such cases inventory and inspection reports 
 will accompany the report of survey. 
 
 Damage to and loss of property is classified as follows : 
 
 1. Unavoidable causes in ordinary service, or incident to 
 active campaign. 
 
 2. Avoidable causes due to carelessness, willfulness, and 
 neglect. 
 
 Indebtedness to Post Exhange The indebtedness of a 
 soldier to the post exchange is noted on pay roll for next 
 succeeding month, and deducted from his pay by the quarter- 
 master and turned over to the post exchange officer, who 
 receipts therefor to the quartermaster and the soldier. 
 
 ISSUE OF RATIONS 
 
 Rations, Issue of Rations are drawn on forms known 
 as Ration Returns (form No. 23 Q. M. C). The Ration 
 Return is made out, giving the number of rations required 
 for the number of men in the Company for a certain period 
 (multiply number of ,men present by the number of days in 
 the period). To this, number is added the net corrections, 
 which is the difference between the additions and subtrac- 
 tions shown on the morning report for the previous period. 
 The sum of the first number and the number of net correc- 
 tions is the number of rations to which the Company is 
 entitled. Note: Should the deductions be in excess of the 
 additions, the net corrections would be minus and must be 
 subtracted from the first number. Should the additions ex- 
 ceed the deductions, the net corrections should be added. 
 
 The forms are made out in duplicate, blue and white. The 
 white sheet is submitted with the morning report on the first 
 of each month in garrison or on the first day of the specified 
 period when in the field. 
 
Issue of Rations 57 
 
 The Company commander signs and the Commanding 
 Officer approves the ration return before rations are issued. 
 It is then sent to the Quartermaster. The ration return in- 
 forms the Quartermaster as to the money credit due the 
 Company. Against this credit the Company draws such 
 articles of subsistence as are considered necessary. Any 
 overdraft made is paid for in cash by the Company com- 
 mander from the Company funds at the end of the month. 
 Undrawn balance due the Company is paid in cash to the 
 Company commander and becomes a part of the Cofnpany 
 funds. This money is available for the mess only. 
 
 In the lower part of the Ration Return are spaces to fill 
 in amount of extra issues, which are due the Company, as 
 allowed by the Army Regulations. 
 
 Rations A Description A ration is the allowance for 
 the subsistence of one person .for one day. 
 
 The kinds of rations are : garrison, haversack, travel, 
 Filipino, and emergency. 
 
 Garrison rations are issued wherever practicable. 
 
 Havefsack rations are issued beyond the advance depots 
 in campaign. 
 
 Travel rations are issued to troops otherwise than by 
 marching, and separated from cooking facilities. 
 
 Filipino rations are for Filipino scouts only. 
 
 Emergency rations are for troops on active campaign in 
 emergency only, or in the field for instruction. 
 
 The cost of the ration is based upon the actual cost to the 
 Government -of the articles and quantities which constitute 
 them. 
 
 Ration returns are made out giving the number of rations 
 required for the number of men in the company for a certain 
 number of days. 
 
 Instructions for changes in strength of company to be 
 made in ration returns will be found in the morning report 
 blank forms. 
 
 The following articles are not a part of the ration and 
 are called extra issues : candles, matches, soap, toilet paper. 
 rock salt, vinegar, ice, flour, (for paste during target practice). 
 
58 Issue of Rations 
 
 Deposits In amounts not less than five dollars a 
 soldier on active duty may deposit his savings to remain until 
 the end of his enlistment or his furlough to the reserve. 
 
 The United States pays four per cent, per annum on such 
 deposits. 
 
 Company commanders keep records -of deposits on the 
 men's descriptive lists and individual deposit books. Deposits 
 are made at the time of monthly payments. 
 
 Deposits and interest are forfeited by desertion, but can- 
 not be ordered forfeited by a court-martial. They are ex- 
 empt from liability for indebtedness to private individuals, 
 but not so exempt for indebtedness to the United States. 
 
 Forfeitures and Deductions Forfeitures are stoppages 
 of all or part of the pay of officers or soldiers and are the 
 results of court-martial sentences. 
 
 Deductions are authorized stoppages against the pay of 
 officers or soldiers by reason of indebtedness to the United 
 States, and other agencies of the Government. 
 
 Forfeitures are disciplinary measures, and deductions or 
 stoppages are administrative measures. 
 
 Pay of Deserters Soldiers charged with desertion will 
 not draw pay until restoration to duty with or without trial. 
 If tried and sentenced, payment will depend upon sentence. 
 
 Pay and allowance due at date of desertion are forfeited 
 and ,may be used to satisfy authorized stoppages that were 
 due at date of desertion. 
 
 No settlement of the pay account of a soldier will be made 
 until there be sufficient sum for the satisfying of all stop- 
 pages, leaving a balance for the soldier. 
 
 Reward For Apprehension of Deserters A reward of 
 fifty dollars will be paid to any civil -officer or civilian for 
 the apprehension and delivery of a deserter from the military 
 service or an escaped military prisoner. This reward must 
 cover all expenses and inconveniences incurred in the appre- 
 hension and delivery. 
 
 Muster Rolls (Made in duplicate). Muster rolls are made 
 out by company commanders at the end of February and 
 every second month thereafter. They contain the names of 
 members of the organization, data affecting their status, and 
 nature of service performed. 
 
 Pay Rolls (Made out in triplicate). These are rolls of 
 the company upon which payment is made. They are usually 
 
Issue of Rations 59 
 
 made .monthly when circumstances permit monthly payment 
 of troops. The rolls contain all data necessary for the pro- 
 per payment of the men. All items affecting the pay of the 
 soldier are entered. The amount due the soldier is filled in 
 by the quartermaster who is to make the payment. 
 
 Gratuitous Issues In certain cases articles such as 
 chevrons, recruit's toilet kits, identification tags and tape, 
 etc., are issued to the soldier as are articles of clothing. 
 The value of the articles so gratuitously issued is noted upon 
 the soldier's descriptive list but will not be charged against 
 his clothing allowance. 
 
 Other Issues The more expensive articles such as 
 overcoats, sweaters, blankets, ponchos, slickers and oilskins, 
 etc., which can be returned by the soldier to be cleaned and 
 repaired for further use, are issued to the company com- 
 mander upon memorandum receipt, who in turn issues them 
 to the men of his company in the same ,manner as the articles 
 of equipment. No charge is made against the soldier for 
 these articles unless he loses or, through carelessness, 
 damages them. 
 
 Giving Information For Claims Information which 
 could be made the basis of claims against the Government 
 shall be given only to proper officials of Departments, when 
 directed to do so by proper authority. 
 
 Information concerning the sick and wounded may be 
 given to their friends. If death is imminent, the immediate 
 commander will notify the nearest relative. The fact of 
 death may be communicated to relatives, but not the at- 
 tendant circumstances. 
 
 Final Statements Final statements are the final ac- 
 counts -of a soldier at the expiration of his service, and ton- 
 tain name and rank of soldier, place of acceptance for en- 
 listment, date of enlistment, date of discharge, or furlough 
 to reserve, reasons of discharge, enlistment period he is 
 serving in, pay due soldier for various qualifications, reason 
 for any detained pay, clothing undrawn, deposits, date of 
 last payment, pay due the United States for lost articles or 
 stoppages, remarks as to character of service, absences with- 
 out leave, ^ and other absences which affect his pay. State- 
 ment is signed by company commander. 
 
 On back of the statement is a list of the deposits made 
 by the soldier. 
 
60 Clothing 1 
 
 Statements are made out in duplicate, except in case of , 
 death. 
 The quartermaster settles the final account of the soldier. 
 
 CLOTHING 
 
 From time to time the War Department publishes in Gen- 
 eral Orders (at the beginning of the Fiscal Year) the money 
 allowance to soldiers for clothing. 
 
 The latest order on the subject is as follows: 
 
 Initial allowance to all soldiers upon enlistment $43.05 
 
 The monthly share -of this initial allowance is 7.18 
 
 The daily share of the initial allowance is .24 
 
 The semi-annual .allowance is 12.44 
 
 (This semi-annual allowance is in addition to the 
 initial allowance upon enlistment or re-enlistment.) 
 
 The monthly allowance is 2.07 
 
 The daily allowance is .07 
 
 Total allowance for three years is 117.67 
 
 Note: These amounts change somewhat each year. 
 Every six months the Company office publishes a statement 
 of the account of clothing for each soldier. This shows 
 whether the soldier has overdrawn his account or has money 
 credit due him. 
 
 The Company commander is responsible that the soldier 
 does not draw more clothing than he can pay for with money 
 due him either as a clothing allowance undrawn, or as pay 
 due. 
 
 When soldiers sell, lose or through neglect spoil their 
 clothing, they should be court-martialed or otherwise pun- 
 ished. 
 
 The clothing allowance is based upon the aggregate cost 
 of the articles of clothing found necessary for the proper 
 clothing of the soldier. 
 
 ISSUE OF CLOTHING 
 
 (1) Normally the issue of clothing is in bulk to the 
 Company commander. 
 
 (2) Form 213 Q. M. C. is filled out with the numbers 
 and sizes of the articles required, in triplicate, 2 kept by 
 Q. M., and 1 goes to Company commander. 
 
 (3) Company commander then issues to the members 
 of his company on Forms 165 Q. M. C. 
 
Record of Sizes 61 
 
 (4) Forms 165 are made out in the company office 
 from the slips of clothing needed by the men individually. 
 
 (5) After issue, forms 165 are signed by the men, as 
 receipts for the clothing. 
 
 (6) Total cost of clothing drawn is then entered on 
 form 165-b, which is then signed by the company commander. 
 
 (7) The cost of the articles issued to* each man is then 
 entered upon his descriptive list. 
 
 (8) For drawing clothing by individuals, when it is 
 necessary to issue to one who for any reason was not able 
 to draw clothing with the company at the last regular issue : 
 
 Form 165 is made out in duplicate showing the articles 
 required, the quartermaster who issues the clothing enters 
 the articles in the proper column, numbers the slip, enters 
 date of issue and causes the soldier to sign. The original is 
 kept by the quartermaster and, the copy is sent to the Com- 
 pany commander. Both quartermaster and Company com- 
 mander enter the articles issued on the slip (165) upon an 
 abstract (form 180 Q. M. C). 
 
 (9) At the end of the itnonth the two abstracts will be 
 compared for accuracy. 
 
 (10) After each issue the Company commander will be 
 careful to charge the amount or value of the articles issued 
 to the soldier on his descriptive list. 
 
 RECORD OF SIZES 
 
 A record of the sizes of articles worn by each ,man is kept 
 on hand in the Company office, on form 165 Q. M. C. 
 
 Note. In order that organizations may be kept in 
 readiness for the field or for any duty, at all times, it is 
 necessary that they be kept properly equipped with clothing. 
 The Company commander must therefore keep track of the 
 clothing in the possession of each man, by keeping a record 
 and making frequent inspections. 
 
 ISSUE OF ORDNANCE TO COMPANIES 
 
 (a) When a company is first formed, an ordnance 
 requisition is made out by entering upon it the numbers and 
 kinds of articles indicated in the unit accountability manual 
 as forming the unit equipment of a company (according to 
 the strength of the company). 
 
62 Replacing- of Ordnance 
 
 (b) The regimental supply officer or the ordnance 
 officer (whichever is the issuing officer) will supply such of 
 the articles as he has on hand and give the company com- 
 mander a credit sheet for the articles he cannot furnish. He 
 will also invoice on the proper form (2 each, invoices and 
 receipts are made out), the articles issued. 
 
 (c) The Company commander then enters upon Form 
 451 A. G. O., (Return of Unit Equipment) the number of 
 men in his organization for which he has a complete unit 
 of equipment. If he lacks certain articles to make the equip- 
 ment complete or has a surplus of some articles, he will 
 enter these differences in the spaces provided for that pur- 
 pose. 
 
 REPLACING OF ORDNANCE 
 
 (a) The Company commander will take the papers 
 upon which he relies to relieve him of responsibility for the 
 property, to the supply officer and exchange them for the 
 articles to replace those lost or damaged. In this case he 
 makes no change in his return of property. The supply 
 officer has to account for the change. 
 
 (b) Returns for ordnance are rendered to the Chief 
 of Ordnance semi-annually. 
 
 (c) Returns are also rendered when an officer turns 
 over his company to a successor, when the period is of con- 
 siderable duration. There is a place for the new company 
 commander^ to sign for all the property, thereby relieving 
 the out going company commander from further responsi- 
 bility, by sending the return so signed to the Chief of 
 Ordnance. 
 
 PUNISHMENTS 
 
 (a) Punishments must conform to the law and follow 
 the acts as soon as practicable. 
 
 (b) Commanding officers arc not required to brin 
 every dereliction of duty before* a court-martial, but will 
 endeavor to maintain discipline by admonitions, withholding 
 of privileges and taking such steps as are necessary to enforce 
 their orders. Company commanders are likewise supposed 
 to settle cases of derelictions of duty which jnay be sub- 
 mitted to a summary court, by giving extra hours of fatigue 
 
\ 
 
 Appointment of Non- Commissioned Officers 63 
 
 unless the soldier demands a trial by a court-itnartial. This 
 right must always be made known to him. 
 
 By Statute Punishment by flogging or by branding or 
 marking, or tattooing on the body is prohibited. A. W. 41. 
 
 By Custom and Regulations Many punishments for- 
 merly sanctioned have now, under more enlightened spirit 
 of penology, become obsolete as to be effectually prohibited 
 by custom without the necessity of regulations ; among those 
 are, carrying a loaded knap-sack, wearing irons (both hand- 
 cuffs and leg irons, these are used only in exceptional cases 
 for the purp-ose of preventing escape and not as punishment), 
 shaving the head, placarding, pillory, stocks and tying up by 
 the thumbs. To impose military duty in any form as a pun- 
 ishment must tend to degrade it, to the prejudice of the best 
 interests of the service ; such punishments as imposing extra 
 hours of guard duty or of requiring a soldier to sound all 
 the calls at a post for a certain period .are forbidden. 
 
 Solitary confinement on bread and water, and placing a ( 
 prisoner in irons are means of enforcing prison discipline. 
 They are not imposed by sentence of a court martial. 
 
 COMPANY COMMANDERS 
 
 Commanding Officers Duties The commanding officer 
 of a company is responsible for the instruction, tactical effi- 
 ciency, and preparedness for war service of his company; 
 for its appearance and discipline ; for the care and preserva- 
 tion of its equipment; and for the proper performance of 
 duties connected with its subsistence, pay, clothing, accounts, 
 reports, and returns. 
 
 In the absence of its captain, the command of a company 
 devolves upon the subaltern next in rank who is serving 
 with it, unless otherwise specially directed. 
 
 Captains will require their lieutenants to assist in the per- 
 formance of all company duties, including the keeping of 
 records and the preparation of the necessary reports and 
 returns. 
 
 NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS 
 
 Non-commissioned Officers will be carefully selected 
 and instructed, and always supported by company command- 
 ers in the proper performance of their duties. They will not 
 be detailed for any duty nor permitted to engage in any 
 
64 Appointment of Non-Commissioned Officers 
 
 occupation inconsistent with their rank and position. Officers 
 will be cautious in reproving them in the presence or hearing 
 of private soldiers. 
 
 Appointment of N. C. O's Company non-commissioned 
 officers are appointed by regimental commanders, -or tempo- 
 rarily appointed by battalion commanders, under certain con- 
 ditions, on the recommendation of their company command- 
 ers ; but in no case will any company organization have an 
 excess of non-commissioned officers above that allowed by 
 law. The non-commissioned officers of Coast Artillery Corps 
 companies, upon the recommendation of the company com- 
 manders, will be appointed by coast defence commanders. 
 When a company is serving in a different department from 
 its regimental headquarters and at such a distance therefrom 
 that more than 15 days are required for an exchange of cor- 
 respondence by mail, company non-commissioned officers and 
 wagoners for the transportation pertaining to the company 
 may be appointed, -on recommendation of the co,mpany com- 
 mander, by the order of the battalion commander, if such 
 commander be in the same department as the company. 
 When a company is serving in a different department from 
 its regimental headquarters that more than 15 days are re- 
 quired for an exchange of correspondence by mail, company 
 non-commissioned -officers and wagoners for the transporta- 
 tion pertaining to the company may be appointed on recom- 
 mendation of the company commander, by the order of the 
 senior officer of the regiment on duty in the department in 
 which the company is serving. (C. A. R., No. 46, Oct. 2, 
 1916.) 
 
 Lance Corporals To test the capacity of privates for 
 the duties of non-commissioned officers, company command- 
 ers may appoint lance corporals, who will be obeyed and re- 
 spected as corporals, but no company shall have more than 
 one lance corporal at a time, unless there are non-commis- 
 sioned officers absent by authority, during which absences 
 there may be one for each absentee. 
 
 Selection of First Quartermaster and Stable Sergeant 
 
 The captain will select the first sergeant, quartermaster ser- 
 geant, and stable sergeant from the sergeants of his com- 
 pany, and may return them to the grade of sergeant without 
 reference to higher authority. 
 
Appointments of Non- Commissioned Officers 65 
 
 Certificates and Warrants Each non-commissioned 
 officer will be furnished with a certificate or warrant of his 
 rank, signed by the regimental commander and countersigned 
 by the regimental adjutant; but a separate warrant as first 
 sergeant, quartermaster sergeant, or stable sergeant will not 
 be given. A warrant issued to a non-commissioned officer 
 is his personal property. Warrants need not be renewed in 
 cases of re-enlistment in the same company, if re-enlistment 
 is made the day following the day of discharge,- but, unless 
 otherwise ordered by the regimental or coast defence com- 
 mander, on the recommendation of the company commander, 
 will remain in force until vacated by promotion or reduction, 
 each re-enlistment and continuance to be noted on the war- 
 rant by the company commander. The warrants for non- 
 commissioned officers of the Coast Artillery Corps companies 
 will be signed by the coast defence commander and counter- 
 signed by the coast defence adjutant. (C. A. R., No. 36, 
 Dec. 8, 1915.) 
 
 Date of Appointments Appointments of company 
 non-commissioned officers and acting cooks of the Hospital 
 Corps will take effect on the day of appointment by the 
 authorized commander, and of first sergeants, quartermaster 
 sergeants, stable sergeants, chief mechanics, cooks, artificers, 
 farriers, horseshoers, mechanics, saddlers, wagoners, musici- 
 ans, trumpeters, and first-class privates on the day of ap- 
 pointment by the company commander ; but in case of va- 
 cancy in a company absent from regimental and battalion 
 headquarters a company commander may make a temporary 
 appointment of a non-commissioned officer, which will carry 
 rank and pay from the date of such appointment. Informa- 
 tion of the appointment will be promptly sent to the regi- 
 mental commander, and if. he disapproves it the increased 
 rank and pay will cease upon receipt by the company com- 
 mander of such disapproval. 
 
 Reduction to the Ranks A non-commissioned officer 
 may be reduced to the ranks by sentence of a court-martial, 
 or, on the recommendation of the company commander, by 
 the order of the commander having final authority to appoint 
 such non-commissioned officer, 'but a non-commissioned 
 officer will not be reduced because of absence on account of 
 sickness or injury contracted in the line of duty. If reduced 
 to the ranks by sentence of court-martial at a post not the 
 headquarters of his regiment, the company commander will 
 
66 Honors and Courtesies 
 
 forward a transcript of the order to the regimental com- 
 mander. The transfer of a non-commissioned officer from 
 one organization to another carries with it reduction to the 
 ranks unless otherwise specified in the order by authority 
 competent to issue a new warrant. When a company is 
 serving in a different department from its regimental head- 
 quarters and at such a distance therefrom that more than 15 
 days are required for exchange of correspondence by mail, 
 a non-commissroned officer may be reduced to the ranks, on 
 recommendation of the company commander, by the order 
 of the battalion commander, if such commander be in the 
 same department as the company. When a company is serv- 
 ing in a different department from its regimental and bat- 
 talion headquarters, and at such a distance from its regi- 
 mental headquarters that more than 15 days are required for 
 exchange of correspondence by ,mail, a non-commissioned 
 officer may be reduced to the ranks, on the recommendation 
 of the company commander, by the order of the senior officer 
 of the regiment on duty in the department in which the com- 
 pany is serving. (C. A. R., No. 45, Sept. 11, 1916.) 
 
 Under Arrest When a non-commissioned officer, while 
 in arrest or confinement, is reduced by sentence of a court- 
 martial, the date of the order publishing the sentence is the 
 date of reduction. In all other cases reduction ^ takes effect 
 on the date of receipt of the order at the soldier's station. 
 (C. A. R., No. 15, Nov. 19, 1914.) 
 
 Chief mechanics, cooks, acting cooks of the Hospital Corps, 
 farriers, horseshoers, mechanics, artificers, saddlers, wagon- 
 ers, musicians, trumpeters, and first-class privates are enlisted 
 as privates and after joining their organizations are ap- 
 pointed by their respective organization commanders. For 
 inefficiency or misconduct they are subject to reduction by 
 the same authority, and in case of desertion their appoint- 
 ments are vacated fro,m the date of their unauthorized ab- 
 sence. (C. A. R., No. 9, July 14, 1914.) 
 
 HONORS AND COURTESIES 
 
 The President and the Vice-President will be received 
 with regimental standards or colors dropping, officers and 
 troops saluting, and the band-playing "The Star Spangled 
 Banner." Or, in the absence of a band, the field music or 
 bugles sounding "to the color." Officers of the following 
 
Honors and Courtesies 67 
 
 grades of rank will be received with regimental standards or 
 colors dropping, officers and troops saluting, and the bands 
 and field music playing, as follows : The General, the Gen- 
 eral's March ; the Lieutenant General, trumpets sounding 3 
 flourishes or drums beating 3 ruffles; a major general, 3 
 flourishes or 2 ruffles; a brigadier general, 1 flourish or 1 
 ruffle. 
 
 To the Members of the Cabinet, the Chief Justice, the 
 
 President pro tempore of the Senate, the Speaker of the 
 House of Representatives, American or foreign ambassadors, 
 and governors within their respective States and Territories 
 the same honors are paid as to the General, except that a 
 foreign ambassador will be received with the national air of 
 his country, and that the number of guns fired as personal 
 salutes will be as prescribed in the army regulations to the As- 
 sistant Secretary of War and to American or foreign envoys 
 or ;ministers the same honors as to the Lieutenant General ; to 
 officers of the Navy the honors due to their relative rankj 
 to officers of marines and volunteers, and ttnilitia when in 
 the service of the United States, the honors due to their 
 rank. 
 
 The national or regimental color or standard, uncased, 
 passing a guard or other armed body, will be saluted, the 
 field music sounding "to the color" or "to the standard." 
 Officers or enlisted men passing the uncased color will render 
 the prescribed salute ; with no arms in hand, the salute will 
 be the hand salute, using the right hand, the headdress not 
 to be removed. 
 
 "The Star Spangled Banner," whenever played at a 
 military station, or at any place where persons belonging to 
 the military service are present in their official capacity or 
 present unofficially but in uniform, all officers and enlisted 
 men, not in ranks, will stand at salute, facing toward the 
 music, retaining that position until the last note of the air. 
 With no arms in hand the salute will be the hand 
 salute. The same respect will be observed toward the na- 
 tional air of any other country, when it is played as com- 
 pliment to official representatives of such country. When 
 played under the circumstances contemplated by this para- 
 graph. "The Star Spangled Banner" will be played through 
 without repetition of any part, that is not required to be re- 
 peated to make the air complete. 
 
68 Honors and Courtesies 
 
 No honors are paid by troops when on the march or in 
 trenches, except that they may be called to attention and no 
 salute is rendered when marching in double time or at the 
 trot or gallop. 
 
 The, commanding officer is saluted by all commissioned 
 officers in command of troops or detachments. Troops under 
 arms will salute as prescribed in drill regulations. 
 
 When making or receiving official report all officers 
 will salute. When under arms, the salute is made with the 
 sword or saber, if drawn, otherwise with the hand. On meet- 
 ing, all officers salute when covered ; when uncovered, they 
 exchange the courtesies observed between gentlemen. Military 
 courtesy requires the junior to salute first, but when the salute 
 is introductory to a report made at a military ceremony or 
 formation to the representative of a common superior as, 
 for example, to the adjutant, officer of the day, etc. the 
 officer making the report, whatever his rank, will salute first; 
 the officer to whom the report is made will acknowledge, by 
 saluting, if covered or verbally if uncovered, that he has re- 
 ceived and understood the report. 
 
 When an enlisted man with no arms in hand passes an 
 officer he salutes with the right hand. Officers are saluted 
 whether in uniform or not. 
 
 Armed with the saber and out of ranks, an enlisted man 
 salutes all officers with the saber if drawn ; otherwise he 
 salutes with the hand. If on foot and armed with a rifle or 
 carbine, he makes the rifle or carbine salute. A mounted 
 soldier dismounts before addressing an officer not mounted. 
 
 A non-commissioned officer or private in command of 
 
 a detachment without arms salutes dll officers with the hand, 
 but if the detachment be on foot and armed with the rifle 
 or carbine, he makes the rifle or carbine salute and if armed 
 with a saber he salutes with it. 
 
 An enlisted man, if seated, rises on the. approach of an 
 
 officer, faces toward him, and if covered, salutes ; if un- 
 covered, he stands at attention. Standing he faces an officer 
 for the same purpose. If the parties remain in the same 
 or on the same ground, such compliments need not be 
 
Army Employed as Fosse Comitatus 69 
 
 repeated. Soldiers actually at work do not cease work to 
 salute an officer unless addressed by him. 
 
 Before addressing an officer, an enlisted man makes the 
 prescribed salute with the weapon with which he is armed, 
 or, if unarmed and covered, with the right hand. He also 
 makes the same salute after receiving a reply. 
 
 Indoors, except as provided elsewhere, an unarmed en- 
 listed man uncovers and stands at attention upon the ap- 
 proach of an officer. If armed, he salutes as heretofore pre- 
 scribed. 
 
 When an officer enters a room where there are soldiers, 
 the word "Attention" is given by some one who perceives 
 him, when all rise and remain standing in the position of a 
 soldier until the officer leaves the room. Soldiers at meals 
 do not rise. 
 
 Soldiers at all times and in all situations pay the same 
 compliments to officers of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps 
 and volunteers, and to officers of the Organized Militia in 
 uniform as to officers of their own regiment, corps, or arm 
 of service. 
 
 Officers acknowledge at all times the courtesies of en- 
 listed men by returning, in the manner prescribed the salute 
 given. When several officers in company are saluted, all re- 
 turn it. 
 
 On all occasions outdoors, and also in public places, 
 such as stores, theatres, railway and steamboat stations, and 
 the like, the salute to any person whatever by officers and 
 enlisted men in uniform, with no arms in hand, whether on 
 or off duty, shall be the hand salute, the right hand being 
 used, the headdress not to be removed. 
 
 The national salute is 21 guns. It is also the salute to 
 a national flag. The salute to the Union, commemorative of 
 the Declaration of Independence and consisting of 1 gun for 
 each State, is fired at noon on July 4 at every post provided 
 with suitable artillery. 
 
 ARMY EMPLOYED AS POSSE COMITATUS 
 
 It shall not be lawful to employ any part of the Army 
 of the United States, as a posse comitatus, or otherwise, for 
 
70 Army Employed as Pcsse Comitatus 
 
 the purpose of executing the laws except in such cases and 
 under such circumstances as such employment of said force 
 may be expressly authorized by the Constitution or by act 
 of Congress ; and no money appropriated by this act shall 
 be used to pay any of the expenses incurred in the employ- 
 ment of any troops in violation of this section. 
 
 Officers of the Army will not permit troops under their 
 command to be used to aid the civil authorities as a posse 
 comitatus, or in execution of the laws, except as provided 
 in the foregoing paragraph. 
 
 If time will admit, applications for the use of troops for 
 such purposes must be forwarded, with statements of all 
 material facts, for the consideration and action of the Presi- 
 dent; but in case of sudden and, unexpected invasion, insur- 
 rection, or riot, endangering the public property of the United 
 States, or in case of attempted or threatened robbery or in- 
 terruption of the United States mails, or other equivalent 
 emergency so imminent as to render it dangerous to await 
 instructions requested through the speediest means of com- 
 munication, an officer of the Army may take such action 
 before the receipt of instructions as the circumstances of the 
 case and the law under which he is acting may justify, and 
 will promptly report his action and the circumstances re- 
 quiring it to the Adjutant General of the Army, by telegraph, 
 if possible, for the information of the President. 
 
 In the enforcement of the laws troops are employed as 
 a part of the military power of the United States and act 
 under the orders of the President as Commander-in-Chief. 
 They cannot be directed to act under the orders of any civil 
 officer. The commanding officers of troops so employed are 
 directly responsible to their military superiors. Any unlaw- 
 ful or unauthorized act on their part will not be excusable 
 on the ground of an order or request received by them from 
 a marshal or any other civil officer. 
 
 Troops called into action against a mob forcibly resist- 
 ing or obstructing the execution of the laws of the United 
 States or attempting to destroy property belonging to >or 
 under v the protection of the United States are governed by 
 the general regulations of the Army and apply military tactics 
 in respect to the manner in which they shall act to accomplish 
 the desired end. It is purely a tactical question in what 
 manner they shall use the weapons with which they are 
 
Army Employed as Posse Comitatus 71 
 
 armed whether by fire of musketry and artillery or by the 
 use of the bayonet and saber, or by both, and at what stage 
 of the operations each or either mode of attack shall be 
 employed. This tactical question will be decided by the 
 immediate commander of the troops, according to his judg- 
 ment of the situation. The fire of troops should be withheld 
 until timely warning has been given to the innocent who may 
 be mingled with the mob. Troops must never fire into a crowd 
 unless ordered by their commanding officer, except that single 
 selected sharpshooters may shoot down individual rioters who 
 have fired upon or thrown (missiles at the troops. As a 
 general rule the bayonet alone should be used against mixed 
 crowds in the first stages of a revolt. But as soon as suffi- 
 cient warning has been given to enable the innocent to sepa- 
 rate themselves from the guilty, the action of the troops 
 should be governed solely by the tactical consideration in- 
 volved in the duty they are ordered to perform. They should 
 make their blows so effective as to promptly suppress all 
 resistance to lawful authority, and should stop the destruc- 
 tion of life the moment lawless resistance has ceased. Pun- 
 ishment belongs, not to the troops, but to the courts -of 
 justice. 
 
\ 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE SERVICE RIFLE 
 
 In the preparation of these notes on rifle firing, with the 
 service rifle, an effort has been made to answer many 
 questions that present themselves to the inexperienced. A 
 few of the most important questions on the subject are 
 herein asked and answered in such a manner, it is hoped, 
 as to make each point clear to the average mind. 
 
 1. What is meant by the "rifling" of a fire arm? 
 A. The spiral grooving of the bore. 
 
 2. What are the lands? 
 
 A. The raised portions of the bore between the 
 grooves. 
 
 3. What is meant by caliber? 
 
 A. The diameter of the bore between the lands. 
 
 4. What is the caliber of the U. S. Army rifle? ' 
 A. .30 (thirty hundredths of an inch). 
 
 5. What is the purpose of rifling? 
 
 A. To cause the bullet or projectile to rotate about 
 its longer axis. 
 
 6. Why is it desirable that the bullet rotate about its 
 longer axis? 
 
 A. So long as the bullet rotates about its longer axis 
 at a high rate of speed, it will not wabble or turn end 
 over end. 
 
 7. Why is it necessary that the bullet should not wab- 
 ble or tumble? 
 
 A. Every motion that the bullet makes, not directly 
 in the proper line of flight, increases unnecessarily, the 
 amount of resistance to be overcome in its passage 
 through the air. 
 
 8. Why is a bullet elongated and pointed instead of 
 spherical? 
 
 A. A bullet of this shape meets with less resistance on 
 account of its smaller cross-section and ease with which 
 
 72 
 
The Service Rifle 73 
 
 the point penetrates the air, than does a spherical bullet 
 of the same weight. 
 
 9. Describe the action of the explosive upon the bul- 
 let? 
 
 A. The powder is so made that its combustion is com- 
 pleted as the bullet reaches the muzzle of the rifle. This 
 causes a steadily increasing pressure, upon the bullet, so 
 long as it is confined within the limits of the bore, which 
 reaches its maximum just before the bullet leaves the 
 muzzle. There is a common belief that the powder ex- 
 plodes all at once, but this is not so. Were this the case, 
 a rupture of the rifle barrel would result. 
 
 10. Describe the flight of the bullet. 
 
 A. The bullet describes a curve which is constantly 
 changing and becoming more pronounced as it ap- 
 proaches the end of its flight. In addition to this curve 
 in a vertical plane the bullet deviates laterally from the 
 line of the axis of the bore. 
 
 11. What causes the constant changing of the shape of 
 the curve? 
 
 A. This change is due to the decrease in the forward 
 velocity caused by the resistance of the air and the increase 
 of the downward velocity caused by gravity during the flight. 
 
 12. What causes lateral or horizontal deviation? 
 
 A. The downward deviation of the bullet from the line 
 of the axis of the bore causes a compression of the air 
 under it, and a corresponding rarifying of the air on top. 
 The rapid rotation of the bullet to the right causes it to 
 roll, as it were, on a cushion of compressed air beneath it. 
 
 13. How is the effect of gravity offset? 
 
 A. By directing the bullet toward a point higher than 
 that to be hit. 
 
 14. What is the principle upon which sight elevation 
 is based? 
 
 A. The sight elevation is so arranged that when the 
 sights are aligned upon the point of aim, the axis of the 
 bore prolonged will pass through the plane of the target 
 at a point whose distance above the center of the bull's 
 eye is equal to the distance through which the bullet 
 will fall during the time of flight. 
 
 15. How is lateral normal deviation corrected? 
 
 
74 The Service Rifle 
 
 A. The rifle has a right-hand twist, and the drift 
 proper is therefore to the right. There is, however, a 
 slight lateral jump to the left, and the total horizontal 
 deviation of the bullet, excluding wind, is the algebraic 
 sum of the drift and the lateral jump. The trajectory is 
 found to be very slightly to the left of the central or 
 uncorrected line of sight up to a range of 500 yards, and 
 beyond that range to the right of this line. In order to 
 minimize the deviations at the most important ranges, the 
 drift slot on the sight leaf is so cut as to make the trajec- 
 tory cross the adjusted line of sight at a range of 500 
 yards. 
 
 16. What is meant by "twist"? 
 
 A. The spiral formed by the grooves in the barrel of 
 a rifled firearm. In the United States magazine rifle, 
 model 1903, this twist is uniform, one turn in 10 inches. 
 
 17. What is meant by the "normal" sight? 
 
 A. The alignment of the top of the front sight be- 
 tween point of aim and the center of the top of the rear 
 sight notch. 
 
 18. Describe the peep sight. 
 
 A. In using the peep sight the top of the front sight 
 is aligned between the point of aim and the center of 
 aperture. 
 
 19. Why are these methods of sighting insisted upon 
 for military shooting? 
 
 A. Because the object of the training is to develop in 
 the soldier not only accuracy but endurance. The use of 
 fine sights can not be continued for long, continued and 
 rapid firing, without great strain and fatigue to the eye. 
 As the eye becomes weaker it will become difficult for 
 the firer to" measure the tip of the front sight as ac- 
 curately as before, with the result that more front sight 
 will be taken. This lack of uniformity in sighting is fatal 
 to good shooting. 
 
 With the normal sight and the peep sight a large por- 
 tion of the front sight is in view, and while aiming, any 
 deviation of the top of the front sight from the line join- 
 ing the center of the peep 'hole or the center of the top 
 line of the rear sight notch, will be plainly visible, with- 
 out taxing the eye unduly. 
 
 20. What is the battle sight? 
 
The Service Rifle 75 
 
 A. It is the position of the rear sight with the leaf 
 laid down. 
 
 21. What is the idea of the battle sight? 
 
 A. During the fighting at ranges under six hundred 
 yards conditions are not favorable to the changing of 
 sight elevation and for this reason the soldiers are taught 
 to use the sight at this elevation for all firing from about 
 550 yards down to point blank range. By learning where 
 to aim in order to get hits at these ranges, the necessity 
 for changing the sight adjustment is obviated. At 547 
 yards and under, the trajectory of the bullet is so near 
 the ground that the entire space is covered by a grazing 
 lire, the highest point of which is not above the head of 
 a man in the kneeling position. 
 
 22. What is the effect of a bright sight upon shoot- 
 ing? 
 
 A. The rays of light reflected from the bright sight 
 make the edges of the sighf appear blurred. The front 
 sight will also appear to be slightly higher than it really 
 is which will cause the axis of the bore to be. somewhat 
 depressed when the sights are aligned, and have the ef- 
 fect of lowering the elevation. 
 
 23. What is done to correct the brightness of the 
 sights ? 
 
 A. They are blackened by smoking with a candle, or 
 gum camphor or by applying some sight blackening 
 compound which will give the sights a dead or dull back 
 appearance incapable of reflecting rays of light of a na- 
 ture to interfere with clear vision. 
 
 24. When firing from the prone position at 500 yards, 
 what is the height of the top of the curve described by 
 the bullet? 
 
 A. About 28 inches. 
 
 25. At what distance from the muzzle is the highest 
 point of the curve, described by the bullet, when firing 
 at 500 yards? 
 
 A. 270.56 yards. 
 
 26. What is the maximum range of the rifle? 
 A. 4891.6 yards, or about 2 and 4-5 miles. 
 
 27. What is meant by the "aiming point?" 
 
 A. The point upon which the sights are aligned, when 
 aiming. 
 
76 The Service Rifle 
 
 28. How is the wind direction described on the range? 
 A. As a 12:00 o'clock, 2:00 o'clock, 3:00 o'clock etc. wind. 
 
 For this purpose the firer is supposed to be in the center of a 
 great horizontal clock dial with the figure 12 toward the 
 target. The wind is then said to be a (such) o'clock 
 wind according to the imaginary figure on the dial from 
 which it is blowing toward the firer. 
 
 29. How is wind velocity determined? 
 
 A. By the use of an anemometer and by estimation. 
 Proficiency in estimating wind velocity is attained by 
 much practice in estimating and in comparing the esti- 
 mates with the readings of the anemometer. 
 
 30. What is the rule for making windage correction 
 when the amount of error is known? 
 
 A. Number of inches of error divided by the product 
 of the number of hundreds of yards of the range and 4, 
 equal number of points of windage to be taken. 
 
 Example: Firing at five hundred yards the bullet strikes 
 a point on the target 24 inches to the right of the center. 
 We have : number of inches of error equals 24, number 
 of hundreds of yards of range equals 5. Divide 24 by 
 (4x5) or 20 and the result is 1 1-5 which is the number 
 points of windage necessary to correct the error. 
 
 Each soldier should remember that for each hundred 
 yards of range one point of windage causes a change of 
 4 inches on the target. At 100 yards 1 point makes a 
 change of four inches, at 200 yards 1 point makes a change 
 of 8 inches and so on for all the ranges. 
 
 31. What is the rule or formula for ascertaining the 
 amount of windage necessary for firing the first shot 
 when the wind is considerable? 
 
 A. Range in hundreds of yards multiplied by the esti- 
 mated velocity in miles per hour, divided by 10. This is 
 for 9 and 3 o'clock winds. Winds from 2, 4, 8 and 10 
 o'clock require very little less windage than the above. 
 Winds from 11, 1, 5 and 7 o'clock require one half the 
 above amount. 
 
 32. How is wind direction determined? 
 
 A. By noticing the direction of the smoke from neigh- 
 boring houses, the direction of the clouds, the direction 
 of the mirage, by tossing dust or dead leaves or grass 
 in the air, by holding a handkerchief or strip of cloth for 
 
The Service Rifle 77 
 
 the action of the wind, or by the feel of the wind against 
 the face. When the wind velocity is very low moisten 
 the finger in the mouth and hold it up. The side from 
 which the wind is coming will be noticeably colder. 
 
 33. What is meant by "canting" the piece? 
 
 A. Any position of the rifle, when aimed, in which 
 the sights are tipped to one side v or the other out of the 
 vertical plane. 
 
 34. Describe the effect of canting the piece. 
 
 A. Moving the sight to the right or left out of the 
 vertical will have the effect of taking windage. This 
 changed position of the sight will also be somewhat 
 lower than if it were directly above the axis of the bore. 
 To show these two effects of canting the piece let us 
 assume that the piece is canted so that it is lying on 
 its side. In this position it will be seen that there is no 
 longer any elevation since the rear and the front sights 
 are in the same horizontal plane. Also it is very plain 
 that in this position the difference in the distances of the 
 front and rear sights from the axis of the bore has the 
 effect of giving an excessive windage or lateral deviation 
 from the aiming point. In order to illustrate this to a 
 beginner, simply fix the rifle in this position with the 
 sights aligned upon the aiming point. Then remove the 
 bolt and look through the bore of the rifle and see the 
 point in the plane of the target that the line of the axis 
 of the bore will intersect. This point will be to the right 
 or left of the aiming point a distance equal to the amount 
 of elevation given the bullet were the rifle fired without 
 canting it. With no elevation therefore and with exces- 
 sive windage the bullet will strike to the right or left of 
 and below the aiming point. 
 
 35. What is the effect of wind upon the flight of the 
 bullet? 
 
 A. The force of the wind acting upon the bullet tends 
 to carry it out of its normal path. 
 
 36. How do the winds from the various directions af- 
 fect the flight of the bullet? 
 
 A. Winds directly from the front retard the bullet; 
 from the rear accelerate; from the right or left cause a 
 left or right deviation; from the right or left front cause 
 a lateral deviation to the left or right and also retard 
 
78 The Service Rifle 
 
 the bullet; from the right or left rear cause a lateral 
 deviation to the left or right and accelerate the bullet. 
 
 37. How is lateral deviation caused by the wind cor- 
 rected? 
 
 A. By using the windgauge screw to move the rear 
 
 sight toward the side from which the wind is coming. 
 
 38. How is the retarding and accelerating effect of the 
 wind corrected? 
 
 A. By increasing or decreasing the elevation of the 
 rear sight. 
 
 39. What makes a rifle shoot higher when it becomes 
 heated? 
 
 A. The heated condition of the barrel makes the com- 
 bustion more complete. The gases expand with just a 
 little more force in the heated barrel. There are other 
 reasons advanced by many for this increase in elevation, 
 such as the slight elongation of the barrel and the effect 
 of the heat upon the diameter of the bore. These also 
 are reasons for very slight changes but not sufficient for 
 the amount of change that takes place in firing when the 
 rifle first becomes warm. 
 
 40. What is meant by the zero of a rifle? 
 
 A. It is impossible to manufacture at reasonable cost, 
 large number of rifles exactly similar in every respect. 
 The testing of all the rifles made for the army by long 
 and expensive processes is entirely out of the question. 
 Some of the rifles, owing to slight inaccuracies of manu- 
 facture, require a slightly different sight setting than is 
 normal for the rifles generally. This sight setting which 
 gives normal results under normal conditions is what is 
 called the "zero" for the particular rifle requiring such 
 sight setting. This applies to both elevation and windage 
 in some cases. 
 
 41. What is "mirage"? 
 
 A. Heat waves observed on the target range on warm 
 days. 
 
 42. What effect has "mirage" upon firing? 
 
 A. If there is no wind blowing, the mirage will move 
 straight upward and will give the bull's eye the appear- 
 ance of being oblong, the longer axis being vertical. The 
 entire target will appear to be elongated vertically which 
 will make the bull's eye appear higher than it really is, 
 
The Service Rifle 79 
 
 and necessitate a lowering of the elevation. When a wind 
 is blowing gently the mirage in addition to rising, moves 
 with the wind and causes the bull's eye to be elongated 
 upward and to the right or left according to the direction 
 of the wind. 
 
 43. What are shot marks? 
 
 A. They are pieces of card board or tin, with springs 
 attached to them for fastening them over the shot holes 
 in targets. They are 3, 5, and 10 inches in diameter and 
 are white one side and black on the other. They are 
 used to mark on the bull's eye target the position of the 
 last hit. 
 
 44. What are the natural requisites for one to become 
 a good shot? 
 
 A. In order for a person to become a good shot he 
 should be in good physical condition particularly as to 
 eye sight. One's nerves should be in excellent control 
 and one should not be easily excited. 
 
 45. What training and development should one under- 
 go to become a good shot? 
 
 A. First of all it is necessary for one to take con- 
 siderable physical exercise regularly prior to the practice 
 on the range. The development of the muscles used in 
 firing is of prime importance. The ability to sight cor- 
 rectly must also be developed, and then should follow 
 earnest practice in using the muscles used in firing in 
 conjunction with the practice in aiming. In this way 
 soon develops the ability to hold the rifle properly aimed 
 and to pull the trigger without deranging the true aim. 
 When one has accomplished this considerable progress 
 has been made toward becoming a good shot. The state 
 of one's ability to "hold" well is indicated by the results 
 obtained at gallery practice. During the preliminary work 
 one should study the effects of wind, changes of light, 
 humidity, temperature, mirage, etc., and learn the theory 
 of the use of the sight adjustments both as to windage 
 and elevation. Later on one must develop the ability to 
 estimate wind velocity, and every rifleman should know 
 how to take the very best care of his rifle in order that 
 he may always obtain the best results from it. For de- 
 tailed instruction as to how best to carry out the prac- 
 ice in sighting and aiming, see "Sighting drills" and 
 
 
80 The Service Rifle 
 
 "Position and Aiming drills" on pages 85 and 90. 
 
 46. Why should the cleaning rod be inserted at the 
 breech end of the bore? 
 
 A. In order that no possible injury shall be done the 
 lands near the muzzle. 
 
 47. Describe the removal of fouling from the rifle 
 barrel? 
 
 A. Fouling is of two kinds, that caused by the powder 
 and caused by particles of metal from the jacket of the 
 bullet adhering to the bore. 
 
 First remove the bolt and from the breech end of the 
 bore remove all powder fouling by means of a cleaning 
 rod and patches of thin flannel or other soft cloth soaked 
 in "Hoppe's Powder Solvent No. 9". The rags should 
 be about 1 1-4 inches square. This cleaning must be 
 continued until all the powder fouling has been removed. 
 The barrel should then be thoroughly wiped out with 
 clean, dry patches. After the powder fouling has been re- 
 moved use the following solution: Ammonia persulphate 
 1 ounce; Ammonium carbonate, 200 grams; 28 per cent, 
 ammonia 6 ounces and water 4 ounces. The two powders 
 should be freed from lumps by mashing them separately. 
 Dissolve the persulphate in the ammonia and the car- 
 bonate in the water and then both solutions should be 
 placed togther in a bottle and corked. In an hour this 
 solution will be ready to use. 
 
 Stop the breech end of the bore with a suitable cork 
 and fill the barrel with the solution. This should be left 
 in the barrel not more than ten minutes. Immediately 
 after removing the solution from the barrel pour water 
 into the bore to stop the action of the solution on the 
 metal. The barrel should then be dried and thoroughly 
 wiped out and an oily rag passed through it. 
 
 48. Describe cleaning the rifle. 
 
 A. After firing, the bore of rifle should be thoroughly 
 cleaned with the No. 9, powder solvent, wiped out again 
 and an oily rag passed through it. The outside of the 
 rifle should be given a thin coating of cosmic or 3 in 1 
 oil for the metal parts and linseed oil for the stock. The 
 magazine and other working parts should be kept clean 
 and oiled. Every rifle should be cleaned sufficiently often 
 to prevent the formation of rust. 
 
The Service Rifle 81 
 
 The sling should be kept soft and pliable by the mod- 
 erate use of neats-foot oil. 
 
 49. What is the time of flight for the maximum range? 
 A. 38.058 seconds. 
 
 50. What is the maximum number of aimed shots that 
 have been fired from the rifle in one minute? 
 
 A. 25. 
 
 51. What is the weight of the bullet? The powder 
 charge? 
 
 A. Bullet 150 grains. Powder 50 grains. 
 
 52. Describe dismounting the bolt? 
 
 A. Place the cut-off at the center notch; cock the arm 
 and turn the safety lock to a vertical position, raise the 
 bolt handle and draw out the bolt. 
 
 Hold bolt in left hand, press sleeve lock in with thumb 
 of right hand to unlock sleeve bolt, and unscrew sleeve 
 by turning to the left. 
 
 Hold sleeve between* fore finger and thumb of the left 
 hand, draw cocking piece back with middle finger and 
 thumb of right hand, turn safety lock down to the left 
 with forefinger of the right hand, in order to allow the 
 cocking piece to move forward in sleeve; thus partially 
 relieving the tension of the main spring; with the cock- 
 ing piece against breast, draw back the firing pin sleeve 
 with the fore finger and thumb of right hand and hold 
 it in this position while removing the striker with the 
 left hand; pull firing pin out of sleeve; turn the extractor 
 to the right, forcing its tongue out of the groove in the 
 front of the bolt, and force the extractor forward and off 
 the bolt. 
 
 53. Describe assembling the bolt. 
 
 A. Grasp with the left hand the rear of the bolt, 
 handle up, and turn the extractor collar with the thumb 
 and forefinger of the right hand until its. lug is on a line 
 with the safety lug of the bolt; take the extractor in 
 the right hand and insert the lug on the collar in the 
 under-cuts in the extractor by pushing the extractor to 
 the rear until its tongue comes in contact with the rim 
 on the face of the bolt (a slight pressure with the left 
 thumb on the top of the rear part of the extractor assists 
 in this operation) ; turn the extractor to the right until 
 it is over the right lug; take the bolt in the right hand 
 
82 The Service Rifle 
 
 and press the hook of the extractor against the butt plate 
 or some rigid object, until the tongue on the extractor 
 enters its groove in the bolt. 
 
 With the safety lock turned down to the left to permit 
 the firing pin to enter the sleeve as far as possible, as- 
 semble the sleeve and firing pin; place the cocking piece 
 against the breast and put on main spring, firing pin 
 sleeve and striker. Hold the cocking piece between the 
 thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and by pressing 
 the striker point against some substance, not hard enough 
 to injure it, force the cocking piece back until the safety 
 lock can be turned to the vertical position with the right 
 hand; insert the firing pin in the bolt and screw up the 
 sleeve (by turning it to the right) until the sleeve lock 
 enters its notch on the bolt. 
 
 See that the cut-off is at the center notch ; hold the piece 
 under floor plate in the fingers of the left hand, the thumb 
 extending over the left side of the receiver ; take bolt 
 in right hand with safety lock in a vertical position and 
 safety lug up; press rear end of follower down with 
 the left thumb and push bolt into the receiver; lower 
 bolt handle; turn safety lock and cut-off down to the left 
 with the right hand. 
 
 54. What considerations should govern in selecting the 
 proper size of aperture for the peep sight? 
 
 A. The aperture should be the smallest through which 
 the target and front sight can be seen clearly without 
 straining the eye. Too large an aperture renders it dif- 
 ficult to find the center of it accurately and quickly, while 
 too small an aperture renders the front sight and target 
 indistinct. 
 
The Service Rifle 83 
 
 Corrections Corresponding to One Point of the Wind 
 
 Gauge or Scale and to a Change in 
 
 Elevation of 25 Yards 
 
 Correction corre- 
 
 Correction caused sponding to a 
 
 Range by m o v i n g the change in eleva- 
 
 eyepiece one point tion of 25 yards 
 
 100 4.311 0.72405 
 
 200 8.622 1.6189 
 
 300 12.933 2.7701 
 
 400 17.244 4.328 
 
 500 21.555 6.182 
 
 600 25.866 8.542 
 
 700 ; 30.177 11.674 
 
 800 34.488 15.620 
 
 900 38.799 19.769 
 
 1,000 43.110 24.813 
 
 1,100.. 47.421 30.874 
 
 1,200... 51.732 37.097 
 
 Table Showing Number of Points of Deflection or Wind- 
 
 age Necessary to Correct for a 10-mile-an-hour 
 
 Wind, Drift Not Considered. (Computed.) 
 
 Direction of wind 
 Range 
 (yards) III,IX II,IV I,V 
 
 100 0.23 0.2 01 
 
 200 .34 .31 .17 
 
 300 .61 . .53 .30 
 
 400 .86 .75 .43 
 
 500 1.11 .96 .55 
 
 600 1.39 1.2 .69 
 
 700 1.68 1.45 . .84 
 
 800 2.00 1.73 1.00 
 
 900 2.34 2.03 1.17 
 
 1,000 2.67 2.30 1.33 
 
 1,100 3.01 2.61 1.50 
 
 1,200 3.32 2.88 1.66 
 
84 Small Arms Firing* Regulations 
 
 Drift with target rifles, model of 1905 sights graduated 
 for 1906 ammunition. 
 
 Range (yards) Total drift Drift corrected Drift Deviation of 
 
 by sight leaf uncorrected bullet produced 
 (right) by a 1-mile wind 
 normal to the 
 plane of fire 
 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 
 
 
 Left 
 
 Right 
 
 Left 
 
 Right 
 
 
 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 100 
 
 0.26 
 
 
 0.26 
 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 200 
 
 0.42 
 
 
 0.42 
 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 300 
 
 0.45 
 
 
 0.45 
 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.8 
 
 400 
 
 0.32 
 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 500 
 
 0.0 
 
 
 
 
 0.0 
 
 2.4 
 
 600 
 
 
 0.55 
 
 
 0.55 
 
 0.0 
 
 3.6 
 
 700 
 
 
 2.0 
 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.6 
 
 5.1 
 
 800 
 
 
 4.5 
 
 
 2.6 
 
 1.9 
 
 6. 
 
 900 
 
 
 8.2 
 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.0 
 
 9.1 
 
 1000 
 
 
 13.0 
 
 
 6.3 
 
 6.7 
 
 11.5 
 
 1.100 
 
 
 20.5 
 
 
 9.0 
 
 11.5 
 
 14.3 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 29.3 
 
 
 12.3 
 
 17.0 
 
 17.2 
 
 In rapid fire, using the battle sight, the correct point of 
 aim, under the figure, at the various distances is as follows: 
 
 500 Yards 7 inches ; 300 Yards 28 inches ; 
 
 400 Yards 23 inches; 200 Yards 25 inches. 
 
 350 Yards 26 inches ; 
 
 SMALL ARMS FIRING REGULATIONS 
 
 SCHEME OF PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTION 
 
 The course herein prescribed has been arranged as follows : 
 
 (a) Nomenclature and care of the rifle, 
 
 (b) Sighting drills. 
 
 (c) Position and aiming drills. 
 
 (d) Deflection and elevation correction drills. 
 
 (e) Gallery practice. 
 
Sig-liting- Drills , 85 
 
 (f) Estimating distance drill. 
 
 (g) Individual known distance firing, instruction prac- 
 tice. 
 
 (h) Individual known distance, firing, record practice. 
 
 (i) Long-distance practice. 
 
 (j) Practice with telescopic sights. 
 
 (k) Instruction combat practice. 
 
 (1) Combat practice. 
 
 (m) Proficiency test. 
 
 The course of pistol firing includes the following: 
 
 (a) Nomenclature and care of the pistol, general facts 
 and principles. 
 
 (b) Position and aiming drills and rapid-fire drills; 
 dismounted and mounted. 
 
 (c) Individual firing, instruction practice. 
 
 (d) Individual firing, record practice. 
 
 SIGHTING DRILLS 
 
 Value The value of the sighting drills and the position 
 and aiming drills can not be too strongly emphasized. By 
 means of them the fundamental principles of shooting may 
 be inculcated before the soldier fires a shot. 
 
 To Whom Given The sighting drills will be given to 
 all soldiers who have not qualified as "marksman" or better 
 in the preceding target year. 
 
 Purpose: 
 
 (a) To show how to align the sights properly on the 
 mark. 
 
 (b) To discover and demonstrate errors in sighting. 
 
 (c) To teach uniformity in sighting. 
 
 Apparatus and its Use Sighting Bar to consist of: 
 
 (a) A bar of wood about 1 by 2 inches by 4 feet, with 
 a thin slot 1 inch deep cut across the edge about 20 inches 
 from one end. 
 
 (b) A front sight of tin or cardboard YT, by 3 inches 
 tacked to the end nearer the slot and projecting 1 inch above 
 bar. 
 
 (c) An eyepiece of tin or cardboard 1 b}'- 3 inches 
 tacked to the other end of, and projecting 1 inch above, the 
 
86 Sighting Drill 
 
 bar, with a very small hole (0.03 inch) ^ inch from top of 
 part projecting above the bar. 
 
 (d) An open rear sight of tin or cardboard \ l / 2 by 3 
 inches, with a U-shaped notch y^ inch wide cut in the middle 
 of one of the long edges. This is placed in the slot on the 
 bar. A slight bend of the part of the tin fitting in the 
 slot wiH give enough friction to hold the sight in any part 
 of slot in which it is placed. 
 
 (e) A peep rear sight of tin or cardboard 3 by 3 inches, 
 with a peep hole 4 mcn in diameter cut in the center. This 
 replaces the open sight when the peep sight is shown. 
 
 Carefully blacken all pieces of tin or cardboard and the 
 top of the bar. Nail the bar to a box about 1 foot high 
 and place on the ground, table, or other suitable place. Then 
 adjust the open or peep rear sight in the slot and direct the 
 bar upon a bull's eye (preferably a Y target) placed about 
 5 yards from the bar. No other than the sight desired can 
 be seen. Errors, etc., are shown by manipulating the open 
 and peep rear sights. 
 
 Sighting Rest for Rifle Take an empty pistol ammuni- 
 tion box or a similar well-made box, remove the top and 
 cut notches in the ends to fit the rifle closely. Place the 
 rifle in these notches with the trigger guard close to and 
 outside one end. (The stock may be removed from the rifle 
 so as to bring the eye as near the rear sight as in shooting.) 
 Nail a plank (top of box will do) to a stake or wall about 
 12 inches from the ground. Fasten a blank sheet of paper 
 in the plank. Place the rest firmly on the ground, 20 or 
 30 feet from the plank, so that the rifle is canted neither to 
 the right nor left weight the box with sand if necessary 
 and without touching the rifle or rest; sight the rifle near 
 the center of the blank sheet of paper. Changes in the line 
 of sight are made by changing the elevation and windage. 
 Take the prone position with elbows on the ground, hands 
 supporting the head. A soldier acting as marker is provided 
 with a pencil and a small rod bearing a disk of white card- 
 board about 3 inches in diameter, with a black bull's-eye^ (a 
 black paster is best) pierced in the center with a hole just 
 large enough to admit the point of a lead pencil. The soldier 
 sighting directs the marker to move the disk to the right, 
 left, higher, or lower, until the line of aim is established, 
 when he commands "Mark" or "Hold." At the command 
 "Mark," being careful not to move the disk, the marker 
 
First Sighting Exercise 87 
 
 records through the hole in its center the position of the disk 
 and then withdraws it. At the command "Hold" the marker 
 holds the disk carefully in place without marking until the 
 position is verified by the instructor, and the disks not with- 
 drawn until so directed. 
 
 FIRST SIGHTING EXERCISE 
 
 Using illustrations, describe the normal sight and the peep 
 sight. 
 
 Using the sighting bar, represent the normal sight and the 
 peep sight and require each man in the squad to look at them. 
 
 Using the sighting bar, describe and represent the usual 
 errors of sighting and require each man in the squad to 
 look at them. 
 
 SECOND SIGHTING EXERCISE 
 
 Using the sighting rest for the rifle, require each man to 
 direct the ,marker to move the disk until the rifle is directed 
 on the bull's-eye with the normal sight and command "Hold." 
 The instructor will verify this line of sight. Errors, if. any, 
 will be explained to the soldier and another trial made. If 
 he is still unable to sight correctly, the first exercise will 
 be repeated. 
 
 Soldiers will sometimes be found who do not know how 
 to place the eye in the line of sight; they often look over 
 or along one side of the notch of the rear sight and believe 
 that they are aiming through the notch because they see 
 it at the same time that they do the front sight. This error 
 will probably be made evident by the preceding exercise. 
 Some men in sighting will look at the front sight and not 
 at the object. As this often occasions a blur, which pre- 
 vents the object from being distinctly seen and increases 
 both the difficulties and inaccuracies of sighting, it should 
 be corrected. 
 
 Repeat the above, using the peep sight. 
 
 THIRD SIGHTING EXERCISE 
 
 Using the sighting rest for the rifle, require each man to 
 direct the marker to move the disk until the rifle is directed 
 on the bull's-eye with the normal sight and command "Mark," 
 then, being careful not to move the rifle or sights, repeat 
 the operation until three marks have been made. 
 
88 Third Sighting Exercise 
 
 (a) The Triangle of Sighting Join the three points 
 determined as above by straight lines, mark with the soldier's 
 name, and call his attention to the triangle thus formed. The 
 shape and size of this triangle will indicate the nature of 
 the variations made in aiming. 
 
 (b) Abnormal Shape Causes If the triangle is obtuse 
 angled, with its sides approaching the vertical, the soldier 
 has not taken a uniform amount of front sight. If the 
 sides of the triangle are more nearly horizontal the errors 
 were probably caused by not looking through the middle 
 of the notch or not over the top of the front sight. If 
 any one of the sides of the triangle is longer than one-half 
 inch, the instructor directs the exercise to be repeated, veri- 
 fying each sight and calling the soldier's attention to his 
 errors. The instructor will explcin that the sighting gains 
 in regularity as the triangle becomes smaller. 
 
 (c) Verifying the Triangle If the sides of the triangle 
 are so small as to indicate regularity in sighting, the in- 
 structor will .mark the center of the triangle and then place 
 the center of the bull's-eye on this mark. The instructor 
 will then examine the position of the bull's-eye with refer- 
 ence to the line of sight. If the bull's-eye is properly placed 
 with reference to the line of sight, the soldier aims correctly 
 and with uniformity. If not so placed, he aims in a regular 
 manner but with a constant error. 
 
 (d) Causes of Errors If the bull's-eye is directly 
 above its proper position, the soldier has taken in aiming 
 too little front sight, or if directly below too much front 
 sight. If directly to the right or left, the soldier has not 
 sighted through the center of the rear-sight notch and over 
 the top of the front sight. If to the right, he has probably 
 either sighted along the left of the rear sight notch OL the 
 right side of the front '-ight or has committed both these 
 errors. If the bull's-eye is too far to the left, he has prob- 
 ai/Iy sighted along the right of the rear sight notch or to 
 the left of the front sight, or has combined both these 
 errors. 
 
 If the bull's-eye is placed with reference to its proper posi- 
 tion diagonally above and to the right, the soldier has 
 probably combined the errors which placed it too high and 
 too far to the right. Any other diagonal position would be 
 produced by a similar combination of vertical and horizontal 
 errors. 
 
Fourth Sighting 1 Exercise 89 
 
 As the errors thus shown are committed when the rifle is 
 fixed in position, while that of the bull's-eye or target is 
 altered, the effect will 'be directly opposite to the changes 
 in the location of a hit in actual fire, occasioned by the same 
 errors, when the target will be fixed and the rifle moved in 
 aiming. 
 
 After the above instruction has been given to one man, the 
 line of sight will be slightly changed by moving the sighting 
 rest or by changing the elevation and windage, and the exer- 
 cises similarly repeated with the other men in the squad. 
 
 Repeat the third sighting exercises, using the peep sight. 
 
 FOURTH SIGHTING EXERCISE 
 
 This exercise is a demonstration of the effect of canting 
 the piece. The soldier must be impressed with the necessity 
 of keeping the sights vertical when aiming, and not canting 
 the piece to the right or left. Explain to the soldier that if 
 the piece is canted to the right, the bullet will strike to the 
 right and below the point aimed at, even though the rifle be 
 otherwise correctly aimed and the sights correctly set. 
 Similarly, if the piece is canted to the left, the bullet will 
 strike to the left and low. This can be explained by show- 
 ing that the elevation fixes the height of the point where 
 the bullet will hit the target, and that the windage fixes the 
 point to the right or left ; i. e., the elevation gives vertical 
 effects and the windage horizontal effects. Let a pencil (or 
 rod) held vertical represent the elevation; now if the pencil 
 is turned to the right 90, or horizontal, all of the elevation 
 has been taken off, causing the shot to strike low and changed 
 into windage, causing the shot to strike to the right. 
 
 This effect may be demonstrated as follows : Use the 
 sighting rest with the rifle firmly held in the notches, the bolt 
 removed. Paste a black paster near the center of the bot- 
 tom line of the target. Sight the rifle on this mark, using 
 about 2,000 yards elevation, then, being careful not to move 
 the rifle, look through the bore and direct the marker to 
 move the disk until the bull's-eye is in the center of the 
 field of view and command "Mark." Next turn the rest 
 with the rifle on its side, and with the same elevation sight 
 on the same paster as above, then, being careful not to move 
 the rifle, look through the bore and again direct the marker 
 to move the disk until the bull's-eye is in the center of the 
 field of view and command "Mark." Not considering the 
 
90 Position and Aiming" Drills 
 
 fall of the bullet, the first mark represents the point struck 
 with the sight vertical, the second mark represents the point 
 struck, low and to the right, using the same elevation and 
 the same point of aim when the piece is canted 90 to the 
 right. 
 
 POSITION AND AIMING DRILLS 
 
 Purpose These drills are intended to so educate the 
 muscles of the arm and body that the piece, during the act 
 of aiming, shall be held without restraint, and during the 
 operation of firing shall not be deflected from the target by 
 any convulsive or improper movement of the trigger or of 
 the body, arms, or hands. They also establish between the hand 
 and eye prompt and intimate connection as will insure that 
 the finger shall act upon the trigger, giving the final pres- 
 sure at the exact moment when the top of the front sight 
 is seen to be directed upon the mark. 
 
 The fact, though simple, cannot be too strongly impressed 
 upon the recruit that if, at the moment of discharge, the 
 piece is properly supported and correctly aimed, the mark will 
 surely be hit. Since any intelligent man can be taught to 
 aim correctly and hold the sights aligned upon the mark with 
 a fair amount of steadiness, it follows that bad shooting 
 must necessarily arise from causes other than bad aiming. 
 The chief of these causes is known to be the deflection given 
 to the rifle when it is discharged, due to the fact that the 
 soldier, at the moment of firing, instead of squeezing the 
 trigger, jerks it. This convulsive action is largely due to 
 lack of familiarity with the methods of firing and to a con- 
 strained position of the muscles of the body, arm, and hands, 
 which constrained position it is the purpose of the position 
 and aiming drills to correct. 
 
 To become a good shot, constant, careful, and patient 
 practice is required. Systematic aiming and squeezing the 
 trigger will do much to make a rifleman. The ,men will be 
 taught to take advantage of every opportunity for practic- 
 ing aiming, and squeezing the trigger. For this purpose the 
 barracks and ground in the vicinity of the barracks should 
 be furnished with aiming targets, which the men will be 
 encouraged to use at odd moments, as when waiting for a 
 formation or during a rest. At drill the soldier will be 
 cautioned never to squeeze the trigger without selecting an 
 object and taking careful aim. When on the range waiting 
 
Position and Aiming* Drills 91 
 
 for his turn to fire, the soldier should use part of his time 
 in position and aiming exercises, aiming at the target or at 
 objects outside of the range, and he should be made to 
 understand that this practice previous to firing will tend to 
 prevent nervousness and will have a marked effect upon his 
 score. 
 
 To Whom Given The position and aiming drills will 
 be given to all soldiers who< have not qualified as "marksman" 
 or better in the preceding target year. Some practice in these 
 drills (especially in the trigger squeeze exercise) is recom- 
 mended for those who have qualified as "marks,man" or 
 better. The amount to be given is left to the discretion of 
 the company commander. 
 
 Drills: General Instructions These drills are divided 
 into four progressive exercises. The first exercise teaches 
 the position; the second exercise teaches the position and 
 the aim; the third exercise teaches the aim and the manner 
 of squeezing the trigger; and the fourth exercise teaches the 
 methods of rapid fire. These exercises should be taught by 
 the numbers at first; when fully understood, without num- 
 bers. 
 
 To correct any tendency to cant the piece, the rear sight 
 will be raised. A black paster at which to aim will be placed 
 on the wall opposite each man. The squad being formed in 
 single rank with an interval of 1 yard between files, the 
 instructor directs the men to take the position of "Ready," 
 except that the position of the feet will be such as to insure 
 the greatest firmness and steadiness of the body. The in- 
 structor then cautions "Position and aiming drill." 
 
 The exercise which is being taught should be repeated fre- 
 quently and ,made continuous. The instructor prefaces the 
 preparatory command by "Continue the motion," or "At will," 
 and gives the command "Halt" at the conclusion of the 
 exercise, when the soldier will return to the position of 
 "Ready." Or the soldier may be made to repeat the first and 
 second motions by the command "One," "Two," the exercise 
 concluding with the command "Halt." 
 
 Care should be taken by the instructor not to make the 
 position and aiming drills tedious. Thirty minutes daily 
 should be spent in this practice during the period of pre- 
 liminary instruction. After gallery practice is taken up, how- 
 ever, ^five or ten 'minutes daily should be sufficient for these 
 exercises. 
 
92 Position Exercise 
 
 In order that the instructor may readily detect and correct 
 errors, the squads for these drills should not consist of more 
 than eight men. 
 
 The instructor should avoid holding the squad in tiresome 
 positions while making explanations or correcting errors. 
 
 POSITION EXERCISE 
 
 The instructor commands: 1. Position. 2. Exercise. At 
 the last command, without moving the body or eyes, raise the 
 rifle smartly to the front of the right shoulder to the full 
 extent of the left arm, elbow inclined downward, the barrel 
 nearly horizontal, muzzle slightly depressed, heel of the butt 
 on a line with the top of the shoulder. 
 
 (Two) Bring the piece smartly against the hollow of 
 the shoulder, without permitting the shoulder to give way, 
 and press the rifle against it, mainly with the right hand, only 
 slightly with the left, the forefinger of the right hand resting 
 lightly against the trigger, the rifle inclined neither to the 
 right nor left. 
 
 (Three) Resume the position of "Ready." 
 
 Remarks The instructor should especially notice the 
 position of each soldier in this exercise, endeavoring to give 
 each man an easy and natural position. He should see that 
 the men avoid drawing in the stomach, raising the breast, 
 or bending the small of the back. 
 
 The butt of the piece must be pressed firmly, but not too 
 tightly, into the hollow of the shoulder and not against the 
 muscles of the upper arm. If held too tightly, the pulsations 
 of the body will be communicated to the piece; if too loosely, 
 the recoil will bruise the shoulder. If only the heel or toe 
 touches the hollow of the shoulder, the recoil may throw the 
 muzzle down or up, affecting the position of the hit. While 
 both arms are used to press the piece to the shoulder, the left 
 arm should be used to direct the piece and the sight fore- 
 finger must be left free to squeeze the trigger. 
 
 AIMING EXERCISE 
 
 The instructor will first direct the sights to be adjusted for 
 the lowest elevation and subsequently for the different longer 
 ranges. 
 
 The instructor commands : 1. Aiming. 2. Exercise. 
 
Aiming- Exercise 93 
 
 At the last command execute the first and second motion 
 of the position exercise. 
 
 (Two) Bend the head a little to the right, the cheek 
 resting against the stock, the left eye closed, the right eye 
 looking through the notch of the rear sight at a point slightly 
 below the mark. 
 
 (Three) Draw a moderately long breath, let a portion 
 of it escape, then, with the lungs in a state of rest, slowly 
 raise the rifle with the left hand, being careful not to incline 
 the sight to either side, until the line of sight is directly on 
 the mark; hold the rifle steadily directed on the mark for 
 x moment; then, without command and just before the power 
 to hold the rifle steadily is lost, drop the rifle to the position 
 of "Ready" and resume the breathing. 
 
 Remarks Some riflemen prefer to extend the left arm. 
 Such a position gives greater control over the rifle when 
 firing in a strong wind or at a moving object. It also pos- 
 sesses advantages when a rapiH as well as accurate delivery 
 of fire is desired. Whatever the position, whether standing, 
 kneeling, sitting, or prone, the piece should rest on the palm 
 of the left hand, never on the tips of the fingers, and should 
 be firmly grasped by all the fingers and the thumb. 
 
 The eye may be brought to the line of sight either by 
 lowering the head or by raising the shoulders ; it is best to 
 combine somewhat these methods ; the shoulder to be well 
 raised by raising the right elbow and holding it well to the 
 front and at right angles to the body. 
 
 If the shoulder is not raised, it will be necessary for the 
 soldier to lower the head to the front in order to bring the 
 eye in to the line of sight. Lowering the head too far to the 
 front brings it near the right hand, which grasps the stock. 
 When the piece is discharged, this hand is carried by the 
 recoil to the rear and, when the head is in this position, may 
 strike against the nose or mouth. This often happens in 
 practice, and as a result of this blow often repeated many 
 men become gun-shy, or flinch, or close their eyes at the 
 moment of firing. Much bad shooting, ascribed to other 
 causes, is really due to this fault. Raising the right elbow 
 at right angles to the body elevates the right shoulder, and 
 lifts the piece so that it is no longer necessary to incline the 
 head materially to the front in order to lo-ok along the sights. 
 
 As the length of the soldier's neck determines greatly the 
 
 :act method of taking the proper position, the instructor 
 
 r 
 
94 Trigger-Squeeze Exercise 
 
 will be careful to see that the position is taken without re- 
 straint. 
 
 As changes in the elevation of the rear sight will necessi- 
 tate a corresponding change in the position of the soldier's 
 head when aiming, the exercise should not be held with the 
 sight adjusted for the longer ranges until the men have been 
 practiced with the sights as the latter would generally be 
 employed for offhand firing. 
 
 The soldier must be cautioned that while raising the line 
 of sight to the mark he must fix his eyes on the mark and 
 not on the front sight; the latter can then be readily brought 
 into the line joining the rear-sight notch and mark. If this 
 plan be not followed, when firing is held on the range at long 
 distances the mark will generally appear blurred and indis- 
 tinct. The front sight will always be plainly seen, even 
 though the eye is not directed particularly upon it. 
 
 The rifle must be raised slowly, without jerk, and its 
 motion stopped gradually. In retaining it directed at the 
 mark, care ( must be taken not to continue the aim after 
 steadiness is lost ; this period will probably be found to be 
 short at first, but will quickly lengthen with practice. No 
 effort should be made to prolong it beyond the time that 
 breathing can be easily restrained. Each soldier will de- 
 termine for himself the proper time for discontinuing the 
 aim. 
 
 The man must be cautioned not to hold the breath too l-ong, 
 as a trembling of the body will result in many cases. 
 
 Some riflemen prefer, in aiming, to keep both eyes open 
 but, unless the habit is fixed, the soldier should be instructed 
 to close the left eye. 
 
 TRIGGER-SQUEEZE EXERCISE 
 
 The instructor commands: 1. Trigger squeeze. 2. Ex- 
 ercise. At the command Exercise, the soldier will execute 
 the first .motion of the aiming exercise. 
 
 (Two) The second motion of the aiming exercise. 
 
 (Three) Draw a moderately long breath, let a portion 
 of it escape, hold the breath and slowly raise the rifle with 
 the left hand until the line of sight is on the mark, being 
 careful not to incline the sights to either side. Contract the 
 trigger finger gradually, slowly and steadily increasing the 
 pressure on the trigger, while the aim is being perfected; 
 
Rapid Fire Exercise 95 
 
 continue the gradual increase of pressure required to release 
 the point of the sear, can be given almost insensibly and with- 
 out causing any deflection of the rifle. Continue the aim a 
 moment after the release of the firing pin, observe if any 
 change has been made in the direction of the line of sight, 
 and then resume the position of "Ready," cocking the piece 
 by raising and lowering the bolt handle. 
 
 Remarks Poor shooting is often the result of lack of 
 proper coordination of holding the breath, the maximum 
 steadiness of aim, and the squeeze of the trigger. By fre- 
 quent practice in this exercise each man may come to know 
 the exact instant his firing pin will be released. He must 
 be taught to hold the breath, bring the sights to bear upon 
 the mark, and squeeze the trigger all at the same time. 
 
 The Trigger Squeeze The trigger should be squeezed, 
 not pulled, the hand being closed upon itself as a sponge is 
 squeezed, the forefinger sharing in this movement. The fore- 
 finger should be placed as far around the trigger as to press 
 it with the second joint. By practice the soldier becomes 
 familiar with the trigger squeeze of his rifle, and knowing 
 this, he is able to judge at any time, within limits, what ad- 
 ditional pressure is required for its discharge. By constant 
 repetition of this exercise he should be able finally to squeeze 
 the trigger to a certain point beyond which the slightest 
 movement will release the sear. Having squeezed the trigger 
 to this point, the aim is corrected and, when true, the ad- 
 ditional pressure is applied and the discharge follows. 
 
 RAPID-FIRE EXERCISE 
 
 Object The object of this exercise is to teach the 
 soldier to aim quickly and at the same time 1 accurately, in all 
 the positions he will be called upon to assume in range prac- 
 tice. 
 
 The instructor commands: 1. Rapid-fire exercise. 2. Com- 
 'mence Firing. At the first command the first and second 
 motions of the trigger-squeeze exercise are performed. At 
 the second command the soldier performs the third motion of 
 the trigger-squeeze exercise, squeezing the trigger without 
 disturbing the aim or the position of the piece, but at the 
 same time without undue deliberation. He then, without 
 removing the rifle from the shoulder, holding the piece in 
 position with the left hand, grasps the handle of the bolt 
 
96 General Remarks on the Preceding- Drills 
 
 with the right hand, rapidly draws back the bolt, closes the 
 chamber, aims, and again squeezes the trigger. This move- 
 ment is repeated until the trigger has been squeezed five 
 times, when, without command, the piece is brought back to 
 the position of "Ready." 
 
 When the soldier has acquired so,me facility in this exer- 
 cise, he will be required to repeat the movement ten times, 
 and finally, by using dummy cartridges he may by degrees, 
 gain the necessary quickness and dexterity for the execution 
 of the rapid fire required in range firing. 
 
 Methods The methods of taking position of aiming, 
 and of squeezing the trigger, taught in the preceding exer- 
 cise, should be carried out in the rapid-fire exercise, with 
 due attention to all details taught therein ; the details being 
 carried out as prescribed except that greater promptness is 
 necessary. In order that any tendency on the part of the 
 recruit to slight the movements of aiming and of trigger 
 squeeze shall be avoided, the rapid-fire exercise will not be 
 taught until the recruit is thoroughly drilled and familiar 
 with the preceding exercise. The recruit will be instructed 
 that with practice in this class of fire the trigger can be 
 squeezed promptly without deranging the piece. 
 
 Repetition If the recruit seems to execute the exer- 
 cise hurriedly or carelessly, the instructor will require him 
 to repeat it at a slower rate. 
 
 Manipulation of the Breech Mechanism To hold the 
 piece to the shoulder and, at the same^ time, manipulate the 
 breech mechanis,m with the proper facility are learned only 
 after much practice. Some riflemen, especially men who shoot 
 from the left shoulder, find it easier, in rapid firing to drop 
 the piece to the position of load after each shot. While at 
 first trial this method may seem easier, it is believed that, 
 with practice, the advantage of the former method will be 
 apparent. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON THE PRECEDING 
 DRILLS 
 
 The importance of sighting and position and aiming drills 
 can not be too persistently impressed upon the soldier. If 
 these exercises are carefully practiced the soldier, before fir- 
 ing a shot at a target, will have learned to correctly aim his 
 
Deflection ana Elevation Correction Drills 97 
 
 piece, to hold his rifle steadily, to squeeze the trigger pro- 
 perly, to assume that position best adapted to the particular 
 conformation of his body, and will have acquired the quick- 
 ness in manual dexterity required for handling the piece 
 in rapid fire. This knowledge can not be successfully ac- 
 quired upon the target ground. At that place the time that 
 can be given to instruction is limited and should be devoted 
 to the higher branches of the subject. Even, if the desired 
 amount of attention could be given to each soldier, never- 
 theless, from the circumstances of the firing, his errors can 
 be readily determined. It is more than likely that the soldier 
 would never discover the reasons for his failures and would, 
 therefore, be unable to properly correct them. 
 
 Under such conditions the knowledge that he may have 
 of the many other requisites for good marksmanship can 
 not be utilized to full advantage, and, in fact, can but in a 
 limited degree compensate for the neglect of these first prin- 
 ciples and for the failure to lay, by assiduously practicing 
 them, the only firm foundation, for future proficiency. 
 
 If, in the instruction practice on the range, it is found that 
 the soldier makes errors in his position, he should be required 
 to stop firing and to practice the third exercise for 10 or 15 
 minutes. He should be encouraged to go through these ex- 
 ercises frequently at other than drill hours, care being taken 
 that, in the aiming and trigger-squeeze exercises, he always 
 has some definite object for a mark. 
 
 DEFLECTION AND ELEVATION CORRECTION 
 DRILLS 
 
 Sight Correction The soldier may find when firing at a 
 target that the first shot has missed the bull's-eye or figure, 
 and in order to cause the second to hit, two methods may be 
 used : The point of aim may be changed or the sights may 
 be moved and the same point be aimed at. In order to do 
 accurate shooting it is essential to have a well-defined mark 
 at which to aim; consequently, except for very slight correc- 
 tions, the method of moving the sights, involving changes in 
 elevation and windage, is devised. 
 
 Elevation The instructor w r ill show the men the gradu- 
 ations on the rear-sight leaf, and will explain to them the 
 value of the different divisions. He will explain how to ad- 
 just their sights for different distances. He will make it 
 
98 Deflection and Elevation Correction Drills 
 
 clear that raising or lowering the slide on the rear-sight leaf 
 has the effect of raising or lowering the point struck. The 
 amount of change which a given amount of elevation will 
 cause in the point struck varies with the range and with the 
 rifle and the ammunition used. 
 
 Deflection The instructor will explain how to move 
 the movable base by use of the windage screw; that the 
 graduations on the rear end of the movable base are for 
 convenience in setting the sights and applying corrections; 
 that each division is called a point of windage; that turning 
 the movable base of the rear sight to the right or left changes 
 the point struck to the right or left; that, to overcome the 
 drifting effect of a wind from the right, the movable base 
 must be moved to the right, and, if the wind be from the left, 
 the movable sight base must be moved to the left. 
 
 Adjusting the Sights Elevation The graduations 
 on the rear sight will be found correct for but few rifles. 
 This is due to slight variations in the parts of the rifle, 
 especially the barrel, which occur under the most exact 
 methods of fabrications. Not all rifles are tested at the 
 arsenal, and when the graduations for the rear sight have 
 been experimentally determined, they are correct only for 
 the particular conditions existing when they were so deter- 
 mined. The correction necessary for each particular rifle at 
 any range is found by shooting it at that range, and is con- 
 stant with the sa,me ammunition and when firing under the 
 same conditions. If no correction is necessary, the rifle is 
 said to "shoot on the mark." 
 
 Exercise To give the soldier practice in correcting 
 elevation and windage, a target should be placed on the wall 
 facing the squad and a blank paster attached a foot or more 
 from the ^bull's-eye, at first directly above or below the bull's- 
 eye, then on a horizontal line with it, and finally in an oblique 
 direction. 
 
 For this drill the rifle of each soldier who has not deter- 
 mined by actual firing the "zero" and the correct elevations 
 for the different ranges will be assumed to shoot on the 
 mark and to require no windage. 
 
 Announce the range and tell the men that the paster repre- 
 sents the position of an assumed hit and require each man 
 to ' correct his sight so as to bring the next hit into the. 
 bull's-eye. This exercise should be repeated daily during 
 
Deflection and Elevation Correction Drills 99 
 
 gallery practice, using the A, B, C, and D targets, until the 
 men have acquired accuracy in fnaking corrections for all 
 ranges up to 1,000 yards. 
 
 When the men have learned how to adjust their sights, 
 this exercise should be carried on in connection with gallery 
 practice. The rear sight on each rifle is given an incorrect 
 setting in elevation and windage by the instructor, and the 
 soldier required to find the correct adjustment by firing. 
 
 DEFINITIONS 
 
 Danger Space: That portion of the terrain which is 
 rendered dangerous by a cone of fire striking it or passing so 
 close to it that men within it are in danger of being hit. 
 
 Cone of Fire: A group of trajectories from a group of 
 rifles fired at a common target, with a uniform rear sight 
 elevation. 
 
 Note When the cone is concentrated, greater accuracy 
 in estimating of range is necessary. With accurate estima- 
 tion however, fire superiority is more quickly gained. When 
 the cone is unduly dispersed the danger space is increased 
 but objects within it are in less danger of being hit. The 
 cone should have little depth and should cover the entire 
 extent of the target. In order to more quickly reach a target 
 to which the range is not known the use of combined sights 
 is employed. (The platoons taking different sight eleva- 
 tions.) When a well trained unit is firing it should be well 
 handled or poor results will follow, due to poor control and 
 direction. 
 
 Trajectory: The path which a bullet or projectile fol- 
 lows in its flight. 
 
 Fire Discipline: The quality possessed by a well trained 
 fire unit which enables it to respond to the will of its com- 
 mander under all circumstances. 
 
 Fire Control: The actual control exercised by the com- 
 mander of a fire unit in causing it to commence, cease and 
 change the direction of its cone of fire at his will. This per- 
 tains more particularly to the platoon commanders. 
 
 Fire Direction: The direction for the employment of 
 fire, consisting of the assignment of sectors, targets, ob- 
 jectives and the arrangement for fire upon dead spaces in 
 adjacent sectors, etc. 
 
100 Duties of Company Commander 
 
 Regular Season: A period of two months annually set 
 aside by department commanders for the conduct of target 
 practice. 
 
 Supplementary Season: A period of the year midway 
 between regular seasons for conducting rifle practice for 
 those who have joined since the regular season or who were 
 not able to participate therein. It is for the purpose of pre- 
 venting an accumulation of men in companies who have had 
 no rifle practice. 
 
 DUTIES OF COMPANY COMMANDER IN CON- 
 NECTION WITH TARGET PRACTICE 
 
 The commander is directly responsible for the efficiency 
 of his men in rifle practice he is the chief instructor for his 
 company. 
 
 METHODS OF RANGE FINDING 
 
 By Sound: Take number of seconds between actual 
 discharge and the hearing of the sound of discharge and 
 multiply by 366. This method is of little use in battle. 
 
 By Trial Volleys: The effect of a sheaf of bullets strik- 
 ing together on dry, bare ground will be easily seen. On 
 unfavorable ground however, its value is doubtful. 
 
 By Estimation: Have the most expert estimators make 
 estimates and take their mean. This is an excellent and most 
 commonly used method. 
 
 By Instrument: The Weldon range finder gives very 
 good results in the hands of well trained men. Without well 
 trained men however, its use is not recommended. The new 
 range finder is excellent and can be read with little instruc- 
 tion. The troops are not all equipped with them yet. (It is 
 made in Germany.) 
 
 USE OF THE SLING 
 
 The sling shall be used in connection with the arm only. 
 Neither end shall be passed through a swivel, no knots 
 may be tied in it. It will not be altered in any way. 
 
Prone Position , 101 
 
 PRONE POSITION 
 
 Only as prescribed. Required that the soldier lie on his 
 front, with piece not touching the ground, no rest permitted 
 except as specified below. 
 
 REST FOR RIFLE 
 
 The rest is prescribed for use in firing at six hundred yards 
 and is not .optional. The rifle or hand supporting it must 
 rest on the sand bag provided. In combat exercises and field 
 firing the men use any available rest. 
 
 INSTRUCTION PRACTICE 
 
 The use of streamers, anemometers and other devices and 
 also coaching, are necessary to impart instruction 
 
 RECORD PRACTICE 
 
 In record practice no streamers or other devices are per- 
 mitted and coaching is absolutely prohibited. No advice or 
 assistance will be given the soldier after he goes to his firing 
 point. 
 
 SIGHTING SHOTS 
 
 When prescribed, sighting shots will be taken and can not 
 be omitted. When for any reason not the fault -of the soldier 
 he is unable or not permitted to complete the firing at a range 
 where sighting shots are prescribed, he will be allowed sight- 
 ing shots before the completion of the firing at that range. 
 
 UNIFORM 
 
 For target practice the service uniform will be worn. The 
 commanding officer may direct that the blouse be not worn. 
 The field belt is also worn. One suspender may be slipped 
 from the shoulder when firing. 
 
 PREVENTING FRAUD IN MARKING AND SCOR- 
 ING 
 
 In record practice there shall be an officer in the pits for 
 each two targets, where the pits are continuous, and in sepa- 
 rate pits one officer for each target. 
 
102 Marking- 
 
 Non-commissioned officers as scorers and in charge of the 
 target details are taken from companies other than those 
 firing on the targets. 
 
 When there is but one company present requiring the mark- 
 ing and scoring to be done by members of the same com- 
 pany, the company officers will cause each day's firing to 
 commence with fresh paper targets, and will cause a record 
 to be kept at each firing point of the number of 5's, 4's, 3's 
 and 2's marked on the corresponding target. After the firing 
 is over an officer will count the number of actual hits made 
 in the different divisions of the target and compare the re- 
 sults with the record kept at the firing point. In the event 
 of any considerable discrepancies the firing must be repeated. 
 
 MARKING 
 
 Hits on the wrong target count as misses. 
 
 In rapid fire if there are .more than ten hits on one target 
 the firing is repeated for that target. 
 
 In slow fire when two hits appear on one target the firer 
 is entitled to that with the higher value. 
 
 Glancing or ricochet hits count. 
 
 RANGE OFFICER 
 
 The range officer must not be confused with the officer in 
 charge of firing. He prepares the range for the firing, and 
 has charge of all range details of men and range material. 
 He places everything in readiness for the firing each day and 
 makes out the schedule of firing and assignments of targets. 
 He has nothing to do with the control of the firing on the 
 range, unless in addition to his status as range officer he 
 happens to be the officer in charge of firing. 
 
 OFFICER IN CHARGE OF FIRING 
 
 He has charge of the firing, and supervises its conduct. He 
 coordinates the work of the different organizations and pre- 
 vents as far as possible waste of time and infractions of 
 regulations, etc. 
 
 NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICER IN CHARGE 
 OF PITS 
 
 A non-commissioned officer is detailed on special duty in 
 charge of the pits, whose duty it is to assign or assist the 
 
Telescopic Siglits 103 
 
 range officer in assigning details to targets, instruct them and 
 cause them to prepare their targets for firing. He has per- 
 sonal charge under the range officer, of the range property 
 and material and issues it to the details each day. He causes 
 necessary repairs to be made to targets and material, targets 
 to be pasted, and is otherwise the assistant of the range officer 
 acting under his orders. 
 
 TELESCOPIC SIGHTS 
 
 Two telescopic sights form part of the equipment of each 
 company. They are assigned to the men best qualified to use 
 them. 
 
 Four ,men from each company are required to have prac- 
 tice with them, on B and C targets, at ranges up to 1,000 
 yards. Not to exceed 40 rounds per man. At 1,000 yards 
 20 rounds will be fired for record. The record will show 
 the number of the rifle, the score, the elevation and windage 
 used at the different ranges and the force of the wind 
 when firing. 
 
 LONG DISTANCE PRACTICE 
 
 All those who qualify as expert riflemen and sharpshooter 
 are required to fire the long distance practice. 
 
 This course will be fired twice and on different days. 
 
 Having fired the course through once, an officer or soldier 
 may be excused from firing at 800 yards again, at the dis- 
 cretion of the company commander. 
 
 It consists of 10 shots fired from prone position, at each 
 800 and 1,000 yards, and is repeated once. 
 
 No report is required, but the record will be kept in the 
 company. 
 
 For engineers and cavalry the practice will be conducted 
 at the discretion of the troop or company commanders. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FIELD SERVICE REGULATIONS 
 
 INFORMATION 
 
 In Peace Information obtained in time of peace by 
 the general staff includes the following : geography, resources, 
 military methods, arms, strength of various arms, and other 
 equipment and methods, of foreign countries. 
 
 In War Information obtained in time of war by means 
 of reconnaissance, newspapers and other papers, prisoners, 
 deserters, spies, maps, etc., in regard to the strength, com- 
 position, disposition and intentions of the hostile forces; also 
 information in regard to the terrain of the theatre of opera- 
 tions. 
 
 Reconnaissance By reconnaissance is meant the pro- 
 curing of military information in the field. Thorough recon- 
 naissance is kept up from the beginning to the end of 
 hostilities . 
 
 By Aero Squadron At the beginning, aero squadrons 
 operate in front of the cavalry. 
 
 By the Cavalry The cavalry reconnoitres for informa- 
 tion in front of the troops to which it is attached, screens 
 its movements, and attempts to destroy the enemy cavalry. 
 Its operations are largely independent and are directed by 
 the supreme commander. On large fronts sometimes two or 
 more bodies of independent cavalry will cooperate. 
 
 Divisional Cavalry This is the cavalry assigned to a 
 division. When the division is separate the cavalry is 
 usually independent cavalry, otherwise it is used as advance 
 cavalry. Advance cavalry is known as outpost, advance 
 guard, flank guard, or rear guard cavalry, according to 
 the nature of its duty. 
 
 Supplementary Reconnaissance Where the cavalry fails 
 in its reconnaissance, protection must be rendered by the 
 bther arms. 
 
 104 
 
Field Service Regulations 105 
 
 Independent Cavalry operates at great distances in ad- 
 vance of the force to which it belongs. 
 
 Advance Cavalry is more restricted in its operations 
 and goes more into detail. 
 
 When there is no independent cavalry in front of it, the 
 advance cavalry will assume its duties. 
 
 By Infantry When infantry is preceded by the aero 
 squadron and the cavalry, its reconnaissance will be re- 
 stricted to local protection. 
 
 When there is no cavalry, distant reconnaissance will be 
 conducted by mounted scouts of the infantry. 
 
 When there is little cavalry and the country is difficult, 
 both the cavalry and the infantry will reconnoitre. 
 
 Reconnaissance Immediately Preceding Combat Before 
 deploying for action, thorough reconnaissance is necessary. 
 Certain information is essential before the commander can 
 plan his attack. The composition and action of the reconnoitr- 
 ing forces depend upon the jnformation needed and the 
 strength and action of the enemy's screening detachments. 
 Such reconnaissance may vary from the action of small 
 patrols to the actual attacking by a considerable portion of 
 the command. The advance guard either supplements or 
 supplies this reconnaissance when necessary and should dis- 
 close the enemy's strength and position as quickly as pos- 
 sible. Artillery with the advance guard is particularly use- 
 ful in developing a situation by inflicting heavy losses. 
 The ordinary sequence of reconnaissance is as follows : 
 1. By Aero squadron. 2. By dependent cavalry. 3. By the 
 advance cavalry. 4. By the advance guard-infantry. 5. By the 
 artillery, or infantry assisted by the artillery. 
 
 Meeting Engagement In a meeting engagement where 
 time is a great factor, much preliminary reconnaissance will 
 have to be dispensed with and action taken upon the in- 
 formation the advance guard has obtained. 
 
 Attack on Position In the attack on a position which 
 the enemy has taken up deliberately and has strengthened, 
 time is often not so important, therefore complete develop- 
 ment is essential. 
 
 Reconnaissance During Combat is performed by the 
 infantry with regard to the terrain in front and for main- 
 
106 Field Service Regulations 
 
 taining contact with the enemy; by the aero squadron over 
 and around the enemy's position, to learn of any changes 
 in its strength or movements; by the cavalry by means of 
 small detachments around the flanks and rear of the enemy. 
 The main body of the cavalry to 'be held in readiness at the 
 disposition of the supreme commander. 
 
 Reconnaissance Patrols These are detachments sent 
 out to obtain information. They are usually small and avoid 
 fighting when not absolutely necessary to the success of their 
 mission. The commander determines the number and kinds 
 of patrols to be sent out. Only such patrols as are necessary 
 should be employed. Patrols vary in size from two men to 
 a company or troop. Small patrols have the advantage of 
 being easily concealed and of mobility and are economical of 
 men. Strong patrols have the advantage of possessing greater 
 force. They usually protect themselves by means of small 
 patrols. 
 
 Inspection of Patrols Officers sending out patrols 
 should carefully inspect them to see that the men and equip- 
 ment are as they should be. 
 
 Orders to a Patrol These should state what is known 
 regarding the enemy, the terrain, etc., and should clearly state 
 the mission the patrol is to accomplish. Instructions to a 
 patrol must be clearly understood. 
 
 Patrol Leaders These are selected for skill in patrol- 
 ling, for health, physical condition, and general all round 
 suitability, including ability to ,make and read maps, send 
 clear messages, etc. 
 
 Conduct of Patrol Stealth and caution are essential, 
 particularly in small patrols. 
 
 Formation The formation of a patrol should be such 
 as to give security to the greater part of it. In the case of 
 a small patrol the formation should insure the escape of one 
 man in the event of an ambuscade. 
 
 Patrols will not allow strangers to precede them. They 
 may seize civilians, telegrams, mail, etc. 
 
 Signs of the Enemy Patrols should watch the signs of 
 the enemy at all times and attempt to understand their move- 
 ments. Abandoned clothing and equipment might give valu- 
 able information. Thick low dust clouds indicate infantry 
 
Field Service Regulations 107 
 
 marching ; high thin clouds, cavalry marching; a broken 
 cloud, artillery or wagon train. 
 
 In order to estimate the strength of a command the fol- 
 lowing rule should be memorized : 
 
 175 infantry, in column or squads, will pass a given point 
 in one minute; 110 cavalry in column of fours, at a walk; 
 200 cavalry in column of fours, at a trot; 5 guns or caissons, 
 at a walk; troops in columns of twos, one-half the above 
 numbers. 
 
 When it is certain that the enemy is discovered, the fact 
 will be reported. 
 
 Information Usually Desired The regulation, forma- 
 tion and strength of the enemy and his various arms. The 
 nature of the forces with which the patrol has come in con- 
 tact, whether" it is a patrol, a portion of the advance guard, 
 a flank guard, the main body, etc. 
 
 This information is usually obtained by breaking through 
 troops which are stationary, or remaining in hiding and allow- 
 ing them to march by. 
 
 Ambuscades are often avoided by returning by a different 
 route. 
 
 Signals Enemy in sight in small numbers holding the 
 rifle over the head horizontally; enemy in force, same as 
 above, but moving the rifle up and down several times; to 
 take cover, a downward motion of the hand. 
 
 Signals for different emergencies should be pre-arranged 
 also a place of assembly in the event of becoming dispersed. 
 
 Air Craft The aero squadron is employed under the 
 direction of the commander of the forces to which they belong 
 and act under the orders of their commander. 
 
 Balloons are free, captive and dirigible. Free balloons are 
 of little use, except to carry information from a besieged 
 place. Captive balloons, connected with the ground by tele- 
 phone, are used for reconnaissance and for direction of 
 artillery fire. Dirigible balloons are for distant reconnais- 
 sance and for carrying machine guns, explosives, etc. 
 
 Aeroplanes are more dependable for field service. 
 They are used for reconnaissance and observation of artillery 
 fire, and also to destroy hostile air craft. Their radius of 
 action is about 150 miles and is increasing. They may be 
 used both in attack and defence. When used for observation 
 of artillery fire, they are under the orders of the artillery 
 
108 Field Service Regulations 
 
 commander.- They communicate by radio or by dropping 
 messages. 
 
 Messages Messages- are written information sent by 
 messenger or wire. They should be brief and clear, re- 
 sembling telegrams, with the source of the information given. 
 
 Reports These are more or less formal accounts of 
 conditions or enterprises. They are usually drawn up at 
 leisure and are based upon messages received and sent, and 
 upon actual occurrences. 
 
 Field Maps Those of our own country are prepared by 
 the Geological Survey on a scale of 1 :62500 -or about 1 inch 
 to the mile, with 20 ft. contours. These maps are supple- 
 mented by maps and sketches prepared from day to day. A 
 uniform system of scales and contour intervals is prescribed 
 as follows: 
 
 1 inch to 1 mile, V. I. 60 ft.; 3 inches to 1 mile, V. I. 
 20 ft; 6 inches to 1 mile, V. I. 10 ft.; 12 inches to 1 mile, 
 V. I. 5 ft. ; the 3 inch scale is for road sketches ; the 6 inch 
 scale is for position and outpost sketches ; the 1 inch scale is 
 for extended operations ; the 12 inch scale is for use in war 
 games, or for the discussion of operations at manouvers, and 
 in siege operations. Messages should, when practicable and 
 necessary, be supplemented by sketches. 
 
 War Diary This is a record of events kept in campaign 
 by battalion and higher commanders, also the commanders of 
 the various trains. Entries should be made daily and form 
 a concise history. Each day's record should contain the 
 march table, the operations or location of the organization, 
 the condition of the weather, roads, camp, health of troops, 
 etc., and a statement of the supply of ammunition, rations and 
 forage. It should also give a chronological record of all 
 events, including messages sent and received. Each day's 
 record should be attested by the co,mmander or his adjutant. 
 
 Commanders of armies or of separate units will forward 
 their diaries direct to the War Department. 
 
 Transmission of Information Information is trans- 
 mitted as follows : 
 
 (1) By wire; (2) by visual signalling; (3) by radio tele- 
 graph; (4) by messenger. For considerable distances wire 
 or radio is used. For short distances a messenger. 
 
 Messages sent by wire will be given to the operator in 
 writing. 
 
Security 109 
 
 When telephone is used parties concerned should do the 
 talking. It is the duty of all persons to assist in the trans- 
 mission of orders and messages. It is often advisable to 
 send information, not only to the proper superior, but to 
 neighboring troops, when this is done the fact should be 
 noted on each. 
 
 Information Officers : These are officers assigned to ac- 
 company large commands, whose duty it is to keep their 
 commanders informed as to the situation of neighboring 
 troops. 
 
 Messages It is desirable that messages sent by mes- 
 sengers be enclosed in envelopes and properly addressed. En- 
 velopes not marked "confidential" are left unsealed so that 
 commanders along the line imay read the contents. Upon the 
 envelope is written the name of the messenger, time of de- 
 parture, rate of speed. The rate of speed is indicated by the 
 words "ordinary," which means about 5 miles an hour for a 
 mounted man; "rapid," which means 7 or 8 miles an hour; 
 and "urgent," the highest speed consistent with certain de- 
 livery. The recipient of the message notes the time of re- 
 ceipt upon the envelope and returns it to the bearer. 
 
 When there is danger of a message falling into the hands 
 of the enemy, cipher should be used. Important information 
 is sent by two or more messengers. It ,may be advisable to 
 send duplicate messages by different routes. Messengers 
 should be informed before starting of the purport of the 
 message and where to report after delivery. 
 
 Relay lines of mounted men may be found necessary. 
 When such is the case connecting points are generally placed 
 along the roads at well marked points, such as cross-roads, 
 bridges, etc. The number and distance between posts depends 
 upon the men available and the conditions that necessitate 
 them. The usual distance is from 5 to 10 miles. The strength 
 from 6 men to a half troop. A record of all communications 
 should be kept at each post. 
 
 SECURITY 
 
 Security consists of measures taken to protect a command 
 from observation, annoyance or surprise. Security is pro- 
 vided at a distance by independent cavalry. In addition to 
 the security furnished by independent cavalry, certain cover- 
 ing detachments nearer the command are employed. On the 
 
110 Advance Guards 
 
 march, covering detachments are called advance, flank, or 
 rear guards; in camp or bivouac, outposts. 
 
 The object of the advance guard is to facilitate the march 
 and give protection from surprise and observation. The object 
 of the outpost is to secure the camp or bivouac against sur- 
 prise and to withstand an attack until the troops can prepare. 
 Advance guards drive off small bodies, remove obstacles, pre- 
 pare roads, bridges, etc. They prevent the enemy from firing 
 into the main body until it is in readiness to receive the 
 attack, or prepare for action ; to prevent reconnaissance by 
 the enemy and, in the event of retreat, to gain time for it 
 to escape or reorganize. 
 
 Security Formations First, the cavalry covering the 
 front, next a group or line of groups in observation, then a 
 support or line of supports forming a line of resistance, and 
 fourth, is the reserve. 
 
 In the march order is stated the detail of the covering 
 troops and the name of their commander, also the route to 
 be taken and distance from the main body. The cornmandei 
 of the covering detachment should clearly explain the situa- 
 tion to subordinates, assign troops to subdivisions, and pre- 
 scribe distances and duties of each. The commander of an 
 advance or flank guard marches well to the front directing 
 such changes and dispositions as he may find necessary. In 
 large commands all arms participate in security duty. In 
 detailing troops for security, economy consistent with safety 
 is exercised. The proportion of troops on security duty 
 varies from one-twentieth to one-third of the entire force. 
 The integrity of units is preserved when practical. In mixed 
 commands infantry predominates. Cavalry should be used 
 where its mobility is needed. Artillery is used as occasion 
 demands. Engineer, signal and sanitary troops are detailed 
 when necessary and available. 
 
 Field trains of covering detachments generally remain with 
 the train of the command, but may be permitted to join their 
 organization. Covering troops pay no co,mpliments. Indi- 
 viduals salute when they address or reply to superior officers. 
 
 ADVANCE GUARDS 
 
 Duties 1. To guard against surprise and furnish in- 
 formation. 
 
Advance Guards 111 
 
 2. To prevent observation of, firing upon, or delaying 
 the main body. 
 
 3. To check the enemy's advance long enough to per- 
 mit the main body to prepare. 
 
 4. When the enemy is encountered, on the defensive, 
 seize a good position and locate his lines. Not to bring on 
 a general engagement unless the commander is empowered 
 to do so. 
 
 5. To remove obstacles to repair the roads and favor 
 a steady march. 
 
 Strength and Composition In larger forces the propor- 
 tion of the advance guard to the main body should be greater, 
 because it takes relatively longer for a .large command to 
 prepare for action than a small one. A large command is 
 composed of all arms, the proportion depending upon con- 
 ditions. In open country it should be strong in cavalry and 
 field artillery. Artillery is seldom assigned to the advance 
 guard of a command not larger than a brigade. When there 
 is artillery with the command the officer of that arm should 
 accompany the advance guard for purposes of artillery re- 
 connaissance. In difficult country infantry might serve alone. 
 When there is no independent cavalry, advance guard should 
 be strong in cavalry. Machine guns should be used with the 
 advance guard to hold bridges, defiles, etc. Engineers are 
 attached to repair roads, bridges, etc. Bridge trains are as- 
 signed when necessary and available. The supreme com- 
 mander controls the signal troops usually, but a portion of 
 them may be attached to the advance guard. An ambulance 
 company usually accompanies large advance guards. 
 
 Distance From Main Body In small commands the 
 distance given in the march order is maintained by the ad- 
 vance guard. In large advance guards, the main body regu- 
 lates its march on the advance guard. The distance should 
 be sufficient to prevent needless halts to the main body and 
 to give it time to deploy. It should not be so great as to 
 prevent if necessary, the advance guard being supported. 
 
 Advance Guard Commander He will estimate the 
 situation and issue advance guard orders. The order desig- 
 nates the tactical components, i. e., advance cavalry, support, 
 etc., and gives instructions for each. The advance guard 
 
112 Distribution of Troops 
 
 commander is mounted and goes where necessary. His usual 
 station is at the head of the reserve, or the support where 
 there is no reserve. He constantly studies the ground with 
 a view to tactical dispositions. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF TROOPS 
 ADVANCE CAVALRY, SUPPORT AND RESERVE 
 
 Advance Cavalry It should reconnoitre far enough to 
 the front to guard against artillery fire; when there is inde- 
 pendent cavalry it maintains connection therewith. If there 
 is no independent cavalry it does its duty to a limited extent. 
 
 Support Following the advance cavalry is the support, 
 varying in strength from one-quarter to one-half of the ad- 
 vance guard. In mixed commands it consists of infantry. 
 Engineers may be attached. If there is no advance cavalry, 
 some cavalry should be attached to it for reconnoitering. 
 The support sends forward an advance party several hundred 
 yards, the distance varies with the conditions. The advance 
 party supplements the work of the cavalry. It provides for 
 its own local protection and that of the main body. The 
 advance party is preceded by a point, which is a small patrol. 
 With advanced cavalry, reconnaissance by the infantry is 
 minimized. The advance party is about one-eighth to one- 
 third of the support. When there is no cavalry, more patrols 
 are provided by the advance party and, if necessary, more 
 men are sent from the support and reserve. The support 
 commander usually marches with the advance party and goes 
 where necessary. He sees that the proper road is followed; 
 that guides are left in towns and cross-roads, repairs are 
 made to roads, bridges, etc., and that information is verified 
 and transmitted to the advance guard comniander. 
 
 Reserve The reserve follows the support at several 
 hundred yards. It consists of the remainder of the advance 
 guard. The artillery is at the head of the reserve. The en- 
 gineers, bridge train, and special troops are at its rear. 
 
 Reconnaissance This is usually conducted by small 
 patrols. When necessary flank guards will cover a threatened 
 flank. Where the terrain permits patrols may parallel the 
 march of the column. This is usually possible for cavalry 
 patrols. Infantry patrols and sometimes those which are 
 
Distribution of Troops 113 
 
 mounted will best reconnoitre by visiting- places along the 
 line of march to examine and guard danger points. They 
 should communicate with the main column when necessary. 
 Deserters, suspicious characters, and bearers of flags of truce 
 (the latter blindfolded) are taken to the advance guard com- 
 mander. Civilians are not permitted to precede the advance 
 guard. Communication between portions of the advance 
 guard and the main body is maintained by wire, messengers 
 or signals. 
 
 Advance Guard of a Small Command In a small com- 
 mand the foregoing arrangement may be modified to suit the 
 situation. A company v or troop usually uses only a point. 
 A battalion or squadron, an advance party. A war strength 
 battalion or squadron should put a company in the advance 
 guard. A regiment should put a battalion or squadron, if 
 the enemy is Ikely to be encountered. Where the advance 
 guard is less than a battalion there is no reserve. 
 
 Advance Guard of Cavalry Command Cavalry usually 
 adopts the same formation for its advance guard as those 
 described above, but with greater distances. 
 
 Security in Retreat In a retreat a column is preceded 
 by what are termed leading troops, to clear the road and 
 facilitate the retreat. Its strength and composition depend 
 upon conditions and troops available. Engineers are gener- 
 ally necessary. Cavalry is assigned to this duty to protect 
 against guerillas or small hostile parties. If seriously op- 
 posed, leading troops would be practically an advance guard. 
 
 Flank Guard The flanks of a column are protected 
 usually by patrols from the advance guard. When a flank 
 is threatened a special detachment called a flank guard pro- 
 tects it. Flank guards vary in size from patrols to detach- 
 ments of all arms. Their composition and action, like those 
 of the advance guard, depend largely on existing circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Flank Marches When the main body marches parallel 
 and near to the enemy, a flank guard is most important. If 
 the flank march is due to a considerable change in the direc- 
 tion of the main body, a new advance guard may be sent out. 
 In long columns the various units will provide their own 
 flank observation. 
 
114 Outposts 
 
 Rear Guards A rear guard is charged with the duty 
 of covering a retreat. The rear guard order is issued upon 
 the commander's decision to retreat. During a retreat the 
 outpost for the night becomes a rear guard till next day. 
 
 Strength and Composition This depends upon the na- 
 ture of the country, strength and character of the pursuing 
 forces. It does not count upon the support from the main 
 body. Machine guns, engineers and ambulance companies are 
 usually assigned to it. Troops that have suffered the least 
 and are in the best condition should he selected for rear 
 guards. 
 
 Distribution of Troops This depends largely upon the 
 conduct of the enemy. When necessary to withdraw while 
 deploying, the greater part of the rear guard marches on the 
 road, taking up a formation like that of advance guard faced 
 to the rear. 
 
 From the main body outward the parts are named as fol- 
 lows : Reserve, support, and rear cavalry. 
 
 The rear cavalry is between the support and the enemy in 
 the rear. The support drops back. A rear party corresponds 
 to the advance party of an advance guard. 
 
 Mounted engineers accompany the support, but may be 
 attached to the rear party. The cavalry and horse artillery, 
 if in sufficient numbers, might furnish the entire rear guard, 
 except the reserve. This is usually composed of infantry and 
 artillery. 
 
 Distances About the same rule applies as in the case 
 of advance guards. If marching at night, the rear guard 
 draws nearer the ( mam body. 
 
 Rear Guard of an Advancing Force If there is a pos- 
 sibility of an attack in the rear, a suitable rear guard is pro- 
 vided. In the event of trouble from guerillas, marauders, 
 etc., the rear guard should be strong in cavalry, generally 
 /marches in the rear of the train which follows the troops 
 without distances. 
 
 OUTPOSTS 
 
 Size and Disposition These depend upon size of the 
 command, proximity of the enemy, the situation, terrain, etc. 
 The size may vary from a small fraction to one-third of 
 force. For a single company a few sentinels and patrols 
 
Outposts 115 
 
 should suffice. In large commands an elaborate outpost sys- 
 tem is provided. Economy of men is exercised consistent 
 with security. Economical protection is often best afforded 
 by causing the enemy to be watched by small patrols with 
 resisting attachments posted. Complete organizations should 
 be used on outpost duty. 
 
 In small forces the outpost is usually formed from the 
 advance guard and is relieved the following day. The out- 
 post is relieved when the new advance guard passes through 
 it. In retreat it is detailed from the main body. The new 
 outpost then becomes the rear guard the following day. 
 
 In large forces the outpost is formed of the advance and 
 rear guards and performs its duty for several days before 
 it is relieved. In small commands it is relieved daily. 
 
 Sub-divisions of the outpost prepare for defence generally, 
 but this may be unnecessary under certain conditions. 
 
 The outpost duty troops should be concealed as much as 
 is consistent with proper performance of duty. Positions on 
 the sky line are to be avoided. 
 
 Composition Outposts are usually composed of the 
 three arms : 
 
 The Infantry, whch performs local observation, especially 
 at night, and furnishes the necessary resistance. 
 
 The Cavalry reconnoitres at a distance in open country and 
 by day. When the infantry is exhausted, the cavalry may 
 relieve it of outpost duty temporarily. 
 
 When the advance guard forms the outpost, the advance 
 cavalry continues to reconnoitre until night. 
 
 Artillery is used to command approaches and favorable 
 positions for the enemy. The guns are concealed and are 
 usually withdrawn at night. Machine guns should command 
 and check sentinel attacks. 
 
 Engineers assist in the preparation for defence. 
 
 The supreme commander controls the signal troops and 
 establishes communication to the reserve and from the reserve 
 to each support and detached post. 
 
 Usually no sanitary train is attached to the outpost. If 
 necessary, dressing stations may be established conveniently 
 in the rear of the outpost. The field trains of the outpost 
 troops join their organization. If combat is probable, they 
 remain at the rear. 
 
116 Outposts 
 
 Distribution The outpost is divided as follows: 
 
 From rear to front : Reserve, supports, outguards, advance 
 cavalry. 
 
 The distances between these parts and from the main body 
 depend on the object sought, the terrain and the size of the 
 command. No uniformity of distance can be expected. Con- 
 ditions control positions of troops. 
 
 The outpost of a small force should hold the enemy beyond 
 effective rifle range until the main body can deploy. In 
 large forces the enemy should be held beyond artillery range. 
 
 The Reserve is the main body of outposts and is lo- 
 cated at some central point from which to reinforce supports 
 or form a rallying point. 
 
 The reserve may be omitted when the outpost consists of 
 less than two companies. 
 
 The reserve comprises from one-fourth to two-thirds the 
 strength of the outpost. 
 
 The Supports constitute the line of resistance and vary 
 from one-half of a company to a battalion (usually a com- 
 pany). They furnish the outguard. They are numbered con- 
 secutively from right to left and occupy the important points 
 where resistance is to be made. They usually occupy posi- 
 tions on roads and other probable avenues of approach. 
 
 The line of outposts should be carefully selected with a 
 view to defence, and accurately defined. A section is as- 
 signed to each support and clearly indicated. 
 
 The Outguards form the line of observation. Out- 
 guards are : Pickets, sentry squads, cossack posts. 
 
 They are numbered from right to left in each support. 
 
 A picket is from two squads to half a company. They are 
 used at important points. They furnish patrols, sentinels, 
 double sentinels, sentry squads or cossack posts for obser- 
 vation. The strength of the picket depends upon the duty 
 to be performed. 
 
 The sentry squad is a squad posted in observation. It posts 
 single or double sentinels by day and night respectively, and 
 sometimes furnishes a patrol. 
 
 A cossack post consists of four men posted in observation. 
 It furnishes a single sentinel. At night it may be advisable 
 to change the position of observation groups, particularly of 
 sentinels. 
 
Outposts 117 
 
 Sentinels are usually single in day time and double at 
 night. 
 
 Sentinels of cossack posts are kept very near. Sentinels 
 from pickets may be as far away as one hundred yards. 
 
 There should be easy communication between the sentinels 
 and their groups. 
 
 Sentinels are numbered from right to left for each out- 
 guard. Observation groups are numbered consecutively from 
 right to left for each support regardless of their names. 
 
 By day, outpost cavalry reconnoitres in front of the line 
 of observation, and when there is independent cavalry farther 
 to the front it maintains connection therewith. 
 
 At night the cavalry is usually withdrawn near the re- 
 serve in order to rest their horses and also because the 
 infantry can better perform night reconnaissance. 
 
 Small detachments of cavalry are generally assigned to 
 the supports for distant reconnaissance. 
 
 With cavalry in front, the work of the infantry is mini- 
 mized. 
 
 Advance cavalry acts under the direction of the outpost 
 commander. 
 
 It is advisable at times to replace outguards by patrols at 
 such places where an advance by the enemy would be dif- 
 ficult, and where patrols could afford the necessary pro- 
 tection. 
 
 In daylight where the sentinels have sufficient view to 
 afford protection, much local patrolling may be dispensed 
 with. Distant patrolling, however, should be provided for 
 where necessary. 
 
 Patrols and sentinels must give sufficient warning to en- 
 able the supports to prepare for action. 
 
 It is the duty of patrols and outguards to delay the enemy 
 as much as possible without sacrificing themselves, and then 
 retire to their respective supports. 
 
 Connection is kept up between parts of the outposts by 
 patrols, except where a clear view renders it unnecessary. 
 
 At night, communication between the different groups is 
 essential. 
 
 Detached posts will be furnished from the reserve or main 
 body for places not in the general line assigned to the sup- 
 ports. 
 
 The outpost is established quickly, in order that the troops 
 may rest as soon as possible. 
 
118 The Halt Order 
 
 Until the permanent outpost is established, a temporary or 
 march outpost is posted from the advance guard. 
 
 THE HALT ORDER 
 
 The halt order includes the following: The commander's 
 decision to halt; assignment of camp sites to units; detail of 
 troops for outpost and a commander thereof; the general 
 outpost line and position of defence in case of attack. 
 
 The outpost commander upon receipt of the halt order will 
 issue the outpost order by reference to a map or after suit- 
 able reconnaissance. 
 
 The outpost order includes the following: Information re- 
 garding the enemy, line to be occupied, troops for supports, 
 location and sector for detached posts, any special recon- 
 naissance required; location and disposition of the reserve, 
 disposition of train, if it is with the troops ; location of his 
 headquarters. 
 
 The outpost commander will usually give his orders to 
 his support commanders from some good point of view. 
 
 Orders to support and reserve commanders should be so 
 given as soon as possible. Subordinates not present should 
 be given all general information. 
 
 In large outposts, orders are usually written. 
 
 After issuing the order, the outpost commander inspects 
 the outpost, orders necessary changes, and makes report to 
 his superior. 
 
 The commander of the reserve marches it to its post and 
 sends out necessary detachments, establishes bivouac, post- 
 ing at least one sentinel on guard. He provides connection 
 with main body, supports and nearby detached posts. 
 
 Supports marching to their posts furnish their own pro- 
 tection. 
 
 The support commander's order includes : Information as 
 to the situation ; detail of outguards ; defines their sectors ; 
 detail of patrols ; provides for sentinels posts ; directs the 
 necessary intrenching; establishes connection with adjoining 
 supports and with its outguards. 
 
 The support commander must arrange to cover his sector 
 so as to preclude the possibility of the unobserved approach 
 of the enemy, and yet exercise economy in men. 
 
 When the support is posted, the commander inspects all 
 dispositions, makes necessary corrections, and renders re- 
 port and sketch to outpost commander. 
 
The Halt Order Ii9 
 
 The outguards are marched to their posts furnishing their 
 own protection. 
 
 The outguard commander explains the situation, forms re- 
 liefs for sentinels and patrols. In the case of a picket, he 
 arranges for a sentinel at its post. 
 
 He posts the sentinels and points out and explains all topo- 
 graphical features in his sector, giving direction and location 
 of enemy if known, and location of neighboring outguards. 
 
 He gives patrols all necessary information and orders, re- 
 quiring each to cover its ground at least once before dark. 
 
 Pickets should maintain connection with outguards upon 
 the right and left, by' means of patrols. 
 
 Outguards should be concealed and their posts strength- 
 ened. 
 
 Relieving the Outpost The new outpost troops should 
 arrive at daybreak, which will give double strength on the 
 outpost line at the most dangerous hour. 
 
 In the evening and early morning, the outpost should be 
 particularly vigilant, as these periods are favorable to enter- 
 prises by the enemy. 
 
 Examining Post This is a small detachment com- 
 manded by an officer or a non-commissioned officer, stationed 
 at some convenient point to examine strangers who approach 
 the outpost line. 
 
 Their use is not general, but at times may be important, 
 particularly when the enemy speaks a different tongue or 
 during a siege. 
 
 ORDERS 
 
 Letters of Instruction Movements over large areas 
 and for considerable periods of time are regulated by letters 
 of instruction. 
 
 Field Orders Tactical and strategical actions not con- 
 veyed in letters of instruction are regulated by field orders. 
 
 Field orders for an army or division are written ; for a 
 brigade usually written ; for a regiment or smaller unit usu- 
 ally verbal. 
 
 Object of field order: To make a course of action; to 
 create cooperation between all parts of the forces, to express 
 intention of leader. 
 
 They are issued for marches, halts, camps, security, com- 
 bat, etc. 
 
120 General Orders 
 
 Field orders are often issued in fragmentary form, con- 
 sisting of messages written -or oral. Whenever they give 
 detailed instructions, they should follow the prescribed form. 
 
 Details of administration are usually issued in "orders," 
 but when convenient may be included in field orders. 
 
 Orders should 'be issued in sufficient time only for the 
 recipients to study and understand them. 
 
 For divisions it requires one and one-half hours for dis- 
 tribution of orders, and for brigades about one hour. 
 
 The hour of issue is the hour of signature 
 
 GENERAL ORDERS 
 
 These include (1) instructions for carrying out general 
 regulations issued by superior headquarters; (2) all standing 
 instructions, in order to prevent frequent repetition. They 
 are issued by the following commanders : of armies, of field 
 armies, of divisions, brigades, regiments, and separate bat- 
 talions. 
 
 Orders are issued by commanders of divisions and separ- 
 ate brigades, and are for the regulation of matters pertaining 
 to supply, distributing points, use of rations, and hospital 
 service, etc. Also to the line of communication, rendezvous, 
 and evacuation points. 
 
 Special Orders refer to movements and assignments of 
 individuals, and are not published to commands generally. 
 
 Verbal Orders are given by commanders in person, or 
 sent by staff officers or messengers. When important, they 
 should be recorded at once. They should be sent by mes- 
 sengers only in cases of necessity. 
 
 They should contain but one mandate, and that stated as 
 concisely as possible. 
 
 The bearer of a verbal message should be required to re- 
 peat it before starting. 
 
 Composition of Field Orders The officer issuing a 
 field order must previously estimate the situation and come 
 to a decision, and carefully word his order in the prescribed 
 form. 
 
 In estimating the situation, the commander should care- 
 fully consider his mission and all existing conditions, sur- 
 rounding or affecting him. 
 
 In making his decision, he should carefully consider every 
 means open to him for accomplishing his mission, and after 
 
General Orders , 121 
 
 duly weighing each, decide which is most promising of suc- 
 cess. He then makes his decision. 
 
 Orders should be the outcome of logical reasoning. They 
 should as far as practicable preserve the integrity of tactical 
 units. They should be clear and definite. Expressions which 
 leave one in doubt as to their meaning should be avoided. 
 In stating locations or directions, use points of the compass 
 and definite distances. For instance, to indicate a position, 
 "On hilltop 600 yards N. E. of Jones' mill." Avoid using 
 such expressions as "The other side of Elk Creek" or "On 
 the left hand side of the road," as much depends upon the 
 viewpoint of the individual. The right or left flank of a body 
 of troops has a fixed meaning, however, and refers to the 
 right or left of a command when facing the ene,my. The 
 right and left do not change when a command is in retreat. 
 
 Geographical names should be written in capitals. Where 
 names are not pronounced as they are spelled, their phonetic 
 spelling should appear in brackets immediately after. 
 
 When two or more places have the same name, reference 
 should be made to some other point to distinguish between 
 them. 
 
 A road is indicated by the naming of two or more points 
 along it. 
 
 Use an affirmative expression when possible. 
 
 Written orders should be absolutely legible. 
 
 They should consist of brief and concise sentences. 
 
 Conjectures, expectations and reasons should be avoided. 
 
 The commander should accept the entire responsibility and 
 should issue his orders in positive language. 
 
 They should leave the details of execution to the officer 
 who is to execute them. 
 
 When much time will elapse between the issuing of orders 
 and their execution, letters of guidance are preferable. These 
 should lay stress upon the object to be attained and omit the 
 means to be employed. 
 
 Orders should not attempt to arrange matters too far in 
 advance. 
 
 Details of time and place should be carefully stated, and 
 subordinate commanders and staff officers should be required 
 to regulate their watches by that of the commander, or other 
 official timepiece. 
 
 Orders of subordinates should not merely repeat those of 
 higher commanders. They should go more into detail. 
 
122 General Orders 
 
 Form For Field Orders In order to secure quick 
 understanding and prompt cooperation, field orders should 
 follow the prescribed form. The parts of a field order are: 
 The heading, the distribution of troops (where necessary), 
 the body, the ending. 
 
 The Heading This contains the title or name of the 
 issuing officer's command, the place, date, hour of issue, and 
 number of the order. 
 
 Titles are expressed as follows: Det. 1st Div. ; Outpost, 
 6th Inf.; Advance Guard, 3rd Div.; 1st Brig. 1st Div.; 3rd 
 Div. 
 
 In the above titles "Det. 1st Div." means that the com- 
 mand is composed of troops from the first division ; "Ad- 
 vance Guard, 3d Div." means that the command is the ad- 
 vance guard of the third division. 
 
 The title may appear in the order creating a command, 
 thus : "The Second Brigade will constitute the advance 
 guard." 
 
 The title with place, date, and number fully identifies 
 
 an order. 
 
 Whether named in the title or elsewhere in -the order, the 
 abbreviated form for the designation of tactical organiza- 
 tions is preferable. 
 
 When a fraction of an organization can not be designated 
 by naming one or more of the sub-divisions, it receives the 
 generic title of "detachment." 
 
 A detachment is a body of troops separated from a higher 
 command and intrusted with a special mission. 
 
 Nearly every command -of any size is composed of troops 
 from the different arms or special services, or both, and when 
 not constituting a division, brigade, or other authorized unit, 
 the question arises whether to call such a command a "de- 
 tachment" or to give it the tactical designation of the pre- 
 doiminating arm or special service. If there is a predominat- 
 ing element the title of the command is that of the predomi- 
 nating element, unless the proportion of auxiliary troops or 
 special troops equals or exceeds that prescribed for a division, 
 in which case the command is a detachment. For example : 
 A command consisting of one regiment of infantry and one 
 squadron is a detachment, while the title of a command con- 
 sisting of one regiment of infantry and a troop is that of the 
 regiment. 
 
 Dates in the heading are abbreviated thus. 4 -Feb. '08, 
 2-45 P. M. 
 
General Orders 123 
 
 The Distribution of Troops The distribution of troops 
 shows the tactical components into which a command is 
 divided (advance guard, main body, etc.) and the troops as- 
 signed to each. It is generally used in march orders and in 
 the first field order applying to a command newly created or 
 organized. In other cases it is usually more convenient to 
 name the troops in the body of the order, where their duties 
 are prescribed. 
 
 When a "distribution" is used it is headed "Troops," and 
 in written or printed orders is placed on the left of the body, 
 occupying about one-third of the page. The tactical com- 
 ponents are marked with lettered subheads (a), (b), etc., 
 the troops listed under each performing the task prescribed 
 in the similarly marked paragraph of the body of the order. 
 
 When orders are dictated or sent by wire or signals, the 
 distribution of troops (if used) is given immediately after 
 paragraph 2, without number. 
 
 The Body The body contains information and instruc- 
 tions for the command, and is arranged in numbered para- 
 graphs as follows : 
 
 Paragraph 1 contains such information of the enemy and 
 of 'our supporting troops as it is desirable that subordinates 
 should know. 
 
 Paragraph 2 contains the general plan of the commander, 
 or so much thereof as will insure cooperation of all parts of 
 the command. 
 
 Paragraph 3 contains the detailed tactical disposition 
 adopted by the commander to carry out the plan outlined in 
 paragraph 2, including the tasks assigned to each of the 
 several combatant fractions of the command. These tasks 
 are given under lettered subheads (a), (b), etc., the leading 
 fracton, or the one having the most important duty to per- 
 form being generally considered first. For instance: In an 
 attack order it is customary to consider the artillery first; in 
 a imarch order, troops are considered according to their posi- 
 tion in the column. 
 
 Instructions applicable to all of these fractions may be 
 embodied in a subparagraph, lettered (x), at the end of para- 
 . graph 3. 
 
 Paragraph 4 contains instructions for the train, distribut- 
 ing and dressing stations, etc. 
 
 Paragraph 5, where the commander can be found, and the 
 location of "lines of information." 
 
124 General Orders 
 
 Where additional paragraphs are necessary, they are 
 written and properly numbered after paragraph 4. 
 
 The location of the commander is always indicated in the 
 last paragraph. 
 
 No abbreviations are used in the body of the order except 
 A. M. and P. M., and those authorized for tactical organiza- 
 tions and designation of rank. 
 
 In naming a night, both days should be mentioned, thus : 
 Night 4/5 Feb. 08. To designate noon and midnight, these 
 words are written. 
 
 The Ending This contains the authentication of the 
 order and a statement of how it is communicated to the com- 
 mand. Before orders are issued, they should be carefully 
 checked to see that the entire command is accounted for. 
 
 MARCHES AND CONVOYS 
 
 A march is successful when the troops arrive at their 
 destination at the appointed time, without loss of efficiency. 
 Good marching is obtained by careful preparation, discipline, 
 march sanitation, minimizing hardships, preparation without 
 haste, marching at route order, informing as to duration of 
 halts, and taking advantage of them; not keeping burdens on 
 men longer than necessary, caring for mens' feet, and the 
 hoofs and backs of animals, resting one day in seven on long 
 marches, never making forced marches when unnecessary. 
 
 Compliments are omitted on the march. 
 
 The conduct, formation, start, rate and length of the march, 
 are regulated according to its object. 
 
 Conduct of Marches Preparation Men and animals to 
 be fit and equipped, wagons properly loaded, arrangements 
 for supplies made, and for care and evacuation of sick and 
 wounded. 
 
 FORMING THE COLUMN 
 
 Issue March Order This states the object, distribution 
 of troops, order of troops in main body and provides for 
 formation of the column. 
 
 When a command marches in two s (2) columns, the two 
 commanders issue additional orders. 
 
 Forming the Column If distant from the road; by the 
 successive arrival of units at an initial point, usually in the 
 direction of the march. 
 
The Column 125 
 
 Initial Point Is fixed by the commander with refer- 
 ence to position of troops and available roads may fix other 
 initial points for other units. 
 
 In large commands units should be incorporated in order 
 of march for following day. The following should be con- 
 sidered ; Road space and rate of march, and distance from 
 initial point of different units; approximate road spaces for 
 Infantry in column of squads, Cavalry, in fours, Artillery, 
 wagons and trucks in single column are as follows : Infantry, 
 two men per yard; Cavalry, 1 man per yard; Artillery, (guns, 
 caissons and wagons) 20 yards each, and trucks 12 yards. 
 
 Commanders of subordinate units should examine routes, 
 calculate time required, and start accordingly; designate 
 initial points when necessary. 
 
 The Commander designates time of start, and subordinate 
 commanders issue orders necessary to comply. 
 
 Distribution of Troops This is controlled by (1) tacti- 
 cal consideration, (2) reduction of hardships. 
 
 Order of March (1) Cavalry and Horse Artillery. (2) 
 Infantry, Field and Mountain Artillery. (3) Engineers. (4) 
 Trains, etc. In retreat this order is reversed. 
 
 In mixed commands, large bodies of Cavalry and Horse 
 Artillery should march separately from foot troops. 
 
 An engineer detachment should march near the head of 
 each column to repair roads, etc. 
 
 The order of units in all commands should be changed 
 from day to day, by placing that which is leading one day, 
 at the rear the next day. 
 
 Troops should march on the right of the road when prac- 
 ticable, leaving the left free for passage. When the con- 
 dition of the roads make it advisable, the column may be 
 split and half march on each side of the road. 
 
 Straggling and elongating the column must not be per- 
 mitted. 
 
 Infantry habitually marches in column of squads, and 
 Cavalry in column of fours when practicable. Both .march 
 in twos when it is desirable. Artillery marches in column 
 of sections, but when the road permits, may march in double 
 sections. On trails and in difficult country troops march by 
 files or Troopers, or any way that appears most advantageous. 
 
 The Start Marches usually begin in the morning, al- 
 lowing a reasonable length of time for breakfast, feeding 
 
126 The Column 
 
 of animals, preparing for the march, policing the camp, etc. 
 Foot troops do not usually start before broad daylight. 
 Mounted troops start about an hour after daylight. Prepara- 
 tions for the days march are made pursuant to calls sounded 
 from headquarters, and are supervised by an officer from 
 each organization. 
 
 Distances between units or trains will be in accordance 
 with regulations, or else as ordered by the commander. They 
 may be temporarily increased or diminished as may be 
 necessary to prevent checking the column. 
 
 Rate and Length of Marches The rate is regulated by 
 the foot troops. It varies with the size and condition of 
 the command, conditions of the road, weather, topography 
 of the country and the tactical requirements. 
 
 Infantry marches at Drill, 100 yards per minute, 
 3.4 miles per hour. On the road, the rate will be 
 88 yards per minute, or three (3) miles per hour; which 
 with the required halts of ten (10) minutes every 
 hour, will make it cover about 2^4 to 2*/ miles per hour. 
 This is average marching. Infantry will march about fifteen 
 (15) miles per day under ordinary circumstances. In large 
 bodies this will often be reduced to about twelve (12) miles 
 per day. Small efficient commands in good weather can 
 average twenty (20) miles per day. 
 
 Cavalry marches 4 miles, 8 miles and 12 miles per hour. 
 The average marching at a walk is a mile in 16 ,minutes, 
 or 3^4 miles per hour, and at a trot, 8 minutes to the mile, 
 or 7y 2 miles per hour. In the field the usual gait is the 
 walk, which with halts reduces the march to 3 T /2 to 3^4 
 miles per hour. The average march of cavalry when seasoned 
 is 25 miles per day. 
 
 Field Artillery assumes the rate of march of the body to 
 which it is attached. If alone it will march 15 to 20 miles 
 per day. 
 
 Horse Artillery marches at the same rate as the Cavalry 
 to which it is attached. 
 
 The rate of march for the trains depends upon the kind 
 and condition of the animals, condition of roads, the load 
 and the length of the column. Under favorable conditions 
 they may march about 4 miles per hour. This is unusual how- 
 ever. The rate of march varies according to conditions ; 
 from 2 l /4 to about 2 miles per hour for an average. 
 
The Column 127 
 
 Pack Trains carrying about 250 Ibs. per animal will 
 march 20 to 25 miles per day, on ordinary roads, but in 
 rough country, not more than 10 to 15 miles. 
 
 Auto Trucks or wagons drawn by tractors vary so in 
 their marching ability that no fair average has been decided 
 upon. , 
 
 Halts Commands are halted occasionally to rest. The 
 first halt is made after 45 minutes of marching, and is 
 for about 15 minutes. This halt should not be made in the 
 vicinity of dwellings, as it is for sanitary purposes, and 
 for adjusting clothing and equipment. After the first halt, 
 foot troops halt to rest about 10 .minutes in every hour. 
 The men fall out, but remain in the immediate vicinity of 
 their places in column after the first halt. 
 
 Cavalry halts only about five minutes per hour, to examine 
 horses' feet, adjust equipment, etc. 
 
 Field Artillery will halt for 'about 5 to 10 minutes per 
 hour, to inspect and made adjustments. 
 
 It is desirable to finish the ^march as soon as practicable. 
 Marches of less than^ 15 miles for Infantry and 25 miles for 
 Cavalry will not be divided by long halts. On larger marches, 
 which will extend into the afternoon, it is well to rest and 
 feed during the noon hour. Such a halt should be made at 
 a place selected with a view of obtaining good ground, shade, 
 shelter and water. During long rests arms are stacked and 
 equipment removed. Mounted Troops dismount and loosen 
 cinches. 
 
 In the tropics, in order to avoid the heat of the day, 
 marches may be commenced earlier in the morning, and a 
 long rest taken during the hotter hours. The ( march may bo 
 resumed later in the afternoon. It is not very satisfactory, 
 however, to arrive at a strange place late in the day. Troops 
 should not be halted near towns, except when necessary to 
 get water and supplies ; in which case the men will remain 
 in column. 
 
 In small commands units halt and start at command or 
 signal. In large commands, the commanders of units halt 
 and start at the time indicated in orders. All unit com- 
 manders will have their watches set with that of the com- 
 mander. 
 
 Crossing Bridges and Ferries When there is cause for 
 delay, the troops should be informed as to the probable length 
 of the delay, in order that they may take advantage of the 
 time to rest. 
 
128 The Column 
 
 When crossing difficult places, every effort should be made 
 to prevent checking the march of the troops in the rear. 
 Units may be required to overlap and seek other passages. 
 When a company is forced to slacken its pace at a crossing, 
 the head of the company should slacken its pace till the rear 
 is past the obstacle. The company resumes its place in the 
 column by quickening its pace. 
 
 Fords, bogs, bridges, etc., should be carefully examined 
 before crossing, and when necessary, an officer is detailed to 
 superintend the crossing; whose instructions must be com- 
 plied with. 
 
 When temporary bridges are used there will be a bridge 
 guard, under an engineer officer, for its care. His orders 
 relative to the bridge will be considered as those of the com- 
 mander. 
 
 In quicksands, swamps, treacherous fords, etc., the way 
 will be carefully marked with stakes in the day, and with 
 lanterns at night. A fire vill also be built at the exit. 
 
 Foot troops will ford deep swift currents, on as wide a 
 front as possible; holding hands or locking arms. 
 
 The men should refrain from looking at the water, bul 
 watch the landing place. 
 
 It is sometimes advantageous to have the mounted troops 
 ford first, above the Infantry, to break the force of the 
 current. 
 
 Delay at difficult fords is often lessened by finding several 
 places to cross at once. 
 
 Animals and wagons will deepen fords having mud and 
 sand bottoms, necessitating the selecting of other places for 
 crossing. 
 
 Persons operating a ferry must not be interfered with. 
 
 Men enter pontoons or barges, singly at the bow, and move 
 toward the stern. In larger vessels ,men may march in by 
 twos. They retain their places. In small boats and' in rough 
 weather the men will sit down. When the crossing is dan- 
 gerous they will remove their equipment. 
 
 Horses are loaded singly. In a single row, they are placed 
 head and tail, side by side. In double row, they face inward, 
 If a horse falls overboard he is let loose. 
 
 Guns, caissons and wagons are loaded by hand, and teams 
 go on same vessel when possible. 
 
 In unloading, the men leave from the bow in order, and 
 do not rise until their turn. 
 
 With rafts the center is loaded first, and the load is equally 
 distributed. 
 
The Column 129 
 
 The center is the last place to unload. 
 
 Cattle will be required to swim if possible. Rafts are 
 dangerous on account of the tendency of cattle to crowd into 
 one place. 
 
 Care of Troops Commanders must keep themselves 
 informed as to the condition of the troops, and the progress 
 of subordinate units in the rear. 
 
 Water supplies must be carefully examined and marked 
 "Good" or "Bad," especially in commands where cholera and 
 other diseases of the stomach or intestines are prevalent. 
 
 Guard against excessive eating or drinking. Make can- 
 teen last for day's march. Canteens should be replenished 
 when necessary. This should be done in an orderly ,manner, 
 and under the inspection of a responsible person. 
 
 Advance guards may require inhabitants to place water 
 along line of march for troops. It is sometimes necessary 
 to convey a supply of water in wagons. 
 
 When the water question for the day is doubtful, the horses 
 should be watered before leaving'. '' 
 
 As many troops as possible should be watered at the same 
 time. 
 
 Watering animals is a test of the discipline of a command. 
 
 Units water in turn, and at a place corresponding to the 
 positions they occupy in the column. 
 
 Animals of Artillery and trains are watered in camp, before 
 leaving and upon arrival, except when there is ample time 
 to water from buckets or to unhitch. 
 
 In hot weather precautions as to selecting shade and fresh 
 air for resting should be considered. Men should be cau- 
 tioned not to drink too freely. Green leaves and wet hand- 
 kerchiefs in the hats, often give relief. When overheated the 
 men ,must not cool too suddenly. 
 
 Straggling No man should leave the ranks without per- 
 mission. Officers and non-commissioned officers will report 
 those disobeying this rule. 
 
 Enlisted men away from their organizations will be ar- 
 rested by the Military Police; who will send all men so 
 arrested to their companies, with statements of the circum- 
 stances, v * 
 
 Those who pillage and commit other crimes, are arrested 
 and dealt with according to law. 
 
 Camp or Bivouac Upon approaching camp the Com- 
 mander issues the halt order. 
 
130 Kinds of Marches 
 
 KINDS OF MARCHES 
 Peace Marches (1) Marches in change of station. 
 
 (2) Practice marches. 
 
 Marches in Campaigns (1) Concentration marches. 
 (2) Marches in the presence of the enemy. 
 (3)- Forced marches. 
 (4) Night marches. 
 
 Changing Station The march order may be issued to 
 cover several days, -or for each day. It prescribes the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 (1) The distribution of troops. 
 
 (2) Time of starting. 
 
 (3) Camping places. 
 
 (4) Time for calls. 
 
 (5) Any other .necessary details. 
 
 To lessen the discomfort distances may be increased. 
 
 .On "muddy roads the mounted troops may be made to fol- 
 low the Infantry. In high vegetation or deep mud they may 
 be made to break the way for Infantry. 
 
 Field trains may march with their regiments and supply 
 trains, conveniently placed. 
 
 Practice Marches These are for two (2) purposes. 
 
 (1) Hardening the men and animals. 
 
 (2) For teaching officers their duties in campaign. 
 They should conform to the conditions they are meant to 
 
 simulate, and should always include field service instructions. 
 The issuing of field orders will be required for all tactical 
 exercises. 
 
 Concentration Marches Are for the purpose of 
 assembling troops at a certain point. Time and road spaces 
 are the principal elements to be considered. These are af- 
 fected by the road and weather conditions, etc. 
 
 A column of troops on the .march must not be cut by 
 another. 
 
 When two commands meet at cross-roads, the senior has 
 the right of way. If near the enemy, the senior decides on 
 which shall precede. 
 
 If .one column overtakes another, it may pass on if its 
 commander be the senior; -otherwise with the senior's con- 
 sent. 
 
 Marches in the Presence of the Enemy The order in 
 such marches is controlled by tactical considerations and is 
 
Kinds of Marches 131 
 
 determined by the plan for the employment of the troops. 
 When contact with the enemy is probable columns are closed 
 up and march on wide fronts. Communication is kept up 
 between columns on parallel roads, and all impedimenta kept 
 in the rear. If a part of a unit of infantry is assigned to 
 the advance guard, the rest of that unit marches at the head 
 of the main body. 
 
 In an advance the artillery is near the head of the main 
 body in order to assure its prompt action. Sufficient infantry 
 should precede it to insure its security. The artillery com- 
 mander should accompany the commander of the column. If 
 there is danger from the flanks the artillery may be broken 
 into columns not longer than a regiment with detachments 
 of infantry in front, on the flanks, and in the rear of each. 
 This formation is not conducive to quick action. However, 
 to reduce delay the artillery may be marched in double col- 
 umn and its combat trains follow immediately the last in- 
 fantry unit. When moving into action artillery has the right 
 of way. An example of the march of the main body of a 
 division is as follows : 
 
 1 regiment infantry. 1 battalion artillery. Regiment artil- 
 lery. 2 brigades infantry (less 1 regiment). Engineers. 
 Signal troops. Artillery combat trains. Trains. 
 
 In marching through defiles, forests, or at night, it may 
 be advisable for the . artillery to be placed at the rear. 
 
 Trains Military trains should be guarded at all times. 
 Field trains are guarded by ,men on duty with it, by con- 
 valescents and other noneffectives, by dismounted men of the 
 cavalry and members of the artillery reserve. Supply, am- 
 munition, and engineer trains are guarded by military police. 
 When marching into action trains should be placed so as not 
 to interfere with movements. Pontoon trains, when needed, 
 should be as far forward as practicable. When wagons break 
 down or stall the load should be transferred to others and 
 the road cleared promptly. 
 
 Forced Marches The conduct of a forced march is 
 controlled by the distance and the time in which it is to be 
 made. They are only ,made when necessary. With large com- 
 mands they are more difficult than with small ones. Foot troops 
 make forced marches by increasing the marching time. Halts 
 for cooking and sleeping are arranged to afford the maxi- 
 mum benefit. An increase in the pace is seldom advisable. 
 The maximum day's march for infantry and trains is 28 to 
 30 miles. Such a march should not be for more than 36 
 
132 Kinds of Marches 
 
 hours. If the march continues for several days, each day's 
 march should be of more than average length. Foot troops 
 should be especially favored with best roads and not inter- 
 mingled with vehicles and mounted men. If possible their 
 packs should be transported. Mounted troops increase the 
 gait and the time of marching. They may make 50 miles per 
 day for three or four days. The usual hourly halts are made 
 and a two hour halt is made in the middle of each day's 
 march, when horses should be unsaddled and fed. The 
 rate of march should be five miles an hour, excluding halts. 
 Single marches of 100 miles are made in 24 to 30 hours, 
 during which halts are made every hour and two hour 
 halts are made at the end of the first and second thirds of 
 the march. The rate of march should be five and one-half 
 miles an hour. Marches of 30 to 40 miles at six miles per 
 hour can be made under favorable conditions. In small well 
 seasoned commands the rate may be increased. A forced 
 march of 150 miles should be made in about 3 days. Forced 
 (marches of 200 miles should be made at the rate of 30 to 
 40 miles per day. The horses and men should be relieved 
 and assisted by requiring the men to dismount and lead for 
 periods and should be permitted to remove sweaters, coats, 
 etc., if desirable. 
 
 Night Marches These are made to avoid excessively 
 hot day marches or to surprise the enemy or secure a favor- 
 able position. Good roads and moonlight are desirable. A 
 few hours rest should be taken and best discipline maintained. 
 The following precautions should be taken : See that proper 
 road is followed; contact is maintained between units; that 
 men are stationed at crossroads and changes of direction; 
 guides are secured; troops kept closed up. When the march 
 is secret additional precautions are taken. Silence is main- 
 tained, mouthpieces of bugles are removed, articles of equip- 
 ment secured to prevent rattling, smoking is prohibited, 
 habitations are avoided and extra time allowed in the event 
 of having to leave the road. Cavalry marches in the rear 
 of infantry and the artillery follows the cavalry and has a 
 special infantry escort. 
 
 Convoys by Land The term convoy applies to any 
 train by which supplies are forwarded to an army. The 
 term also applies to troops guarding such train. There are 
 also convoys of prisoners on land and transports by water. 
 
Kinds of Marches 133 
 
 Wagon Convoys These consist of not more than 
 100 wagons usually and occupy about a mile of road space. 
 An officer is in charge of a convoy which is divided 
 into sections of 20 to 30 wagons each, under a noncommis- 
 sioned officer or wagon master. Military police assist and 
 protect the convoy. Where the transportation is hired or 
 impressed a strong guard is necessary. There should be 25 
 yards between sections, two yards between wagons, and the 
 rate of march should be two to two and one-half miles an 
 hour, halts included. Halts for breathing on long inclines 
 and for locking wheels on descents are permitted. Long halts 
 should be avoided. The slowest teams are placed in the 
 lead. Loads from broken wagons are transferred to others 
 and the road promptly cleared. 
 
 Security Security is furnished by an escort of infantry 
 and enough cavalry should be provided for ^ scouting and 
 communication, also some engineers for repairing roads and 
 bridges. In open country the proportion of cavalry should 
 be greater. The strength of trie escort depends upon : Size of 
 train ; risk ; nature of the country ; length of march ; etc. 
 Trains containing explosives require an extra strong escort. 
 The senior line officer with the troops is in command. He 
 should consult and defer to the wishes of the officer in charge 
 of the train. Officers casually with a convoy have no au- 
 thority over it. 
 
 Distribution of Troops Advance guard. Main body. 
 Flank guard (if necessary). Rear guard. 
 
 Advance Guard The advance cavalry, if any, precedes 
 the train 3 to 5 miles reconnoitring the front and flanks. 
 There should be guides and interpreters. Bridges should be 
 guarded and topography should be carefully examined. The 
 remainder of the advance guard marches about a mile in 
 front of the train. Its commander should examine the coun- 
 try with a view to selecting places for parking in the event 
 of contact with the enemy. The head of a train should not 
 enter a defile until the further end is guarded. 
 
 The main body marches at the most important point, either 
 at the head, rear, or center of the train, ordinarily at the 
 center. If it .marches at the center it is advisable to place 
 a body of infantry at the head and tail of the convoy. 
 
 The^rear guard marches a short distance in the rear of the 
 train, in usual rear guard formation. Its strength is usually 
 about one-sixth of the escort. 
 
134 Kinds of Marches 
 
 Camping The commander selects the place for camp- 
 ing with regard to water supply, fuel, grass, and defence. A 
 field enclosed by wire is desirable. Animals will not be 
 herded if there is danger of attack, or unless otherwise, im- . 
 perative. During halts the train is parked. The shape of 
 the park depends upon the existing conditions. Ordinarily 
 when at a distance from the enemy it is parked in column 
 of sections or half sections with 20 yards between subdivis- 
 ions and intervals of six or eight yards between wagons. A 
 more compact formation may be secured by placing the 
 wagons axle to axle and tying animals to picket lines in front 
 of the wagons. 
 
 Formation for Defence Two lines facing each other; 
 the diamond ; a square ; a rectangle ; an oval ; a circle ; with 
 the poles pointing inward. Wire entanglements and trenches 
 should be constructed when necessary. The camp or park 
 is protected by outposts. 
 
 Defence of 'a Convoy The duty of an escort is to keep 
 the enemy from gaining a position permitting effective fire 
 on the train and to prevent surprise. The flanks are the 
 most vulnerable parts. The escort fights only when neces- 
 sary and does not pursue when the enemy is repulsed. If 
 the enemy holds a commanding position on the line of march 
 he must be dislodged, or the convoy must take a different 
 road. The advance cavalry should report the presence of the 
 enemy to the commander as soon as possible when it is 
 known, in order that the commander may make preparation 
 or any change that he may deem necessary. If menaced by- 
 small parties the convoy should continue; if attacked by a 
 superior force the train is parked in a defensive formation 
 under the protection of a skirmish line. The defence should 
 be made at some distance from the convoy. Couriers should 
 be dispatched to notify the commander of the nearest troops. 
 Should the enemy be repulsed his retreat should be carefully 
 verified before resuming the march. If the train cannot be 
 saved the commander should escape with the most valuable 
 part, destroying the remainder. 
 
 Attack of a Convoy The most favorable times for 
 attacking a convoy are: When passing through woods; de- 
 files ; or, over bridges ; going around a sharp bend ; on steep 
 slopes; on difficult roads; when teams are being watered; 
 or at any time when it is not prepared for immediate defence. 
 The convoy should be forced to "halt. It should be thrown 
 
Firing- 135 
 
 into confusion by an attack from an unexpected quarter. 
 Artillery and machine guns should be employed against it. 
 If captured, portions which cannot be carried off should be 
 destroyed. 
 
 Prisoners In addition to an escort to repel attempts at 
 rescue there should be a guard of ten foot soldiers and 
 several mounted men for every hundred prisoners. Prisoners 
 are formed in companies and marched in column. Their 
 officers are marched separately. Prisoners should be treated 
 kindly, but warned that an attempt to escape will draw fire. 
 If the convoy is attacked the prisoners are made to lie down. 
 At night they are guarded in well lighted buildings or en- 
 closures. 
 
 FIRING 
 
 Firing is divided into the following classes: 
 Volley Firing, which has a very limited use, is used in 
 early stages of action against unusual targets. It may be 
 used also in what is known as "fire of position." When the 
 ground is such that the effect of volleys upon it may be 
 seen, volley firing is an excellent means of finding the range. 
 Fire of Position is the fire employed by troops which 
 are not taking part in the advance against a position, to 
 assist the troops which are actually making the attack. It is 
 usually directed from some favorable position to a flank, or 
 from some elevated position in the rear of the attackers. 
 Volley firing is executed habitually by platoon. 
 
 Firing at Will is the class of fire usually employed in 
 combat. It is delivered with deliberation, slowly at the 
 longer ranges; more quickly and with deliberation consistent 
 with the rapidity required at lesser ranges, and rapidly where 
 the target is so near that great deliberation is not required, 
 to render the fire effective. 
 
 Clip Fire has limited application. It is used in early 
 stages of combat, to steady the men, to cause brief pauses in 
 firing and for short heavy bursts of fire. . ' 
 
 The operation of firing consists of determining and an- 
 nouncing the range, indicating the target and commencing 
 the fire. 
 
 For determination of ranges see notes on Small Arms 
 Manual herein. The usual method used, is estimation by two 
 or more men, selected for their accuracy in this particular 
 
136 Firing 
 
 art, and taking the mean of their estimates. This can be done 
 very quickly, when the range finders have been trained to 
 estimate ranges on the first signs of the enemy. 
 
 Target Indication In order to indicate the target to 
 the men it is necessary to do two (2) things : 
 
 (1) Show them the target or its location. 
 
 (2) Show them its extremities. 
 
 To show where the target is, call the men's attention to 
 some distinct and conspicuous object near the target, or in 
 line with it; and by using this object as a reference point, 
 endeavor to give the direction and distance from it to the 
 target. For instance, let us imagine that a wind ( mill or a 
 tree, or a certain house might be so situated that by calling 
 attention to "the wind mill nearest the large red barn," or 
 to "the north end of the white dwelling," or "the right of 
 the five trees on the hillside," the eyes of the command will 
 be directed in the general direction of the target, and fixed 
 on a definite object. 
 
 Having indicated the reference point, the next step is to 
 announce what the target is, so that the men will know what 
 to look for. Then the distance and direction of the target 
 from the reference point will be announced. In doing this, 
 the reference point should be considered, as in the center of 
 a clock dial, with 12 :00 o'clock directly beyond it and in 
 prolongation of a straight line from the center of the com- 
 mand to the reference point. The imaginary figures on the 
 dial would then be used to indicate direction from the re- 
 ference point to the target. To show the distance from the 
 reference point to the target, place the hand, back to the 
 front, and fingers extended, twenty inches (20") from the 
 eye, and see how many fingers can be included between the 
 target and the reference point. 
 
 The next step to be taken after the location of the "target, 
 is to indicate the extremities. The end, usually that nearest 
 the reference point, has been indicated as the location. Hold 
 up the hand as before and see how many fingers it takes to 
 exactly hide the target, then give the direction, right or left, 
 of the first point located so many fingers. This completes 
 the operation. It takes a good many words to explain such 
 a simple process, but the execution of it requires but a few 
 seconds. 
 
 The method explained above is often satisfactory, but will 
 not cover all cases, because frequently there is terrain, in 
 which reference points are difficult to find, or do not exist 
 
Shelter . 137 
 
 at all. When such is the case another simple .method is to 
 announce the target as being at such o'clock, which, without 
 having referred to any other point, means that the command 
 is considered as being in the center of an imaginary hori- 
 zontal clock dial, with 12:00 o'clock straight to the front, 
 and that the target is in .the direction corresponding to that 
 of the imaginary number indicated. 
 
 There are other and better methods than those indicated 
 above, but they take considerable study and practice, and 
 some -of them require more or less special equipment for such 
 training. 
 
 SHELTER 
 
 To maintain efficiency troops must have shelter. In peace 
 troops are usually under canvas when in the field. For in- 
 surrection or riot duty public buildings may be used. Private 
 buildings are not used without the owners' consent. In war, 
 public buildings are used when necessary to care for sick and 
 wounded. This will be avoided when individuals offer shelter 
 or shelter may be had for reasonable rent. Seizure is not 
 resorted to except in emergencies. In enemy territory public 
 and private buildings may be used. For sanitary reasons 
 private buildings are seldom used. In such cases civil au- 
 thorities should be consulted. Families should not be in- 
 terfered with when it can be avoided. Troops under canvas 
 are said to be in camp. When on the ground without shelter 
 they are in bivouac. When in buildings, or improvised 
 shelter they are said to be in cantonment. Cantonments are 
 usually developed from improvements and additions to camps. 
 During suspensions of hostilities, and in severe weather, can- 
 tonments are advantageous. Billeting is assignment of troops 
 to quarters in private dwellings. The allowance of tentage 
 for the field is provided for in the Table of Organization. . 
 
 SHELTER IN THE SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 
 
 In mobilization and concentration camps, troops are 
 sheltered under canvas or in temporary barracks. They 
 should fulfill the following conditions: 
 
 1. Ground easily drained and sanitary. Sufficiently 
 large for depots, corrals, hospitals, etc., to permit the en- 
 campment of troops without crowding and provide ample 
 space for military exercises. 
 
138 Shelter in Theatre of Operation 
 
 2. The water supply should be excellent, abundant, 
 and not liable to contamination. 
 
 3. There should be ample facilities for railroad trans- 
 portation, places for loading and unloading troops and sup- 
 plies. 
 
 4. Good wagon roads should be accessible, all arrange- 
 ments should be complete before troops arrive. Units should 
 be camped together, tents pitched and lined, kitchens equip- 
 ped, water and fuel supplied, sanitary arrangements .made, 
 provisions made for mail, telegraph and telephone service, 
 headquarters should be centrally located, and the proper wire 
 communications provided. Storehouse and hospital should be 
 convenient to railroad. Trains should be placed so as not to 
 be a nuisance to the troops. No individuals, troops, or trains 
 of organizations, temporarily present should be attached to 
 the permanent camp personnel if it can be avoided. The per- 
 manent camp personnel should operate all depots, hospitals 
 and means of communication. Troops temporarily present 
 should be kept ready to move. 
 
 SHELTER IN THEATRE OF OPERATION 
 
 Tactical considerations generally control the location of 
 the camp. In field operations the equipment of troops is 
 limited to that carried by the .men or on animals or in trains. 
 It is sometimes advantageous to place the men and animals 
 in buildings. During long periods between actual hostilities 
 camp equipment may be sent to the troops, and buildings 
 utilized for shelter. Tactical considerations often prevent the 
 occupation of favorable camp-sites, but when possible, con- 
 sideration must be given to sanitary conditions. When tac- 
 tical questions are not involved and camp is to be occupied 
 for some time, great care should be exercised in selecting 
 the site. Greater losses may be caused by lack of discretion 
 in such cases than by actual combat. The selection of camp 
 sites is covered by the following conditions : 
 
 1. The camp should not be crowded, ground easily 
 drained, with no stagnant water near. 
 
 2. Water supply to be sufficient, pure and accessible. 
 
 3. There should be good roads to and within the camp. 
 
 4. Wood, grass, forage and supplies must be on hand 
 or obtainable. 
 
 Closely cropped turf with sandy, gravely sub-soil is best. 
 High banks of rivers are suitable if no marshes are near. 
 
Shelter in Theatre of Operation 139 
 
 In hot weather, ground should be high, free from under- 
 brush and shaded' by trees. In cold weather the ground 
 should slope to the south with woods to break the north 
 winds. Avoid bid campgrounds, vicinity of cemeteries, 
 marshy ground, stagnant water, etc. Stagnant water breeds 
 mosquitoes. Avoid thick forests, dense vegetation, marshy 
 ground, alluvial soil, depressions, and dry beds of streams. 
 It should not be necessary for troops to pass through each 
 other's camps. To protect against epidemics, camp-sites in 
 the theatre of operations should be changed every two or 
 three weeks. The formation of the camp should be such as 
 to facilitate prompt making and breaking of camp, and to 
 afford 'the best means of defence. For one night halts in the 
 presence of the enemy, the camp might be more contracted, 
 but where tactical reasons will permit, imore comfort and 
 sanitation should be arranged for. Camp is established pur- 
 suant to the halt order which provides for the outpost and 
 the encampment of the main body. Usually large commands 
 encamp by brigades. The camp ground may be selected by 
 the Supreme Commander, but in large commands a Staff 
 Officer is usually sent forward for that purpose. This officer 
 should be accompanied by an officer from each brigade and 
 regiment, and also a medical officer. The staff officer pre- 
 ceding the command selects the camp ground, indicates to 
 each of the officers accompanying him the portion assigned 
 to their respective commands. These officers conduct their 
 commands to their camp-sites upon arrival. The staff officer 
 designates the places for obtaining drinking and cooking 
 water, for watering animals, for bathing, for washing cloth- 
 ing in the order named, from upstream, down. 
 
 When the troops arrive guards are posted over the water 
 supply. Interior camp guards march to their places, post- 
 sentinels, then pitch their tents. The command pitches tents, 
 cares for animals and equipment, establish kitchens, send de- 
 tails for fuel, water, forage, etc., dig latrines, kitchen pits, 
 and when necessary ditch tents and picket lines. In the pre- 
 sence of the enemy places are designated for assembly in case 
 of attack, and the r necessary orders given. Lines of com- 
 munication are established with the outposts. When troops 
 are to be billeted, a staff officer and a representative from 
 each brigade and regiment precede the column. The staff 
 officer confers with the civil authorities with a view to mak- 
 ing^ proper distribution of troops among available buildings, 
 assigns sections to regiments, the regimental officer provides 
 for distribution of their troops to quarters in their sections. 
 
140 Shelter During- Battle 
 
 It may be necessary to billet part of the troops and place 
 others in shelter or bivouac. As villages and farms afford 
 such facilities as water supply, bakeries^ blacksmith shops, 
 material for repairs, fuel, and forage, it b 'desirable to halt 
 near them. In the presence of the enemy, troops are often 
 forced to bivouac for tactical reasons. In good weather it 
 may be preferable to bivouac. For tactical reasons bivouacs 
 are desirable. For sanitary reasons they are only resorted 
 to when necessary. The selection of sites for bivouacs is 
 covered by the same principles as pertain to camp sites. In 
 the artillery the men usually sleep under carnages or paulins 
 on one night halts, 
 
 SHELTER DURING BATTLE 
 
 When action ceases for the night troops bivouac in line of 
 battle oa the ground occupied, with the officers in the rear of 
 the center of their units. Reserves remain in readiness in 
 bivouac in columns with a flank to the front. The com- 
 mander of the main body decides whether the outpost troops 
 shall use shelter tents or not. 
 
 SHELTER DURING SIEGES 
 
 Due to the long range of artillery, the main body of the 
 besiegers usually camps not less than five miles from the 
 enemy, except when excellent cover is available nearer. To 
 . hold the enemy to his lines a large portion of the command 
 remains on outpost duty. The outpost is relieved fro,m time 
 to time by fresh troops. Great care is .exercised to prevent 
 epidemics in the crowded camps or cantonments of the be- 
 siegers, especially in the care of the water supply and sani- 
 tation. 
 
 CARE OF TROOPS 
 
 Lack of sufficient rest renders troops unfit for hard work 
 and diminishes their power of resisting disease. Therefore 
 commanders should secure for the troops, whenever possible, 
 their accustomed rest. 
 
 The rules of sanitation are enforced. 
 
 Men should not lie on damp ground. In temporary camps 
 and in bivouac they raise their beds if suitable material, 
 such as straw, leaves, or boughs can be obtained, or use their 
 ponchos or slickers. In cold weather and when fuel is plenti- 
 
Care of Troops 141, 
 
 ful the ground may be warmed by fires, the men making 
 their beds after raking away the ash.es. 
 
 When troops are to remain in camp for sometime all 
 underbrush is cleared away and the camp made as comfort- 
 able as possible. Watering troughs, shelter in cold weather, 
 and shade in hot, are provided for the animals, if practic- 
 able. 
 
 In camps of some duration guard and other routine duties 
 follow closely the custom in garrison. The watering, feed- 
 ing, and grooming of animals take place at regular hours 
 and under the supervision of officers. 
 
 The camp is policed daily after breakfast and all refuse 
 matter burned. 
 
 Tent walls are raised and the bedding and clothing aired 
 daily, weather permitting. 
 
 Arms and personal equipments x are kept in the tents of the 
 men. In the cavalry, horse equipments are also usually kept 
 in the tents, but in camps of some duration they may be 
 placed on racks outside and covered with slickers. In the 
 artillery, horse equipments arid harness are placed on the 
 poles of the carriages and covered with paulins. 
 
 The water supply is carefully guarded. When several 
 commands are encamped along the same stream this matter 
 is regulated by the senior officer. 
 
 If the stream is small, the water supply may be increased 
 by building dams. Small springs may be dug out and lined 
 with stone, brick, or empty barrels. Surface drainage is 
 kept off by a curb of clay. 
 
 When sterilized water is not provided, or when there is 
 doubt as to the purity of the water, it is boiled 20 minutes, 
 then cooled and aerated. 
 
 Latrines for the men are always located on the opposite 
 side of the camp from the kitchens, generally one for each 
 company unit and one for the officers of a battalion or 
 squadron. They are so placed that the drainage or over- 
 flow can not pollute the water supply or camp grounds. 
 
 When the camp is for one night only, straddle trenches 
 suffice. In camp of longer duration, and when it is not 
 possible to provide latrine boxes, as for permanent camps, 
 deeper trenches should be dug. These may be used as 
 straddle trenches or a seat improved. When open trenches 
 are used the excrement must be kept covered at all times 
 with a layer of earth. In more permanent camps the trenches 
 are not over 2 feet wide, 6 feet deep, and 12 feet long, and 
 
142 Care of Troops 
 
 suitably screened. Seats with lids are provided and covered 
 to the ground to keep flies from reaching the deposits ; 
 urinal troughs discharging into the trenches are provided. 
 Each day the latrine boxes are thoroughly cleaned, outside 
 by scrubbing and inside by applying when necessary a coat 
 of oil or whitewash. The pit is burned out daily with ap- 
 proximately 1 gallon oil and 15 pounds straw. When filled 
 to within 2 feet of the surface, such latrines are discarded, 
 filled with earth, and their position marked. All latrines and 
 kitchen pits are filled in before the march is resumed. In 
 permanent camps and cantonments, urine tubs may be placed 
 in the company streets at night and emptied after reveille. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 NOTES ON ELEMENTARY INFANTRY 
 INSTRUCTION 
 
 COMMANDS 
 
 Much in the way of efficiency and in the manner of exe- 
 cuting commands depends upon the manner in which com- 
 mands are given. The giving of commands may be likened 
 to the loading and firing of a rifle ; the preparatory com- 
 mand corresponding to the loading, and the command of 
 execution the means, of firing the piece. 
 
 When a command consists of more than one syllable or 
 word, the last sound uttered should be the one which causes 
 the execution, and stress should be laid upon it. Commands 
 should not be permitted to trail off downward in tone. They 
 should come up with a somewhat rising inflection with each 
 word and each syllable clearly and distinctly uttered. 
 - A command of execution should be given firmly and 
 sharply, a very slight degree higher than the preparatory com- 
 mand. 
 
 Commands should be made what the word "command" in- 
 dicates. The mere 'saying of the words prescribed in a text 
 does not suffice. Commands must be given with confidence 
 and firmness and with a feeling and knowledge that they 
 are going to be executed ; that there is no doubt about it 
 whatever. This is particularly true when training new men. 
 With a thoroughly trained organization, excellent results are 
 obtained by giving commands in a very ordinary tone of 
 voice. 
 
 Before entering upon a period of instruction, the instructor 
 should determine what movements he intends to teach and 
 the proper commands and the proper execution. This is im- 
 portant, in fact, it is absolutely necessary and it is one thing- 
 above all that an instructor should remeimber. Teach a little 
 at a time and teach it thoroughly. 
 
 In order to obtain practice in the use of the "tools" which 
 are furnished in the infantry drill regulations, one should 
 assume every formation imaginable and make changes from 
 these formations to every other conceivable formation. The 
 drill regulations permit of any movement that is desirable 
 and which may become necessary. It is for the student 
 
 143 
 
144 Commands 
 
 therefore, to practice shifting from one formation to another, 
 keeping in view the importance of economy in movement, 
 time and command. This practice might be conducted with 
 matches or groups of toy soldiers. 
 
 One should continually examine himself in infantry drill 
 regulations, setting himself problems to solve. It has been 
 found by experience that most civilian soldiers when con- 
 fronted with some simple problem which has not been de- 
 finitely described in the drill regulations is unable to apply 
 principles and methods. For instance : In examining a great 
 many applicants for commissions in the Reserve Corps it has 
 been found that nine out of ten of the candidates were un- 
 able to change the front of .a line in close order formation 
 from facing North to slightly East of North on the right 
 guide as a pivot. The trouble was this : They would fre- 
 quently say that there was no command for such a movement 
 or they would give "Platoon Right" or "Platoon, Half- 
 right"; then salute respectfully and say that there was no 
 command for forming at any other angle than 45 degrees 
 and 90 degrees to the original line. When shown the simple 
 ,method of facing the guide in the desired direction and 
 commanding "Right Dress" and then "Front" the candidate 
 has usually felt like kicking himself thoroughly. And so it 
 is with all the other movements which are desirable, but 
 which are not actually, prescribed in detail. 
 
 My idea in writing these notes is to make the student think 
 and do his thinking and ,mental training beforehand, and not 
 wait to practice on a long suffering detachment of men. Re- 
 member this, that the detachment or squad under instruction 
 is there to be instructed and not merely to be practiced upon. 
 Remember this also, that when certain points are not clear 
 and the explanation cannot be found in the drill regulations, 
 go or write to some regular army officer and ask him to 
 explain to you what is written "between the lines" on the 
 subject. 
 
 With a view toward economy of time, energy and command, 
 the following are suggestions : Always command "At Trail" for 
 movements involving short distances; making the men come 
 to the right shoulder and to the order again immediately is 
 a waste of energy and should only be done for the purpose 
 of drill and practice; to cause a slight change in the direc- 
 tion in which a line is facing-, have the proper guide face in 
 the required direction and command "Right Dress Front:" 
 to move backward short distances, command "About Face, 
 at trail, forward march;" or if the distance to be moved is 
 
Commands 145 
 
 only a few paces, command "Backward march;" to move 
 short distances to the right or left, command "Right (or 
 Left) face, at trail, forward march Company (Platoon or 
 Squad) Halt, left (or right) face;" if the distance to be 
 moved is but a few. feet, command "Right step (or left step) 
 march, Company (Platoon or Squad) Halt." 
 
 Note: It has been found in practice that best and quick- 
 est results can be -obtained in halting from this movement by 
 giving the command "Halt" as the feet are brought together. 
 This gives two counts in which to halt and a third count for 
 coming to the order. This is desirable, because, when march- 
 ing backward or forward at trail, "halt" is executed in two 
 counts and the piece is brought to the order on the third 
 count. 
 
 One of the principal mistakes made, which, while fairly 
 unimportant, nevertheless produces a bad impression upon the 
 professional soldier, is the unnecessary prefacing of all com- 
 mands by "Company," "Platoon" or "Squad." The term 
 "Company," "Platoon" or "Squad" is only given before the 
 commands "Right," "Halt," and "Attention." 
 
 Illustration and Demonstration The instructor should 
 maintain scrupulously the position of a soldier in all its 
 details while his men are "At Attention," and should never 
 assume a "Rest" position except as prescribed for platoon 
 commanders during inspection. It is highly important that 
 the men who are trying to learn have before them the correct 
 picture and example of a soldier. This is exceedingly im- 
 portant. The instructor should consider himself on duty 
 practically all the time, as by his mere deportment and mili- 
 tary attitude he is unconsciously instructing those under him. 
 He should set the highest possible standard for himself and 
 then live up to it. 
 
 It is important that the instructor not only describe orally 
 movements in the manual of arms, facing, marching, etc., 
 but he should illustrate them all slowly, carefully and in 
 detail, explaining in the simplest' words possible, everything 
 so that the student is not left in doubt in regard to any par- 
 ticular point. 
 
 Unless the instructor is thoroughly prepared on the matter 
 involved in the day's work, poor results follow. This has 
 been the trouble with most of the amateur military instruc- 
 tion that has been given in this country. 
 
 The instructor should be careful not to show disgust for 
 men who find it difficult to "catch on" easily at first. He 
 
146 Commands 
 
 should give them his personal attention. For the instruction 
 of men who are more than ordinarily awkward and who ap- 
 pear to be a little dense in the matter of absorbing military 
 ideas, the very best instructor should be detailed. If neces- 
 sary, the captain should give him ( much personal attention. 
 The captain is the best instructor in the company. If he is 
 not, he should proceed to make himself so. 
 
 Faulty Drill The instructor, while keeping himself and 
 his men keen on the work in hand, should never lose his 
 temper, or blame the company or squad if the drill is not 
 good. If the results are poor, it is always due to fault on 
 the part of the instructor. I have never seen a detachment 
 of recruits that could not learn to drill well in a very short 
 time. I have had detachments drill poorly and have been 
 exasperated by their performance, but have always had to 
 admit to myself that the fault was my own. When a de- 
 tachment is drilling poorly and does not seem able to improve, 
 the instructor would better give "Rest" or "Fall out" and 
 give himself an opportunity to think a little. He will soon 
 discover the cause. He has either drilled the men too long 
 or allowed the cadence to become too fast, or has not paid 
 attention to the march of the guide; or else his commands 
 for some reason are not understood. There are always a 
 number of reasons, any one of which will seriously affect 
 drill. If he has overdone the work for the period and unduly 
 fatigued his men, he would do well to dismiss them, and the 
 chances are that the next drill will be thoroughly satisfactory. 
 
 There is a tendency on the part of many of us who are 
 keen about drill and other instruction to forget that our men 
 are not so intensely interested or physically prepared as we 
 are. It is, therefore, necessary to hold ourselves in check 
 sometimes and only endeavor to instill into our men the 
 amount of enthusiasm and training that they are capable of 
 accepting at the time. 
 
 The instructor's attitude towards military training is im- 
 portant to his men. A command reflects its commander every 
 time. One of the most noticeable mistakes on the part of 
 instructors is their tendency to continue to practice those 
 things in which the Company or detachment is most pro- 
 ficient. While the men should be kept in practice in all the 
 details of drill, the greater amount of time should be spent 
 upon those details which are less understood and worst ex- 
 ecuted. 
 
 The men must be encouraged to feel that the Company is 
 
Commands 147 
 
 their Company as well as the captain's. Each man in the 
 Company either tends to raise or lower its efficiency. They 
 should all be reminded of this fact from time to time, in 
 order that those who are below the average will keep con- 
 stantly trying to increase their efficiency. 
 
 Team play in the Company is essential. All the members 
 of a company should bend their efforts to help those who 
 are most backward. 
 
 In drill, the instructor should exact snap and precision. 
 He should never be satisfied with mediocre results. He 
 should have fixed in his mind a picture of the manner in 
 which movements were executed by the best drilled company 
 he ever saw and he should feel that he can do at least as 
 well with his. The material in companies is of a more or 
 less uniform average. My rule has been to establish a mark 
 which it is not quite possible to attain, and then to get as 
 near to it as possible. 
 
 The question often arises as to whether or not instruction 
 should be given exactly in the words of the book. While 
 the explanations given in the drill regulations are the most 
 concise possible, it sometimes happens that men with keen 
 ability to memorize will give instructions verbatim without 
 knowing their .meaning. I hold that if a man can give an 
 explanation which, if complied with will bring about the cor- 
 rect execution and preclude the possibility of any wrong ex- 
 ecution, the explanation is satisfactory. If the explanation is 
 not in the same words as the text, I feel sure that the per- 
 son giving it understands its meaning, or else he could not 
 have interpreted it correctly. Often an explanation which 
 is an attempt at repeating the words of the text, while sound- 
 ing .somewhat like the text, will be rendered -impossible of 
 execution due to the wrong substitution of right for left. If 
 an instructor knows every detail of the movement he is ex- 
 plaining, the choice of words he uses should not worry him. 
 
 In explaining movements to recruits, or new men, it is best 
 to express ideas in the language of the recruit. At first use 
 short, simple, well known words where they can be substi- 
 tuted for the .military and technical. One will gain the 
 energy which would otherwise be expended in an effort to 
 understand new terms, and the men will unconsciously be- 
 come acquainted with military phraseology. 
 
 Never present more than two ideas at a time and limit 
 yourself to ten words for each idea. Repeat the idea in 
 different words if necessary, but strive for clarity and brevity. 
 Let them make mistakes and correct the mistakes. It is 
 
148 Commands 
 
 quicker and easier than cautioning against every mistake 
 which might be made. 
 
 The Men Absolute steadiness must be required of the 
 men in ranks. 'They should never be allowed to assume a 
 rest position without command. 
 
 An error frequently noticed by me has been the forgetting 
 on thft^part of the instructor that he has not given the com- 
 mand "Rest" or "At ease," and allowing the men little by 
 little, to assume positions of rest. When the men are "At 
 attention," they should be at attention continuously and when 
 "At rest" it should be in consequence of a command. In- 
 structors should. keep this point in mind. 
 
 As to steadiness it might be said that nothing so indicates 
 discipline in a command as the steadiness of its ranks. By 
 steadiness I mean 'absolute immobility.. Not even the eyes 
 should move. Practice in coming from rest or at ease to 
 attention, and in falling in, should be . had frequently, and 
 stress laid upon the necessity of the men remaining motion- 
 less. This is one of the most difficult parts of the early in- 
 struction, but inasmuch -as it develops self-control, it is of 
 great importance. 
 
 Furthermore, unless men are .motionless, some part of their 
 being is engaged in creating motion when the whole indi- 
 vidual should be giving his attention to what is being said 
 and done. Motion takes brain energy and muscular energy. 
 It may be a sub-conscious, but it is never an unconscious 
 movement. What the instructor demands is the attention of 
 the whole being. 
 
 The Manual of Arms In executing the manual of arms, 
 the various movements should be executed by quick, snappy 
 motions or jerks, separated by slight pauses. 
 
 Each motion of the hands should be in the quickest pos- 
 sible .manner. In certain movements where the hands move 
 but a short distance, there is often a tendency on the part of 
 an individual to try to waste the time between the pauses 
 by moving the hand out of a straight line in going from one 
 position to another. This is wrong. If time is to be wasted 
 or used up, it should be used up by increasing the length of 
 the pauses, and every movement should be made as quickly 
 as possible. 
 
 Manual In instructing, results can be more quickly ob- 
 tained by the instructor taking a rifle himself and actually 
 doing the movement as an example of what is expected. This 
 often effectively takes the place of long winded explanations. 
 
Commands 149 
 
 Extended Order While the student usually manages 
 to understand and execute deployments straight to the front 
 or straight to the flank,' it has been found that most of them 
 are unable to handle a situation involving a simple deploy- 
 ment at other angles. No matter from what direction one 
 is fired upon, the commands or signals for deployment which 
 are prescribed in the drill regulations are quite sufficient. It 
 is only necessary for the commander to cause the base squad 
 or platoon to deploy facing, and parallel, to the enemy's line. 
 This base group having quickly deployed in its proper posi- 
 tion, the leaders of other groups simply and promptly extend 
 the line thus established. 
 
 This is so simple if one knows how, yet nine out of ten 
 of the candidates for Reserve commissions, seem at a 
 loss to know what to do when confronted with a simple 
 problem involving a deployment at an angle. The method 
 used for giving the base squad its position and direction may 
 vary. The Company commander may direct the corporal by 
 signal or words to deploy, as required by the situation, or 
 one of the Company officers "or guides may be directed to 
 superintend the placing of it. 
 
 Without particular instructions from higher authority, the 
 leader of the squad should be so trained that at the com- 
 mand for deployment he will assume the proper position of 
 formation and direction with his squad or other group. The 
 methods used are businesslike and informal. 
 
 In combat exercises of all kinds, involving the deployment 
 of companies and parts of companies, Sufficient practice 
 should be held from time to time to cause instant and proper 
 formation to be taken to meet every conceivable emergency. 
 Simple combat principles should be taught and practiced so 
 much that the officers and men execute them instinctively. 
 They should not have to stop to think of what command to 
 give in emergencies. 
 
 One of the basic principles to teach and practice is the im- 
 mediate and prompt taking of cover or deployment, as the 
 case may require. In deploying it is essential that the line 
 face as nearly as possible the direction in which it is to fire. 
 The deployment on a very oblique line is to be avoided as 
 the men interfere with each other in handling their pieces 
 and the muzzles of the rifles are brought near to the ears 
 of the men, causing, upon discharge, great pain and often 
 rupturing the ear drums. When it is necessary to form such 
 an oblique line, each squad should form a straight line, 
 parallel to the enemy's line. 
 
150 Commands 
 
 The groups thus formed are said to be in eschel-on. This 
 formation permits of each squad's firing directly to its front 
 without interfering with the others and also permits the 
 Company to open fire with less loss of time than would be 
 required were each squad to wait until it formed line on the 
 base squad. 
 
 While the following method is not prescribed in the In- 
 fantry Drill Regulations, it is permissible and recommended 
 as a proper means of imeeting an emergency: 
 
 Let us assume that a company has been fired upon at short 
 range by a hostile troop which has surprised or evaded the 
 flanking patrol two things are necessary immediately, the 
 taking of cover and 1 the employment of fire. If the command 
 "Take cover" be given, the company will be in no formation 
 from which to deliver a fire. If the command to deploy be 
 given, too much time would be required during which there 
 would be no fire delivered. Each company should be trained, 
 therefore, that the signal or command "Squads ; right" and 
 "Take cover," the front rank will form line instantly and 
 take cover in the ditch on the right side of the road while the 
 rear rank will take cover in the ditch behind. They should 
 further be trained that in such emergencies, pieces should be 
 unlocked and aimed in readiness for the immediate delivery 
 of fire. With such procedure the entire front rank can em- 
 ploy fire without delay. The subsequent deployment, if 
 necessary, would be made by squads from the right or left, 
 each squad rushing forward under cover of the fire of the 
 front rank and deploying on the line of the first advance. 
 The front rank would, necessarily cease firing as it becomes 
 overlapped by the advancing squads. This difficulty could be 
 overcome to some extent by the rushing of the first squad 
 somewhat off to the right or left before halting. This ^scheme 
 is one for emergency only and should be practiced with that 
 idea in view. 
 
 Should there be a stone wall or other suitable cover on 
 the side of the road toward the enemy, the front rank should 
 rush to it and prepare for firing over it immediately while 
 the rear rank should take cover in its proper place with rela- 
 tion to the front rank. From such a position deployment 
 could be made by squads from each end of ^the company 
 creeping out under cover of the wall to positions approxi- 
 mating their proper positions in the extended line. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CAVALRY 
 
 CARE OF HORSES 
 
 GENERAL PROVISIONS 
 
 A most important duty of the cavalry officer is keeping his 
 horses in such training and health as will enable them to do 
 their work to the best advantage. The proper performance 
 of this duty requires careful instruction of the men in the 
 treatment, stabling, management, watering, feeding, groom- 
 ing, and exercising of the horses, and such continuous super- 
 vision and inspection by officers as will insure that instruc- 
 tions are understood and are being carried out. 
 
 Cavalry officers should make themselves thoroughly ac- 
 quainted with the natural history and physiology of the horse, 
 and with the effects of different methods of treatment, 
 changes of diet, etc., upon his system and powers of en- 
 durance. 
 
 They should have a familiar knowledge of the symptoms 
 and methods of treatment of the diseases that are common 
 to horses, what to do in emergencies, and a good knowledge 
 of the effects of the medicines supplied to the squadron. 
 They should also be practically familiar with the .principles 
 of horseshoeing. 
 
 Sore backs are as a rule, the result of carelessness or 
 neglect; the immediate cause may be faulty adjustment of 
 the saddle or equipment or bad riding. 
 
 At each halt officers and noncommissioned officers should 
 inspect the adjustment of saddles and equipment of their 
 men and should at no time tolerate lounging in the saddle. 
 
 Horses when received in the regiment are assigned to 
 squadrons according to color, under direction of the com- 
 manding officer. They are branded on the hoof of one fore 
 foot with the letter of the squadron and the number of the 
 regiment on the same line; as D 7. Their purchase num- 
 ber is found tatooed on the inside of the upper lip. 
 
 Captains make permanent assignments of horses; after a 
 horse is so assigned, his rider will not exchange him nor 
 allow him to be used by any other person without permission. 
 
 151 
 
152 Stable Management 
 
 STABLE MANAGEMENT 
 RULES FOR THE CARE OF HORSES 
 
 All troopers must be taught and must thoroughly under- 
 stand the following rules for the care of horses : 
 
 Horses require gentle treatment. Docile but bold horses 
 are apt to retaliate upon those who abuse them, while per- 
 sistent kindness often reclaims vicious animals. 
 
 Before entering a horse's stall and when coming up behind 
 him, speak to him gently, then approach quietly. 
 
 Never kick, strike about the head, or otherwise abuse a 
 horse. 
 
 Never punish a horse except at the time he commits an 
 offence, and then only in a proper manner. 
 
 Give the horse an opportunity to drink before leaving the 
 picket line or stable, and before putting the bit in his mouth. 
 In cold weather warm the bit before putting it in the horse's 
 mouth. 
 
 Never take a rapid gait until the horse has been warmed 
 by gentle exercise. 
 
 When a horse is brought to the stable or picket line in a 
 heated condition, never allow him to stand uncovered, put a 
 blanket on him and rub his legs, or walk him until he is 
 cool. If he is wet, put him under shelter, not in a draft, and 
 rub him with a wisp until dry. 
 
 Never feed grain to a horse when heated. Hay will not 
 hurt a horse however heated he may be. 
 
 Never water a horse when heated, unless the exercise or 
 march is to be injmediately resumed. Sponging out the mouth 
 and nostrils is refreshing to the heated horse and will not 
 hurt him. 
 
 Never throw water on any part of a horse when heated. 
 
 Never allow a horse's back to be cooled suddenly. To cool 
 the back gradually, remove the blanket and replace it with 
 the dry side next the horse, 'and replace the saddle, girthing 
 it loosely. 
 
 Never put the horse up for the night until he is thoroughly 
 clean, especially around his legs, pasterns, and feet. 
 
 Individual men returning from mounted duty or pass will 
 report their return to the noncommissioned officer in charge 
 of stables, who will inspect each horse and see that he is 
 properly cared for. 
 
Stables and Stable Management 153 
 
 STABLES AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 
 
 Foul air and dampness are the causes of many diseases of 
 the horse; hence the importance and economy of spacious, 
 clean, dry, and well-ventilated stables. 
 
 The picket line should be established in the immediate 
 vicinity of the stable. The floor of the picket line should be 
 raised, and trenches to carry off the rain should be provided, 
 so that the ground upon which the horses stand may be kept 
 dry. 
 
 Paddocks with shade and water, should be provided near 
 the stables; if there is no shade, shelter from the sun should 
 be extemporized. The picket line and paddock should be 
 sprinkled to keep down the dust; crude oil may be used to 
 advantage. Bedding racks should be provided near each 
 stable. 
 
 The horses are assigned stalls and places on the picket line 
 by platoons, and x as nearly as practicable according to their 
 usual place in ranks. The name and hoof number of the 
 horse with the name of his rider is placed over the stall. 
 
 The stable sergeant takes immediate charge of the stables, 
 picket line and paddock, forage, and stable property in gen- 
 eral. 
 
 The stable sergeant is responsible that the stables and their 
 surroundings are kept at all times thoroughly policed and 
 free from smells ; he is usually assisted by one or more stable 
 orderlies. 
 
 Sufficient men are detailed as stable police to perform the 
 general police and except at night to collect all manure as 
 soon as it is dropped, either in stable, on the picket line, or 
 in the paddocks. The stable police also assist in the feeding, 
 watering, and bedding of the horses. 
 
 Manure and foul litter must not be allowed to accumulate 
 in or near the stables, but must be carried to the manure 
 heap daily. 
 
 In the morning, stalls are cleaned and the stables policed 
 under direction of the stable sergeant. 
 
 The bedding is taken up, carefully shaken out, and sorted. 
 All parts of the bedding which can be used again are taken 
 to the bedding racks and spread thereon for a thorough dry- 
 ing; parts which can not be used again are sent to the 
 . manure heap. Special attention is necessary in this matter, 
 as the allowance of straw is insufficient under most favorable 
 conditions. In the evening the dried bedding, mixed with 
 such fresh straw or bedding as may be necessary, is laid 
 
154 Stalble Duty 
 
 down. The bed must be soft and even, with the thickest part 
 toward the manger. 
 
 If practicable, all woodwork within reach of the horses 
 shoulders, back, belly, flanks, loin, and rump. The prin- 
 coat of gas tar; other woodwork and brick should be painted 
 a light shade and then kept clean and free from dust. 
 
 Feed boxes must be kept clean ; they should be washed 
 from time to time with dilute vinegar and always after feed- 
 ing bran mash or other soft food. 
 
 During the day, except in very cold or stormy weather, the 
 horses, when not being used or fed, should stand at the picket 
 line or in the paddocks. In hot climates, however, if there 
 is not sufficient shade on the picket line or in the padd-ocks, 
 it is better to keep the horses in the stables during the heat 
 of the day. 
 
 Smoking in the stables is prohibited. 
 
 One or more covered lights should be provided in the 
 stables at night. 
 
 STABLE DUTY 
 
 Captains are responsible for the proper performance of 
 stable duty. In addition to the grooming, they will require 
 such other duty as may be necessary to keep the stables, 
 horses, and equipment in proper condition. 
 
 Mounted work .must be followed immediately by "stables" ; 
 the horses are then thoroughly groomed, the saddlery cleaned 
 and put away in perfect order. 
 
 All squadron officers will be present at this time, the platoon 
 leaders superintending the work of their platoons. 
 
 The horses should also be brushed off before going out 
 to drill or exercise in the morning, and in the evening before 
 being led in. 
 
 GROOMING 
 
 Grooming is essential to the general health and condition 
 of the domesticated horse. Horses improperly groomed, with 
 ragged manes, unkempt pasterns, and feet improperly looked 
 after, are an indication of an inefficient organization. Clean 
 horses properly equipped and smartly turned out add to the 
 esprit of an organization and give a fair indication of its 
 discipline and efficiency. 
 
 The grooming is done by platoon, under the supervision 
 of the platoon commander and the platoon sergeant, assisted 
 by the noncommissioned officers of the platoon. 
 
Grooming 155 
 
 It is not to be done in a formal or routine (manner but in 
 such a way as to bring results. Unless it is done in the 
 stable, or where there will be danger of fire, the men will be 
 allowed to smoke, and cheerful but not disorderly conversa- 
 tion will be encouraged. When a trooper has finished his 
 work and it has been inspected, he should be allowed to 
 attend to other duties or be dismissed. 
 
 According to circumstances, the platoon or the squadron 
 may be marched to or from the stables or the men may be 
 allowed to go and return individually. 
 
 On returning from a drill or exercise, and usually in the 
 field, the horses are unbridled, girths are loosened, and they 
 are watered and fed. The men are then free to put on stable 
 clothes, relieve themselves, and prepare for the work of 
 grooming and to care for their equipments while the horses' 
 backs are being cooled under the pressure of the saddle. 
 The men then begin their stable work comfortably and de- 
 liberately. 
 
 The captain or the officer jn charge supervises generally 
 the grooming and care of saddlery of the platoons, holding 
 the platoon commander responsible and calling his attention 
 to any deficiencies or neglects. 
 
 The first sergeant assists the captain or officer in charge 
 in coordinating the work of the platoons and stable force. 
 
 The horses of the officers, of the first sergeant, and of the 
 four platoon sergeants are groomed by designated troopers. 
 All other noncommissioned officers and men groom their own 
 mounts. Extra horses and those whose riders are absent are 
 groomed by men assigned to the work by the platoon sergeant. 
 
 The principal use of the currycomb is to clean the brush, 
 and for this purpose a piece of hard wood with channels 
 along its surface answers equally well. 
 
 The currycomb should never be used on the legs from the 
 knees and hocks downward nor about the head, and when 
 occasionally required to loosen dried mud or matted hair on 
 the fleshy parts of the body it must be applied gently. 
 
 To groom the horse proceed as follows : 
 
 Take the currycomb in the right hand, fingers over back 
 of comb, and the brush in the left hand; first clean the legs 
 of the near side, then take the currycomb in the left hand 
 and the brush .in the right and clean the legs of the off side. 
 The legs will thus have time to dry while the rest of the 
 grooming is being done. Next return to the near side, change 
 the brush and comb into the other hands and begin brushing 
 at the upper part of the neck, the mane being thrown to the 
 
156 Grooming- 
 
 other side out of the way; thence proceed to the chest, 
 shoulders, back, belly, flanks, loins, and rump. The prin- 
 cipal working of the brush should follow the direction of the 
 hair, but in places difficult to clean it may be necessary to 
 brush against it, finishing by leaving the hair smooth. After 
 every few strokes clean the brush from dust with the curry- 
 comb. 
 
 In using the brush the man should stand well away from 
 the horse, should keep his arm stiff, and should throw the 
 weight of the body against the brush. 
 
 Having finished the near side, again take the brush in the 
 right hand and the currycomb in the left hand and begin on 
 the off side. 
 
 Having done with the brush, rub or dust off the horse with 
 the grooming cloth, wipe about the face, eyes, and nostrils, 
 arrange the mane and tail, and clean the dock. Finally go 
 over the legs once more and clean out the hoofs. In clean- 
 ing the mane and tail begin brushing at the end of the hair 
 and gradually work up to the roots, separating the locks with 
 the fingers so as to get 'out all scurf and dirt. Tails require 
 frequent washing with warm water and soap. The skin 
 under the flank and between the hind quarters must be soft, 
 clean, and free fro.ni dust. . 
 
 Currycombs, cards, or common combs must never be ap- 
 plied to the mane or tail; the brush, fingers, and cloth are 
 freely used on both. 
 
 The wisp is used when the horse comes in wet and also 
 for stimulating the coat. It is made by twisting or plaiting 
 straw into a rope. The ends are then bent together, cut off 
 square, and rubbed on a board until they form a soft even 
 straw brush. 
 
 The wisp should be worked forward and backward well 
 into the coat, so that .full advantage may be obtained from 
 the friction. After finishing with the wisp the coat should 
 be laid flat. 
 
 Hand rubbing is beneficial. When a horse has had very 
 hard, exhausting work, his legs should be hand rubbed and 
 afterwards bandaged, taking care that the bandages are not 
 tight. An exhausted horse should also be given stimulants 
 and warm gruel. 
 
 The value of grooming is dependent upon the force with 
 which the brush is used and the thoroughness of the other 
 work. 
 
Watering- 157 
 
 Officers and noncommissioned officers should, by continu- 
 ous personal supervision, see that the groo,ming is properly 
 done. 
 
 No horse should be considered in order until he is 
 .thoroughly clean; his mane and tail brushed out, and laid 
 flat; his eyes and nostrils wiped or washed, and hoofs put 
 in order. 
 
 The pasterns and that part of the mane where the crown- 
 piece of the bridle rests should be neatly trimmed, and the 
 mane and tail plucked. 
 
 At each "stables" the horses' feet and shoeing are care- 
 fully examined. Horses requiring shoeing are reported to 
 the platoon sergeant, who notifies the stable sergeant. 
 
 Each horse should be inspected by an officer before the 
 man who has groomed him is permitted to leave. 
 
 The sheath will be kept clean by washing, when necessary, 
 with warm water and castile soap. 
 
 A good discharge from the cavalry should carry with it 
 the presumption that the holder is a good horse manager 
 and groom. 
 
 WATERING 
 
 Except when they are heated, it is desirable that horses 
 should have free access to water at all times. As this is 
 usually impossible, it becomes necessary to water at stated 
 times. 
 
 . Horses should, if possible, be watered before feeding, or 
 not until two hours after feeding. As horses rarely drink 
 in the early morning, the watering must follow the feeding, 
 but after the proper interval, if practicable. 
 
 A horse requires from 5 to 15 gallons of water daily, de- 
 pending upon the temperature and upon the work he is doing. 
 Except in very cold weather, horses should be watered at 
 least three times daily in the morning, before the noon 
 feeding, and before the evening feeding. In warm weather, 
 water drawn from a cold well or spring should be allowed 
 to stand long enough for the chill to pass off before the horse 
 is allowed to drink. 
 
 On the march the oftener the animals are watered the 
 better, especially as it is not usually known when another 
 watering place will be reached. By watering from buckets 
 many watering places not otherwise available may be utilized. 
 
 If a mounted command has to march a long distance with- 
 out water, so that it will be necessary to encamp en route, 
 the animals are fed, but denied water until just before start- 
 
158 Feeding 
 
 ing, when they are permitted to drink freely. The command 
 marches in the afternoon and does not encamp until it has 
 accomplished at least half of the distance, it moves early the 
 next morning to reach water. 
 
 Horses must be watered quietly and without confusion ; 
 the manner in which this duty is performed is a good test 
 of the discipline of a mounted com,mand. 
 
 The horses are led or ridden at a walk to and from the 
 watering place. No crowding will be allowed, nor will any 
 horse be hurried or have his head jerked up from the water. 
 
 The horses are watered under the immediate direction of 
 the senior officer or noncommissioned officer present at 
 stables or at other time of watering; an officer should always 
 be present when the horses of other commands are liable to 
 be met at the watering places. 
 
 FEEDING 
 
 Horses should be fed three times a day at reveille, in the 
 middle of the day, and at night. This rule must be rigidly 
 enforced on the march, the noon grain feed being carried 
 on the horse. Ordinarily one-third of the grain ration is 
 fed each time. Hay, as a rule, is not fed in the morning, 
 but about one-third of the ration should be fed at noon, 
 except on the march, and the remainder at night. 
 
 The use of bran once or twice a week is important for 
 stabled horses.. In spring or early summer they should be 
 grazed. A lump of rock salt should be kept in each manger. 
 
 Before feeding hay it should be thoroughly shaken out 
 with a fork, so as to get rid of dust and seed; it is also 
 advisable to moisten the hay before giving it to the horse. 
 The grain, if possible, should be run over wire screens or 
 allowed to fall through the air so as to remove dust. 
 
 It is advisable to feed at least a portion of the allowance 
 of hay before feeding the grain. 
 
 Grain should never be fed or placed in the manger until 
 it is certain that the horses are thoroughly cool. 
 
 In the morning the horses are usually fed at or before 
 reveille. The noon feed of hay is usually placed in the 
 mangers while the organization is at drill, but the grain is 
 not fed until the horses are thoroughly cool. The evening 
 feed is placed in the mangers after the stable has been 
 thoroughly policed for the night. 
 
Exercising* 159 
 
 All horses do not require the same amount of forage; the 
 amount given each horse ,must be based, therefore, upon his 
 individual requirements. 
 
 When forage can not be obtained, grazing should be re- 
 quired at every spare moment, especially early in the morn- 
 ing when dew is on the grass. 
 
 All forage received by an organization should be checked 
 for -weight and to see that it is up to contract specifications. 
 All officers should be familiar with the characteristics of 
 good forage and the manner in which it is commercially 
 graded for contract specifications. To obtain this knowledge, 
 officers should be encouraged to visit large commercial 
 stables. 
 
 The daily allowance of oats, barley, or corn is 12 pounds 
 for each horse; that of hay, 14 pounds. The allowance of 
 straw for bedding is 100 pounds per month for each animal. 
 ' Good oats weigh about 40 pounds to the bushel ; barley, 
 about 48 pounds; corn, about 56 pounds. Pressed hay weighs 
 about 11 pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 The standard bushel in the United States contains 2,150.4 
 cubic inches. A cubic yard contains 21.69 bushels. A box 
 16 by 16.8 by 8 inches holds 1 bushel; a box 12 by 11.2 by 
 8 inches holds half a bushel ; a box 8 by 8 by 8.4 inches holds 
 1 peck; a box 8 by 8 by 4.2 inches holds one-half peck, or 
 4 quarts. 
 
 EXERCISING 
 
 To keep a hors-e in good condition he should have two 
 hours' exercise daily. This exercise should be under the 
 saddle, or, if that is impracticable, it should be given by 
 leading beside another horse. 
 
 In leading care must be taken to lead as much on the right 
 as on the more convenient left side. This can be automati- 
 cally regulated by having the leading done on the right side 
 on the odd numbered days of the month and on the left on 
 the even numbered days. 
 
 In special cases it may be given on the longe, but this must 
 be done under proper supervision or injury may result. 
 
 Turning a horse loose in a paddock does not give him 
 proper exercise, and if the paddock is a large one, where he 
 can get up speed, it results in giving him a taste for freedom 
 which inspires a high-spirited animal to try to get rid of his 
 rider when he feels like having a run. 
 
160 Sick Horses 
 
 The horse should associate the control of a rider with the 
 pleasure of all exercise, so that he may accept it naturally 
 as a fixed habit. 
 
 It is objectionable for one man to lead more than -one 
 extra horse for exercise, as. the gaits must then be more> 
 restricted, and on ordinary roads the footing for some of 
 the horses will be poor. 
 
 If a large space is available for paddock purposes it should 
 be divided into several inclosures, giving space for a part of 
 the animals to move about quietly in each, but not enough 
 to encourage them to gallop. 
 
 SICK HORSES 
 
 Horses on sick report are under the immediate charge of 
 the stable sergeant, assisted by the farrier. 
 
 When a veterinarian is present he should prescribe the- 
 treatment to be given to sick horses, and he should inspect 
 all sick horses at least once daily. 
 
 The veterinarian should also visit each organization at least 
 once a day at one of the stated "stables," he should be freely 
 consulted as to minor ailments and as to the means of keep- 
 ing the horses in fit condition. 
 
 In the absence of a veterinarian the sick horses are treated 
 by the stable sergeant under the direction of the captain. 
 
 Serious disease is best avoided by immediate and constant 
 attention to minor ailmants, galls, etc. 
 
 If a horse sustains an injury, neglects his food, refuses 
 water, or gives any evidence of sickness, his condition should 
 be reported at once to the stable sergeant. It is the duty of 
 any man observing such conditions to make the necessary 
 report. 
 
 SHOEING 
 
 Horses will be shod according to the principles outlined 
 in the authorized manual. 
 
 All officers must understand the principles of proper shoe- 
 ing* and be able to supervise the work of the horseshoers. 
 
 A trooper should know how to put on a shoe in an emer- 
 gency, the following extracts from the manual are therefore 
 here incorporated : 
 
 The Army Horse shoer, 1912. The foot should be prepared 
 so that it will approximate as nearly as possible to a state 
 of nature, and only such trimming is allowed as is absolutely 
 necessary for the purpose of fitting and securing the shoe. 
 
Shoeing" 161 
 
 The knife must never be used on the bars or on the frog. 
 The bars strengthen the hoof and assist in its expansion. 
 Cutting, therefore, weakens them and prevents them from 
 performing their function. 
 
 The practice of using the knife to trim the bars or to cut 
 a notch at the junction of the frog and bar at the heel 
 (called opening the heels in civilian shops) always, tends to 
 produce contracted feet. 
 
 Never use a knife on the hoof of a horse that has been 
 running barefoot nor on flat feet. 
 
 Ragged parts of the frog may be cut away by careful use 
 of the nippers. 
 
 With a flat foot it is frequently necessary to remove a 
 part of the outer edge of the wall in order that the nails 
 may be driven in the white line where they belong. This is 
 the only case where it is permitted to rasp the outside wall. 
 The outer coating of the wall and the layers -of dead horn 
 on the sole and frog serve to retain the moisture in the hoof. 
 
 The hot shoe must never be applied to the horse's foot 
 under any circumstances. 
 
 ^ When shoes are left on the feet for too great a length of 
 time corns and other ailments result. Ordinarily a shoe 
 should be removed once a month. The lightest shoe that will 
 last for this time is the best shoe. It should carefully follow 
 the for.m of the foot, or if the foot is broken the shoe fol- . 
 lows the original shape of the foot. Its length is regulated 
 by the bulb of the frog. 
 
 The ground surface of the shoe should be level and smooth, 
 except for use in snow, when the shoe with the ground sur- 
 face concaved prevents balling. That portion of the upper 
 surface which presses against the bearing surface of the foot 
 must be level, smooth, and accurately shaped to support it, 
 and when the upper shoe surface is wider than the bearing 
 surface the inner edge must be concaved to avoid excessive 
 sole pressure. This is one of the most important requisites 
 of correct horseshoeing. Concussion of the sole against the 
 inner edge of the upper shoe surface invariably produces 
 soreness. 
 
 ^ One side of the shank of a horse nail is flat. The other 
 side is concave and also has a bevel near the point. This 
 bevel as it enters into the horn forces the point of the nail 
 in ^ the direction of the other side (flat side). Therefore in 
 driving a nail always hold it with the flat side toward outside 
 edge of the shoe. 
 
162 care of Saddlery 
 
 Nails should come out at a height of not more than 1 inch 
 from the bottom of the hoof. 
 
 In garrison, at the discretion of the colonel or of the com- 
 manding officer, the horses may be left unshod, but shoes 
 will be kept fitted for each horse ready to be put on. 
 
 Inspection of shoeing The following examination should 
 'be made while the horse, is standing on a level floor with 
 the f o-ot on the ground : 
 
 (a) Are the axes correct when viewed from the front and 
 from the side? 
 
 (&) Does the shoe follow the outer line of the wall to the 
 last nail hole and from there extend outward, allowing about 
 one-eighth of an inch at the heel for expansion? Has the 
 rule against rasping. the hoof to fit the shoe been violated? 
 
 (c) Is the toe clip in the center properly ( made and pro- 
 perly seated? 
 
 (d) Are the nails driven at the proper height and proper 
 distance apart? Have .any old stubs been left in the wall? 
 
 (e) Are the clutches well turned and set in, of the proper 
 size, and have they been smoothed off but not rasped suffici- 
 ently to weaken them? 
 
 The foot should then be raised and the examination con- 
 tinued. 
 
 (f) Is the shoe of the proper size and weight; the last 
 nail hole back of the bend of the quarter? 
 
 (g) Has enough horn been removed; has too much been 
 removed; is the foot level? 
 
 (h) Does the shoe rest evenly on the wall, covering the 
 buttresses and Showing no air space at any point? 
 
 (i) Is the shoe properly concaved so as to avoid pressure 
 on the sole? 
 
 (/) Has the knife been used on the bars, sole, or frog? 
 
 (&) Are the nails well seated and of trie proper size? 
 
 (/) Are the heels of the shoe correct in width and thick- 
 ness and are they properly rounded without sharp edges or 
 points? Is their length even with the bulb of the frog? 
 
 CARE OF SADDLERY. 
 
 The saddlery and equipment must always be cleaned after 
 use. This duty, like the care of the horse, is to be regarded 
 as part of the mounted duty itself; thus a drill is not over 
 
Pitting- the Saddle 163 
 
 until horse, saddlery, arms, and equipments have been put 
 again in condition. According to need the leather is simply 
 wiped off with a damp sponge or well soaped and cleaned. 
 In no case must it be soaked with water. 
 
 If the soap used does not contain a sufficient amount of 
 free oil the leather must be oiled .to keep it pliable. A mix- 
 ture of one-half neat's-foot oil and one-half mutton tallow, 
 well rubbed in, keeps leather in good condition. Special care 
 is taken to keep the underside of the skirts of the saddle and 
 the parts which do not coime in contact with the clothing 
 well oiled. The seat and outside of the skirts will rarely 
 require oil. 
 
 Metal parts are kept clean and free from rust; they may 
 require oiling if not regularly used. 
 
 The saddle blanket must be kept clean and soft and free 
 from wrinkles. After use it must be dried and then well 
 shaken (unfolded). It must never be folded wet and left 
 thus with the saddle. Provision i will be made in the saddle 
 room or stables for hanging it up to dry. 
 
 In the field its use as bedding for the men will not be 
 allowed and special care will then be exercised to keep it 
 free from dirt. 
 
 When necessary the blanket should be thoroughly cleansed 
 by repeated immersions in tepid soapsuds and hung over a 
 pole or line to dry without wringing or pressing it. 
 
 FITTING THE SADDLE. 
 
 There are six axioms in saddle fitting : 
 
 (a) The withers must not be pinched nor pressed upon. 
 
 (b) The central line of the back must have no pressure 
 put upon it. 
 
 (c) The shoulder blades must have full and unhampered 
 movement. 
 
 (d) The loins must not carry weight. 
 
 (<?) The weight must be put upon the ribs through the 
 medium of the muscles covering them. 
 
 (/) The weight must be evenly distributed over a surface 
 which extends from the play of the shoulders to the last 
 true rib. 
 
 The regulation saddle adjusts itself automatically to the 
 width of the horse's back. This automatic adjustment is 
 brought about by applying all the weight that is to come 
 upon the side bars, through their center of rotation, thus 
 
164 Pitting- the Saddle 
 
 leaving the side bar of the loaded saddle free to adapt itself 
 to the varying width of the 'back. 
 
 In order to preserve this freedom, no attachments of any 
 kind should be placed on the side bar, other than as issued, 
 and no weight should be permitted to rest on the side bars 
 other than that transmitted to them through the hinges. The 
 cantle roll support and straps have been devised especially 
 to raise the roll and keep all weight off the side bars. 
 
 While the side bars adapt themselves automatically to the 
 slope of the horse's back it is necessary to ascertain whether 
 they bear evenly on the back and whether the arch and seat 
 are clear of the spine. 
 
 To determine this the saddle is placed first on the naked 
 back, the front of the side bar resting in the pit of the 
 shoulder (the hollow back of the shoulder blade). If there 
 is then sufficient clearance of the withers and backbone no 
 trouble will be encountered when the saddle is put on with 
 a blanket. 
 
 A new blanket is then folded and placed in proper position 
 on the back and the saddle placed on the blanket so that the 
 front end of the side bar approaches closely the shoulder 
 blade without pressing upon it. The blanket is pushed well 
 up into the pommel arch. The saddle is now girthed and a 
 man placed in the saddle. 
 
 It must be kept in mind that the blanket reduces the width 
 of the pommel arch and narrows the saddle across the top 
 of the side bars. 
 
 The fit of the saddle can never be determined without see- 
 ing a man in it; parts may appear out of harm's way, when 
 no weight is in the saddle, which are brought dangerously 
 close under the pressure of a man's weight. 
 
 The first thing to ascertain is the freedom from pressure 
 on the withers; the hand must pass readily between the 
 blanket and the withers, over the top as well as along the 
 side. 
 
 In applying this test the man in the saddle should lean 
 forward and the examiner must not be satisfied with any- 
 thing less than the introduction of the entire hand. 
 
 The next thing is to ascertain freedom from pressure on 
 the shoulder blade. This is done by passing the hand under- 
 neath the blanket from the front until the play of the shoulder 
 blade can be felt. The foreleg is raised and advanced to its 
 full extent to the front by an assistant while the hand is in 
 this position. If this can be done, while the man in the saddle 
 is leaning forward, without pinching the fingers between the 
 
Fitting the Saddle 165 
 
 side bars and the shoulder blade the fit in this respect is 
 satisfactory. The test should be made on both shoulders. 
 
 If the fingers are pinched the shoulder blades will be 
 pinched and the saddle must be raised by folding the saddle 
 blanket up on each side, so as to place extra thickness under 
 the bars or by placing extra felt on the side bars. 
 
 The rear ends of the bars are next tested for loin pressure 
 with the man in the saddle leaning back. The flat of the 
 hand should find ready admission between the ends of the 
 bars and the loins. 
 
 Assuming that the above defects have been remedied the 
 saddle should be ridden in for half an hour or more to 
 ascertain whether the pressure of the side bars is evenly 
 distributed. 
 
 On completion of the ride the saddle is carefully ungirthed 
 and lifted from the blanket without disturbing it in any way. 
 The blanket will be found to bear the imprint of the side bars 
 and an examination of this depression will show at a glance 
 whether the bars press evenly from top to bottom and from 
 front to rear. 
 
 The examination must be quickly made as the blanket soon 
 loses the impression of the side bars. 
 
 Any irregularity in the fit of the side bars may be remedied 
 by the introduction of pieces of felt to fill up the spaces 
 between the side bars and the blanket. With very little prac- 
 tice these pieces of felt may be cut to the required shape and 
 thickness with a very sharp knife. Some edges will need to 
 be as thin as a knife edge; other parts may require the ad- 
 dition of more than one thickness. 
 
 After determining where these pieces of felt are to rest on 
 the wooden side bars they are placed in the upper and inner 
 side of the felt coverings of these bars and fastened in the 
 proper place with a few stitches of thread. 
 
 The most radical alterations in the fit of the side bar can 
 be effected with these strips ; the method is simple and quick, 
 and does not require a trained workman. 
 
 It must not be forgotten that no matter how much care 
 may be taken in fitting a saddle, such "fitting is only adapted 
 to the horse in the condition in which he is at the time. 
 
 On active service the saddles require daily attention. They 
 should be inspected as regularly as are the feet. Every weak 
 point in the fit of the saddle in the squadron should t>e known 
 and the remedy arranged for. In no other way is it possible 
 to bring horses through severe work with sound backs. 
 
166 
 
 The Horse 
 
 Points of the 
 
 
 " tfcarf. 
 
 17, 
 
 Fetlock or pastern 
 
 30, 
 
 The root of the 
 
 
 ( 
 
 
 joint. 
 
 
 dock or tail. 
 
 I, 
 
 2, 
 
 Muzzle. 
 Nostril. 
 
 18, 
 19, 
 
 Coronet. 
 Hoof or foot. 
 
 
 Hind quarter. 
 
 
 Forehead. 
 
 20, 
 
 Heel. 
 
 31. 
 
 The hip joint, 
 
 4, 
 
 Jaw; 
 
 
 
 
 round.or whirl- 
 
 5, 
 
 Poll. 
 
 XV, T, 
 
 Rod\j or middle piece. 
 
 32, 
 
 bone. 
 The stifle joint. 
 
 
 4\ CK. 
 
 
 
 33,33, Lower thigh or 
 
 
 
 21, 
 
 Withers. 
 
 
 
 7\ 
 
 6, Crest. 
 Throttle or wind- 
 
 22, 
 23, 
 
 Back. 
 23, Ribs (forming 
 
 34, 
 86, 
 
 The quarters. 
 The hock. 
 
 
 pipe. 
 
 
 together the 
 
 36, 
 
 The point of the 
 
 Fore quarter. 
 &, 8. Shoulder blude. 
 
 21, 
 
 barrelorchest). 
 24, The circumfer- 
 ence of the 
 
 37 r 
 
 38, 
 
 hock. 
 The curb place. 
 The cannon bone. 
 
 $ 
 
 Point of shoulder. 
 
 
 chest at this 
 
 39, 
 
 The back sinew. 
 
 10! 
 
 Bosom or breast. 
 
 
 point, called 
 
 40, 
 
 Pastern or fetlock 
 
 u, 
 
 12, 
 
 11. True arm. 
 Elbow. 
 
 25, 
 
 the girth. 
 The loins. 
 
 41, 
 
 joint. 
 Coronet. 
 
 13 
 
 Forearm (arm). 
 
 26, 
 
 The croup. 
 
 42, 
 
 Hoof or foot. 
 
 11, 
 
 Knee. 
 
 27, 
 
 The hip. 
 
 43, 
 
 Heel. 
 
 15, 
 
 Cannon boue. 
 
 28, 
 
 The flank. 
 
 44, 
 
 Spavin place. 
 
 16, 
 
 Back sinew. 
 
 29, 
 
 Sbeatu. 
 
 
 
Notes on Hippology 167 
 
 NOTES ON HIPPOLOGY 
 
 CONFORMATION 
 
 Forehead Should be broad and flat, Viot bulgy. 
 
 Eyes Full, clear and prominent, mild, and no white 
 should show. 
 
 Muzzle Not too large, coarseness denotes bad breath- 
 ing. 
 
 Nostrils Large and open. 
 
 Face Straight. 
 
 Lower Jaw Ample width between sides for the de- 
 velopment and play of larynx. Also to allow head to flex 
 easily and bend on the neck. 
 
 Parotid and" Sub-maxillary Regions Should be free 
 from large glands and loose skin at lower part of throat. 
 
 Ears Medium size, set well on head, erect and far 
 apart. 
 
 Neck Moderate length; clean but not too narrow in 
 rear of throat; short and thick prevents pliability; long and 
 thin exaggerates it. Upper border should be convex rather 
 than concave (ewe neck). Jugular channel or furrow should 
 be free from enlargements. Windpipe should have appear- 
 ance of being free from throat. 
 
 Shoulder Point should be well developed. The should- 
 er should slope well for cavalry; fairly straight for artillery 
 or draft horses. The sloping shoulder signifies speed, the 
 straight shows hauling power. The front line should be 
 clearly marked with no excess ( muscular development or ir- 
 regular surfaces. 
 
 Elbow The point should be straight, parallel to the 
 longitudinal axis of the horse. If it turns out excessively 
 the horse will be "pigeon-toed," if in, the toes will point out 
 ("slew footed"). 
 
 Forearm Long and muscular. 
 
 Knee Broad, larger than forearm or cannon bone; flat 
 in front, tapering back to narrow edge. Should be straight; 
 bent back is "calf kneed"; bent forward is "knee sprung." 
 
168 Notes on Hippology 
 
 Cannon Bone Should be uniform size, much shorter 
 than the forearm. If smaller just below the knee than else- 
 where ("tied in") weakness is indicated. - 
 
 Fetlock Joint Good size and free from enlargements. 
 
 Pasterns Moderate length, should form an angle with 
 the floor or ground of about 45 to 50 degrees. 
 
 Foot Moderate size; flat foot or narrow heel both bad. 
 Moderate in height and breadth. 
 
 Withers Moderate in height and breadth. If high and 
 thin saddle will bruise top of withers causing a fistula. If 
 too flat low, and broad saddle will slip forward. 
 
 Breast and Chest Moderate width but deep. Narrow- 
 ness is sure sign of weakness but extreme breadth is good 
 only for draft animals. 
 
 Girth Should be large to indicate lung capacity. 
 Back Ribs Should be long to indicate stamina. 
 
 Barrel Should be fairly even in diameter. If too 
 broad, girth will slip forward and chafe behind elbow; if 
 too narrow girth will slip back. 
 
 Back Should be short and well muscled. Last rib 
 should be close to hip for carrying power. Upper lines should 
 bend slightly down behind withers and then rise gently to 
 loins. 
 
 Loins Should be heavily muscled. The curve should 
 be slightly arched for strength without rigidity. " Sway-back" 
 and "Roach-back" are both bad. 
 
 Hips Broad, smooth and muscular. 
 
 Croup Well rounded and slope gently downward. 
 Horizontal or drooping croup is bad. If the croup droops 
 and becomes narrow below tail ("goose-rump") weakness is 
 indicated. 
 
 Dock Large and muscular. Tail firm and carried well 
 away from rump. 
 
 Quarters Thighs, buttocks and gaskin should be broad 
 and well muzzled. Muscles of quarters should come close 
 together. If separated poor constitution is indicated. 
 
Defects and Blemishes 169 
 
 Hock Good size, clean and flat. Point good and clean 
 and clear of joint. Hocks should be well apart. If close 
 together feet are apart and toes too far out "Cow-Hock." 
 If too far apart horse will be "Bow-legged." If hocks stand 
 in, stifles will stand out and vice-versa. "Sickle Hock" is 
 combination of crooked hock, short cannon bone and a too 
 sloping pastern. 
 
 Cannon Bone Short back tendon not "tied in." Line from 
 point of hock to fetlock should be straight. If anything it 
 should be slightly concave. This is an important point as a 
 convex line signifies a badly shaped hock over which the 
 back sinew has to pass and can easily develop on sudden or 
 hard strain into a curb. 
 
 Fetlock Hind fetlocks should correspond to fore but 
 pasterns are generally more upright in hind feet. If pasterns 
 are bent forward, "Cocked-ankle." 
 
 DEFECTS AND BLEMISHES. 
 Some Diseases of the Extremities: 
 
 Bone Spavin Lower and inner part of hock joint. 
 Caused by bruise or sprain. 
 
 Splints Usually on inner side and upper part of front 
 cannon. Occasionally on outer side of upper third of hind 
 cannon. 
 
 Sidebones Ossification of lateral cartilage on sides of 
 foot just above coronet. 
 
 Ring Bone Between coronet and fetlock joint. 
 Bog Spavin Front part of hock joint. 
 
 Thorough Pin Sac filled with synovial fluid in upper 
 and back part of hock joint.. 
 
 Wind Puffs (Wind Galls) Bursal enlargements on 
 sides of tendons just above fetlock joints. 
 
 Navicular Disease Injury to navicular bone, just be- 
 hind coffin bone. 
 
 Other distended synovial sacs or pouches (bursal enlarge- 
 ments) may be found on different parts of legs but have no 
 special name. 
 
170 Defects and Blemishes 
 
 Diseases of Muscles, Tendons, Ligaments and Skin: 
 Poll Evil In region of Poll an abscess or fistula. 
 Fistulous Withers Deep seated abscess of the withers. 
 
 Sweeney Atrophy or wasting of muscles usually in 
 shoulder or hip. 
 
 Broken Knees Front part of knees damaged, whether 
 serious or not. 
 
 Capped Elbow Point of elbow enlarged. 
 Capped Hock Point of hock enlarged. 
 Sprung Knees Knees bent forward. 
 
 Bowed Tendons Enlarged sheath of flexor tendon 
 below knee or hock. 
 
 Breakdown Sprain of suspensary ligaments. 
 
 Contracted Heels Caused by atrophy of frog, the re- 
 sult of leaving shoes on too long without resetting, or by 
 destruction of frog by thrush. 
 
 Toe Cracks A crack in the front part of the hoof ex- 
 tending from the toe upward. 
 
 Seedy Toe Unhealthy condition of toe of hoof. 
 
 Curb Tnflamation of the tendon which passes over the 
 back of the true-hock joint. This place is called the "curb 
 place," and when prominent renders the animal liable to 
 curb. 
 
 Diseases, their Causes and Manifestations: 
 
 Flatulent or Wind Colic Indigestion, formation of 
 gases in the intestines causing distension, a very serious ail- 
 ment. 
 
 Spasmodic Colic Acute indigestion causing spasmodic 
 contraction of intestines. It is very serious if prompt relief 
 can not be given. 
 
 Tetanus or Lockjaw Caused by infection of wound in 
 the foot with the tetanus germ. 
 
 False Tetanus A contraction of the muscles all over 
 the animal from too sudden cooling or watering when greatly 
 fatigued or overheated. The symptoms appear very quickly 
 and resemble those of lockjaw or tetanus. 
 
Defects and Blemishes 171 
 
 Botts An accmmulation of eggs of the gadfly, causing 
 stoppage of the intestines. 
 
 Founder or Lamintis Inflammation of the sensitive 
 laminae due to imperfect circulation. It is caused by over- 
 feeding, or feeding grain or watering before the animal is 
 sufficiently cooled and rested. 
 
 Glanders A deadly, incurable and highly contagious 
 and infectious disease of the respiratory organs and passages 
 and of the glands about the head. 
 
 Farcy The same as glanders except that it is called 
 farcy when it appears in the lymphatic glands and ducts. 
 
 Distemper or Cold Caused by lowering the animal's 
 power to resist disease by chilling, ^ck of ventilation or con- 
 tagion. 
 
 Scratches or Grease A chapped and infected condition 
 of the parts in rear of the pastern. 
 
 Miscellaneous : 
 
 The Pulse Normal about 40 pulsations per minute. 
 Can best be taken at sub-maxillary artery (at jaw). The 
 horse should be perfectly quiet when his pulse is taken. If 
 the pulse is at first full and throbbing, then small and weak, 
 it is a sure sign of fever. A very slow pulse indicates disease 
 or injury of the brain or spinal cord. 
 
 Respiration Normal, 13 to 15 -per minute. Difficult or 
 rapid breathing is symptom of disease of respiratory organs, 
 though sometimes of flatulent colic. Abdominal breathing 
 (ribs fixed), is symptom of pleurisy or hydro-thorax (water 
 in chest). Irregular breathing wherein there is a want of 
 harmony between inspiratory movements is Broken Wind or 
 Heaves. Inspiratory movement, quick and jerky, expiratory 
 movement slow with doubled action, particularly of abdominal 
 muscles is also symptom of heaves. During course of this 
 disease, breathing often becomes spasmodic of convulsive^ 
 
 Visible mucous membranes, in color and condition are im- 
 portant guides to physical condition. 
 
 A horse breathes about 250 cubic inches of air with each 
 inspiration. This equals about 2 cubic feet per ,minute. 
 
 Temperature Normal is 99 to 101, although slightly 
 higher in younger animals. 
 
CHAPTER VIL 
 
 NOTES ON TOPOGRAPHY 
 
 Simple Military Sketching It is essential that every 
 officer know and be able to instruct in the art of making 
 simple military sketches. Sketching consists of representing 
 on suitable material a portion of the earth's surface upon a 
 reduced scale. The following articles are necessary for 
 sketching : 
 
 A sketching board, improvised or otherwise, so arranged 
 that it may be used for reading slopes. 
 
 A scale for measuring distances. 
 
 A suitable compass, paper and pencils. 
 
 Sketching Board There are regular sketching boards 
 with tripods attached for dismounted work and with wrist 
 loops for mounted work. Some of them have roller attach- 
 ments for the paper, and are provided with compasses and 
 metallic scales and other refinements. Such sketching boards, 
 however, are not necessary to produce excellent results. A 
 suitable sketching board may be improvised by taking a piece 
 of cardboard or light wood, of convenient dimensions, about 
 12" by 12" and with straight edges. The material should be 
 such as will penmit the use of thumb tacks for holding the 
 paper. 
 
 For reading slopes a plumb bob should be suspended from 
 a point midway along one edge. By means of a protractor, 
 the degrees should be marked all around the other three 
 edges of the board. See page 173. 
 
 Scales Scales are represented in the following different 
 ways. Graphically, by drawing a line and dividing it into 
 certain units which correspond to certain distances ; by a 
 simple equation that so many map inches equals so many 
 miles; by means of what is known as a representative frac- 
 tion, the numerator of which represents a certain distance 
 on the map, and the denominator the corresponding distance 
 on the ground. To make a graphic scale, one must know the 
 proportion which the map bears to the surface of the ground 
 represented. A graphical scale is the kind of scale to be 
 used in making and reading maps. 
 
 172 
 
IVl'NOZItiOH 
 
 JO NIVId 
 3/\08j/ 
 
174 Notes on Topography 
 
 Making Scales Let us assume that it is necessary to 
 make a scale of say one inch to the mile, to read yards. First, 
 it might be said that a scale, for convenience of use, should 
 be approximately six inches in length. It may be longer or 
 shorter. It is necessary to determine the exact length which 
 the scale should be. 
 
 We have the following simple methods : Since one inch 
 on the itnap represents 1,760 yds. (the number of yards in a 
 mile), 6 inches would equal 6 x 1,760, or 10,560 yds. This 
 number of yards is not a convenient length to subdivide; we 
 will take the length of the scale as that which will represent 
 10,000 yds. In order to find the length of the desired scale, 
 we will resort to the following simple proportion: 10,560 is 
 to 10,000 as 6 is to X (X= the length of the desired scale), 
 from which X will be found to equal approximately 5.6 
 inches. 
 
 Assume that it is necessary to make a scale for a map 3 
 inches to the mile. Method : 3 inches represents 1,760 yds., 
 6 inches represents 3,520 yds., and 3,520 yds. not being a 
 convenient distance for the scale to represent, we will take 
 3,500 yds. To ascertain the length of the scale required to 
 represent 3,500 yds., we will resort to the following propor- 
 tion : 3,520 is to 3,500 as 6 is to X, from which X is found 
 to be about 5.9 inches in length, 
 
 To make a 6 inch scale. Method: 6 inches represents 1,760 
 yds. 1,760 not being a convenient distance for the scale to 
 represent, we take 2,000 yds. Use the following proportion: 
 1,760 is to 2,000 as 6 is to X, giving about 6.82 inches as the 
 length of the scale. 
 
 Summary The scale of one inch to the mile 5.6 inches 
 in length (representing 10,000 yds.) ; for the scale of 3 inches 
 to the mile, 5.9 inches in length (representing 3,500 yds.) ; for 
 the scale of 6 inches to the mile, we have 6.82 inches (repre- 
 senting 2,000 yds), It is now necessary to divide these scales 
 into parts representing lesser distances for convenience in 
 measuring. 
 
 .Method Draw a line the desired length according to 
 the scale and distance to be represented, and from one end 
 of this line, at a convenient acute angle, draw an auxilliary 
 line, and divide it into an even number of inches, y 2 inches 
 or y^ inches, the number of divisions to correspond to the 
 number of parts into which it is necessary to divide the scale. 
 Draw a straight line through the separated ends of the scale, 
 and the auxiliary line; and parallel to this new .line draw 
 
Notes on Topography 175 
 
 other lines through the division points on the auxilliary line. 
 These lines will cut the scale into the . desired number of 
 equal parts. Each of the parts of the scale should then be 
 marked with the number of yards it represents. (See 
 Diagram.) The scale thus drawn will be transferred to a 
 thin strip of paper and pasted on a strip of wood with a 
 straight edge, of convenient length. For measuring very 
 short distances, one of the end divisions of the scale should 
 be subdivided to represent smaller distances. 
 
 To Find the Representative Fraction of a Map Whose 
 Scale is Known: 
 
 Take for .example a map whose scale is one inch to the 
 mile. We have one inch representing 1,760 yards or 
 (1,760 x 36) inches, or 63,360 inches, giving a representative 
 fraction of 1/63,360. 
 
 Example 2 For a map whose scale is 3 inches to the 
 mile, we have 3 inches equals 1,760 yds., or (1,760 x 36) 
 inches, or 63,360 inches, giving the following fraction 3/63,360, 
 which reduces to 1/21,120, which is the representative fraction 
 desired. 
 
 Example 3 For a map whose scale is 6 inches to the 
 mile. 6 inches representing 1,760 yards or (1,760 x 36) inches, 
 or 63,360 inches, giving the following fraction 6/63,360 which 
 reduces to 1/10,560, the representative fraction desired. 
 
 Determining Scales from Representative Fraction: 
 
 For maps whose scales do not show the exact number of 
 inches representing an exact number of miles : to determine 
 the scale from the representative fraction given. Take for 
 instance, a map whose representative fraction is 1/62,500. 
 We have one inch representing 62,500 inches, or one inch 
 represents ff||| miles which equals .98 miles. (Since there 
 are 63,360 inches in one mile), a little less than one 
 mile to an inch. Simply divide the denominator by the num- 
 ber of inches in a mile, take the numerator as one inch and 
 the result will give the number of miles to an inch. The 
 number of yards represented by an inch in such cases would 
 be determined by dividing the denominator of the representa- 
 tive fraction by the number of inches in a yard. In this case 
 it would be 62,500 divided by 36 or 1,736-1/9 yards, or one 
 inch equals 1,736-1/9 yds. In such cases it would be advisable 
 to construct a new scale with the ^ methods given above, ac- 
 cording to the ratio or representative fraction of the map. 
 
176 Measuring 1 "by Paces 
 
 MEASURING BY PACES 
 
 The usual method of .measuring distances in making mili- 
 tary sketches is by pacing. A convenient and simple method 
 is to ascertain the number of paces it takes to cover a certain 
 distance, say 100 yds., and on the scale at each 100 yd. division 
 point, mark the number of paces that it takes to cover each 
 of the distances represented. 
 
 Another method is to make the scale to read paces instead 
 of yards. In such a case the length of the pace should be 
 ascertained, and substituted for that of the yard in the fore- 
 going mehods of making scales; for instance, whenever the 
 number of yards in a mile is used, substitute for it the num- 
 ber of paces in a mile and proceed in the same manner as in 
 making the scale by yards. 
 
 SCALES OF MAP DISTANCES 
 
 These are also known as scales of horizontal equivalents, 
 and are used for ascertaining elevations, and for the proper 
 spacing of contour lines on slopes. The following data should 
 always be kept in mind by all military persons who may have 
 to make sketches, read maps, etc. 
 
 In moving up or down a slope one gains 'distance in two 
 ways, horizontally and vertically. The vertical (V) distance 
 divided by the horizontal (H) measures the slope, since it 
 equals the tangent of the angle of the slope. (Tangent of 
 slope in degrees=-^r- and therefore V=H x tangent of slope 
 in degrees.) To express this we say that the vertical rise 
 or descent equals the horizontal or map distance multiplied 
 by the tangent of the angle of slope. In going forward a 
 horizontal distance of 57.3 ft. up an incline of one degree, 
 one will rise 1 ft. This should be carefully remembered. In 
 going forward 573 ft. one will rise 10 ft. on a one degree 
 slope. See diagram page 177. 
 
 The steeper the slope, the more sudden the rise will JDC. In 
 going up a slope of 2 degrees the elevation will be twice that 
 for 1 degree, and for 3 degrees, three times that for 1 degree, 
 etc. As it is necessary to go forward 573 ft. on one degree 
 slope to rise 10 ft., it "will only be necessary to go forward 
 one-half that distance, 286^ ft. to rise the same amount, and 
 on a three degree slope, one-third of 573 ft. to rise 10 ft., and 
 so on. 
 
Method of dividing the scale into shorter units of measure 
 
 5. 6, 5. 9 or 6.8Z etc __ 
 
 This line is drawn according to the length of scale desired- it i* then to be divided 
 
 Assume that the 
 
 line A B represents 3500 s 
 
 yards and is5.9"in length. 
 
 Draw the line A* C at any con- 
 
 venient angle to. A B,and make it 
 
 7 inches in length. It Will be necess^ 
 
 ary to divide AB into 7 equal parts, each N 
 
 to represent 500 yards. 
 
 Mark off on A C the inch divisions and 
 draw BC Then parallel to B C draw lines 
 through the inch marks on A.C. These lines will 
 divide A B into 7 equal parts. 
 
 The same principle is applied in making the other scales. 
 To get a smaller unit of measure take the left sub- 
 division of A B (Ax) and in the same manner di- 
 vide it into 10 (or other convenient number) parts, 
 each to represent 50 yards. 
 
 Illustration of principle of making a scale 
 of map distances (horizontal equivalents) 
 
 Line AB Represents a contour line 10ft. above contour 
 line C D. Lines CB, CG, CF, and CE indicate slopesof dif- 
 ferent degrees. From CE ; , CF( CG- and CD it can be 'seen 
 that the horizontal distances necessary to attain a given eleva- 
 tion(in this case 10 ft.) at different slopes become proportionately 
 less as the an|le of slope increases. 
 
178 Contour Lines 
 
 Now to construct a scale of horizontal equivalents. Using 
 the working scale from which the map is to be made, lay 
 off a distance equal to 573 ft., or 191 yds. This distance will 
 represent the map distance between two points on a one 
 degree slope whose difference in elevation is 10 ft. Lay off 
 another distance equal to one-half of 191 yds., or 94 yds., 
 which will represent the distance separating two points on a 
 two degree slope whose difference in elevation is 10 ft., and 
 so on for the different degrees of slope. 
 
 CONTOUR LINES. 
 
 A contour line is an imaginary line on the earth's surface, 
 all points of which are of the same elevation. In order to 
 understand the ,meaning of contour lines and what they repre- 
 sent, one should imagine a body of water to rise to a certain 
 elevation. The outline of his body of water on the land will 
 be a true contour. Then imagine the water to rise to another 
 given elevation, say 10 ft. The outline of the water on the 
 land would then be the second higher contour line. By con- 
 tinuing this process until the land is covered the different 
 contour lines will then have been outlined throughout the 
 area whose contours are desired. It is by means of these 
 contour lines that one is able to picture in his mind the 
 actual form of the land in the area represented by the map. 
 
 ORIENTATION. 
 
 By orientation is meant the placing of the map or the 
 sketching board so that its north will point north. This 
 is done by drawing a line, usually an arrow, indicating 
 the magnetic meridian, or direction taken by the compass 
 needle. When the compass needle and the line indicating the 
 magnetic meridian are parallel, the map is then said to be 
 oriented. In traversing and sighting on objects with a view 
 to getting their proper relative directions from the sketcher, 
 it is necessary to have the board carefully oriented, other- 
 wise the map will be of no value whatever. 
 
 CONVENTIONAL SIGNS. 
 
 By means of certain characters, the various topographical 
 features are represented on itnaps. The signs which are most 
 commonly used in military sketching are given on page 179. 
 
-Topocpphioil Conventions- 
 
 BRIDGE 
 
 = WOODEN 
 KING 
 40 fh LOftG by 
 
 T3ARBED- WiRE. 
 
 ANV KINO 
 "ROADS 
 
 IMPROVED 
 
 -=- = = = ==--r-- UNIMPROVED 
 
 HAIL~ROADS 
 
 1 ' ' ' ' ' ' SINGLE 
 
 TELEGRAPH 
 
 T T T T T 
 
 STREAM 
 
 15 fh wide, 
 " 
 
 CULTIVATED 
 
 LAND 
 
 >> /f A*I//* **'< 
 
 / lf// - "" 
 
 A A A C.MP 
 
 XV 
 
 fordo bk 
 
 Vl LLAGE 
 lib HOUSES 
 
 L c4 CHURCHES 
 
 TRENCH 
 
 INFANTR/. 
 CAVALK/- 
 ARTILLER/- 
 
 D. POST OFFICE. 
 
 TO. TC.LE.GRAPH. 
 
 WATE.R WORKS. 
 
 179 
 
180 Traversing 
 
 1. MAKING THE SKETCH. 
 
 This consists of the following processes : First, locating 
 the starting point; second, traversing; third, locating critical 
 points; fourth, filling in. 
 
 To locate the starting point it is necessary to give its di- 
 rection and distance! from some well known point or location, 
 such as a town, mountain top, junctions of important rivers 
 and roads, etc. This may be performed in two ways : by 
 stating the distance and giving its direction from the well 
 known point; or by what is known as resection. The former 
 method is more commonly used. To locate one's position by 
 resection it is necessary to orient the sketching board and 
 carefully keeping it oriented, sight along the scale to some 
 well known point and draw a line on the paper along the 
 scale. This is done in the direction of some other well known 
 point, and where the two lines cross on the paper is the 
 position of the point. It is necessary that some point on the 
 map have ^ its distance and direction from some other well 
 known point distinctly indicated. 
 
 TRAVERSING. 
 
 Having marked the starting point, and with the board 
 oriented, place the straight edge of the scale against the start- 
 ing point and bring it into the direction in which the route 
 is to start, and along this straight edge from the starting 
 point draw a light line to a distance on the scale approxi- 
 mately more than to cover the distance to be paced in that 
 direction. This is the first step in traversing. 
 
 The next step is to proceed along the route, carefully 
 counting the paces taken before any change of direction is 
 necessary. At the first change of direction, halt, note the 
 number of paces taken and lay off on the line drawn from 
 the starting point by means of the scale, a distance represent- 
 ing that which has been paced, and mark. This is the relative 
 position of the sketcher on the map. Again orient the map 
 and sight along the straight edge of the scale in the new 
 direction, being careful that the straight edge of the scale 
 is in contact with the point last marked, and draw a line in the 
 new direction like that drawn from the starting point. Avoid 
 taking a large number of short sight shots. When the route 
 to be traversed is crooked and full of bends it is not neces- 
 sary to take new sightings for each short distance, but the 
 general direction should be given and the bends in the road 
 put in by estimation after the next turning point is reached. 
 
Itocation of Critical Points 181 
 
 In order to bring about more accuracy in traversing, the 
 portion of the road last traversed should be verified by sight- 
 ing back to the last turning point and making the necessary 
 corrections. Traversing without the aid of a compass may 
 be effected successfully by orienting the board with reference 
 to the last distance plotted. By giving the direction and the 
 distance of each of the turning points in the route we have 
 what is termed a traverse. This traverse really forms the 
 base-line of the sketch and corresponds to the base line of 
 a survey. From this traverse all elevations and locations of 
 other features may be taken. 
 
 LOCATION OF CRITICAL POINTS 
 
 From each position with the board properly oriented, the 
 line of sight should be taken towards certain prominent points 
 which lie within the area of the map in order to give their 
 location. By sighting upon an object from one point and 
 drawing a line toward it, and again sighting upon it from 
 another position on the traverse, the position of the object 
 is accurately located by the intersection of the two lines of 
 sight which have been drawn. Several points, according to 
 the nature of the country and* the importance of the object, 
 should be carefully located on each side of the traverse by 
 the above method which is known as intersection. A lake, 
 for instance, can be fairly accurately shown by locating by 
 intersection, points at each end and on both sides. Forests, 
 hills, etc., can be located in the same manner. 
 
 ELEVATIONS 
 
 In addition to locating the position of certain features, it 
 is necessary to ascertain their elevations. This can be done 
 in two ways. Having located the position of a certain point 
 whose elevation is desired ; with a slope board or other slope- 
 reading device, read the angle of elevation by sighting upon 
 the object. Then by using the sub-division of the scale of 
 horizontal equivalents corresponding to the number of de- 
 grees in the angle of elevation as a measure, find the number 
 of times that it is contained in the distance between the 
 sketcher and the object. This number multiplied by the num- 
 ber of feet of the vertical interval will give the 'elevation 
 above the position of the sketcher. The other imethod is 
 without the use of the scale of horizontal equivalents. From 
 any engineer's hand-book a table of tangents reduced to two 
 
182 Pilling 1 in Contours 
 
 or three decimal places should be copied up to and including 
 about 40 degrees. This copy should be pasted on the back 
 of the sketching board. By means of the working scale, the 
 map distance from the sketcher to the object can be read off 
 directly. By means of the slope board read the angle of 
 elevation to the object, then multiply the distance to the ob- 
 ject by the tangent corresponding to the angle of elevation, 
 and the result will be the elevation of the object above the 
 sketcher's position. The table need only show tangents for 
 degrees and half degree. 
 
 FILLING IN CONTOURS 
 
 Contours are sometimes called form-lines, since they show 
 the form of elevations and depressions in the earth's surface. 
 In all military sketches contours are placed according to what 
 is known as the vertical interval. The vertical interval is the 
 difference in elevation between adjacent contour lines. The 
 following vertical intervals are prescribed for military maps. 
 
 For maps whose scale is one inch to the mile the vertical 
 interval is 60 feet. For maps 3 inches to the mile, 20 feet; 6 
 inches to the mile, 10 feet; and 12 inches to the mile, 5 feet. 
 With this uniformity of proportion between scales and vertical 
 intervals, the distances on the scale of horizontal equivalents 
 are the same for all military maps, i. e., .65 inches for a one 
 degree slope, .325 inches for a two degree slope, .216 inches 
 for a three degree slope, .16 inches for a four degree slope, 
 and so on. It is well to remember the figure .65 as being the 
 distance separating contours on military maps for a slope 
 of one degree, as this distance when divided by the number 
 of degrees of the slope, gives the map distance in inches be- 
 tween contours showing the various degrees of slope. Hav- 
 ing determined and marked upon the sheet the elevations of 
 the necessary critical or important points, the contours should 
 be sketched in with reference to these points, each line being 
 placed so to show by outline where a sheet of water of the 
 contour elevation would, cut the landscape. Small sections 
 of contours may be drawn on various parts of the map on 
 certain slopes, and afterwards these should be connected by 
 estimation fro,m some point from which the landscape can be 
 plainly seen. A small hand level is very valuable for such 
 work. The slope-board, however, is very accurate if care- 
 fully used. The upper edge of the slope-board is a very fair 
 leveling instrument when the plumb-bob hangs at zero. 
 
 In order to become expert at contouring rapidly, much 
 

 Other Features 183 
 
 practice should be had in contouring small restricted areas, 
 after careful .measurement of slopes and distances thereon, 
 which should be checked up by reference to some already 
 well made map. In placing contours it should be noted that 
 on hillsides the country near the bottom and near the top is 
 not so steep as that in between, causing the contours at the 
 top and bottom of the hill to be more widely spaced than 
 those in between. Contours should never cross each other 
 except in the case of an over-hanging cliff, in which case the 
 contours of lower elevation should be shown in dotted lines 
 where they pass under the higher contours. For vertical 
 cliffs, contours will coincide and form but one line, separating 
 on both sides where the country resumes its slope. Contours 
 should not be drawn across roads. They should run to the 
 edge of the road, stop, and comimence on the other side of 
 the road exactly opposite. Contours should cross streams at 
 right angles, going up stream somewhat before doing so, 
 according to the nature of the depression down which the 
 stream is flowing. 
 
 Remember that for maps the scales of which are 6 inches 
 to the mile, contours represent differences of elevation of 
 10 feet; those three inches to the mile, 20 feet; one inch to 
 the mile, 60 feet. In contouring the different slopes it is 
 necessary to place the contours by estimation so as to show 
 the different slopes on the hill-side, making sure however 
 that the elevation indicated by the number of contours is at 
 least approximately the actual elevation. 
 
 OTHER FEATURES 
 
 In representing by means of conventional signs all the 
 necessary features of a map or sketch, it is not necessary or 
 customary to locate the,m accurately by measurement or by 
 intersection. Having the critical points located with accuracy, 
 the other features should be drawn in by relation to these 
 actually located points. All features which are of military 
 importance, such as trees, bridges, roads, streams, woods, 
 fences, houses, farms, railroad stations, railroads, telegraph 
 and telephone lines, camp-sites, etc., should be indicated by 
 proper signs. 
 
 COMPLETION OF MAP 
 
 The scale and vertical interval should be shown upon 
 the imap, also an arrow indicating the true north and 
 south line, and a line showing the declination of the compass 
 
184 
 
 Position Sketches 
 
 needle should be drawn thereon. There should also be a 
 notation indicating the area wbich the map represents, the 
 date on which it was made, and the name, rank, and or- 
 ganization of the person who made it. 
 
 REPORT 
 
 Every military sketch should be accompanied by a report 
 giving in detail all the military information which might be 
 of possible value to the authorities. This information would 
 consist of : character and condition of roads and bridges, 
 obstacles, camp-sites, water supply, wood, grazing, defensive 
 positions for infantry and artillery, buildings suitable for 
 military use, nature and condition of railroads, telegraph and 
 telephone lines, capacity of railroad stations, water tanks, 
 etc. 
 
 POSITION SKETCHES 
 
 A position sketch is made by the same means as a route 
 sketch, except that a base line should be traversed accur- 
 ately between two or more points of observation. From 
 these points, by means of intersection, various critical points 
 should be accurately located, and the intermediate points and 
 features should be sketched with relation to the points 
 whose location have been determined. 
 
 METHOD OF USE 
 
 Determine distance to the object by intersection. Read 
 angle of elevation with slope board, multiply distance in feet 
 by tangent corresponding to the number of degrees of angle. 
 The result will be the elevation above or below the position 
 of the Topographer. 
 
 NATURAL TANGENT OF ANGLES 
 1 Deg 02 13 Deg 23 25 Deg 47 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 035 
 
 14 
 
 .05 
 
 15 
 
 07 
 
 16 
 
 09 
 10 
 
 17 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 .20 
 
 24 
 
 37 Deg 75 
 
 .25 
 
 26 
 
 49 
 
 .27 
 
 27 
 
 51 
 
 .29 
 
 ?8 
 
 , 53 
 
 .30 
 
 ?Q 
 
 . .55 
 
 .32 
 
 30 
 
 . .58 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 60 
 
 .36 
 
 32 
 
 . .62 
 
 38 
 
 33 
 
 .65 
 
 .40 
 
 S4 
 
 . .67 
 
 42 
 
 35 
 
 .70 
 
 .45 
 
 36 
 
 .73 
 
 38 Desr. 
 
 
 . .78 
 
Notes on Topography 185 
 
 METHOD OF USING THE FOLLOWING TABLE 
 
 The following table is used for getting map distances 
 along the route traversed. 
 
 Read the angle of slope along the route traversed and 
 multiply the distance so traversed by the number opposite the 
 number of degrees of slope. 1 Deg to 7 Deg., no practical 
 difference. 
 
 NATURAL COSINES OF ANGLES 
 
 8 Deg 99 20 Deg 94 27 Deg 89 
 
 10 " 98 22 " 93 28 " 88 
 
 13 " 97 23 " 92 29 " 87 
 
 16 " 96 24 " .91 31 " 86 
 
 18 " 95 25 " .90 33 " 84 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 LIST OF FORMS NEEDED FOR COMPANY 
 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 BLANK FORMS 
 
 3. Notification of Discharge. 
 
 17. Certificate of Disability for Discharge. 
 
 21. Muster Roll, Detachment. 
 
 26. Field Return. 
 
 29. Descriptive List. 
 
 30. Return of Troop, Battery, Company, or Detachment 
 
 (with model). 
 
 34. Inventory of Effects of a Deceased Soldier. 
 
 61. Muster Roll, Troop, Battery, and Cojmpany. 
 
 61-1. Extra sheet to Forms 21 and 61. 
 
 66. Furlough. 
 
 95. Descriptive List of Deserters. 
 
 99. Record of Summary Court. 
 101. Return of Officers (bureau). 
 121. Report of Action Taken on Applications for Discharge 
 
 of Enlisted Men. 
 196. Report of Survey. 
 299. Entry Blank, Official National Individual Match. 
 
 304. Record of Known Distance Rifle Firing Individual. 
 
 305. Record of Pistol Firing Individual. 
 
 307. Report of Known Distance Rifle Firing and Classifica- 
 
 tion. 
 
 308. Report of Pistol Firing and Classification. 
 
 338. Guard Reports. 
 
 339. Daily Sick Reports. 
 
 342. Duty Roster (with model). 
 
 380. Designation of Beneficiary of Officer or Enlisted Man. 
 383. Requisition for Books and Blank Forms supplied by 
 the Adjutant General's Department. 
 
 409. Report of Small-Arms Target Firing under Special 
 
 Course "A." 
 
 410. Record of Known Distance Firing under Special 
 
 Course "A." 
 
 415. Report of Death and Disposal of Remains. 
 429. Efficiency Report. 
 
Appendix 
 
 437. Furlough and Transfer to Army Reserve. 
 
 443. Reservist's Descriptive Card. 
 
 448. Memorandum Receipt. 
 
 451. Return of Unit Equipment. 
 
 468. Request for Retirement (enlisted men). 
 
 489. Model Remarks for Muster Rolls. 
 
 525. Honorable Discharge from U. S. Army. 
 
 526. Discharge frdm U. S. Army. 
 
 527. Dishonorable Discharge from U. S. Army. 
 
 543. Issue of Expendable Articles, Unit Accountability 
 
 Equipment. 
 
 544. Replacement of Articles, Unit Accountability Equip- 
 
 ment. 
 559. Report of Furlough to Reserve. 
 
 Correspondence Model (A. R. 776, 1913). 
 
 WAR DEPARTMENT FORM 
 
 366 Pay roll of enlisted men, first sheet. 
 366a Pay roll of enlisted men, follow sheets. 
 
 Q. M. C. FORMS 
 
 8a Advice of Soldiers' deposits. 
 
 38 Soldiers' allotment blanks. 
 
 41 Soldiers' deposit book. 
 
 69 Model remarks for Army pay rolls. 
 
 70 Instruction for Army pay rolls. 
 
 164 Directions for measuring for U. S. clothing of special 
 
 sizes. 
 
 165 Individual clothing slip. 
 
 165b Statement of clothing charged to E. M. 
 
 166 Requisition for table ware and kitchen utensils. 
 176 Requisition for scrubbing brushes, brooms, etc. 
 180 Abstract of clothing drawn on 165. 
 
 201 Transfer of Q. M. supplies, invoice and receipts. 
 
 204 Requisition for issue of stationery. 
 
 207a Certificate of breakage china. 
 
 208 Statement of charge. 
 
 213 Requisition for clothing (bulk). 
 
 223 Ration returns. 
 
 232 Certificate of supplies transferred. 
 
 402 Application for transfer to the Q. M. Corps of en- 
 listed men. 
 
 509 Delinquency record (E. M.). 
 
Appendix 
 
 EQUIPMENT FOR OFFICERS 
 
 ORDNANCE EQUIPMENT 
 
 For each dismounted officer. 
 
 New Model Equipment* 
 
 Old Model Equipment* 
 
 1 can, bacon 16 1 canteen with strap. 
 
 1 can, condiment 11 1 cup. 
 
 1 canteen 46 1 haversack (except mounted 
 
 1 canteen cover, dis- officers). 
 
 mounted 48 1 haversack strap (except 
 
 1 pistol belt, with maga- mounted officers) or sus- 
 
 zine pocket, web, penders for belt. 
 
 double 2.15 1 meat can. 
 
 1 cup 29 1 knife. 
 
 1 knife 10 1 fork. 
 
 1 fork 06 1 spoon. 
 
 1 spoon 06 1 pouch for first-aid packet. 
 
 1 meat can 40 1 pistol belt with magazine 
 
 1 haversack (except pocket, web, double. 
 
 mounted officers) .... 2.42 1 pistol holster. 
 
 1 pack carrier (except 1 pistol, caliber .45. 
 
 mounted officers) 60 2 extra magazines. 
 
 1 pouch for first-aid 
 
 packet 13 
 
 1 pistol holster 1.50 
 
 1 pistol, caliber .45 12.50 
 
 2 extra magazines 1.04 
 
 QUARTERMASTER PROPERTY 
 
 1 mosquito bar 2.16 1 i n d e n t ification tag 
 
 1 bedding roll** 6.52 with tape 01 
 
 2 blankets 8.58 1 shelter tent complete 
 
 1 basin, canvas 36 with poles and pins.. 1.64 
 
 1 bed sack 57 1 poncho or slicker 2.60 
 
 1 bucket, canvas 76 1 whistle (company pf- 
 
 1 lantern. ficers and battalion 
 
 1 clothing roll 2.97 commanders of in- 
 
 1 cot 2.06 fantry) 21 
 
 *Either model of equipment permissible. 
 
 **The bedding roll supplied by the Quartermaster Corps or 
 any other canvas roll may be used as a combination bedding- 
 clothing roll. 
 
Appendix 
 
 1 breeches, o. d. cotton 1.07 
 1 breeches, o. d., wool.. 2.31 
 1 overcoat, o. d., wool.. 9.04 
 
 1 waist belt 10 
 
 2 shirts, o. d., flannel.... 4.76 
 1 shoes, russet leather, 
 
 pair 2.81 
 
 Insignia (collar and 
 shoulders) 3.00 
 
 Clothing 1.81 
 
 1 leggins, pair, leather .. 7.50 
 
 3 undershirts 69 
 
 3 drawers, pairs 66 
 
 2 shoe laces, pairs 02 
 
 5 stockings, pairs 70 
 
 1 hat, service 5.00 
 
 1 hat cord 1.50 
 
 1 coat, o. d., wool 3.95 
 
 1 coat, o. d., cotton 1.31 
 
 MEDICAL - 
 
 1 first-aid packet. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 1 compass 1.00 1 notebook and pencil.... 
 
 1 pair field glasses 35.00 1 watch. 
 
 TOILET ARTICLES 
 
 1 comb. 1 package toilet paper. 
 
 1 housewife. 3 towels. 
 
 1 mirror. 1 cake soap. 
 
 1 tooth brush, with paste. 1 shaving outfit. 
 
 For each mounted officer in addition to above: 
 1 set of horse equipment, consisting of : 
 
 .10 
 
 1 bridle, cavalry. 
 
 1 watering bridle (not re- 
 quired if Model 1909 bridle 
 is on hand). 
 
 1 currycomb. 
 
 1 nosebag (or feed and grain 
 bag). 
 
 1 halter headstall. 
 
 1 halter strap (or halter tie 
 rope). 
 
 1 horse brush. 
 
 1 lariat. 
 
 1 lariat strap. 
 
 1 link. 
 
 1 picket pin. 
 
 1 saddle (McClellan or 
 
 Whitman). 
 1 saddle bags, pair. 
 1 saddle cloth with insignia. 
 1 saddle blanket. 
 1 surcingle, 
 trunk locker, 4.03. 
 
 2. The unit equipment manuals for the various arms 
 authorize organization commanders to keep on hand such of 
 the following articles authorized by paragraph 1522 A. R. 
 (articles of ordnance furnished by the government for use 
 of officers serving with troops) as may be necessary to prop- 
 erly equip the officers on duty with these organizations. 
 
Appendix 
 
 Pistols, caliber .45 $12.50 
 
 Extra magazine .52 
 
 Pistol belts 5.54 
 
 Pistol holsters 1.50 
 
 Dispatch case, web 4.00 
 
 3. The horse equipment required by mounted officers below 
 the grade of major are included" in the ordnance unit account- 
 ability of the organization to which they may be assigned. 
 
 4. It is not necessary for reserve officers to purchase the 
 horse equipment and articles mentioned in paragraph three 
 above, but they may purchase such articles and use them if 
 they so desire. 
 
 5. Officers of infantry are not required to have a saber 
 and scabbard when on field service. Cavalry officers are re- 
 quired to have a saber and scabbard and are advised to pur- 
 chase the new model saber which may be procured from the 
 Ordnance Department. 
 
 6. Officers of the Reserve Corps may purchase uniforms 
 and equipment from the Supply Departments of the Army. 
 (326.1) 
 
 Note. This order is of date 14 Feb., 1917. 
 
Appendix 
 

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Appendix 
 
Appendix 
 
 TWO-ARM SEMAPHORE CODE WITH HAND 
 FLAGS. 
 
 ^"p" 
 
 C 31 3 
 
 INTERROGATORY 
 
 I Til 9 
 
 1 
 
 AFFIRMATIVE. 
 
 V 
 
 K 
 
 w 
 
 PREPARATORY 
 
 r a 6 L 
 
 .ACKNOWLEDGE: 
 
 
 NOTE. For special and conventional codes, see Signal Book. 
 
Appendix 
 CORRESPONDENCE 
 
 Port Kiagara, 3. Y. 
 March 1, 1917. 
 
 "Pron: 1st Lieut. John -P. Doe, Co., H, 5th Infantry 
 Tot Companding Officer, 5th Infantry. 
 
 Subject: Application for leave. 
 
 (Letter to contain bat one subject and its description to be give] 
 in not more than ten words)* 
 
 1. Letter should be folded in three equal folds as indicated by dotted line 
 
 2. Writing to be so placed as to leave a aargin of about an inch along 
 left ed$e of paper. 
 
 3. The words "From", "To" and "Subject" to be double-spaced and included 
 In first fold {above dotted line). Single spacing to be used in the paragraph. 
 Paragraphs to be separated by double spaces. 
 
 4. Body of the letter should comence on the second fold or middle third 
 of the sheet. 
 
 5. When there is but one paragraph in the letter it will not be numbered. 
 Wien there is more than one paragraph they will be muabered as herein. 
 
 6 TShen the narae ana rank, etc., of the writer are given above after 
 "Prom" the signature will bo confined to th. v/fiter's nane only. TChen only the 
 office title is given above after "Proa" the officer will sign his name over 
 
 * 
 
 7. TVhen enclosures accocpany the letter the notation (so mny) inclosures 
 will be made under the left side of the letter about on the sano line with the 
 signature. 
 
 8. She signature should be about half an inch below the last line of the 
 letter. 
 
 I 
 
 (File No) 1st lad. 
 
 BQ. FT. NIAGARA, N. T. , March 2, 1917. - lo Comn&nding General, Eastern 
 Department. Forwarded. 
 
 Col.. 5th Inf., 
 
FORMS OF COMPLETE FIELD ORDERS 
 
 While the following forms are given for the convenience of officers 
 in the field, and with a view of securing uniformity in the service, it 
 must be remembered that no two military situations are the same. The 
 sequence in paragraph 3 is not obligatory, the commander arranging the 
 details according to his best judgment. 
 
 Field Orders 
 
 No. 
 [Reference 
 used] 
 
 Troops 
 
 to map 
 
 Cav- 
 
 For an advance. 
 
 [Title] 
 
 [Place] 
 
 [Date and hour] 
 
 1. [Information of enemy and of our sup- 
 porting troops] 
 
 2. [Plan of commander] 
 
 3. (a) [Instructions for independent cav- 
 alry place and time of departure, roads or 
 country to be covered, special mission] 
 
 (b) [Instructions for advance guard 
 place and time of departure, or distance at 
 which it is to precede the main body, route, 
 special mission] 
 
 (c) [Instructions for main body distance 
 at which it is to follow the advance guard, 
 or place and time of departure] 
 
 (d) [Instructions for flank guard place 
 and time of departure, route, special mis- 
 sion] 
 
 (e) [Instructions for signal troops lines 
 of information to be established, special mis- 
 sion] 
 
 (x) [Instructions for outpost when re- 
 lieved, subsequent duties] 
 
 4. [Instructions for field train escort, dis- 
 tance in rear of column, or destination when 
 different from that of main body, if dispo- 
 sition not previously covered in "Orders"] 
 
 [Instructions for sanitary, ammunition, supply and engineer trains 
 when necessary] 
 
 5. [Place of commander or where messages may be sent.] 
 
 [How and to whom issued] [Authentication.] 
 
 (a) Independent 
 airy : 
 
 [CommanderJ 
 [Troops] 
 
 (b) Advance Guard: 
 
 [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 (c) Main Body in order 
 of march: 
 
 [Commander]* 
 
 (d) Right [left] Flank 
 Guard: 
 
 [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 (e) Signal Troops: 
 
 [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 *If a commander is designated for the main body, his name is in- 
 serted here. 
 
Forms of Complete Pield Orders 
 
 For advance guards. 
 
 Field Orders [Title] 
 
 No. [Place] 
 [Reference to map [Date and hour] 
 used] 1. [Information of enemy and of our sup- 
 Troops porting troops] 
 
 2. [Plan of commander] 
 
 (a) Advance Cavalry: , 3 - < a > [Instructions for advance cavalry 
 
 [Commander] P^ce and time of departure, roads or 
 
 [Troops! country to be covered, special mission] 
 
 (b) [Instructions for support place and 
 
 (b) Support: time of departure, route, special mission] 
 
 [Commander] ( c ) [Instructions for reserve distance at 
 
 [Troops] which it is to follow support] 
 
 (c) Reserve in order of < d >. [Instructions for flank guard place 
 marc h- an d time of departure, route, special mission] 
 
 [Troops] 4> . [Instructions for field train generally 
 
 to join train of column if not previously 
 
 (d) Right [left] Flank covered in orders] 
 
 Guard: 5. [Place of commander or where mes- 
 
 [Commander] sages may be sent, location of lines of in- 
 
 [Troops] formation] 
 
 [Authentication] 
 [How and to whom issued] 
 
 A halt for the night Camp with outpost. 
 
 Field Orders [Title] 
 
 No. [Place] 
 
 [Date and hour] 
 [Reference to map used] 
 
 1. [Information of enemy and of our supporting troops, including 
 independent cavalry] 
 
 2. [Plan of commander to encamp or bivouac] 
 
 3. (a) [Designation of commander and troops of outpost, * general 
 line to be held, special reconnaissance, connection with other outposts, 
 if any] 
 
 (b) Instructions for troops not detailed for outpost duty location of 
 camp, designation of camp commander, ** observation of flanks and rear 
 when necessary, line of information, conduct in case of attack] 
 
 4. [Instructions for field train generally to join troops, though if 
 near enemy, field train of outpost troops may be held in rear]*** 
 
 [Instructions for sanitary, ammunition, supply, and engineer trains, 
 when necessary] 
 
 5. [Place of commander or where messages may be sent] 
 
 [Authentication] 
 [How and to whom issued] 
 
 * Where the advance guard is large the order may direct the ad- 
 vance guard commander to establish the outpost. 
 
 ** Omitted when the chief exercises immediate command of the camp. 
 *** May be provided for in "order" issued subsequently. 
 
Forms of Complete Field Orders 
 
 For outposts. 
 Field Orders [Title] 
 
 No. [Place] 
 
 [Reference to map used] [Date and hour] 
 
 1. [Information of enemy and of our sup- 
 Troops porting troops] 
 
 2. [Plan cf commander to establish out- 
 
 (a) Advance Cavalry post, approximate line of resistance. 
 
 [Commander] 3. (a) [Instructions for advance cavalry 
 
 [Troops] contact with enemy, roads or country to be 
 
 (b) Supports:* specially watched, special mission] 
 
 No. 1. [Commander] (b) Instructions for supports positions 
 
 [Troops] they are to occupy, and sections of line of 
 
 No. 2. [Commander] resistance which they are to hold, intrench- 
 
 [Troops] ing, etc.] 
 
 No. 3. [Commander] (c) Instructions for detached post posi- 
 
 [Troops] tion to be occupied, duties, amount of re- 
 
 (c) Detached Post sistance] 
 
 [Commander] (d) Instructions for reserve location, ob- 
 
 [Troops] servation of flanks, conduct in case of attack, 
 
 (d) Reserve: duties of special troops] 
 
 [Troops] 4. [Instruction for field train if necessary] 
 
 [Commander] 5. [Place of commander or where mes- 
 
 [How and to whom is- sages may be sent, location of lines of in- 
 sued]** formation] 
 
 [Authentication] 
 
 It is sometimes necessary to issue two outpost orders; the first as 
 above, containing general instructions; the second, issued after an 
 inspection of the line, and containing more definite instructions or in- 
 volving changes. 
 
 For positions in readiness 
 
 Field Orders [Title] 
 
 No. [Place] 
 
 [Reference to map used] [Date and hour] 
 
 1. [Information of enemy and of our supporting troops] 
 
 2. [Plan of commander to take up a position in readiness at or 
 near ] 
 
 3. (a) [Instruction for cavalry to reconnoiter in direction of enemy, 
 special mission] 
 
 (b) [Instructions for artillery position or place of assembly] 
 
 (c) [Instructions for infantry position or place of assembly, points 
 to be especially held, reconnaissance] 
 
 (d) [Instructions for engineers position or place of assembly] 
 
 (e) [Instructions for signal troops lines of information] 
 
 4. [Instructions for field trains, sanitary, ammunition, supply and 
 engineer trains if not previously covered in orders generally to halt 
 designated localities in rear, ready to move in any direction] 
 
 5. [Place of commander or where messages may be sent] 
 
 [Authentication ] 
 [How and to whom issued] 
 
 * Numbered from the right. 
 
 ** For small outposts it may be more convenient to write this order 
 without a marginal distribution of troops. 
 
Forms of Complete Field Orders 
 
 or- 
 
 For a retreat 
 
 [Title] 
 
 [Place] 
 
 [Date and hour] 
 
 1. [Information of enemy and of our sup- 
 porting troops] 
 
 2. [Plan of commander to retire in di- 
 rection of ] 
 
 3. (a) [Instructions for leading troops 
 place and time of departure, route, special 
 mission] 
 
 (b) [Instructions for main body place 
 and time of departure, route] 
 
 (c) [Instructions for rear guard distance 
 from the main body or place and time of 
 departure, special mission] 
 
 (d) [Instructions for flank guard place 
 and time of departure, special mission] 
 
 (e) [Instructions for signal troops lines 
 of information] 
 
 (x) [Instructions for outposts when re- 
 lieved, subsequent duties usually forming 
 the rear guard] 
 
 4. [Instructions for field and divisional 
 trains place and time of departure, route, 
 escort; j these trains are generally some dis- 
 tance ahead of the column] 
 
 5. [Place of commander or where mes- 
 sages may be sent] 
 
 [Authentication] 
 [How and to whom issued] 
 
 For rear guards. 
 
 [Title] 
 
 [Place] 
 
 [Date and hour] 
 
 1. [Information of enemy and of our sup- 
 porting troops] 
 
 2. [Plan of commander mission of rear 
 in order of guard] 
 
 Field Orders 
 No. 
 [Reference to map used] 
 
 Troops 
 
 (a) Leading Troops: 
 
 [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 (b) Main Body in 
 der of march: 
 
 [Troops] 
 
 (c) Rear Guard: 
 
 [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 (d) Right (left) Flank 
 Guard: 
 
 [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 (e) Signal Troops: 
 
 [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 Field Orders 
 
 No. 
 [Reference to map used] 
 
 Troops 
 
 (a) Reserve 
 
 3. (a) [Instructions for reserve place 
 and time of departure, or approximate dis- 
 tance from main body, reconnaissance] 
 
 (b) [Instructions for support place and 
 time of departure or distance from reserve, 
 any special reconnaissance] 
 
 (c) [Instructions for rear cavalry place 
 and time of departure, road or country to 
 be covered, special mission] 
 
 Flank (d) [Instructions for flank guard place 
 and time of departure, route, special mission] 
 
 4. [Instructions for field train when 
 necessary usually to join train of main 
 body] 
 
 5. [Place of commander or where messages may be sent location 
 of lines of information] 
 
 [Authentication] 
 [How and to whom issued] 
 
 march : 
 
 [Troops] 
 
 (b) Support: 
 
 [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 (c) Rear Cavalry: 
 
 [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
 (d) Right (left) 
 Guard: 
 
 [Commander] 
 [Troops] 
 
Forms of Complete Field Orders 
 
 MARCH TABLE 
 
 In movements of large forces on several roads, it is sometimes 
 desirable to prescribe the daily inarches of the various columns for 
 two or more days. In such cases the order may often be simplified 
 by appending or incorporating a march table usually in the following 
 form, each column providing its own security. 
 
 -Army, from 
 
 March Table. 
 -[date], to 
 
 -[date]. 
 
 [Reference to map used.] 
 
 Date. 
 
 Division. 
 
 Division. 
 
 Army Hq. 
 
 
 Location of main 
 body or of advance 
 guard at end of 
 each day's march, 
 and line of march, 
 if necessary. 
 
 Location of main 
 body or of advance 
 guard at end of 
 each day's march, 
 and line of tnarch, 
 if necessary. 
 
 Location at end 
 of each day's 
 march. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 COURTS-MARTIAL CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 1 
 
 Action on Proceedings 
 
 Action upon Charges 
 
 Arraignment 
 
 Arrests and Confinements . 
 Arrest of Deserters by Civil 
 
 Authorities 
 
 Assistant Judge Advocate . . . 
 Attendance of Witnesses .... 
 Authorities for Appointing 
 
 General Courts-Martial . . . 
 
 Challenges 
 
 Classification of Courts-Martial 
 
 Composition 
 
 Conditions Necessary to show 
 
 Jurisdiction 
 
 Confinement in a Penitentiary 
 
 Contempt 
 
 Continuance 
 
 Counsel 
 
 Courts of Inquiry 
 
 Depositions 
 
 Evidence 
 
 Findings 
 
 Grounds for Challenge 
 
 Habeas Corpus 
 
 Interpreter 
 
 Judge Advocate 5 
 
 Jurisdiction in General 
 
 PAGE 
 
 40 Jurisdiction of General Courts- 
 
 16 Martial 7 
 
 29 Jurisdiction of Special Courts- 
 
 9 Marital 7 
 
 Jurisdiction of Summary 
 
 12 Courts-Martial 8 
 
 24 Jurisdiction of Other Military 
 
 30 Tribunals 9 
 
 Members 18 
 
 3 Memoranda for Trial Judge 
 
 26 Advocates 42 
 
 2 Military Law 1 
 
 2 Nature of Courts-Martial ... 5 
 
 Oaths 28 
 
 6 Persons Subject to Military 
 
 39 Law 2 
 
 34 Pleas 29 
 
 29 Preparation of Charges 13 
 
 24- Procedure when Military and 
 
 41 Civil Jurisdiction are Con- 
 
 34 current . . . . 6 
 
 34 Previous Convictions 38 
 
 38 Questioning of Witnesses ... 25 
 
 27 Reporter 25 
 
 33 Sentence 39 
 
 26 Special Courts-Martial 4 
 
 22 Statements and Arguments. . . 3? 
 
 5 Summary Courts-Martial 5 
 
 COMPANY ADMINISTRATION CHAPTER II 49 
 
 Appointment of Non-Commis- 
 
 Honors and Courtesies 
 
 sioned Officers 63 Issue of Clothing 
 
 Army Employed 
 
 Comitatus 
 Clothing 
 Command 
 
 as Posse 
 
 69 
 60 
 50 
 
 Company Records 54 
 
 Company Commanders 
 
 Enlistments 
 
 Furloughs 
 
 63 
 50 
 
 Issue of Ordnance to Com- 
 panics .................. 
 
 Issue of Rations ........... 
 
 Punishments ............. 
 
 Non-Commissioned Officers . . 
 Rank .................... 
 
 Record of Sizes 
 
 50 Replacing of Ordnance 
 
 66 
 60 
 
 61 
 56 
 62 
 63 
 49 
 61 
 62 
 
 SERVICE RIFI.E CHAPTER HI. 
 
 Aiming Exercise 92 Instruction Practice 
 
 Definitions 99 Long Distance Practice 
 
 Deflection and Elevation Car- Marking 
 
 rection Drills 97 Methods of Range Finding. . 
 
 Duties of Company Com- Non-Commissioned Officer in 
 
 mander in Connection with Charge of Pits 
 
 Target Practice 
 
 72 
 
 101 
 
 103 
 102 
 100 
 
 102 
 
 100 Officer in Charge of Firing. . 102 
 
CONTENTS Continued 
 
 (Service Bine Continued) 
 
 PAG) 
 
 Position and Aiming Drills. . 90 
 Position Exercise .......... 92 
 
 Preventing Fraud in Marking 
 and Scoring ............ 101 
 
 Prone Position ............ 101 
 
 Range Officer ............. 102 
 
 Rapid Fire Exercise ........ 95 
 
 Record Practice ........... 101 
 
 Remarks on Preceding Drills 96 
 
 Rest for Rifle 
 
 101 
 
 : PAGE 
 
 Sighting Drills 85 
 
 Sighting Exercises 87 
 
 Sighting Shots . . 101 
 
 Small Arms Firing Regula- 
 tions Scheme of Prelimi- 
 nary Instruction 84 
 
 Telescopic Sights 103 
 
 Trigger Squeeze Exercise. . . 94 
 
 Use of the Sling 100 
 
 Uniform 101 
 
 FIELD SERVICE REGULATIONS CHAPTER IV 104 
 
 Advance Guards 110 Marches, Kinds of 130 
 
 Care of Troops 140 Orders 119 
 
 Distribution of Troops, Ad- Outposts 114 
 
 vance Cavalry, Support and Security 109 
 
 Reserve 112 Shelter 137 
 
 Firing 135 Shelter During aBttle 140 
 
 Forming the Column 124 Shelter During Sieges 140 
 
 General Orders 120 Shelter in the Service of the 
 
 Halt Order . . 118 Interior 137 
 
 Information 104 Shelter in Theatre of Opera- 
 Marches and Convoys 124 tion 138 
 
 NOTES ON ELEMENTARY INFANTRY INSTRUCTION 
 
 CHAPTER V 143 
 
 Commands 143 
 
 CAVALRY CHAPTER VI 151 
 
 Care of Horses General Pro- Notes on Hippology Confor- 
 
 vision 151 mation 167 
 
 Care of Saddlery 162 Shoeing 160 
 
 Defects and Blemishes 169 Points of the Horse (Cut).. 166 
 
 Exercising 159 Sick Horses 160 
 
 Feeding 158 Stable Management 152 
 
 Fitting the Saddle 163 Stable Duty 154 
 
 Grooming . . 154 Watering . 157 
 
 NOTES ON TOPOCrRAPHY CHAPTER VII 172 
 
 Contour Lines 178 Measuring by Paces 176 
 
 Conventional Signs 178 Orientation 178 
 
 Completion of Map 183 Other Features 183 
 
 Elevations 181 Position Sketches 184 
 
 Filling in Contours 182 Report 183 
 
 Location of Critical Points.. 181 Scale of Map Distances 176 
 
 Making the Sketch 178 Traversing ' ISO 
 
 APPENDIX i 
 
 List of Forms Needed for Company Administration, i; Equipment 
 for Officers, iii; Illustrations on various subjects, vi to xviii; Forms 
 of Complete Field Orders, xix to xxiv. 
 
QUARTERMASTER 
 CORPS 
 
 A series of Lectures on the Q. M. C. are 
 being delivered by Major F. H. Lawton, 
 Q. M. C., U. S. A., in New Yoik, Boston 
 and Philadelphia. 
 
 At the present time books necessary for 
 this course are out of print, with but 
 little prospect of arjy being printed. 
 
 This course will cover the entire work 
 of this department. Most of the lectures 
 have just been printed and the remaining 
 lectures, about twelve in all, will be 
 printed as soon as possible, in book form. 
 
 Send in your name and receive the series. 
 
 Price, $2.00 
 
 Published by 
 
 GEORGE U. HARVEY 
 
 109 Lafayette St. 
 New York City, N. Y. 
 
Ready About May 1st. 
 
 WHAT AN OFFICER 
 MUST KNOW 
 
 By Major J. C. McArthur, U. S. A. 
 
 The most wonderful military book yet produced. 
 Tells things which have never been written about 
 before. It is the experience of thirty years of service 
 and two wars. 
 
 It takes the Reserve Officer from his home to the 
 firing line. It shows the difficulties which he meets 
 and tells how he overcomes them. It shows how 
 a company is organized ; the instruction of the men 
 on the hike, in the field and on the firing line. 
 
 Notes are written on each chapter explaining various 
 orders and giving suggestions for overcoming the 
 various unforeseen difficulties that always arise. 
 
 Order now. Price $2.00. 
 
 GEORGE U. HARVEY, Publisher 
 109 Lafayette Street New York City 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 APR 7 1933 
 
 LD 21-50m-l,'33 
 

 00663 
 
 359J 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY