V 
 
CM DPf T', Dl, I V 'AK 
 
VIEW 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 AND 
 
 MEXICO, 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 THEIR HISTORY, THE POLITICAL CONDITION, GEOGRAPHY, AGRICUL- 
 TURE, COMMERCE, &C. OF THE REPUBLICS OF MEXICO, GUATA- 
 MALA, COLOMBIA, PERU, THE UNITED PROVINCES OF SOUTH 
 AMERICA AND CHILE, WITH A COMPLETE HISTORY OF 
 THE REVOLUTION, IN EACH OF THESE 
 
 INDEPENDENT STATES. 
 
 BY A CITIZEN OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 TWO VOLUMES IJY 
 VOL. I. 
 
 NEW- YORK : 
 
 PUBLISHED BY H. HUNTINGTON, JR. 
 
 1826. 
 
T\u 
 
 District of Connecticut, ss. 
 
 BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the twenty 
 T C second day of October, in the fiftieth year of the inde- 
 pendence of the United States of America, H. HUNT- 
 INGTON, Jr. of the said district, has deposited in this 
 office the title of a Book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, 
 in the words following 1 , to wit : " A view of South America and 
 Mexico, comprising their History, the Political condition, Geogra- 
 phy, Agriculture, Commerce, &c. of the Republics of Mexico, Gua- 
 tamala, Colombia, Peru, the United Provinces of South America 
 and Chile, with a complete History of the Revolution in each of 
 these Independent States. By a Citizen of the United States. Two 
 volumes in one. Vol. I." 
 
 In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, enti- 
 tled, " An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the 
 copies of Maps, Charts and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of 
 such copies, during the times therein mentioned." 
 
 CHARLES A. INGERSOLL, 
 
 Clerk of the district of Connecticut. 
 A true copy of Record, examined and sealed by me, 
 CHARLES A. INGERSOLL, 
 
 Clerk of the district of Connectictif. 
 
-3 tf I S^ 4 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 To give some account of the revolution of the late Spanish Colo* 
 nies in South America ; a revolution which has terminated so glori- 
 ously, and is. t characterized by so many striking and interesting 
 events, is the object of this work. The author, or compiler, is aware 
 that the time has not yet arrived, for composing a complete history of 
 these events ; nor is the United States the place for such a work to be 
 written. It is intended only as a popular sketch or outline, present- 
 ing in one view all that is most valuable ana interesting in the nume- 
 rous publications on this subject. The lively interest which the citi- 
 zens of the United States justly feel in a revolution, having so impor- 
 tant an influence on the cause of freedom, and on the destinies of the 
 new world ; which has brought into existence six independeet na- 
 tions, on the same continent, some of them their neighbours, seemed 
 to require a work, presenting, in a cheap and popular form, a gene- 
 ral and connected view of these important events. We are not 
 aware that any similar work has appeared, although there have been 
 numerous valuable publications, affording much information, concern- 
 ing certain periods of the revolution. To render a work of this de- 
 scription more complete and valuable, it was thought best to connect 
 with it, a compendium of the history and condition of Spanish Ame* 
 rica, previous to the revolution, and a geographical and political 
 view of the present condition of the new republics. A knowledge of 
 the geography of the country, and v in some measure its early history, 
 is requisite to a correct understanding of the events of the revolution. 
 To facilitate this knowledge, the book is 'accompanied with two 
 maps, one of Mexico and one of South America, compiled from the 
 latest and best authorities, and believed to be the most correct maps 
 ever published on these countries. 
 
 In the compilation, we have consulted and made free use, as we 
 had occasion, of most of the approved works in the English lan- 
 guage relating to the subject. Among the number, are Robertson's 
 America, the Edinburgh Encyclopdeia, Morse's Geography, Outline 
 of the Revolution, Fune's Sketch of the Revolution in the United 
 Provinces of South America, Poinsett's Notes on Mexico, Pazo's 
 Letters on South America, Hall's Travels in Colombia, Cochrane's 
 
IV BREFACE. 
 
 Colombia, Hall's Journal and History of events in Peru and Chile.. 
 Bland's and Poinsett's Statistical Reports, Niles' Weekly Register, 
 and the North American Review. The latter part of the history in 
 The several states, we have derived from public documents transmitted 
 f.o Congress, and from the public journals and periodical publications 
 ef the day. 
 
 These materials have been examined with the most laborious re<- 
 search ; and whoever considers the intrinsic difficulties of the under- 
 taking the obscurity in which every thing, relating to Spanish Ame- 
 rica has been involved the passions excited by recent events, and 
 the misrepresentations they have occasioned the confusion of cer- 
 tain periods of the revolution, and the fact, that most of our informa- 
 tion is necessarily derived through a different language, will not ex- 
 pect perfect accuracy, or criticise with severity, any errors or defects, 
 with which the work may justly be chargeable. It will also be re- 
 membered, that it is intended merely to present a popular view of the 
 subject, making no pretensions to literary merit. Such as it is, how- 
 ever, it is offered to the 'public, with the full persuasion, that no Ame- 
 lican will rise from its perusal, without feeling a keener detestation of 
 tyranny, and a more lively sense of the inestimable blessings of free- 
 dom and peace ; the happy fruits of our republican institutions, in 
 which he participates, in common with his fellow citizens. 
 
 November, 1825. 
 
SKETCH 
 
 OF THE HISTORY OF 
 
 SPANISH AMERICA, 
 
 TO THE REVOLUTION. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Effects of the discovery of America Columbus'' first voyage and 
 discoveries grant of the Pope second voyage -fate of the 
 first colony rising of the natives they are subdued and com- 
 pelled to pay tribute convicts transported to the colony 
 third voyage of Columbus in which he discovers the continent 
 origin of the reparlimientos voyage of Jllonzo de Ojeda 
 and Americus Vespucius -fourth voyage of Columbus set- 
 tlement on the gulf of Darien Valasco Balboa discovers the 
 Pacific Ocean voyage of Juan de Solois conquest of Cuba 
 colony planted Cuinana, Yucutan, and Mexico discovered. 
 
 THE discovery of America, forms a new and most 
 conspicuous era in the annals of -the world ; and probably no 
 other event has had greater influence on the destinies of the 
 human race. Its immediate effects were, to excite a spirit of 
 discovery, of enterprise and commercial cupidity, which not 
 only gave a new direction, but a more vigorous impulse, to 
 speculative and commercial operations, and by extending the 
 bounds and magnifying the objects of navigation, a degree of 
 interest and importance was conferred on that pursuit, which 
 it had never before possessed. To these effects, succeeded 
 the planting of colonies, which gradually gave a new aspect 
 to the commerce of Europe, engrafted novel principles into 
 the laws of nations, and in no small degree influenced the 
 politics of almost every state in Europe ; as for a long pe- 
 riod most of the con-entions and wars among the principal 
 powers of the old wond, arose from conflicting claims and iu- 
 1* 
 
6 SKETCH OF THE HISTOltk 
 
 terests in the new. New relations were created, between the 
 parent state and its colonies, and between the latter and other 
 powers, the last of which, were a source of constant jealousy, 
 and often disturbed the peace of nations. 
 
 That the discovery and colonizing of a new world, several 
 times as large as the continent of Europe, would produce an 
 important change in the commercial and political relations of 
 the maritime powers of that continent, must have been fore- 
 seen at the time ; but that it should have had an important 
 moral influence on the character of mankind, and have beeu 
 the means of securing their rights, establishing their liberties, 
 and exalting their destinies, no one could have anticipated. 
 On the contrary, it must have been supposed, that the estab- 
 lishment of distant colonies, dependant on the parent state, 
 nursed by its care, protected by its arms, and entirely subject 
 to its power, would have tended to colonial oppression ; which 
 by strengthening the power of the sovereign, would re-act 
 upon the parent state, and thus tend to the oppression of both, 
 VVhatevermay have been the case, with others, this was un- 
 doubtedly true of the Spanish Colonies, down to the period of 
 the late revolution. Their degradation and oppression aliena- 
 ted them from the parent country, and prepared their minds to 
 embrace the first opportunity to throw off the yoke of a dis- 
 tant and foreign power, which instead of conducting towards 
 them, like an affectionate mother, treated them with the 
 jealousy, selfishness, and cruelty of an unfeeling step-darne. 
 
 The English colonists in North America, consisting of the 
 persecuted at home, brought with them, to a considerable ex- 
 tent, the elements of freedom ; and many of the colonies ob- 
 tained charters securing the essential rights of self-govern- 
 ment, and the enjoyment of civil liberty ; so that at a very 
 early period, many scattering rays of light were shed abroad 
 in this western hemisphere, which served as the dawn of that 
 brighter day of liberty which we now behold in its meridian 
 splendour. Although the English and Spanish systems of col- 
 onial government in America, were different, yet the views 
 and policy of the two countries, were essentially the same, 
 and tended to the same result. This policy was to keep the 
 colonies, not only dependant, but tributary states ; to monopo- 
 lize their commerce, to cripple their manufactures, and in all 
 respects to render them contributary to the wealth and ag- 
 grandizement of the colonizing country. In both divisions of 
 the American continent, this policy was more rigorously pur- 
 sued, as the colonies became more populous and wealthy, and 
 as a jealousy and apprehension of their independence increas- 
 ed. This illiberal policy necessarily led to a separation, and 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 7 
 
 lias resulted in the independance and freedom of the greater 
 part of America. 
 
 Notwithstanding the vast extent of the new world, its va- 
 rious and happy climate, its magnificent rivers and mountains, 
 its unrivalled fertility of soil, and capacity of sustaining a 
 population almost surpassing conception, the beneficial influ- 
 ence which it has had on the cause of civil liberty and the 
 moral character of man, is infinitely more important, than all 
 the other advantages which its discovery will confer on the 
 world. If it had contributed to the enslavement and degrada- 
 tion of mankind, it might even be a problem whether its dis- 
 covery ought to be regarded as a blessing or an evil ; as the 
 eastern hemisphere, is sufficiently extensive for the wretched 
 abodes of slavery. It is the glory and pride of America, and 
 equally so now in two great divisions of this continent, that 
 it is the land of freedom, and the asylum of the oppressed of 
 all nations : that here the mind, as well as the body of man, 
 is free, and ranges at large, unrestrained except by those bar- 
 riers which his Maker has established. 
 
 Towards the latter part of the fifteenth century, a spirit of 
 discovery appeared in several European nations, but was most 
 conspicuous in Portugal. The fame of several successful 
 voyages of discovery, made by the Portuguese, drew many 
 enterprising foreigners into their service, and among the num- 
 ber, Christopher Colon, or Columbus, a subject of the repub- 
 lic of Genoa. At this time, he possessed great experience 
 as a navigator, which he improved by several voyages to Ma- 
 deira, the Canaries, the Azores, and all other places which the 
 Portuguese had discovered on the Continent of Africa, so 
 that he soon became one of the most skilful navigators in Eu- 
 rope. Possessing a mind bold arid inquiring, and stimulated 
 by the spirit of enterprise and discovery which prevailed, Co- 
 lumbus was ambitious to exceed the bounds which had limi- 
 ted the most daring, and successful navigators. From his 
 geographical knowledge, and various facts which he had ob- 
 served during his voyages, he had for some time conceived the 
 idea of finding a passage by sea to the East Indies, by sailing 
 in a westerly direction. The spices and other rich commo- 
 dities from India, which the Venetians had introduced into 
 Europe, by the trade which they had monopolized with that 
 country, had excited the attention arid the envy of their 
 neighbours, and rendered it an object of the last importance 
 to discover a more direct route over sea to that country, then 
 affording the richest commerce in the world. 
 
 Having submitted his plan of a voyage of discovery both to 
 his native and adopted countries, without success, he next ap- 
 
8 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 plied to Spain. Ferdinand and Isabella, then governed the 
 united kingdoms of Castile and Arragon. After having spent 
 more than eight years in fruitless endeavours, during which, 
 he had to contend not only with ignorance and prejudice, but 
 with the pride of false knowledge ; and after experiencing 
 the mortification of a second rejection of his proposals, just 
 as he was on the eve of leaving the country, the influence 
 of two of his friends with the Queen, procured for him that 
 encouragement which his own knowledge of the subject 
 and his long and unwearied exertions had not been able to 
 effect. 
 
 Spain is entitled to but little honour, for having been the na- 
 tion under whose auspices the new world was discovered, and 
 which, for two centuries and a half, contributed, in an eminent 
 degree, to her aggrandizement and power. 
 
 On the third day of August, 1492, Columbus, with a fleet 
 (for it was so called) of three small, weak vessels, scarcely fit 
 for a voyage to the Canary Islands, with ninety men on board, 
 sailed from Cadiz on a voyage of discovery. On the 12th of 
 October, a little past midnight, the joyful cry of land ! land ! 
 was heard ; the truth of which was confirmed by the dawn of 
 light, to the unspeakable joy of all. At sun rise the boats 
 were manned and armed, and, with colours flying and martial 
 music, they approached the shore, which was lined with a 
 multitude of strange people, entirely naked, who, by their at- 
 titudes and gestures, expressed the surprise and astonishment 
 with which they viewed the novel objects before them. Co- 
 lumbus, in a rich dress, with a drawn sword, was the first who 
 stepped upon the soil of the new world, and, being followed 
 by his men, they all kneeled down and kissed the ground 
 which had so long been the object of their almost hopeless 
 desire. This was followed by the erection of a crucifix, before 
 which they prostrated themselves, and returned thanks to God 
 for conducting their voyage to so happy an issue. The natives, 
 although extremely timid, gathered around them, while these 
 ceremonies were performing, and gazed with silent admiration, 
 unable to comprehend what they witnessed, and much less to 
 foresee the misery and desolation which this visit of a new 
 race of men was to bring upon themselves and their posteri- 
 ty. They were filled with amazement and awe, and regarded 
 their strange guests as superior beings, and very naturally sup- 
 posed that they were the children of the sun, who had deigned 
 to visit the earth. The fallacy of this opinion they soon real- 
 ized, and had occasion to regard them rather as fiends of dark- 
 ness, than as angels of light, sent on errands of love. 
 
 The land discovered was one of the Bahama Islands, and 
 
F SPANISH AMERICA. 9 
 
 was named, by Columbus, San Salvador. After exploring the 
 island, and discovering several others, Columbus set sail for 
 Spain, leaving thirty-eight of his people on the island, which 
 he named Hispaniola, for the protection of which a small fort 
 had been erected, in a great measure by the industry of the 
 natives, who, with much simplicity, laboured, in conjunction 
 with their invaders, to erect the first instrument of their slave- 
 ry. Before the Discoverer set sail on his second voyage, it 
 was deemed necessary to obtain a grant from the Pope, who, 
 as the head of the church and vicegerent of the Almighty, 
 claimed dominion over all the kingdoms of the earth. Ac- 
 cordingly, his holiness granted, with great form and solemnity, 
 to Ferdinand and Isabella, and their successors forever, all 
 the countries inhabited by infidels, which they had discovered, 
 or might discover, but did not undertake to bound or describe 
 them, as he was ignorant not only of their situation, but even 
 of their existence. To prevent, however, this grant from in- 
 terfering with one previously made to the Crown of Portugal, 
 he directed that a line should be supposed to be drawn one 
 hundred leagues to the westward of the Azores, from pole to 
 pole, and all the unknown countries, east of this line, were giv- 
 en to the Portuguese, and those west to the Spaniards. The 
 consideration of this grant was the propagation of Christiani- 
 ty among the heathen nations in the western regions, which 
 Ferdinand engaged to do. Accordingly Father Boyle and 
 several other friars, accompanied Columbus in his second voy- 
 age, to instruct the natives in Christianity ; and those whom 
 Columbus had carried to Spain, after some pains to instruct 
 them, were baptized, Ferdinand himself, the Prince his son, 
 and the chief persons of his court, standing as their godfathers. 
 These were the first fruits of missionary exertions among the 
 natives of America. The second expedition sailed from the 
 Bay of Cadiz on the 25th of September, 1493, and by steering 
 a more sourtherly direction than had been pursued in the 
 previous voyage, the first land discovered was the Caribbee, or 
 Leeward Islands. Columbus discovered Dominica, Porto Ri- 
 co, Guadaloupe, Antigua, and several other islands in the 
 Gulf of Mexico. When he arrived off Navidad, which was 
 the name he had given to the port where he had left the garri- 
 son, he was surprised that none of the men appeared, as he 
 expected to behold them on the beach, welcoming their coun- 
 trymen with transports of joy. It was soon discovered, that 
 the fort was entirely demolished, and the tattered garments 
 and broken arms around it, removed all doubts as to the 
 melancholy fate of the first colony, if it deserves that name, 
 which had been planted in the new world. The rashness and 
 
10 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 licentiousness of the men, brought upon them their own de- 
 struction. Alike regardless of their own security and the 
 rights of the Indians, they seized upon whatever they could 
 find; the provisions, gold, and women of the natives, were 
 their prey. Roused by such insufferable wrongs, and having 
 thrown off the fear of their invaders, by familiar intercourse 
 with them, the natives were determined to rid themselves of 
 such licentious intruders. 
 
 Columbus, instead of re-occupying the same spot, chose a 
 situation more healthy and commodious, at the head of a ca- 
 pacious bay, where he traced out the plan of a large town, 
 and, by the united labour of all hands, the houses and ram- 
 parts were in a short time so far advanced as to afford them 
 shelter and protection. This which must be considered the 
 first settlement in the new world, the founder named Isabella, 
 in honour of his patroness. In the commencement of it, 
 Columbus had not only to contend with the usual difficulties 
 connected with the planting of a colony in a distant and un- 
 cultivated country, but with the mutinous disposition of many 
 of his followers, and the indolence of all greatly increased by 
 the enervating influence of a hot climate, to which they were 
 unaccustomed. Their provisions were rapidly consuming, and 
 what remained were corrupted by the heat and moisture of a 
 tropical climate ; the natives cultivated but little ground, and 
 had scarcely sufficient provisions for themselves, consequently 
 could not supply the wants of the Spaniards. The malignant 
 diseases, which prevail in the torrid zone, especially where 
 the country is uncultivated, raged among them with great vio- 
 lence. Murmurs and complaints arose against Columbus and 
 those who accompanied him in his former voyage. They were 
 accused of having allured their countrymen to attempt a set- 
 tlement in a land, which they had represented as a terrestrial 
 paradise, but in reality, barbarous and inhospitable, where they 
 must inevitably perish by famine, or by unknown diseases. By 
 his unwearied exertions and prudent measures, Columbus 
 succeeded so far in restoring concord, as to be able to leave 
 the island in pursuit of further discoveries. During a tedious 
 voyage of five months, attended with every hardship and 
 peril, he made no discovery of importance, except the Island 
 of Jamaica. He left the command of the infant colony to 
 his brother, Don Diego, with the assistance of a council of 
 officers ; but no sooner had he left the harbour, than the sol- 
 diers dispersed over the island in small parties, lived upon the 
 natives, wasted their provisions, seized their women, and 
 treated that inoffensive race with all the insolence of military 
 oppression. The natives silently submitted to these oppres- 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 11 
 
 sions for a considerable time, hoping that their invaders would 
 leave their country ; but discovering that they had not come 
 to visit the island, but to settle in it, they perceived that their 
 oppressions would never be terminated but by expelling their 
 cruel invaders. Roused by a common danger, and driven al- 
 most to desperation, all the caciques, or chiefs of the island, ex- 
 cept Guacanahari, who, from the first, had been the friend of the 
 Spaniards, united and brought into the field, according to the 
 Spanish accounts, a force of one hundred thousand men. 
 Their arms were clubs, sticks of wood, hardened in the fire, 
 and arrows pointed with bones or flints. 
 
 Fortunately for the Spaniards, Columbus retuned just at 
 this crisis, and his presence and the impending danger, restor- 
 ed authority and produced union. But two thirds of the ori- 
 ginal number had died, and many of those who survived were 
 incapable of service, so that two hundred foot and twenty 
 horses, were all that could take the field. To this force was 
 united one of a -novel kind, consisting of twenty large bull- 
 dogs, but perhaps not the least efficient against timid and na- 
 ked Indians. With great simplicity the natives collected in a 
 large plain, instead of attempting to draw the Spaniards into 
 the fastnesses and defiles of the mountains. Alarmed by the 
 noise and havock of fire arms, the impetuosity of the cavalry, 
 and the furious assaults of ferocious dogs, the natives were 
 instantly filled with consternation, and threw down their arms 
 and fled. Many were slain, and a much greater number taken 
 prisoners and reduced to a state of servitude. From this mo- 
 ment, they abandoned themselves to despair, and relinquished 
 all thoughts of resisting men, whom they regarded as invinci- 
 ble. In a few days the Spaniards marched over the whole 
 island, and subjected it to their government, without further 
 opposition. The natives were treated as a conquered people, 
 and a tribute imposed upon all persons above the age of four- 
 teen years. In the districts where gold was found, each per- 
 . son was obliged to pay quarterly as much gold dust as filled a 
 hawk's bill, and in other parts of the island, twenty-five pounds 
 of cotton were demanded. These unjust and rigorous meas- 
 ures Columbus, contrary to his own inclinations and his ori- 
 ginal plan of government, was contsrained to adopt, to satisfy 
 the rapacity of the Spanish court, and counteract the machina- 
 tions of his enemies, who were constantly intriguing to destroy 
 him. ' This was the first regular tax imposed on the natives, 
 and was the origin of that system of exaction of tribute, or a 
 capitation tax, from the natives, which Spain, ever after, main- 
 tained, with the most intolerable oppression. 
 The settlement in Hispaniola was the parent, and served as 
 
12 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 the model of all the other Spanish settlements in America 
 Columbus, having returned to Spain, a more regular plan for 
 the colony was adopted, and a large body of settlers was sent 
 out, consisting of husbandmen, artizans, and workmen skilled 
 in the various arts of digging and working mines, and refining 
 the precious metals, together with a suitable number of wo- 
 men. All these emigrants were, for a certain number of 
 years, to be supported and paid by the Spanish government. 
 With these prudent and judicious regulations, Columbus pro- 
 posed one of a most pernicious nature, which was the trans- 
 portation, to the colony, of certain convicts, who had usually 
 been sent to the gallies. This fatal expedient, inconsiderate- 
 ly proposed, was, with as little consideration, adopted, and the 
 prisons of Spain were drained to recruit the colony. This 
 absurd and cruel measure of emptying their jails into their 
 colonies, was not only continued by Spain, but imitated by 
 Great Britain, and in both continents held no unimportant sta- 
 tion in the catalogue of colonial grievances against the mother 
 country. 
 
 In the third voyage made by Columbus, he sailed further to 
 the south, and the first land he discovered was the Island of 
 Trinidad, on the coast of Guiana, near the mouth of the Ori- 
 noco. Columbus, having become involved among those ad- 
 verse currents and tempestuous waves, produced by the body 
 of water which this river rolls into the ocean, with difficulty 
 escaped through a narrow strait He, however, very justly 
 concluded, that a river of such vast magnitude could not flow 
 from an island, as it must require a country of great extent to 
 supply so large a body of water, and consequently felt persua- 
 ded that he had at length discovered the continent which had 
 so long been the supreme object of his hopes and wishes. He 
 directed his course to the west, along the coast of the pro- 
 vince of Cumana ; landed at several places, and had some in- 
 tercourse with the inhabitants, who he found resembled those 
 of Hispaniola, although possessed of a better understanding 
 and more courage. 
 
 When Columbus arrived at Hispaniola, he found the colony 
 in an unprosperous and distracted state. After his departure, 
 his brother, in pursuance of his advice, removed the colony 
 from Isabella, to a more eligible station, on the opposite side 
 of the island, and laid the foundation of the present town of 
 St. Domingo, which, for a long period, remained the most con- 
 siderable European settlement in America, and was the seat of 
 the supreme courts in the Spanish dominions. A war with the 
 natives broke out, and whilst Diego Columbus was employed 
 against them in the field, his attention was arrested by a most 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 13 
 
 alarming mutiny among the Spaniards, which threatened the 
 ruin of the colony. Columbus, by a reasonable offer of par- 
 don, and other judicious measures, succeeded in allaying the 
 spirit of sedition, and induced the malecontents to return to 
 their duty. To effect this object, however, he was obliged so 
 far to yield to the demands of the mutineers, as to agree to 
 grant to them allotments of land in different parts of the isl- 
 and, with the right to the servitude of the natives settled on 
 the same, so far as that they were to cultivate a certain portion 
 of ground for the use of their new masters, which was to be 
 in lieu of the tribute that had been imposed on them. This 
 regulation was the germ of the system of Repartimientos, or 
 distribution and servitude of the natives, which was establish- 
 ed throughout the Spanish dominions in America. This plan 
 of domestic servitude was founded on the same principles 
 with the feudal system, so far as that applied to villens or serfs, 
 who performed the most degrading services, were attached to 
 the soil and were transferrable with it. It reduced a large 
 proportion of the natives in all the Spanish dominions, to the 
 most humiliating servitude, and subjected them to grievous 
 and intolerable oppressions. It is one of the sources from 
 whence have flowed the tears of an oppressed people, in 
 such profusion, as if collected into one channel, would almost 
 swell to a flood the vast rivers which flow through their 
 country. 
 
 In the year 1500, Alonzo de Ojeda, a gallant officer, who 
 had accompanied Columbus in his second voyage, sailed on an 
 expedition to America, with four ships, which had been equip- 
 ped by the merchants of Seville, and was accompanied by 
 Americus Vespucius, a gentleman of Florence. Having ob- 
 tained a chart of Columbus' last voyage, Ojeda servilely follow- 
 ed in the same track, and arrived on the coast of Paria. He 
 sailed to the west as far as the Cape de Vala, and traversed 
 the coast a considerable extent beyond where Columbus had 
 touched, and returned by way of Hispaniola to Spain, 
 
 Americus, on his return, wrote an account of the voyage and 
 discoveries, and framed his narrative with so much art and ad- 
 dress, as to secure to himself the credit and glory of having 
 first discovered the continent in the New World. The novel- 
 ty of the work, being the first publication concerning the dis- 
 coveries which had been made in the Western World, and the 
 amusing history which he gave of the voyage and adventures, 
 obtained for it a rapid and extensive circulation, and spread 
 the fame of the author over Europe. This bold attempt to 
 assume the merit and glory, which belonged to another, by an 
 unaccountable caprice, has been suffered to succeed, and by 
 
 VOL. I. 2 
 
14 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 the universal consent of nations, the name of America, has 
 been bestowed on the New World. 
 
 During the fourth voyage made by Columbus, he discover- 
 ed the Island of Guiana, and the coast of the Continent from 
 Cape Gracias a Dios, to a harbour, which from its beauty and 
 security, he called Porto Bello. He went on shore at various 
 places, and penetrated into the country, but searched in vain 
 for the strait that he had long been attempting to discover, 
 which he supposed led into an unknown ocean. He was so 
 charmed with the fertility of the country, and the specimens of 
 gold found on the natives, that he determined to plant a small 
 colony under the command of his brother, in the province of 
 Verague. But the insolence and rapacity of his men, provoked 
 the natives, who were a more warlike race than those of the 
 Islands, to take up arms against the Spaniards, part of whom 
 were killed, and the rest obliged to seek safety by abandoning 
 the station. 
 
 This was the first repulse the Spaniards had received from 
 the natives, and deprived Columbus of the honour of planting 
 the first colony on the continent of America. 
 
 From the first discovery of the continent by Columbus, ten 
 years elapsed before the Spaniards had made a settlement in 
 any part of it; but in the year 1509, two expeditions were fit- 
 ted out for this purpose, by individual enterprise ; one under 
 the command of Ojeda, and the other, under Nicuessa ; the 
 former consisted of three vessels and three hundred men, and 
 " the latter of six vessels, and seven hundred men. A grant or 
 patent, was given to Ojeda. of the country from Cape de Vela 
 to the Gulf of Darien ; and to Nicuessa, from thence to Cape 
 Gracias a Dios, with the power of planting colonies and estab- 
 lishing a government. 
 
 These adventurers were instructed to acquaint the natives 
 with the primary articles of Christianity, and particularly to in- 
 form them of the supreme jurisdiction of the Pope, and of the 
 grant which he had made of their country to the king of Spain ; 
 and then to require them to embrace Christianity, and to ac- 
 knowledge the authority of the Spanish Sovereign ; and in case 
 the natives did not comply with these requirements, they were 
 told, it would be lawful to attack them with fire and sword, ex- 
 terminate them, and reduce their wives and children to servi- 
 tude, or compel them to acknowledge the authority of the 
 Church and of the Spanish monarch. This very wise and rea- 
 sonable mode of taking possession of the country, was prescri- 
 bed by the most eminent lawyers and divines in Spain. Both 
 of these attempts failed, and nearly all engaged in them, with 
 two considerable re-enforcements from St. Domingo, perished 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 15 
 
 within one year. The aborigines were fierce and warlike, and 
 manifested the most implacable enmity towards them ; they 
 used arrows dipped in poison so noxious, that almost every 
 wound was followed by death. Seventy of the Spaniards were 
 killed in one engagement What few survived, settled at San- 
 ta Maria, on the Gulf of Darien, under Vasco Balboa, whose 
 extraordinary courage in the most trying emergencies, secured 
 to him the confidence of his countrymen, and the rank of their 
 leader. This was not the only bold adventurer, afterwards 
 distinguished for daring exploits and splendid undertakings, 
 that was engaged in this unfortunate enterprise. The cele- 
 brated Francisco Pizarro, was one of Ojeda's party, and in this 
 school of adversity and hardships, qualified himself for the won- 
 derful achievements which he subsequently performed. Fer- 
 nando Cortes, was at first engaged in this enterprise ; but be- 
 ing taken sick at St. Domingo before the expedition sailed, he 
 was left behind and his life spared for more daring arid suc- 
 cessful undertakings. 
 
 Balboa made frequent incursions into the country, and sub- 
 dued several of the caciques ; and being informed by the na- 
 tives, that at the distance of many suns to the south, there was 
 another ocean, where gold was so common, that the inhabitants 
 made their common utensils of that metal, he concluded that 
 this ocean was the one for which Columbus had so long search- 
 ed in vain, and that it afforded a direct communication to the 
 East Indies. With one hundred and ninety men, a pm of 
 which he had obtained from Hispaniola, he undertook the 
 bold expedition, of crossing over the Isthmus which connects 
 North and South America, without any knowledge of the ex- 
 tent or nature of the country, or any guides but natives, on 
 whose fidelity he could not safely rely. 
 
 Balboa set out on this expedition on the first of September, 
 1513; and after twenty-five days of incredible hardships, in 
 passing over a country abounding in mountains, rivers and 
 swamps, and filled with hostile tribes ; from the summit of a 
 mountain, he beheld the Pacific Ocean, stretching in endless 
 extent before him. He hurried towards it, and rushed into the 
 briny waves to his middle, with his sword and buckler, and in 
 a transport of joy, took possession of that vast Ocean in the 
 name of his Sovereign, and swore to defend it with his arms 
 against all his enemies. He named this part of the Southern 
 Ocean, the Gulf of St. Michael, which it has ever since retain- 
 ed. Balboa learnt from the natives, that pearl oysters abound- 
 ed in the sea he had discovered, and that there was a very opu- 
 lent country, where the inhabitants were more civilized, which 
 lay to the south ; but not thinking it prudent to go in search of 
 
16 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 it with his small and exhausted party, he returned to Santa 
 Maria ; and embraced the first opportunity to communicate 
 his discoveries to the Spanish government, and requested a 
 re-enforcement of one thousand men, lo conquer the country 
 he had discovered. But, disregarding Balboa's important ser- 
 vices, the king sent out an expedition, and appointed Pedrari- 
 as Davila, governor of Darien. By his incapacity and miscon- 
 duct, he nearly destroyed the colony ; and from his envy and 
 jealousy of Balboa, he caused him to be arrested, just as he 
 was on the eve of setting out on an expedition to the South 
 Sea, and after a mock trial, to be executed. This cruel mur- 
 der of the most able and successful adventurer and command- 
 er the Spaniards had in America, not only passed without cen- 
 sure, but the tyrant was continued at the head of the colony. 
 Soon after this he obtained permission, and removed the colo- 
 ny to Panama, on the opposite side of the Isthmus. The ob- 
 ject of this was to obtain a more healthful situation. The 
 new location of the colony greatly facilitated the subsequent 
 discoveries and conquests in the Southern Ocean. 
 
 In the year 1515, Juan de Solis, who was deemed one of 
 the most skilful navigators in Spain, commanded an expedi- 
 tion to America, and sailing along the coast of the Southern 
 Continent, on the first day of January the following year, he 
 discovered a river, which he named Rio Janeiro, from the day 
 on which it was discovered. He continued along the coast, 
 tilid discovered a spacious bay, which proved to be the mouth 
 of the Rio de Plata, one of the great rivers of the Southern 
 Continent. 
 
 He advanced up the bay, and having landed with the inten- 
 tion of penetrating into the country, De Solis and several of 
 his men were slain by the natives, their bodies cut in pieces, 
 roasted and eaten in sight of the ships. The loss of the com- 
 mander occasioned the return of the expedition without ma- 
 king any further discoveries. 
 
 Diego Velasques, in 1 51 1, cammanded an expedition from 
 Hispaniola, against the Island of Cuba, arid with a force of 
 three hundred men, he conquered an Island of seven hundred 
 miles in length, filled with inhabitants ; and from his prudent 
 administration it became one of the most flourishing of the 
 Spanish settlements. A colony was planted in Cumana, by 
 Las Casas, an ecclesiastic, who, deeply affected with the mis- 
 erable servitude to which the natives were reduced, had long 
 exerted himself for the melioration of their unhappy condi- 
 tion. This colony was commenced for this laudable purpose ; 
 but the Indians having been treated with such injustice and 
 cruelty, and being in the highest state of exasperation against 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 17 
 
 the Spaniards, in a secret but ferocious manner, attacked the 
 colony, cut off a part of them, and compelled the rest to fly in 
 consternation to the Island of Cubagua. The expulsion of 
 this colony, was in the year 1521. An expedition was fitted 
 out from Cuba, under Francisco Cordova, and steering in a 
 westerly direction, they discovered a peninsula projecting from 
 the continent, which he named Yucatan, which it has ever 
 since retained. 
 
 The natives were more civilized and warlike ; they surprised 
 and attacked the Spaniards with courage, and in consequence 
 of their hostile disposition, no attempt was made to effect a 
 settlement. Proceeding to the west, and continuing in sight 
 of the coast, in sixteen days they arrived at Campeachy. 
 Cordova having landed with his men to procure water, the 
 natives rushed upon them in such numbers, and with such im- 
 petuosity, that forty-seven of the Spaniards were killed, and 
 nearly every man wounded, so that it was with difficulty they 
 regained their ships. Notwithstanding the disastrous result of 
 this expedition, a new one was soon after fitted out from Cuba, 
 under Juan de Grijalva, who proceeding farther west than 
 Cordova, sailed along the coast of a fertile and delightful 
 country, and with much surprise and admiration witnessed the 
 villages which lay scattered along the shore ; they discovered 
 stone houses, which at a distance, appeared white and lofty ; 
 they even imagined they saw cities with towers and pinna- 
 cles ; and one of the sailors observing that the country resem- 
 bled Spain, Grijalva gave it the name of New Spain, which 
 was received with universal applause. It is scarcely necessa- 
 ry to add that this extensive and interesting portion of Ameri- 
 ca, has retained the name ever since, or at least to the extinc- 
 tion of the authority of Spain over it. 
 
 Continuing his course to the west, Grijalva touched at sev- 
 eral places, and atone Island, which he called Uloa, and from 
 thence proceeded along the coast as far as the river Panuco, 
 and then returned to Cuba. 
 
 2* 
 
18 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Expedition against Mexico under Cortes lands at St. Juan de 
 Uloa first interview with the natives they offer rich pre- 
 sents to the Spaniards Cortes establishes a council of magis- 
 trates and commences the town of Vera Cruz he destroys his 
 ships marches for Mexico is opposed by the Tlascalans, who 
 are defeated and sue for peace slaughter of the inhabit- 
 ants at Cholula Spaniards approach the capital -first inter- 
 view with the sovereign Cortes gets possession of Montezuma 
 and governs the empire in his name the governor of Cuba 
 sends an expedition against Cortes Mexicans revolt and a 
 dreadful contest ensues Montezuma killed Spaniards retire 
 end suffer greatly action in the valley of Otumba Cortes 
 receives reinforcements Marches for Mexico commences the 
 siege Guatamozin taken -the city surrenders Guatamozin 
 tortured to compel him to discover his treasure discoveries 
 of Magellan Cortes rebuilds Mexico the natives revolt 
 their caciques and nobles put to death. 
 
 HITHERTO the Spaniards had done little more than to 
 enlarge their discoveries upon the continent of America ; from 
 the coast of Florida north, they had touched at different pla- 
 ces, as far as thirty-five degrees south of the equator ; they 
 had visited most of the islands in the Gulf of Mexico, and off 
 the coast of the main land, and had discovered the great Sou- 
 thern Ocean, which opened extensive prospects and unbound- 
 ed expectations in that quarter. 
 
 But although the settlements at Hispaniola and Cuba, had 
 become considerably flourishing and important, and afforded 
 great facilities for enterprises on the continent, no colony had 
 been maintained there, except the feeble and languishing one 
 at Darien, and nothing had been attempted towards the con- 
 quest of the extensive country which had been discovered. 
 The ferocity and courage of the natives, with the other obsta- 
 cles attending such an enterprise, had discouraged the adven- 
 turers, who had explored the continent, and they returned con- 
 tented with the discoveries they had made, and the taking 
 possession of the country, without attempting to maintain any 
 foothold in it. This was the state of Spanish affairs in Amer- 
 ica in the year 1518, twenty-six years after the discovery of 
 the country by Columbus. But at this period a new era com- 
 menced, and the astonishing genius, and almost incredible ex- 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA* 19 
 
 ertions of one man, conquered a powerful and populous nation, 
 which, compared with those tribes, with which the Spaniards 
 had hitherto been acquainted, were a civilized people, under- 
 standing the arts of life, and were settled in towns, villages, and 
 even large, and populous cities. 
 
 Intelligence of the important discoveries made by Grijalva, 
 was no sooner communicated to Valasques, than, prompted by 
 ambition, he conceived the plan of fitting out a large arma- 
 ment for the conquest and occupation of the country ; and so 
 great was his ardour, that without waiting for the authority of 
 his Sovereign, or the return of Grijalva, the expedition was 
 prepared and ready to sail about the time the latter entered 
 the port of St. Jago de Cuba. Vaiasques was ambitious of 
 the glory which he expected would attend the expedition, yet 
 being sensible that he had neither the courage nor capacity to 
 command it himself, he was greatly embarrassed in selecting 
 a person who suited his views ; as he wanted a man of suffi- 
 cient courage, talents and experience to command, but who 
 at the same time, would be a passive instrument in his hands. 
 It was with no small difficulty a man of this description could 
 be found, as those possessing the requisite abilities, had too 
 much spirit to be the creature of a jealous and capricious 
 master. At length two of the secretaries of Valasques, re- 
 commended Fernando Cortes, as a man suitable for his pur- 
 pose ; and, happily for his country, but fatally for himself, he 
 immediately fell in with the proposition. Valasques believed 
 that Cortes possessed courage and talents for command, united 
 with a bold and adventurous spirit, and that his humble condi- 
 tion would keep him dependant on his will, and prevented his 
 aspiring at independence. Cortes was one of the adventu- 
 rers who came out to Hispaniolain the year 1504, when the 
 Island was under the governorship of Ovando, who was a 
 kinsman of his ; from which circumstance, he was immedi- 
 ately employed in several lucrative and honourable stations ; 
 but not being satisfied with these, he accompanied Valasques 
 in his expedition to Cuba ; and distinguished himself in the 
 conquest of that Island. Cortes received his commission 
 with the warmest gratitude, and erecting his standard before 
 his own house, he immediately assumed the ensigns of his 
 new dignity. 
 
 His extraordinary talents and activity were at once brought 
 into requisition, and so great and unremitted were his exer- 
 tions in forwarding the expedition, that he sailed from St. 
 Jago de Cuba on the eighteenth day of November, in the year 
 1518, a short time after he received his commission. Cortes 
 proceeded to Trinidad, a small settlement on the same side of 
 
20 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 the Island, where he was joined by seveml adventurers, and 
 received a supply of provisions and military stores. Valas- 
 ques, who had been jealous of Cortes before he sailed, was 
 confirmed in his suspicions of his fidelity as soon as he was no 
 longer in his power, and immediately despatched orders to 
 Trinidad to deprive him of his commission. But he had al- 
 ready acquired the confidence of his officers and men in such 
 a degree as to be able to intimidate the chief magistrate of the 
 place, and depart without molestation. From this place Cor- 
 tes sailed to the Havanna, where he obtained more recruits 
 and additional supplies. Valasques, irritated and mortified at 
 the failure of his first attempt to deprive Cortes of his com- 
 mission, despatched a confidential friend to this place with pe- 
 remptory orders to Pedro Barba his Lieutenant Governor in 
 that colony, instantly to arrest Cortes, and send him under a 
 strong guard, a prisoner to St. Jago, and to countermand the 
 sailing of the fleet. Cortes having obtained information of 
 the designs of Valasques, before his messenger arrived, imme- 
 diately took measures to counteract them. He ordered such 
 of his officers as he knew to be particularly attached to the 
 governor, on some service abroad, and then acquainted the 
 men of the unreasonable jealousy of the governor, and with 
 his intention to deprive him of his command, and arrest the 
 progress of the armament. The officers and men were 
 equally astonished and indignant at the conduct of the gov- 
 ernor, and with one voice beseeched Cortes not to deprive 
 them of a leader in whom they all had such confidence, and 
 offered to shed the last drop of their blood to maintain his au- 
 thority. 
 
 This was the result expected by Cortes, and was highly 
 gratifying to his ambition. In reply, he informed his men that 
 he would never desert soldiers who had given such signal 
 proofs of attachment, and promised instantly to conduct them 
 to that rich country which had been so long the object of their 
 hopes and wishes. Every thing was now ready for their de- 
 parture. 
 
 The fleet consisted of eleven vessels, one of an hundred 
 tons, three of seventy or eighty, and the residue small open 
 barks. There were on board five hundred and eight soldiers, 
 and one hundred and nine seamen and artificers, making in 
 all six hundred and seventeen men. A part of the men had 
 fire arms, the rest cross bows, swords and spears They had 
 only sixteen horses and ten small field pieces. With this 
 force Cortes was about to commence war with a view of con- 
 quest, upon a nation whose dominions were more extensive 
 than all the kingdoms subject to the Spanish crown, and which 
 
OP SPANISH AMERICA. 21 
 
 was filled with people considerably advanced in civilization. 
 Although this expedition was undertaken for the purpose of 
 aggression and for plunder and conquest, yet so strange and 
 blind is religious fanaticism, that with these objects were 
 blended the propagation of Christianity ; and upon the Span- 
 ish standards, a large cross was displayed with this inscrip- 
 tion : " Let us follow the cross for under this sign we shall con- 
 quer /" 
 
 The expedition touched at the several places which had 
 been visited by Grijalva, and continued its course to the west- 
 ward until it arrived at St. Juan de Uloa, where a large canoe 
 filled with people, two of whom appeared to be persons of 
 distinction, approached the fleet with signs of friendship, and 
 came on board without any symptoms of fear or distrust. By 
 means of a female Indian, who had previously been taken on 
 board, and was afterwards known by the name of Donna Ma- 
 rina, and who understood the Aztec, or Mexican language, 
 Cortes ascertained that the two persons of distinction were 
 deputies despatched by the two governors of the province, 
 and that they acknowledged the authority of a great monarch, 
 whom they called Montazuma, who was sovereign of the 
 whole country ; and that they were sent to inquire what his 
 object was in visiting their shores, and to offer him any assist- 
 ance he might stand in need of, in order to continue his voy- 
 age. Cortes informed them that he had visited their country 
 with no other than the most friendly intentions, and for an ob- 
 ject of very great importance to their king and country. The 
 next morning without waiting an answer, the Spaniards land- 
 ed ; and the natives, like the man who warmed the frozen 
 snake, which reviving, bit his child to death, assisted them 
 with great alacrity, little suspecting that they were introducing 
 into their peaceful borders, the invaders and despoilers of 
 their country. In the course of the day, Teutile and Pilpatoe, 
 the two governors of the province, entered the camp of Cor- 
 tes, with a numerous retinue, and were received with much 
 ceremony and apparent respect. Cortes informed them that 
 he came as ambassador from Don Carlos, king of Castile, the 
 most powerful monarch of the East, and that the object of his 
 embassy was of such vast moment, that he could communi- 
 cate it to no one but Montazuma himself, and therefore re- 
 quested that they would conduct him into the presence of the 
 Emperor. The Mexican officers were astonished at so extra- 
 ordinary a proposition, and attempted to dissuade Cortes from 
 it ; but he insisted upon a compliance with his request, in a 
 peremptory and almost authoritative manner. In the mean- 
 time, he observed some of the natives delineating on white 
 
22 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 cotton cloth, figures of the ships, horses, artillery, soldiers, 
 fire arms and other objects which attracted their attention ; 
 and being informed that these were to be conveyed to Mon- 
 tazuma, he wished to fill their Emperor with the greatest pos- 
 sible awe, of the irresistible power of his strange guests. He 
 instantly ordered the troops formed in order of battle, various 
 martial movements and evolutions were performed, the horse 
 exhibited a specimen of their agility and impetuosity, and the 
 field pieces were discharged into the wood, which made 
 dreadful havoc among the trees. The Mexicans looked on in 
 silent amazement, until the cannon were fired, when some fled, 
 others fell on the ground, and all were filled with consterna- 
 tion and dismay ; and were confounded at the sight of men 
 who seemed to command the thunder of heaven, and whose 
 power appeared so nearly to resemble that of the Great 
 Spirit. 
 
 Messengers were immediately despatched to Montazuma, 
 and returned in a few days, although Mexico, where he resi- 
 ded, was one hundred and eighty miles from St. Juan de Uloa, 
 where Cortes was. This despatch was in consequence of an 
 improvement in police, which had not then been introduced 
 into Europe ; couriers were stationed at given distances 
 along the principal roads and being trained to the business, 
 they conveyed intelligence with great despatch. Teutile and 
 Pilpatoe, were empowered to deliver the answer of their 
 master to Cortes ; but previous to which, agreeably to their 
 instructions; and with the mistaken hope of conciliating his 
 favour, they offered to him the presents which had been sent 
 by the Emperor. These were introduced with great ceremo- 
 ny, by n train of one hundred Indians, each loaded with the 
 presents of his sovereign ; they were deposited on mats so 
 placed as to shew them to the greatest advantage, and consist- 
 ed of the manufactures of the country, such as fine cotton 
 stuffs, so splendid as to resemble rich silks ; pictures of ani- 
 mals and other national objects, formed of feathers of various 
 hues, with such wonderful art and skill, as to rival the works 
 of the pencil ; but what most attracted the attention of the 
 Spaniards, whose avidity for the precious metals knew no 
 bounds, was the manufactures of gold and silver. Among 
 the bracelets, collars, rings and trinkets of gold, were two 
 large plates of a circular form, one of massive gold, represent- 
 ing the sun, the other of silver, an emblem of the moon. 
 These specimens of the riches of the country, instead of con- 
 ciliating the favour of the Spaniards, and inducing them to 
 quit the country, had the effect of oil cast upon flames, with 
 the view to extinguish it ; they inflamed their cupidity for 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 23 
 
 gold to such a pitch, as that they could hardly be restrained 
 in their ardour to become masters of a country affording such 
 riches. These splendid presents were received by Cortes 
 with great respect for the monarch whose liberality bestowed 
 them. This gave courage to the Mexican officers, who in- 
 formed Cortes, that though Montazuma wished him to accept 
 these presents, as a token of his respect, yet he could not 
 consent to have him approach, with an armed force, nearer to 
 his capital, or remain any longer in his dominions. ". Inform 
 your master," said Cortes, in a peremptory tone, " that I in- 
 sist on my first demand, and that I cannot return, without dis- 
 grace, until I have had an interview with the sovereign, whom 
 I was sent to visit in the name of my king." The Mexicans 
 were astonished at this boldness, as they had been accustomed 
 to see the will of their monarch obeyed, in the most implicit 
 manner. They requested time to send to the emperor once 
 more, with which request the Spanish general complied. 
 
 The Mexican monarch and his counsellors were greatly em- 
 barrassed and alarmed, and knew not what measures to adopt 
 to expel from their country such bold and troublesome intru- 
 ders. Their fears were increased by the influence of supersti- 
 tion, there having long prevailed a tradition, that their country 
 would be invaded and overrun by a formidable race of men, 
 who would come from the regions towards the rising of the 
 sun. Montazuma, and his advisers, dreading the consequen- 
 ces of involving their country in war with enemies who seem- 
 ed to be of a higher order of beings, and to command arid di- 
 rect the elements, sent to Cortes a more positive command to 
 leave the country, and most preposterously accompanied this 
 with a rich present, which rendered the Spaniards the more 
 bent on becoming masters of a country that appeared to be 
 filled with the precious metals. When Teutile delivered the 
 ultimatum of his sovereign, together with the rich presents, 
 and Cortes again insisted on his demand of seeing the empe- 
 ror, the Mexican abruptly turned and left the camp, with looks 
 and gestures which plainly shewed that his astonishment was 
 not greater than his indignation, at the boldness and insolence 
 of the Spanish general. This terminated all friendly inter- 
 course between the natives and the Spaniards, and hostilities 
 were immediately expected. At this crisis the situation of 
 Cortes was rendered more alarming, by disaffection among his 
 men, which had been produced by the danger of their situation 
 and the exertions of some of the officers, who were friendly to 
 Valasques. Diego de Ordaz, the leader of the malecontents, 
 presented a remonstrance to Cortes, demanding, with great 
 boldness, to be conducted immediately back to Cuba. Cortes 
 
24 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 listened, with attention, to the remonstrance, and in compli- 
 ance with it, immediately gave orders for the fleet to be in 
 readiness to sail the next day. This was no sooner known, 
 than it produced the effect Cortes had foreseen ; the whole 
 camp was in coniusion and almost in mutiny. All demanded 
 to see their leader, and when Cortes appeared, they asked 
 whether it was worthy Castilian courage to be daunted by the 
 first appearance of danger, and to fly before the enemy ap- 
 peared ? They insisted on pursuing the enterprise, the value 
 of which had vastly increased from what they had seen, and 
 declared that they would follow him, with alacrity, through 
 every danger, to the possession and conquest of those rich 
 countries, of which they had seen such satisfactory evidence. 
 Cortes, delighted with their ardour, declared that his views 
 were the same as their own, but that he had given the order 
 to re-embark, from a belief that it was the wish of all ; but 
 being happy to learn that they were animated with so noble a 
 spirit, he would resume the plan he had at first conceived, 
 which was the establishment of a settlement on the sea coast, 
 and then to penetrate into the heart of the country ; and he 
 had no doubt but that he could conduct them in a career of 
 victory which would redound to their glory and establish their 
 fortune. 
 
 As the first step, towards planting a colony, Cortes assem- 
 bled the principal men of his party, who proceeded to elect a 
 council of magistrates, in whom its government was to be 
 vested. The magistrates, chosen, were called by the official 
 names which existed in Spain, and were to exercise the same 
 jurisdiction ; and all of them were the devoted friends of Cor- 
 tes. The council was immediately assembled, when Cortes 
 appeared before them, with the most profound respect, and, 
 addressing the new tribunal, he informed them that as the 
 sovereign of the country had already shewn a hostile disposi- 
 tion, the security of the colony depended upon military force, 
 and that, on subordination and discipline ; and as his commis- 
 sion, received from the Governor of Cuba, had long since 
 been revoked, his authority might be questionable ; he there- 
 fore resigned his commission, and observed, that though he 
 had been accustomed to command, yet he should cheerfully 
 obey whomsoever they might see fit to place at the head of 
 affairs. As he had arranged this matter with his friends in the 
 council, the resignation of Cortes was accepted, and immedi- 
 ately he was chosen, by their unanimous voice, Captain-gen- 
 eral of the Army, and Chief Justice of the Colony ; his com- 
 mission was made out in the king's name, with the most ample 
 powers, and was to continue in force until the royal pleasure 
 
OP SPANISH AMERICA. 25 
 
 might be ascertained. Before accepting this appointment, the 
 troops were consulted, and they unanimously confirmed the 
 choice, and the air resounded with Cortes' name, and all 
 swore to shed the last drop of their blood in support of his 
 authority. Some of the adherents of Valasques, exclaimed 
 against these illegal proceedings, but Cortes, by a prompt ex- 
 ercise of authority, and by arresting and putting in chains 
 several of the leaders of the malecontents, suppressed a fac- 
 tion, which, had it not been timely checked, might have en- 
 dangered all his hopes. Cortes was now placed in a situation 
 which he had long desired, having rendered himself entirely 
 independent of the Governor of Cuba. 
 
 Having employed some of his officers to survey the coast, he 
 resolved to remove about forty miles to the northward, where 
 there was a more commodious harbour, the soil more fertile, 
 and in other respects a more eligible spot for a settlement. 
 He immediately marked out the ground for a town, and as av- 
 arice and religious fanaticism were the two principles which 
 governed the conduct of all the Spanish adventurers in Ameri- 
 ca, he named the town Fillarica, de la Vera Cruz the rich 
 town of the true cross. Huts were ordered to be erected, which 
 might afford a shelter ; these were to be surrounded by fortifi- 
 cations and works of sufficient strength to afford security from 
 the attack of the natives ; and by the united exertions of offi- 
 cers and men, Cortes himself setting an example of industry 
 and perseverance, and with the assistance of the natives, the 
 works were forwarded with astonishing rapidity. In proceed- 
 ing to this place, the Spaniards had passed through the coun- 
 try of Zempoalla, and had an interview with several of the 
 caciques of that nation, and learnt, with much satisfaction, that 
 they were unfriendly to Montezuma, and anxious to throw off 
 his yoke ; he also learnt many particulars concerning that 
 monarch ; that he was a great tyrant, and oppressed his sub- 
 jects ; that he had conquered some provinces and ruined oth- 
 ers by excessive exactions. 
 
 Whilst employed in erecting the town, the caciques of Zera- 
 poalla and of Quiabislan, frequently visited them, which gave 
 Cortes an opportunity to raise their conceptions of the charac- 
 ter and power of the Spaniards to the highest pitch, and at the 
 same time to encourage their opposition to the government of 
 Montezuma, by assuring them of his protection. He so far 
 succeeded in this, that when some of Montezuma's officers 
 came among them, to collect the usual tribute, they seized 
 them, and treated them as prisoners ; and, agreeably to their 
 barbarous superstition, were preparing to sacrifice them to 
 their gods, when Cortes interfered, and delivered them from 
 
 VOL. I. 3 
 
26 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 their impending fate. This act of open rebellion served to 
 attach these caciques firmly to the Spaniards, as their protec- 
 tion alone could save them from the dreadful consequences of 
 Montazuma's displeasure ; and Cortes soon succeeded in per- 
 suading them to acknowledge themselves, in a formal manner, 
 to be the vassals of the Spanish monarch Their example 
 was followed by several other tribes. At this period, Cortes 
 despatched a vessel to Spain, with a highly coloured descrip- 
 tion of the country he had discovered, confirmed by many of 
 the specimens of wealth they had received from the natives, 
 with an account of the progress he had made in establishing 
 the Spanish authority over it ; he attempted to justify his 
 throwing off the authority of Valasques and setting up for 
 himself, and requested a confirmation of his authority from 
 the crown. 
 
 Disaffection again appeared among the men, of a more 
 alarming character than what had existed before, which, though 
 promptly suppressed, filled the mind of Cortes with disquiet- 
 ude and concern, and led him to adopt one of the boldest 
 measures of which history affords any account. He was sat- 
 isfied, that from the appalling dangers, and magnitude of the 
 undertaking, and from the spirit of disaffection, which, al- 
 though suppressed, still lurked among his troops, it would be 
 impossible to maintain his authority over them, except by cut- 
 ting off the means of return. After reflecting on the subject 
 with deep solicitude, he resolved on destroying the fleet, 
 which would place the Spaniards in a situation, that they must 
 conquer or perish ; and by the most plausible and artful re- 
 presentations, he succeeded in persuading his men to acquiesce 
 in this desperate measure. With universal consent the ships 
 were drawn on shore, and after being stripped of their sails, 
 rigging, and every thing of value, they were broken to pieces. 
 His influence must have been unbounded, to be able to per- 
 suade his men to an act, which is unparalleled in the annals of 
 man : six hundred men voluntarily cut off their means of re- 
 turning, and shut themselves up in a hostile country, filled 
 with warlike and ferocious inhabitants, whose savage mode of 
 warfare spared their prisoners only for the torture, or to be of- 
 fered in sacrifice to their angry deities. 
 
 Cortes now felt prepared to enter upon a career of victory 
 and conquest, in some measure suited to his ambition and ra- 
 pacity. Having advanced to Zempoalla, his zeal for religion 
 led him to overturn the idols in the temples, and to place a 
 crucifix and an image of the Virgin Mary in their stead ; which 
 rash step came near blasting all his hopes in the bud. The 
 natives were filled with horror, and were excited to arms by 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. v 27 
 
 
 
 their priests; but Cortes had such an ascendancy over them, 
 that he finally pacified them, and restored harmony. 
 
 He marched from Zempoalla on the sixteenth of August, 
 with five hundred men, fifteen horse, and six field pieces, with 
 the intention of penetrating into the heart of a great and pow- 
 erful nation. The residue of his men, most of whom were 
 unfit for service, were left as a garrison at Vera Cruz. The 
 cacique of Zernpoalla supplied him with provisions, and with 
 two hundred Indians, called Tamemes, whose office it was to 
 carry burdens, and do other menial services ; together with 
 four hundred soldiers, most of whom were persons of note, 
 who might be hostages for the fidelity of their chief. He ad- 
 vanced near the territories of the Tlascalans, and having 
 learned that they were implacable enemies of the Mexicans, 
 he was in hopes to pass through their country unmolested. 
 He despatched four of the Zempoallans to request this privi- 
 lege, and explain his friendly intentions. The Tlascalans, in- 
 stead of granting this request, seized the ambassadors, and 
 were preparing to sacrifice them to their gods. Cortes was 
 obliged to march into their territories, and being a fierce and 
 warlike people, they attacked him with great fury, and with 
 vast numbers ; and although defeated and dispersed in every 
 attack, they rallied and returned to the conflict, with valour 
 and perseverance far surpassing any thing which had been 
 witnessed in America. But although the Tlascalans brought 
 into the field immense armies, and fought with courage and 
 perseverance, they were unable to stop the progress of the 
 Spaniards so great is the advantage of discipline and sci- 
 ence over barbarian force They suffered severely in the 
 successive conflicts, and only killed two horses and slightly 
 wounded several men, of the Spaniards. Believing the Span- 
 iards to be invincible, as the last resort they consulted their 
 priests concerning these strange invaders, and how they could 
 be repelled ; and were informed that they were the offspring 
 of the Sun, produced by his creative energy, in regions of the 
 East, and that they were invincible during the day ; but at 
 night, when deprived of the sustaining influence of the Sun, 
 they dwindled into mere mortals, and could be as easily over- 
 come as other men. This response appeared very plausible, 
 and immediately the Tlascalans prepared to surprise and at- 
 tack the Spaniards in the night. But Cortes was too vigilant 
 to be surprized by an Indian stratagem ; his outposts observed 
 the movements of the enemy, and gave the alarm ; the troops 
 were immediately formed, sallied out of the camp, and clis-" 
 persed them with great slaughter. The last effort, the advice 
 of their priests, having completely failed, they became desi- 
 
28 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 rous of ending hostilities with a race that they regarded as 
 more than mortal, but were at a loss whether they were good 
 or evil beings. " If," said they, " you are divinities of a cruel 
 and savage nature, we present you five slaves, that you may 
 eat their flesh and drink their blood ; if you are mild deities, 
 accept an offering of incense and variegated plumes ; if you 
 are mere mortals, here are meat, and bread and fruit, to nour- 
 ish you." Peace was concluded, and the Tlascalans acknow- 
 ledged themselves tributary to the Spanish monarch, and 
 agreed to assist Cortes in his operations against the Mexicans, 
 and he engaged to protect them and their country. The Tlas- 
 calans, in every adversity of fortune, remained faithful to the 
 Spaniards, and it was to this alliance that they were indebted 
 for success in the conquest of the Mexican empire 
 
 Cortes reposed twenty days at Tlascala, to recruit his troops, 
 who were exhausted with hard service, and enfeebled by the 
 distempers of the climate. During this interval he obtained 
 extensive information concerning the Mexican empire and the 
 character and political condition of its sovereign. His troops 
 being recruited, the Spanish general commenced his march 
 towards Mexico, with six thousand 1 lascalan warriors added 
 to his force. He directed his route to Cholula, a considerable 
 town, fifteen miles distant, celebrated for its vast pyramid, or 
 temple, and as being regarded as the seat of their gods. Here. 
 although they had entered the town without opposition, and 
 with much apparent respect, the Spaniards soon discovered a 
 deep plot laid for their destruction, and having obtained satis- 
 factory proof, Cortes determined to make such an example as 
 would inspire his enemies with terror. He drew his forces 
 up in the centre of the town, and sent for most of the magis- 
 trates and chief citizens, under various pretences, who, at a 
 given signal, were seized, and then the troops and the Tlasca- 
 lans fell on the people, who, being deprived of their leaders, 
 and filled with astonishment, dropped their arms, and remain- 
 ed motionless, without making the least effort to defend them- 
 selves. The slaughter was dreadful ; the streets were filled 
 with the dead and covered with blood; the priests and some 
 of the chief families took refuge in the temples : these were 
 set on fire and all consumed together. This scene of carnage 
 continued for two days, during which, six thousand of the na- 
 tives perished, without the loss of a single individual of their 
 destroyers. 
 
 From Cholula it was but sixty miles to Mexico, and 
 Cortes marched directly towards the capital ; through -every 
 place he passed, he was received as a deliverer, and heard 
 'the grievances pf the inhabitants, all of which he promised tQ 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 29 
 
 redress. He was highly gratified on perceiving that the seeds 
 of discontent were scattered through the empire, and not con- 
 fined to the remote provinces. As the Spaniards approached 
 the capital, the unhappy monarch was distracted with hopes 
 and fears, and knew not what to do : one day he sent orders 
 inviting them to advance ; the next, commanding them to re- 
 tire and leave the country. As the Spaniards drew near to 
 the city, one thousand persons, of distinction, came out to meet 
 them, clad in mantles of fine cotton and adorned with plumes ; 
 each, in his order, passed by and saluted Cortes in the manner 
 deemed most respectful in their country. At length they an- 
 nounced the approach of the Emperor himself; his retinue 
 consisted of two hundred persons, dressed in uniform, with 
 plumes and feathers, who marched two and two, bare-footed, 
 with their eyes fixed on the ground ; to these succeeded a 
 higher rank, with more showy apparel. Montazuma followed 
 in a litter, or chair, richly ornamented with gold and feathers, 
 borne on the shoulders of four of his favourites ; a canopy, of 
 curious workmanship, was supported over his head ; three 
 officers walked before him, with gold rods, which, at given in- 
 tervals, they raised up, as a signal for the people to bow their 
 heads and hide their faces, as unworthy to behold so august a 
 sovereign. As he approached Cortes, the latter dismounted 
 and advanced in the most respectful manner ; Montazuma at 
 the same time alighted, and leaning on two of his attendants, 
 approached, with a slow and statel) pace, cotton cloth being 
 strewed on the ground, that he might not touch the earth. 
 Cortes saluted him with profound reverence, according to the 
 European fashion, and Montazuma returned the salutation in 
 the manner of his country ; he touched with his hand the 
 ground and then kissed it. This being the mode of saluta- 
 tion of an inferior to a superior, the Mexicans viewed with 
 astonishment this act of condescension in their monarch, 
 whom* they had been accustomed to consider as exalted above 
 all mortals, and related to the gods. Montazuma having con-- 
 ducted the Spaniards to the quarters provided for them, on re- 
 tiring, addressed Cortes as follows : " You are now with 
 your brothers, in your own house ; refresh yourselves after 
 your fatigue, and be happy until I return." The Spaniards 
 were lodged in an ancient palace, surrounded with a wall, with 
 towers at proper distances, which would serve for defence ; 
 the accommodations were not only sufficient for the Spaniards, 
 but likewise for their Indian allies. 
 
 Mexico is situated in an immense plain, or valley, surround- 
 ed by lofty mountains, and all the waters that descend from 
 these mountains are collected in several small and two large 
 lakes, of about ninety miles in circumference, which comnm-' 
 
 3* 
 
30 SKETCH OP THE HISTORY 
 
 v 
 
 nicate with each other. The city is built on the banks of on 
 of these lakes and several adjacent islands ; the access to the 
 city is by several causeways, of great extent ; at proper dis- 
 tances are openings, with bridges, for the water to pass, when 
 it overflows the flat. The houses of the inhabitants were lit- 
 tle better than Indian huts, yet placed in regular order ; but 
 the temples and other public buildings, the houses of the mon- 
 arch and persons of distinction, were of vast dimensions, 
 and had some claims to magnificence, especially when it 
 is considered that the inhabitants knew not the use of iron 
 or edged tools, and were destitute of the aid of domestic an- 
 imals. 
 
 The Spaniards soon became alarmed for their safety, as it 
 was apparent, that by breaking down the bridges their retreat 
 would be cut on , and they would be shut up in a hostile city, 
 where all their superiority in arms could not prevent their be- 
 ing overwhelmed by the multitude of their enemies. Reflect- 
 ing, with deep concern, on his situation, Cortes resolved on a 
 measure scarcely less bold and desperate than that of des- 
 troying his ships ; this was to seize the sovereign of a great 
 empire, in his own capital, surrounded by his subjects, and re- 
 tain him as a prisoner in the Spanish quarters. When he 
 first proposed this measure to his officers, most of them were 
 startled with its audacity ; but he convinced them that it was 
 the only step that could save them from destruction, and they 
 agreed instantly to make the attempt. At his usual hour of 
 visiting Montazuma, Cortes repaired to the palace, with five o/ 
 his bravest officers, and as many trusty soldiers ; thirty chosen 
 men followed at some distance, and^ppeared to be sauntering 
 along the street. The rest of the troops, and their allies, 
 were prepared to sally out at the first alarm. As the Spaniards 
 entered, the Mexican officers retired, and Cortes addressed 
 the monarch in a very different tone from what he had been 
 accustomed to do, and accused him of being the instigator of 
 the attack made on his garrison left at Vera Cruz, in which 
 several Spaniards were killed, and demanded reparation. 
 The monarch, filled with astonishment and indignation, assert- 
 ed his innocence with great warmth, and as a proof of it, or- 
 dered the officer, who attacked the Spaniards, to be brought 
 to Mexico as a prisoner. Cortes pretended that he was satis- 
 fied with this declaration, but said that his soldiers would nev- 
 er be convinced that Montazuma did not entertain hostile in- 
 tentions towards them, unless he repaired to the Spanish 
 quarters, as a mark of confidence, where he would be served 
 and honoured as became a great monarch. The first mention 
 of so strange and alarming a proposal, almost bereft the un- 
 happy monarch of his senses ; he remonstrated and protested 
 
OP SPANISH AMERICA. 31 
 
 against it ; the altercation became warm, and continued for 
 several hours, when Valasques de Leon, a daring and impetu- 
 ous young officer, exclaimed, with great vehemence, " why 
 waste more words or time in vain 1 let us seize him instantly, 
 or stab him to the heart." The audacity of this declaration,, 
 accompanied with fierce and threatening looks and gestures, 
 intimidated Montazuma, who submitted to his fate, and agreed 
 to comply with their request. Montazuma now called in his 
 officers and informed them of his determination ; they heard 
 it with astonishment and grief, but made no reply. He was, 
 accordingly, carried to the Spanish quarters, with great pa- 
 rade, but bathed in tears. We consult history in vain for any 
 parallel to this transaction, whether we consider the boldness 
 and temerity of the measure, or the success with which it was 
 executed.* 
 
 Qulpopoca, the commander who attacked the garrison at 
 Vera Cruz, his son, and six of his principal officers, were de- 
 livered to Cortes, to be punished as he deemed proper ; and 
 after a mock trial, before a Spanish court martial, they were 
 condemned to be burnt alive, which infamous and wicked sen- 
 tence was carried into execution, amidst vast multitudes of 
 their astonished countrymen, who viewed the scene with silent 
 horror. 
 
 Montazuma remained in the quarters of the Spaniards for 
 six months, was treated with apparent respect and served by 
 his own officers, but strictly watched and kept in " durance 
 vile." During this period, Cortes, having possession of the 
 sovereign, governed the empire in his name ; his commissions 
 and orders were issued as formerly, and strictly obeyed, al- 
 though it was known that the monarch was a prisoner, in the 
 hands of the invaders of the country. The Spaniards made 
 themselves acquainted with the country, visited the remote 
 provinces, displaced some officers, whom they suspected of 
 unfriendly designs, and appointed others, more obsequious to 
 their will. And so completely was the spirit of Montazuma 
 subdued, that at length Cortes induced him to acknowledge 
 himself as tributary, and a vassal of the King of Castile. 
 This last and most humiliating condition, to which a proud 
 
 * It is a curious fact, that at the expiration of three centuries, an 
 attempt should be made for the subjugation of Spain, by getting 1 
 possession of its sovereign, not dissimilar to that which had been 
 practised by the officers of that nation in America. In point of 
 treachery and deception, there is little difference in the two cases, 
 and it' the sins of nations are visited upon their posterity, the designs 
 of Buonaparte against Spain and its monarch might be regarded as 
 retributive, for the violence and treachery of the Spanish adventur- 
 ers against the inoffensive inhabitants of America. 
 
32 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 and haughty monarch, accustomed to independent and abso- 
 lute power, could be reduced, overwhelmed him with the deep- 
 est distress. He called together the chief men of the empire, 
 and informed them of this determination, but was scarcely 
 able to speak, being frequently interrupted with tears and 
 groans, flowing from a heart rilled with anguish. 
 
 Cortes had deprived Montazuma of his liberty, of his wealth, 
 and of his empire ; he wished now to deprive him of his re- 
 ligion. But though the unhappy monarch had submitted to 
 every other demand, this he would not yield to, and Cortes, 
 enraged at his obstinacy, had the rashness to order the idols of 
 the temples thrown down by force ; but the priests, taking 
 arms in their defence and the people rallying in crowds to 
 support them, Cortes was obliged to desist from an act which 
 the inhabitants viewed as the highest sacrilege. This rasli 
 step excited the bitter enmity of the priests against the Span- 
 iards, who regarded them as the enemies of the gods, who 
 \vould avenge the insult which had been offered to them. 
 They roused the leading men, and from this moment the Mex- 
 icans began to reflect on the means of destroying or expelling 
 such audacious and impious invaders. They held frequent 
 consultations with one another, and with their captive prince. 
 Being unwilling to have recourse to arms, if it could be avoid- 
 ed, Montazuma called Cortes into his presence, and informed 
 him, that now all the objects of his mission were fulfilled, and 
 it was the will, both of the gods and of his people, that the 
 Spaniards should instantly depart from the empire, and if ho 
 did not comply with this request, inevitable destruction would 
 overtake them. Cortes, thinking it prudent not to appear to 
 oppose the wishes of the Mexicans, informed Montazuma that 
 he was expecting soon to leave the country, and had only be- 
 gan to make preparations for his departure. 
 
 Whilst Cortes was deeply anxious as to his situation, in con- 
 sequence of the evident designs of the Mexicans, a more 
 alarming danger threatened him from another quarter. Va- 
 lasques, Governor of Cuba, having obtained intelligence of 
 Cortes' proceedings ; that he had renounced all dependence 
 on his authority, was attempting to establish an independent 
 colony, and had applied to the king to confirm his acts, was 
 filled with indignation, and resolved to be avenged on the man 
 who had so basely betrayed his confidence and usurped his 
 authority. He engaged, with great ardour, in preparing an ex- 
 pedition, which was destined to New t*pain, to arrest Cortes, 
 bring him home in irons, and then to prosecute and complete 
 the conquest of the country in his own name. The armament 
 consisted of eighteen vessels, having on board eight hundred 
 foot soldiers and eighty horsemen, with a train of twelve pieces 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 33 
 
 of cannon. The command of this expedition was entrusted 
 to Narvaez, with instructions to seize Cortes and his principal 
 officers, and then complete the conquest of the country. The 
 fatal experience of Valasques had neither inspired him with 
 wisdom nor courage ; for he still entrusted to another what he 
 ought to have executed himself. 
 
 When Cortes first heard that several ships had appeared on 
 the coast, he supposed that it was an expedition which his 
 messengers had procured to be sent from Spain as a re-en- 
 forcement. But the joy which this occasioned was soon turn- 
 ed to sorrow, when instead of friends, he learnt that they 
 were new and more formidable enemies. In this appalling 
 exigency, Cortes was greatly embarrassed how to act ; he 
 finally concluded that he could rely only on his arms, and 
 leaving one hundred and fifty men in Mexico, to guard the 
 royal prisoner, and maintain his authority, he commenced his 
 march towards the coast, with the residue of his troops, which, 
 after being re-enforced by the garrison at Vera Cruz, did not 
 exceed two hundred and fifty men. Although sensible that 
 the dispute must be decided by the sword, he despatched sev- 
 eral messengers to Narvaez, to offer terms of accommodation, 
 but without success ; and the demands of Narvaez were so 
 insolent as greatly to enrage the followers of Cortes. Narvaez, 
 relying on his superiority of numbers, and confident of victory, 
 set a price on Cortes' head. At length the armies approached 
 near each other, and Narvaez immediately marched out to 
 offer Cortes battle. But the latter prudently declined an en- 
 gagement, and moving off, took a station where he was secure 
 from attack. He foresaw that the enemy would naturally give 
 themselves up to respose, after their fatigues, and resolved to 
 surprise and attack them in the night. His officers and men 
 highly approved of this measure, it was executed in a most 
 gallant manner, and with success surpassing the most sanguine 
 hopes he could have entertained. The sentinels were seized, 
 and the enemy was completely surprised ; and after a despe- 
 rate but ineffectual struggle, their commander having been 
 wounded and made prisoner, they surrendered at discretion. 
 Cortes treated the vanquished not as enemies, but as ,his coun- 
 trymen, and offered to conduct them back to Cuba, or to re- 
 ceive them into his service on the same terms as his own sol- 
 diers. To the latter propositions they all acceded, with the 
 exception of a few personal friends of Narvaez, and avowed 
 the satisfaction they felt in following so distinguished a com- 
 mander. Thus by the good fortune and great abilities of the 
 conqueror of Mexico, an event which threatened to annihi- 
 late all his hopes, was turned so greatly to his advantage, that 
 it afforded him a re-enforcement exceeding in number the 
 
34 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 troops he then had, and placed him at the head of one thou- 
 sand Spaniards. He immediately commenced a rapid march 
 back to the capital, a courier having arrived, just after the vic- 
 tory over Narvaez, from the garrison left there, with intelli- 
 gence that the Mexicans, immediately after the departure of 
 Cortes, had taken arms and attacked the Spaniards in their 
 quarters, with great fury. This was occasioned, by the ra- 
 pacity and violence of the Spaniards, who at a solemn festival 
 in honour of the gods of the country treacherously murdered 
 two thousand of the nobles, and stripped them of their orna- 
 ments. This outrage was committted under a ( pretence that 
 they had engaged in a conspiracy against the Spaniards. Gortes 
 found, as he passed through the Mexican territories, that the 
 spirit of hostility to the Spaniards was not confined to the cap- 
 ital ; the inhabitants deserted the towns through which he 
 passed, and removed all provisions, so that he could scarcely 
 subsist his troops. Nothing but the rapidity of his move- 
 ments could have saved the garrison, as the Mexicans had 
 destroyed the two brigantines which Cortes had built to se- 
 cure the command of the lake, reduced their magazines to 
 ashes, and were carrying on hostilities with such fury and per- 
 severance, that with all their bravery the Spaniards must 
 soon have been overwhelmed by the multitude of their en- 
 emies. 
 
 But so ignorant were the Mexicans of the art of war, and 
 so little had they learnt from experience, that they permitted 
 Cortes again to enter the capital, when they could, with the 
 greatest ease, have prevented it, by breaking down the bridges 
 and causeways.* The garrison received their countrymen 
 with transports of joy, and Cortes, feeling confident in his 
 strength, had the imprudence to throw off the disguise which 
 had covered his actions, and to treat the captive monarch with 
 contempt, and scarcely to conceal his intentions of subjuga- 
 ting the country. This indiscretion rekindled the flames of 
 war ; and emboldened by their success, which convinced them 
 that their enemies were not invincible, the Mexicans collected 
 the next day after the arrival of Cortes, in vast multitudes, and 
 attacked the Spaniards, in their quarters, with great impetuos- 
 ity. The Spanish leader and his followers were astonished at 
 
 * This may have been the result of policy instead of ignorance ; 
 the Mexicans may have suffered (he Spaniards to enter the city, for 
 the purpose of involving 1 them all, in one common ruin. They are 
 represented to have said, k ' that having discovered our ene- 
 mies are not immortal, we are determined to complete their de- 
 struction, although the death of every Spaniard, should cost a thou- 
 sand lives. Afterso great a slaughter, there will still remain a sut-- 
 ficient number, to celebrate the victory." HERRERA. 
 
OP SPANISH AMERICA. 35 
 
 the courage and spirit of men, who had, for a long time, sub- 
 mitted so tamely to the yoke they had imposed on them, 
 Crowded together in the narrow streets, the Spanish artillery 
 swept them away at every discharge, like autumnal leaves be- 
 fore the blast ; yet they remained undaunted, and returned to 
 the asault with the bravery and determination of men resolved 
 to conquer or die. The contest was continued for several 
 days, with the same spirit and perseverance. At length Cortes 
 resolved to make a sally with so strong a force, that he hoped 
 to drive the enemy out of the city and end the contest. But 
 he was met by so numerous a body of men, who, animated 
 by their priests and led on by their nobles, fought with such 
 desperation that after a day of incessant toil, during which 
 immense slaughter was made of the Mexicans, and a part of 
 the city burnt, the Spainards returned to their quarters, haras- 
 sed by the multitude and perseverance of their enemies and 
 weary with their own carnage, without having effected any 
 thing decisive, or that compensated them for the great loss of 
 twelve men killed and sixty wounded. Being now sensible 
 that he could not maintain himself, in the midst of an exaspe- 
 rated population, with a handful of men, however great might 
 be their superiority, he resolved to try what would be the effect 
 of the intercession of Montazuma, towards soothing the wrath 
 of his people. Accordingly, the next morning, when the 
 Mexicans advanced to the attack, the wretched prince, made 
 the instrument of his own disgrace and of the enslavement of 
 his subjects, was constrained to ascend the battlement, clad in 
 his royal robes, and to address his subjects, and attempt to al- 
 lay their rage and dissuade them from hostilities.* As he 
 came in sight of the Mexicans, their weapons dropped from 
 their hands .and they prostrated themselves on the earth ; but 
 when he stopped speaking, a deep and sullen murmur arose 
 and spread through the ranks ; reproaches and threats follow- 
 ed, and the feelings of the people swelling in a moment like a 
 sudden rush of waters, vollies of arrows, stones, and every 
 missile, were poured upon the ramparts, so suddenly and with 
 such violence, that before the Spanish soldiers, appointed to 
 protect Montazuma, could cover him with their bucklers, he 
 wa# wounded by the arrows and struck by a stone on the tem- 
 ple, which felled him to the ground. This fail occasioned a 
 sudden transition in the feelings of the multitude, being hor- 
 ror-struck with the crime they had committed, they threw 
 
 * Some authorities state (hat Montazuma was induced to intercede 
 with his people, by an assurance from Cortes, that if he would 
 pacify them he would grant him his liberty and depart from his 
 country. 
 
36 SKETCH OP THE HISTORY 
 
 down their arms and fled with precipitation. Montazuma was 
 removed to his apartments by the Spaniards, but his proud 
 spirit could not brook this last mortification, and perceiving 
 that he was not only the prisoner and tool of his enemies, but 
 the object of the vengeance and contempt of his subjects, he 
 tore the bandages from his wounds in a transport of feeling, 
 and persisted in a refusal to take any nourishment, with a firm- 
 ness that neither entreaties nor threats could overcome, and 
 thus terminated his wretched existence. He obstinately re- 
 fused, to the last, all the solicitations, accompanied with all 
 the terrors of future punishment, to embrace the Christian 
 faith. 
 
 With the death of Montezuma ended all hopes ef pacify- 
 ing the Mexicans, and Cortes was sensible that his salvation 
 depended on a successful retreat. The morning following the 
 fall of their prince, the Mexicans renewed the assault with 
 redoubled fury, and succeeded in taking possession of a high 
 temple which overlooked the Spanish quarters, and greatly 
 exposed them to the missiles of the enemy. A detachment 
 of chosen men, ordered to dislodge them were twice repul- 
 sed, when Cortes taking the command himself, rushed into 
 the thickest of the combat, with a drawn sword, and by his 
 presence and example, after a dreadful carnage, the Spaniards 
 made themselves masters of the tower and set fire to it. 
 Cortes was determined to retreat from the city, but was at 
 loss in what way to attempt it, when a private soldier, who 
 from a smattering of learning sustained the character of an 
 astrologer, advised him, to undertake it, in the night, and as- 
 sured him of complete success. Cortes the more readily fell 
 in with this plan, as he knew it was a superstitious principle, 
 with the Mexicans, not to attack an enemy in the night. The 
 arrangements being made, the Spaniards moved forward about 
 midnight over the shortest causeway, and all was silence, until 
 they reached the first breach. Whilst they were preparing to 
 place their bridge over the breach, at the moment, when they 
 supposed their retreat had not been discovered, they were as- 
 tonished with a tremendous shout accompanied with martial 
 instruments, of an immense multitude which covered the 
 the whole lake. A shower of arrows and stones, was followed 
 by a furious charge. The Spaniards defended themselves 
 with their usual bravery ; but being confined in a narrow 
 causeway, and hemmed in on all sides by the multitude of their 
 enemies, all the Mexicans being under arms, they were depri- 
 ved of the advantages of their superior discipline and skill, 
 and from the darkness of the night, they could Scarcely dis- 
 tinguish friends from foes ; after sustaining a dreadful conflict 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 3 
 
 attended with immense slaughter, for a considerable time, they 
 were thrown into confusion. They finally forced their way 
 over the remaining part of the causeway, the dead bodies 
 serving to fill up the breaches. In the morning Cortes found 
 his troops reduced to half their number and a large portion 
 of these covered with wounds, and all filled with grief, at the 
 loss of their friends and companions. All the artillery was 
 lost, the ammunition and the baggage, most of the horses, and 
 nearly all their ill-gotten gold. The last, which was the chief 
 object of their desires, contributed greatly to their fatal dis- 
 aster, as the soldiers, were so encumbered with it as greatly to 
 impede their exertions. More than two thousand of the Tlas- 
 calans were killed. 
 
 The Spaniards now commenced their march for Tlascala, and 
 for six days continued it without respite, through swamps, and 
 over mountains, harrassed by the Mexicans, at a distance, and 
 sometimes closely attacked. On the sixMi day, they approach- 
 ed near to Otumba, and discovered numerous parties moving 
 in various directions. Their interpreter informed them, that 
 they often exclaimed with exultation, "Go on robbers ; go to 
 the place where you shall quickly meet the fate due to 
 your crimes." The Spaniards continued their march until 
 they reached the summit of a mountain, when an extensive 
 valley opened to their astonished visions, covered with an in- 
 numerable multitude, which explained the meaning of what 
 they had just seen and heard. Tne vast number of their ene- 
 mies and the suddenness with which they had appeared, appal- 
 led the stoutest hearts, and despair was depicted in every 
 countenance. But Cortes, who alone was unshaken, inform- 
 ed them that there remained but an alternative, to conquer or 
 perish, 'and immediately led them to the charge. The Mexi- 
 cans waited their approach with courage ; but so great is the 
 superiority of discipline and military science, over brute force, 
 that the small battalion of the Spaniards made an irresistable 
 impression, and forced its way through the armed multitude. 
 Although the Mexicans were dispersed and obliged to give 
 way wherever the Spaniards approached, yet as they retreated 
 in one quarter, they advanced in another, so that the Span- 
 iards were constantly surrounded, and had become nearly ex- 
 hausted by their own carnage. At this crisis, Cortes, observ- 
 ing the standard of the Mexican empire, and recollecting to 
 have heard that on the fate of that depended the success of a 
 battle, assembled some of his bravest officers and rushed, 
 with great impetuosity, through the crowd^ and by the stroke 
 of a lance wounded the general who held it, and threw him to 
 the ground ; whereupon one of his officers dismounted, stab- 
 
 VOL. I. 4 
 
38 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 bed him to the heart, and secured the imperial standard, Th& 
 fall of their leader and standard had an instantaneous and 
 magical effect ; every tie which held them together seemed 
 dissolved ; a universal panic prevailed, their weapons drop- 
 ped from their hands, and they all fled with precipitation to 
 the mountains, leaving every thing behind them. The spoil 
 which the Spaniards collected, compensated them, in some 
 measure, for their loss in retreating from the Mexican capital. 
 The next day they entered with joy the territories of Tlas- 
 cala, and, notwithstanding their dreadful calamities, they were 
 'kindly received by their allies, whose fidelity was not at all 
 shaken by the declining condition of the Spanish power. Not- 
 withstanding all his misfortunes, Cortes did not abandon his 
 plan of conquering the Mexican Empire. He obtained some 
 ammunition and three field pieces from Vera Cruz, and de- 
 spatched four of the vessels of Narvaez's fleet, to Hispaniola 
 and Jamaica, to obtain ammunition and military stores, and 
 procure adventurers. Sensible that he could do nothing 
 against Mexico without the command of the lake, he set 
 about preparing the timber and other materials for twelve bri- 
 gantines ; which were to be carried by land to the lake in pie- 
 ces, and there put together and launched. These measures, 
 which disclosed his intentions, occasioned disaffection again 
 to appear among his troops ; which, with his usual address, 
 but not without difficulty, he succeeded in suppressing.' 
 
 Whilst anxiously waiting for the return of his ships, two 
 vessels which had been sent out by Valasques to re-enforce 
 Narvaez, were decoyed into Vera Cruz, and the crews and 
 troops induced to follow the fortunes of Cortes ; and soon af- 
 ter several vessels put in there, and the seamen and soldiers 
 on board, were also persuaded to join the Spanish adventurer, 
 "by which means Cortes received a re-enforcement of one hun- 
 dred and eighty men, and twenty horses. He now dismissed 
 such of Narvaez's men as served with reluctance, after which 
 he mustered five hundred and fifty foot soldiers, and forty 
 horsemen, and possessed a train of nine field pieces. With 
 this force, and ten thousand Tlascalans and other friendly 
 Indians, he set out once more for the conquest of the Mexi- 
 can Empire. He began his march towards the capital, on 
 the 28th of December, 1520, six months after his disastrous 
 retreat. 
 
 Although the Mexicans, aware of his intensions, had made 
 preparations to obstruct his progress, he continued his march 
 without much difficulty, and took possession of Tezeuco, the 
 second town in the empire, situated on the lake, about twenty 
 miles from Mexico. Here he established his head-quarters, 
 
OP SPANISH AMERICA. 39 
 
 as it was the most suitable place to launch his brigantines ; and 
 during the delay which that object required, he subjugated a 
 number of towns on the lake, and thus circumscribed the 
 Mexican Empire. At this time, when his prospects were 
 more flattering than they had been at any other, all his hopes 
 were exposed to be blasted, by an alarming conspiracy, which 
 aimed at the life of Cortes himself, and all his principal offi- 
 cers. On the very day on which it was to have been carried 
 into execution, one of the conspirators went privately to his 
 general and reveal; d it. Villefragria, the ringleader, was sei- 
 zed and executed. The materials for the brigantines being 
 completed, Cortes despatched a detachment of his troops, as 
 a convoy to eight thousand Tamemes, an inferior class of men, 
 used for carrying burdens in the lieu of animals, who had been 
 furnished by the Tlascalans. Fifteen thousand Tlascalari 
 warriors also accompanied them for their defence. This no- 
 vel and immense convoy arrived safe at Tezeuco ; and about 
 the same time the ships returned from Hispaniola, with two 
 hundred troops, eighty horses, two battering cannon, and a 
 supply of ammunition and arms. These events elevated the 
 hopes of Cortes and his followers, and gave increased activity 
 to their exertions. On the 28th of April, all the brigantines 
 were launched, with great ceremony all the troops, and those 
 of their allies, being drawn up on the banks of the canal, and 
 mass and religious exercises were performed. As they fell 
 into the lake from the canal, Father Olmedo, the chaplain, 
 gave to each its name, and his benediction. The joy of the 
 Spaniards was excessive, and repeated shouts resounded over 
 the still waters of the lake, now for the first time honoured 
 with a fleet, after being for centuries only skimmed by the light 
 canoes of the savage. 
 
 As the vessels entered the lake, they hoisted sail, and bore 
 away before the wind ; and were viewed by the Spaniards and 
 their Indian allies, with transports of joy, whilst the Mexicans 
 beheld them with astonishment and dismay. 
 
 On the death of Montazuma, the Mexican chiefs elevated 
 to the throne Quetlavaca, his brother, whose bravery and hos- 
 tility to the Spaniards were signalized by those fierce attacks 
 upon their invaders, which drove them from the capital. 
 Whilst actively engaged in preparing to defend his capital from 
 the second attack of Cortes, he was cut off by the small pox, 
 which fatal disease was then ravaging the empire, and was one 
 of the dreadful calamities brought upon it by the Europeans. 
 He was succeeded by Guatimozin, the nephew and son-in-law 
 of Montazuma ; his distinguished reputation for courage, and 
 2s a commander, secured him the unanimous support of his 
 
10 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 Countrymen, at this alarming crisis. Although appalled at tli& 
 formidable aspect of the brigantines, small and clumsy as 
 they were, Guatamozin resolved to hazard an attempt to des- 
 troy them. With a vast multitude of canoes, which covered 
 the whole lake, the Mexicans fearlessly advanced to engage 
 the brigantines, which, in consequence of a dead calm, were 
 scarcely able to move ; but, fortunately for the Spaniards, a 
 breeze sprung up, and the vessels spreading sail, broke through 
 and overset the canoes, and dispersed the whole armament 
 without scarcely an effort, and with great slaughter. This 
 action convinced the Mexicans, that the superiority of the 
 Spaniards was greater on the water than on the land, and they 
 made no farther attempt to dispute with them the dominion of 
 the lake. Being master of the lake, Cortes carried on the 
 siege with great activity ; he divided his forces and attacked 
 the city in three different quarters, the brigantines being form- 
 ed into three squadrons to cover the troops at each of the 
 points of attack. For more than a month the siege continued, 
 and was a succession of sharp and obstinate conflicts ; during 
 the day, the Spaniards forced their way over all the obstruc- 
 tions which the enemy had interposed on the causeways to 
 stop their progress, and passed the trenches and canals where 
 the bridges were broken down, and sometimes penetrated in- 
 to the city ; but at night, retired to their former positions, as 
 from the small number of their troops they deemed it unsafe 
 to remain within the city, where they might be overwhelmed 
 by the multitude of their foes. During the night, the Mexi- 
 cans repaired what the Spaniards had destroyed in the course 
 of the day, and the contest was thus continued, with the des- 
 perate bravery and perseverance, on both sides, of men deter- 
 mined to conquer or die. At length, Cortes, astonished at the 
 obstinacy of the Mexicans, resolved to attempt, by a great and 
 bold effort, to get possession of the city. He made a general 
 assault at the three points of attack, with his whole force, and 
 pushing on with irresistible impetuosity, they forced their way 
 over one barricade after another, and penetrated into the city. 
 But, the officer, ordered to fill up the trenches in the cause- 
 ways, and to keep the command of the same, to secure a re- 
 treat in case it should become necessary, having neglected that 
 duty and joined in the conflict, Guatimozin availing himself of 
 this mistake, suffered the Spaniards to advance into the heart 
 of the town ; when the sound of the great drum of the tem- 
 ple, consecrated to the god of war, was heard as a signal for 
 action ; the whole population of the city rushed with frantic 
 fury to the scene of strife, and fell on their invaders with irre^ 
 sistable impetuosity ; the Spaniards at first retired slowly and 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA* 41 
 
 ill order; but when they arrived at the breach in the cause- 
 way, where the Mexicans had concentrated a large force to 
 intercept their retreat, being pressed on all sides, they were 
 thrown into confusion, and horse and foot, Spaniards and 
 'Tlascalans, plunged promiscuously into the gap. The Mexi- 
 cans, encouraged by success, pressed furiously upon them from 
 all quarters ; their canoes covered the lake, and the causeway 
 both before and behind, was blocked up with their warriors. 
 After incredible exertions, the Spaniards forced their way 
 though the multitude of their enemies, with the loss of more 
 than twenty killed, and forty tak^ n prisoners. These last un- 
 happy victims were sacrificed, the following night, to the god 
 of war, as a horrid triumph ; the whole city was illuminated, 
 and the Spaniards were filled with grief and horror by the 
 shrieks of their companions, about to be immolated to the di- 
 abolical deities of their enemies. The heads of the victims 
 were sent to the different provinces, and exhibited, with a 
 declaration that the god of war, appeased by the blood of their 
 enemies, had declared that in eight days their invaders should 
 be destroyed, and peace restored to the empire. The success 
 of the Mexicans, together with this confident prediction, had a 
 magic effect, and the people flocked in from all quarters, to 
 assist in conquering a hated foe, whom the gods had decreed 
 to destroy. Cortes stationed his troops under the protection 
 of his ships, which kept the enemy at a distance until the ei^ht 
 days had expired ; and such was the influence of superstition 
 that most of his allies deserted him ; but after the fatal period 
 had elapsed, and the Spaniards still being safe, they were 
 ashamed of their credulity, and returned to their stations. 
 
 Although. Cortes now found himself in possession of a nu- 
 merous force of Indians, yet past experience taught him to 
 adopt a new and more safe mode of carrying on the siege. 
 He made slow but gradual advances ; his Indian allies repair- 
 ed the causeways as he advanced, and as the Spaniards got 
 possession of any part of the city, their allies were employed 
 in levelling the houses to the ground. They thus compelled 
 the Mexicans daily to retire, and gradually circumscribed the 
 limits of the town The immense multitude which had as- 
 sembled in the city, consumed the supplies of provisions, 
 and they were threatened with the horrors of famine within, 
 whilst assailed by the enemy from without. 
 
 Having the command of the lake, and from the numerous 
 body of his Indian allies, Cortes was enabled to cut off all com- 
 munications with the city. Three quarters of it were reduced 
 to ashes, when at length the three divisions of the Spaniards 
 penetrated into the great central square, and established a se- 
 
 4* 
 
42 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 cure position. The fate of the city was now decided, as* it 
 was evident that what remained, being assailed from more ad- 
 vantageous stations, could hold out but a short time. At this 
 crisis, the chiefs and nobles prevailed on Gautimozin to retire 
 to the provinces and attempt to arouse the people ; and to fa- 
 cilitate his escape they opened a negociation for peace with 
 Cortes ; but the latter, too vigilant to be deceived, had given 
 strict orders to watch the lake and suffer no canoes to pass. 
 The officer, to whom this duty was assigned, observing several 
 large canoes crossing the lake with rapidity, ordered a swift- 
 sailing brigantine in pursuit, which, as it neared them, was 
 about firing when all the rowers in an instant dropped their 
 oars, threw down their arms, and rising up, beseeched them nofc 
 to fire, as the emperor was on board. Gautimozin surrender- 
 ed himself, with dignity, and only requested that no insult 
 might be offered to the empress, or his children. When 
 brought into the presence of Cortes, he behaved with a de- 
 gree of composure and dignity that would have done honour 
 to any monarch on earth. Addressing himself to Cortes, he 
 said, " I have done what became a monarch; I have defended 
 my people to the last extremity. Nothing now remains but to 
 die. Take this dagger," (laying his hand on one which Cortes 
 wore) " plant it in my breast, and put an end to a life which 
 can no longer be of any use." Previous to his leaving the 
 city he had caused all his treasures to be thrown into the lake. 
 
 The capture of the sovereign terminated the struggle,, and 
 the city and the empire fell into the hands of the conquerors. 
 The siege had continued seventy-five days, and was by far the 
 nlost extraordinary . and memorable military effort in the con- 
 quest of America. The exertions, bravery, perseverance, and 
 astonisning exploits of Cortes and his followers, are unexam- 
 pled ; yet, it is not to be supposed that the Mexican empire, 
 comprising a vast population, in a considerable state of im- 
 provement, was conquered by a few hundred Spaniards : its 
 conquest was effected by internal disaffections and divisions, 
 and the jealousy of its neighbours, who dreaded its power, the 
 oppression of which they had often experienced. 
 
 The excessive joy of the Spaniards was changed to mur- 
 murs, when they learnt the small amount of treasure which 
 had fallen into their hands ; and such was their rage and dis- 
 appointment, that Cortes was obliged to give way to it, and 
 suffer Gautimozin to be put to the torture to compel him to 
 discover the royal treasures which they supposed he had con- 
 cealed. And with such dignity and fortitude did he endure the 
 torture, that when the anguish and pain was at its height, and his 
 fellow-sufferer seemed to ask permission to purchase relief by 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 43 
 
 revealing what he knew, the royal victim, with a look of au- 
 thority and scorn, reproached him for his weakness, by asking, 
 " Am / now reposing on a bed of roses 1" After this reproof, 
 his fellow-sufferer remained silent, and expired under the tor- 
 ture of men calling themselves Christians. Cortes, ashamed 
 of what he had done, interfered and rescued the royal victim 
 from the hands of his persecutors. 
 
 On the 10th of August, 1519, Ferdinand Maggellan sailed 
 from Seville with five ships and two hundred and thirty-four 
 men, on a voyage of discovery. He discovered and entered 
 the spacious bay forming the mouth of the River de la Plata, 
 supposing it to be a strait, or communication leading into the 
 Southern Ocean ; and proceeding south he entered the strait 
 that bears his name, and after sailing twenty days in that wind* 
 ing channel, the great Southern Ocean presented itself to his 
 astonished vision, and with tears of joy he returned thanks to 
 Heaven. Pursuing his course towards the north-west, he 
 sailed, for three months and twenty days, without discovering 
 land ; and from the uninterrupted course of fair weather, and 
 the favourableness of the winds, he gave that ocean the name 
 of Pacific, which it has ever since retained. He discovered 
 numerous islands, and among others the Philippines. In a 
 quarrel with the natives, at one of these islands, he was un- 
 fortunately killed. The expedition, after the death of its 
 commander, discovered the great island of Borneo, and at, 
 length arrived at one of the Molucca Isles, to the no small 
 astonishment of the Portuguese, who could not conceive how 
 the Spaniards, by sailing in a westerly direction, had arrived 
 at an island, which they discovered by sailing in a directly op- 
 posite course. From this place they sailed by the way of the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and returned home, after a voyage of 
 three years and twenty-eight days, having sailed round the 
 globe for the first time. 
 
 The accounts of Cortes' victories and conquests, which 
 were sent to Spain, filled his countrymen with admiration, and 
 excited the highest expectations with the people and the gov- 
 ernment. Charles V. who had succeeded to the throne, ap- 
 pointed Cortes Captain-general of New Spain ; and even be- 
 fore he had received any legal sanction, he assumed the powei* 
 of governor, and adopted measures to secure the vast country 
 he had conquered to his sovereign, as a colony of Spain. He 
 determined to rebuild the capital, and there to establish the 
 seat of his government ; he commenced the work on an ex- 
 tended plan, and laid the foundations of the most magnificent 
 city in the asw world. Re caused examinations to be made 
 
44 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 for mines, opened some, and encouraged his countrymen tfr 
 settle in the remote provinces. 
 
 The Mexicans, conquered and degraded as they were, did 
 not quietly submit to their new masters ; but aroused by op- 
 pression or despair, they often, with more courage than discre- 
 tion, rushed to arms, and were not only defeated in every 
 contest, but the Spaniards, regarding these attempts to regain 
 their liberty, as rebellion against their lawful sovereign, put 
 the caciques and nobles, who fell into their hands, to death, 
 and reduced the common people to the most humiliating and 
 degrading servitude. The massacres and cruelties of the 
 Spaniards are almost incredible. " In almost every district of 
 the Mexican empire the progress of the Spanish arms is mark- 
 ed with blood. In the country of Panuco, sixty caciques, or 
 leaders, and four hundred nobles were burnt at one time ; 
 and to complete the horror of the scene, the children and re- 
 lations of the wretched victims were assembled and compel- 
 led to be spectators of their dying agonies."* This sanguin- 
 ary scene was succeeded by another, if possible still more 
 revolting and horrible to the natives. On suspicion, or pre- 
 tence, that Gautimozin had conspired against the Spanish au- 
 thority, and excited his former subjects to take up arms, the 
 unhappy monarch, with the caciques of Tezeuco and Tacuba, 
 the two most distinguished personages in the empire, without 
 even the formality of a trial, were brought to a public and ig- 
 nominious execution, and hanged on a gibbet, in the presence 
 of their countrymen, who witnessed the scene with indescriba- 
 ble horror, as they had long been accustomed to reverence 
 their sovereign with homage and awe, scarcely less profound 
 than that offered to their gods. 
 
 For all his toils and sufferings, his splendid achievements, 
 his extensive conquests, and all the cruelties and crimes he 
 committed for his sovereign Cortes received the reward which 
 usually attends those who perform great services for their 
 country : he was envied, calumniated, suspected, recalled, 
 deprived of his authority, and of all benefit from his exertions, 
 except the glory of being the conqueror of Mexico, and the 
 oppressor and destroyer of a great and once prosperous and 
 happy nation. 
 
 * Robertson. 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA, 45 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Expedition for the discovery of Peru The Coast of Chile and 
 Peru discovered Pizarro visits Spain returns and Jits out 
 another expedition for the conquest of the country The first 
 colony in Peru planted The Incas of the country Pizarro 
 marches into the interior and captures the Inca he offers to 
 Jill a room with gold for his ransom is put to death The 
 Peruvians determine to expel their invaders they besiege Ctts- 
 co Action between Pizarro and Almagro Expedition of 
 Gdnsalo Pizarro the incredible sufferings of his men Orel- 
 lana, one of his officers, with fifty men, deserts- sails down the 
 Amazon and enters the Atlantic Ocean Distress ofGonsalo-^- 
 he returns to Quito Vaca de Castro appointed Governor of 
 Peru Insurrection among the Spaniards against Pizarro 
 he is assassinated in his palace -Vela appointed governor * 
 bloody action between him and Gonsalo Pizarro Gasca sent 
 from Spain, as governor his pacific measures Pizarro re- 
 fuses to submit is defeated and beheaded Gasca returns to 
 Spain. 
 
 THE success c-f Cortes, and other Spanish adventurers in 
 America, stimulated the ambition of their countrymen, and 
 gave additional impulse to the spirit of enterprise and discov- 
 ery, which .was the prevailing passion of the day. The discov- 
 eries and conquests which had been made, and the settlements 
 that had been established, served both as incentives and facil- 
 ities to new and bolder enterprises. The settlement at Pana- 
 ma, on the western coast of the Isthmus of Darien, greatly 
 facilitated the plans of adventurers in that quarter, and became, 
 in some measure, the parent of most of the early settlements 
 on the coast of the Southern Ocean. 
 
 Soon after the conquest of Mexico, about the year 1524, 
 three obscure individuals, residing at Panama, formed a plan 
 for discovering and conquering the rich countries to the east- 
 ward of that colony, which had long attracted the attention of 
 adventurers. These individuals were Francisco Pizarro, tho 
 natural son of a Spanish gentleman, a soldier, and one of the 
 early adventurers to the new world ; Diego de Almagro, also 
 a soldier, and whose origin was equally humble with that of his 
 
46 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 associate, one being a bastard and the other a foundling ; arid" 
 Hermando Luque, an ecclesiastic, who was employed in the 
 double capacity of priest and schoolmaster at Panama. The 
 last, by some means not known, had acquired considerable 
 wealth, but his two associates possessed but little ; each, how- 
 ever, was to embark his whole fortune in the enterprise, to- 
 gether with all his hopes. The contract between them was 
 solemnized by religious sanctions, although its object was ra- 
 pine and murder. 
 
 With all their united means and exertions they were ena- 
 bled only to fit out one small vessel, with one hundred and 
 twelve men, Pedrarias, the governor of Panama, having first 
 authorized the expedition. This was commanded by Pizarro, 
 and afterwards Almagro sailed with seventy men more, as a 
 re- enforcement. Such were the men and such the means by 
 which one of the most extensive empires on the globe was to 
 be conquered an empire, where civilization and the arts had 
 made great progress, and whose government was not only es- 
 tablished on divine authority, but its sovereign claimed rela- 
 tionship with the gods, and was venerated by his subjects 
 accordingly. 
 
 Their first expedition was product! v , of little more advan- 
 tage than the discovery of the opulent country of which they 
 were in pursuit, whose existence had become a matter of doubt, 
 in consequence of the failure of several attempts at discovery. 
 After having touched at various places, and suffered incredible 
 hardships, they discovered the coast of Chile, and landed at 
 Tacamez, south of the river Emeraulds, where they beheld, 
 with pleasure, a fertile and inviting country, very different from 
 any they had discovered in the Southern Ocean. The coun- 
 try was cultivated, and the natives were clad in garments 
 of white cotton stuffs, and adorned with trinkets of gold and 
 silver. Although delighted with these appearances, the ad- 
 venturers did not presume to invade so populous a country 
 with a handful of men, worn out with hardships and wasted by 
 disease. They stopped at the island of Gallo, and Almagro 
 returned to Panama to obtain ^-enforcements, leaving Pizar- 
 ro, with part of the men. Pedro de los Rios, having succeed- 
 ^ed Pedrarias, as governor of the colony, and apprehending that 
 the settlement of Panama would be weakened and even ex- 
 posed, by sending off adventurers in a distant and uncertain 
 enterprise, he prohibited Almagro from raising more recruits, 
 and despatched a vessel to bring back Pizarro and his followers, 
 who were left behind. When the vessel arrived, Pizarro, in- 
 flexibly bent on his purposes, peremptorily refused to obey the 
 orders of the governor, and used every persuasion to induce 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 4f 
 
 his men to remain with him He drew a line on the sand with 
 his sword, and informed his followers that those who wished to 
 abandon their leader and the glorious enterprise, would pass 
 over : thirteen only remained to share the fortune of their 
 commander. This small and dauntless band removed to the 
 island of Gorgona. as being a more safe situation, where they 
 remained for more than five months, constantly tortured with 
 hopes and fears, and suffering every thing, short of death, 
 from an unhealthy climate and the want of provisions. At 
 length a vessel arrived from the governor, to convey them to 
 Panama, which occasioned such excessive joy, such a sudden 
 transition of feeling, that not only his followers, but the crew 
 of the vessel, agreed to follow Pizarro, and, instead of returning 
 to Panama, they bore away to the south-east, and had the good 
 fortune to discover the coast of Peru. After touching at sev- 
 eral places, they landed at Tumbez, situated about three de- 
 grees south of the equatorial line ; here was a magnificent 
 temple and a palace of the Incas, or sovereigns of the empire. 
 The fertility of the country, the improvements, civilization and 
 wealth of the inhabitants, was now, for the first time, fully un- 
 folded to the view of the Spaniards ; the rich stuffs, in which 
 many of the inhabitants ere clad, the ornaments of gold and 
 silver, which adorned their persons, and the more massy and 
 splendid ornaments of the precious metals, which enriched 
 their temples, and even the common utensils, composed of gold 
 and silver, attracted their enraptured vision, convinced them 
 that their fondest dreams were realized, and that at last they 
 had discovered the land of Ophir the country of gold. They 
 feasted their eyes and their hopes on these inviting objects ; 
 and gazed until they almost imagined themselves masters of 
 the country and possessed of all the wealth they saw and co- 
 veted. But with his small force, Pizarro did not attempt any 
 thing against the country, and contented himself with sailing 
 along the coast and trading with the inhabitants ; he procured 
 several llamas, vessels of silver and gold, and several curious 
 specimens of their manufactures, to be exhibited as memorials 
 of the opulent country he had discovered and explored. He 
 also brought off two native youths, under the pretence of in- 
 structing them in the Castilian language, but with the real in- 
 tention of employing them as interpreters. 
 
 But the flattering accounts which Pizarro gave of the opu- 
 lence of the country, supported by the specimens he had 
 brought with him, did not change the inflexible resolution of 
 the governor of Panama ; he still refused to authorize or even 
 countenance the scheme of Pizarro and his two associates ; in 
 consequence of which, they determined to apply directly to 
 
48 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 their sovereign. Having agreed among themselves that K- 
 zarro should be governor, Almagro, adelantado or lieutenant- 
 governor, and Luque, bishop of the country they might con- 
 quer, Pizarro set sail for Spain, and succeeded beyond the 
 utmost extent of his hopes. He obtained the appointment of 
 captain-general arid adelantado of the country he had discov- 
 ered, described to extend six hundred miies along the coast 
 south of the river St. Jago ; but his unbounded ambition lead 
 him to grasp every thing for himself, and to disregard the 
 rights of Almagro ; yet as the views of Luque did not inter- 
 fere with his own, he obtained for him the expected appoint- 
 ment. When Pizarro arrived at Panama he found Almagro so 
 exasperated at his conduct, that he was exerting all his influ- 
 ence to embarrass and frustrate his plans, and at the same time 
 to fit out an expedition himself, on his own account. Alarmed 
 at the consequences of an opposition from one who had been 
 connected with him in the enterprise, Pizarro exerted himself 
 to effect a reconciliation, and by offering to relinquish to Al* 
 magro the office of adelantado, a re-union among the confed- 
 erates was established. The confederates now exerted them- 
 selves to fit out an armament for the conquest of the country ; 
 but with all their united efforts, aided by the alluring accounts 
 of the country, three small vessels with one hundred and eight 
 men, was the extent of the force which they could raise, and 
 with this Pizarro did not hesitate to invade an extensive coun- 
 try, filled with people. He landed in the bay of St. Matthew, 
 and avanced towards the south. In the province of Coaque 
 they plundered the inhabitants of gold and silver to the amount 
 of forty thousand dollars, a large portion of which they remit- 
 ted in one of their vessels to Almagro, at Panama, to enable 
 him to procure recruits ; and despatched another vessel to Ni- 
 caragua. This display of the riches of the country, and the 
 wealth they had already acquired, had a most happy influence 
 on the cause, and procured several small re-enforcements. 
 Pizarro continued his march along the coast, and met with lit- 
 tle resistance from the inhabitants, who, surprised and terrified 
 at the sudden appearance of such formidable invaders, either 
 deserted their habitations and fled, or sued for peace and fa- 
 vour. He proceeded to Tumbez, and from thence to the river 
 Piura, near the mouth of which, at a favourable site, he plant- 
 ed the first colony in Peru, which he called St. Michael. 
 
 Peru, at the time it was invaded by Pizarro, was a powerful 
 and extensive empire, being six hundred leagues in length on 
 the coast of the Pacific Ocean, and extending east to the ridge 
 f the Andes, stretching from one extremity of that ya 
 chain to the other. This extensive country, like other parts 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 49 
 
 of America, was originally inhabited by numerous independ- 
 ent tribes of savages, who were in a rude and unimproved 
 state of nature, until, according to their own traditions, two 
 extraordinary personages suddenly appeared on the banks of 
 the Lake Titiaca, who founded the Peruvian Empire. Their 
 names were Manco Capac, and Mama Ocollo, his consort ; 
 they were dressed in white cotton garments, were of majestic 
 form and appearance, and claimed to be children of the Sun, 
 and to have been sent by the Beneficent Parent of the human 
 race, who looked down on the miseries of his creatures with 
 pity, to instruct, and impart to them the blessings of peace and 
 civilization. 
 
 The dignity and sanctity of these extraordinary individuals, 
 and their knowledge of some of the arts of life, which appear- 
 ed wonderful to the simple natives, induced many of the wan- 
 dering tribes to follow them, and submit to their authority. 
 They proceeded to Cusco, and commenced the erection of 
 houses, and thus gradually laid the foundation of a city. 
 Blanco Capac instructed the men in agriculture and the useful 
 arts, and introduced the regular laws of society, whilst Mama 
 Ocollo taught the w T omen to spin and weave and other domes- 
 tic employments The institutions and laws of Manco, es- 
 tablished private property, and the duties of the social rela- 
 tions, and provided for the security of private rights, and the 
 peace of the community. The powers and duties of persons 
 in authority were divided, graduated and defined, and exerci- 
 sed with such uniformity and steadiness, as gave the communi- 
 ty the appearance, if not the character of a well regulated 
 State. At first, the territory of Manco Capac extended but 
 about eight leagues around Cusco, his capital ; but it was en- 
 larged by him and his successors, from time to time, until it 
 comprized one of the most extensive empires in the world. 
 He and his successors were styled Incas, or Lords, and were 
 not only obeyed as sovereigns, but revered as divinities ; and 
 according to the principles of legitimacy, as recognized in 
 more civilized nations, the blood was to be kept pure, and all 
 intermarriages with the royal and divine race of the Incas, 
 were prohibited under the severest penalties. 
 
 When the Spaniards first visited Peru, the throne was filled 
 by Huanan Capac, the twelfth monarch from the founder of 
 the empire and dynasty. He was a prince equally eminent 
 for his pacific virtues, and military talents. He conquered the 
 kingdom of Quito in the year 1526, and annexed it to his do- 
 minions, and married the daughter of the vanquished mon- 
 arch, by whom he had a son, called Atahualpa. At his death 
 he appointed this son his successor in the kingdom of Quito, 
 
 VOL. I. 5 
 
,fjO SKETCH OF THE HISTOK.1 
 
 and left the rest of his dominions to Huascar, his oldest son, 
 and whose mother was of the royal Inca blood. The latter, 
 feeling the pride of legitimacy, disallowed the title of his half- 
 brother, as he was not of the entire royal blood, and a civil 
 war ensued. This war was prevailing, and had filled the em- 
 pire with dissensions, when Pizarro landed in the Bay of St. 
 Michael. 
 
 Atahualpa, having the command of the army which his fa- 
 ther had led into Quito, took the field with great advantage 
 over his rival ; defeated, and took him prisoner and confined 
 him in the tower at Cusco. Pizarro obtained information of 
 these disorders, with great satisfaction, from messengers sent 
 to him by Huascar, to solicit his aid against Atahualpa, whom 
 he represented as a rebel who had usurped the sovereignty,, 
 which belonged to himself. The importance of this intelli- 
 gence being perceived by Pizarro, he immediately put his 
 troops in motion, and without waiting for a re-enforcement, 
 inarched into the interior of the country, leaving a small gar- 
 rison at St. Michael. With little opposition, he penetrated to 
 Caxamalca, the head-quarters of Atahualpa, who with aston- 
 ishing simplicity received him in the most friendly manner. 
 Pizarro, according to the prevailing artifice of liis countrymen, 
 pretended that he had come as the ambassador of a very pow- 
 erful monarch beyond the waters, and that the object of his 
 mission was to assist Atahualpa against his enemies, who wish- 
 ed to deprive him of his crown and dominions. Pizarro took 
 possession of a large court, on one side of which was a palace 
 of the Incas, and on the other a temple of the Sun, which 
 was the divinity of the country. The whole being surround- 
 ed by a wall of earth, it afforded a safe and advantageous po- 
 sition for his troops. Pizarro immediately despatched his 
 brother to the carnp of Atahualpa to re-assure him of his ami- 
 cable intentions, and to invite him to an interview. The ex- 
 ample of Cortes, strengthened by iiis own experience in the 
 country, determined him to attempt the same bold measure 
 that had been found so successful in Mexico. The interview 
 was conducted with great ceremony and dignity on the part 
 of the Peruvians : the Inca sitting on a throne, covered with 
 gold and adorned with plumes and precious stones, was carri- 
 ed on the shoulders of four of the principal officers of his 
 household, and was preceded by four hundred men in uniform, 
 and followed by the officers of government, civil and military, 
 accompanied by an immense retinue ; and his whole army was 
 drawn out on the plain, amounting to more than thirty thou- 
 sand JB6B. 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 51 
 
 As the Inca arrived near the Spanish quarters, the chaplain 
 of the expedition addressed him, and explained to him, in 
 Spanish, which was interpreted, the mysteries of Christianity, 
 the power of the Pope, and the grant made by his holiness of 
 all the territories and countries of the new world, to the King 
 of Spain, and concluded by requiring the Inca to acknowledge 
 the Christian religion, the authority of the Pope, and submit 
 to the King of Castile as his lawful sovereign ; and in case 
 he should be so unreasonable and impious as to refuse to obey 
 this demand, he denounced war against him in the name of 
 his sovereign. Astonished and indignant at this incomprehen- 
 sible and presumptuous harangue, Atahualpa replied that he 
 was master of his own dominions, and held them as an inher- 
 itance from his ancestors, and that he could not perceive how 
 a priest should pretend to dispose of countries which did not 
 belong to him, and of which he must have been ignorant even 
 of the existence ; he said he would not renounce the religion 
 of his ancestors, nor relinquish the adoration of the Sun, the 
 immortal divinity of his country, to worship the God of the 
 Spaniards, who was subject to death like mortals. He wished 
 to be informed where the priest had learnt such wonderful 
 things : " In this book," said Father Valverde, reaching to him 
 his breviary. The Inca took it in his hand, and turning over 
 the leaves and raising it to his ear, observed, " this book is si- 
 lent ; it tells me nothing," and threw it on the ground in a 
 contemptuous manner. The monk, turning to war* is liis 
 countrymen in a rage, exclaimed, " To arms, Christians ! to 
 arms ! the word of God is insulted ; avenge this profanation 
 on those impious dogs." Pizarro, who had previously made 
 the necessary arrangements for an attack, waited with impa- 
 tience during this long conference, being anxious to seize his 
 victim and the rich spoils that lay before his eyes. His orders 
 were instantly given ; the martial music struck up, the cannon 
 roared, the musquetry was discharged, the horse galloped 
 fiercely to the charge, and the infantry pressed impetuously 
 forward, sword in hand. Astonished at such infamous treach- 
 ery, and surprised and terrified at the suddenness of the attack f 
 and the noise and destructive effects of fire arms, the Peruvi- 
 ans were filled with consternation, and fled with the utmost 
 precipitation. Although the nobility flocked around the Inca, 
 in crowds, zealous to defend him, he was seized by Pizarro, 
 who, at the head of a chosen band, selected for the purpose, 
 had advanced directly towards him. He was dragged from his 
 throne to the ground, and carried to the Spanish quarters. 
 The fugitives, half frightened out of their senses, not knowing 
 whether their enemies were of the human race, or beings of 
 
52 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 a superior nature, sent to punish them for their crimes, were 
 pursued in every direction, and immense numbers of them 
 slaughtered, although they did not make the least resistance. 
 More than four thousand Peruvians were slain, and not a sin- 
 gle Spaniard, nor one wounded, except Pizarro himself, slight- 
 ly on the hand, by one of his own men. The plunder was of 
 immense value, and fairly turned the heads of such a band of 
 desperate and indigent adventurers ; they spent the night in 
 that extravagant joy which a change of fortune so sudden and 
 important was calculated to produce. 
 
 The wretched monarch, removed in an hour from a throne 
 to a prison, almost sunk under a calamity so sudden and so 
 tremendous : had an earthquake shaken the Andes from its 
 base and swallowed up half his dominions, the calamity could 
 not have appeared more sudden or terrible. Discovering 
 however, that an insatiable thirst for gold was the predominant 
 passion of his oppressors, and apparently their only object in 
 invading his country, he offered as a ransom for his liberty, to 
 fill the apartment in which he was confined, which was twenty- 
 two feet in length and sixteen in breadth, as high as he could 
 reach, with gold. Pizarro did not hesitate to accept this 
 tempting offer, and a line was drawn round the walls, to fix 
 more definitely the stipulated height of the chamber. Trans- 
 ported with the idea of obtaining his liberty, Atahualpa sent 
 to Cusco, Quito, and other places, where gold had been col- 
 lected for adorning the temples and palaces of the Incas, in- 
 forming his subjects of the terms of his ransom, and ordering 
 all the gold to be conveyed toCaxamalca for that purpose. 
 
 The Peruvians, accustomed to obey implicitly the mandates 
 of their sovereign, flocked in, from all parts of the empire, 
 loaded with the precious metals, so that in a short period the 
 greater part of the stipulated quantity was produced, and Ata- 
 hualpa assured Pizarro that the residue would arrive as soon 
 as there was sufficient time to convey it from the remote prov- 
 inces. But such piles of gold so inflamed the avarice of a 
 needy soldiery, that they could no longer be restrained, and 
 Pizarro was obliged to order the whole melted down and di- 
 vided among his followers. The captive monarch having 
 performed his part of the contract, now demanded to be set at 
 liberty ; but the perfidious Spanish leader had no such inten- 
 tion ; his only object being to secure the plunder ; and he 
 even meditated taking the life of his credulous captive, at the 
 very time the latter was employed in amassing the treasures 
 for his ransom. Atahualpa was subjected to a mock- trial, 
 condemned to be burnt ; and his last moments were embitter- 
 ed by friar Valverde, who, although he had used his influence 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 53 
 
 to procure his condemnation, and sanctioned the sentence with 
 hiaown signature, attempted to console him in his awful situ- 
 ation, and to convert him to Christianity. The only argument 
 that had any influence on the trembling victim, was that of 
 mitigating his punishment ; and on the promise of being 
 strangled, instead of consumed by a slow fire, he consented to 
 be baptized, by the hand of one of his murderers, who exerci- 
 sed the holy functions of priest. 
 
 After the death of Atahualpa, Pizarro invested 0ne of his 
 sons with the ensigns of royalty ; Manco Capac, a brother of 
 Huascar, was also declared sovereign at Cuseo, and the gov- 
 ernors of many of the provinces assumed independent authority, 
 so that the empire was torn to pieces by intestine dissensions. 
 
 The intelligence of the immense wealth acquired by Pizar- 
 ro and his followers, which those who had returned had con- 
 veyed to Panama, Nicaragua arid Guatamala, confirmed by a 
 display of the treasures, produced such an electric effect, that 
 it was with difficulty the governors of those places could re- 
 strain their people from abandoning their possessions and em- 
 barking for Peru, as adventurers. Numerous re-enforcements 
 arrived from various quarters, which enabled Pizarro to force 
 his way into the heart of the country and take possession of 
 Cusco, the capital of the empire. The gold and silver found 
 here, after all that had been removed, exceeded what had been 
 received as the ransom of Atahualpa. 
 
 Whilst the Spanish commander was thus employed, Benal- 
 cazar, who had been left in command at St. Michael, having 
 received some re-enforcements, left a garrison at that place, 
 and set out with the rest of the troops under his command for 
 the conquest of Quito. After a long and difficult march, over 
 mountains and rivers, exposed to the fierce attacks of the 
 natives, he entered the city of Quito. The tranquillity of the 
 interior, and the arrival of Ferdinand Pizarro, brother of the 
 command er-in-chief, with considerable re-enforcements, indu- 
 ced the latter to march back to the sea coast, where, in the 
 year 1534, he laid the foundation of the city of Lima, distin- 
 guished in after times for its wealth and earthquakes, and more 
 recently as the seat of civil war. In the mean time, Amalgro 
 set out on an expedition for the conquest of Chile ; and sev- 
 eral parties were ordered by Pizarro into distant provinces, 
 which had not been subjugated. These various enterprises 
 had reduced the troops at Cusco to a small number. The 
 Peruvians, aware of this circumstance, and being now persua- 
 ded that the Spaniards would not voluntarily retire from their 
 country, but intended to establish themselves in it, were at last 
 aroused Irom their inactivity and seemed determined to expel 
 
 5* 
 
54 SKETCH OP THE HISTORY 
 
 their rapacious invaders. Preparations, through the whole 
 empire, were carried on with such secrecy and despatch, asfco 
 elude the utmost vigilance of the Spaniards ; and Manco Ca- 
 pac, who was acknowledged by all as sovereign at this time, 
 having made his escape from the Spaniards at Cusco, where 
 he had been detained as a prisoner, the standard of war was 
 immediately raised ; troops assembled from all parts of the 
 empire, and according to the Spanish writers of that period, 
 two hundred thousand men laid siege to Cusco, which was 
 defended for nine months by one hundred and seventy Span- 
 iards. A numerous army also invested Lima, and all commu- 
 nication between the two cities was cut off. The Peruvians 
 not only displayed the utmost bravery, but imitating the disci- 
 pline of their enemies, large bodies were marshalled in regular 
 order ; some of their bravest warriors were armed with swords 
 and spears ; others appeared with muskets, obtained from the 
 Spaniards, and a few of the boldest, at the head of whom was 
 the Inca himself, were mounted on horses, which they had 
 taken from their invaders, and charged like Spanish cavaliers. 
 All the exertions of the Spanish garrison, directed by the three 
 brothers of the commander-in-chief, and rendered desperate 
 from their situation, could not resist the incessant attacks of 
 the Peruvians ; they recovered possession of one half of their 
 capital ; and the Spaniards, worn out with uninterrupted ser- 
 vice, suffering for the want of provisions, and ignorant as to 
 their brethren in other stations, and the number of their ene- 
 mies daily increasing, were ready to despair ; the stoutest, 
 hearts sunk under such accumulated, such appalling difficul- 
 ties and dangers. 
 
 At this hour of darkness, when the lamp of hope emitted 
 but a glimmering ray, Almagro appeared at Cusco. But even 
 this event the Pizarros hardly knew whether to regard as aus- 
 picious or calamitous, as they knew not whether he had come 
 as a friend or foe. Whilst in Chile, he had received a patent 
 from the Crown, constituting him Governor of Chile, and de- 
 fining its limits, which, by his own construction, included the 
 city of Cusco; and being informed of the revolt of the Peru- 
 vians, he marched back to prevent the place from falling into 
 the possession of the natives, and also to rescue it from the 
 hands of the Pizarros. Almagro was, therefore, the enemy 
 of both parties, and both attempted to negotiate with him. 
 The Inca, knowing his situation and pretensions, at first at- 
 tempted to make terms with him ; but soon being convinced 
 that no faith could be had wjth a Spaniard, he fell suddenly 
 upon him, with a numerous body of his bravest troops. The 
 discipline and good fortune of the Spaniards once more pre- 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 55 
 
 vailed, and the Peruvians were defeated with an immense 
 slaughter, and their whole army dispersed. Almagro's atten- 
 tion was now directed against the garrison ; and having sur- 
 prized the sentinels, he entered the town by night, surrounded 
 the house where the two Pizarros quartered, and compelled 
 the garrison to surrender at discretion. Francisco Pizarro, 
 having defeated and driven off the Peruvians who invested 
 Lima, sent a detachment of five hundred men to Cusco to the 
 relief of his brothers, in case they had not already fallen into 
 the hands of the Peruvians. On their arrival they were as- 
 tonished to find an enemy in their own countrymen, which 
 was the first knowledge they had of the events that had occur- 
 red at Cusco. After first attempting, without success, to se- 
 duce Alvarado, their commander, Almagro surprized and fell 
 upon them in the night in their camp, took Alvarado and his 
 principal officers prisoners, and completely routed the party. 
 Pizarro, alarmed for the safety of his two brothers, as well 
 as for the security of his possessions, opened a negotiation 
 with Almagro; and having artfully prolonged the same, for 
 several months, and by deception and perfidy procured the 
 liberation of his brothers, he threw off all disguise, abandon- 
 ed the negotiation, and prepared to settle the dispute in the 
 field ; and seven hundred men, ready to march to Cusco, at- 
 tested the rapidity of his preparations. The command of 
 these troops he gave to his two brothers, who, anxious for 
 victory, and thirsting for revenge, penetrated through the de- 
 files of one branch of the Andes, and appeared on the plain 
 before Cusco. Almagro had five hundred men, veteran sol- 
 diers, and a greater number of cavalry than his enemy : being 
 worn out by. services and fatigues, too great for his advanced 
 age, he was obliged to entrust the command to Orgognez, who, 
 though an officer of much merit, had not the same ascendan- 
 cy over the troops as their chief, whom they had long been 
 accustomed to follow in the career of victory. Pizarro had a 
 superiority in numbers, and an advantage from two companies 
 armed with muskets, and disciplined to their use. Whilst 
 countrymen and brethren, who had made common cause in 
 plundering and massacreing the natives, were drawn up in 
 hostile array, and under the same banners, to shed each oth- 
 er's blood, the Indians, like distant clouds, covered the moun- 
 tains,, and viewed with astonishment, but with pleasure, that 
 rapacity and violence of which they had been the victims, 
 about to recoil on the heads of their invaders, and ( to be in- 
 flicted by their own hands. They were prepared to fall on 
 the victorious party, who, exhausted by the contest, might be 
 an easy prey, and thus appropriate the victory to themselves. 
 
56 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 The conflict was fierce and tremendous ; for " when Greek 
 meets Greek, then comes the tug of war ;" for a considerable 
 time the result was doubtful, but Orgognez, having received a 
 dangerous wound, his party was completely routed, himself 
 slain in cold blood, one hundred and forty killed, and the rest 
 fell into the hands of the victors. Almagro, who had wit- 
 nessed the action from ,a litter with the deepest emotions, at- 
 tempted to escape, but was made a prisoner After being de- 
 tained in custody for several months, he was subjected to a 
 mock-trial, and sentenced to death. Cusco was again pillag- 
 ed, but its rich spoils did not satisfy the rapacity of its con- 
 querors. 
 
 Pizarro now considered himself master of the entire coun- 
 try, and parcelled it out among his favourites, with as much 
 jUvStice and propriety, as the Pope had granted the whole to 
 his master. But not being able to satisfy all, and to prevent 
 the consequences of the complaints and the turbulence of his 
 men, he promoted enterprizes which employed them at a dis- 
 tance. Valdivia resumed the project of the conquest of Chile, 
 and founded the city of St. Jago de Santiago. His brother 
 Gonsalo Pizarro, he appointed to supersede Benalcazar as 
 governor of Quito, and instructed him to examine and con- 
 quer the country east of the Andes. At the hea'd of three 
 hundred and fifty men, he forced his way through the defiles 
 and over the elevated ridges of the Andes, where the cold was 
 so excessive, that four thousand Indians, who accompanied 
 him to transport his provisions, all perished ; and from their 
 excessive fatigues, the severity of the cold, and the want of 
 provisions, the Spaniards themselves, inured to hardships as 
 they were, could scarcely sustain such accumulated evils, such 
 intolerable sufferings. Some of their number fell victims to 
 them. After crossing the mountains, new and unexpected 
 calamities from the climate awaited them, and scarcely less 
 severe ; having escaped the frosts of the mountains, they were 
 now to be destroyed by the rains of the plains. For two 
 months the rain fell incessantly ; there was scarcely sufficient 
 fair weather to dry their clothes. They, however, advanced 
 until they reached the banks of one of the principal branches 
 of the Maragnon or Amazon. Here they constructed a bark 
 for the purpose of passing rivers, conveying provisions, and ex- 
 ploring the country. Fifty men were put on board, under 
 Orellana, the officer next in authority to Pizarro, and the ra- 
 pidity of the stream soon carried them a-head of their breth- 
 ren, who made their way with difficulty by land. 
 
 Orellana, imitating the examples which had been furnished 
 Mm, was no sooner beyond the power of Pizarro, than he 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 5 
 
 considered himself independent, and determined to carry on 
 business in his own account, as a discoverer. He formed the 
 bold scheme of pursuing the course of the Amazon to the, 
 ocean, and exploring the vast interior regions of the southern 
 continent. This daring attempt, as bold as it was unjustifia- 
 ble, he accomplished : committing his frail bark to the gui- 
 dance of the rapid stream, he penetrated four thousand miles 
 through an unknown region, filled with hostile tribes, and 
 where for unknown ages, wild beasts and savages alone 
 had roamed joint tenants of its immense domains. He found 
 his way safely to the ocean, and finally to Spain, where he pub- 
 lished a marvellous account of his voyage and discoveries ; and 
 among other wonders, gave an account of a nation or commu- 
 nity of women, which he visited, having all the heroic virtues 
 of the ancient Amazons ; and fromi the propensity of mankind 
 for the marvellous, this community of Amazons long maintain- 
 ed their existence, after the discoveries made, and the pro- 
 gress of science had dissipated the darkness which first gave 
 credit to the narration. Orellana was ordered to wait at the 
 junction of the Napo with the Amazon, for the arrival of Pi- 
 zarro ; and the astonishment and consternation of the latter, 
 when he ascertained the infamous treachery of Orellana, who 
 iiad basely deprived his brethren of their only resource, and 
 left them to perish in the heart of an immense wilderness, can 
 better be conceived than described. They were twelve hun- 
 dred miles from Quito, to which place they turned their course ; 
 the hardships they had before encountered, now seemed com- 
 paratively but small ; they were compelled to subsist on ber- 
 ries and roots ; they even devoured their dogs, horses, the 
 most loathsome reptiles, and the leather of their saddles. Af- * 
 ter the expiration of two years, eighty of the Spaniards only, 
 returned to Quito, and these were as naked as the savages, 
 and emaciated to skeletons. 
 
 But Pizarro found neither repose nor consolation on his re- 
 turn ; as the last dregs of his cup of bitterness, he learnt the 
 awful fate of his brother, and the overthrow of his power. The 
 adherents of Almagro and other malecontents, formed a bold 
 conspiracy, surprised and assassinated the governour in his 
 own palace, and proclaimed young Almagro, now arrived at 
 manhood, to be the head of the government, as successor to 
 his father. The shocking dissensions in Peru, being known 
 at the Court of Castile, Vaca de Castro received a royal com- 
 mission, appointing him Governour of Peru, for the purpose of 
 quieting the existing disturbances, and establishing the au- 
 thority of the Spanish government. Having landed at Quito, 
 li immediately, and with great energy, adopted measures to 
 
58 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 suppress the insurrection, and bring the daring conspirators to 
 punishment. He marched towards Cusco, whither Almagro 
 had retired ; the hostile parties met at Chupaz, about two 
 hundred miles from Cusco, and both determined to decide the 
 contest at once. The action was bloody and decisive, and 
 characterized by that fierceness, impetuosity and vindictive 
 spirit, which the deadly animosities of both parties, and des- 
 perate situation of one, were calculated to inspire ; and the 
 slaughter was in proportion to the maddening fury of the com- 
 batants. Of fourteen hundred men, the whole number enga- 
 ged on both sides, more than one thousand lay dead and woun- 
 ded on the field of battle, buperiority of numbers prevailed, 
 and young Almagro and his party, or ail who escaped the 
 sword, fell into the hands of the victors. And although they 
 - were countrymen and fellow-christians, the tender mercies of 
 their conquerors were cruelties ; forty were executed as reb- 
 els ; many were banished, and young Almagro, their leader, 
 was publicly beheaded at Cusco. These events occurred in 
 1542. 
 
 At length, the torch of civil dissension, if not extinguished, 
 ceased to burn ; and a short period of repose was restored to 
 a country, whose history hitherto was but a succession of car- 
 nage and blood-shed. 
 
 But tranquillity in Peru, was not of long continuance ; new 
 regulations having been framed for the government of the 
 Spanish possessions in America, which greatly alarmed the 
 settlers, by depriving them of their oppressive power over the 
 natives, and Nugnez Vela being sent out to Peru as governor, 
 to enforce them, the elements of dissension were again 
 brought into action, and the gathering clouds threatened anoth- 
 er storm of civil war. The rashness and violence of the new 
 governor, increased the disorders, and spread the disaffection 
 throughout the provinces. The malecontents from all quar- 
 ters looked to Gonsalo Pizarro, as their leader and deliverer ; 
 and, having taken the field, he soon found himself at the head 
 of one thousand men, with which he moved towards Lima. 
 But before he arrived there, a revolution had taken place ; 
 the governor and the judges of the Court of Audience, had 
 long ben in contention, and finally the latter gaining the as- 
 cendancy, seized the governor, and sent him prisoner to a de- 
 sert island on the coast. Pizarro, finding things in this state 
 of disorder, beheld the supreme authority within his reach, 
 and compelled the judges of the royal audience to appoint 
 him governor and captain-general of Peru. He had scarcely 
 possessed himself of his usurped authority, before he was cal- 
 led to defend it, against a formidable opponent. Nugnez Ve 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 59 
 
 la, the governor, being set at liberty by the officer, entrusted 
 with conducting him to Spain, landed at Tumbez, raised the 
 royal standard and resumed his functions as viceroy of the 
 province. Many distinguished individuals declared in his fa- 
 vour, and from the violence of Pizarro's administration, he 
 soon found himself at the head of a considerable force. Pi- 
 zarro immediately prepared to meet him, and to decide, by the 
 umpirage of the sword, the validity of their respective preten- 
 sions. But Vela being inferior in the number of his forces, 
 aud unwilling to stake his power and his life on the issue of an 
 engagement, retreated towards Quito, and was pursued with 
 great celerity by Pizarro. 
 
 Not being able to defend Quito, the viceroy continued his 
 march into the province of Popayan, where he received so 
 considerable re-enforcements, that he determined to march 
 back to Quito, and decide the contest. Pizarro, confiding in 
 the known bravery of his troops, rejoiced at an opportunity to 
 meet him ; the conflict, as usual, was sharp, fierce, and 
 bloody ; Pizarro was victorious, and the viceroy, who fell cov- 
 ered with wounds, had his head cut off and placed on a gibbet 
 in Quito, whilst the conquerers made a triumphal entry into 
 the city. All opposition to the authority of the victor ceased, 
 and Pizarro now found himself supreme master of Peru, and 
 of the South Sea, as he possessed a fleet which had captured 
 Panama, and commanded the ocean. 
 
 These alarming dissensions gave great concern to the gov- 
 ernment of Spain, and led to the appointment of Pedro de 
 la Gasca, with unlimited authority to suppress them and re- 
 store tranquillity, and the power of the parent country. He 
 came without troops and almost without attendants : his con- 
 duct was directly the reverse of Vela, his predecessor ; he 
 was truly the minister of peace ; it was his object to reclaim, 
 not to subdue ; and by his conciliatory conduct, mild and judi- 
 cious measures, he effected more than he could have done by 
 the sword. Several of Pizarro's officers declared in his favour, 
 and from the contagion of example, and the oblivion which 
 he proclaimed to all past offences, and a promise of redres- 
 sing grievances, his adherents daily and rapidly increased. Pi- 
 zarro, as is the case of all usurpers, when their power is in 
 danger, was filled with apprehension and rage. He sent dep- 
 uties to bribe Gasca, and if that could not be done, to cut him 
 off by assassination, or poison ; but his messengers, instead of 
 executing his diabolical orders, joined Gasca themselves. Ir- 
 ritated at the disaffection of his officers and men, he prepared 
 to decide the dispute in the field ; and Gasca, perceiving that, 
 it wenld become necessary to employ force, took steps to as- 
 
6Q SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 semble troops in Peru and collect them from other colonies. 
 Pizarro marched rapidly to Cusco, and attacked Centeno, who 
 had joined Gasca, and although he had but half the number of 
 men, he obtained a signal victory, attended with immense 
 slaughter. This good fortune was probably the cause of his 
 ruin, as it elevated his hopes so high, as inclined him to re- 
 fuse all terms of accommodation, although Gasca continued 
 to the last, extremely moderate in his demands, and seemed 
 more desirous to reclaim than to conquer. Gasca having tri- 
 ed, without successs, every means of avoiding the distressing 
 alternative of imbruing his hands in the blood of his conntry- 
 men, at length, at the head of sixteen hundred men, moved 
 towards Cusco ; and Pizarro, with oue thousand more expe- 
 rienced veterans, confident of victory, suffered him to advance 
 to within four leagues of the capital, when he marched out. 
 eager to meet him. He chose his ground, drew up his men 
 in line of battle, and the very moment he expected the action 
 to commence, some of his principal officers galloped off and 
 surrendered themselves to the enemy ; their example was 
 followed by others, and this extraordinary conduct spread 
 distrust arid amazement from rank to rank ; one company 
 after another threw down their arms, and went over to the 
 royalists. Pizarro, and some of his officers who remained 
 faithful, attempted to stop them by entreaties and threats, but 
 it was all in vain ; they soon found themselves deserted of 
 nearly their whole army. Pizarro fell into the hands of Gas- 
 ca, and was beheaded the next day ; several of his most dis- 
 tinguished and notorious followers shared the same fate ; Car- 
 vajal, at the advanced age of four score, and who had long 
 been accustomed to scenes of carnage and peril, \ on being 
 informed of his sentence, carelessly replied, " Well, a man can 
 die but once." Gasca, as moderate and just after victory as 
 before, pardoned all the rest, and exerted himself to sooth the 
 feelings of the remaining rnalecontents ; he simplified the 
 collection of the revenue, re-established the administration of 
 justice, and provided lor the protection and bettering the 
 condition of the Indians ; and having accomplished every 
 object of his mission he returned to Spain, in 1549, as poor as 
 he left it, but universally admired for his talents, virtues, and 
 important services. He entrusted the government of Peru 
 to the Court of Audience. For several years after this, 
 the machinations and rapacity of several ambitious chiefs, dis- 
 tracted the Peruvian states with civil contentions ; but at 
 length the authority of Spain was completely and firmly estab- 
 lished over the whole of that extensive and valuable portion of 
 America. 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 61 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Settlement of the different provinces in America formed into 
 two grand divisions viceroyalty of New Spain and Peru 
 ihe Council of Indies established a new viceroyalty called San* 
 ta Fe de Bogota events in the provinces of Rio de La Plata 
 establishment of the Board of Trade of Seville policy of 
 Spain in relation to her colonies difference between Great- 
 Britain and Spain, in this respect ecclesiastical establishment, 
 in America conduct of missionaries inquisition established 
 ~by Philip II. oppressive conduct of the Spaniards towards 
 the natives their wretched condition gold and silver mines 
 commercial regulations revenue derived from the colonies. 
 
 THAT part of the southern continent of America, stretching 
 to the eastward of Darien, comprising the provinces of Cartha- 
 gena and Santa Martha, was discovered by Roderigo de Basti- 
 gas, in the year 1520, and was subjugated by Pedro de Here- 
 <lia, in the year 1532. As early as the year 1544, Carthagena 
 had become a considerable town, and its harbour was the 
 safest and best fortified of any in the Spanish territories in the 
 new world. -Its situation is favourable for commerce, and it 
 was selected as the port at which the Spanish galleons should 
 first begin to trade, on their arrival from Europe, and to which 
 1hey were to return, in order to prepare for their homeward 
 voyage. The province of Venezuela was first visited by Ojeda, 
 in the year 1499, in his voyage of discovery, which has before 
 Iseen noticed. Observing an Indian village, built on piles, to 
 raise it above the stagnant water, the Spaniards, from their 
 propensity to discover resemblances between America and Eu~ 
 lope, bestowed on it the name of Venezuela, or little Venice. 
 
 Charles Vth, to obtain a large loan of the Velsers of Augs- 
 burgh, then the wealthiest merchants in Europe, granted to 
 them the province of Venezuela, to be held as an hereditary 
 fief, on condition that they were to subjugate the natives and 
 plant a colony in the territory. The proprietors sent out some 
 German adventurers, who, instead of establishing a colony, 
 wandered about the conntry in search of mines and to plunder 
 
 VOL. I. 6 
 
62 SKETCH OP THE HISTORV 
 
 the natives. In a few years their avarice and rapacity desol&* 
 ted the province, instead of settling it, and the proprietors, des'~ 
 pairing of succeeding in the enterprise, relinquished then- 
 grant and the occupation of the country, when the Spaniards 
 again took possession of it ; but notwithstanding its natural ad- 
 vantages, it long remained one of their most unpromising set- 
 tlements. 
 
 The new kingdom of Grenada, as it was called, is an interior 
 region, and was subjugated to the authority of Spain, in 1536, 
 'by Benalcazar, who invaded it from Quito, where he was in 
 command under Pizarro and Quesada. The natives being 
 more improved than any in America, not excepting the Peru- 
 vians and Mexicans, defended themselves with, resolution, 
 'bravery and perseverance ; but here, as every where else, dis- 
 cipline and science prevailed over barbarian force. The In- 
 dians in New Granada, not having been subjected to the same 
 services of working in mines, which in other parts of America 
 have wasted that miserable race, continued more populous in 
 this colony than in any other. Gold was found here, not by 
 digging into the bowels of the earth, but mixed with the soil 
 near the surface, on the more elevated tracts. One of thft 
 governors of Santa Fe carried to Spain a lump of pure gold, 
 found in one of the provinces of New Granada, valued at 
 more than three thousand dollars. 
 
 The kingdom of New Granada was first established in 1547, 
 and was under the government of a captain-general and royal 
 audience ; the seat of government was fixed at Santa Fe de 
 Bogota. In 1718, it was erected into a viceroy alty, together 
 with several other provinces ; but this government was annul- 
 led in 1724, and restored in 1740, and continued an independ- 
 ant government until the breaking out of the revolution, when 
 it was incorporated into the republic of Colombia. 
 
 The provinces of Caraccas and Cumana lie to the eastward 
 of Venezuela, and together with Carthagena and Santa Mar- 
 tha, formed what was anciently called the Kingdom of Terra 
 Firma, and all are now included in the Republic of Colombia. 
 These two provinces were, for along period, principally known 
 and distinguished for the cultivation and commerce in the nuts 
 of the cocoa-tree, which, next to those produced in Guatama- 
 la, on the South Sea, are the best in America. A paste, form- 
 ed from the nut or almond of the cocoa-tree, compounded with 
 certain ingredients, constitutes chocolate, the manufacture and 
 use of which the Spaniards first learned from the Mexicans 
 and being a palatable and wholesome beverage, it soon became 
 introduced into use in Europe, and an important article of 
 commerce. 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 63 
 
 Prom the contiguity of the settlements of the Dutch to the 
 Coast of Caraccas, on the island of Curracoa, and their supe- 
 rior enterprise in traffic, they engrossed most of the cocoa 
 trade from Caraccas, and Spain ifself was obliged to receive 
 the article from foreigners, at an exorbitant price, although 
 the product of their own colonies. To remedy an evil, not 
 mpre detrimental to the interests than disgraceful to the en* 
 terprise of Spain, in the year 1728, Philip the Vth granted to 
 a company of merchants an entire and exclusive monopoly of 
 the commerce vyith Caraccas and Cumana. This association, 
 sometimes called the Company of Caraccas, restored to Spain 
 this branch of the commerce of America, greatly extended it, 
 as the consumption of the article increased, and being subject- 
 ed to proper regulations, to counteract the effects of the mo- 
 nopoly, advanced the growth and progress of the settlement. 
 
 Mexico, or new Spain, and Peru, were at first regarded, by 
 the Spaniards, as the most important and valuable portions of 
 America, not so much on account of their fertility, or any geo- 
 graphical superiority, as from the consideration of their being 
 inhabited by people in a higher state of improvement, and con- 
 sequently affording more gratifying objects for the rapacity of 
 the first adventurers. The numbers of adventurers which 
 these objects, and the civil contentions which they occasioned, 
 originally drew to these countries, tended to commence their 
 settlement under more favourable auspices than any other co- 
 lonies enjoyed ; the rich mines, afterwards discovered, had a 
 powerful operation to attract enterprise and allure adventurers ; 
 and the complete subjugation or the natives, both in Mexico 
 and Peru, and reducing them to a condition of domestic ser- 
 vitude, and apportioning them, together with the lands, among 
 the first adventurers, (whilst in other districts the natives, more 
 wild and ferocious, without fixed habitations, subsisting by 
 hunting, could no otherwise be overcome than by being exter- 
 minated or expelled,) were among the causes which continued, 
 for a long period, to promote the growth of Mexico and Peru, 
 and to render them the principal of the Spanish colonies ; and 
 the same causes occasioned the other settlements to be regard- 
 ed only as appendages of one or the other of these, or of little 
 importance. Hence, after the Spanish conquests in America 
 had been so far completed as to justify the establishment on 
 the part of Spain, of regular colonial governments, their whole 
 American dominions were divided into two immense govern- 
 ments, one called the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the other the 
 Viceroyalty of Peru ; the seats of government were Mexico 
 and Lima. The former comprehended all the possessions of 
 in the northern division of the American continent, and 
 
64 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 the latter comprised all her settlements and territories in South 
 America. 
 
 New Spain embraced, under the Spaniards, a much more 
 extensive region than the Empire of Mexico, or the dominions 
 of Montazuma and his predecessors ; the vast territory called 
 New Navarre, extending to the north and west, and the pro- 
 vinces of Cinaloa and Sonora, stretching along the east side of 
 the Gulf of California, and also the Peninsula of California, 
 on the opposite side of the gulf, and the provinces of Yucatan 
 and Honduras, extending from the Bay of Campeachy to be- 
 yond Cape Gracias a Dios, were comprised within the territo- 
 ries of New Spain, which did not belong to the Mexican Em- 
 pire. These countries were mostly visited and subjugated by 
 Spanish adventurers, in the early part of the sixteenth century. 
 The Peninsula of California was discovered by Cortes, in 1536, 
 and was so entirely neglected, that for a long period it was not 
 known whether it was an island or a peninsula. Towards the 
 close of the seventeenth century, the Jesuits explored it, es- 
 tablished it as an important mission, made great progress in 
 civilizing the rude and ferocious natives, and established the 
 same dominion over them that they did over the natives in 
 Paraguay. At length the government, growing jealous of 
 the Jesuits, they were expelled from the Spanish dominions, 
 and Joseph Galvez was sent out to examine the province, who 
 ^ave a favourable account of the country and of the pearl fish- 
 ery on the coast. He also discovered several mines, appa- 
 rently valuable. 
 
 Honduras, and the Peninsula of Yucatan, attracted atten- 
 tion principally from the valuable dye-woods which they afford- 
 ed, the logwood tree being produced in greater abundance 
 there than in any other part of America. After having long 
 exclusively enjoyed the profitable logwood trade, the Spaniards 
 were disturbed in it by some adventurers from Jamaica, who 
 commenced cutting logwood at the cape forming the south- 
 east promontory of Yucatan ; then in the Bay of Campeachy, 
 and afterwards in the Bay of Honduras. These encroach- 
 ments alarmed the Spaniards, and they endeavoured to stop 
 them, by remonstrance, negotiation, and by force ; but after a. 
 contention for half a century , the fortune of war and naval su- 
 periority of Britain, enabled her to extort from Spain a reluc- 
 tant consent to the existence of a settlement of foreigners in. 
 the heart of her own possessions. Mortified, however, at this 
 concession, she attempted to counteract its consequences by 
 encouraging the cutting of logwood on the west coast of Yuca- 
 tan, where the wood was of superior quality. To promote this 
 object, she permitted the importation of logwood into Spain, 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA* 65 
 
 Without the payment of any duty, by which means this conv 
 merce became very flourishing, and that of the English, in the 
 Bay of Honduras, declined. East of Honduras were the pro- 
 vinces of Costa Rica and Veragua, which were much neglect- 
 ed by the Spaniards, as of little value. 
 
 The Vieeroyalty of Peru, in addition to the Peruvian terri- 
 tories, comprehended Chile, the conquest of which, as we 
 have seen, was first attempted by Almagro and afterwards by 
 Valdivia, both of whom met with a most fierce opposition from 
 the natives, and the latter was defeated and slain ; but Villa- 
 gra, his successor in command, restored victory to the Spanish 
 standard ; and finally the district on the sea coast was subdu- 
 ed, the natives continuing masters of the mountainous re- 
 gions ; and for more than two centuries they kept up hostili- 
 ties with their Spanish neighbours, almost without interrup- 
 tion, and their hostile incursions greatly retarded the settle- 
 ment of the most fertile country in America, possessing the 
 most delicious climate in the new or old world ; for, though 
 bordering on the torrid zone, it is exempt both from the ex- 
 tremes of heat and cold, lying, as it were, under the shade of 
 the Andes, which protects it on the east, and being constant- 
 ly refreshed by the cooling sea breezes from the west. It alse 
 possesses many valuable mines ; yet with all these advantages, 
 at the end of more than two centuries from its conquest, its 
 whole white population did not exceed eighty thousand ; but 
 since the establishment of a direct intercourse with the mother 
 country round Cape Horn, it has realized its natural advanta- 
 ges, and advanced in importance accordingly. 
 
 Attached ttf the Vieeroyalty of Peru, were all the vast re- 
 gions claimed by Spain east of the Andes, watered by the Ri 
 de la Plata, its branches, the Colorado, and other streams 
 emptying into the Atlantic. The River de la Plata and the 
 country bordering on it, was first discovered by Maggellan, in 
 the year 1520. The fepajiish territories east of the La Plata, 
 comprehending the province of Paraguay and some other dis- 
 tricts, were, for centuries, in a great degree undefined, and a 
 subject of dispute with Portugal. Paraguay has been render- 
 ed celebrated for the extraordinary missions of the Jesuits^ 
 and the authority of Spain over it was never more than nom- 
 inal. The territory west of the La Plata was divided into the 
 provinces of Buenos Ay res and Tucuman. 
 
 The first attempts to subjugate and settle the country bor~ 
 dering on the La Plata, were attended with unusual difficulties! 
 and disasters ; after the lapse of more than two centuries 
 there was no settlement of any importance, except that of 
 Buenos Ayres. The province of Tucuman, and most of tfco 
 
 6* 
 
66 
 
 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 country to the south of the La Plata, is a prairie or plain of 
 vast extent, and rich beyond conception ; being constantly 
 covered with verdure, it supports an immense number of hor- 
 ses and cattle, which are suffered to go at large, and breed, 
 subsisting without the care or oversight of man. This won- 
 derful facility of raising horses and cattle has afforded a profit- 
 able trade with Peru, by supplying them with domestic ani- 
 mals, and likewise a lucrative foreign commerce in hides. 
 
 The province of Rio de la Plata, was established distinct 
 from that of Paraguay, in 1620, and was afterwards called 
 Buenos Ayres. The town of Buenos Ayres was founded by 
 Pedro de Mendoza, in 1535, but was abandoned in 1538, and 
 its inhabitants removed to Assumption, where a fort had been 
 built two years before, by Ayolas, and named from the day on 
 which he fought and defeated the natives on the spot where 
 it was erected. Mendoza returned to Spain, and was suc- 
 ceeded as governor, by Ayolas, and on his death, Irala was 
 chosen to succeed him ; but was soon deprived of his author- 
 ity by Don Alvarez, who arrived with a commission from 
 Spain. Of the three thousand Europeans who had entered 
 the La Plata, six hundred only remained at Assumption ; 
 the rest had fallen victims to the climate, the ferocity of the 
 Savages, and the hardships to which they had been exposed. 
 Alvarez was seized by Irala, and sent to Spain in 1544. The 
 city of Assumption was erected into a bishopric in 1547 ; but 
 the bishop did not arrive until 1554, when Irala received a 
 commission as governor. In 1557, Cuidad Real was founded 
 in the province of Guayra, as .an encomierida, within which 
 forty thousand Indians were brought into habits of industry ; 
 and a few years after the encomienda of Santa Cruz de la 
 Sierra, in the province of Chiquitos, which comprised sixty 
 thousand native inhabitants, was established. Irala died in 
 1557, and named Gondaies de Mendoza, iieutenarit general 
 and commander of the province. His death which was in one 
 year after, was followed by civil dissHntions. 
 
 In the year 1586, the Jesuits first appeared in Paraguay, 
 and in 1609, father Torrez, their provincial, obtained authori- 
 ty from the governor of the province, to form the converted 
 Indians into townships, to be independent of the Spanish set- 
 tlements. They only acknowledged the sovereignty of the 
 king of Spain ; this power was confirmed by Philip III. of 
 Spain. Du/ing twenty years, a great number of the natives 
 were reduced to habits of industry, by the labours of the Je- 
 suits ; but in 1630, tfcey were attacked by the Paulists or 
 Mamelukes, and in two years sixty thousand were destroyed 
 or carried off. To defend their settlements, in 1639, the Je- 
 
OP SPANISH AMERICA. 67 
 
 suits obtained authority from Spain, to imbody and arm their 
 Indian converts in the manner of Europeans. The Jesuits 
 employed their converts in other pursuits ; in 1668, they re- 
 built the city of Santa Fe, and the following year, five hun- 
 dred of them worked on the fortifications and the cathedral of 
 Buenos Ayres. 
 
 In 1 580, Buenos Ayres was rebuilt by the governor of Par* 
 aguay, from which time, it gradually emerged from obscurity 
 into an important town, and became the seat of the viceroyai- 
 ty. The Portuguese, attempted -a settlement on the north 
 bank of the La Plata, in 1679, when Garro, governor of the 
 province of Rio de la Plata, by order of the viceroy of Peru, 
 expelled the Portuguese, and levelled their fort to the gronnd. 
 This settlement was for a long time, a subject of dispute be- 
 tween the two nations, but in 1778, it was ceded to Spain. 
 Civil dissentions arose at Assumption ; Bon Diego, the gov- 
 ernor, was obliged to flee ; but was reinstated in 1722, yet 
 soon after seized by Antequera f and confined as a prisoner. 
 Antequera had been sent from Lima as a commissioner, to in- 
 quire into the condition of Paraguay, and finding the adminis- 
 tration corrupt, he undertook to reform it arid to introduce a 
 representative government. He met with resistance not only 
 from the governor, but his patriotic exertions and liberal prin- 
 ciples roused the jealousy, and brought upon him the hostility 
 of the. viceroy, who sent a body of troops from Peru, to op- 
 pose him and check his innovations. These troops were de- 
 ieated by Antequera who Centered the city in triumph. 
 
 But the governor of Buenos Ayres, having marched against 
 him, and bem'g deserted by his adherents, he fled to a convent, 
 and was afterwards seized and sent a prisoner to Lima. In 
 1725, tranquillity was re-established, but was of short contin- 
 uance ; a new governor being appointed, a faction refused to 
 admit him into the city ; Mompo, the leader of the malecon- 
 tents, was seized and sent to Buenos Ayres. 
 
 Antequera having been condemned for treason, was execu- 
 ted in 1731, at Lima, which occasioned great excitement at 
 Assumption, as his popularity was so great that he was canon- 
 ised ?>s a martyr to liberty. The dissentions continued until 
 1735, when Zabala, governor of Buenos Ayres, succeeded in 
 re-establishing tranquillity, and correcting the abuses which 
 had crept into the government. 
 
 The increasing prosperity of the Jesuits, began to excite 
 prejudices and jealousies ; various accusations were made 
 against them ; but on examination, most of them were found 
 groundless, and they were confirmed in their rights, in 174 6, 
 by a royal decree. Their prosperity and povrer^ however^ soon 
 
68 SKETCH OP THE HISTORY 
 
 after began to decline, and the expulsion' of their order from 
 Spain, in 1767, was followed by the subversion of their domin- 
 ion in America. Their possessions were annexed to the gov- 
 ernment of Paraguay, at which time they had seven hundred 
 sixty-nine thousand three hundred fifty-three horn cattle, nine- 
 ty-four thousand nine hundred eighty-three horses, and two 
 hundred twenty-one thousand five hundred thirty-seven sheep* 
 
 The erection of the viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, led to 
 the establishment of the government at Buenos Ayres, and 
 promoted the prosperity of that city, and all the provinces on 
 the La Plata, and west of the Andes. This measure was 
 followed by one equally liberal and enlightened in 1778, which 
 in a great degree, removed the restrictions on commerce, and 
 opened a free trade with the northern country and the interior 
 of Peru. From this period, Buenos Ayres began to acquire 
 that importance and rank, which it is entitled to maintain, 
 from its valuable position for commerce, and its rich interior 
 country. Its trade has rapidly increased, and the general 
 commerce of the La Plata. It was promoted by a royal ordi- 
 nance adopted in 1794, permitting salted meat and tallow, to 
 be exported to Spain and the other colonies free of duty. 
 
 At so early a period as the year 1511, Ferdinand establish* 
 ed a tribunal for conducting the affairs of his American settle- 
 ments, called the Council of the Indies ; and in 1 524, it was 
 new modeled and improved by Charles V. It possessed juris- 
 diction over every department of government in Spanish 
 America ; framed the laws and regulations respecting the col- 
 onies ; made all the appointments for America, reserved to 
 the crown ; and all officers, from the Viceroys to the lowest, 
 were accountable to the Council of the Indies for their official 
 conduct. The king is always supposed to be present in this 
 council, and its meetings were held where he resides. No 
 law, relative to American affairs, could be adopted without 
 the concurrence of two thirds of the council. All appeals 
 from the decisions of the highest tribunals in America, the 
 Audiencia, or Court of Audience, were made to the Council 
 of the Indies. 
 
 The colonial system of Spain over her American (.^min- 
 ions, was founded on the principle, that these dominions were 
 vested in the crown, not in the nation ; which was assumed on 
 no better authority, than the bull of Pope Alexander VI. be- 
 stowing on Ferdinand and Isabella, all the 'countries which 
 they might discover, west of a given latitude. Hence, the 
 Spanish possessions in America, were regarded as the person- 
 al property of the sovereign. The authority of the original 
 adventurers, commanders and governors, by whom the country 
 
OF SPANISH AJVIERICA. 69 
 
 was discovered, and subjected to the dominion of Spain, was 
 constituted by, and they were accountable to, the king, and 
 removable by him at pleasure. All grants of lands were made 
 by the sovereign, and if they failed from any cause, they re- 
 verted to the crown again. All political and civil power, 
 centered in the king, and was executed by such persons, and 
 in such manner, as the will of the sovereign might suggest, 
 wholly independent, not only of the colonies, but of the Span- 
 ish nation. The only civil privilege allowed to the colonists,, 
 was strictly municipal, and confined to the regulation of their 
 interior police, and commerce in the cities and towns, for 
 which purpose they made their own local regulations or laws, 
 and appointed town and city magistrates. But this single ray 
 of liberty, must of necessity be tolerated, and has never been 
 extinct in the most despotic states. The Spanish American 
 governments, were not merely despotic like those of Russia, 
 or Turkey, but they were a more dangerous kind of despot- 
 ism, as the absolute power of the sovereign was not exercised 
 by himself, but by deputy. 
 
 At first, as has been stated, the dominions of the Spanish 
 crown in the new world, were divided for the purpose of gov- 
 ernment, into two great divisions or viceroyalties, New Spain 
 and Peru. Afterwards, as the country became more settled, 
 the viceroyalty of Santa Fe de Bogota was created, composed 
 of the kingdoms of New Granada, Terra Firma, and the pro- 
 vince of Quito, and still later that of Rio de la Plata. A dep- 
 uty or viceroy was appointed to preside over each of these, 
 governments, who was the representative of his sovereign, 
 and possessed all his prerogatives within his jurisdiction. His 
 authority was as supreme as that of his sovereign, over every 
 department of government, civil, military, and criminal. He 
 appointed most of the important officers of his government, 
 and supplied the vacancies occasioned by death of those ap- 
 pointed by the crown. His court was formed on the model of 
 that of Madrid, and displayed an equal and often superior de- 
 gree of magnificence and state. He maintained horse and 
 toot guards, a regular household establishment, and all the 
 ensigns and trappings of royalty. His government was form- 
 ed on the same model as that of Spain, and the tribunals that 
 assisted in its administration, were similar to those of the pa- 
 rent country ; the appointments to which, were sometimes 
 made by the viceroy, and at others by the king, but all were 
 subject to the deputy's authority, and amenable to his jurisdic* 
 tion. The administration- of justice was entrusted to tribunals, 
 called Audiences, formed on the model of the Spanish court ot* 
 chancery. One of these courts was established io every 
 
70 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 vince, and consisted of a number of judges proportioned to 
 its extent, and the business to be done ; they had jurisdiction 
 over both civil and criminal causes. The viceroy was prohib- 
 ited from interfering with the decisions of these judicial tribu- 
 nals, and in some instances they could bring his regulations 
 under their review, and present remonstrances, or carry the 
 matter before the king and the council of the Indies, which 
 was the only particular in which there was any intermediate 
 power between him and the people, subject to his authority. 
 On the death of a viceroy, the supreme power vested in the 
 court of audience, and the senior judge, assisted by his asso- 
 ciates, exercised all the functions of the vacant office. In ad- 
 dition to the council of the Indies, in which was reposed the 
 supreme power, as to the civil, ecclesiastical, military, and 
 commercial affairs of America, there was established as early 
 as 1 501 , a board of trade at Seville, called Casa de la Contrac- 
 tion. It takes cognizance of whatever related to the commer- 
 cial intercourse with America, regulated the export and im- 
 port cargoes, and the inspection ; the freights of the ships, 
 and the time of the sailing of the fleets, and decide judicially 
 on all matters, both civil and criminal, growing out of the 
 commercial transactions between Spain and her American 
 possessions. The doings and decisions of this board, might be 
 reviewed by the council of the Indies. 
 
 The fundamental principles of the Spanish colonial system, 
 were different from those of Great Britain, as it respected its 
 American dominions ; although this difference will be found 
 on examination to depend almost entirely on the different con- 
 stitutions of the two countries. Great Britain, as well as 
 Spain, regarded the countries in America, discovered by her 
 subjects, as belonging to the crown, rather than to the nation, 
 and all grants and patents were made by the king, without the 
 concurrence of parliament ; and the rights and powers of the 
 grantees in the proprietary governments, were also created by 
 the crown. The charter governments were likewise estab- 
 lished by the crown, and the rights and privileges allowed to 
 the colonists, and the prerogatives reserved to the king, were 
 dictated by the will of the sovereign. The authority of par- 
 liament, as the organ of the nation, over the colonies, does 
 not at first appear to have been exercised, and although this 
 was afterwards attempted, it was never fully allowed or acqui- 
 esced in by the colonies. It was the exercise of this authority 
 that led to the difficulties between the parent state and its col* 
 onies, which resulted in a separation. In the colonial gov- 
 ernments established by Britain in America, very important 
 civil privileges were allowed to the colonists ? but their rights 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA, ?! 
 
 not equal to those of English subjects at home, and the 
 difference was to the same extent as the authority exercised 
 Over them by parl'ament; the prerogatives of the sovereign 
 being at least as great as respected his colonial subjects, as at- 
 home. The Spanish American colonies possessed no political 
 privileges ; their only civil rights were purely municipal ; the 
 authority of the crown was absolute in the colonial govern- 
 ments, but scarcely more so than it was in the parent state, 
 and it could hardly have been expected that subjects in dis- 
 tant colonies would have been allowed privileges which were 
 not enjoyed by those at home. As it respects constitutional 
 er political rights, the Spanish colonists, enjoyed essentially 
 the same as the subjects of Old Spain, yet the exercise 
 I of the power of the sovereign being by deputy, and at 
 a great distance, it was much more oppressive, and exposed 
 to greater abuses. As it respects the equality of privileges, 
 between the inhabitants of the colonies and those of the pa- 
 lent country, the Spanish colonists stood on a better footing 
 than the English. If the colonies were absolutely and en- 
 tirely subject to the government of the parent state, it was 
 not, perhaps, materal to them, whether this governing power 
 resided in the crown or jointly in the crown and the nation, 
 In either case they were slaves. 
 
 But the different constitutions of the two nations, occasioned 
 I a corresponding difference in the government of their colo- 
 l nies. The power of the Sovereign in Spain, being absolute, 
 ^ the same authority was exercised over his dominions in Amer- 
 ica ; but the authority of the King of England being limited, 
 and the government a mixed one, in w r hich the people by their 
 : representatives participated, similar systems were established 
 ) in the British dominions in the new world. In all their colo- 
 ; nies the representative principle was introduced, and local 
 I legislatures were established which exercised the ordinary 
 I powers of legislation, the executive power remaining in the 
 ^sovereign, which he exercised in b'ome of the colonies by 
 Ideputy, in others granted it to propretors, and even in some 
 < ef the minor colonies, the executive power was exercised by 
 '. governors chosen by the people, and the judicial power, by 
 judges appointed by the governors or colonial assemblies. 
 Still, however, the king, and ultimately the nation or parlia- 
 ment claimed an undefined and undefinable sovereignty over 
 the colonies, where he did not exercise the executive power, 
 also over those, where proprietary governments were estab- 
 lished. The fundamental principle of the British colonial 
 system was, that the colonies were subordinate states, and 
 that the parent country possessed the right of sovereignty 
 
72 SKETCH OF THE HISTOR 
 
 over them ; but whether this sovereign power resided m tfle 
 king, or in parliament, representing the nation, or how it was 
 io be exercised, does not appear to have been determined. 
 Legislation, when unrestrained, constitutes the sovereign 
 power in every state. But, while Britain claimed this powet 
 over her colonies, she did not until a late period, presume to 
 legislate for them, further than to regulate their foreign com 
 merce, and a few prohibitory acts respecting manufactures. 
 The sovereignty of Great Britain, whether considered as resi- 
 ding in the king, or the nation, was rather negative than posi- 
 tive, as it was never pretended by the most ardent advocates 
 for the prerogatives of the mother country, that he should ex- 
 ercise for the colonies, the general powers of legislation. 
 Neither the nature or extent of this negative authority, or the 
 manner of its exercise, was ever defined, either conventionally 
 or by the practice of the government. The British colonial 
 system was complex, vague, and inconsistent with itself, and 
 tended inevitably to one of two results ; the establishment of 
 the power of the parent State, to legislate for its colonies " in 
 all cases whatsoever," or their entire independence ; hap- 
 pily for the Americans, and the world, the latter occurred. 
 
 The Spanish colonial system was altogether more simple, as 
 there was no intermediate powers between the sovereign and 
 the people at home, there was no necessity for any in the col- 
 onies ; the sovereign power, so far as the theory of government 
 was concerned, was the same in America as in Spain ; it re- 
 sided in the king in both, and in both was absolute. Spanish 
 America was originally considered as a kingdom independent 
 in itself, and united to Spain only, by both countries being un- 
 der the government of one king. By the laws of the Indies, 
 all acts relating to the conquest of America were expun- 
 ged, and was formerly united to the crown of Castile by 
 Charles Vth, in 1519, and confirmed by several of his succes- 
 sors. It is said by Baron Humboldt, that the kings of Spain, 
 "by assuming the title of king of the Indies, have considered 
 their possessions in America, rather as integral parts of the 
 Spanish monarchy, dependant on the crown of Castile, than 
 as colonies in the sense, in which that word has been under- 
 stood by the commercial nations of Europe since the sixteenth 
 eentury.* 
 
 But the colonies both of Britain and Spain were essentially 
 different from those of the ancients, and established on new 
 principles. The distant settlements of the Greeks, were 
 lather migrations than colonies, similar to the swarms of bar- 
 
 * Political Essay on New Spain. 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA, 
 
 73 
 
 banans from the north which settled in the south of Europe. 
 The parent state not expecting to derive any advantage from, 
 did not attempt to maintain any authority over its colonies, and 
 the only connexion between them, was that arising from their 
 having a common origin. The colonies of the Romans were 
 military detachments stationed in conquered provinces, to 
 keep them in subjection, in which case the authority of the 
 mother country was maintained over them, and the province 
 which continued dependant. The discovery of America and 
 the countries beyond the Cape of Good Hope, gave rise to a 
 new system of colonizing, the object which was to promote 
 the commerce and prosperity of the parent nation. 
 
 Whatever difference there may have been in the principles 
 on which the colonies of Spain and those of Great Britain 
 were planted and governed, there was little in the policy of 
 the two nations relative to their colonial possessions in Amer- 
 ica. 
 
 Both, regarded their colonies as subordinate to the parent 
 state, and attempted to render them contributary to its inter- 
 est and prosperity. This policy seems to grow out of the re- 
 lations which subsist between colonies and their mother coun- 
 try ; as the original object of planting them since the six- 
 teenth century, has been to benefit the colonizing country ; to 
 drain off a surplus or dangerous population, to draw a direct 
 tribute from them under some form of taxation, or for the in- 
 terests of commerce. 
 
 It was the policy of the Spanish sovereigns, or government, as 
 to their American colonies, to render them, in every way that 
 could be done, contributary to the power and prosperity of 
 Spain. In the grants of the country, made to the first ad- 
 venturers, the Spanish monarchs reserved one-fifth of the 
 gold and silver that might be obtained, and for a considerable 
 period the precious metals were the only objects that attracted 
 attention, either in the colonies or Old Spain. The right of 
 the Sovereign to a share of the products of the mines, was 
 ever after maintained, and it was the intention of Spain to con- 
 fine the industry of the colonies to milling, for two reasons : 
 one, the revenue derived to the crown from this source, and 
 the other, to prevent such branches of agriculture as might 
 interfere with the products of Spain. The cultivation of the 
 vine and olive were at first prohibited in America, and after- 
 wards allowed in Peru and Chile, in consequence of the diffi- 
 culty of conveying such bulky articles as wine and oil across 
 the isthmus to Panama ; and these colonies were not permit- 
 ted to export the products of the vine or olive to those 
 parts of Spanish America which could obtain thorn from Spaia* 
 VOL. I. 7 
 
74 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 And for this privilege, of cultivating tobacco which was raised 
 in other parts of Spanish America, but under regulations of a 
 royal monopoly. The same jealousy crippled the industry of 
 the colonies in other departments ; several kinds of manafac- 
 tures were prohibited, which it was thought might prove de- 
 trimental to the mother country. The commercial restric- 
 tions imposed on the colonies were still more rigid and intol- 
 erable. In pursuance of the maxim that the colonies were, 
 in every possible way, to be rendered contributory to the in- 
 terests of Spain, without regarding their own, they were deni- 
 ed all commerce with every other portion of the world ; their 
 own productions must all be carried to Spain, in the first in- 
 stance, wherever, might be the place of their consumption, 
 and all their own wants must be supplied by the parent state ; 
 and even this direct commerce they were not permitted to car- 
 ry on themselves ; no vessel, owned in the colonies, was ever 
 allowed to carry to Europe the produce of the country to 
 which it belonged. All the trade with the colonies was carried 
 on in Spanish bottoms, and under such regulations as sub- 
 jected them to great inconvenience. Not only was every spe- 
 cies of commerce with America, by foreigners, prohibited 
 under the severest penalties, and confiscation and death in- 
 flicted on the inhabitants who had temerity to trade with them, 
 but no foreigner was suffered to enter the colonies without ex- 
 press permission. Even the commerce of one colony with a^ 
 nother was either prohibited or trammeled with intolerable re- 
 strictions. 
 
 Thus was Spanish America shut up from the world, crip- 
 pled in its growth, kept, in leading-strings, and in a perpetual 
 state of minority ; and whilst chastised with the lash of a jea* 
 lous and unfeeling master, was insulted by being reminded of 
 his parental affection and relationship. These impolitic and 
 unjust measures, founded in a spirit of selfishness and jea- 
 lousy, together with the hardships which attend the planting 
 of new settlements, so checked the spirit of emigration, that 
 at the expiration of sixty years from the first discovery of 
 America, the number of Spaniards, in all their settlements, 
 did not exceed fifteen thousand. 
 
 An ecclesiastical establishment was instituted in Spanish 
 America, as an auxiliary branch of the government, on a simi- 
 lar model to that in Spain, and was extremely burdensome 
 to a young and growing state. At so early a period as the 
 year 1501, the payment of tithes was required, and laws made 
 to enforce it. The exactions of the clergy were extended not 
 only to every article of produce, but also to those which com- 
 prised a portion of manufacturing industry, such as sugar, in- 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 75 
 
 / 
 
 di0, and cochineal ; and these legal burdens were greatly 
 increased by the bigotry of the colonists and their fondness 
 for external parade and pomp in religion, which made them 
 easy dupes of the clergy, who drained their wealth from pro- 
 ductive branches of industry, to endow churches and monas- 
 teries. Pope Julian II. conferred on Ferdinand and his suc- 
 cessors the patronage and disposal of all ecclesiastical bene- 
 fices in America, so that the Spanish sovereign became the 
 head of the church in America, and the administrator of its 
 revenues, a prerogative which he did not possess at home. 
 The bulls of the Roman Pontiff could not be admitted into 
 Spanish America until they had been examined and approved 
 by the king and the Council of the Indies. Trie hierarchy 
 was as imposing as in Spain, and its dominion and influence 
 greater ; the arch-bishops, bishops, and other dignitaries, en- 
 joyed large revenues, and the ecclesiastical establishment was 
 splendid and magnificent. The lower orders of the clergy 
 consisted of the curate, or parish priests, the Doctrineros, 
 who had the charge of such districts as were inhabited by In- 
 dians, who were subject to the Spanish government, and the 
 Missioneras, or missionaries, who were employed in convert- 
 ing the Indios Bravos, or fierce tribes. An inconsiderate 
 zeal for the establishment of monasteries was disclosed at an 
 early period, and from the influence of the regular ecclesias- 
 tics, these institutions were multiplied to a pernicious extent, 
 in a new country, where every encouragement ought to have 
 been afforded to the increase of population. 
 
 Most of the .clergy in America were regular, and many of 
 the highest honours and most lucrative preferments were in 
 their possession. Great numbers came out as missionaries, 
 and most of them in quest of liberty, wealth, or distinction. 
 To certain orders of missionaries, the Pope allowed the privi 
 leges of accepting parochial charges and receiving the emolu- 
 ments, without depending on the bishop of the diocess, or be- 
 ing amenable to him. Some of them, in violation of their 
 monastic vows, openly engaged in commercial pursuits ; oth- 
 ers amassed wealth by oppressing the natives, whom they pre- 
 tended to instruct and Christanize ; and notwithstanding their 
 vow of continency, many of them were dissolute and licentious, 
 in a degree almost exceeding belief. 
 
 The success of the missionaries, in converting the natives, 
 was almost entirely deceptive ; they made use of the same 
 unjustifiable means that have been resorted to by the Jesuits 
 in other parts of the world, and with like success. To ren- 
 der the new religion more palatable, and to introduce it with 
 greater facility, they pretended that there was a similarity be- 
 
76 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 tween the doctrines and mysteries of Christianity and the 
 crude notions of their own barbarous superstitions. Being, in 
 many instances, overawed by the power of their conqueror?, 
 and excited by the example of their chiefs, multitudes expres- 
 sed a reluctant consent to embrace a religion of which they 
 were entirely ignorant, and were instantly baptized by the 
 missionaries. By such means as these, by fraud and force, in 
 the course of a few years after the reduction of the Mexican 
 Empire, more than four millions of the natives were baptized ; 
 but they remained the same, or at least no better, for such 
 spurious conversion ; they were not entirely ignorant of the 
 doctrines and duties of Christianity, but retained all their ven- 
 eration for their ancient superstitions. This mixture of Chris- 
 tianity with their own superstitious rites, was transmitted to 
 their posterity, and has never been eradicated. One ecclesi- 
 astic baptized, in one day, five thousand Mexicans, and stop- 
 ped only when he had become so exhausted as to be unable to 
 lift up his hands. Other missionaries, less successful, declar- 
 ed that the natives were too little removed above the brutes 
 to become Christians ; and a council was held at Lima, which 
 decreed that they had not sufficient understanding to be ad- 
 mitted to the Sacrament of the Eucharist. This decree was 
 abrogated by Paul III. who, in 1537, promulged a decree de- 
 claring them rational creatures, and entitled to the privileges 
 of Christians. That infernal engine of hierarchal power, the 
 Inquisition, was established in America, by the pious zeal of 
 Philip II. in the year 1570. The natives, from their incapaci- 
 ty, were exempted from the jurisdiction of this horrid tribu- 
 nal. 
 
 If the Spaniards rendered little benefit to the natives by 
 their attempts to Christianize them, their conduct towards 
 them, in other respects, was severe and oppressive in the ex- 
 treme. 
 
 The views of the Spaniards, with respect to the natives, 
 were entirely different from those of the English, in the Amer- 
 ican colonies. In the latter, the natives were either induced 
 peaceably to cede their lands and retire farther into the inte- 
 rior of the continent, or from the successive hostilities which 
 arose were exterminated or dispensed. As the European set- 
 tlements extended, the natives, who had for ages been " lords 
 of the soil," gradually retired, disposed of their lands, or had 
 them wrested from them by war, and sought new abodes,. 
 where, depending on the chase, they might obtain an easier 
 subsistence. They melted away before the sun of civilization 
 like the dew of the morning, without leaving any of their num- 
 ber behind, or scarcely a trace of their former existence. Not 
 
*'F SPANISH AMERICA. 77 
 
 only thousands of individuals, but numerous tribes or nations, 
 win lit say with Logan, the Mingo Chief, " not a, drop of our 
 blood flows in the vuius of any living creature," inhabiting the 
 land of our fathers. The English Colonists did not originally 
 claim the country on the ground of conquest ; and in the sub- . 
 sequent wars that arose, although the natives were defeated 
 and scattered, they were not subjugated ; they were too fierce 
 and warlike to submit their necks to tho yoke of the conquer- 
 ors, and become their vassals. As they subsisted by hunting, 
 
 j|had no towns, nor any interest in the soli, there was little that 
 attached them to their country, and less that obstructed their 
 migration. The conquests made, were only of the country, 
 not of its inhabitants. But the discoverers and conquerors of 
 Spanish America, claimed the country on the ground of con- 
 quest ; and as the natives, particularly in Mexico and Peru, 
 lived in villages and towns, subsisted by agriculture, and had 
 acquired private property in the soil, and were very populous, 
 it was difficult if not impossible for them to migrate ; and from 
 the modes of civilized life, and of living in fixed habitations 
 which had been established, they could not at once revert 
 back to the savage state, arid trust to the precarious subsis- 
 tence of the chase. 
 
 The Spanish adventurers not only conquered the country, 
 but subjugated its inhabitants, particularly in Mexico and Pe- 
 ru, and extending the same right of conquest to both, they re- 
 duced the natives to a state of servitude. As early as the 
 year 1499, Columbus, to avoid the consequences of a disaiFec- 
 tioii among his-ibliowers, granted lands, and distributed a cer- 
 tain number of Indians among them, who .were required to cul- 
 tivate a certain quantity of ground each, for thuir masters. 
 This was the origin of the fe-partimientys, or distribution of 
 Indians, winch was afterwards introduced into all the Spanish 
 settlements, and was the fruitful source of innumerable calam- 
 ities, which wasted that unhappy and injured people. Kvery 
 where they were seized upon and compelled to follow the ar- 
 mies to carry their baggage, to work in the mines, to cultivate 
 the earth, to carry burdens for the want of domestic animals, 
 and to perform all menial and laborious services. Whether 
 employed in the mines, in agriculture, or other situations, they 
 were required to perform stated tasks much beyond their abil- 
 ities, and being unaccustomed to regular labour, thousands 
 
 'sunk under the accumulated burdens and hardships to winch 
 they were subjected by their unfeeling and .rapacious masters, 
 Their native spirit was broken, they became humbled and de- 
 graded, arid the race %vas rapidly wasting away. Thti 
 pressions and .sufferings at length <excked the aympathiei 1 if 
 
78 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 many humane persons, particularly arnong the clergy, who ev- 
 erted themselves with much zeal and perseverance to melio- 
 rate the condition of the Indians. These efforts at length pre- 
 vailed, and in the year 1542, Charles V. abolished the reparti- 
 mientas, and all the rights which the Spanish colonists claim- 
 ed in the natives as domestic slaves, and restored them to the 
 privileges of freemen and subjects. These just regulations fil- 
 led the colonies with consternation, and in Peru they were re- 
 sisted by force. But the rights of the natives were more ap- 
 parent than real ; for their condition wab only changed from 
 that of slaves of individuals, to that of vassals of the crown. It 
 was claimed that as members of the state, they must contri- 
 bute something towards its support ; and accordingly a tax 
 was imposed on every male from eighteen to fifty, consisting 
 of personal service, and the extent arid time of performing the 
 same were accurately defined. This capitation tax, or tribute, 
 has varied in different provinces, and at different periods ; but 
 in the eighteenth century was usually four shillings sterling 
 per annum ; and, previous to the late political revolution, it 
 was ten francs. They paid, besides, certain fees to the cler- 
 gy for baptism, certificates of marriage, interments, masses, 
 &c. Among the regulations adopted for the benefit of the 
 Indians, was what was called the encomiendas, by which they 
 were granted to certain great land-holders, as their proprie- 
 tors and protectors, not as slaves according to the repartirni- 
 entas, but on such principles as recognised certain rights in 
 the Indians. This measure, like most others in America, was 
 so abused, that though intended for the protection of the na- 
 tives, it became a fertile cause of increasing their miseries. 
 After the adoption of this system, every Indian under the do- 
 minion of Spain, was either the immediate vassal of the crown, 
 or of some subject who was the owner of the encomienda, or 
 the district in which he resided. 
 
 The services required of the Indians were of two kinds, 
 employment in agriculture and other branches of necessary 
 industry, arid labour in the mines. They were divided into 
 classes called mitas, and called into service by turns at regular 
 periods, and served a definite time. The employment in the 
 mines, extracting oar from the bowels of the earth at a vast 
 depth, and conveying it to the surface, and the successive 
 processes of refining it, are not only extremely laborious, but 
 very unhealthy, and have wasted thousands of this degraded 
 and wretched race. The condition of the Indians became 
 worse and worse until the eighteenth century, when many of 
 the original proprietors of theencomiendas, and their descend^ 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 79 
 
 ants, being extinct, the grants not being renewed, relieved 
 them from this species of bondage. 
 
 Charles ill was their benefactor, and annulled what re- 
 mained of the ecomiendas, and suppressed the corregidors 
 who supplied them with various articles at exorbitant prices, 
 and thus reduced them nearly to slavery, by making them 
 their debtors. But the establishment of intendancies, during 
 the ministry of Count Galvez, in the eighteenth century, for 
 the superiiitendance and protection of the Indians, was the 
 most efficacious measure adopted for meliorating the condi- 
 tion of the natives ; and by an active and energetic adminis- 
 tration, the most happy results were produced to this much 
 injured race, who, after being robbed of their country, for 
 three centuries, like the Israelites in Egypt, had been compel- 
 led to groan under the burdens of hard task-masters. They 
 were still deprived of all the important rights of citizens, and 
 considered as minors, under the tutelage of their superiors, 
 and could make no contract beyond the value of ten pounds. 
 They were prohibited from intermarrying with the whites, 
 from engaging in any commercial transactions, ana no other 
 situations or employments were open to them but those of 
 common labourers or artisans. Those who lived in the large 
 towns, were governed by Spanish laws and magistrates, but 
 the greater part of them were shut up in villages of their own, 
 and governed by petty Indian magistrates, who were either 
 descendants of the ancient caciques, or lords, or appointed 
 by the Spanish authorities ; and in either case, they found 
 it for their interest to perpetuate the ignorance and barbarism 
 of their countrymen ; or were too stupid and ignorant them- 
 selves to perceive the advantages of civilizing and improving 
 them. 
 
 In considering the condition and wretchedness of the Indi- 
 ans in Spanish America, we have not noticed all the consequen- 
 ces or evils which followed the subjugation of the aboriginal 
 inhabitants of the country, and which were avoided in the 
 English colonies in the new world. The existence of various 
 casts, or mixed races, which now constitute so large a portion 
 of the whole population of the country, is a consequence of 
 the subjugation of the natives. The whole population of the 
 Spanish colonies is divided into classes ; the natives of old 
 Spain settled in America, were denominated Chapetones, or 
 gachupines ; they claimed the first rank, and engrossed most 
 of the places of power and profit, merely on account of their 
 birth ; the descendants of European Spaniards in the colonies, 
 were called Creoles, and, although they legally enjoyed the 
 Same civil rights as the natives of old Spain, they were treat- 
 
80 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 ed as a distinct and subordinate class, and entirely excluded 
 from all situations of any importance. Of the mixtures, the 
 Mestizos are the descendants of a white and an Indian; the 
 descendants of an Indian and Negro, are called Zembos and 
 these casts produce other mixtures, of different shades of col- 
 our and degrees of blood, too various to be divided into dis- 
 tinct classes. 
 
 Notwithstanding the avidity for gold of the first adventurers, 
 arid the ardour with which they pursued their researches for 
 the hidden treasures, their exertions were attended with little 
 success for a great number of years. It was not until 1545^ 
 that the rich mines of Potosi, ill Peru, were accidentally dis- 
 covered bv an Indian, in clambering up the mountain; and 
 this event was soon followed by the discovery of the mines of 
 Zacatecas, in Mexico. Numerous mines of gold and silver 
 were afterwards discovered at. different times, in most of the 
 provinces. For a lon^ period the working of the various 
 mines, formed the principal employment of the American 
 Spaniards ; all other pursuits being subordinate, if not con- 
 tributary to this. And such was the exuberant profusion 
 with which the mountains of the new world poured forth their 
 treasures, that down to the middle of the eighteenth century, 
 according to calculations deemed moderate, a quantity of the 
 precious metals had been carried to Spain, equal to four mill- 
 ions sterling, annually, from the iirst discovery of the country. 
 This product, great as it was, is small, compared with the 
 quantity which the more extensive operutions of the present 
 century have afforded. The products of the mines have 
 been constantly increasing for more than a century, and in 
 Mexico, within that period, have increased uiore than six ibid. 
 During ten years, from 1690 to 1C99, the gold and silver coin- 
 ed at the Mexican mint W 7 as of the value of nearly forty-three 
 millions of dollars ; and the amount coined for ten years, 
 from 1790 to 1799, one century after, exceeded two hundred 
 and thirty-one millions. The mines w r ere not worked by the 
 crown, but, although attended with immense expense, were 
 carried on by individual enterprise. To encourage adventur- 
 ers in mining, the person discovering a mine was entitled to 
 the property in it, provided he would work it within a given 
 period. The discoverer presented his claim to the governor 
 of the province, and if allowed, a grant of land was made to 
 him round the mine, and a number of Indians allotted him, 
 for working the mine ; but he must prosecute the business 
 within the time specified, and pay the customary proportion to 
 the crown. 
 
 The direct pursuit of the precious metals, is the most fasci- 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 81 
 
 atinor of all employments, stimulated by avarice ; and so irre 
 sistible and bewitching is its influence, that, like the charm of 
 the rattle-snake, it seemed to turn the heads and change the 
 natural disposition of those who became the victims of its 
 power. Like the passion for deep gambling, it took such en- 
 tire possession of the mind, that when a person once engaged 
 in this seducing pursuit, visions of imaginary wealth were 
 constantly before his eyes : whether sleeping or awake, he 
 dreams of mountains of gold ; and having once entered the 
 enchanting path, lie cannot return, but is led along, as if by 
 an ignis-fatuus, to the realization of his dreams, or to ruin. 
 The prevalence of such a spirit as this, produced a vortex in 
 the public mind, which swallowed up every other interest, or 
 pursuit, diverted indurtry from its natural channels, and occa- 
 sioned the neglect of agriculture and manufactures, except so 
 far as they were dependent on, and auxilary to, this prevailing 
 pursuit. 
 
 But notwithstanding the engrossing influence of mining, 
 other interests, entirely disconnected therewith, were not 
 wholly neglected, but afforded, in the different provinces, vari- 
 ous important articles of exportation. Cochineal, a valuable 
 drug, and important article of commerce, composed of a cu- 
 rious insect, was attended with profit in New Spain ; quinqui- 
 na, or Jesuits' bark, the most valuable restorative the three 
 kingdoms of nature produce, afforded a lucrative branch of 
 commerce in Peru, and indigo and cocoa were produced in 
 large quantities, and were important articles of exportation in 
 Guatamala. In Buenos Ayrcs, hides formed an important 
 staple, and afforded a profitable branch of commerce. Hor- 
 ses and neat cattle, introduced from Europe, increased with 
 astonishing rapidity, and ranging over the vast prairies, lying 
 between the La Plata and the Andes, covered at all times with 
 the richest verdure, they multiplied to an extent almost incred- 
 ible. They are often seen in droves of thirty or forty thou- 
 sand, covering the boundless plain farther than the eye can 
 reach. 
 
 During the reign of Charles V. when the power of Spain 
 was at its height, her manufactures and commerce were ex- 
 tensive and flourishing ; and both received a great and favour- 
 able impulse, in consequence of the new market which was 
 opened in America. Her manufactures were sufficient to 
 supply the growing demand of her colonies, in addition^to sat- 
 isfying that at home. Her commerce was equally flourishing ; 
 at the beginning of the sixteenth century, Spain had more than 
 one thousand merchant vessels, a number far exceeding that 
 possessed by anv nation in Eurone. From the destructive 
 
82 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 foreign wars of Philip II. and the stupid bigotry of his succes- 
 sor, Philip III., who expelled the Moors from his kingdom, 
 amounting to a million of the most industrious of his subjects, 
 Spain became drained of its inhabitants, so that early in the 
 seventeenth century, her manufactures and commerce began 
 to decay ; men could not be recruited to keep up her fleets 
 and armies ; her extensive foreign commerce was lost, and 
 even agriculture began to be neglected. The great emigra- 
 tion to the colonies, still farther drained off the population, 
 and the immense wealth which the colonies poured into the 
 parent state, intoxicated the inhabitants, as well as the sove- 
 reign, and led them to desert the paths of industry to which 
 they had been accustomed. Thus, at a time when the popu- 
 lation and wants of tLe colonies were daily augmenting, the 
 means of Spain to supply them had decreased in a much great- 
 er ratio. She was obliged to have recourse to her neighbours, 
 and to supply her colonies with the manufactures of Holland, 
 England, France and Italy. She was stiil, however, as firmly 
 bent on maintaining the entire monopoly of the colonial trade, 
 although it was apparent that foreigners now derived the prin- 
 cipal benefit from it. Nineteen-twentieths of the commodities 
 exported to her colonies, were foreign fabrics, which were 
 paid for by the products of the mines, received in return, so 
 that the precious metals no sooner entered Spain, than they 
 passed away into the hands of foreigners, and the country was 
 left without sufficient for a circulating medium. 
 
 Although wholly unable to supply the wants of her colonies, 
 Spain did not relax in the smallest degree the rigour of her co^ 
 lonial system ; the principal of which, was, that the whole 
 commerce with the colonies should be in the hands, and un- 
 der the direction of the crown, a monopoly similar to that of 
 an exclusive company. The regulation of this commerce was 
 entrusted to the Casa de Contratacion, or board of trade es- 
 tablished at Seville. This board granted a licence to any ves- 
 sel bound to America, and inspected its cargo. From these 
 regulations, the entire commerce with the colonies centered 
 in Seville, and continued there until 1720. It was carried on 
 in a uniform manner for more than two centuries. The system 
 was, that a fleet with a strong convoy, sailed annually to Amer- 
 ica ; this consisted of two squadrons or divisions, one called 
 the Galleons, the other the Flota. They sailed from Seville 
 until the year 1720, and after that principally from Cadiz, un- 
 til 1778, when fourteen other ports were opened to the trade 
 with the colonies. The galleons destined to Terra Firma, Pe- 
 ru and Chile, first touched at Carthagena, where not only that 
 province, but also those of Caraccas, Santa Martha, and oth- 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 83 
 
 jers in New Granada, were supplied. From Carthagena the 
 fleet proceeded to Porto Cabello, which was the mart of all 
 the rich commerce of Peru and Chile. Previous to the time 
 the galleons were expected, the products of the mines, and 
 suclTarticles of produce as Peru and Chile afforded for expor- 
 tation, were annually conveyed by sea to Panama, and from 
 thence across the isthmus, to Porto Cabello, part of the way 
 on mules, and part down the river Chagres. After the arrival 
 of the fleet of galleons, and the merchants from Peru and the 
 other provinces, Porto Cabello, a paltry and unwholesome vil- 
 lage, consisting of negro huts and a small garrison, immedi- 
 ately assumed a new appearance ; its store-houses were tilled 
 with merchandise, and its streets crowded with opulent mer- 
 chants, drawn from distant provinces. A fair was opened 
 that continued for forty days, during which the most exten- 
 sive commercial transactions took place, and the rich cargoes 
 of the galleons were all marketed, and the specie and staples 
 of the colonies, received in payment and carried back to fepain. 
 The flota, or other squadron, directed its course to Vera Cruz, 
 and supplied New Spain and all the provinces that belonged 
 to that Viceroyalty. The treasures of the mines and products 
 of the country, were first deposited at, Puebla, and on the ar- 
 rival of the flota, were carried to Vera Cruz, where the ex- 
 change was conducted in the same manner as at Porto Cabello. 
 Both squadrons having taken in their return cargoes, rendez- 
 vous at Havanna, and sail from thence to Europe in company. 
 Such was the stinted, fettered, and restricted commerce 
 which subsisted between Spain and her colonies, for more 
 than two centuries and a half ; and such were the swadling 
 clothes which bound the youthful and vigorous limbs of the 
 colonies, calculated to retard their growth and keep them al- 
 ways in a state of dependence and minority. They were not 
 permitted to act for themselves in the most common arid ne- 
 cessary concerns; but must wear such apparel, and consume 
 such meats and drinks as parental authority see fit to allow 
 them. This restricted and contemptible commercial system, 
 was scarcely less injurious to Spain than to her colonies. The 
 naval superiority of the English and Dutch, enabled them to 
 cut off all intercourse between Spain and her colonies, which 
 exposed the colonies to suffer for the want of the necessaries 
 of life, and introduced an extensive smuggling trade. It also 
 compelled the Spanish monarch so far to relax the rigour of 
 his system as to permit France, then his ally, to open a trade 
 with Peru ; the French carried such quantities of goods there, 
 tjiat they found their way into all the Spanish provinces. This 
 
84 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 trade being carried on directly, threatened the destruction of 
 the trade with Spain, and it was therefore prohibited. 
 
 By the treaty of Utrecht, Great-Britain obtained a conces- 
 sion, which secured to her a foot-hold for commercial purposes 
 in the Spanish colonies in America. Philip V. transferred to 
 Britain, with the consent of France, the privilege or contract, 
 which the latter had enjoyed, of supplying the Spanish colonies 
 with negroes, and the more dangerous right of sending, annu- 
 ally, one ship of five hundred tons, to the fair at Porto Cabello. 
 This led to the establishment of British factories at Carthage- 
 na, Panama, Vera Cruz, Buenos Ayres, and other places. 
 The residence of the agents and merchants of a rival power, in 
 the most important towns, drew aside the veil which had hith- 
 erto concealed from the world the interior condition of the 
 Spanish colonies, and excited a spirit of commercial cupidity, 
 which led to an extensive contraband trade. This, at first, 
 was carried on principally from Jamaica and other British 
 colonies. As might have been foreseen, the privilege granted 
 to the British was at once abused and greatly extended. In- 
 stead of a ship of five, one of nine hundred tons was sent to 
 Porto Cabello ; and this was accompanied with several small- 
 er vessels, which moored in some neighbouring creek, and 
 clandestinely conveyed their cargoes to the principal ship. The 
 inspectors of the fair, blinded by presents, remained ignorant 
 of these frauds. From the intrinsic defects of the Spanish co- 
 lonial system, arid the weakness of granting the privileges spo- 
 ken of, to the most enterprising commercial nation in the 
 world, the commerce carried on in the galleons, so long the 
 pride of Spain, and even the envy of other nations, was almost 
 annihilated, before the middle of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Alarmed at the extent and pernicious consequences of the 
 contraband trade, Spain stationed ships of war along the coast 
 most exposed to this illicit traffic, to suppress it. These were 
 called Guarda Costas ; they checked the smuggling trade to a 
 considerable degree, which led to complaints, on the part of 
 Great-Britain, and finally to war, on the claim of some outra- 
 ges committed by the Guarda Costae. Spain, however, ob- 
 tained a release from the Assiento, or privilege granted to 
 England, and was once more at liberty to manage her com- 
 merce with her colonies in her own way, without restraint. 
 The contraband trade, however, continued, the Dutch and 
 French engaged iu it, as well as the English ; and to such an 
 extent was it carried, that sometimes, when the galleons ar- 
 rived, the markets were glutted, and their cargoes could 
 scarcely be disposed of. The galleons were prevented from 
 sailing by wars, and often retarded by various accidents, and 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 85 
 
 this occasioned a new regulation, by which commerce with 
 the colonies was carried on by register ships, fitted out during 
 the intervals of the sailing of the fleets. The advantages of 
 this commerce were so apparent, that in the year 1748 the 
 galleons were no longer employed, and the trade with Peru 
 and Chile was prosecuted in a direct route, round Cape. Horn, 
 in single ships. Still the register ships were all obliged to take 
 their departure from Cadiz, and to return to that port. 
 
 The Dutch, from the vicinity of their settlement at Curra- 
 coa, to Caraccas, having engrossed a considerable part of the 
 cocoa trade of that province, Spain, in 1728, granted to a 
 company of merchants an exclusive monopoly of the trade with 
 Caraccas and Cumana ; and both the parent state and the co- 
 lonies derived great benefit from the commercial enterprise of 
 this company. 
 
 From the want of more frequent intercourse between Spain 
 and her colonies, it often happened that important events, 
 which occurred in the latter, were known for some time, by 
 foreign nations, before intelligence of them had reached 
 {Spain. To remedy this evil, in 1764, a system of packets 
 was established, to be despatched on the first day of every 
 month, to Havanna ; from whence letters were sent to Vera 
 Cruz, Porto Cabello, and so transmitted throughout the Span- 
 ish settlements. The packet-boats also sailed, once a month, 
 to Buenos Ayres, to accommodate the settlements east of the 
 Andes. Objects of commerce connected themselves with this 
 arrangement ; the packets were vessels of considerable bur- 
 den, and carried out goods and brought back a return cargo 
 in the productions of the colonies. 
 
 The way being in some degree prepared, the following year, 
 1765, Charles III. abrogated the restrictions on the trade to 
 Cuba, and other islands to the windward, leaving it open to 
 all his subjects, with no other restriction but that of their sail- 
 ing to particular ports in each island. The beneficial effects, 
 both to old Spain and the colonies, resulting from a relaxation 
 of the ancient laws, being sensibly felt, one relaxation proved 
 ihe necessity of another, and in 1778, the monopoly was still 
 farther done away ; and the colonial trade, which had been 
 confined to Cadiz and Seville, for two and a half centuries, 
 was permitten to be carried on in fourteen other Spanish sea- 
 ports, which produced a most important and favourable change, 
 both to the colonies and the revenue of Spain. 
 
 The restrictions upon the internal intercourse and com- 
 merce of the Spanish colonies, were, if possible, more griev- 
 ous and pernicious in their consequences, than those on the 
 inter course with Spain. From their first settlement, all in- 
 I. 8 
 
86 SKETCH OP THE HISTORY 
 
 tercourse, was prohibited, under the severest penalties, fc^ 
 tween the different provinces in the South Sea. Peru, Chile* 
 New Spain, New Granada, and Guatamala, were cruelly in- 
 hibited from all commerce and from all intercourse, whatsoev- 
 er, with each other, which would so obviously have promo- 
 ted their mutual comfort, prosperity and advancement. At 
 length, in 1774, Charles III. removed this severe and in- 
 famous restriction, and opened a free trade between these 
 provinces. 
 
 In noticing the commerce of the Spanish colonies, that 
 from Manilla requires our attention. Philip II. established 
 a colony on the Philippine Islands. The armament was fitted 
 out from New Spain, and the station, selected for a town, was 
 called Manilla, on the Island of Luconia. This settlement 
 soon engaged in active commercial intercourse with China, 
 which occasioned a number of the Chinese to emigrate to the 
 colony, for the purposes of commerce, and the prospects of 
 gain. They not only supplied the colony with the manufac- 
 tures of the East, but introduced such quantities as enabled 
 it to open a trade with America. At first, this trade, which 
 was attended by the longest course of navigation of any in the 
 world, was confined to Callao, on the Coast of Peru, but sub- 
 sequently it was transferred to Acapulco on the western coast 
 of New Spain. It finally acquired regularity and system, and 
 became an important branch of the commerce of the Spanish 
 colonies. It supplied them with the merchandise of China 
 and the East Indies, in exchange for their precious metals, 
 and the produce of America* A single galleon, of from 
 twelve to fifteen hundred tons, sailed from Manilla about the 
 first of July, with the south-west monsoon, and generally ar- 
 rived at Acapulco in three months, with a cargo that often a- 
 mounted to two millions of dollars, although by law it was 
 limited to half a million. In February or March she returned, 
 and taking advantage of the trade winds, accomplished the 
 voyage in fifty or sixty days. And at a later period a galleon 
 has also been depatched from Manilla to Lima, a longer and 
 more difficult voyage, as it must first discover the Coast of 
 Mexico, and then steer southward to Peru, a navigation ex- 
 tremely difficult and tedious. What is most remarkable, this 
 commerce was suffered to be carried on, in direct contraven- 
 tion of the fundamental principle of the colonial system 
 Spain, which held the colonies entirely dependent on the 
 mother country. It seems to have grown up gradually, 
 until it became so important, and so great a part of the pop 
 ulation became interested in it, that it could not be sup- 
 pressed. 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 87 
 
 Spain received a considerable revenue from her colonies, 
 notwithstanding the extensive contraband trade which, at some 
 periods, even in time of peace, amounted to one-third of the 
 whole commerce of the colonies, and other frauds practised 
 on the revenue. The revenue consisted of three branches ; 
 the first, that which was paid to the king, as lord-paramount, 
 or sovereign of the country ; the second, what accrued to 
 him as head of the church ; and the third, imposts, or duties 
 on commerce. The first comprised the customary, or share, 
 received by the crown, of the product of the mines, called the 
 right of seigniory, and the tribute paid by the Indians, called 
 the duty of vassalage. As head of the church, and ad- 
 ministrator of its funds, the king received various spiritual 
 revenues, the first fruits, spoils, and the receipts from the 
 sale of the Bull of Cruzado. This bull was promulged by 
 the Pope every second year, containing an absolution from 
 past offences and granting certain immunities, such as eating 
 prohibited food, during lent, and the like. The monks, em- 
 ployed in distributing these bulls, extolled their virtues with 
 all that zeal and eloquence which interest usually inspires, and 
 which was always found wonderfully efficacious. The igno- 
 rant were led to regard it as essential to their salvation at the 
 rate set on it by government, and by such fraudulent means a 
 universal tax was levied on the credulity and bigotry of a 
 whole nation. The morals of the people were thus bartered 
 away by the government, which ought to have been their 
 guardian and protector, for a mess of pottage, a paltry tax, 
 The duties on merchandise were numerous and oppressive, 
 and clogged and embarrassed every commercial transaction, 
 from the wholesale merchant to the petty retail vender. Great, 
 discrimination was made between the duties on the manufac- 
 tures of Spain, and those on the productions of foreign coun- 
 tries. In the latter part of the eighteenth century, the reve- 
 nue raised by Spain in America, was estimated at a million 
 and a half sterling. This, however, was only the direct rev- 
 enue, raised in the colonies, and did not include the duties 
 levied in Old Spain, on all the exports to her colonies, and 
 some other branches of revenue. 
 
 If the revenue was great, the expenses of the colonial gov- 
 ernment were equally so, and were wholly defrayed by the 
 crown. The Spanish colonial system was not confined to civil 
 government, but embraced commerce, religion, finance, and a 
 military establishment ; all of which were under the authority 
 and management of the crown. It was also complex, in an 
 extreme degree, in each department ; consequently was en- 
 cumbered with such a number and variety of offices, tribunals, 
 
88 SKETCH OP THE HISTORY 
 
 and boards, as not only occasioned an enormous expense, but 
 rendered it unwiedly, tardy in its movements, and almost un- 
 manageable. Its weight was also increased by the external 
 parade and pomp which it maintained. Every thing was on a 
 large scale ; the expenses of living were great, all salaries 
 were high, and most of the officers of the government received, 
 by perquisites and in the various ways which human ingenuity 
 could devise, several times as much as their salaries. The 
 viceroys maintained horse and foot guards, a train of house- 
 hold attendants, and all the pomp and dignity of a regal es- 
 tablishment. They enjoyed a salary of thirty thousand dol- 
 lars, in the latter part of the eighteenth century ; but this was 
 a small part of their income ; by monopolizing certain branch- 
 es of commerce, the disposal of all the lucrative offices, by 
 presents, and by innnmerable frauds and abuses of power, 
 they usually, after continuing in office a few years, returned 
 to Spain with a princely fortune. It is asserJted that a viceroy, 
 at one festival, the anniversary of his birth-day, received fiftj 
 thousand dollars in presents, 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA-. 89 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Idnunistration of Don Joseph Galvez. Buenos Ayres fourth 
 vice-royalty created establishment of Intendancies civil di- 
 visions oj the country Gen. Beresford and Sir Home Popham 
 attack on Buenos Jlyres view of the government its dif- 
 ferent offices its corruption and oppression conspiracy of 
 Leon frauds practised upon the Indians Tupac Jlmru 
 heads an insurrection is defeated. Civil commotion in 
 
 New-Granada -first attempts to revolutionize the province. 
 
 Miranda's expedition loyalty of the Spanish Creoles. 
 
 THE more enlarged views of policy, which led to the relax- 
 ation of the ancient laws, and the adoption of more equitable 
 and just commercial regulations, called attention to the inter- 
 nal condition of the Spanish colonies, and occasioned various 
 salutary reformations and improvements. The colonial system, 
 founded on false and inequitable principles, defective and op- 
 pressive in itself, was rendered more insupportable from the 
 abuses and corruption which every where had crept into the 
 administration. Not only a correction of abuses, but a refor- 
 mation of the system, was successfully attempted in the latter 
 part of the- eighteenth century, during the enlightened admin* 
 istration of Don Joseph Galvez. Having spent seven years 
 in America, as Inspector-general of New Spain, and visited 
 most of the remote provinces, he was elevated, on his return 
 to Spain, to the head of the department for Indian, or more pro- 
 perly, American affairs. He commenced his administration, 
 which forms a memorable epoch in the history of Spanish 
 America, by a general reformation of the whole system. The 
 increase of population and wealth in the colonies, had so 
 multiplied the business of the Courts of /Audience, that the 
 number of judges were wholly inadequate to a faithful dis- 
 charge of the duties of the office. He increased the number 
 I of judges, raised their salaries, and enlarged their powers of 
 appointment. 
 
 From the extension of the settlements, great inconvenience 
 was experienced, notwithstanding the establishment of the 
 
90 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY 
 
 third viceroyalty of New Granada, in consequence of the re- 
 moteness of many of the provinces from the seat of govern- 
 ment ; and the farther the administration was removed from 
 the seat of authority, the greater were the abuses which at- 
 fcended it. There were provinces subject to the government 
 of New Spain, more than two thousand miles from Mexico, 
 and some appertaining to the Viceroyalty of Peru, were still 
 farther from Lima. To remedy this evil, a fourth viceroyalty 
 was created, in the year 1776, comprising the provinces of Rio 
 de la Plata, Buenos Ayres, Paraguay, Tucuman, Potosi, St 
 Cruz de la Sierra, Charcas, and the towns of Mendoza and St. 
 Juan. The seat of government was established at Buenos 
 \yres, and Don Pedro Zevallos raised to his new dignity, who 
 was well acquainted with the countries over which he had to 
 preside, having long resided in them, in a subordinate station. 
 This division, together with what was taken off at the erection 
 of the Viceroyalty of New Granada, reduced the territory of 
 the Viceroyalty of Peru to one-third its original extent. The 
 remote provinces of Sonora, Cinaloa, California, and New 
 Navarre, which belonged to the jurisdiction of New Spain, 
 were likewise formed into a separate government, which was 
 conferred on the Chevalier de Croix, who, although not pos- 
 sessed of the title and dignity of viceroy, was wholly indepen- 
 dent of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Several of these pro- 
 vinces contained some of the richest mines of gold in Ameri- 
 ca, recently discovered, and this was among the reasons that 
 urged the erection of a new government, which, from its vi- 
 cinity, might afford the protection and facilities that the mining 
 operations required. Another, and perhaps the most patriot- 
 ic measure of the Count de Galvez, was the establishment of 
 Intendancies, for the superintendance and protection of the 
 Indians. This measure had a happy effect on the natives ; un- 
 der the active superintendence of the intendants, whose duty 
 it was to watch over their rights, as guardians and protectors, 
 this miserable race enjoyed securities and advantages of which 
 they were deprived under the tyranny of the subaltern Span- 
 i.sh and Indian magistrates, to whom they had been subjected. 
 At a subsequent period, some alterations took place in the 
 political divisions of Spanish America, so that at the com- 
 mencement of the political revolution, which has restored all 
 the Spanish dominions, on the American Continent, to inde- 
 pendence and liberty, its civil divisions consisted of the four 
 Viceroyalties of New Spain, Peru, Buenos Ayres, and Nev 
 Granada, and the territories called Captain-generalcies of 
 Chile, Venezuela, and Guatamala. These seven distinct gov- 
 ernments were independent of each other ; a -viceroy presi- 
 
OP SPANISH AMERICA. 91 
 
 ded over the four first, and an officer, called a captain-general, 
 over the three last, all of which were appointed by the king ; 
 were independent of each other, and directly dependent or\ 
 the crown. These governments were subdivided into provin- 
 ces, over which presided a governor, or corregidore, and also 
 into intendancies, which formed the jurisdiction of an officer 
 called an intendant. This latter division was principally for 
 that part of government which related to the Indians. The 
 governors and intendants were appointed by the king, but ac- 
 countable to the viceroy, or captain-general, to whose jurisdic- 
 tion the province belonged. The provinces were again divi- 
 ded into departments, over which presided a delegate of the 
 governor or officer, at the head of the government of the 
 province, and likewise subordinate magistrates, called alcades, 
 appointed by the municipalities, denominated, cabildos. The 
 viceroys and captain-generals possessed both civil and military 
 power, and generally the governors possessed the same ; but 
 in some instances they enjoyed only civil authority, in which 
 cases there was a military chief, or officer in the province, 
 called commandant e, who held the military command. The 
 supreme judicial power was vested in the court of Audience, 
 of which there was one or more in each of the viceroyaities 
 and captain-generalcies ; the separate judges of this tribunal 
 were called oidores, and their number varied according to the 
 population and business of their jurisdictions. A subordinate 
 judicial authority was vested in the governors, corregidores, 
 and their delegates ; and the alcades also possessed a limited 
 jurisdiction, but could not act, unless they were law-profes- 
 sors, without the advice 0f an assesor, or lawyer. The decis- 
 ions of all these inferior tribunals might be reviewed by the 
 Royal Audience, whose decrees vvere final, except, in some 
 important cases an appeal was allowed to the council of the 
 Indies. 
 
 There was also in some of the sea ports, tribunals called 
 consulados, , having cognizance of commercial affairs only, 
 from whose decisions an appeal might be made to the viceroy. 
 In addition to these authorities, there were spiritual tribunals, 
 with jurisdiction over all ecclesiastical affairs. At the head 
 of these was the holy inquisition, whose jurisdiction was unde- 
 fined, and its proceedings secret, tyrannical and cruel. Itspun- 
 ishments were inflicted by fine, imprisonment, torture, the gal- 
 lows and the stake. In each diocess there was a spiritual court 
 composed of the bishop, the fiscal, proctor or lawyer and the 
 provisor. The ecclesiastical courts as well as all others, were 
 subject to the control of the \iceroy, and consequently were 
 
92 SKETCH OP THE HISTORY 
 
 used to advance the ambitious views of the state as well as the 
 church. 
 
 There was nothing like popular influence in either branch 
 of the government ; no mode in which the voice of the people 
 could be expressed, nor was there a tribunal or officer who was 
 amenable to, or whose authority emanated directly from the 
 people. There were no meetings of the inhabitants, except 
 at church and for public worship on religious festivals, and 
 the press could scarcely be said to exert any influence, so far 
 as it did however, it was only an instrument of tyranny and op- 
 pression. Even the cabildos or corporations which regulated 
 the internal police of cities and towns, consisting of from six 
 to twelve members according to their population or business., 
 were entirely independent of popular influence. These offi- 
 cers were called regidores, the governor of the province being 
 ex-officio president of the cabildo and controlled all its acts. 
 The office of Tegidore was held during life, having a fixed 
 price, which in Buenos Ayres and Chile, was about .five hun- 
 dred dollars, and was purchased like any other commodity in 
 market. The executive officers of the cabildos, called alqua- 
 zils, answering to sheriffs and constables in the United States, 
 were sold at given prices, the same being the case in a great 
 measure with the alcades, who were a kind of petty magis- 
 trates or justices of the peace. The administration was cor- 
 rupt in all departments, beyond any example in modern times. 
 The viceroys, captain-generals, intendants, members of the 
 court of Audience, arch-bishops and bishops who were ap- 
 pointed by the king, almost without exception were Span- 
 iards ; and most of the civil and military appointments were 
 conferred on natives of old Spain. Down to the year 1810, 
 one hundred and sixty viceroys, and five hundred eighty- 
 eight captain-generals, governors and presidents of the royal 
 Audience, had been appointed in America, of whom only eigh- 
 teen were natives of the country, these obtaining their ap- 
 pointments, in consequence, of having received their educa- 
 tion in Spain. Thus for ages, was Spanish America governed 
 by swarms of foreign officers, who had no other interest than 
 to gratify their employers, and enrich themselves. 
 
 The influence of the political revolution in the British col- 
 onies, and the effects of commercial freedom, which Spanish 
 America enjoyed after the regulations of 1778, gave ri^e to 
 the first symptoms of a spirit of reformation and political im- 
 provement, which appeared in the Spanish colonies. Down 
 to this period, and in general, until the breaking out of the 
 revolution in the parent country, and the overthrow of the 
 monarchy by Buonaparte ; the Spanish Creoles in America, 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA, 93 
 
 notwithstanding the political oppression which they suffered, 
 and their personal degradation as a class, were distinguished 
 for their loyalty and attachment to their king and country. 
 About the middle of the eighteenth century, a conspiracy was 
 formed in Caraccas, headed by a man named Leon, the ob- 
 ject of which, however, was not so much political, as commer- 
 cial, it being the design of the conspirators to break up the 
 company of Guipuscoa, sometimes called the company of Ca- 
 faccas, who had long enjoyed a monopoly of all the trade of 
 that and several other provinces. The plot did not succeed, 
 <and Leon was condemned to death, his house razed to the 
 ground, and a column placed on the spot, as a memorial of the 
 horror of his offence, and the fate that awaited all traitors. In 
 1780, an alarming revolution broke out in Peru, among the na- 
 tives, seconded by some of the creole inhabitants. Previous 
 to the reformations and correction of abuses which took place 
 during the administration of Count de Galvez, the corregido- 
 les practised such intolerable extortions and frauds on the In- 
 dians, compelling them to receive their necessary supplies on 
 their own terms, as finally drove them into measures of opea 
 resistance. Tupac Amru, a native Peruvian, of the royal Inca 
 blood, became the leader of the malecontents ; and several 
 individuals of influence joining him, the flame of resistance 
 was spread for three hundred leagues into the interior of the 
 country ; and so numerous and formidable did the party be- 
 come, that Tupac Amru was proclaimed Inca of Peru. The 
 Spanish authorities adopted energetic and vindictive measures 
 to suppress the insurgents ; the contest lasted three years, 
 and exhibited many bloody scenes. The malecontents were 
 often successful ; but Tupac Amru did not conduct in his new 
 dignity so as to maintain the attachment of his adherents ; their 
 zeal consequently began to abate, and their efforts to relax ; 
 and being attacked by the troops of Buenos Ayres, as well as 
 by those of Lima, and most of the Spanish inhabitants declar- 
 ing in favour of the government, the insurgents were overpow- 
 ered, and compelled to submit. Tupac Amru, and most of 
 the principal leaders, were put to death in a manner cruel and 
 abhorrent to the feelings of humanity in the extreme. The 
 loyalty 'of the Creoles led them to take part with the govern- 
 ment, notwithstanding the oppression which they suffered, on 
 an occasion when it was in their power, by joining with tho 
 Indians, to have effected a political revolution. 
 
 Before this insurrection was suppressed, the Spanish gov- 
 ernment was alarmed by civil commotions in New Granada, 
 In 1781, some new regulations and additional taxes adopted 
 by Regente Pineres, the viceroy, were opposed by almost the 
 
94 SKETCH OF THE HlS'fORV 
 
 whole population of the province of Socorro. An armed mul- 
 titude, amounting to seventeen thousand, marched toward** 
 Santa Fe, crying " Long live the king death to our bad gov- 
 ernors." The viceroy not being able to oppose them in arms, 
 had recourse to superstition : they advanced without opposi- 
 tion to within about 12 leagues of the capital, where, instead of 
 being confronted by an army, they were met by Qongora the* 
 archbishop, in his pontifical robes, holding the host in hi^ 
 hands. The suddenness and surprize of this appeal to their 
 religious feelings, filled them with awe and timidity. The 
 archbishop availing himself of the happy moment, proposed a 
 conference to Don Salvador Plata their leader, which resulted 
 in an accommodation, and the dispersion of the malecontents. 
 But the terms of capitulation were not adhered to/f These in- 
 dications of a spirit of reform and freedom in the colonies, oc- 
 casioned the greatest jealousy and alarm in the Court of Mad- 
 rid, and the adoption of such severe and harsh measures to 
 suppress it, as rather tended to increase the evil. Printing 
 presses were prohibited, even in towns of forty or fifty thou- 
 sand inhabitants, and books, of almost every description, were 
 proscribed, as dangerous and seditious.^ In New Granada, 
 several persons, merely on suspicion of entertaining revolu- 
 tionary designs, were subjected to the torture ; and similar 
 measures, of a distrustful policy, were pursued in other pro* 
 vinces, all of which tended to increase the discontents of the 
 colonists. Nothing was done to conciliate their feelings, or 
 redress the grievances of which they complained, or which 
 even had the appearance of reforming any of the glaring abu- 
 ses that every where prevailed. Power and coercion were the 
 only means made use of; the sword, the rack, and the inqui- 
 sition, were to control the minds as well as the bodies of the 
 colonists, and convince them that they had no greater liber- 
 ties, no other rights than those of submission to the will of an 
 arbitrary tyranny, ^y^v 
 
 The political events which occurred in Europe, subsequent- 
 ly to 1778, produced a spirit of political inquiry, that spread 
 over that continent, and even reached the shores of the Span- 
 ish dominions in America, where light and liberty had so long 
 been proscribed and shut out, as the greatest evils that could 
 afflict the human race. Many of the Spanish Creoles inform- 
 ed themselves with the history and the principles of the 
 American and French Revolutions; and the .more they be- 
 came acquainted with liberty, the more lovely it appeared, and 
 the more odious the tyranny of the Spanish colonial govern- 
 ment. Elevated by such sentiments, and relying on the assur* 
 ances of assistance from the British, derived from the procla* 
 
OP SPANISH AMERICA. 95' 
 
 mation* of the Governor of Trinidad, a number of Creoles at ' 
 Caraccas, in 1797, formed a plan to revolutionize that prov- 
 ince. When on the eve of making the attempt to carry thei? 
 plans into execution, the conspiracy was discovered, and Don 
 M. Gual and J. M. Espana, the apparent leaders, escaped to 
 a neighbouring island. Two years after, the latter, having the 
 presumption to return to La Guayra, was seized, condemned, 
 and executed, and thus became one of the first martyrs of Co- 
 lombian liberty. 
 
 It had long been a favourite project of Mr. Pitt to aid the 
 emancipation of South America, and to open a trade with that 
 country. He had frequent conferences with the ex-Jesuit 
 Juan Pablo Viscardi Gusman, a native of Peru, and an enthu- 
 siast in favour of the independence of America, who repre- 
 
 * The following- is the proclamation referred to ; " By virtue of 
 an official paper, which I, the governor of this Island of Trinidad, 
 have received from the right honourable Henry Dundas, minister of 
 his Brittanic Majesty for foreign affairs, dated 7th April, 1797, which 
 I here publish in obedience to orders, and for the use which your Ex- 
 cellencies may draw from its publication, in order that you may com- 
 municate its tenor, which is literally as follows : ' The object which 
 at present I desire most particularly to recommend to your attention, 
 is the means which might be best adapted to liberate the people of the 
 continent near to the Island of Trinidad, from the oppressive and ty- 
 rannic system which supports, with so much rigour, the monopoly of 
 commerce, under the title of exclusive registers, which their govern- 
 ment licenses demand ; also to draw the greatest advantages possible, 
 and which the local situation of the island presents, by opening a di- 
 rect and free communication with the other parts of trie world, with- 
 out prejudice to the commerce of the British nation. In order to ful- 
 fil this intention with greater facility, it will be prudent for your Ex- 
 cellency to animate the inhabitants of Trinidad in keeping up the 
 communication which they had with those of Terra Firma, previous 
 to the reduction of that island; under the assurance, that they will 
 find there an entrepot, or general magazine, of every sort of goods 
 whatever. To this end, his Bi ittannic iVlajesty has determined, in 
 council, to grant freedom to the ports of Trinidad, with a direct 
 trade to Great Britain.' 
 
 " With regard to the hopes you entertain of raising the spirits of 
 those persons, with whom you are in correspondence, towards en- 
 couraging the inhabitants to resist the oppressive authority of their 
 government* I have little more to say, than that they may be certain 
 that, whenever they are in that disposition* they may recewe, at your 
 hands, all the succours to be expected from his Brittanic Majesty * be it 
 with forces, or with arms and ammunition to any extent ; with the as- 
 suran*e< that the views of his Brittanic Majesty, 'go no farther than to 
 secure to them their independence* without pretending to any sovereign" 
 ty over their country \ nor even to interfere in the privileges of the peo- 
 ple, nor in their political, civil^or religious rights." 
 
 THOMAS PICTON, &c. &c. 
 Puerto de Espana, 26th June, 1797. 
 
96 SKETCH OP THE HISTORY 
 
 sented the country to be impatient under the Spanish yoke, and 
 ripe for revolt. He also published in London an appeal to hi& 4 
 countrymen, using all the powers of his eloquence, in attempt- 
 ing to bring them to a sense of their degraded condition. Th6 
 British ministry encouraged general Miranda in his designs to 
 revolutionise Venezuela, and aided the premature expedi- 
 tion which he fitted out in 1801 ; and furnished the funds, fo 
 that he afterwards fitted out from the United States in 1806, 
 though it was done without the assistance or sanction of Con- 
 gress. This expedition failed without accomplishing any 
 thing, and a number of young men from the United States, 
 falling into the hands of the Spaniards, became victims of their 
 own credulity, and the cruelty of tyrannical power. It is said, 
 that during Mr. Adams' administration, the British Ministry 
 made proposals to our government to assist in the emancipa- 
 lion of the Spanish Colonies, which did not meet a favourable 
 reception. 
 
 The failure of Mirandas' expedition did not discourage the 
 British government, for in 1806, Spain then being in alliance 
 with France in the war which prevailed in Europe, they fitted 
 out a squadron under Sir Home Popham, which entered the 
 La Plata, on the 25th of June anchored about twelve miles 
 below Buenos Ayres, where the troops disembarked without 
 opposition. The inhabitants, and the Viceroy, Soliemente, 
 were filled with consternation. After experiencing a feeble 
 opposition at Rio Chueto, three miles from the City, Gen. 
 Beresford entered the Capital, and took possession of the Cit- 
 adel. Don J. M. Pueyredon, afterwards director, at the head 
 of a company of hussars, was the only officer who did any 
 thing to oppose the advance of the English. The Spaniards, 
 on learning the small number of their enemies, determined to 
 expel them. The viceroy had escaped to Montevideo, and 
 Liniers, a French emigrant, but an officer in the Spanish ser- 
 vice, passed over to the eastern shore of the river, exciting the 
 people to arms. The Viceroy collected one thousand regu 
 lars, which he joined with those of Liniers, to whom the com 
 mand of the united forces was given. With these troops 
 Liniers immediately re-crossed the river, when the inhabitant 
 flocking around his standard, soon enabled him to attack th 
 British with great effect, compelling them after they had sus 
 tained a heavy loss, to surrender on the 12th of August, 1806 
 Soon after this event re-enforcements arrived from the Cape o 
 Good Hope, which enabled Sir Home Popham to reduce Mon 
 tevideo by storm. 
 
 This expedition, as appeared from the trial of Sir Horn 
 JPopham, was not expressly authorised by the British ministry 
 
OF SPANISH AMERICA. 97 
 
 but was so far from being disapproved by them that it was fol- 
 lowed up by a bold and extensive plan of conquest. Two squad- 
 rons each with a large body of troops, one commanded by 
 Gen. Whitlock, the other by Gen. Crawford were fitted 
 out for the capture of Buenos Ayres ; after accomplishing 
 this, Crawford had received orders to proceed around Cape 
 Horn and capture Valparaiso ; and for the more effectually 
 securing their conquest, to establish military posts across the 
 continent, from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso. The object of 
 the ministry was entirely changed since 1797 ; now it was not 
 to aid the inhabitants, in establishing their independence, but 
 to subjugate the country. The commanders, in their instruc- 
 tions from Mr. Windharn, secretary of war, were directed to 
 discourage all hopes of any other change in the condition of 
 these countries than that of their being annexed to the crown 
 of Great Britain .* 
 
 On the 10th of May, 1807, the expedition under general 
 Whitlock arrived at Montevideo, and on the 1 5th of June fol- 
 lowing, that under general Crawford arrived. General Whit- 
 lock who assumed the chief command, had now under his 
 controj about ten thousand of the best troops in the British 
 service, and made immediate preparations for attacking the 
 capital. The Viceroy arriving at Buenos Ayres, was opposed 
 by the inhabitants, and finally deposed by the Cabildo. Li- 
 niers being raised to the chief command, was assisted by the 
 inhabitants in making great exertions to defend the capital. 
 Every avenue to the city was obstructed by breastworks of hides 
 from fifteen to twenty feet thick : small pieces of artillery 
 were planted on the houses, which were barricadoed and form- 
 ed into fortresses, and all the citizens were under arms. The 
 British having landed on the 28th of June, traversed a swampy 
 country of about thirty miles and presented themselves on the 
 morning of the 5th of July, in front of Buenos Ayres. The 
 British general having formed his troops in a line along 
 the suburbs, commenced the attack and never were men 
 more surprised with their reception. The cannon, planted on 
 the trenches which intersected the streets, poured a destruc- 
 tive fire of grape on the advancing columns, while from the 
 roofs and windows of the houses, they were assailed with 
 appalling effect, by an incessant shower of musketry, bombs 
 and hand grenades. As the English advanced farther into the 
 city, they exposed themselves to a hotter and more destruc- 
 tive fire ; and whilst thus exposed to be mown down, the 
 enemy were out of their reach, and in a great measure secure 
 
 * Documents annexed to report of Whitlock s trial. 
 VOL. I. 9 
 
98 SKETCH OP THE HISTORY 
 
 from their fire. The column under general Auchmuty, which 
 entered the upper part of the town, after a sanguinary con- 
 flict, took possession of a large building where bull-fights 
 were held ; and that which entered the south part, led by 
 general Crawford, after losing one half its number, took shel- 
 ter in a large church ; here they defended themselves for 
 some time, but finally were obliged to surrender. The British 
 in this engagement lost one third of their whole army. The 
 next day an armistice was concluded by which they agreed to 
 evacuate the La Plata in two months. 
 
 Never was there a more complete failure of an expedition, or 
 perhaps a plan of conquest founded on more erroneous con- 
 ceptions. The British ministry expected that the inhabitants 
 cf the country were so uneasy under the Spanish yoke, that 
 they would flock to their standards, and instructions were giv- 
 en general Whitlock for organizing a military force in the 
 country. But instead of this, they found not a single friend ; 
 all the inhabitants took arms, and manifested a most violent an- 
 imosity towards them. They refused after the armistice, to 
 purchase even a single article of their merchandise, although 
 at the very time they were suffering for the want of them.* 
 Mad the English come to the aid of the inhabitants, in throw- 
 ing off the Spanish yoke and establishing the independence of 
 the country, the expedition would in all probability have prov- 
 ed successful, and thus have secured to Britain her primary 
 ebject the trade of the country. 
 
 Notwithstanding the fatal termination of this enterprise, 
 another expedition still more formidable was prepared for the 
 same object, the destination of which was changed by the 
 breaking out of the revolution in Spain. These, and other at- 
 tempts made on the coast of the Spanish colonies, induced the 
 government to adopt measures for providing a larger mili- 
 tary force* in the sea-ports ; and the indications of a revolu- 
 tionary spirit which had been disclosed, so alarmed the 
 court of Madrid as to occasion new military regulations, 
 for the greater security of the capital, and to enable the 
 viceroys and generals of the provinces to support each oth- 
 er in case of civil commotions. It is to the subversion of the 
 monarchy of Spain, by Bonaparte, that in a great measure the 
 world is indebted for the independence of Spanish America, 
 and all the hopes inspired by the successful and patriotic ca- 
 icer it has hitherto pursued, for its present condition and glo- 
 rious prospects. Thus an act of tyranny and usurpation in 
 ne hemisphere, was rendered conducive to the establishment 
 of liberty in another, and the emancipation of a large portion 
 of the globe. 
 
 
HISTORY 
 
 AND PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Geographical description of the country its mountains, rivers, 
 bays, harbours climate, soil, productions, mines the mining 
 districts annual produce of the mines increase since the re- 
 volution manner of working themcommerce articles of 
 exportation duties on importations manufactories. 
 
 THE Mexican nation, or republic, is composed of the prov- 
 inces of the ancient Viceroyalty of New Spain, the captain- 
 generalcy of Yucatan, the commandances-ge*erl of tlie east, 
 ern and western internal provinces, and the province of Chiapa, 
 which formerly belonged to the captain-generalcy of Guatamala. 
 This territory extends from lat. 15 to lat. 42, north, or about 
 1875 miles from north to south. On the northern boundary it 
 extends from the Red River to the Pacific, a distance of more 
 than one thousand miles' ; its least breadth, on its southern 
 boundary, is narrow, not being more than about two hundred 
 miles. It is bounded on the north by the territory of the Uni- 
 ted States ; on the east by the United States and the Gulf of 
 Mexico ; on the south by the states of the Republic of Guata- 
 mala ; arid on the west and south-west by the Pacific Ocean. 
 Mexico, like the countries in South America, is traversed by 
 extensive ranges of mountains, which much resemble the An- 
 des in their general character, but from latitude 18, near the 
 Pacific, to latitude 40, north, these ranges present some pe- 
 culiar characteristics, which distinguish them from most other 
 mountains in the world. A broad elevated plain, or tract, 
 called table-land, prevails through this vast region, at the 
 
100 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 elevation of from six, to nine thousand feet above the level of 
 the sea. There are many intervening vallies, watered by riv- 
 ers or lakes, that intersect this tract of table-land, extending 
 more than fifteen hundred milps, and terminating at about la- 
 titude 40, where it imperceptibly declines to the north. Ma- 
 ny lofty elevations on these ranges, particularly the group in 
 the central plain, or table land, between Mexico and the city 
 of Cordova, one of which, called the Popocatepetl, or smoke 
 mountain, is seventeen thousand seven hundred and sixteen 
 feet in height ; and another, called the Star Mountain, is sev- 
 enteen thousand three hundred and seventy-one feet. There 
 are five burning volcanic mountains in Mexico ; the Ouzaba, 
 Popocatepetl, Tustla, Jorullo, and Colinia ; but they are not 
 often subject to eruptions, and earthquakes seldom occur. 
 
 In the 20th degree of north latitude, at an elevation of fifteen 
 thousand feet, is a region of perpetual snow ; and in the 
 month of January the region of snow descends to the elevation 
 of twelve thousand feet, and sometimes snow falls at Mexico 
 and Valladolid, which are more than three hundred feet lower. 
 On the declivities of the Cordillera, there frequently occur 
 fogs and humid winds. The western descent from the table- 
 lands, towards Acapulco, is gradual, and affords a constant 
 and regular change, from a cold to a hot climate. This de- 
 scent is so gradual and regular, that a road might be made fit 
 for carriages ; but the descent on the eastern declivity, to- 
 wards Vera Cruz, is rapid and steep, and hitherto has been 
 passable only by mules ; tills oescent, however, would be 
 passable for carriages, if the superb causeway, which was com- 
 mencea about themiddle of the last century, should ever be 
 completed. 
 
 On the maritime coast of the Gulf of Mexico, between the 
 mountains and the sea, the surface of the country is low and 
 diversified with hills. The Peninsula of Yucatan is principal- 
 ly a level tract of country ; in the north-east section of the re- 
 public, bordering on the United States, and in the vallies of 
 the great rivers, are extensive plains and level tracts. There 
 are also many large expansions of level land on the borders of 
 the Pacific, both on the coast and in the valleys of the rivers. 
 
 The maritime waters of Mexico are extensive and valuable, 
 affording the greatest facilities for commerce and navigation. 
 On the west and south-west the country borders on the great 
 Pacific for more than two thousand miles, and from this cp ast 
 projects the unrivalle4 Peninsula of California, to the extent 
 of nearly ten degrees of latitude, in a direction parallel with 
 the coast, forming a most magnificent gulf of that name. On 
 the east, the country borders extensively on the Gulf of Mexi- 
 
 j 
 
STATE OF MEXICO. 101 
 
 CD, the great inland sea of the American continent, From, 
 this coast, likewise, projects another peninsula, called Yuca- 
 tan, which is also of great extent, and forms the bay of Cam- 
 peachy. In addition to the waters of two oceans, the Mexican 
 territories are watered by numerous rivers and lakes ; but 
 few of the rivers are valuable for navigation. The largest is 
 the Rio del Norte, which rises near the head waters of the Ar- 
 kansas, and after a course of nearly eighteen hundred miles, 
 in a south-easterly direction, discharges its waters into the 
 Gulf of Mexico. In its course, this noble river waters an ex- 
 tensive valley, and, like the Mississippi, has its annual freshets. 
 
 To the east of the Rio del Norte are the Colorado of the 
 Gulf of Mexico, and the Brassos, which take their rise ih the 
 highlands, near the border of the United States, and after a 
 course of seven hundred miles, discharge their waters into 
 the Mexican Gulf. Further east are the Red River and the 
 Sabine, each of which forms apart of the eastern boundary of 
 the republic. 
 
 To the south of the Rio del Norte, the most considerable 
 river is the Tampico, formed by the junction of the two large 
 streams, called the Panuco and Montazuma, which water a 
 great extent of country. The united waters of these two riv- 
 ers are discharged into the bay or lake of Tampico. The Tula, 
 one of the head branches of the Montazuma, has its source in 
 the mountains, near the valley of Mexico. South of the river 
 Tampico, is the lake Tamuacua, which communicates with the 
 Gulf of Mexico, by the Rio Tuspa. The next most consider- 
 able river is the Rio de Xamapa, which discharges its waters 
 a short distance below Vera Cruz. There are numerous other 
 smaller rivers, which intersect the extensive maritime border 
 of the eastern coast . the most important of these is the Guas- 
 cualco, which falls into the Gulf of Mexico in latitude 18 de-- 
 grees 30 minutes. There is an excellent harbour at the mouth 
 of this river, and there is said also to be a practicable route 
 for a canal by the head waters of this stream, to the bay of Te- 
 huantepec, on the Pacific Ocean, in lat. 16 deg. 30 min. The 
 Isthmus of Tehuantepec is about one hundred and twenty-five 
 miles wide ; and from the summit of a mountain on the isth- 
 mus, both oceans may be seen in a clear day. Farther east, 
 are the Tabasco, Oeozingo, and the Rio Chiatlan, all consid- 
 erable streams, which empty into the bay of Campeachy. 
 
 The greatest river that discharges its waters into the Pacific 
 in the Mexican Republic, is the Colorado of the west, which 
 rises in the Rocky Mountains, in latitude 40 N., near the head 
 waters of the Rio del Norte, and is formed by two branches, of 
 which the eastern is called the Nabojoa, and the western, Za- 
 
102 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 guananas, and in its course it receives another large branch, 
 called the Gila. The waters of the Colorado, after running a 
 course of nearly one thousand miles, are discharged into the 
 Gulf of California, in lat. 33 N. and are said to be navigable 
 for sea vessels three hundred miles. The next most consider- 
 able river is the Santiago, which unites with the Pacific in lat. 
 21 deg. 30 min. N. The principal head branch of this river is 
 Rio Larma, which has its source within twenty miles of the 
 valley of Mexico, and passes through lake Chapala, its entire 
 course being nearly six hundred miles. The .whole coast of 
 the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico is intersected with 
 rivers, some of which are navigable, and afford good harbours. 
 The Chimalapa is the most important, from the circumstance 
 of its uniting with the bay Tehuantepec already mentioned. 
 The largest lake in Mexico is the Chapala, situated in lat. 20 
 north, and covers 1 225 square miles. The river Santiago 
 pours out of this lake. There are five lakes in the valley of 
 Mexico ; Chalco, at the southern extremity of the valley, co- 
 vers fifty square miles ; this lake has no outlet, and is separa- 
 ted by a dike from a long narrow lake, called Xochimilco, 
 which approaches within four and a half miles of the capital. 
 Lake Tezcuco, which was formerly much larger than it is at 
 present, lies north of Chalco, and contains 77 square miles ; 
 the waters are shallow, generally not more than from nine to 
 sixteen feet deep, and at some places much less. Lake San 
 Christobal lies less than a mile from Tezcuco, in a north-west 
 direction, and covers 27 square miles ; and three miles further 
 north-west, is Lake Zumpango, which covers ten square miles. 
 The River Guantitlan, the present source of the Montazuma, 
 formerly emptied itself into this lake ; but to prevent inunda- 
 tions, its course was diverted out of the valley. Mexico suf- 
 fered severely from inundations during its early -history, and 
 to obviate this evil, it was proposed, in 1607, to turn- the 
 waters of the Rio Guantitlan and those of Lake Zumpango out 
 of the valley, and after several unsuccessful attempts, this 
 great work was completed in 1783. The whole length of the 
 drain is twelve miles and four fifths ; at the top it is from 280 
 to 360 feet wide, but narrow at the bottom ; and the depth for 
 more than two miles is from 100 to 300 feet ; and for more 
 than half a mile from 150 to 200 feet ; this canal is called the 
 drain of Huehuetoca, and has since been extended to lakes 
 San Christobal and Tezcuco. The other lakes are Pascuaro, 
 a beautiful sheet of water near Valladolid, and Panas and Mex- 
 tillan in Durango. 
 
 The principal port on the Mexican coast of the Atlantic, is 
 the ancient one of Vera Cruz, the nearest Atlantic port to the 
 
 
STATE OP MEXICO. 103 
 
 city of Mexico. The harbour of Vera Cruz is very insecure, 
 although formerly the port where the Spanish galleons or flota 
 entered. To the north of Vera Cruz is the much frequented 
 port of Tampico, situated on the south side of the river of that 
 name, three hundred and twelve miles north-east of the city of 
 Mexico ; and on the opposite side of the river, or bay, is the 
 port of Altamira. From Rio Tampico, the Mexican coast, 
 which extends nearly eight hundred miles in a north-easterly 
 direction to the mouth of the river Sabine, is indented by many 
 natural harbours, but there are only a few settlements. To 
 the south of Vera Cruz, are the ports of Alvarado and Guas- 
 cualco, at the isthmus of Tehuantepec, and Campeachy, on 
 the peninsula of Yucatan. 
 
 The principal ports on the Pacific, are the bays of Tehuan- 
 tepec and Acapulco, in north lat. 19 12', and San Bias, in 
 north lat. 21 32', situated on a bay of the same name, which 
 receives the waters of the great river Santiago. Above San 
 Bias, in the Gulf of California, there are many good harbours, 
 but few considerable settlements. 
 
 Climate. The climate of that part of Mexico which is in- 
 cluded within the tropical regions, has but two seasons, the wet 
 and the dry ; the rainy season commences the beginning of 
 June, and lasts for four or five months ; the remainder of the 
 year is dry and pleasant. The first rains jare accompanied 
 with violent electrical explosions, and on their approach, the 
 inhabitants of the seaports on the Pacific coast usually retreat 
 to the highlands, where the climate is known to be the most 
 humid. The lowlands of the coast within the tropics possess 
 a hot climate, and are the most unhealthy to strangers from 
 northern latitudes. The coast of the Pacific is warmer than 
 that of the Gulf of Mexico in the same degree of latitude, 
 with the exception of the peninsula of Yucatan, which is warm, 
 dry, and very healthy. The highlands, at the elevation of four 
 or five thousand feet above the level of the sea, enjoy perpet- 
 ually a soft, spring-like temperature, which never varies more 
 than eight or nine degrees. The climate of this region is very 
 salubrious, but it is often enveloped in thick fogs. At the el- 
 evation of seven thousand feet, another climate commences, 
 the mean temperature of which is about 60 degrees. The city 
 of Mexico is in this region, which is healthy, and yields abun- 
 dantly the productions of both tropical and temperate regions. 
 
 The mean temperature of the table-lands, within the tropics, 
 at an elevation of about one thousand feet above the level of 
 the sea, is 77 of Fahrenheit. From the peculiar geographical 
 character of this country, it possesses, in the same parallel of 
 
104 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 latitude, all the varieties of climate, from the regions of perpet- 
 ual frost, to the continual and intense heat of a tropical sun. 
 This is an advantage enjoyed by few countries in the world, 
 and would have appeared strange and incredible to the an- 
 cients, who supposed the tropical regions to be uninhabitable, 
 in consequence of their intense heat. The climate in the tro- 
 pical regions of Mexico possesses almost perfect uniformity as 
 to heat and cold. 
 
 On the coasts, particularly on the Pacific, the tropical heat 
 prevails, and, near Acapulco, the climate is the hottest and 
 most unhealthy in the world ; on the table-land at an eleva- 
 tion of from about four thousand to five thousand feet there 
 prevails perpetual spring ; the temperature being uniformly 
 soft, and spring-like, and seldom varies more than nine de- 
 grees. Here the mean temperature, throughout the whole 
 year, is from 60 deg. to 70 deg. and the extremes of heat and 
 cold, and the pleasing varieties of the seasons, are wholly un- 
 known. Many sections of the table-lands suffer severely from 
 drought, and this is particularly the case with much of the 
 country bordering on the Gulf of California, where there 
 are extensive arid districts, condemned to perpetual desola- 
 tion. The northern and north-eastern sections of the federa- 
 tion, enjoy a climate similar to the United States, he althy 
 and productive. The country bordering on the Pacific, 
 extending to the 42d degree of north latitude, belongs to the 
 Mexican Union. This region is much milder than in the 
 same degree of latitude on the Atlantic, and enjoys a de- 
 lightful and salubrious climate, a fertile soil, and is rich in 
 natural, agricultural, and metallic productions. 
 
 Productions. The table-land is generally good ; and when 
 it is not too arid, very productive ; all the fruits and grains of 
 the northern parts of America and Europe, are produced at 
 the elevation of six thousand feet above the level of the sea, 
 whilst the low country, bordering on the coasts, yields in pro- 
 portion all the productions of the tropics. Maize, a sort of 
 Indian corn, is common to both, and is extensively cultivated 
 in the low country, two crops being raised annually, Tt is the 
 principal staple of the country, and when the crop fails, Hurn- 
 boldt says " there is a famine in Mexico." Wheat is cultiva- 
 ted with success on the table-land, rye and barley yield abun- 
 dantly, and where it is practicable to irrigate the soil, it affords 
 almost incredible burdens. The quality of the wheat is ex- 
 cellent. The sugar-cane is also successfully cultivated on the 
 table-land, which likewise produces, in great profusion, all the 
 vegetables and fruits of the temperate climates of America and 
 
STATE OF MEXICO. 15 
 
 Europe, and at the same time are growing in the lower sec- 
 tions, all the fruits of the tropics, in equal abundance. 
 
 Cotton is cultivated with success on the high lands, as well 
 as the low. The olive and the vine both succeed well, but 
 are not extensively cultivated ; and the country is favourable 
 to the production of tobacco, indigo, and silk ; but the two 
 last articles are entirely neglected, and the first has suffered 
 much from the restrictions of the Spanish government. The 
 potatoe is raised in the high country, and the yam and sweet 
 potatoe in both high and low ; rice, the banann plant, and 
 manioc root, are produced abundantly in the low country, and 
 are important articles of food, except with the natives, who 
 subsist principally on Indian corn. The banana, is cultivated 
 by cuttings or shoots, set into the ground, and is estimated to 
 yield a quantity of nutritive food, in proportion to that of 
 wheat, as 133 is to 1, and of potatoes, as 44 is to 1. The 
 fruit ripens the 10th or 1 1th month, and is prepared for use in 
 various ways ; it is dressed like the potatoe, dried and pound- 
 ed into flour, or preserved like figs by exposure to the sun, 
 which gives it the appearance and odour of smoked-ham. 
 The vanilla, a species of pimento, forms another very essential 
 article of Mexican agriculture ; it abounds on the eastern 
 declivities of the table-lands, in the intendancies of Vera Cruz 
 and Oaxaca. It is generally cultivated by the Indians. The 
 medicinal root, jalap, which derives its name from the dis- 
 trict of Jalapa, is found in shady . vallies, near the moun- 
 tains, and delights in a temperate climate. The cochineal 
 insect, one of the richest articles of Mexican commerce, is 
 also reared extensively in Oaxaca. A large proportion of the 
 country between San Luis and Tampico, is laid out as grazing 
 farms, where are raised great numbers of horses, mules, cat- 
 tle, and sheep. The great valley of the Rio del Norte, is also 
 said to be very favourable for grazing, and the agricultural 
 productions of temperate climates. There are many other 
 sections of the Mexican Federation equally favourable for 
 grazing, and the country is well supplied with domestic an- 
 imals, such as horses, cattle, mules, sheep, goats, and swine. 
 
 The table-lands of Mexico are intersected by many rich 
 and fertile vallies ; affording inexhaustible resources for agri- 
 culture : among the most important, is that of Mexico, in 
 which is situated the great city of the same name ; being two 
 hundred and thirty miles in circumference, and having an ele- 
 vation of seven thousand four hundred feet above the level of 
 the sea. This valley encloses five lakes, which communicate 
 by a drain, or canal, with the river Montazuma. There are 
 many other fertile vallies interspersed among the table-lands, 
 among which the great valley, watered by the River Santiago> 
 
106 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 and its branches, is represented to be one of the richest, 
 most fertile, and highly cultivated districts in Mexico. 
 
 Mines. The Metalic treasures of Mexico, surpass those of 
 any other country for their abundance, and excellence. Bar- 
 on Humboldt says, " that there are three thousand mines of 
 the precious metals already discovered in Mexico ;" and he 
 supposes that in the northern sections of the country, great 
 mineral wealth will yet be discovered in the rocks of seconda- 
 ry formation. 
 
 The following are the thirteen most considerable mining 
 districts in Mexico : 
 
 1. Guanaxuato, near a city of the same name. 
 
 2. Catorce, in the Intendancy of San Luis Potosi, 
 
 3. Zazatecas, near a city of the same name. 
 
 4. Real del Monte, in Mexico. 
 
 5. Bolanos,in Guadalaxara. 
 
 6. Guarisamey, in Durango. 
 
 7. Sombrerete, in Zacatecas. 
 
 8. Tasco, in Mexico. 
 
 9. Balopilas, in Durango. 
 
 10. Zimapan, in Mexico. 
 
 11. Fresmllo, in Zacatecas. 
 
 12. Ramos, in San Luis Potosi. 
 
 13. Parral, in Durango. 
 
 The tract of mountains in Mexico, which producoa the 
 greatest quantity of silver, is situated between the parallels of 
 21 and 24 30' north latitude ; and it is remarkable that the 
 metalic riches of Mexico and Peru are placed in both hemis- 
 pheres at about the same distance from the equator. The 
 mine of Valenciana, at Guanaxuato, is supposed to be the 
 richest in Mexico, and has furnished, in a common year, from 
 four to six millions of dollars in silver, and from two to three 
 millions of dollars in gold. The annual produce of the mines 
 of Mexico was estimated, before the re volution, at twenty two 
 millions of dollars, (about ten times more than is afforded by 
 all the mines in Europe) of which Guanaxuato, Catorce, and 
 Zacatecas, yield eleven millions. In years of their greatest 
 prosperity, the mines of Mexico have produced annually 
 twenty-two millions of dollars in silver, and about one million in 
 gold, and in 1796 the silver mines attained their maximum, and 
 yielded twenty-five million six hundred and forty-four thou- 
 sand dollars. The gold is produced principally by washing 
 the earth and sand. Some native gold is found in veins in the 
 province of Oaxaca ; but the greater part is obtained in veins 
 of silver ore. The silver ore is not rich in any of the Mexican 
 mines ; masses of native silver have been found but very rare- 
 
STATE OF MEXICO. 107 
 
 ly ; the average proportion of silver is three or four ounces in 
 sixteen hundred ounces of ore. At the commencement of 
 the eighteenth century, the entire coinage of gold and silver, 
 in Mexico, was only about five million of dollars annually ; 
 since which period the product has been constantly in- 
 creasing, and at the beginning of the nineteenth century, 
 amounted to six times that quantity. The increase and ex- 
 tension of the mining operations were astonishingly great, 
 from 1790 to the commencement of the late revolution. The 
 cause of this increase Humboldt attributes " to the increase 
 f population on the table-land, the progress of knowledge and 
 national industry, the freedom of trade conceded tp America 
 in 1778, the facility of procuring at a cheap rate, the iron and 
 steel necessary for the mines, the fall of the price of mercury, 
 the discovery of the mines of Valenciana and Catorce, and 
 the establishment of the Tribunal de Mineria." 
 
 The mining operations are carried on by individuals. When 
 a person discovered a mine, and his claim to the discovery 
 was established by the proper tribunal, the king granted him a 
 district of land around the mine, in the direction of the vein ; 
 and formerly granted to him, also, a certain number of Indians 
 to work the mine. The proprietors were obliged to pay one- 
 tenth of the product to the king, and one and a half per cent, 
 besides, together with the coinage and seigniorage. The 
 working of a mine is a most extensive concern, and attended 
 with immense expense, and conseqently requires a vast capi- 
 tal. In the mine of Valenciana there were, before the revolu- 
 tion, eighteen hundred workmen in the interior of the mine ; 
 an administrator, with a salary of twelve thousand dollars ; an 
 overseer, a number of under-overseers, and nine miners. The 
 expense of powder alone, for this mine, has amounted to about 
 eighty thousand dollars, and the steel, for the implements, to 
 twenty-seven thousand. When Humboldt visited this mine, 
 in 1803, a new draught-pit was opening, which was to be sunk 
 to the astonishing depth of one thousand six hundred and 
 eighty-five feet into the bowels of the earth ; it was eighty- 
 seven feet in circumference, and estimated to cost one million 
 of dollars. At this time it was sunk six hundred and three 
 feet, and it was calculated to take twelve years to complete it. 
 The mines are sometimes obliged to be abandoned, in conse- 
 quence of the influx of water, and pumps, of a vast size and 
 breadth, are used to raise the water from the shafts, of im- 
 mense depth. A pump was lately cast at Cincinnati, in the 
 United States, for a mine in Mexico, of one thousand feet in 
 length, consisting of pieces of ten feet each. The profits of 
 the mines are very great ; there have been individuals whosa 
 
108 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 income from them has been one hundred and ninety thousand 
 dollars annually, and some of the great proprietors have en- 
 joyed a revenue of nearly three hundred thousand dollars. 
 
 The war, which deranged all kinds of industry, was partic- 
 ularly fatal to the mining interests ; the machinery in most of 
 the mines having been destroyed, and the business wholly 
 abandoned. It is said that in 1821, the entire coinage in Mex- 
 ico did not exceed six millions of dollars. Since the estab- 
 lishment of the present government, great exertions have been 
 made to revive the mining operations, for which the republic 
 is indebted in an eminent degree to Mr. Alman, the Secretary 
 of State, and one of the most enlightened statesmen in Mexi- 
 co. He very justly considers the business of mining as one 
 of the most important interests of Mexico, regarding it, how- 
 ever, only in the light of an extensive manufacture, which 
 could supply the most important staple of the nation, at the 
 same time, by the employment of a large population, open a 
 market for the products of the soil, and thus promote the inter- 
 ests of agriculture. Alman was one of the deputies sent from 
 Mexico to the Cortes of Spain in 1820. Whilst in Europe, 
 he visited Paris and London, for the purpose of forming com- 
 panies for working the mines. In the latter place he succeed- 
 ed in establishing a company called the " United Mexican 
 Mining Association." By the last report of the secretary, it 
 appears that three of these companies have been formed in 
 England, and one in Germany, for mining purposes in Mexico, 
 and that the mines of Ouanaxuato, Valenciania, Del Monte, 
 Rayas, Cata, Sirena and Catorce, are now in operation, and 
 large capitals invested.* The mines of Conception and Te- 
 mascal tepee have been drained by tiers of lifting pumps, ope- 
 rated by steam. The machinery for the latter mine was made 
 in New- York, and is of thirty horse power, and three hundred 
 yards of cast iron pipe, was contracted for at the foundry in 
 Louisville, Kentucky, in 1825, for the mine in Catorce. Its 
 cost is 10,000 dollars. The want of wood, near many of the 
 mines, is an objection to the use of steam engines, and animal 
 power has to be employed. The year past, a company was 
 formed in Baltimore, and adequate capital subscribed for pur- 
 chasing and working some valuable mines in the valley of Te- 
 mascaltepec, about 100 miles from Mexico. They have been 
 examined by several persons from the United States, who give 
 them a preference over those purchased by the British compa- 
 nies, on account of the water power which can be applied to 
 work the various machines. They have engaged their ma- 
 
 * N. A, Review for Oct. 1825. 
 
STATE OF MEXICO. 
 
 
 
 chinery at West-Point, which is to be finished and shipped 
 from New-York in April, 1826. 
 
 During the colonial system, a duty of eleven and a half per 
 cent, was paid on the products of the mines, which, in 1 822 
 was reduced to three per cent. Some of the members of the 
 present Mexican congress doubted the expediency of this mea- 
 sure, thinking that the duty on the exportation of specie should 
 even be raised higher than its former rate to prevent the coun- 
 try being drained of the precious metals. This occasioned the 
 appointment of a committee to examine into this important 
 subject, who have lately submitted to the congress a very able 
 report. They accord in their views with those of the secreta- 
 ry, and express a decided opinion, that considered in reference 
 either to the revenue, or the retention of the precious metals 
 in the country, that to raise the duty on the exportation of* 
 gold and silver, is a measure highly inexpedient. To prevent 
 specie from having a free circulation, by retaining it in the 
 country with heavy duties, would have the effect of rendering 
 it less valuable in Mexico than in other parts of the world ; 
 this would not only prove detrimental to working the mines, 
 but have a very pernicious influence on the commerce and 
 manufactures of the country. Gold and silver in Mexico 
 ought only to be regarded as the products of a valuable and 
 extensive manufactory ; consequently, not only its interest, but 
 that of the country, should induce the government to open, for 
 the products of this manufactory, the market of the world. 
 
 The just and enlightened views of the Mexican Congress 
 on this subject, is an honourable testimony to their wisdom, 
 and affords the strongest evidence of the rapidly increasing 
 prosperity of the nation. Under the auspices of a free gov- 
 ernment, possessing such sound and liberal principles, the 
 mining operations in Mexico, will in a few years become as 
 extensive and productive as at the most favourable periods 
 during the colonial government ; and at no distant period, the 
 products of the mines will undoubtedly exceed what has ever 
 yet been realised. Whilst this will insure the prosperity of 
 Mexico, it will promote an extensive commerce with the Uni 
 ted States. The revival of the mining operations has given ac- 
 ivity to the districts in which the mines are situated, and re- 
 stored, to the almost desolated towns, a part of that popula- 
 tion of which the war, and the suspension of the mining inter- 
 ests, had deprived them. At the celebrated mine of Valenci- 
 ania, the Anglo Mexican company in the summer of 1825, were 
 employing fifteen hundred Indians, and the number was con- 
 stantly increasing. The shaft was drained to the depth of 
 270 yards, and almost 1200 cargoes of ore, 300/65. weight 
 
 VOL. f. 10 
 
110 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 each, were obtained weekly, The city of Guanaxuato, in th& 
 vicinity of this mine, containing, previous to the revolution, 
 eighty thousand inhabitants, had been reduced to fifteen, or 
 twenty thousand : but its population, since the commence- 
 ment of the present mining company, has doubled, and is still 
 rapidly increasing. The mineral treasures of Mexico, are 
 literally inexhaustible, and the powerful impetus, which will 
 be given to industry and enterprise, by a free and enlightened 
 government, a free ingress of foreigners, and freedom of com- 
 merce, must in a few years produce astonishing results in the 
 mining interests of Mexico. The career of prosperity which 
 is opening to the Mexican nation is highly gratifying to the 
 citizens of the United States, and cannot fail of having an im- 
 portant and beneficial influence on our commerce and manufac- 
 tures. Mines of iron, lead, copper and quicksilver, abound 
 in Mexico, but have always been neglected, so that iron and 
 quicksilver, of which great quantities are used in the mines, 
 have been imported. During the late war, such was the scar- 
 city of iron, that it sold for forty dollars per hundred, and steel 
 as high as two hundred and sixty dollars. 
 
 Commerce. The commerce of Mexico is now. free to all na- 
 tions, in amity with the republic. The external commerce is 
 principally carried on from the ports of Tampico, Vera Cruz, 
 Alvarado, and Campeachy. on the Gulf of Mexico ; and Aca- 
 pulco and San Bias, on the Pacific. The foreign commerce 
 of Mexico is carried on chiefly in foreign vessels, piincipally 
 in those of the United States and Great Britain. On the wes- 
 tern coast, in addition to the Manilla commerce, a coasting 
 trade is carried on with Guatamala, principally from San Bias, 
 and a small trade with Guayaquil, Lima, and Chile ; and al- 
 though the ports on the Pacific coast are extremely good, the 
 coasting trade is inconsiderable. 
 
 it is a singular fact, which is strongly demonstrative of the 
 want of commercial enterprize among the Mexicans, that 
 whilst the British and the citizens of the United States traverse 
 one half of the globe to pursue a profitable whale fishery, in 
 their own waters, the Mexicans have never engaged in this 
 pursuit. The Secretary of State of the present government, 
 in a report to Congress, in Nov. 1823, adverts to this subject, 
 and suggests the propriety of granting to foreign vessels, fitte " 
 out on the Mexican coast, the same privileges as are grante 
 to native citizens, as an encouragement to the trade. Unde 
 the colonial system, the contraband trade with Mexico wa 
 extensive, often amounting, even in time of peace, to on 
 third of the regular commerce. It was carried on, princip- 
 ly, with the ports of Campeachy and Vera Cruz. Early in f 
 
STATE OF MEXICO. Ill 
 
 nineteenth century the importation into Mexico, including the 
 contraband trade, was to the amount of twenty millions of dol- 
 lars, and the exportations^exclusive of specie, amounted to 
 six millions. The mines produced about twenty three mil- 
 lions, which, after deducting eight or nine millions on the ac- 
 count of the government, was sufficient to liquidate the balance 
 of trade and leave one million in the country. 
 
 The principal articles of exportation at Vera Cruz, on an 
 average, several years before the revolution, were as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Gold and Silver coined and wrought, - $17,000,000 
 Cochineal, 2,400,000 
 
 Sugar, 1,300,000 
 
 Flour of different sorts, - 300,000 
 
 Indigo, - 280,000 
 
 Provisions, .- 100,000 
 
 Tanned Leather, - 80,000 
 
 Sarsaparilla, - 90,000 
 
 Vanilla, - - - 60,000 
 
 Jalap, 60,000 
 
 Soap, 50,000 
 
 Campeachy Wood, 40,000 
 
 Pimento of Tobasco, 30,000 
 
 The imports, embraced the following articles : 
 
 Paper, (three hundred thousand reams,) $1,000,000 
 
 Linens, Cottons, Woollens and Silks, 9,200,000 
 
 Brandies, 1 ,000,000 
 
 Cacoa, - 1,000,000 
 
 Quicksilver - . 650,000 
 
 Iron, - , . 600,000 
 
 Steel, - . 200,000 
 
 Wine, . . 700,000 
 
 Wax, . . 300,000 
 
 The importations of Vera Cruz, estimated at 15,000,000 
 
 The exportations by that port, estimated at 22,000,000 
 
 The official statement of the Consulado of 
 Vera Cruz, made the exportations of 1802, 
 amount, in precious metals to $48,800,000 
 
 In agricultural products, 9,147,000 
 
 Total 57,947,000 
 
112 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 The importations of that year amounted to 24,100,000 
 
 In 1803, the exports, were, in precious metals, 15,554,000 
 
 In agricultural products, - - 5,368,000 
 
 Total 20,922,000 
 The importations amounted to 22,975,000 
 
 The duties on merchandize, imported into America under 
 the colonial system, were heavy ; and consisted of nine and 
 a half per cent, on what was called free effects, or articles of 
 the produce or manufacture of Spain ; and seven per cent, on 
 goods and produce of foreign countries on its landing in Amer- 
 ica, having first paid fifteen per cent, in Spain. The present 
 government established a tariff of twenty-five per cent, on 
 goods imported, and the minister of finance in his report to 
 the congress in 1823, complains that the articles of merchan- 
 dize are not correctly classed, and also proposes to reduce the 
 duty on imports to twenty-two or twenty-three per cent, in- 
 cluding the consulate "duty. The present duty is on the esti- 
 mated or supposed value, and often amounts to eighty per cent, 
 on the first cost of the article. In Mexico, there is an addi- 
 tional duty of ten and a half per cent, on goods sent to that 
 city ; in other towns there is an internal duty, which is not 
 uniform ; in some, it does not exceed four per cent, on the 
 amount of actual sales. The expense of transportation of 
 goods, from Tampico to Mexico, is from one dollar and twen- 
 ty-five cents, to two dollars and fifty cents per twenty-five 
 pounds ; and from Vera Cruz to Mexico, from one to two dol- 
 lars per twenty-five pounds. A mule carries from three to 
 four hundred pounds, according to the state of the roads. 
 
 Next to the enjoyment of liberty and free institutions, one 
 of the most important advantages which Mexico will derive 
 from her independence, will be the freedom and activity 
 given to her commerce, which will greatly promote the nation- 
 al prosperity. A free government, free press, and free trade, 
 cannot fail of invigorating every department of national indus- 
 try. The remarks made by Humboldt, when the enjoyment of 
 these primary advantages, was not foreseen, will now appear 
 more just and be likely soon to be realized : " But by allow- 
 ing a free course to the national industry, by encouraging ag- 
 riculture and manufactures, the importation will diminish of 
 itself, and it will then be easy for the Mexicans to pay the 
 value of foreign commodities with the productions of their 
 own soil. The free cultivation of the vine and the olive on 
 the table-land of New Spain ; the free distillation of spirits 
 from sugar, rice, and the grape ; the exportation of flour, fa- 
 
 
STATE OF MEXICO. 113 
 
 voured by the making of new roads ; the increase of planta- 
 tions of sugar-cane, cotton, and tobacco ; the working of the 
 iron and mercury mines ; and the manufacture of steel, will 
 perhaps one day become more inexhaustible sources of wealth, 
 than all the veins of gold and silver united. Under more fa- 
 vourable external circumstances, the balance of trade may be 
 favourable to New Spain, without paying the account which 
 has been opened for centuries between the two continents en- 
 tirely with Mexican dollars." 
 
 The imports that are best adapted to the Mexican market, 
 are said to consist of European, American, and Indian cotton 
 and linen goods ; French, Spanish, Italian, Indian, and Canton 
 silks ; paper, some military goods, French and Spanish wine 
 and brandy ; quicksilver, cacoa, and cinnamon. To this list, 
 ships may be added, both for the public service and for com- 
 mercial purposes. 
 
 In addition to the maritime commerce, a very valuable and 
 extensive internal trade has lately been opened between the 
 citizens of the western borders of the United States, anof 
 those of the internal provinces of Mexico. It is supposed 
 that this trade is capable of great extension, and that it might, 
 hereafter, become a source of great profit and convenience to 
 the inhabitants of both countries. In tne year 1825, the con- 
 gress of the United States passed an act authorising the sur 
 vey of a road from the state of Missouri, to Mexico, and for 
 treating with the Indian tribes for their consent to have the 
 road pass through their country. This consent has been, in 
 some cases, obtained, and the survey partially made during 
 the past year. An agent of the Mexican government has re- 
 cently arrived in the United States, to promote this great ob- 
 ject, equally important to both countries. No propositions 
 have been submitted to the government of the United States 
 by this agent, nor is it known whether the Mexican republic 
 contemplates continuing the road from the line of the United 
 States. There can be no doubt, that within a few years a 
 road will be opened from the territories of tire Union into the 
 internal provinces of Mexico, and that this will strengthen the 
 bonds of friendship, and promote an extensive inland trade 
 between the two republics, is equally certain. This trade, at 
 present, consists in the exchange of such manufactured arti- 
 cles of the United States, as are adapted to the comfort and 
 convenience of the inhabitants of those internal regions, for 
 the precious metals and some of the staple productions of the 
 country. 
 
 Manufactures. The situation of the towns on the table- 
 land of Mexico, so far removed from the coast, and the diffi- 
 
 10* 
 
114 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 culty of transporting merchandize over rugged mountains, 
 greatly encourages the establishment of manufactories, and 
 even renders them absolutely necessary to the comfort of the 
 inhabitants in those elevated regions. The value of the man- 
 ufacturing industry of Mexico, previous to the revolution, 
 was estimated at from seven to eight millions of dollars ; but 
 this, with every other branch of industry, has suffered during 
 the struggles of that protracted contest. The intendancy of 
 Guadalaxara, produces cotton and wool in great abundance, 
 and is one of the principal seats of the manufacture of cotton 
 and woollen cloths. This branch is also carried on to a con- 
 siderable extent in Puebla and Queretaro. The manufacture 
 of powder, was, under the colonial government, a royal mo- 
 nopoly ; but nearly three-fourths of the quantity consumed in 
 the country, was made and sold in a contraband mariner ; and 
 this manufacture is important, and must increase, as the con- 
 sumption of the mines is very great. Hard soap is manufac- 
 tured in Mexico, Puebla, and Guadalaxara, and in the former 
 city, plate is a most important manufacture. Services of plate 
 are made in Mexico, to the value of thirty-seven thousand 
 dollars, and which, in style arid elegance of workmanship, 
 would rival the finest in Europe. The coinage of money, in 
 the mint of Mexico, is really an important manufacturing in- 
 terest ; and, at its different branches, employs four hundred 
 workmen. It was established in 1535, and in 1733, was plac- 
 ed entirely under the direction of the government. It is esti- 
 mated by Humboldt, that, since its establishment, it has coined 
 four hundred and eight million pounds sterling. 
 
 The most profitable manufacture in Mexico, is that of To- 
 bacco, which is pursued extensively in some towns, and was 
 formerly a royal right ; at one segar manufactory in Queretaro, 
 three thousand persons are employed, and the establishment 
 in Mexico employs twice that number. Hats, shoes, and sad- 
 dlery, are important branches of manufacture in the city of 
 Mexico, and in all the principal towns ; most of the towns 
 are also supplied with potteries and silver-smiths, and the de- 
 mand for silver plate is very great, both for the use of churches 
 and families. This arises, in some measure, from the difficulty 
 of transporting china and glass ware from the coast, over a 
 mountainous country, with rough roads. Cabinet work, of in- 
 ferior quality, is manufactured from cedar and pine ; coach- 
 making is also carried on to a considerable extent. For the 
 want of streams, the mills in Mexico are for the most part 
 worked by animal power, and are, in every respect, inferior to 
 the flour mills of the United States. From this circumstance, 
 the manufacture of flour can never be carried on to any great 
 
STATE OF MEXICO. 115 
 
 extent, for exportation, if wheat should be ever so abundantly 
 raised. Mexico is plentifully supplied with domestic liquors^ 
 called pulque and vinomezcal, which are produced from the 
 maguey plant, extensively cultivated in Mexico for this pur- 
 pose. The pulque is the sap of the maguey, and is obtained 
 by cutting the central leaves during the time of effloresence. 
 One hundred and fifty bottles of juice are obtained from an 
 ordinary plant in one season. After undergoing fermentation, 
 it receives an agreeable sour taste, resembling cider. But its 
 savour is fetid like putrid meat, and very offensive to those not 
 accustomed to its use ; the consumption, however, is very 
 great, and even foreigners, in a short time, become attached 
 to, and prefer it to any other drink. The vinomezcal is the 
 brandy of the maguey ; it was prohibited during the colonial 
 government as being prejudicial to the Spanish brandy trade. 
 Glass and paper manufactories have been established with 
 great success at San Luis Potosi and at the capital. Cotton 
 machinery has been successfully set in operation, on the 
 same place of that used in the United States.* 
 
 * North Am. Review for October, 1825, 
 
116 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 CHAPTER Vlt 
 
 Intendancies. Mexican States. Texas. Principal towns - 
 Mexico, Guadalaxara, Puebla, Guanaxuato, Zacatecas, Qwe- 
 retaro, Oaxaca, San Luis Potosi. Roads and Canals. Gov- 
 ernment. Religion. Iturbide. Military and Naval resour- 
 ces. Finance and expenditure. Population and character 
 of the inhabitants. Education, and institutions of learning. 
 
 PREVIOUS to the late revolution, the Viceroyalty of Mexico 
 was divided into the following Intendancies : Mexico, Puebla, 
 Guanaxuato, Valladolid, Guadalaxara, Zacatecas, Oaxaca, Me- 
 ridia, Vera Cruz, San Luis Potosi, Durango, La Sonora, New 
 Mexico, Old California, and New California. Since the revo- 
 lution, the province of Chiapa, which formerly belonged to 
 the Captain-generalcy of Guatamala has been attached to 
 the Mexican territory, and now constitutes one of the states 
 of the federation. 
 
 The Mexican Union now comprises sixteen states, which 
 are : Chiapa, Guanaxuato, the several interior western provin- 
 ces of Sonoro, Sinalsa, and the two Californias, which form 
 one state ; the interior northern provinces, of Chihuahua, 
 Durango, and New Mexico also forming one state ; the inte- 
 rior Eastern provinces of Coahuila, New Leon, the Texas and 
 New Santander, constituting one state ; Mexico, Mechoacan, 
 Oaxaca, Puebla and Tlascala forming one state ; Queretaro, 
 San Luis Potosi, Tabasco, Vera Cruz, Xahsco, Yucatan and 
 Zacatecas. These were the names at the adoption of the 
 constitution, since which, the interior of the East is called 
 Talrnanlipas, and the interior of the north, Chihuehue ; wheth- 
 er these two new States comprise the same extent of territo- 
 ry that was included in the interior of the east, and the inte- 
 rior of the north, we have no means of determining. Most of 
 the territory comprised within the limits >f tlu ' 'Ove-mention- 
 ed states, consists of the table-lands and the maritime borders, 
 with -ihe exception of the province of Texas, and that part of 
 the interior of the west which is situated beyond the Colorado 
 of the Gulf of California, Those two extensive districts of 
 
STATE OF MEXICO. 117 
 
 the Mexican territory differ so much in their general geograph- 
 ical character from the table-land of Mexico, that they demand 
 a separate and particular description. 
 
 The province of Texas comprises that vast extent of coun- 
 try between the Rio del Norte and the western boundary of 
 the United States. This extensive region was claimed by the 
 United tates as part of Louisiana, but this claim was relin- 
 quished to Spain by the Florida Treaty. According to a 
 computation, which some have made, this vast territory com- 
 prises an area of two hundred and forty thousand square miles ; 
 and it embraces an extensive maritime border, and is well 
 watered by a number of large and valuable rivers, the princi- 
 pal of which are the Colorado, the Brasses, and the Red Riv- 
 er, which forms part of its eastern boundary. It possesses an 
 excellent climate, and a soil equal to any part of western 
 America. The policy of relinquishing our claim, which many 
 competent judges considered well founded, to a country of 
 such great extent and fertility, so favourably located for settle- 
 ment ; a country capable of supporting millions of republican 
 citizens in affluence, and which can be of no great value to any 
 other nation, as from its situation, if it is ever settled, its pop- 
 ulation must come chiefly from the United States, was justly 
 questioned by many enlightened and patriotic citizens at the 
 time of the ratification of the Florida Treaty ; nor have the 
 subsequent events in Mexico, or our own experience, remov- 
 ed the doubts, or proved the wisdom of the measure. This 
 territory is now receiving some few settlers from the United 
 States, but were it annexed to our confederacy, it would soon 
 be divided into two or three states, and filled with an enterpri- 
 sing and industrious population. 
 
 The country beyond the Colorado of the west, which be- 
 longs to the Mexican Republic, is likewise of great extent and 
 fertility, enjoying a fine climate, equal to the countries on the 
 borders of the Mediterranean, in Europe ; it is probably des- 
 tined, at no distant period, to be adorned with beautiful villa- 
 ges and magnificent cities, surrounded with highly cultivated 
 and fertile fields, the abodes of an enlightened, industrious and 
 enterprising population. 
 
 * Principal Towns. The city of Mexico, the capital of the 
 federation, is situated in the great valley of the same name, 
 in lat. 19 deg. 25 min. 45 sec. The centre of the city is near- 
 ly three miles west of the salt lake Tezeuco. The extent of 
 the town is computed to be a square of between four and five 
 miles. The site is almost an uniform level. ' The city is built 
 on piles, is very compact, and surrounded with a wall. The 
 streets are sufficiently wide, and run nearly north and south 
 
118 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 and east and west, intersecting each other at right angles ; 
 they are well paved, and have flagged walks, formed of flat 
 stone. The publifc squares are spacious, and surrounded by 
 buildings of hewn stone, and of very good architecture. The 
 public edifices and churches are vast and splendid, and the 
 private buildings are generally built of solid materials, and 
 have a magnificent appearance, being usually three or four 
 stories high, with flat terrace roofs, and many of them orna- 
 mented with iron balconies. The public buildings are nu- 
 merous, and there is said to be not less than one hundred and 
 five cupolas, spires and domes, within the limits of the city. 
 There are fifty-six churches, besides the cathedral, which is a 
 stately stone edifice, occupying one side of the great square, 
 and stands on the ruins of an ancient Mexican temple. It has 
 a front of five hundred feet by four hundred and twenty. From 
 the towers of the cathedral, the whole basin of Mexico may 
 be seen, surrounded by hills and mountains ; the lakes and the 
 rich meadows that border on them, the churches and spires of 
 the neighboring villages, the cultivated fields, fine gardens, 
 and nearly lost in the distance the snowy summits of the volca- 
 nic mountains of Puebla, afford one of the most delightful, va- 
 riegated and grand prospects in the world. In addition to the 
 cathedral, many of the churches are neat and handsome build- 
 ings, and splendidly ornamented ; many of them are attached 
 to convents, which are very numerous, amounting, it is said, 
 to no less than twenty-three monasteries and fifteen nunneries. 
 The other public buildings and institutions, consist of the vice- 
 royal palace, situated on the principal square, is built on the 
 spot occupied by Cortes, after the conquest of the city, direct- 
 ly opposite the palace of Montazuma. It is a building of great 
 extent, and is composed of a number of squares and inner 
 courts, with separate staircases and suits of apartments. There 
 is a botannic garden attached to this building. 
 
 The mint is a spacious stone edifice, three hundred and sixty 
 feet in front, by two hundred and sixty deep ; there are not 
 less than thirty persons employed in the offices of the different 
 branches ; there are fifteen engravers, five essayers, and two 
 hundred labourers, and about one hundred mules in the stables. 
 There is a university ajjid a mineria, or school of mines ; th% 
 former is accommodated with a spacious building, and is a 
 well endowed institution, and founded as early as 1551. The 
 mineria is provided with a building in which there is a collec- 
 tion of minerals and a good philosophical apparatus. This in- 
 stitution was designed to educate young men, and qualify 
 them to become useful superintendants of mines. There is 
 also in Mexico an academy of the fine arts ; several inferior 
 
STATE OF MEXICO. 119 
 
 colleges and large schools, and many valuable private libraries. 
 The principal manufactory in Mexico is the one for making 
 segars, in which five or six thousand persons are employed at 
 this branch of business, and a large building is occupied, near 
 the suburbs of the city. The market place of Mexico is well 
 supplied with meats, fruits, and vegetables of both the tropical 
 and temperate climates, at a moderate price ; fish only are 
 dear and scarce. 
 
 The city of Mexico is abundantly supplied with water, from 
 two great acqueducts, the longest of which brings the water 
 from the springs of Santa Fe, near the chain of mountains that 
 separates the valley of Mexico from that of Lerma. This 
 aqueduct is thirty-three thousand four hundred sixty-four feet 
 in length, supported on arches of stone and brick, plastered 
 over. The other aqueduct conducts the water from C hapol- 
 tepec to the city, and is ten thousand eight hundred sixty feet 
 in length. There is a spacious public walk in Mexico, called 
 the Alarneda, which is planted with rows of trees with a foun- 
 tain in the centre, supplied with water from one of the great 
 aqueducts ; the capital is also accommodated with a well 
 regulated theatre. Mexico communicates with the lakes 
 Chalco and Xochimilco, by a canal ; and there are five 
 great causeways, or avenues, leading to the city, which 
 are lined with rows of large trees. The country around 
 Mexico, abounds with small towns, and well built villages, in- 
 terspersed with fertile fields, gardens and orchards. A great 
 part of the land that intervenes between the two lakes, Tez- 
 cuco and Chalco, is surrounded by ditches, laid out into 
 gardens and cultivated by the Indians, and on which are 
 raised a great quantity of vegetables and flowers, suited to 
 the Mexican market. The floating gardens, so often descri- 
 bed, have been discontinued since the construction of the ca- 
 nal Huehuetoca, which drains the valley and prevents inunda- 
 tions. The population of Mexico was estimated in 1801, to 
 be 137,000 ; of which 67,500 are whites, and 69,500 were 
 people of colour ; the population is now estimated at between 
 150 and 160,000. The distance from Mexico to Vera Cruz, 
 is 207 miles ; to Acapulco, 198 miles ; to Oaxaca, 237 miles ; 
 to Santa Fe, in New Mexico, 1,320 miles. The city was 
 founded in 1325, according to Humboldt. 
 
 Guadalaxara, is now considered the second city in the 
 Mexican Republic. It is situated in lat. 21. 9, north, 450 
 miles north-west of the City of Mexico, on a delightful and 
 fertile plain, near the Bararya river. Its present population is 
 estimated at 70,000. 
 
 Of the other considerable cities is Puebla, situated in iaL 19 
 
120 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 N. at an elevation of 7,308 feet above the level of the sea ; ou 
 the south side of a hill, covered with wood to its summit. 
 The plain that surrounds the town, is well cultivated, and 
 highly productive in grains and fruits. This plain is bounded 
 by a chain of hills presenting alternately, cultivated fields, and 
 luxuriant forests ; and the view is terminated by the volcanoes 
 of Puebla, clothed in eternal snows. The city is compactly 
 built and the houses are all of stone, large and commodious. 
 The public buildings consist of a cathedral, a town-house, and 
 numerous churches, and convents, it being said, that there are 
 more than one hundred spires and domes in the city. The 
 population is stated to be 60,000. The Popocatepetl, the 
 loftiest mountain in North America, is not far from this city, 
 the height of which is 17, 760 feet above the ocean. Puebla 
 lies 90 miles east by south of the city of Mexico. 
 
 Guanaxuato, is situated among the ravines of the moun- 
 tains, about 1 80 miles northwest of Mexico, was founded in 
 1554, is well built, with spacious houses of hewn stone, but 
 the streets are narrow and crooked. The population of 1 
 the city and the neighbouring mines is computed to be 35,733. 
 The inhabitants of Guanaxuato, are represented to be very 
 intelligent, hospitable, and industrious. This town is celebra- 
 ted for the rich mines in its vicinity, which are undoubtedly 
 the most productive of any in North America. The extent 
 of this rich vein of ore, is more than fifteen miles, in a direc- 
 tion from southeast to northwest ; and, within this distance, 
 there are upwards of one hundred shafts opened. These 
 mines formerly supplied with ore, and kept at work, two thou- 
 sand amalgamating-mills, and have produced silver to the 
 amount of seven millions seven hundred and twenty-seven 
 thousand five hundred dollars, annually. The most produc- 
 tive of these mines, was that of Valenciana, which raised a 
 town about it of 22,000 inhabitants ; now, however, reduced 
 to 4,000, in consequence of the vast excavation of the mines 
 being filled with water. 
 
 Zacatecas, situated in a mining district, 300 miles north by 
 northwest of Mexico, contains, according to Humboldt, 33, 
 000 inhabitants. Queretaro, is a large and well built manu- 
 facturing town, situated in a feriile valley, near the rich tract 
 of country called Baxio, with a population of 30,000 inhabi- 
 tants. Oaxaca, lies near the east bank of Rio Verd, 237 
 \miles south by southeast of Mexico, and contains 24,000 in- 
 tabitants. San Luis Potosi, a neat well built town on the 
 .ead of the Rio Panco, contains about 15,000 inhabitants, 
 mong the remaining interior towns, are Yalladolid, contain- 
 18,000 inhabitants j Durango, situated in a mining district, 
 
STATE OF MEXICO. 121 
 
 at the elevation of six thousand five hundred and sixty feet 
 above the level of the sea, is the capital of a province of the 
 same name, and contains a population of 12,000 inhabitants. 
 Chihuahua, the capital of the Province of Chihuahua, a 
 large city, is represented by late travellers to contain 30,000 
 inhabitants, and to be about 400 miles north of Durango. 
 Santa Fe, is situated in lat. 36. 30. north, on the east bank of 
 the Rio del Norte, about 1,000 miles northwest of the City of 
 Mexico, with a population of 9,000, according to late travel- 
 lers. The chief town in Yucatan, is Merida, with a popula- 
 tion of 10,000. Tepee, a large and beautiful town, is situated 
 a few miles from San Bias, a seaport on the Pacific. Vera 
 Cruz is a seaport, lying on the gulf of Mexico, in lat. 19 deg. 
 12 m. N. is built on an arid plain, and is destitute of running 
 water ; but is a handsome, regular built city, and contains a 
 population of about 16,000 inhabitants. The fortress of San 
 Juan de Uloa, is on an island near the town. The maritime 
 custom-house 6f Vera Cruz, was established in 1530. Ve- 
 ra Cruz has rather a bad anchorage, than a harbour ; and 
 all the eastern coast is exposed to hurricanes during the 
 winter. 
 
 Acapulco, is on the Pacific, in lat. 16 deg 50 m. north ; its 
 harbour is one of the best on the Pacific coast, but the situa- 
 tion is very unhealthy, and the population is much reduced 
 from what it formerly was. The town is protected by an ex- 
 tensive and formidable fortress, called the Castle of San Car- 
 los. A maritime custom-house was established at Acapulco, as 
 early as 1562. In addition to the two seaports which we have 
 mentioned, it appears by recent information that there are nine 
 other places, on both oceans, invested with port privileges, 
 Alvarado, Campeachy, Tampico, Altamira, Solto La Marina, 
 and Refugio, on the Atlantic coast ; and Mazatlan, Guaimas, 
 and San Bias on the Pacific. 
 
 Roads and Canals. The Roads in Mexico are deficient, 
 and very bad* There are three principal roads that of Vera 
 Cruz, of Acapulco, and of the interior. The superb road, or 
 causeway undertaken by the consulado of Vera Cruz was 
 finished in all the difficult passes of the mountains, from that 
 place to Perote, and from Puebla to the capital ; the interme- 
 diate distance between Puebla and Perote, being tolerably 
 good. This road was not only neglected in consequence of 
 the war, but many of the bridges were broken down, and the 
 pavement taken up, to prevent the march of armies ; and the 
 torrents from the mountains have washed the road into gullies. 
 These injuries have been partially repaired, and money raised 
 Voa.I. 11 
 
122 HISTGRY AND PRESENT 
 
 to complete the road over the Final, the most difficult part of 
 the rout from Perote to Puebla. 
 
 The important road from the capital to Acapulco, is in a 
 state of ruins, having received no repairs since the commence-^ 
 ment of the revolutionary war. In many places it is im- 
 passible, even for mules ; deep and rapid rivers are to be 
 forded for the want of bridges, when fatal accidents often 
 happen to travellers and mules. The government, sensible of 
 the importance of this road, have adopted measures for re- 
 pairing it ; but it is expected, at a future time, to give it a more 
 commodious direction. 
 
 The famous canal of Huehuetoca, is the only one in Mexi- 
 co. It was designed, to afford an outlet to the waters of the 
 river Guantitlan, to prevent their flowing into the lake Zurn- 
 pango, which discharged its waters into lake Christobal, and 
 the latter into Tezcuco, which inundated the capital. Subse- 
 quently a canal has been partially opened to convey the waters 
 of the Zumpango, to the great canal of Huehuetoca, and anoth- 
 er to convey the waters of lakes Tezcuco and Christobal to the 
 same canal ; but to effect this object it is necessary that the 
 great drain of Huehuetoca should be deepened so as to re- 
 duce its level to that of the lake Tezcuco. 
 
 Since 1814, the Cortes of Spain, decreed the opening a ca- 
 nal by means of the rivers Guasacualco and Chimalapa, to 
 connect the waters of the two great oceans, which would give 
 a new direction to the commerce of a large portion of the 
 world. They charged the execution of this great enterprize 
 to the Consulado of Guadalaxara ; and afterwards believing 
 that that corporation could not accomplish this great work, it 
 was proposed to invite foreigners to invest their capital in it. 
 And since the establishment of the present government in 
 Mexico, proposals have been made by foreign houses, to exe- 
 cute this vast work, which have been submitted to the con- 
 gress. As the government is disposed to favour this object, 
 there are grounds to believe that this great enterprize, calcu- 
 lated to work a greater revolution in commerce than was 
 immediately occasioned by the discovery of America, will 
 be commenced under circumstances which will insure it suc- 
 cess.* 
 
 Government. The Spanish colonial system, was in its theory 
 or principles, a most absolute and despotic government, and 
 rendered more oppressive by the corruptions and abuses of 
 power, which had been introduced into every department of 
 the administration. Some account of this system is given 
 
 * Report of Mexican Secretary of State,, in 1823. 
 
STATE OF MEXICO. 123' 
 
 in the sketch of the history of Spanish America, previous to 
 the revolution, which we will not repeat here. The colonists 
 were deprived of all political rights, scarcely excepting what 
 was strictly municipal ; they were denied all the advatages of 
 commerce and manufactures, and even agriculture was sub- 
 jected to discouraging and onerous restrictions. The colon- 
 ial system was founded on the principle, that the colonies were 
 in a state of minority and tutelage, and were to be governed 
 not for their own benefit, but for the advantage of their parent, 
 who without regard for the future well-being of his offspring, 
 in the exercise of parental authority, thought only of render- 
 ing it most conducive to his own immediate interest. Among 
 the abuses of the system was the practice which had long pre- 
 vailed of conferring all offices on European Spaniards, to the 
 entire exclusion of the Creoles or Americans, notwithstand- 
 ing it was declared, in the original compact between the king 
 and the first settlers, that after the first discoverers and con- 
 queppelrs, the settlers, and those born in the provinces, were to 
 be preferred in all appointments and public employments.*' 
 This practice seems to have resulted from the consideration 
 that the colonies were not governed for their own advantage, 
 but for the benefit of the parent state. But whatever may 
 have been the cause of this unjust and impolitic practice, it 
 was the fertile source of the division of the white population 
 into two parti.es : the natives of Spain and those born in A- 
 merica, and of the long-established and inveterate animosities, 
 which existed between them. All the officers of government 
 being sent from Spain, the inhabitants could view them in no 
 other light than as their oppressors, and as having been im- 
 ported for that express purpose. The possession of power 
 and the favour of the government, rendered the Europeans 
 haughty and insolent, as is always the case with a privileged 
 class, and this tended still more to exasperate the feelings 
 of the Creoles. And. hence the long, bitter, and sanguinary 
 wars of the late revolution. 
 
 If there ever was a people in a state of political bondage, of 
 oppressive and degrading servitude, it was the Spanish colo- 
 nies. Fortunately for them, for the cause of liberty, and the 
 honour of America, circumstances favoured their emancipa- 
 tion, and they are now free. The struggle has been long, ar- 
 duous and bloody, characterized by a spirit of bitterness and 
 animosity, which spread desolation over the fairest portions of 
 America, and in some districts almost swept away the entire 
 population. The independence and liberty of Spanish Amer- 
 
 * Laws of the Indies. 
 
124 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 ica, has been dearly purchased ; it has been bought with the 
 best blood of the country, and this has flowed freely. In Mex- 
 ico, after a destructive war for twelve years, the royal govern- 
 ment was finally overthrown. But this only established a new 
 and ephemeral tyranny, in the person of Iturbide, who had 
 been the instrument of crushing the Spanish despotism. 
 Whilst he was at the head of affairs, the government acquired 
 no stability, and only presented a constant struggle for power 
 on his part, and resistance on the part of the congress. Aided 
 by numerous partizans, and having the army at his command, 
 he finally succeeded, and established himself a despotic ruler. 
 But his reign was as short as it was inglorious. The people 
 were not satisfied with a change of masters : they wished for 
 freedom and the right of self-government, and had they failed 
 in this, the vast sacrifices of the revolution would have been 
 lost. The capricious tyranny of Iturbide soon occasioned gen- 
 eral disaffection ; and being disgusted with the retrograde 
 movement in the revolution, the people resolved that it should 
 go forward to its consummation. Iturbide was overthrown, 
 the old congress was convened, and soon a new congress was 
 elected, composed exclusively of the friends, not only of the 
 independence of Mexico, but of a republican government of 
 a government of the people. 
 
 Soon after the congress was convened in November, 1823, 
 a committee was appointed to prepare a constitution, and on ^ 
 the 19th of the same month, they reported a "constitutive act 
 of the Mexican Nation," which, after undergoing some slight al- 
 teration, was adopted in February following. This act contains 
 the principles of the government of the Mexican Nation ; but 
 seems to suppose that these principles are to be promulgated 
 in a different form. The government thus established, is a 
 Confederative Republic, and not only in its general outline, 
 but in its subordinate divisions of power and minute features, 
 has a striking similarity to the constitution of the United 
 States. The most essential difference in principle between 
 f he Mexican constitution, and that of the United States, is in 
 the third article, which establishes the Catholic Roman Apos- 
 tolic Religion, and declares that the nation will protect it by 
 wise and just laws, and prohibits the exercise of any other. 
 This is very different from our constitution, which declares 
 that " congress shall make no law respecting an establishment 
 of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof," and cer- 
 tainly inconsistent with the liberal and enlightened principles 
 of the constitution in which it is imbodied. It is supposed, 
 however, that the condition of the population, and the influ- 
 ence of the clergy, was such in Mexico, -as not to admit of a 
 
STATE OF MEXICO* 125 
 
 more liberal provision on the subject of religion. There is 
 one other particular in which the constitution differs from that 
 of the United States, which we will notice. The congress is 
 authorised, in times of national danger, to create a dictator, 
 for a limited time, or in other words, " to grant extraordinary 
 powers to the executive, for a limited time, upon a full know- 
 ledge of the cause."* There is, probably, no actual danger 
 in this provision ; yet at the same time it may be safely assert- 
 ed, that no such principle would be sanctioned by the people 
 of the United States. 
 
 Since the establishment of the present system, the govern- 
 ment has been organised, has acquired stability, and been 
 gradually completing the great objects and reforms of the rev- 
 olution, and repairing, as fast as time and the condition of the 
 country would admit, the dreadful evils of the revolutionary 
 struggle. The system, like the United States, comprises a 
 general or national government and separate state govern- 
 ments ; and the latter have generally been organised since its 
 adoption. It does not appear, from the constitutive act, 
 whether the senators of the general congress are to be chosen 
 by the legislatures of the states or by the citizens ; but the 
 number is fixed at two from each state, and it is presumable 
 that they are to be chosen by the states in their corporative 
 rapacity. 
 
 Military and Naval Resources. In 1822 the military force 
 consisted of ten thousand seven hundred sixty-four troops of 
 the line, and thirty thousand militia : the militia has been 
 greatly increased and has undergone a new organization since 
 the establishment of the republican government, and is now 
 supposed to be very numerous. The army has likewise been 
 increased, and placed on a better footing. The estimated ex- 
 pense of the war department for 1825, to sustain the army on 
 the footing ordained by congress, was twelve millions of dol- 
 lars. 
 
 The attention of the present Mexican government, was ear- 
 ly directed to the establishment of a Navy, and a considerable 
 naval force has by its efforts, already been acquired. The ex- 
 penses of the naval department were officially estimated for 
 1825, at three millions of dollars. In June of that year, the 
 Spanish ships of war, the Asia of seventy-four guns, and the 
 brig Constante, which sailed from Callao, entered the port of 
 Acapulco, arid voluntarily surrendered themselves to the Mex- 
 ican government. The Asia has since been conducted round 
 to the Atlantic side. One seventy-four., and several frig- 
 
 * Art. 13. Constitutional Act. 
 
126 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 ates and ships of war arrived at Mexico from England the lat- 
 ter part of the year 1821, and several vessels for their service 
 have been built in the United States, so that at this time, 
 the Mexican Navy has become fully adequate to meet any na- 
 val force, Spain can send into the American Seas. It is sta- 
 ted as a fact, that the Mexican government offered the com* 
 mand of their Navy to our distinguished naval officer, Com- 
 modore Porter. 
 
 The naval forces of Mexico and Colombia are concentra- 
 ting at Carthagenia, and it is supposed that an expedition of 
 their united forces will be sent against Cuba, or some other of 
 the Spanish dominions. 
 
 finances and Expenditure. Previous to the revolution, the 
 revenue of New Spain, from the beginning of the nineteenth 
 century, amounted to about twenty millions of dollars ; of 
 which five and a half millions, arose from the duties on the 
 produce of the mines ; four, from the government monopoly 
 of tobacco ; three from the customs and alcabalas ; one mill- 
 ion and a half from the tribute or capitation tax, paid by the 
 Indians ; and the remainder from an excise on the domestic 
 liquor called pulque, the sale of powder, stamps, cards and 
 papal indulgencies ; from the post office, the farming of cock- 
 fighting, and some other small sources of revenue. At least 
 one fourth of this large revenue was expended in the military 
 establishment for the defence of the country, which consisted 
 of ten thousand regular troops, and twenty thousand provin- 
 cial militia. Of the regulars, four thousand were cavalry - r 
 who together with the infantry were stationed at the military 
 posts to check the incursions of the Indians, and for some 
 years before the revolution to keep down the spirit of the peo- 
 ple. The geographical features of the country are such as to 
 render it easily defensible against an external enemy. That 
 part of the establishment which consisted of the militia was 
 little more than nominal. 
 
 The revolutionary struggle not only greatly increased the 
 expenditure, but greatly impaired the revenue and destroyed 
 public credit. Whilst Iturbide was at the head of the gov- 
 ernment the treasury was exhausted, and he was constantly 
 harrassing the congress to provide ways and means to pay the 
 army, and relieve the exigencies of the treasury ; and when 
 the present government was established, it found the treasury 
 empty and the revenue in the most deplorable condition. Ac- 
 cording to the report of the financial minister in March 1823, 
 the only resource of the treasury was the sale of three hun- 
 dred thousand dollars worth of tobacco, to satisfy the nurner- 
 OHIS demands against the government. The present adminis- 
 
STATE OF MEXICO. 127 
 
 tration, at the head of which is the distinguished patriot Gua- 
 deloupe Victoria, are making the most noble and patriotic ex* 
 ertions to retrieve the condition of the revenue, by introducing 
 a. most rigid system of economy on the one hand, and by im- 
 proving and increasing it on the other ; by which means they 
 hope to extricate the government from its pecuniary embar- 
 rassments, and place its finances on a safe foundation. In a 
 report of the present minister of finance, made in November 
 1823, after unfolding the deplorable condition of the treasury 
 and finances, he says : 
 
 " This melancholy and alarming picture induced the minis- 
 ter to represent the state of the finances in the manner he did 
 in his memoir of the second of June. The present executive 
 has used every means to redeem the nation from this critical 
 and deplorable state. They adopted a totally different sys- 
 tem they suspended entirely the forced loans and heavy con- 
 tributions about to be exacted stopped the emission of pa- 
 per money, and adopted the most rigid economy in every 
 branch of the administration ; giving themselves an example 
 of simplicity and frugality. The most beneficial consequen- 
 ces have resulted from this conduct : but the prosperity of the 
 country is retarded by the dissentions that exist in the provin- 
 ces. It cannot be said that for the last six months any one 
 has been compelled to loan money : nor have any heavy bur- 
 dens been laid upon the people. If the merchants have gen- 
 erously and gratuitously furnished the government with funds, 
 they have been compensated by receiving a tenth of the pro- 
 duct of the customs ; and of fifty-two thousand three hundred 
 fifty-seven dollars received in the months of April and June, 
 they have been paid thirty-six thousand one hundred forty- 
 three dollars ; and the debt will be entirely discharged this 
 month. The paper money has been in part reduced by re- 
 ceiving a sixth part in payment of duties; so that the dollar 
 which was not worth more than twenty-five cents, is now worth 
 seventy-five a certain sign of the state of public credit." 
 
 From the first of April to the end of last September, the re- 
 ceipts of the Treasury were, . . $1,213,51304 
 Disbursements in the same period, . 1,200,681 17 
 
 Due on the civil and military lists, . . 12,831 07 
 
 305,927 05 
 
 Debts, . . 293,096 02 
 
 Payments made to redeem the paper medium 
 
 within the same epoch, were . . 732,168 10 
 
 439,071 08 
 
128 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 Moneys received from Mr. B. Vigors Rich- 
 ards on account of a loan, * , 88,009 05 
 
 351,061 03 
 
 .Debt contracted in the preceding twenty- 
 five months, ..... $5,936,549 08 
 
 The minister proposes as sources of revenue, to retain the 
 monopoly on tobacco, which formerly has produced four mil- 
 lions ; the duty on stamps estimated at three hundred thou- 
 sand dollars ; the excise on pulque and other liquors, which 
 has produced nearly seven hundred thousand dollars, but in 
 1822, yielded only two hundred and three thousand nine hun- 
 dred thirty-nine dollars ; and the duties on gold and silver. 
 The revenue from this last source, formerly the principal one, 
 is greatly diminished, from the depressed state of the mines ; 
 the tenth formerly exacted, was reduced in 1822, to three per 
 cent. He proposes a duty of fifty cents upon each head of 
 black cattle that is slaughtered ; twenty-five for each sheep, 
 and fifty for each hog ; he also proposes to increase the duty 
 on domestic liquors ; to abolish the alcabalas or duty on the 
 sale of produce and merchandize, as being oppressive and 
 yielding but little to the revenue ; to dispose of the property 
 of the inquisition, and that formerly belonging to the Jesuits, 
 which had not been sold, which he estimates at two millions 
 four hundred five thousand six hundred forty-five dollars. The 
 post-office and lotteries, which had been separate departments, 
 he proposes to unite into one, to save expense, and to reduce 
 the expenses of the mint, which for the six preceding months, 
 had been an expense to the government of twenty-one thou- 
 sand eight hundred thirty-five dollars. The minister proposes 
 to reduce the tariff, or imposts on imports, to twenty-two or 
 twenty-three per cent, including the consulate duty. At that 
 time the impost was twenty-five per cent, exclusive of the con- 
 sulate duty. He is in favour of restrictions on foreign impor- 
 tations, and thought the articles of merchandize incorrectly 
 classed in the existing tariff. The revenue from imports, from 
 the first of April to the first of September in 1823, he states 
 at nine hundred seventy-one thousand three hundred forty- 
 five dollars, an increase of one hundred seventy-seven thou- 
 sand eight hundred eighty-four dollars, over the revenue dur- 
 ing the same period of time, the preceding year. He propo- 
 ses to abolish the duty on exports as it respects articles of 
 most importance, which he enumerates, and finally recom- 
 
OF MEXICO. 129 
 
 mends the collection of the revenue on the model or plan of 
 the United States.* 
 
 The following statement exhibits the receipts and expendi- 
 tures for the six months preceding the report, and the estima- 
 ted receipts, with the proposed changes in the system for one 
 year, and also the estimated expenses. According to this 
 statement, the revenue exceeds the expenditures a little more 
 than one million. 
 
 " The receipts of the Treasury for the last six months 
 amount to $6,418,814 
 
 The disbursements were as follows: 
 Expenses of the monopolies of tobacco 
 
 and gunpowder, and of the mint, . . $2,893,403 
 Expenses of all the other departments, 2,697,630 
 
 Total expenditure for six months, . , 5,591,033 
 Contingencies, . . 827,781 
 
 $6,418,814 
 
 Receipts for one year, 12,837,628 
 
 Proposed augmentation : 
 
 On tobacco, 648,836 
 
 On stamps, . . . * 268,135 
 
 On imports and exports, 500,000 
 
 On excise on pulque, &> other liquors, and on meats, 1 ,000,000 
 
 $15,254,599 
 
 Expenses : r i asm 
 
 Foreign Affairs, 360,87 
 
 Administration of Justice, 159,023 
 
 Treasury, 3,351,485 
 
 Army, 9,922,782 
 
 Navy, 473,014 
 
 $14,267,182 
 
 By an official report of the minister of finance, in 1825, the 
 whole expenses of the current year are estimated at eighteen 
 millions of dollars, and the revenue only amounting to ten 
 millions six hundred thousand dollars, leaves a deficit of more 
 than seven millions of dollars ; to supply this, the report pro- 
 poses the establishment of the rents on the manufacture of to- 
 bacco, and the duties on gold and silver in bullion and coin, 
 which it is supposed will nearly supply the deficit. 
 
 Population and Character of the Inhabitants. The popula- 
 tion of Mexico has been derived from three sources or races* 
 
 * Reportof the Minister of France, Nov. 1823. 
 
130 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 the Europeans, the Indians, and the Africans or negroes. The 
 population at present consists of two great divisions, the 
 "Whites, and the people of colour. The former is subdivided 
 into natives of Spain, called chapetones, or gachupines, and 
 those born in America, Creoles. The white population, pre- 
 vious to the revolution, was estimated at one million two hun- 
 dred thousand, of which only seventy or eighty thousand were 
 natives of Europe, about one fourteenth part of the white in- 
 habitants. Since the independence of the country and estab- 
 lishment of a free government affording equal political rights 
 and privileges to all classes, this distinction is disappearing, 
 and in a few years must be wholly lost. The people of colour 
 comprise the greater part of the population, and form three 
 divisions ; the Indians, the Africans and the casts or mixt ra- 
 ces. The number of Africans is very small, less than in any 
 other part of America under the torrid zone, and has been es- 
 timated not to exceed six thousand. The Indians have been 
 constantly decreasing, and the casts continually increasing, 
 and have been estimated at two millions four hundred thousand, 
 comprising at that period nearly one half of the whole popula- 
 tion. There are various casts, but the Mestizos, or descend- 
 ants of a white and an Indian, compose the principal part. 
 Their skin is of a pure white colour, with a peculiar transpa- 
 rency ; their beard thin, their hands and feet siriall, and they 
 have an obliquity of the eyes. The offspring of a Mestizos, 
 and a white, differs very little from an European. The de- 
 scendants of an Indian and Negro, are called Zambos or Sam- 
 bos, and the descendants of a white and a negro, are called 
 mulattoes.* There are various other casts, or mixtures with 
 different shades of colour, and different degrees of European 
 blood. The whiteness of the skin, or rather the pureness of 
 the blood, formerly determined the rank of every person, and 
 this was a matter of so much importance, that families often 
 obtained from the high court of justice an official declaration, 
 establishing their whiteness or European blood. 
 
 The population of Mexico, was estimated by Humboldt, in 
 1803, at five millions seven hundred and eighty-three thousand 
 seven hundred and fifty ; and it is now estimated by the best 
 authorities, after deducting 500,000 for the destruction of 
 the revolution, to be about six million five hundred thousand. 
 To this may perhaps be added the population of Chiapa, amount- 
 ing to one hundred and twenty-eight thousand. 
 
 The creoleg, in general, possess good natural talents, and a 
 great facility of acquiring knowledge ; they are extremely mild 
 
 a Endinburgh Encyclopaedia; article Mexico* 
 
STATE OF MEXICO. 
 
 3nd courteous in their manner, kind and benevolent towards 
 each other, and hospitable to strangers. They are very patri- 
 otic, and much attached to the great cause of independence 
 and liberty. Their besetting sin is gambling. They possess 
 most of the property, hold the principal offices of the govern- 
 ment, and in the army since the establishment of the republic, 
 and comprise most of the professional men and the merchants, 
 as well as those that are fond of literature and science. 
 
 The people of colour comprise the labouring classes, and x a 
 Considerable part of the troops ; many of them are orderly and 
 industrious, and make good citizens and soldiers. Some of 
 this class acquire property, and are respectable, and many of 
 them have been much devoted to the cause of liberty and their 
 country, whilst others are indolent, ignorant, wretched and 
 filthy. This is said to be particularly the case with part of the 
 population of the city of Mexico, where a portion of the in- 
 habitants, called Leperos, are notorious beggars, thieves, and 
 pick-pockets, and much addicted to drunkenness. All classes 
 of the people are said to be fond of smoking to excess fe- 
 males, as well as the men and the boys. This custom appears 
 to be common to most of the Spanish American countries. 
 
 Education and institutions of learning. Under the dark 
 shade of despotism, when there was neither a free-press, nor 
 free inquiry ; when it was the policy of the government to 
 keep the people in ignorance, little could be expected of sci- 
 ence or learning. But even the reign of despotism did not 
 prevent occasional sparks of science from being elicited, which 
 often kindled into a blaze. The Creoles possess very lively 
 and active intellects, and apprehend the principles of science 
 with facility ; and with all the disadvantages under which they 
 have laboured, they have afforded some good scholars, who 
 have done honour to the age in which they lived. In the cap- 
 ital, the mathematical sciences, chemistry, mineralogy and 
 botany, have been cultivated with success. In mathematics, 
 they can boast of the illustrious names of Valasques, born in 
 1732, a self-taught astronomer of Gama, his fellow-labourer, 
 and Alzate, all of whom possessed genius of the highest or- 
 der ; in chemistry, M. Sesse and M. Echeveria were distin- 
 guished for their extensive acquirements ; and in sculpture 
 they can boast of M. Tolsa, whose equestrian statue of Charles 
 V. is considered as superior to any similar work extant, ex- 
 cept that of M. Aurelius at Rome. Alzate, a man of ardent 
 genius, published a literary gazette at Mexico, to diffuse a 
 knowledge of the physical sciences, and excite a spirit of 
 learning among his countrymen. The mathematics were ex- 
 tensively taught in the university of Mexico, and also in the 
 
132 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 .Mineria, OK school of mines. Besides these, there are several 
 colleges, academies of fine arts and schools ; and it has been 
 said, that Mexico had more solid, scientific institutions, than 
 any other town in America, not excepting the United States. 
 JVlany of the young Creoles visited Europe, for the purpose of 
 travelling, or to complete their education, and thus acquired a 
 taste for literature, the arts, and the sciences.* 
 
 During the colonial system in the cities, most of the people 
 were taught to read and write ; but in other settlements, in- 
 struction was greatly neglected. Since the revolution, a dif- 
 ferent policy prevails, and a new impulse has been given to 
 education and the diffusion of knowledge. The dynasty of 
 ignorance has ended, and the reign of intelligence commenc- 
 ed, under favourable auspices. The policy of the old govern- 
 ment, was to keep the people in ignorance : that of the pres- 
 ent, is entirely different ; it declares, that " without education ? 
 liberty cannot exist ; and that the more diffused is the former, 
 the more solidly cemented will be the latter."! The solemn 
 annunciation of this important truth has induced the govern- 
 ment, amidst all its pressing concerns and pecuniary embar- 
 rassments, to do every thing in its power to promote an object 
 so essential to the prosperity of the republic. Provision has 
 been made for the establishment of primary schools, which 
 are entrusted to the city councils. They have generally been 
 established ; but in some places they have not, for the want of 
 funds, and in others they are almost useless, from the incapa- 
 city of the teachers and the lowness of salaries. In the capi- 
 tal, a society has been founded under the patronage of the gov- 
 ernment, for the purpose of introducing the system of mutual 
 instruction, or Lancastrian plan of education ; and a school 
 has been established in a convent, capable of containing six- 
 teen hundred scholars. It is the design of government to have 
 other societies formed in the different cities on the same model, 
 and for the same objects as the one in the capital. This has 
 been done in Guadalaxara, Guanaxuato, San Luis Potosi, and 
 other large towns, where schools on the Lancastrian plan of 
 mutual instruction have been established, which promise to be 
 extensively useful. The government has not neglected the 
 higher branches of education, but has appointed a committee 
 of enlightened men to inquire into the condition of the uni- 
 versities, colleges, academies and libraries, which will enable 
 the congress to adopt the proper measures for their melioration 
 and encouragement. It appears by the report of the secreta- 
 
 *Ed. Encyclo. Ar. Mexico, 
 f Kept, of Mexican Sec. of State, Nov. 
 
STATE OF MEXICO. 133 
 
 ry of state, that the government is affording every encourage- 
 ment in its power to increase the means and facilities of edu- 
 cation ; and many of the citizens are nobly seconding their ex- 
 ertions. An investigation having been made into the condi- 
 tion of the old colleges and universities, some of them will be 
 restored, but conducted on different principles, and others re- 
 established on an entirely rrew plan. In San Luis Potosi, 
 42,000 dollars have been subscribed by the inhabitants for the 
 erection of a college, and similar exertions are also making 
 for the establishment of a college at Guanaxuato. There is 
 also, a college now in operation in Zelaya. Measures have 
 been adopted for preserving the records and documents in the 
 archives of the colonial government. The plan is to assort 
 and arrange them, and make a copious index, so that any 
 document can readily be found. This service is to be perform- 
 ed under the direction of the secretary of state. The docu- 
 ments and papers of the department of excise afford an index, 
 which, together with the printed tracts on the subject, make 
 eighty-two volumes. From the branches of finance, ecclesi- 
 astical benefices and indulgences, four thousand five hundred 
 and ninety-six documents have already been deposited in the 
 secretary's office.* Among the means for the diffusion of 
 knowledge, which owe their origin to the new order of things, 
 that of the establishment of newspapers is by no means the 
 least important. The government has also adopted another 
 regulation, which is worthy of imitation ; it has ordered that 
 in each city there shall be established, in the city-hall, a public 
 reading room, to be supplied with the laws and public docu- 
 ments by the government, and by newspapers and other valua- 
 ble periodical works, by small subscriptions a^iong the inhab- 
 itants.! 
 
 Religion. Protestant nations have left Roman Catholic 
 countries (with perhaps the exception of France) at a distance 
 " behind them, in the moral and intellectual sciences, in politics, 
 in the diffusion of knowledge, and those improvements which 
 promote the freedom and happiness of individuals and the 
 prosperity of nations. Hence it is inferred, that the Roman 
 Catholic religion is not favourable for intellectual and scientif- 
 ic exertion. There are two reasons for this ; the first is, that 
 its spirit is intolerant, and calculated to stifle mental inquiry 
 and exertion ; the second, that it is a religion of external 
 forms and ceremonies, pompous and imposing, which serve to 
 engross the attention, and by confining the mind to external ob- 
 
 * North Am. Review for October, 1825. 
 f Report of the Secretary of State. 
 Vor. T 12 
 
134 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 jects withdraw it from intellectual. In a word, it is calculated 
 to enslave the mind, and when that is fettered, little improve- 
 ment can be expected. 
 
 From the early settlement of Spanish America, the estab- 
 lished hierarchy has been both an instrument and a cause of 
 oppression. Whilst it strengthened the despotism of the gov- 
 ernment, it added a darker and keeper shade to it. Clothed 
 with power, and armed with the Inquisition, its influence was 
 great, and always exerted on the side of the government, and 
 was a principal cause of the ignorance of the people. The 
 ecclesiastical establishment in Mexico was formed on the 
 same model as that of Spain, and had its full train of dignita- 
 ries. The inferior clergy were divided into three classes ; 
 the curas, who were parish priests, employed in the settle- 
 ments ; the doctrineros, who had the charge of districts in- 
 habited by Indians, subject to the Spanish government ; and 
 the missioneros, who were employed in converting the Indios 
 Bravios, or wilde tribe, not reduced under the Spanish yoke. 
 Many of the inferior clergy suffered extreme poverty, whilst 
 the incomes of some of the high dignitaries exceeded that of 
 many of the sovereign princes of Germany. The archbish- 
 op of Mexico enjoyed an income of one hundred and twenty^ 
 one thousand eight hundred and seventy-five dollars, and sev- 
 eral of the bishops but little less ; at the same time that some 
 of the priests, in the Indian villages, received only the pit- 
 tance of twenty or twenty-five pounds sterling. The clergy in 
 Spain, previous to the revolution, amounted to about thirteen or 
 fourteen thousand, one half of which were regulars, and wore 
 the cowl.* 
 
 The clergy were violently opposed to the revolution, and 
 were the principal cause of the long struggle, and of the suc- 
 cessful efforts of the government for twelve years. After the 
 Cortes in Spain undertook to reform the ecclesiastical estab- 
 lishment in the peninsula, the clergy in Mexico declared 
 against the Spanish Cortes, and became in favour of a revolu- 
 tion ; and their influence was by no means the least consider- 
 able in bringing about the plan of Iguala. 
 
 Whilst the revolution has regenerated Mexico, in every 
 ther respect, and swept off the colonial despotism, with all 
 its train of corruptions and abuses, it has as yet done but lit- 
 tle to relieve the nation from the thraldom of an established 
 hierarchy and the worst of all despotisms, that of superstition, 
 which is an enslavement of the mind. 
 
 It is declared, in the third article of the constitutional act, 
 
 * EdiBbwrg Encyclopedia, article Mexico. 
 
STATE OP MEXICO. 
 
 135 
 
 " that the religion of the Mexican nation is, and shall be per- 
 petually, the Catholic, Apostolic, Roman. The nation pro- 
 tects it by just and wise laws, and prohibits the exercise of 
 any other." This provision but little accords with the free, 
 just, and liberal principles of the constitution of which it com- 
 poses a part, and casts the only dark shade on the luminous 
 political horizon of the nation, and its fair prospect of a splen- 
 did career of moral, political and social advancement. The 
 Mexican congress is an enlightened body, and we may sup- 
 pose that, like Solon, when giving laws to Athons, it thought 
 this provision was as perfect as the nation was prepared to re- 
 ceive. Whilst this constitutional principle remains, it will ob- 
 struct the free exercise of religion, the freedom of inquiry, 
 and the enjoyment of the rights of conscience ; but will not 
 prevent the government from reforming the ecclesiastical es- 
 tablishment, and correcting its inveterate abuses, the growth 
 of time and despotism. This necessary work of reformation 
 has already been commenced ; and a spirit of liberality and 
 toleration is increasing. 
 
HISTORY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 
 
 CHAPTER VII J. 
 
 Causes which led to the revolution Junta of Seville sends depu- 
 ties to America Junta established in Mexico Conspiracy 
 against the Ficeroy-^Regency of Cadiz Hidalgo raises the 
 standard of revolt takes Guanaxuato The Viceroy attempts 
 to conciliate the people spirit of the Revolution spreads rap- 
 idly Military preparations of Hidalgo organizes his army 
 Revolutionists are excommunicated Hidalgo threatens the 
 capital he retires is attacked by the Royalists retreats to 
 the town of Guanaxuato is defeated with great loss betrayed 
 taken prisoner and executed. 
 
 THE causes of the revolution in Spanish America, are not 
 found in any change of policy on the part of Spain, nor in 
 any essential variation in the sentiments of the Americans 
 respecting the parent country. A people, who enjoyed no 
 political rights, could be deprived of none ; no such disputes, 
 therefore, could arise respecting the rights of the colonies, 
 and the prerogatives of the crown, as existed between Great 
 Britain and her American possessions. The flames of civil 
 war were not enkindled in the Spanish colonies by resistance 
 to a tax on tea, or a denial of the unqualified right of taxa- 
 tion, claimed to be binding on the colonies " in all cases what- 
 soever" since to this they had for three centuries quietly sub- 
 mitted. Although the North American, and French revolu- 
 tions, may have shed some rays of light over these countries, 
 yet the causes of their recent civil changes are to be sought 
 for solely in the peculiar condition of Spain, and the total de- 
 jrangement of her monarchy. 
 
 Leaving out of the account, the unfortunate attempt at La 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO, 137 
 
 Paz, the bloody drama of the revolution first opened in Colom- 
 bia, and as the struggle there was most protracted and severe, 
 and its final success having been the means of the emancipa- 
 tion of the other colonies, Colombia seems to possess a more 
 commanding revolutionary character than any of her sister re- 
 publics. Consequently, in the history of the contest in Co- 
 lombia, we shall endeavour to give a full and satisfactory ac- 
 count of the causes and events of the revolution, as it respects 
 Spain and her colonies generally, and as to the other repub- 
 licks, confine our narration in a great measure to local occur- 
 rences. 
 
 Spain had for more than a century been on a decline, when 
 in 1808, a finishing stroke was given to her degradation, by 
 the ambitious designs of the Emperor Napolean. Not satis- 
 fied with having reduced the Peninsula to a condition little 
 above that of a conquered state, and with draining off its re- 
 sources to support his wars, Buonaparte made one of the 
 boldest attempts recorded in history, to seize on the country 
 and transfer the crown to his own family. Partly by fraud, 
 but more by force, he obtained possession of the persons 
 of Ferdinand VII. his father, and most of the royal family, 
 caused them to pass over into France, and detained them at 
 Bayonne, where, in May 1808, the father was constrained to 
 abdicate to his son, and the latter, to renounce his crown to 
 Joseph Buonaparte. 
 
 And as all regulations, respecting Spanish America, must 
 be approved of by the Council of the Indies, a decree of that 
 Council transferred the dominions of Spain, in America, to 
 king Joseph, in confirmation of the cessions at Bayonne. 
 Buonaparte sent to America agents, to communicate to the 
 Spanish chiefs, and through them to the people, the political 
 change which had taken place, and to demand their allegiance. 
 All the Spanish chiefs, with the exception of the Viceroy of 
 New Spain, seemed willing to yield to this revolution, and ac- 
 knowledge the supremacy of their new sovereign ; they being 
 all assured of retaining their places. At this period, it was 
 thepeople, and not the royal governors, who shewed their loy- 
 alty ; they were shocked at the thought of being transferred, 
 like so many cattle, to another master, and that master Na- 
 polean Buonaparte, who had done so much to oppress their 
 parent country. They were indignant, too, at the foul treat- 
 ment which their sovereign had received. An unusual ferment 
 was excited among the people, the proclamations of Buona- 
 parte were burnt, and his agents, glad to quit the country, to 
 save their lives. This spirit prevailed, in a greater or less de- 
 gree, throughout Spanish America. 
 
 12* 
 
138 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 A similar spirit soon disclosed itself, also, m old Spam, and 
 a general revolt of the inhabitants against the authority of 
 the Buonapartes, occurred in the peninsula. Intelligence of 
 this reached Mexico on the 29th of July, 1808. It immedi- 
 ately raised the feelings of the people into the highest enthu- 
 siasm. In Spain, juntas were established in the different 
 provinces, for their government and security. The junta at 
 Seville styled itself the supreme junta of Spain and the In- 
 dies ; several other of the provincial juntas claimed the like 
 superiority, which led to dissentions in the peninsula, and dis- 
 tracted the Americans, so that they knew not which to acknowl- 
 edge, as entitled to their allegiance. Before the enthusiasm 
 had subsided in Mexico, the deputies sent by the junta of Se- 
 ville arrived in America, to demand the sovereignty of the 
 country ; and to induce the colonies to yield obedience to the 
 junta, the deputies represented that its authority was sub- 
 mitted to, throughout the whole of Spain. 
 
 Such was the hostility of the people against the French, 
 and their loyalty and zeal towards their sovereign, that they 
 seemed ready to acknowledge the authority of any tribunal 
 in Spain, although self-created, which claimed their allegiance 
 in the name of their king. A meeting was called of the civil 
 and military officers, and a general disposition prevailed to re- 
 cognise the pretensions of the Seville junta ; but during the 
 debates on the question, despatches were received from the 
 junta of Asturias, in Spain, denouncing the ambitious views 
 of the Andalusian junta, and warning the Mexican govern- 
 ment against acknowledging its pretensions. The regency 
 which Ferdinand had established at Madrid, on his leaving the 
 country, also claimed the supreme power, in Spain and Ameri- 
 ca. These numerous tribunals in Spain, claiming the supreme 
 authority and the obedience of the colonies, and denying each 
 other's claims, produced distrust among the Americans, and 
 placed them in a perplexing dilemma. The power of the 
 monarchy was overthrown or suspended, and there being no 
 government in Spain, not even a government de facto, which 
 could claim their obedience, or afforded them protection, 
 their situation suggested the necessity of providing for their 
 own security, by the establishment of some provisional govern- 
 ment. The Cabilfh, or municipality of Mexico, on the 5th of 
 A.ugust, 1808, presented a memorial to Iturrigaray, the viceroy, 
 for the assembling of a junta, from which we make an extract : 
 
 " Juntas of the government, and respectable bodies of the 
 cities and kingdoms, are no more than in exact conformity to 
 the law, which ordains that all arduous cases shall be consid- 
 ered of in general assemblies. As in existing circumstances, 
 in consequence of the seizure of the king, the sovereignty is 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 139 
 
 vested in the nation in order that its interests may be consult- 
 ed, the united authorities, together with the municipalities, 
 which are the heads of the people, do exactly the same as 
 would the monarch himself for the general welfare. 
 
 " Mexico has in view the same principles that influenced 
 Seville, Valencia, and the othes cities of Spain ; and she is 
 empowered, in like manner as the above two faithful capitals, 
 to do what she conceives is advisable in such urgent circum- 
 stances. 
 
 " These examples point out what ought to be done to or- 
 ganize a governing junta, composed of the royal audiencia, the 
 archbishop, municipality, and deputies from the tribunals, 
 ecclesiastical and secular bodies, the nobility, and principal 
 citizens, as well as the military. This junta shall deliberate 
 on the most weighty subjects that concern us, which shall be 
 determined conformably to our interests. 
 
 " The junta is necessary, for, although we are at present 
 free from the urgent danger which threatened us on the side 
 of France, we, nevertheless, ought not to neglect our means 
 of defence, till we receive such positive advices, as may place 
 us perfectly at ease. It is, at the same time, necessary to sat- 
 isfy the wishes of the people, by restoring to them those 
 means they formerly had of appeal to the council of the Indies, 
 or to the person of the king ; and, finally, many amendments 
 ought to be made in the nomination to secular and ecclesias- 
 tical dignities. These are the only means, in consequence of 
 the absence of the monarch, by which the kingdom, being thus 
 united, may overcome all its difficulties. 
 
 u This union of authorities is likewise necessary, as being 
 the best means to produce unanimity in the minds of the peo- 
 ple ; which will prevent the fatal consequences which must 
 arise throughout the country from disunion. Every one will 
 then be happy ; their patriotism and wishes will be united by 
 love, enthusiasm, and a sense of the public good. 
 
 " The city, consequently, thinks that the time is arrived for 
 adopting the same means as have been carried into effect in 
 Spain. The junta which your excellency is to form, for the 
 present, of the authorities and respectable bodies above men- 
 tioned, when the representatives of the kingdom are assem- 
 bled, will carefully examine its interests, &c. 
 
 " But the two fundamental points on which the junta is to 
 act, ought not to be forgotten. The first is, that the authori- 
 ties retain the full extent of their power, in the same manner 
 as if the derangement which we deplore in the monarchy had 
 not taken place ; that is, that your excellency shall still hold 
 the same power which the laws grant, and that the same be 
 
140 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 X 
 
 observed with respect to the other tribunals. The second is, 
 that in order to fill up the immense void which exists between 
 the authority of your excellency and the sovereign, the propos- 
 ed junta is to be had recourse to." 
 
 The viceroy felt himself embarrassed in his situation, and 
 knew not how to act. His advanced years and want of vig- 
 our, rendered his conduct indecisive and temporizing. He 
 was inclined to grant the prayer of the petitioners, thinking 
 the measure reasonable and just ; but was afraid of the Span- 
 iards, who he knew were violently opposed to it. In this di- 
 lemma, he proposed to resign his authority. The Spaniards, 
 knowing his inclination to favour the views of the popular par- 
 ty, taking advantage of his indecision and weakness, formed a 
 conspiracy against him, and by bribing the officers command- 
 ing the guards, about four hundred of the conspirators enter- 
 ed the palace of the viceroy, at midnight, on the 15th of Sep- 
 tember, 1808, seized him and his lady, and committed the lat- 
 ter to a nunnery, and the former to the prisons of the inquisi- 
 tion. The conspirators consisted, principally, of the Spanish 
 merchants in Mexico, and they were secretly favoured in their 
 designs by the court of audience ; and the annunciation of the 
 imprisonment of the viceroy was connected with a suggestion 
 of the appointment of his successor by the royal audience. 
 
 A central junta was established in Spain, composed of depu- 
 ties from all the provincial juntas, which possessed the su- 
 preme and national authority. The violent proceedings in 
 Mexico were not only approved by the central junta, which 
 received the intelligence whilst in session at Seville, but the 
 junta manifested great joy that the viceroy, who had favoured 
 the wishes of the Creoles, had been deposed and imprisoned, 
 without considering the danger of the example, or the evi- 
 dence it afforded, of the feebleness of all sentiments of subor- 
 dination. These high-handed measures of the European fac- 
 tion greatly exasperated the Creoles against Jlhe Spaniards in 
 Mexico., and tended to produce disaffection towards the ru- 
 lers of Spain. The authority of the central junta, although 
 illegal, (as the laws required that in case of a suspension of 
 the royal functions, the government should be vested in a re- 
 gency,) was, nevertheless, submitted to by the colonists, and 
 large sums of money remitted from America to Spain, which 
 enabled the Spaniards to carry on the war against the French. 
 The appointment, by the central junta of Spain, of the arch- 
 bishop, a mild and popular man, to the .viceroyalty, greatly 
 conciliated the affections of the Mexicans, and preserved tran- 
 quillity, notwithstanding much indignation continued against 
 the Spaniards, who had been engaged in the conspiracy. This 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 14 1 
 
 indignation was increased by the honours which the central 
 junta lavished on the European faction, and their insolent con- 
 duct towards the Americans, which this occasioned. In this 
 state of things, the people were alarmed by the removal of the 
 archbishop, and the entrusting the powers of government, until 
 the arrival of the new viceroy, to the court of audience, the 
 members of which the inhabitants regarded as their enemies. 
 Victory had followed the imperial eagles in Spain, the Span- 
 iards had been every where defeated, the French occupied 
 nearly the whole of the peninsula, and the central junta were 
 dispersed. Some of its members retired to the Isle of Leon, 
 where the archbishop of Laodicea, who had been president of 
 the central junta, published a paper, ordering a regency to be 
 formed, and naming the three persons who were to compose 
 it.* The regency published a proclamation, addressed to the 
 Americans, and pretending to possess supreme authority in 
 Spain, claimed dominion over the colonies, and promised to 
 redress their grievances. The authority of the regency was 
 considered as entirely illegal, and as little better than self- 
 created. Caraccas and other provinces refused to acknowl- 
 edge it. 
 
 The regency, commonly called the Regency of Cadiz, nam- 
 ed Don J. Venegas as viceroy of New Spain, and conferred 
 fresh honours and additional rewards on the Spanish faction, 
 which, like fuel added to an enkindling flame, contributed to 
 spread disaffection through the whole country. The troops,' 
 which in time of war are constantly stationed between Mexico 
 and Vera Cruz, to repel an attack on the coast, after Iturriga- 
 ray was deposed, were ordered into the interior. A regiment 
 of cavalry was sent to Querctaro, and three captains in that 
 regiment, named Allende, Aldama, and Abasolo, were na- 
 tives of the town of San Miguel el Grande, situated near Guan- 
 axuato, two hundred and ten miles from Mexico. 
 . In the vicinity of the town of San Miguel, ^is that of Dolores, 
 in the Intendancy of Guanaxuato, in which resided Don Mi- 
 guel Hidalgo Castilla, a clergyman, distinguished for his talents 
 and learning, for his liberal sentiments, and his extensive gen- 
 eral intelligence. He had taken great pains to instruct and 
 better the condition of the Indians, which gained him their at- 
 tachment, and from the urbanity of his manners and the'bene-' 
 ficence of his conduct, he was popular with all classes of the 
 1 inhabitants. A particular friendship subsisted between Hidal- 
 go and Allende, Aldama, and Abasolo. Hidalgo, perceiving the 
 general disaffection of the people throughout the- viceroyalty, 
 
 * Manifesto of the Congress of Rio de La Plata. 
 
142 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 and the prevailing animosities against the Spaniards, conceived 
 a plan of general insurrection, for the overthrow of the colonial 
 government. The time said to have been fixed upon for the 
 rising, was the first of November, 1810. His plan was com- 
 municated to his three friends, Allende, Aldama, and Abasolo, 
 who readily joined Hidalgo, and by their activity and exertions, 
 sentiments of disloyalty were rapidly and extensively dissemi- 
 nated. Every circumstance was laid hold of which might tend 
 to inflame the animosity of the natives against the Spaniards, 
 and alienate them from Spain. The disaffection had been 
 spread extensively, and the plan in a great degree matured for 
 execution, when one of the conspirators, a canon of Valladolid, 
 on his death-bed, discovered the plan to a priest, of the name 
 of Gil, residing at Queretaro. This information was convey- 
 ed to some of the members of the audiencia, and led to the ar- 
 rest of the corregidor, Dominguez, who was falsely charged 
 with being engaged in the conspiracy. Alarm was instantly 
 spread^among the conspirators, who, fearing that their plan was 
 discovered, hastened its execution. Allende was the first to 
 raise the standard of revolt ; he assembled, at St. Miguel, a 
 few soldiers, who were attached to him, and set out for Dolores. 
 The disaffected flocked to his standard, in his route, so that 
 when he arrived, on the 14th of September, 1810, he was at 
 the head of eight hundred men. Hidalgo, the same day, 
 preached to the Indians, and pointed out the oppressions which 
 they had suffered from the Spaniards, since the first discovery 
 of the country ; the tyranny and rapacity of the Spanish chiefs 
 in America, and the present distracted condition of Spain, 
 without any settled government, exposed to anarchy, and the 
 danger there was that it would fall under the dominion of 
 France, and America be either delivered up to the French or 
 the British, which would destroy the holy catholic religion. 
 He concluded his discourse by calling on the Indians to arm in 
 defence of their religion, and to redress their grievances. A 
 summons to arms, came with an odd grace from the pulpit, but 
 nevertheless was obeyed implicitly and with alacrity. The In- 
 dians flew to arms with fury, and uniting with the recruits of 
 Allende, they proceeded, with Hidalgo at their head, to San 
 Miguel, and commenced ^hostilities by plundering the houses 
 of the Spaniards. Here two squadrons of the regiment of cav- 
 alry of Reyna, to which Allende had belonged, joined the in- 
 surgents, and Hidalgo immediately marched to Zelaya, where 
 he was also joined by the principal part of the regiment of in- 
 fantry of Zelaya, and by part of a regiment of horse. 
 
 Thus re-enforced, Hidalgo proceeded to Guanaxuato, a pop- 
 ulous and wealthy town, containing at this time eighty thou- 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 143 
 
 sand inhabitants, and situated one hundred and eighty miles 
 north and west of Mexico. The governor of the Intendancy, 
 Riano, attempted to oppose him, but, his troops having declar- 
 ed for the revolutionists, he retired with two hundred Span- 
 iards into a building, and fired on the assailants. Having no 
 troops for the defence of the town, it fell into the hands of Hi- 
 dalgo on the 29th of September, 1810, and was an acquisition 
 of no small importance, as he found in the treasury five mil- 
 lions of dollars, consisting of specie and bar silver. 
 
 Venegas, the new viceroy, arrived in Mexico on the 1 6th of 
 September, 1810, and in a public meeting of the principal in- 
 habitants, proclaimed the honours and rewards which the re- 
 gency had bestowed on the conspirators against Iturrigaray, 
 who were regarded by the inhabitants as the enemies of their 
 country and the emissaries of Spahio In a few days the vice- 
 roy obtained intelligence of the insurrection, and of the success 
 of Hidalgo. He immediately dispatched Count de la Cadena 
 to Queretaro, a populous town and an important military posi- 
 tion. The inhabitants of this town, amounting to nearly eighty 
 thousand, were in favour of the revolutionary cause, and were 
 desirous of joining Hidalgo, which was an additional reason 
 why the viceroy was anxious to prevent its falling into the 
 hands of the insurgents, which he did by a timely arrival of 
 royal troops. Venegas, alarmed at the threatening aspect of 
 the insurrection and the extent of the disaffection, attempted 
 to conciliate the people, and on the 23d September, 1810, is- 
 sued a proclamation, referring to the decree of the central jun- 
 ta of Spain, in 1809, which declared the colonies to be equal 
 with the mother country, and promised that the cortes would 
 soon make such reforms in the government of America, as 
 would promote its prosperity, and satisfy the reasonable wish- 
 es of the people. 
 
 Hidalgo, in the first exercise of his high functions of a chief 
 or ruler, abolished the tribute paid by the Indians, which so ani- 
 mated their hopes and attachments, that they flocked from all 
 parts to join him, and he soon found himself at the head of a 
 numerous body of men. To oppose the revolutionists, Vene- 
 gas formed several corps of Guerrillas of Spaniards, who, how- 
 ever, from their violence and rapacity, injured the royal cause, 
 and he was obliged to disband them. He also established 
 corps of militia, not entirely composed of Spaniards, which he 
 called patriotas. The spirit of the insurrection spread rapidly 
 from town to town ; producing general disaffection, and the rev- 
 olutionary cause extended and strengthened daily. The towns 
 of Lagos celebrated, from the fact, of a great fair being held 
 re every five years, and Zacatecas^ from its situation near 
 
144 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 some of the richest mines in Mexico, and many others, declar- 
 ed in favour of the revolution. Hidalgo remained at Guanax- 
 uato, long enough to introduce a little discipline among the 
 multitude who had collected around the revolutionary standard ; 
 forming them into corps, and appointing the necessary officers. 
 He also established a mint, fabricated cannon of wood, and 
 one of brass, with this inscription engraved upon it, el Liberia- 
 dor Americano, the liberator of America. His greatest diffi- 
 culty was to obtain arms, for his multitude of Creoles, In- 
 dians and mixed bloods, who resembled a caravan, more than' 
 a regular army, had only a few muskets, but were armed with 
 pikes, knives, hatchets, blunderbusses, slings, and all sorts of 
 weapons. Hidalgo marched from Guanaxuato to Valladolid, 
 and entered the town on the 20th of October, 1810. There 
 he was received as a deliverer, and greeted with shouts of joy 
 and gratitude by the inhabitants. The civil and ecclesiastical 
 authorities of the town conferred upon him the highest hon- 
 ours, and treated him with every mark of distinction; but 
 what was more important to Hidalgo, they presented to 
 his military chest, one million two hundred thousand dollars. 
 Two regiments of militia were formed, and joined the popular 
 leader. Hidalgo fell back on Indaparapeo on the 2d of Octo- 
 ber, where he called a military council, to improve the organ- 
 ization of his army ; numerous promotions were made ; Al- 
 lende was appointed captain-general, Aidama, Ballcsa, Xirn- 
 enes and Arias, were appointed lieutenant-generals, and Aba- 
 solo, Ocon, and the two brothers, Martines, field marshals. 
 Hidalgo was proclaimed generalissimo of the Mexican armies ; 
 and as such reviewed the troops, which were now divided into 
 eighty regiments of one thousand men each. Mass was per- 
 formed on the occasion, and a solemn Te Deum sung. Regu- 
 lations were adopted for the pay of the army ; three Spanish 
 dollars a day was to be the pay of each infantry colonel and 
 captain of cavalry ; each cavalry soldier was to receive one 
 dollar, and each infantry soldier half a dollar per day. Hidal- 
 go assumed the ensigns and habilliments of his new dignity ; 
 his military dress was blue with red facings, embroidered with 
 gold and silver ; and a black sash embroidered with gold. A 
 medal, with an image of the Virgin de Guadaloupe, highly ven- 
 erated by the Mexicans, was worn on his breast, and the co- 
 lours were white and blue, in resemblance of the banners of 
 the ancient Emperors of Mexico, and as a memento of the 
 former independence of the country. 
 
 Having made the necessary arrangements, Hidalgo, at the 
 head of a vast army, commenced his march towards the capi- 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 145 
 
 lal, and on the 27th of October, 1810, entered the town of 
 Toluca, thirty-six miles west of Mexico. 
 
 A storm was now gathering over the capital, which was in 
 imminent danger of falling into the hands of the revolutionists ; 
 disaffection prevailed extensively in the city ; the populace, 
 and a considerable part of the higher orders, hated the Span- 
 iards and detested the government. The royal forces were at 
 a distance from the capital, and from each other ; Don F. Cal- 
 leja was stationed at San Luis Potosi, with a brigade, three 
 hundred miles from Mexico. Count Cadena had three thou- 
 sand troops at Queretaro, and the viceroy had but a handful of 
 men for the defence of the capital, against Hidalgo, and to 
 overawe the inhabitants. The fall of Mexico was apparently 
 inevitable ; but at this alarming conjuncture, the viceroy, not 
 being able to rely on the military rulers, called on the ecclesi- 
 astical : as he had not the power of the sword, he called to 
 his aid the power of superstition. He applied to the arch- 
 bishop of Mexico, and the officers of the inquisition, to ob- 
 tain a bull of excommunication against Hidalgo, and all his 
 followers, as rebels and heretics. Accordingly, excommuni- 
 cations, with all the form and solemnity of hierarchal craft, 
 were fulminated against them, denouncing them as apostates 
 from the holy church, and rebels against the state ; and as 
 obnoxious to the vengeance of both the state and church, and 
 the wrath of the Almighty. To support their denunciations, 
 the inquisition declared, that accusations had been made against 
 Hidalgo ten years before, to the holy office ; but that he then 
 had the address or good fortune to escape the punishment 
 which his crimes merited. Hidalgo, by a manifesto, replied 
 to the excommunications of the archbishop, and the edict of 
 the inquisition ; proclaimed his own sentiments of belief, and 
 exposed their inconsistency and absurdity. These excommu- 
 nications had no effect on Hidalgo's troops : for being himself 
 a priest, he seized the spiritual weapons of his adversaries, 
 and turned them on themselves. He persuaded his adherents, 
 that the sentence pronounced against them, proceeding from 
 their enemies, could have no effect ; and that the excommuni- 
 cation would, undoubtedly, fall on the heads of those who 
 pronounced it, as a punishment for their presumption. But 
 these terrible weapons of the church, were not without their 
 influence on the people ; the inhabitants of Mexico, and the 
 provinces which were not yet infected with the spirit of the 
 insurrection, were perfectly tranquil, and seemed petrified 
 with terror. 
 
 The viceroy had sent his aid-de-camp, colonel Truxillo, with 
 fifteen hundred men, to Jstlahauca, to check the advance of 
 
 VOL. I. 13 
 
146 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 the insurgents, which were afterwards re-enforced by five hun- 
 dred more ; and when Hidalgo entered Toluca, the royalists 
 fell back on Lerrna, twenty-seven miles only from Mexico. 
 Here Truxillo formed a bridge across the river Lerma, and 
 intended to dispute the passage with the revolutionists ; but 
 Hidalgo, having crossed the river at a different place, Truxillo 
 retired to an eminence, called El Monte de las Cruces, where 
 the patriots attacked him, and drove hirn from his position. 
 Whilst on his retreat to Mexico, Hidalgo sent envoys to Trux- 
 illo, with proposals for him to join his party ; he admitted the 
 deputies within his lines, and then ordered his soldiers to fire 
 on them. The royalists continued their retreat, and entered 
 the capital on the 30th of October, having, in their flight, left 
 their artillery behind. The intelligence of the defeat of the 
 royalists, at Monte de las Cruces, reached Mexico, accompa- 
 nied with the report, that the revolutionists were entering the 
 city, which produced great alarm ; and the consternation was 
 increased by intelligence that Morelos, a priest at the head of 
 a body of independants, had taken possession of several towns 
 in the south of Mexico, and that Villagran, another popular 
 leader at the head of a large force, was inarching towards the 
 capital. Whilst the opposers of the government were thus 
 numerous and increasing, there were but about two thousand 
 royal troops at the capital, and no information had been re- 
 ceived where the main army of the royalists under Count Ca- 
 dena was. 
 
 Under these appalling circumstances, perceiving little pros- 
 pect of defending the capital, the viceroy and the Spaniards 
 were preparing to rttire to Vera Cruz should the enemy pre- 
 vail. Venegas, however, prepared to make the best defence 
 he could, and drew up his troops between two public walks, 
 within the city, but stationed his artillery at the entrances in- 
 to the town. On the 31st of October, 1810, the independ- 
 ents were observed, by the inhabitants, with secret joy, (as 
 their hearts were with them) descending the hill Santa Fe, as 
 it was supposed to attack the viceroy, who was at the head of 
 his troops, prepared to meet them. Hidalgo sent general 
 Ximenes with despatches to the viceroy, who met him in a 
 magnificent carriage, attended by forty horsemen, three miles, 
 from the city, and delivered his message, which was not an- 
 swered, nor its contents ever known, as the viceroy took care 
 to conceal them from the people. In the city, alarm and anx- 
 iety, hope and fear, pervaded every breast, and all supposed 
 the capital would be stormed ; the great body of the inhabit- 
 ants wished for the success of the iudependents, but they dar- 
 ed not express their sentiments or make known their feelings. 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 147 
 
 I 
 
 x\fter an anxious night, all were surprized the next morning to 
 see the assailants retiring. The cause of this was at the time 
 inexplicable, nor has it ever been fully explained ; but it is 
 supposed that Hidalgo had received information of the defeat 
 of the patriot general, Sanchez, at Queretaro, and of the 
 junction of the royal troops, under Calleja, with the army of 
 Count Cadena, and that these united armies were advancing, 
 by forced marches, for the relief of the capital. Some, how- 
 ever, have attributed the retreat of the independents to the 
 moderation of Hidalgo, and his natural antipathy and horror 
 at the violence and devastation of war most excellent quali- 
 ties for a general. 
 
 Hidalgo retired in confusion to a hill, which overlooks the 
 village of Aculco and an extent of country on the north and 
 east. He placed his cannon on the sides of the hill, which 
 was of nearly a rectangular form, and drew up his troops in 
 two lines, stationing his undisciplined Indians between them. 
 Here he was attacked, on the 7th of November, by Calleja, 
 who had previously reached the capital, with the main part of 
 the Spanish army. The royalists advanced to the attack in 
 five columns against the north and east side of Hidalgo's en- 
 campment. There were six thousand of the royal troops, dis- 
 ciplined veterans, being well armed and equipped, and ma- 
 king a splendid martial appearance, they so frightened the In- 
 dians that they fled the instant the firing commenced. This 
 disconcerted the regular troops, who making but a feeble de- 
 fence, abandoned the position in disorder. They were pur- 
 sued by the royalists with great fury and immense slaughter ; 
 ten thousand of the independents, in the official report of Cal- 
 leja, were said to have been killed, wounded, and made prison- 
 ers. The patriots retreated to the town of Guanaxuato, 
 which is situated on an eminence and fortified by a defile, 
 through which the road passes, leading to the town. Here 
 they were attacked by Calleja, on the 24th of November, and 
 driven from their position, with the loss of twenty-five pieces 
 of their cannon, of which the Liberator was one. Some of 
 Hidalgo's troops, exasperated by the attack and success of 
 the royalists, put to death two hundred Spanish prisoners. 
 The royalists, the next day, stormed and took the town, and 
 delivered it up to the pillage and rapacity of the soldiers .for 
 two hours ; and the day following, as the closing scene to this 
 tragical drama, all the officers who had been taken, and many 
 other prisoners and citizens, were shot. Among the latter, 
 were the mineralogists, Chovel, Davalos and Valencia. A 
 proclamation was issued by the Spanish general, ordering all 
 arms and ammunition to be delivered to the government with- 
 
148 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 in twenty-four hours, on the pain of death, and threatened all 
 with the same punishment who supported the rebellion, or en- 
 tertained opinions favourable to it. 
 
 From Guanaxuato, Hidalgo marched towards Guadalaxara, 
 which is four hundred and fifty miles from Mexico ; and dur- 
 ing his route he had numerous skirmishes with parties of the 
 royal army, and in many of which the patriots were success- 
 ful. Hidalgo entered Guadalaxara, a populous town, con- 
 taining at that time ninety thousand inhabitants, and immedi- 
 ately despatched Mercado, a priest, against the port of San 
 Bias, which capitulated, and a large number of cannon fell into 
 the hands of the patriots, and Mercado sent forty-two pieces 
 to Hidalgo, at Guadalaxara. At this time, the authority of 
 Hidalgo was acknowledged in the intendancies of Valladolid, 
 Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, and part of Sonora. Whilst 
 Calleja was marching in pursuit of Hidalgo, the royalists, un- 
 der General Cruz, defeated the independents at Zamora, 
 which enabled him to take the town of Valladolid, where a 
 scene of the most dreadful cruelty and bloodshed was exhibit- 
 ed. Hidalgo chose an advantageous position, thirty-three 
 miles from Guadalaxara, where he encamped his army, which 
 was protected on one side by a hill, and on the other by a 
 small river ; the bridge across the stream he fortified, and 
 erected many batteries on the summit of the hill, and two, to 
 defend the army on the left. In this position Hidalgo waited 
 the approach of Calleja, and determined to give him battle. 
 The royal general did not decline the engagement, but as soon 
 as he arrived, made preparations for attacking the indepen- 
 dents in their position. He divided his army into two col- 
 umns, one of which stormed the batteries on the hill, and took 
 them ; the other column attacked the left side of Hidalgo's 
 encampment, antl was repulsed. But whilst retiring to its 
 first position, it received a re-enforcement, and engaged the 
 cavalry of the patriots, who, perceiving its retrograde move- 
 ment, had attempted to surround it. Hidalgo now made a 
 charge on the royal cavalry, who, being supported by the gren- 
 adiers, repulsed him with great loss. Calleja in person 
 stormed and carried the battery which alone prevented his 
 pentrating into the enemy's camp ; and at the same time, 
 Emparan attacked and routed the cavalry of the independents. 
 Consternation now spread through the camp of the patriots, 
 which rendered unavailing all further exertions to retrieve the 
 fortune of the day. 
 
 This defeat occurred on the seventeenth of January, 1811. 
 Calleja sent General Cruz to re-capture San Bias, which he 
 found already in possession of the Spaniards, by means of a 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 149 
 
 counter revolution, brought about by the curate of the town. 
 Having rallied the remnant of his army, Hidalgo marched to 
 Zacatecas, where he found a considerable quantity of cannon, 
 there being a brass-foundry in the town. Here he made a 
 new coinage of silver, still retaining the " Image and super- 
 scription" of Ferdinand the Seventh. The inependents march- 
 ed to San Luis Potosi, where Hidalgo was re-enforced by sev- 
 eral corps of guerrillas, which he formed; and from thence 
 he moved towards the town of Sal til lo, in the military govern- 
 ment of the western internal provinces, and about six hundred 
 miles from Mexico. Calleja had reached San Luis Potosi, in 
 pursuit of Hidalgo ; a body of royalists under Arredondo, had 
 arrived at Altamira, and the governor of the western internal 
 provinces, had sent troops to hem in and cut off the retreat of 
 Hidalgo. It was his intention to have escaped with such of 
 his partizans, as would follow his fortunes, to Louisiana, in 
 the United States, and to resume the war for the revolution 
 of the country, when more favourable circumstances might 
 occur. The situation of the popular chief, surrouded with 
 enemies on all sides, was critical, and his escape attended with 
 sufficient hazard, without a Judas to betray him into the hands 
 of his enemies. He was, however, destined to be the victim 
 of treachery. Don Y. Elisondo, who commanded a body of 
 independent troops, had the baseness to attempt to purchase 
 a pardon for himself, by arresting Hidalgo ; and having drawn 
 several officers into his plan, he attacked him at Acatita de 
 Bajan, whilst pursuing his course unsuspicious of danger, 
 through a friendly district of the country, from which circum- 
 stances, he was easily overcome. Hidalgo and his followers 
 were made prisoners, on the twenty-first of March, 1811; 
 fifty-two of them were executed on the field of action, the 
 next day ; and ten more, including Hidalgo, were sent to Chi- 
 guagua, where they were put to death on the 27th of July fol- 
 lowing, Hidalgo having first been divested of his clerical or* 
 
 13* 
 
150 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The war continued by several patriot chiefs- they are attacked at 
 Zitaquaro they create a junta surrender and massacre at 
 Zitaquaro success oj Morelos destruction of Quautla Mo- 
 relos is defeated massacre of prisoners by the royalists Mo- 
 relos convenes a congress they frame a constitution arrival 
 of Mina he penetrates into the country Apadoca appointed 
 viceroy attempts to conciliate the inhabitants siege of Reme- 
 dios capture and execution of Mina fall of Remedies civil 
 dissentions among the patriots Gaudalope Victoria. 
 
 THE fatal and sad termination of the career of Hidalgo and 
 his associates, did not terminate the revolution, or discourage 
 the other chiefs engaged in it ; which is evidence that its 
 spirit had taken deep hold of the minds of the people. The 
 most active and powerful of the revolutionary leaders who re- 
 mained, were Don Y. Rayon, a lawyer, Don N. Villagran, and 
 Don J. Morelos, a priest. Rayon had taken a station at 
 Saltillo, to favour Hidalgo's retreat ; and on learning of his 
 defeat and capture, he fell back on Zacatecac, having in his 
 march defeated a body of royalists, under Ochoa. Here he 
 released three Spanish prisoners, and sent them to the vice- 
 roy, with proposals for an accommodation. His terms were, 
 that a congress should be formed, consisting of half Spaniards 
 and half Americans, to decide on the best means of putting an 
 end to the war, and restoring tranquillity to the country. The 
 vice-king returned no other answer, but that, if he would lay 
 down his arms, he should be included in the general indulto, 
 or amnesty, which the cortes had granted in 1810. This act 
 of the cortes, promised a total oblivion of all that had taken 
 place during the revolution, to all who should lay down their 
 arms, and desist from aiding the rebellion. But this act of ob- 
 livion had been so totally disregarded by the Spanish chiefs 
 in America, and only used by them as a snare, to entrap 
 those they wished to destroy, that instead of conciliating the 
 disaffected, it had tended to inflame their minds against a gov- 
 ernment, which could be guilty of such base duplicity and 
 treachery. In Mexico, so entirely destitute were the people 
 ef any confidence in the faith or promises of the viceroy, thaf 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 151 
 
 he was obliged to get the church, or cabildo eclesiastico, to en- 
 dorse his proclamation, and to attempt to persuade the people 
 that his promises were not designed to ensnare them. 
 
 " On this account," says the cabildo ecclesiastico, in a pas- 
 toral charge addressed to the clergy, on the 17th of May, 1812, 
 " his excellency the viceroy, the worthy and legitimate repre- 
 sentative of our catholic and most Christian King Ferdinand 
 the Seventh, has had the unparalleled goodness, not only to 
 authorize us to be the guarantees and trustees of the indulto 
 or general pardon granted to the insurgents, but also to per- 
 mit us to grant to you likewise the power, reverend brethren, 
 as by these presents we do, to offer, promise, and assure, in 
 the name of the Holy Trinity, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, 
 and in the name of the Virgin of Gaudalupe, protectress of this 
 kingdom, and in the name of the Christian and Catholic king 
 Ferdinand the VII. and of his viceroy in these kingdoms, that 
 a general pardon shall be duly granted to all those who, re- 
 penting themselves of their past faults, are now willing to lay 
 down their arms," &c. 
 
 Rayon, being pursued by Calleja, retreated into the Inten- 
 dancy of Valladolid ; and the patriot colonel Lopez at the head 
 of a party of guerrillas, fortified the town of Zitaquaro, where 
 he was attacked on the 22d of May, 1811, by a body of 
 royalists, under Torre and Mora, who were repulsed with loss, 
 and the two commanders slain. This victory encouraged the 
 independents to act on the offensive, and Lopez marched 
 against Valladolid, and attacked the place on the 4th of May ; 
 but was repulsed by Truxillo, who commanded the royalists 
 in that place. Rayon joined Lopez, and established his head- 
 quarters at Zitaquaro, where he was attacked by the Spanigh 
 general Emparan, on the 30th of June. The conflict was ex- 
 tremely sharp and bloody, and resulted in the complete route 
 of the royalists, with the loss of eight hundred men and all their 
 baggage. Emparan retired with the remnant of his forces to 
 Toluca, and the patriots elated with the victory, again attack- 
 ed Valladolid on the 23d of July, but with no better success 
 than before. 
 
 The cause of the revolution was now evidently gaining 
 ground ; and it was supposed, that a plan for a general revolt 
 throughout Mexico, was matured and would soon take place ; 
 the viceroy received many threats and denunciations. Nu- 
 merous persons were arrested, accused of being concerned in 
 the conspiracy, a part of 'whom were brought to trial; six 
 were condemned and sentenced to be executed, and six others 
 sentenced to hard labour at Puerto Rico ; two women were 
 among the number found guilty f conspiring against the gov- 
 
152 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 eminent, and condemned to imprisonment for a term of time. 
 These condemnations took place in the month of August. At 
 this period Rayon established a junta for the government of 
 the country consisting of himself, Doctor Berdusco, and Don 
 J. M. Licaga, which, nominally at least acknowledged the 
 authority of Ferdinand, and published their acts in his name. 
 Calleja, the moment he received intelligence of the creation 
 of this junta, at Guanaxuato, his head-quarters, issued a proc- 
 lamation offering ten thousand dollars each, for the heads of 
 the junta ; and the viceroy, greatly alarmed at this measure, 
 and regarding it as the harbinger of a general rising of the 
 people, ordered Calleja to make an immediate attack upon the 
 insurgents. at Zitaquaro. This town is one hundred and twen- 
 ty miles from Mexico, situated in a valley, and surrounded by 
 high mountains. It contained ten thousand inhabitants, arid 
 the principal object in attacking it, was to seize the members 
 of the junta. For this purpose, Calleja ordered Polier, com- 
 manding at Toluca, to drive the independents from their posi- 
 tion on the Tenango mountain, previous to his attack on Zita- 
 quaro, to cut off their retreat. Calleja attacked Zitaquaro, on 
 the second of January 1812, and the place being strong by na- 
 ture, and well fortified, made a resolute defence, but was ta- 
 ken by the royalists after three hours of hard fighting. 
 
 " The rebels," says Calleja in his official account of the ac- 
 tion, " had added to that state of natural fortification in which 
 Zitaquaro was placed, all that art, despair, and eight months 
 continued labour could contribute. The defeat of the two 
 preceding expeditions had so much encouraged the people, 
 that even women and children now united in repelling our at- 
 tack. All, however, has yielded to the intrepidity of the army 
 under my command. 
 
 " The enemy being completely routed, fled away in every 
 direction, leaving the surrounding country covered with their 
 dead and wounded. The rebels, cabecillas, Rayon, Liceaga, 
 and Berdusco, had previously made their escape, and taken 
 the road towards r l asco ; nor has it been in my power to 
 pursue them, my troops being already exhausted with fatigue, 
 and the roads in a very bad state. 
 
 " The quantity of military stores is immense which we 
 found in the town. I will send your excellency an exact list of 
 them as well as of the cannon which we took from the enemy. 
 I now merely confine myself to that information more imme- 
 diately necessary to convey to your excellency, that it is owing 
 to the valour and exertions of my officers as well as of my 
 men, that the engagement was so short. Their good conduct 
 in this attack has exceeded even what they have display- 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 153 
 
 cd on former occasion^, and our loss has betin inconsidera- 
 ble. 
 
 " My stay here will be as short as possible, and before my 
 departure I will erase every vestige of the town from the face 
 of the earth, that I may, by this means, punish the criminal in- 
 stigators of so barbarous, impolitic, and destructive an insur- 
 rection, and give an example of terror to those who might 
 otherwise be willing to support it." 
 
 The contest had now assumed a character peculiarly savage 
 and horrible ; the war was not only a war of death, but of 
 desolation. Vengeance, blood and destruction seem to have 
 filled the minds of the royal chiefs, who were as weak as they 
 were destitue of every sentiment of justice or humanity, in 
 supposing that " examples of terror," and destruction, would 
 restore tranquillity to a distracted country. After the capture 
 of Zitaquaro, Calleja published a decree,* depriving the In- 
 dians of that department, of their property and immuni- 
 ties, declaring the property of all Americans who had ta- 
 ken any part in the ^insurrection, or who fled from the city 
 on the entry of the royal troops, to be forfeited ; trans- 
 ferring the capital of the department to Marabatio, and or- 
 dering the town of Zitaquaro razed to the ground, allowing 
 the inhabitants six days only to leave it, with their moveables, 
 which they were permitted to take " as a proof of mercy ;" 
 and threatening the same destruction against any town which 
 should harbour either of the members of the junta. The 
 scene of horror and distress, which this decree, conceived in 
 the true spirit of Vandalism, produced, surpassed the power 
 of imagination, much more that of description. 
 
 The fall of Zitaquaro and the dispersion of the patriots, did 
 
 * The following are some of the articles of the decree referred 
 to : 
 
 " 1st. It is decreed that the Indians of Zitaquaro and its depart" 
 ment, shall be deprived of their property, as well as of those immu- 
 nities and privileges which the extreme beneficence of the govern- 
 ment had granted them 
 
 " 2d. This forfeited property, as well as that of those South Amer- 
 icans who have taken part in the insurrection, who accommpanied 
 the rebels in their flight, or who left the city at the entrance of the 
 king's troops, to be placed in the public treasury. 
 
 "3d. Monarchical government being hated by the inhabitants of 
 this criminal town, who have supported three engagements against 
 the king's forces, and having found the heads of many of our chiefs 
 who sacrificed their lives for (he public good, placed on poles at the 
 entrance of the town, we decree that every building in Zitaquaro 
 shall be razed to the ground, or destroyed by fire. Every inhabit- 
 ant to leave the town within six days ; atid as a proof of mercy, 1 
 permit them to take their moveable propertv, 
 
 "CALLEJA.' 1 
 
154 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 not terminate the struggle : nor did the, dreadful examples of 
 terror, induce the independent chiefs, to throw down their 
 arms and sue for peace and pardon. Morelos, Villagran, Ca- 
 nas, Aldamar, and other popular leaders, still commanded 
 corps of guerrillas in different parts of New Spain. The 
 members of the junta, took refuge at Zultepec, a town 
 situated on a steep mountain, about ninety miles from Mex- 
 ico ; from whence they proposed to the viceroy terms of 
 accommodation, which received as little attention as the pro- 
 posals of Hidalgo and Rayon. The terms of reconciliation 
 were contained in an address of the junta to the Spaniards, of 
 the 29th of March 18 11, in which they recapitulated their 
 grievances, and proposed a plan, in case the royalists did not 
 choose to comply with their terms of accommodation, for 
 carrying on the war, in a manner less barbarous and destruc- 
 tive. 
 
 Morelos possessed an efficient army, and was obeyed 
 throughout nearly the entire southern coast of Mexico. He had 
 defeated the royalists in various skirmishes and engagemeris, 
 one of which was bloody and decisive, fought on the 19th of 
 August, 1811, at Tixtla ; after which, he besieged Acapulco, 
 with a small part of his army, but marched with the main divis- 
 ion towards Mexico. He took possession of the town of Izucar 
 without opposition ; and, in the meantime, a division of his 
 army commanded by general Bravo, defeated the Spanish 
 general Musitu, and took possession of the town of Quautla 
 Amilpas, seventy-live miles south of the capital. Morelos also 
 occupied the towns of Huexapan, and Tasco. The Span- . 
 ish colonel Soto, attacked the town of Izucar on the 17th 
 February, but was repulsed with loss, and himself so dan- 
 gerously wounded, that he was obliged to retire from the com- 
 mand. He was succeeded by Llano, who on the 22d renewed 
 the assault, and was also repulsed ; yet he succeeded in gain- 
 ing possession of a hill, from which- he bombarded the town. 
 In this attack were employed the first troops which had been 
 sent from Spain to Mexico, since the commencement of the 
 revolution. Calleja attacked Moreios in the town of Quautla 
 Amilpas, on the 19th of February, 1811, and after a severe 
 action of six hours, was compelled to retire. Exasperated at 
 this defeat, Calleja, swore vengeance against the town of 
 Quautla and its inhabitants, and made great preparations for 
 renewing the assault. Llano was ordered to raise the siege of 
 Izucar and join him, who on his marcn defeated several par- 
 ties of guerrillas. In the meantime, the patriots, who had 
 been re-enforced, assisted by the whole population of the 
 town, were making the utmost exertions for its defence. The 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 155 
 
 rage of the Spanish general, is in some degree evinced by a 
 letter which he wrote to a friend whilst encamped before 
 Quautlaonthe 15th of March, 1812. 
 
 " We will precipitate this town and its inhabitants into the 
 very centre of hell, whatever exertions or fatigue it may cost 
 us. The enthusiasm of these insurgents is unparalleled. 
 Morelos, with a prophetic countenance, gives his orders, and 
 whatever they may be, they are always punctually executed. 
 We continually hear the inhabitants swear that they will be 
 buried under the ruins rather than deliver up the town. They 
 dance around the bombs as they fall, to prove that they are 
 fearless of danger." 
 
 The town of Quautla is situated on an eminence, in a plain, 
 and commands a view of the adjacent country. It had been 
 so strongly fortified by Morelos, that Calleja was obliged to 
 relinquish the plan of conquering it by storm, and to attempt 
 to reduce it by a siege. This having been continued for some 
 time, provisions began to fail, which induced Morelos to make 
 a sally, from the hope, that this might enable the parties of 
 guerrillas, which were harassing the besiegers in the rear, to 
 convey provisions into the town. On the night of the 23d of 
 April, field-marshal Matamoros, with one hundred horse, forc- 
 ed the enemy's line, but no supplies were procured by the 
 movement. The town not being able to hold out much longer, 
 for the want of provisions, as a last effort, Morelos attacked 
 the enemy's camp on the 27th, aided by the guerrillas ; but 
 the patriots were repulsed, with the loss of nearly one thousand 
 men. After the siege had lasted seventy-five days, the 
 precise time of that of Mexico, when taken by Cortes, and 
 all hopes of obtaining provisions, being extinguished, Morelos 
 resolved to evacuate the place, and on the night of the 2d of 
 May, 1811, the Independents marched out of the town, toge- 
 ther with most of its inhabitants. A corps of two thousand 
 infantry formed the advance, next two hundred and fifty horse- 
 men, followed by nearly five thousand lancers andsliugers, be- 
 tween whom, and the rear guard which consisted of a corps 
 of fusileers, was placed the inhabitants, comprising nearly the 
 entire population of the town. Calleja soon discovered the 
 movement of the Independents, and commenced a spirited at- 
 tack upon them, which occasioned a most shocking slaughter 
 among the unarmed, and in a great degree, unprotected inhab- 
 itants, who were fleeing for their safety. Four thousand of 
 the patriots were slain, principally the unfortunate inhabitants 
 of Quautla. Calleja, in his^account of the slaughter, says, 
 that the dead bodies of the enemy covered the ground for 
 twenty miles in extent, and that he lost only twenty men. 
 
156 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 Morelos retreated to the town of Chilapa, which he took by 
 storm ; Tehuacan next yielded to him, arid Orizaba shared 
 the same fate. Here he set fire to the tobacco in the royal 
 magazines, of the value of several millions of dollars. On 
 the 25th of November, Morelos attacked and captured the 
 town of Antequera, the capital of the Intendancy of Oaxaca, 
 where the patriot-officers, Palacios, Tinoco, Lopez and Ar- 
 menta had been shot by the royalists. Morelos resolved to 
 retaliate, and executed, on the spot, lieutenant-general Gon- 
 zeles Saravier, brigadier-general Bonavia, and two colonels, of 
 the Spanish prisoners in his possession. The remains of Lo- 
 pez and Armenta, were then disinterred, conveyed in triumph 
 and deposited in the cathedral. Morelos soon after captured 
 Acapulco, and a numerous corps of guerrillas under Guadalupe 
 Victoria, stationed at different positions between Xalapa and 
 Vera Cruz, cut off the communication between the latter 
 place and the capital. 
 
 Rayon having made an unsuccessful attack on Toluca, re- 
 treated to Tenango, fifty-four miles south-west of Mexico, sit- 
 uated on a mountain, from which, in the beginning of June 
 1812, he was driven by the royalists, who succeeded in avoid- 
 ing the batteries tbat defended the ascent to the town. All 
 the prisoners, taken by the Spaniards, were shot. The nation- 
 al junta, which had taken refuge in the town of Zultepec, with- 
 drew from that place, and either accompanied the army under 
 Rayon, or remained in towns, in the neighbourhood of it, and 
 to which it. afforded protection. Near the close of the year 
 1812, Don .1. M. A. Toledo, who had been a member of the 
 cortes in Spain for Mexico, arrived in the United States, and 
 in conjunction with Don B. Gutierrez, then at Washington, in 
 the capacity of commissioner, or agent, from the new govern- 
 ment in Mexico, to the government of the United States, form- 
 ed a plan for invading the eastern provinces of New Spain, 
 from the United States. They engaged some citizens of the 
 United States to join the expedition, and set out for the Pro- 
 mncias Interns : and having entered the Spanish territories, 
 were re-enforced by some guerrillas ; they obtained some ad- 
 vantages over the royalists, and took San Antonio de Bejar, 
 the capital of the Province of Texas. But they were attack- 
 ed in January, 1813, and completely dispersed by Don N. Ar- 
 redondy, military commander of the internal provinces. To- 
 ledo made his escape to the United States. An attack was 
 made by Morelos on Valladolid in December, 1813 ; but the 
 royalists being re-enforced by a body of troops under Llano, 
 the independents were defeated, and retreated to Pascuaro, 
 whither the royalists pursued them, and an engagement took 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 157 
 
 ^)ace on the 7th of January, 1814. The battle having com- 
 menced before the dawn of light in the morning, unfortunate- 
 ly two divisions of Morelos' troops fought each other until the 
 appearance of light discovered to them the fatal mistake, 
 which paralized all their efforts, and rendered them an easy 
 conquest to the enemy. Matamoros, Morelos' lieutenant, a 
 very active and brave officer, and seven hundred men were 
 made prisoners. Morelos made every effort to save Mata- 
 jmoros, and offered to exchange for him, and his staff, five hun- 
 dred Spaniards which Matamoros had himself taken a short 
 time before. But the blood-thirsty royalist general dSclined 
 this offer ; and immediately ordered Matamoros and the seven 
 hundred prisoners shot, which he must have known would ex- 
 pose the lives of the Spanish prisoners, in the possession of 
 the patriots, at Acapulco, whom Morelos by way of retaliation 
 put to death. 
 
 The Spaniards at this time had a powerful force ; the royal 
 army consisted of four strong divisions, and from the vigorous 
 conduct of Calleja, who was now appointed viceroy, they drove 
 the revolutionists from the principal part of the country. More- 
 los, Rayon, Doctor Cos, and some others of the patriot chiefs, 
 however, kept the field and occupied a considerable part of the 
 provinces of Guanaxuato, Valladolid and Zacatecas ; Licaga. 
 fortified a position on the Lake Chapala, where he repulsed the 
 loyalists in several attacks made to dislodge him. 
 
 In hopes to revive the spirits of the inhabitants, Morelos call- 
 ed a congress, consisting of forty members, which opened its 
 session at Chilpanzingo, ninety miles south of Mexico, and 
 "was afterwards removed to Ario, about one hundred and thirty- 
 five miles from the capital, where it declared Mexico inde- 
 pendent, and constituted a triplicate executive, consisting of 
 Morelos, Licaga and Cos. From thence the congress was 
 transferred to Apatzingan, in the province of Valladolid. 
 There, on the 23d of October, 1814, they offered to the peo- 
 ple a democratic constitution, and on the 25th, issued a de- 
 cree prescribing the oath of allegiance to all who were to en- 
 joy the benefits of the new government. These proceedings 
 increased the rage of the royal governors, and the constitution 
 and decree were publicly burned at Mexico on the 25th of 
 May following, and the punishment of death denounced against 
 all who should retain in their possession any copies of the con- 
 stitution, or refuse to deliver them to the government. Mo 
 yelos found that the establishment of a congress, and the re- 
 signation of his power to it, instead of promoting, injured the 
 cause, and greatly embarrassed his operations. When he, or 
 any of the generals, proposed any military plan of action, the 
 
 VOL. I. 14 
 
158 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 long discussion which it must undergo in the congress, not on^ 
 ly occasioned delay, but often defeated the object, and finally 
 led to mutual jealousy and distrust between the civil and mili- 
 tary authorities. 
 
 Many privateers were fitted out under the authority of the 
 new government, which supplied the armies of the patriots with 
 arms and ammunition, through the port of Boquilla de Piedra, 
 in the Gulf of Mexico. Being no longer able to maintain him- 
 self in the Intendency of Valladolid, and receiving intelligence 
 that Toledo and General Humbert had arrived with arms and 
 ammunition at Elpuente del Rey, situated between Xalapa and 
 Vera Cruz, and which was fortified by the Independents, Mo- 
 relos determined to retire into that province, and the congress 
 and a large portion of the inhabitants resolved to accompany 
 him. 
 
 The expedition had more the appearance of a large caravan, 
 or the migratory incursions of those nations of the north of Eu- 
 rope, which overran the Roman Empire, than that of a regular 
 army on its march. The royalists pursued and hovered round 
 this vast multitude, armed and unarmed, but made no general 
 attack. Morelos had separated himself from the main army, 
 to cover the retreat, and with a body of cavalry lay at a place 
 called Tepecuacilco, of which, the royalists obtaining informa- 
 tion by their spies, attacked him by surprise, and after a short 
 conflict he \vas defeated and made prisoner on the 5th of No- 
 vember, 1815. Morelos was carried' to Mexico, deprived of 
 his clerical orders, accused of heresy, but acquitted of that 
 charge by the Inquisition. On the 22d of December, he was 
 shot in the back as a traitor, in the village of ban Christobal, 
 eighteen miles from the capital, the viceroy not daring to ex- 
 ecute the sentence in the city, for fear it would excite the peo- 
 ple to rise. 
 
 The congress convened at the' city of Tehaucan, in the pro- 
 vince of Puebla, where Teran, an independent officer, com- 
 manded a considerable body of troops. Here, oh the 17th of 
 November, they sent to Calleja a despatch, imploring him t 
 spare the valuable life of Morelos, which he did not conde- 
 scend to answer. The loss of Morelos was irreparable ; the 
 congress had great difficulty in supplying his place as a mem- 
 ber, and president of the executive department ; the place 
 was demanded by Teran, whom the congress did not seem dis- 
 posed to appoint, and serious disputes arose. Teran being 
 provoked, and taking advantage of the existing disputes, dis- 
 solved the congress by force, in December, which arbitrary 
 act proved very fatal to the cause of the patriots. There was 
 na longer any national authority, unity of power, or concert f 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 159 
 
 action ; but the military officers in the different provinces act- 
 ed as independent chiefs, and the war languished until the ar- 
 rival of General Mina, in the autumn of 1816. Mina was a ne- 
 phew of the celebrated general of that name, so distinguished 
 for his patriotic devotion to his country, and the constitutional 
 cause in Spain, and the long and successful resistance he made 
 against the French and the Spanish royalists. He sailed from 
 Liverpool with a small expedition, in May, 1816, having seven 
 thousand stand of arms, and equipages for two thousand in- 
 fantry and five hundred cavalry, and arrived in the United States 
 in June. Here, obtaining some officers, and additional mus- 
 kets, and receiving some pecuniary aid from Baltimore and 
 New-Orleans, to help out the expedition, he sailed for the 
 Gulf of Mexico. Having suffered much in the passage from 
 unfavourable weather and disease, he landed at Galvestown in 
 November, where he was joined by Aury, the commander of 
 the privateers in that quarter, and by some of the inhabitants. 
 Hastily organizing his forces, he proceeded to Soto la Marina, 
 and entered the place without opposition. Here he construct- 
 ed a fort, and left a small garrison for the protection of his mili- 
 tary stores, and on the 24th of May; commenced his march for 
 the interior of the country. 
 
 At this time the revolution was at the lowest ebb, and little 
 or no resistance was openly made to the Spanish government, 
 except in the internal provinces ; there were, however, some 
 guerrillas, in other parts, that kept the field. Calleja had 
 been succeeded, as viceroy, by Don Juan R. de Apadoca ; and 
 the new viceroy departed from the policy of his predecessors, 
 who had attempted to govern, solely by fear and terror. Sen- 
 'sible that the cruel and bloody career of Calleja was not cal- 
 culated to restore tranquillity to a distracted country, where 
 all was war and desolation, he resolved to try a different line 
 of conduct, and attempt to'conciliate the affections of the in- 
 habitants, and to regain their confidence. This conciliatory 
 policy was attended with great success, and almost put an end 
 to the revolution, in the capital and that part of Mexico. But 
 the spirit of independence was suppressed, not extinguished, 
 and it was renewed by the invasion of the country by Mina. 
 When he commenced his march, his whole force, including 
 officers, was three hundred and eight men ; with which he en- 
 countered a body of the enemy on the 8th of June, 1817, near 
 Valle del Mais, routed them, and entered the town. He made 
 no stay, but continued his march with great expedition, being 
 desirous to unite with the independents in the interior, and on 
 the 14th of June he encamped at the hacienda Peotillas. 
 Here he was attacked by a force greatly superior, but his he-, 
 
160 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 roic band, few in number, but brave in spirit, directed and en- 
 couraged by their gallant leader, not only defended themselves, 
 but compelled the enemy to abandon the field with a heavj~ 
 loss. In this action Mina proved himself to be a brave and 
 skilful officer, and acquired the highest confidence of his fol- 
 lowers. Continuing his march, on the 18th he stormed and 
 took the town of Real del Pinos, although defended by a gar- 
 rison exceeding his own force ; and on the 24th of June he 
 reached Sombrero, where he found the forces of the independ- 
 ents, having marched six hundred and sixty miles in thirty-two 
 days. His troops had endured the greatest fatigue, and almost 
 every hardship and privation ; but being animated by their 
 commander, young, gallant and popular, who shared himself 
 in all their sufferings and wants, no murmurs or complaints 
 were heard. When Mina arrived at Sombrero, he had two 
 hundred and sixty-nine men, rank and file. Here he wrote to 
 the junta which had been established, acquainting them with 
 his object in invading the^ country, and offering his services in 
 the cause of independence ; he also wrote to Padre de Torres,, 
 who was regarded as commander-in-chief of the patriots. 
 
 Mina learnt that a body of royalists, amounting to seven hun- 
 dred, were in the vicinity, and leaving the fort under the com- 
 mand of Don Pedro Moreno, he marched in conjunction witli 
 a guerrilla, commanded by Ortis, of one hundred men, to meet 
 the enemy. His whole force amounted to four hundred men. 
 with which he did not hesitate to engage the royalists, drawn 
 up at the hacienda, de los Llanos. So spirited and vigorous 
 was the charge of the independents, led on by Mina, that the 
 enemy yielded before them and fled in disorder, with the loss 
 of half their number left on the field. After the troops were 
 refreshed by a few days repose at Sombrero, Mina and Moreno 
 penetrated as far as Xaral, sixty miles from Guanaxuato, and 
 surprised and took the place, in which they found immense 
 booty. 
 
 On his return to Sombrero, Mina received intelligence of 
 the surrender of Soto la Marina to the royalists, commanded 
 by Arredondo, governor of the internal provinces Following 
 up their success, the Spaniards invested Sombrero. -The pa- 
 triots made an obstinate defence ; but it being evident the' 
 place could not hold out much longer, Mina left the fort and 
 proceeded to general Torres, in hopes of obtaining some 
 troops for the relief of the besieged, in which he did not suc- 
 ceed. A few days after he left the place, the patriots were 
 compelled to evacuate it, and had no other means of escape 
 but by cutting their way through the lines of the enemy. Fif- 
 ty only survived who joined their leader at Los Remedies, the 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 161 
 
 head-qiterters of general Torres. The royalists under gener- 
 al Linan, marched against Remedies and invested the place 
 on the 31st of August, which was defended by Torres, assist* 
 ed by some of Mina's officers : Mina, at the head of a body of 
 cavalry, marched towards Guanaxuato, and captured the haci- 
 enda of Biscocho, and the town of San Luis la Paz. He also 
 advanced against the town of San Miguel le Grande, and com- 
 menced an attack upon it, but retired on receiving informa- 
 tion that a strong force of the enemy was marching to the re- 
 lief of the place. He retreated to the valle de Santiago, 
 where he was joined by many patriots, so that he soon was at 
 the head of one thousand Cavalry. With this force, Mina 
 set out for the relief of Remedios, but learning that the be- 
 siegers were stronger than he had supposed, he deemed his 
 force insufficient for the purpose, and retired to the mountains 
 near Guanaxuato, being pursued by Orrantia. The Spaniards 
 carried on the siege of Remedies with great vigour ; yet Mi- 
 na continually harassed them with his cavalry and cut off their 
 supplies. But at length he was attacked by Orrantia at the 
 hacienda of La Caxa, and defeated with a heavy loss. He re- 
 tired to a small town called New Publa, twelve miles from the 
 scene of action, and attempted to rally the fugitives, who had 
 escape'd, but with little success, as most of them returned to 
 their homes. In this forlorn condition he proceeded to Xaux- 
 illa, to obtain from the government of the independents, which 
 was then fixed at that place, some troops to resume his mili- 
 tary operations. He proposed attacking Guanaxuato ; and af- 
 ter considerable opposition to his plan it was agreed to, and 
 he was supplied with a small body of troops. With this force 
 he marched to the valle de Santiago, where he was re-enforc- 
 ed by a few men from Xalapa, waiting to join him ; but the 
 approach of a detachment of royalists compelled him to with- 
 draw from the valley. By a rapid movement through the 
 mountains, he descended in the rear of the royalists and march- 
 ed to La Caxa ; and from thence he proceeded by a rapid 
 march across the country during the night, to an obscure place 
 called La Mina de la Luz. Here he received some re-enforce- 
 ments, which increased his little army to fourteen hundred 
 men, with which he did not hesitate to attack the city of Guan- 
 axuato, although entirely destitute of artillery. As might 
 have been foreseen, the attack was unsuccessful, and after 
 burning the machinery of the mine of Valenciana, he retired, 
 and ordered his men to their different stations, retaining sixty 
 or seventy only under his immediate command. The bold ca- 
 reer of this brave and intrepid young officer and patriot, was 
 soon terminated. He was surprise^ and captured by the Spa#- 
 14* 
 
162 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 ish general Orrantia, at Venadito, on the 27th of September, 
 
 1817. Apadoca the viceroy, gave orders for his immediate 
 execution, and he was conducted to the head-quarters of Li- 
 nan, commanding the royal army before Remedios, where he 
 was condemned, and shot on the llth of November.* The 
 capture of Mina, not only occasioned great joy among the roy- 
 al chiefs in Mexico, but was regarded as so important an event 
 by the Spanish government, that Apadoca was honoured with 
 the title of Conde del Venadito, and Linan and Orrantia, receiv- 
 ed marks of distinction for having rendered so great a service 
 to their country. 
 
 The royalists now directed all their efforts in prosecuting 
 the siege of Remedios ; and Torres finding his ammunition 
 failing, evacuated the place on the night of the 1st of January, 
 
 1818. The evacuation was so unskilfully conducted that near- 
 ly all of the garrison were killed or made prisoners, and the 
 inhabitants of the town of all ages and both sexes, unarmed 
 and unprotected, were involved in one common ruin, and near- 
 ly all massacred. 
 
 The death of Mina, the fall of Remedios, and the loss of 
 the garrison, presaged the speedy overthrow of the cause of 
 independence, and encouraged the royalists to redouble their 
 exertions for the consummation of an object so devoutly to be 
 desired. The town and fortress of Xauxilla, the seat of the 
 government of the revolutionists, was invested by one thousand 
 men under Aguirre ; and the place was compelled to surren- 
 der, after being gallantly defended for three months. The 
 government was removed into the province' of Valladolid, 
 where it was surprised in the month of February, 1818, by a 
 party of royalists, and the president made prisoner. The pop- 
 ular government, however, still maintained a precarious exist- 
 ence, ,its members being obliged to remove from place to place, 
 to avoid falling into the hands of the Spaniards, having no 
 troops sufficient for their protection. To increase their diffi- 
 culties, they were involved in civil dissentions. Torres, after 
 the fall of Remedios, had conducted in so capricious and ty- 
 rannical a man,ner, that it had beea found necessary to deprive 
 him of his situation as commander in chief, by a formal de- 
 cree, which he resisted. Don Juan Aragon, a French officer, 
 who came into the country with Mina, was appointed to suc- 
 ceed Torres, and both parties had recourse' to force, to settle 
 * the dispute. The approach of the royalists ended this unhap- 
 py contest, and Torres was obliged to yield and place himself 
 under the protection of the government. This occurred in 
 
 * IYinse?Os notes oa Mexico. 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 163 
 
 July, 1819, and from this period the war languished every 
 where ; the royalists occupied all the fortresses, and every 
 town, and the revolutionary party appeared to be almost en- 
 tirely crushed. General Guearero, however, a brave and en- 
 terprising officer, Arago, and a few others, continued to keep 
 the field at the head of guerrillas, and roamed over the moun- 
 tains ; and Guadalupe Victoria, an assumed name, but one 
 which has since become illustrious in Mexico, after long main- 
 taining himself in the intendency of Vera Cruz, as the only 
 resource left, disbanded his troops, and sought refuge in the 
 mountains from royal vengeance, by which means his life was 
 preserved for the redemption of his country. 
 
 In 1821, after the revolution in Spain, deputies were sent 
 from Mexico to the cortes at Madrid to propose terms of ac- 
 commodation to the new government. On the 3d of May the 
 subject was brought before the cortes, by count Ferreno, 
 which resulted in a reference to a committee consisting of 
 deputies of the Peninsula and of America, who, in conjunc- 
 tion with the executive, were to consider and propose such 
 measures as they might deem best calculated to " terminate 
 the dissentions which prevailed in the various parts of Ameri- 
 ca." Whilst the subject was before this committee, news ar- 
 rived of the insurrection of Iturbide. The discussions which 
 this event occasioned, enabled the American deputies to shew 
 to the cortes the impracticability of the trans-atlantic posses- 
 sions of the monarchy being governed by the same system and 
 laws as the Peninsula. The Mexican deputies offered a reso- 
 lution, instructing the viceroy of New Spain, to propose to 
 Iturbide a suspension of hostilities until the project of a gov- 
 cTnment for America could be decided on, which was rejected. 
 
 The committee devoted their attention to the subject with 
 zeal and assiduity corresponding with its importance. They 
 had frequent conferences with the ministers, and at length suc- 
 ceeded to their mutual satisfaction in maturing a plan of gov- 
 ernment for the colonies, which, on being submitted to ^he 
 king, met with his utter disapprobation : this caused the min- 
 isters to decline acting further, at that time upon the subject. 
 In consequence the committee reported that nothing could 
 then be done but to excite the zeal of the ministers, and re- 
 quest them to present to the cortes as soon as possible, the 
 fundamental measures which they may deem calculated to 
 complete the pacification of the revolted provinces. But this 
 unsuccessful result did not discourage the Mexican deputies 
 from submitting to the cortes and the executive, another plan 
 for the government of America. This plan was, that Ameri- 
 ca should be divided into three parts. Mexico and Guatemala 
 
164. HISTORY OP THE 
 
 were to form one jurisdiction, New Granada and Venezuela 
 another, and Peru, Buenos Ayres and Chile the third ; each 
 of these jurisdictions were to have a cortes possessing, with 
 certain limitations, the same powers as that of Spain. In each 
 division, the executive power was to be exercised by a delegate, 
 named by the king, rernoveable by him at pleasure, and wholly 
 irresponsible to the American cortes. He was to act in the 
 name of the king, having the power to appoint four ministers 
 or secretaries, one of the interior of finance, one of justice 
 and grace, one of war, and one of* marine. In each govern- 
 ment, there was to be a supreme judicial tribunal and council 
 of state, and the commerce of Spain and America was to be 
 regulated as between one colony and another. Mexico stipu- 
 lated also to advance Spain a large amount of money, as a 
 gratuity, but further negotiation was broken off .by the Colom- 
 bian commissioners disclaiming any participation in the scheme, 
 and claiming the acknowledgement of their independence as 
 the only basis of any accommodation with Spain. 
 
UEVOLUTICN IN MEXICO. 16,7 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 'Royal authority re-established Influence of the clergy theif 
 views changed by the revolution in Spain second revolution 
 planned Plan of Iguala proclaimed Viceroy deposed 
 disaffection of the people Victoria joins Iturbide, who takes 
 Queretaro success of the revolution arrival of O'Donoju 
 Treaty Mexico the capital surrendered to the revolution- 
 ists Cortes assembled different parties Regency appointed 
 Disputes between Iturbide and the Cortes' Iturbide declared 
 emperor ambition of Iturbide proposes to establish milita- 
 ry tribunals project defeated by the cortes. 
 
 THE struggle might now be considered as terminated, and 
 the royal authority as re-established throughout Mexico. This 
 unfortunate issue of the revolution, was mainly to be attribu- 
 ted to the opposition of the clergy, whose influence had al- 
 ways controlled the conduct of a large majority of the inhab- 
 itants. When the revolution first broke out, and the standard 
 of independence was unfurled by Hidalgo, the shouts of lib- 
 erty spread from river to river, and from mountain to moun- 
 tain, until they reached the shores of the two oceans ; and the 
 whole country was electrified by the patriotic flame. The 
 people were evidently ripe for a general rising ; but this no- 
 ble spirit was checked by the clergy, who viewed in a revolu- 
 tion, originating from, arid to be sustained by the people, if not 
 the overthrow of their power, at least great danger of it, and 
 they immediately sounded the tocsin of alarm. The church 
 was in danger, the inquisition and the Roman apostolic catho- 
 lic religion. All the enginesi of a powerful hierarchy, were 
 put in requisition, and all the spiritual weapons of the church 
 directed against the revolution. Disloyalty to the Spanish 
 government, was not only treason, but heresy, the greatest of 
 all sins. Ancient prejudices were renewed, the scruples of 
 the conscientious appealed to, the fears of some were excited, 
 and the ignorance and superstition of the army taken advan- 
 tage of, to oppose the progress of 'the revolution, and aid the 
 cause of royalty. The want of an efficient government, and 
 unity of authority, dissentions among the patrotic chiefs, and 
 
166 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 the want of discipline in their armies, and experience in then 
 commanders, were the causes of many of their disasters which 
 retarded the progress of the revolution, and contributed to its 
 unfortunate termination ; yet with all these difficulties, had 
 
 'not the rising current of popular feeling been checked by the 
 influence of the clergy, and religious prejudices been brought 
 to oppose the cause of liberty and independence, the first rev- 
 olution would have succeeded ; and its early champions, instead 
 of being rewarded for their exertions and patriotism with a hal- 
 ter, would have been viewed as the redeemers of their country s 
 and have received the highest honors on earth, the homage of a 
 free and grateful people. 
 
 But even as it was, we are not to suppose that their exer 
 tions were wholly lost, and that their blood flowed in vain. A 
 desperate struggle of ten years, for liberty, in which the best 
 blood of the country had been spilt, and the Creoles and In- 
 dians suffered incredibly from the cruel tyranny of the Span- 
 ish rulers, had exasperated the people against their oppres- 
 ors, alienated their minds from Spain, shaken ancient pre- 
 judices, and diffused much intelligence among the inhabitants, 
 which enabled them to understand their rights, and rendered 
 
 , them more uneasy under the Spanish yoke. During this long 
 contest too, much experience had been acquired by the pat- 
 riots, and they had discovered the causes of their disasters 
 and miscarriages. Notwithstanding therefore, the revolution 
 had failed, it had scattered the seeds of independence through 
 the valleys, and over the mountains of Mexico, which could 
 hardly fail in due time, of springing up and producing fruit 
 which would ripen to maturity. Had not the second revolution 
 been brought about in the manner it was, tranquillity could not 
 long have been preserved, as the spirit of independence would 
 have soon disclosed itself among the people. 
 
 It is a curious fact, that the same cause which overthrew 
 the first revolution in Mexico, should have produced the se- 
 
 cond. This cause was the exertions and influence of the 
 clergy '; they denounced the revolution a,t first, and afterwards 
 encouraged it, without however becoming advocates for liber- 
 ty, or changing their motives. The constitutional revolution 
 in Spain, which broke out in the Isle of Leon, the establish^ 
 ment of the cortes, the various innovation's made by them, 
 particularly, the confiscating the estates and reforming some 
 of 'the higher orders of the priesthood, alarmed the clergy in 
 Spanish America, and at once changed their attachment for 
 the mother country, into jealousy and hatred. Their affection 
 for Spain proved to be nothing more than an attachment for 
 ?ts ecclesiastical despotism, and the moment, this was endan? 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 167' 
 
 gered, and there was a prospect of Spain becoming free, they 
 lost all regard and veneration for the parent country, and from 
 being its zealous advocates became its open opposers. The 
 cortes were openly denounced from the pulpit, and their patri- 
 otic measures for the reformation* of a corrupt and oppressive 
 system, were declared to be tyrannical, and calculated to over- 
 throw all civil order and destroy the holy catholic religion. 
 Considering the government of Spain as now being in the 
 hands of disorganizers arid impious men, they declared that a 
 separation was the only mearfe of preserving the catholic re- 
 ligion ; and not only openly advocated a revolt against the 
 vSpanish government, but assisted in deyising and preparing 
 the plan for giving effect to the revolution. The new order 
 of things in the Spanish peninsula, not only changed the views 
 ef the clergy in Mexico, but many of the European Spaniards 
 who had been the most zealous opponents of the revolution, 
 \\iere so indignant at the conduct of the cortes, and so Hostile 
 to the constitutional system, as to prefer the separation of 
 Mexico from Spain, to its being governed by the constitution 
 of the parent country, and falling under the dominion of the 
 cortes. 
 
 The Spanish revolution, which entirely failed of securing 
 the freedom of the peninsula, was the means of establishing 
 the independence and liberty of Mexico ; and had the singu- 
 lar effect of converting the clergy and many of the European 
 Spaniards, in America, who had been the most violent oppo- 
 nents of the revolution, into its most zealous advocates. A 
 considerable part of the two classes which support^ the royal 
 cause, having turned against it, it had no other reliance but 
 the officers of the government and the military. The Span- 
 iards, and the clergy who were at this time in favour of a rev- 
 olution, had very different views from the Creoles ; the first 
 class wished for the independence of Mexico, in hopes to pre* 
 serve in America that system of despotism, which they per- 
 ceived overthrown in Spain, and thus secure a refuge for 
 Ferdinand the VII. ; the clergy were in favour of a separation, 
 from an apprehension that the reforms and restrictions of the 
 prerogatives of the priesthood^ which 'had been made in Spain 
 by the constitutionalists, would be introduced into America ; 
 whilst the Creoles and Indians were anxious to throw off the 
 Spanish yoke, and thereby avoid its oppressions, and to estab- 
 lish a free government. The latter, however, had m> agen- 
 ,cy at first in the second revolution, as it was planned and exe- 
 cuted, by those, who, though friendly to the independence of 
 the country, were opposed to its enjoying the benefits of liber- 
 
168 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 fy and free institutions, securing equal rights to all classes of 
 the people. 
 
 The principal difficulty with the clergy and Europeans who 
 were in favour of a revolution, was to select a proper military 
 leader, as an instrument of carrying their plan into execution. 
 At length they fixed on Don Augustin Iturbide, who although 
 a Creole, had been zealous in the royal cause, and as an officer 
 f the king, had fought against the independents with as much 
 animosity as any of the Spanish chiefs. He had been suc- 
 cessful in his military career, ai*d had acquired the reputation 
 of a brave and faithful officer ; and his situation at that time 
 was very important, as he had been appointed by the viceroy, 
 to command the army designed to attack, and disperse several 
 popular chiefs, who, with about 1 500 adherents, had fortified 
 an almost inaccessible mountain, between Mexico and Aca- 
 pulco, and thus give the last blow to the revolution. The 
 European Spaniards considered him attached to their party. 
 the clergy thought he would maintain their power and privile- 
 ges, and all the enemies of liberty and of the equality of the 
 different classes of the population, regarded him as opposed 
 to the establishment of a free government, and a fit instrument 
 to bring about a revolution, which should separate the colonies 
 from Spain, and at the same time maintain the monarchical 
 system and the power of the hierarchy.* 
 
 The Spaniards and priests engaged in the plot, supplied 
 Iturbide with some funds, which he augmented by seizing on 
 a convoy of specie of nearly a million of dollars belonging to 
 the Maniljj merchants, whilst on his march against the insur- 
 gents. Instead of attacking the independents, under Guer- 
 rero, he formed a junction with them, and attempted to ex 
 plain this event to the viceroy, by representing that the patri- 
 ots had united with him, and proclaimed the protection of the 
 government in pursuance of the proclamation which he had 
 issued. In the meantime, the revolutionists in the capital had 
 despatched agents to all the provinces, and had been extreme- 
 ly active in disseminating revolutionary sentiments ; and the , 
 great body of the clergy, together with many of the Span- 
 iards, now employing their influence in favour of a revolution, 
 in a short time the minds of thepeople, were prepared to throw 
 off the Spanish yoke. The united armies proceeded to Igua- 
 la, where on the 22d of February, 1821 , Iturbide submitted to 
 the officers a plan of independence, which being unanimously 
 
 * Different views hare been given of the origin of this revolution 
 so far as respects the part acted by Iturbide ; had he pr?ed a pat- 
 riot, his original motives would have been considered as pure. 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 169 
 
 approved of, copies of it were immediately despatched to the 
 viceroy and the governors of all the intendencies. This pro- 
 ject of independence, called the plan of Iguala, proposed that 
 Mexico should be independent of Spain, and be governed by 
 a limited monarchy, the crown first to be offered to Ferdinand, 
 and then to the other members of his family in regular succes- 
 sion, subject to the condition that the monarch must reside in 
 Mexico, and take an oath to preserve inviolate the constitu- 
 tion which might be established by a congress, to be called for 
 that purpose. It also guarantied the security of the Roman 
 Catholic religion, and the immunities of the secular and regu- 
 lar clergy ; the indissoluble union of the European Spaniards 
 and the Creoles or natives ; it likewise provided for the secu- 
 rity of the rights of person and property, and abolished all dis- 
 tinctions of classes ; Spaniards, Creoles, Indians, Africans, 
 and the various casts, were to be citizens of the monarchy, 
 and alike eligible to places of honor and emolument. It pro- 
 vided that for the support of this new system, an army was to 
 be raised, entitled the army of the three guarantees, to pre- 
 serve the holy apostolic catholic religion, the independence of 
 Mexico, arid the union between the Spaniards in Mexico and 
 the South Americans. 
 
 The appearance of the plan of Iguala, opened the eyes of 
 Apadoca, and expelled from his mind every doubt as to the 
 defection of Iturbide and his revolutionary designs. He im- 
 mediately prepared to counteract the plans of the revolution- 
 ists, and to maintain the authority of the government, but was 
 arrested in his exertions by the royalists, who thinking him 
 ngt possessed of sufficient nerve, or wanting in military tal- 
 ents, for such a crisis, deposed him and elevated to his station, 
 Don Francisco Novella, an officer of artillery. Iturbide's plan 
 of the revolution, was dissatisfactory to the European Span- 
 iards, who were alarmed at tying the hands of the monarch, 
 arid calling a congress to impose on him a constitution, and 
 also at the principle of equality among the different classes, 
 as proposed. The rights and interest of the clergy being 
 sufficiently attended to, they were satisfied with this plan, and 
 the Europeans were oUiged to acquiesce. They were also 
 informed that the calling of a congress to establish a constitu- 
 tion, was a necessary feature in the plan, to reconcile the Cre- 
 oles to it, without whose assistance they could not expect to 
 succeed. 
 
 This plan was submitted by Tturbide to his officers, on the 
 first of March, 1821, they being requested to express their 
 opinions freely on the subject, and assured of the privilege of 
 acting as they saw fit. The plan was unanimously approved 
 
 VOL. I. 15 
 
170 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 of, and such was their enthusiasm that it was proposed to cre- 
 ate Iturbide lieutenant-general, and march immediately to 
 the capital to carry it into effect. And although at this pe- 
 riod Iturbide dreamed of" sceptres, diadems, and royal state, 5 ' 
 yet, like Cesar, he pushed away the crown ; he not only de- 
 clined the promotion, but declared, that the greatest modera- 
 tion ought to be observed, and that it was his intention to carry 
 his plan into effect, if possible, without resorting to hostilities. 
 The next day Iturbide proposed to the army an oath to support 
 the proposed plan, which, having been taken, he addressed 
 them in the following language : 
 
 " Soldiers You have this day sworn to preserve the Cath- 
 olic, Apostolic, and Roman religion ; to protect the union of 
 Europeans and Americans ; to effect the independence of this 
 empire .; and, on certain conditions, to obey the king. This 
 act will be applauded by foreign nations ; your services will be 
 gratefully acknowledged by your fellow citizens ; and your 
 names will be inscribed in the temple of immortality. Yester- 
 day I refused the title of lieutenant-general, which you would 
 have conferred upon me, and now I renounce this distinction, 
 '(tearing from his sleeves the bands of lace, which distinguish- 
 ed a colonel in the Spanish service.) To be ranked as your 
 companion, fills all my ambitious desires," &>c. 
 
 This address shows, that the arts of a military usurper are 
 the same, whether a Csesar, a Buonaparte, or a Spanish col- 
 onel affected moderation, pretended patriotism, and flatter- 
 ing the soldiers with notions of companionship and equality. 
 
 The Americans disapproved of the plan of Iguala, as they 
 were opposed to a monarchical form of government, and still 
 more to a prince of the house of Bourbon ; but nevertheless, 
 favoured the revolution, considering that they should not be 
 bound by this plan, and believing that a convention, elected 
 by the people, would be authorized to depart from it, and to 
 form such a constitution as would be most acceptable to the 
 great .body of the people, and best adapted to their condition. 
 Many also foresaw that, when the wheels of the revolution 
 were once set in motion, circumstances would be likely to oc- 
 cur, calculated to give to them a popular direction ; as expe- 
 rience has demonstrated, that those who give the first impulse 
 to revolution's, cannot always control their events or govern 
 their results. 
 
 The disaffection of the inhabitants to the Spanish govern- 
 ment, being almost universal, had only been repressed by the 
 influence of the clergy, and that powerful class having now not 
 only withdrawn their opposition, but taken an active part in 
 favour f the revolution, it was accomplished without a se- 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 171 
 
 vere struggle, by the force of public opinion. It was a revolu- 
 tion in the sentiments of the people so important and so uni- 
 versal, as to produce almost without violence, a change in the 
 political condition of the country. The spirit of freedom 
 spread with astonishing rapidity ; in the intendancies of Vera 
 Cruz and Puebla, the standard of revolt being raised by Bravo, 
 Sahtana and Herrera, who took possession of the cities of 
 Orizaba, Cordova and Xalapa ; and in San Luis Potosi, Col- 
 onel Bustarnete declaring in favour of independence ; took 
 possession of several cities, and among the number, Guanax- 
 uato, where he was joined by the garrison. In some provin- 
 ces, however, the royalists made a show of defence of the old, 
 and opposition to the new order of things. Iturbide proceed- 
 ed from Iguala to the Baxio, lying between Guanaxuato and 
 the capital, where he was joined by several provincial govern- 
 ors, and a number of military officers. At San Juan del Rio, 
 he was joined by Guadalupe Victoria, who after keeping the 
 field until further resistance became useless, had dismissed his 
 forces, and sought refuge in the mountains of Vera Cruz, where 
 he had been concealed since 1819. This celebrated chief, who 
 had been engaged in the revolution from its commencement, and 
 become equally distinguished for his activity and bravery as a 
 warrior, and for his patriotic devotion to the cause of liberty 
 and the independence of his country, possessed in an eminent 
 degree, the confidence of those engaged in the first revolution, 
 and of all the friends of freedom. His joining- Iturbide had 
 great influence with the liberal party ; removed their doubts, 
 dispelled their apprehensions, and inspired them with confi- 
 dence to afford their zealous support to the revolutionary cause. 
 Iturbide, sensible of the importance of possessing Queretaro, 
 which from its position, is in some measure the key of the in- 
 terior provinces, inarched against it, and entered the town 
 without opposition. There he divided his army of the three 
 guarantees, as it was called ; Victoria at the head of one di- 
 vision marched directly towards the capital, whilst Iturbide 
 with the other, moved upon Puebla, where he was received 
 without opposition, and the place immediately surrendered to 
 him. 
 
 In this stage of the revolution, the new viceroy, general 
 O'Donoju, arrived at Vera Cruz from Spain, intrusted with the 
 government of the country. Finding that all was lost ; that 
 the country had not only declared its independence, but was 
 already in the enjoyment of it, as the capital, Vera Cruz and 
 Acapulco, were the only places in the possession of the Span- 
 ish government, or subject to its authority, and these without 
 garrisons sufficient t!o stand a seige, he proposed to Iturbide* 
 
172 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 to open a negotiation, on the basis of the plan of Igula. This 
 proposal having been accepted, the parties met at Cordova 
 and negotiated a treaty, the principal provisions of which were, 
 that Spain should acknowledge the independence of Mexico, 
 and that the latter should send commissioners to the Spanish 
 peninsula, to offer the crown to Ferdinand VII., and that in the 
 mean time a provisional government should be established, 
 consisting of a regency and a junta ; and that a cortes was to 
 be elected and assembled, to form a constitution for the new 
 monarchy.* 
 
 At this time the capital had not surrendered, but was be- 
 sieged by Victoria, and general O'Donoju stipulated to use his 
 authority with the commander of the Spanish troops, to in- 
 duce him to evacuate it. A request was made and refused ; 
 but the commander at the same time suggested, that he con- 
 sidered general O'Donoju as his superior officer by virtue of 
 his appointment, and that he should obey his orders as com- 
 mander in chief of the royal forces in New Spain. Orders 
 were accordingly given for the garrison to capitulate, which 
 they did, and marched out of the capital with the honors of 
 war, and repaired to the town of Toluca, to wait for trans- 
 ports to convey them to Spain. 
 
 All opposition being at an end, and the independents in pos- 
 session of the capital, a provisional junta, consisting of thirty- 
 six members, was created, which appointed a regency or ex- 
 ecutive, of five persons, of which Iturbide was president. 
 He was also appointed commander in chief of the army and 
 navy, and a salary of one hundred and twenty thousand dol- 
 lars assigned to him. 
 
 These preliminary matters being disposed of, the public at- 
 tention was directed to the assembling of the cortes, and the 
 formation of a constitution. A plan was submitted to the 
 junta by Iturbide, the basis of which was, that the legislative 
 power should be confided to two chambers, one to be compo- 
 sed of twelve or fifteen dignitaries of the church, the same 
 number of officers of the army, one member from each terri- 
 torial supreme court of justice, and one to be chosen from 
 each of the city councils, of the several cities in the empire ; 
 and the second chamber to be composed of representatives of 
 the people, the election to be made according to the ratio of 
 one deputy for every fifty thousand population ; the classes 
 represented in the first chamber to be excluded. Notwith- 
 standing the influence of Iturbide at this time, and that he 
 submitted his plan as emanating from the regency, it was re- 
 
 * See the Treaty concluded the 20th August, 1821. 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 173 
 
 jected. In the project adopted, the same ratio of representa- 
 tion was preserved in the chamber of representatives, and it 
 was provided that the provinces which sent more than four 
 members, should elect one ecclesiastic ; one belonging to the 
 military class, arid one to the legal profession. The proposed 
 constitutipn was not popular ; it was too aristocratic to be ac- 
 ceptable to the mass of the people, who were much dissatis- 
 fied with it. Among the maelcontents, were Victoria and 
 Bravo, who headed a conspiracy, the object of which was, to 
 compel the junta to adopt the principles of election of the 
 constitution of the cortes in Spain. The plot being discover- 
 ed to Iturbide, he arrested the two republican generals, and 
 several of their abettors, and imprisoned them. 
 
 The elections having taken place, the cortes assembled in 
 the capital on the 24th of February, 1822; and previous to 
 their organization, the members were compelled to take an 
 oath, to preserve inviolate every article of the plan of Iguala ; 
 and after their installation, the chambers, by an unanimous 
 vote, sanctioned that plan. But neither the oaths or votes of 
 the members, seem to have had any influence on their con- 
 duct, for the cortes were immediately divided into three par- 
 ties the friends of the plan of Iguala, the opponents of that 
 plan, and the personal adherents of Iturbide. The first party 
 comprised the monarchists, the friends of Ferdinand, and some 
 liberal men who were in favour of the revolution, but who 
 thought a moderate course the safest, and that an adherence 
 to the plan of Iguala, would not only reconcile the European 
 Spaniards to the revolution, but check the ambitious designs 
 of-Iturbide. The republican party denied the right of Itur- 
 bide and the army, to pledge the nation, and were opposed to 
 the plan of Iguala, both on the ground of principle and policy. 
 Thinking the nation capable of self government, they were in 
 favour of a republic, and were alarmed at placing a prince of 
 the house of Bourbon, at the head of the government, who, 
 having the command of the army, the influence of the cler- 
 gy, the support of the royalists in the country, and of those 
 who would be likely to emigrate from Spain, would break 
 down every constitutional barrier to absolute power. The 
 partizans of Iturbide wished to accumulate power in his hands, 
 and to push him forward to the supreme authority, that through 
 him they might acquire wealth and aggrandize themselves. 
 They possessed the balance of power, and acted with one 
 party or the other, as best suited their object in advancing 
 their leader ; to prevent the republican party from establishing 
 a democratic constitution, they voted with the Bourbonists, 
 or friends of the plan of Iguala, and when the latter at- 
 
 15* 
 
174 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 tempted to carry into effect that part of the plan, which pro 
 vided for calling a prince of the house of Bourbon to the 
 throne, they opposed it, by voting with the republicans. The 
 greater part of the two first parties were honest in their in- 
 tentions, and only differed in their views ; they soon found it 
 necessary to unite to oppose the ambitious designs of Iturbide. 
 So dangerous is the possession of power, that this chief, who, 
 but a short time before sustained no higher rank than a colo- 
 nel in the royal army, was now bent on attaining the supreme 
 authority. He assembled four thousand troops at Tacuba, and 
 endeavoured to overawe the cortes, and dictate to them. A 
 joint meeting of the regency and the cortes was held, and 
 Iturbide assumed the president's chair, to the surprise and 
 astonishment of every one ; but the cortes, asserting that it 
 belonged to the president of their body to preside, Iturbide 
 was obliged to yield that point. Aided by his partisans, 
 Iturbide constantly exerted himself, to extend his power, and 
 encroach on the authority of the congress ; and this struggle 
 between the military chief and the legislative body, was ter- 
 minated only by the overthrow of the latter. This contest, 
 like that in England, between Charles I. and his parliament, 
 and most others, between the executive and the legislature, 
 consisted principally of a demand of money on the one part, 
 and a refusal on the other, attended with various irritating cir- 
 cumstances. When the person possessing the executive pow- 
 er, attempts to play the tyrant, the greatest obstacle usually 
 experienced is the want of pecuniary resources, and hence the 
 withholding of money, is the most effectual check to the ex- 
 tension of executive power. 
 
 Iturbide, like Bonaparte and other military usurpers, relied 
 solely on the army, as he was sensible that he could not carry 
 any considerable part of the people with him of any party. 
 The Spanish royalists would not favour his designs of usurping 
 the throne of Mexico, which belonged to the house of Bour- 
 bon ; and the patriots did not wish to exchange one master for 
 another, which would destroy all the advantages of the revolu- 
 tion. They wished the country to be independent, that it might 
 be free. Iturbide had increased the army and raised its pay, 
 and to maintain it, he made constant demands on the congress 
 for money. Had the cortes been disposed to furnish the sup- 
 plies demanded, it would not have been in their power, as the 
 protracted war, attended with immense expense and devasta- 
 tion, had exhausted the country. His demands were answer- 
 ed by complaints of the want of economy in the public expen- 
 diture, and by calling on the regency to account for the appro- 
 priations which had already been made. Iturbide, as com* 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 175 
 
 marider in chief, enjoyed a salary of one hundred and twenty- 
 seven thousand dollars, and his father a pension of ten thou- 
 sand ; the salary of the ministers was eight thousand each, 
 and the members of the cortes received three thousand. 
 
 This struggle between Iturbide and the congress, occasion- 
 ed the army to go unpaid ; and the commander in chief, in or- 
 der to exasperate them against the cortes, published his re- 
 monstrance to congress, exhibiting the wants and sufferings of 
 the army, which he charged to the wilful neglect of that body 
 to provide the necessary supplies. 
 
 The dissentions and disorders which prevailed, occasioned 
 the royal troops at Toluca, who had capitulated at Mexico, to 
 attempt a counter-revolution. Having obtained information 
 of this, Iturbide adopted measures to defeat it, and at the same 
 time made use of it as a pretext for withdrawing from the cap- 
 ital all the troops which were well disposed towards the con- 
 gress. This step was followed by a proclamation declaring 
 that the country was in danger, and summoning the congress 
 to assemble the next day, the 3d of April, at an early hour, 
 with the regency. At the joint meeting held in pursuance of 
 the summons, Yanez, a member of the regency, arose and de- 
 manded the cause of the alarm. This declaration occasioned 
 general surprise, as it plainly shewed that Iturbide had himself 
 issued the proclamation in the name of the regency, and evi 
 dently to promote his own ambitious views. Yanez concluded 
 by protesting against the president's engrossing the entire au- 
 thority of the regency, and making use of his colleagues only 
 as a screen to cover his own ambitious designs. " He has 
 usurped," continued Yanez, " the sole executive power, and 
 rendered himself absolute and despotic." Iturbide made an 
 indignant reply, and charged Yanez with being not only a per- 
 sonal enemy to him, but a traitor to his country f he also de- 
 clared that this was equally true of many members of the cortes. 
 A tumultuous and disorderly scene ensued ; Iturbide was re- 
 peatedly called on to name the members to whom he alluded, 
 and to exhibit his charges and proofs against them. He named 
 several members most distinguished for talents and integrity, 
 and the charges exhibited against them consisted only of their 
 patriotic efforts to check his usurpations and ambitious designs. 
 The cortes inquired into the charges, and unanimously acquit- 
 ted the members accused, of any improper conduct, which ex- 
 asperated Iturbide. These occurrences excited complaints 
 against the regency, and petitions were presented to the cortes 
 for the removal of the members of that body. A new appoint- 
 ment was made, and two of the old members only retained, 
 Iturbide, from fear of his influence with the army, and Yanez 
 
176 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 on account of his bold and patriotic conduct at the sittincr ou 
 the 3d of April.* 
 
 Alarmed at the ambitious plans of Iturbide, and the ascend- 
 ancy he had gained over the military, the cortes were desi- 
 rous of reducing the army to twenty thousand men, and 
 of organizing a national militia. These wise and prudent 
 measures excited both the fears and indignation of Iturbide, 
 and he used all his influence to oppose them, and even to pro- 
 cure an augmentation of the army. The contest became 
 warm, but the congress could not be intimidated or frightened 
 out of their purpose, and they passed a decree providing for 
 reducing the army to twenty thousand men, and for organizing 
 and calling into service a force of thirty thousand militia. Itur- 
 bide and his partizans perceived that public opinion was against 
 them, and that the reduction of the army, and the organization 
 of a force of militia, would deprive them of all chance of suc- 
 cess. It was therefore determined to carry their plans into 
 immediate execution, by stimulating the soldiery to declare 
 Iturbide emperor. Accordingly, on the night of the 1 8th of May, 
 the sergeants of three regiments of the garrison in the capital as- 
 sembled the soldiers, and addressed them in a manner calcula- 
 ted to exasperate them against the cortes, and to give a fresh 
 stimulus to their zeal for the interests of their leader, money was 
 profusely distributed among them. They were then marched to 
 Iturbide's house, and parading in front of it, were joined by a 
 mob of Leperos, the lowest and most worthless portion of the 
 community, and at 10 o'clock commenced shouting, " Long live 
 Iturbide, Augustin I. emperor of Mexico." These shouts, with 
 intervals of firing, continued until morning. To prevent tpe at- 
 tendance of some of the most able and influential members of 
 the cortes at the session that morning, the conspirators caused 
 private intimation to be conveyed to them, that their lives 
 would not be safe should they appear in public that day, as the 
 troops w r ere so exasperated against them, and in such a state 
 of turbulence and insubordination, that it might not be in the 
 power of the officers to restrain them from acts of violence and 
 outrage. This disguised threat had the intended effect, and 
 forty members of the cortes were absent when that body met, 
 comprising the most bold and determined opponents of the 
 usurper. Shouts, insults and threats, assailed the cortes whilst 
 proceeding to the hall of congress, from a mercenary and dis- 
 orderly soldiery and mob, who filled the galleries of the hall, so 
 as to exclude all other persons. The occurrences of the ni^ht 
 occasioned deep anxiety and concern among the members, and 
 
 * Poinsett's Notes on Mexico. 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 177 
 
 muh excitement was apparent. At length, order being estab- 
 lished, one of the deputies belonging to the faction of Iturbide, 
 arose, and after adverting to the occurrences of the preceding 
 night, and the existing disorders, observed that the voice of 
 the people had been declared in favour of Iturbide, and that it 
 was the duty of their representatives to obey the will of their 
 constituents. He concluded with proposing to proceed imme- 
 diately to the election *if an emperor. This proposition having 
 been expected, did not surprise the members, though it occa- 
 sioned a solemn pause, which continued for several moments. 
 At length a member arose ; aware that it would be of no use 
 directly to oppose the proposition, and with a view to gain time, 
 suggested a doubt as to the authority of the congress to act 
 on the subject, as they had not been elected for that purpose, 
 but to frame a constitution ; and expressed an opinion that if 
 the house were to proceed to an election at all, it ought not to 
 take so important a step without first consulting the provinces. 
 These moderate remarks occasioned instant tumult in the gal- 
 leries. The soldiers and populace became outrageous, and 
 not only vociferated, " Long live Augustin I. emperor of Mex- 
 ico," but brandishing their swords and knives, threatened to 
 put to death all the deputies who were opposed to the election 
 of Tturbide, unless he was chosen and proclaimed emperor be- 
 fore one o'clock. Further opposition to a licentious soldiery 
 and an infuriated populace, was deemed riot only dangerous 
 but unavailing, and the members of the cortes opposed to this 
 usurpation, were compelled to yield to circumstances which 
 they could not control, and give consent to the choice of the 
 army. The success of the conspiracy so elated the soldiers 
 that a few days after the election, they issued a manifesto, in 
 which they triumphantly claimed the principal merit, of the ele- 
 vation of the emperor, and asserted that the plan was contriv- 
 ed and executed by themselves alone. This daring usurpa- 
 tion of a military chieftain, distinguished neither for his servi- 
 ces nor his talents, was submitted to without open resistance or 
 complaint, and the officers of the government at the capital and 
 in the provinces took the oath of allegiance. 
 
 There is scarcely another instance in history, of a man no 
 way distinguished as a military leader, and having no hold on 
 the affections of the people for any distinguished or patriotic 
 services, raising himself to the supreme power, over an exten- 
 sive' country. But notwithstanding the crooked councils and 
 open violence by which Iturbide obtained the sovereign power, 
 had he possessed talents arid governed with moderation, such 
 was the condition of the country, that he might have maintain- 
 ed his elevation for a considerable time, and possibly have es- 
 
178 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 tablished a new empire and a new dynasty. Fortunately, 
 fyowever, the for the Mexicans and America, the intoxication 
 of success, and the sudden possession of power, turned the 
 head of Iturbide, and prepared him for his own destruction. 
 His obvious policy would have been not only to have concilia- 
 ted the people as well as the soldiers, but to have acted in 
 concert with the cort.es, and to have recognized his elevation 
 and formed the basis of his power. His security required 
 that he should have been content with the enjoyment of the 
 executive power, and to have governed in conjunction with 
 the cortes, leaving with them the resposibility of making the 
 laws. But instead of this course, he immediately attempted 
 to render himself absolute, and kept up a constant struggle 
 with the congress for power. He insisted on the appointment 
 of his privy council, the judges of the supreme court, and an 
 unqualified veto on all laws made by the cortes, and even on 
 the articles of the constitution which that body was about to 
 frame. The cortes proposed to leave the question of the veto 
 to be determined by the constitution, and yielded to him the 
 appointment of his council, but insisted on retaining the priv- 
 ilege of nominating the secretary of the council. The cortes 
 were strenuously opposed to investing him with the right of 
 appointing the supreme judges, as that being a very dangerous 
 power, and much exposed to be abused. During the interval 
 that might elapse previous to the adoption of a constitution, 
 the cortes proposed that the emperor with the advice and con- 
 sent of his council, should have the right of returning laws 
 and proposing alterations. The emperor at first assented to 
 these propositions ; but soon changed his mind and renewed 
 his first pretensions, insisting that the constitution of the Span- 
 ish cortes, which had been adopted as the basis of a tempora- 
 ry government, conferred on him those powers. The congress 
 had at first adopted the Spanish constitution as the basis of a 
 government in Mexico, until a constitution could be provided ; 
 excepting such parts as were inconsistant with the independ- 
 ence of Mexico, the plan of Iguala, and the decrees which 
 the cortes might pass, as it was intended only as the outline of 
 the government, and not to restrict the legislation of the 
 eortes. It could not therefore invest the emperor with any 
 power, inconsistent with the decrees of the cortes. The 
 struggle was continued between the executive and legislative 
 branches of the government, but at length the cortes yielded 
 to the emperor the appointment of the secretary of his coun-' 
 cil, yet continued firm and unshaken in their purpose to with- 
 hold from him the controul of the judiciary, as they had rea- 
 son to fear, if he possessed this power, he would elevate to the 
 
REVOLUTOIN IN MEXICO. 179 
 
 bench, men who would become the mere instruments of his 
 arbitrary purposes, to the subversion of all justice, and the 
 danger of the liberty and lives of all who might oppose the 
 imperial will. The emperor attempted to overawe and con- 
 trol the deliberations of the cortes, for which purpose his 
 partizans and the soldiers filled the galleries, and were guilty 
 of the most disorderly and threatening conduct, disgraceful to 
 the government, and derogatory to the national legislation. 
 The cortes, however, could not be intimidated, but remained 
 firm in their purpose of resisting the arbitrary measures of the 
 emperor, and maintaining the liberties of the people. The 
 project of a law for the establishment of military tribunals, 
 was prepared by the emperor and his council, and submitted 
 to the cortes by the minister of justice. As the adoption of 
 so extraordinary a measure, could only be justified from the 
 existence of extraordinary and alarming circumstances, the 
 preamable to the law declared : 
 
 " That the interruption in the administration of justice 
 the robberies, murders, assassinations the banditti that infest 
 the high-ways the disorders that disturb the public tranquil- 
 lity the absence of all punishment, an impunity, authorised, 
 as it were, by law, clearly show that the administration of jus- 
 tice is paralyzed, that there are no judges, no tribunals of jus- 
 tice, and that the commission of crimes has gone so far that 
 the ordinary tribunals are not sufficient to suppress them. 
 To remedy these evils it is thought expedient to adopt a new 
 system for the administration of justice ; and the following ar- 
 ticles are proposed to be passed into a law : 
 
 "1st. That there shall be in this city, and in all the capi- 
 tal cities of the provinces, a special tribunal, composed of two 
 officers of th6 army, and of one lawyer, to be appointed by the 
 emperor. 
 
 " 2d. This tribunal shall have exclusive jurisdiction, or 
 ointly with the other judges, in all cases of conspiracy against 
 the state, and jointly with the other judges in all cases of rob- 
 bery, assassinations and murders. 
 
 " 3d. All appeals to be made to the captain general of the 
 provinces, who shall pronounce sentence after hearing the 
 opinion of a solicitor, appointed for that purpose. 
 
 "4th. This sentence to be carried into execution when- 
 ever it agrees with that of the first tribunal ; and in case of 
 disagreement, the cause to be referred to a council of war. 
 
 " 5th. The articles 287, 293, 295, 299 and 300 of the Span- 
 ish constitution to be suspended. (These provide for the ha- 
 beas corpus.) 
 
 "6th. That there shall be in this capital, a chief, with 
 whatever ame or title the emperor may choose to confer on 
 
180 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 him, especially charged to watch over the public security, and 
 to exercise the most vigilant police." 
 
 " The committee of congress appointed to examine and re- 
 port on this project of a law, declared 
 
 lt 1st. That it is contrary to the enlightened principles of 
 those authors, who have written on the subject of government 
 with most philosophy. 
 
 " 2d. Contrary to public opinion, which all governments 
 are bound to respect. 
 
 " 3d. Contrary to the Spanish constitution, which has been 
 adopted until a new one be formed for the empire. 
 
 " 4th. Contrary to reason, which ought to guide the legisla- 
 tion of a people. 
 
 " 5th. Contrary to the interests of the Mexican nation in 
 its present situation." 
 
 Thjs report was adopted unanimously, and the attempt to 
 establish military tribunals, as a preliminary step towards mil- 
 itary despotism, was indignantly put dowa. 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 181 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Tyrannical conduct of the emperor his power over the congress 
 
 dissolves the congress A junta assembled Disaffection of 
 
 the people Santana and Victoria join the republicans spirit 
 of revolt spreads rapidly Iturbide resigns the crown he em- 
 barks for Leghorn new congress assembled commissioners 
 from Spain State of the country adoption of the constitu- 
 tion disaffection in the army Iturbide meditates a return-^- 
 
 congress declares him a traitor and outlaw public credit 
 slavery Iturbide returns in disguise is arrested and execu- 
 ted. 
 
 THE emperor perceiving that the cortes were firm and reso- 
 lute in opposing his plans, found it necessary to resort to co- 
 ertion and violence ; and on the night of the 26th of August, 
 1822, he caused fourteen of the most distinguished and intre- 
 pid members to be arrested and thrown into prison, on a 
 charge of conspiracy against the government. Indignant at 
 this tyrannical measure, the cortes assembled in secret ses- 
 sion the next day, and demanded of the minister the cause of 
 the arrests which had been made ; and were informed that 
 some of the members were actually implicated in a conspir- 
 acy, and others suspected, and that they had been arrested by 
 authority of an article in the Spanish constitution, conferring 
 that power on the executive, i' he following clay, the cortes 
 sent a message to the minister, suggesting that the 172d arti- 
 cle of the Spanish constitution, provides, that all persons ar- 
 rested shall be brought to trial if they desire it, within forty- 
 eight hours, and demanding that in compliance with this pro- 
 vision, the prisoners be immediately brought before a compe- 
 tent tribunal for trial. To this message, it was answered, 
 that the charge was of so complicated a nature, that it was 
 impossible to comply with the request of the cortes ; and that 
 the article of the constitution referred to, spoke only of one 
 person, and could not be applicable to several who were charg- 
 ed with the same crime, as it might be easy to try one per- 
 son within forty-eight hours, but would be impossible to exam- 
 ine the charges against a number in that limited time. The 
 congress next determined to present an address to the en> 
 VOL. I. 16 
 
182 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 peror himself, praying that the constitution may not be violat- 
 ed, and requesting that the deputies accused might be deliv- 
 ered up to them, in which case they could constitute a tribu- 
 nal for their immediate trial. At nine o'clock at night, his 
 majesty's answer was received, which repeated the interpreta- 
 tion given by the minister, to the 172d article of the constitu- 
 tion, and declared that he could not consent to have the ac- 
 cused members tried before the tribunal which the cortes might 
 create, until it could first be ascertained whether the members 
 of the tribunal were not themselves implicated in the conspir- 
 acy. This communication excited much feeling, and occa- 
 sioned an animated discussion, attended with severe animad- 
 versions on the conduct of the emperor and his ministers. 
 
 After continuing to assemble in secret sessions until the 
 12th of September, without being able either to procure the 
 release or trial of the accused members, the cortes resolved 
 to say no more on that subject at present, and attend to the 
 business before them. The great questions of the veto, and 
 the appointment of the supreme judges, still continued unset- 
 tled, and subjects of dispute between the emperor and the cor- 
 tes. At length, becoming satisfied that he could not carry 
 these points, and that it would be impossible to render him- 
 self absolute whilst the Cortes remained, the emperor resolv- 
 ed to free himself, from what he regarded as the only obstacle 
 to his power. He assembled in his palace a junta, or what in 
 this country would be called a caucus, composed of the gen- 
 eral officers of the army, his ministers and council of state, 
 and such of the deputies of the cortes as were favourable to 
 his views. He addressed the junta, and declared, that the 
 majority of the cortes were hostile to the present system, and 
 wished to establish a democracy, under the name of a monar^ 
 chy ; that the country was in imminent danger, and would be 
 ruined unless the number of the deputies was reduced ; that 
 the congress had failed to give a constitution to the empire, 
 but had adopted that of Spain, which was not suited to its con- 
 dition, and had made no provision for the administration of 
 justice, or for the exigencies of the treasury. These charges 
 against the cortes, were correct in point of fact, but the empe- 
 ror himself had been the cause why the congress had not ef- 
 fected any of these objects, by his arbitrary conduct, and his 
 persecutions and encroachments on the authority and privi- 
 leges of the legislative body. It was finally determined at this 
 meeting, to require of congress, the reduction of their number, 
 and that they grant to the emperor the appointment of the 
 judges, and an unqualified veto on all laws. These proposals 
 were submitted to the cortes by the ministers and four coun- 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 183 
 
 sellers of state, who were allowed to discuss them. The cor- 
 tes wishing to put at rest these disputed questions, and many 
 believing that they were the sole causes of the persecutions 
 the congress had suffered ; and being sensible of the alarming 
 circumstances of the country, as the government did not even 
 pay the printers, which prevented their decrees from being 
 published, they finally resolved to grant to the emperor the 
 appointment of the judges, and a veto on all laws except the 
 articles of the constitution. It was hoped that this would sat- 
 isfy his majesty, andr estore harmony between the two branch- 
 es of the government, and enable the congress to attend to 
 the important regulations which the state of the country, and 
 the exigences of the treasury so imperiously demanded. How 
 insatiable is the lust of power ! When the ocean is satisfied 
 with its tributary waters, then will the ambition of man be sat- 
 isfied with the possession of power. The concessions made to 
 the emperor, instead of contenting him, seemed to increase his 
 avidity for power, and he immediately demanded that his veto 
 should be extended to the articles of the constitution, and that 
 the number of the cortes should be diminished. The cortes 
 perceived the fallaciousness of their hopes, as to satisfying the 
 emperor, and that the more they yielded to him, the more he 
 would demand. They determined to make no farther con- 
 cessions, and by a decided majority, rejected the imperial de- 
 mands, although not insensible that matters had reached a cri- 
 sis. The next day the emperor sent a general officer to the 
 hall, with orders to dissolve the congress, and to expel the 
 members by force, if they did not retire in ten minutes. The 
 deputies were in some measure prepared for t,his violent pro- 
 ceeding, and the president having directed this order entered 
 on the journals of the chamber, the officer signed the same, 
 and the members retired from the hall. Iturbide issued a 
 proclamation the next day, declaring the dissolution of the 
 congress, alleging as a reason, that it had totally neglected 
 its duty, in failing to present the nation a constitution, to pro- 
 vide for the administration of justice, and to supply the exigen- 
 ces of the treasury, in consequence whereof the army remain- 
 ed unpaid, and alarming disorders prevailed. The proclama- 
 tion concluded with several decrees : / 
 
 " 1st. The congress is dissolved from the moment this de- 
 cree is promulgated. 
 
 " 2d. The national representation shall b continued until 
 a new congress can be assembled, in a junta, composed of two 
 members from each of the larger provinces, and one from the 
 smaller all of whom I will nominate. 
 
 " 3d. The business to which this junta shall attend, is to 
 be determined by separate regulations. 
 
184 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 " The members of congress, not of this junta, must in or- 
 der to leave the capital, signify their intentions to the political 
 chief. Those who remain, and are not inhabitants of this city, 
 may apply to the treasury for their daily pay. 
 
 " The junta shall meet and commence their duties on the 
 second day of November." 
 
 The emperor selected forty-five members of the congress, 
 and eight substitutes for the junta, who assembled in the con- 
 gressional hall on the day named, at five o'clock in the after- 
 noon, and a little after dark the emperor appeared, and taking 
 his seat on the imperial throne, addressed them, in the follow- 
 ing language : 
 
 " Gentlemen : When the nation, borne down by the 
 chains, which it had dragged for the space o( three centuries, 
 could not explain its wish to recover its natural independence, 
 I, with a small number of troops, resolved to declare it, in the 
 face of frightful perils ; and from that time, my voice, in con- 
 sequence of that act, became necessarily and essentially the 
 organ of the general will of the inhabitants of this empire. 
 It became my duty to consider well, and to seize the true 
 points of what is politically called the general will, and this 
 important consideration, constituted one of the many essen- 
 tial prerequisites lor the sue cess of the undertaking. In this 
 manner I /settled the basis, on which the majesty of the govern- 
 ment of a nation so great, and of such extensive territory, 
 ought to rest. I declared the right that it had acquired to 
 adopt the constitution best suited to it. I adverted particu- 
 larly to the necessity of convoking a national representation, 
 not by the demagogical and anarchical method, prescribed by 
 the Spanish constitution, but by just rules, and such as are 
 suited to our circumstances. This most delicate w r ork I might 
 have accomplished myself : but my fervent desire to act right, 
 made it appear to me more secure to entrust it to an assem- 
 bly of men the most distinguished for their talents, probity, 
 fortune and employments." After telling them, that the con- 
 duct of the former government had led the nation to the brink 
 of a precipice, he said, " That in order not to fall into it, it had 
 become necessary to step backwards, not by the devious path 
 that we had lately followed, but by that of the plan of Iguala ; 
 by which we reached the difficult and glorious goal of our in- 
 dependence. Let us return boldly, gentlemen, and follow this 
 sure road, watered with sweat and laurels : let us march on it 
 with a firm and tranquil step, and the happiness of the nation 
 will be secured. Let us bear this nation along to the glorious 
 epoch of its establishment, in a peaceful, solid, and stable man- 
 ner. Let us organize its representation in such a manner, that . 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 185 
 
 it shall yield no other than the pure, limpid, clear and general 
 sound of the public wishes, and let us profit by the experience 
 of the past for the future. The rock on which we have struck, 
 is, that the sovereign power, by a most impolitic error, has 
 been transferred from the mass of the people, to whom it ex- 
 clusively belongs, to a congress. An authority so powerful, 
 as not to be subjected to any law, nor to admit any rule but 
 such as it chooses to prescribe for itself, must act in an arbitra- 
 ry manner ; and such a state of things is characteristic of, and 
 peculiar to, a despotism, as it is incongruous and repugnant 
 to a limited government. Man is disposed to abuse power ; 
 for it is extremely difficult that he, who can do all that he 
 wishes, will not desire to do more than he ought ; and if, with 
 respect to one man or a few persons, it is imprudent to trust to 
 a presumption of virtuous and voluntary moderation, there is 
 nothing in a numerous body that ought to inspire greater con- 
 fidence.* It is true, that our congress followed the example 
 of the Spanish cortes ; but whoever copies from a deformed 
 model, will he not increase its imperfections 1 And what shall 
 we come to, if we follow in every thing, that pernicious exam- 
 ple ?" &c. 4'c. 
 
 The regulations governing the proceedings and specifying 
 the powers of the junta, were then read by the minister of 
 state. The junta was empowered to frame a constitution ; 
 but the ministers were to be admitted to discuss the project of 
 one, and even the ordinary laws. The junta was in fact only 
 the organ of the imperial will, and intended and calculated 
 rather to strengthen the absolute authority of the emperor, 
 than to form a barrier to it. The financial minister submitted 
 an exposure of the condition of the public revenue, to the 
 junta, from which it appeared that the annual receipts amount- 
 ed to only eight millions of dollars, whilst the expenditures 
 exceeded thirteen millions. The junta decreed a forced loan 
 of two and a half millions of dollars, and to supply the press- 
 ing exigencies of the treasury, they ordered the seizure of the 
 money detained at Perote, which had been sent by Spanish 
 merchants, to be embarked at Vera Cruz ; the emperor having 
 first hinted to the junta the situation of this money. t 
 
 Iturbide is not the only man whose ambition was greater 
 than his talents ; or who succeeded in usurping power which 
 he had not the ability to maintain. It is fortunate that it was 
 
 * This strange reasoning proves, if any thing, that the powers of 
 government cannot be safely vested anywhere, and that there can be 
 no other government but a despotism. 
 
 f Poinsett's note on Mexico. 
 16* 
 
186 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 so ; as it would have been a reproach to Mexico and to America, 
 that this crude usurpation, this contemptible tyrant should 
 have succeeded. It would have presented one of the most 
 melancholy events in history ; a revolution for liberty, result- 
 ing in a despotic tyranny. It would have blasted all the fruits 
 of the revolution, retarded the advancement of political and 
 social improvement in Mexico, and checked its national pros- 
 perity and importance, besides affording a dangerous example, 
 and a dangerous neighbour to the American republics. The 
 only legitimate object of a revolution is the establishment of 
 liberty and a government founded on the will of the people. 
 If this object is lost, all is lost. 
 
 Iturbide had no sooner reached the goal of his ambition, than 
 he began to perceive the instability of his power, and that the 
 imperial diadem did not set so lightly or securely on his head, 
 as he seems to have imagined that it would. In a few months 
 the disaffection of the people broke out into open revolt. The 
 republican standard was first raised in Soto la Marina, in the pro- 
 vince of New Santander, and as the disaffection was general in 
 the northern provinces, the people flocked to it, and the republi- 
 cans would have been formidable, had notCarza, their leader, 
 been totally destitute of courage or capacity, arid fled on the first 
 appearance of the imperial troops. This revolt occurred in Octo- 
 ber, 1 822, and was soon followed by an event ut Vera Cruz, which 
 led to important results. The royal garrison of the castle of San 
 Juan Uloa made an unsuccessful attempt to destroy the works 
 that had been erected in the suburbs of the city of Vera Cruz, 
 which occasioned the junta to interdict all intercourse with the 
 castle, and all commerce with Spain ; and likewise to prohibit 
 the exportation from Mexico, of all goods or money belonging 
 to European Spaniards. A correspondence was opened with 
 the royal governor of the castle, without any satisfactory re- 
 sult. The emperor finally concluded that a personal interview 
 would lead to an accommodation, and on the 10th of Novem- 
 ber he left his capital, arid proceeded to Xalapa, passing 
 through Puebla, where, from the influence of she bishop, who 
 had a principal agency in the elevation of Iturbide, he was 
 received with demonstrations of respect. At Xalapa, he 
 learnt that the royal governor would, on no considerations, 
 leave the castle, in consequence of which, commissioners 
 were appointed by both parties, to meet at Vera Cruz. After 
 considerable discussion, they could not agree on terms of ac- 
 commodation, and separated without doing any tiling. San- 
 tana was governor of the city of Vera Cruz, an active officer, 
 who had stormed and taken the place from the royalists. A 
 dispute arose between him and Echavarri, who commanded 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 187 
 
 the southern division of the army, and the latter officer pre- 
 ferred a complaint to the emperor, who immediately summoned 
 Santana to appear before him. Knowing how much the em- 
 peror was indebted to him for his elevation, and confident of 
 his protection, he did not hesitate to obey the order ; but in- 
 stead of being treated in the kind and friendly manner he ex- 
 pected, the emperor censured his conduct with severity, and dis- 
 missed him from his command as governor of Vera Cruz. His, as- 
 tonishment at this unexpected treatment, could only have been 
 equalled by his indignation, and suddenly leaving Xalapa, he re- 
 turned to Vera Cruz with the greatest expedition, riding day and 
 night, arid arrived before the news of his dismissal from his com- 
 mand. As not a moment was to be lost, he instantly ordered 
 out his own regiment, and laid before them his determination 
 no longer to support the despotic arid odious government of 
 Ttnrbide, who, by iorcibly dissolving the congress, and his ar- 
 bitrary and tyrannical conduct, had justly forfeited the confi- 
 dence of the people and the army ; and concluded by exhort- 
 ing them to use their arms in defence of the liberties of their 
 country, arid to add to the glory they had acquired in over- 
 throwing the despotism of Spain, by prostrating the tyrant 
 Iturbide. These sentiments were received with acclamation, 
 as they were in accordance with the opinions of all the of- 
 ficers of the garrison, who had suppressed them from a persua- 
 sion that their commander was strongly attached, personally, 
 to the emperor. The republican standard was immediately 
 unfurled, and Santana addressed a letter to the emperor, re- 
 minding him how much he was indebted to him for his eleva- 
 tion, and of the regard he had always entertained for him ; but 
 declaring that his arbitrary and tyrannical conduct had render- 
 ed him unworthy of the station he held, and justly forfeited 
 the confidence of the nation, which he had reduced to the 
 greatest disorder and misery ; and that he felt it his duty to 
 lay aside all personal considerations, when the liberties of his 
 country were at stake. He reproached Iturbide with having 
 violated his oath, in dissolving the cortes by force, and estab- 
 lishing despotism in his own person ; declared his intention of 
 re-establishing the republic, and concluded by advising the 
 emperor to resign the crown, and throw himself on the gene- 
 rosity of congress. 
 
 No advice is less likely to be relished, than that which re- 
 commends to sovereigns the relinquishment of their power, or 
 any particle of it ; and the emperor instead of complying with 
 the advice of Santana, immediately ordered Echavarri with 
 his division, to march against him. Santana proceeded to 
 Puente del Key, and fortified the place. The imperialists 
 
188 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 pursued the republicans, and several actions were fought be- 
 tween them, but none of a decisive nature. The people did 
 not rally round the republican standard, not having confidence 
 in Santana, as he had formerly been instrumental in promoting 
 the ambitious projects of Iturbide. Fortunately for Mexico, 
 several of the most distinguished of the republican generals 
 had escaped all the perils to which they had been exposed, 
 and at this conjuncture, carne forward to aid the cause of lib- 
 erty. The most distinguished, and the first who joined the 
 republican standard, was Guadalupe Victoria, who had been 
 secreted in the mountains from the period when by opposing 
 the ambition of Iturbide, he had rendered himself obnoxious 
 to the tyrant. He was at first appointed second in command, 
 but Santana perceived that to inspire the people with perfect 
 confidence, it was necessary to raise him to the chief com- 
 mand. The confidence and respect which the public felt in 
 a man, who from the commencement of the revolution, under 
 all vicissitudes of fortune, and the various changes which it 
 had assumed, had been distinguished, not more for his brave- 
 ry than his patriotic devotion to the cause of liberty, and his 
 uniform republicanism, was immediately perceptible on his 
 elevation to the chief command of the republican forces. The 
 people flocked to his standard from all quarters, and the spirit of 
 revolt spread with rapidity through the different provinces. 
 Ecliavarri, although a personal enemy to Santana, joined the 
 republican cause, and an arrangement was entered into be- 
 tween him and Victoria. The united armies sent commission- 
 ers to Iturbide, to offer him terms of accommodation ; the 
 basis of which, was the immediate assembling of a congress 
 to form a republican constitution. Iturbide was not disposed 
 to treat, but sent commissioners to Echavarri and his officers, 
 to attempt to dissuade them from their purpose, but without 
 success. The emperor marched with the small force he had, 
 to Istapaluca, a small town twelve miles from the capital, 
 where he took an advantageous position. The power of Itur- 
 bide crumbled to dust in less time than it had been acquired. 
 The example of the army under Echavarri, was followed in 
 the provinces, and the defection soon became general. The 
 provinces of Oaxaca, Guadalaxara, Guanaxuato, and San Luis 
 Potosi, declared against the imperial government, and impris- 
 oned the emperor's commanders ; and Queretaro, Valladolid, 
 and the capitals of the other provinces, also seized and im- 
 prisoned the imperial officers. The distinguished republican 
 generals, Guerrero and Bravo, who had remained in the capi- 
 tal, under the jealous and vigilant eye of the government, es~ 
 
REVOLUTION 4N MEXICO, 189 
 
 caped, and returning to the west, rallied the people, and ap- 
 peared in arms against the usurper. 
 
 Under these portentous circumstances, Tturbide made pro- 
 posals of accommodation, and was answered by a demand for 
 the immediate assembling of a national cortes, and money suf- 
 ficient to pay the troops. If the emperor had been disposed, 
 he could not have complied with the last requisition, except 
 in paper money, of which he had issued four millions on the 
 1st of January 1823, and by a decree, made it a tender for 
 one third part of the amount of any debt, and it was received 
 for duties and taxes in the same proportion, by the govern- 
 ment. This currency immediately and rapidly depreciated, 
 as was to have been expected, and contributed greatly to in- 
 crease the discontents of the people. The province of Pue- 
 bla declared for the republicans, and a strong force was organ- 
 ized in the capital of the province, by the Marquis de Vivan- 
 co, who assumed the government of the city. The republi- 
 can army advanced to Puebla, and here were joined by Ne- 
 grete and several other distinguished officers, who deserted 
 the sinking fortunes of the emperor. The republicans push- 
 ed forward their advanced guard, to San Martin de Tesraelu- 
 cos. *J 
 
 The emperor perceiving that his short lived reign was draw- 
 ing to a close, hastened to Mexico, and on the 8th of March, 
 1823, attempted to assemble those members of the old con- 
 gress who were in the capital, to tender to them his resigna- 
 tion ; but few only could be induced to attend, and there not 
 being a quorum, they declined to act. The imperial diadem 
 which once graced the brow of Iturbide, had now become a 
 crown of thorns that pierced his soul. A monarch is depri- 
 ved of the solace and support of friendship, as those who 
 claim to be his friends, are not friends to his person but his 
 power, and leave him when that departs. As the overthrow 
 of Iturbide's power became more apparent, his partizans de- 
 serted him one after another, until he found himself entirely 
 abandoned. Thus the man who had succeeded in acquiring 
 supreme and despotic power, whose will was law, and impli- 
 citly obeyed, in little more than one year, was not only fallen 
 so low, as that " there was none so poor as to do him rever- 
 ence," but was trembling even for his life. On the 19th of 
 March, 1823, he communicated to the congress his resignation^ ^ 
 and remarked "That he accepted the crown with the great- 
 est reluctance, and only to serve his country ; but from the 
 moment he perceived that his retaining possession of it might 
 serve, if not as a cause, at least as a pretext for civil war, he 
 determined to give it up ; that he did not abdicate before, 
 
190 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 because there was no national representation, generally recog- 
 nized as such, to receive it. That as his presence in the 
 country might serve as a pretext for dissentions, he will retire 
 to some foreign land, and asks only a fortnight to prepare for 
 his departure ; and finally solicits congress to pay his debts." 
 
 Immediately on forwarding this letter, he retired to Tulan- 
 cingo. This letter was referred to a committee, who reported 
 against accepting the renunciation of the crown by Iturbide, 
 as that might be construed to imply a right or lawfulness to 
 the power renounced ; but they recommended, not only to 
 grant his request of departing from the country, but to allow 
 him a pension for the maintenance of his family and suite, of 
 twenty-five thousand dollars a year. This was certainly a sin- 
 gular document. There seems a strange inconsistency in be- 
 ing so scrupulous about accepting the abdication of Iturbide, 
 from an apprehension that it might imply a concession of his 
 right to the crown, and at the same time to permit him to retire 
 on a princely pension. If, as was undoubtedly the case, he had 
 no better right to sovereign power that that of usurpation ; he 
 had justly forfeited his life, as guilty of the greatest of all trea- 
 sons, that of overturning by military force a free government, 
 and establishing a despotism. For what greater felony can be 
 committed, than to rob an entire people of their liberties ? It 
 is to be presumed, however, that the liberal conduct towards 
 Iturbide proceeded from considerations of policy, he having 
 many partizans in the country, and perhaps in part from a regard 
 to his services in breaking down the royal government : but 
 whatever may be thought of the propriety of granting him the. 
 pension, the policy was undoubtedly correct. His subsequent 
 conduct, however, shows how misapplied was the munificence 
 of the government. 
 
 The report of the committee was accepted, and the ex-em- 
 peror was escorted by General Bravo to Antigua, near Vera 
 Cruz, where, on the 1 1th of May, 1 823, he embarked on board 
 of an English vessel for'Leghorn, with his family and suite, con- 
 sisting of twenty-five persons. 
 
 The republican troops entered the capital on the 27th of 
 May, and the old congress was soon after assembled. It im- 
 mediately established a provisional government, and appointed 
 a triplicate executive, consisting of Generals Victoria, Bravo 
 and Negrete ; the two first are natives, distinguished for their 
 patriotism, talents and services, and the last is an European, 
 justly esteemed for his integrity and talents. Steps were im- 
 mediately taken for the convocation of a new congress, and the 
 people in the election were careful to exclude the royalists, 
 the partizans of Iturbide, and the advocates for the plan of 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 191 
 
 Iguala. The new congress assembled and entered on the sub- 
 ject of framing a constitution of government. This was now 
 a subject that engrossed public attention, and the only source 
 of division or dissention, as neither the royalists or the adher- 
 ents of Iturbide were sufficiently formidable to occasion distur- 
 bances among the people, or anxiety to the government. The 
 people were divided into two parties relative to the constitution, 
 one being in favour of a confederative government, like that of 
 {he United States, and the other preferring a central or conso- 
 lidated republic like that of Colombia. 
 
 Sometime in March 1823, before the republican army en- 
 tered the capital, General Santana, with six hundred troops, 
 sailed from Vera Cruz, and landing at Tampico, advanced ra- 
 pidly into the interior, as far as San Luis Potosi, where he es- 
 tablished his head-quarters, and immediately declared himself 
 protector of the federal republic. But as it was suspected that 
 his object was to place himself at the head of one of the two 
 parties, for the advancement of his own views, he was not sup- 
 ported even by the advocates of the federal plan. The gov- 
 ernment having sent a force against him, he was obliged to 
 submit, and was brought to the capital and confined. 
 
 After the overthrow of the royal government by Tturbide, 
 and the treaty with O'Donoju, on the basis of the plan of Igua- 
 la, Spain, although obstinately refusing to acknowledge the 
 independence of Mexico, made no effort to regain her author- 
 ity over it, and it had been since that period, in point of fact, 
 entirely independent of Spain, who had not been a party to 
 any of the dissentions and wars which had existed. During 
 the administration of Iturbide, commissioners were sent to 
 Mexico from Spain, but were not permitted to enter the coun- 
 try, and they had remained in the castle of San Juan de Uloa, 
 which was in the possession of the royalists. After the fall of 
 Iturbide, the Spanish commissioners were allowed to enter the 
 Mexican territories, and the new government appointed Gen- 
 eral Victoria to treat with them, and designated Xalapa as the 
 place for the meeting of the parties. Soon after the negotia- 
 tions were commenced, they were broken off in consequence 
 of the castle of San Juan Uloa, firing on the city of Vera 
 Cruz. This was occasioned by the republican government 
 attempting to fortify the island of Sacrificios, on the opposite 
 point of land, to form a new port of entry, for the purpose of 
 avoiding the exactions which all vessels entering the harbor 
 were subjected to, by the governor of the castle. If this plan 
 had been carried into execution, it would have deprived the 
 garrison of all means of maintaining themselves ; and the gov- 
 ernor was compelled to make use of force to prevent the erec- 
 
192 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 tion of the works, and the plan was obliged to be relinquished. 
 The government immediately published a decree, interdicting 
 all commercial intercourse with Spain. 
 
 After the departure of the cidevant emperor, his partizans 
 attempted to excite civil commotions, but they were too few 
 in numbers, and too well known and watched, to occasion 
 any alarm to the government or to endanger the public tran- 
 quillity. The only remaining source of public dissention, was 
 the difference of opinion as to the form of government about 
 to be established. Congress were divided as well as the peo- 
 ple, on the subject, and in some of the provinces, the inhabi- 
 tants were thrown into great alarm and agitation, from an ap- 
 prehension that Congress, intended to establish a central gov- 
 ernment ; in several districts the excitement was so great as 
 to occasion civil commotions, and open revolt. Whether 
 the convention intended to have established a central system, 
 in preference to a federative one or not, these strong indica- 
 tions of public opinion, no doubt had great influence in induc- 
 ing it to adopt the latter. It was perceived that unanimity in 
 the congress could alone quiet the existing dissentions, and 
 ensure respect to the government which might be establish- 
 ed. Accordingly, a constitution on the federative plan, was 
 prepared and adopted by the congress with great unanimity ; 
 and on the second of February, 1824, was sworn to in the cap- 
 ital, amidst the rejoicings and acclamations of the people. The 
 system is similar to that of the United States, and consists of 
 a general or national government, and local or state govern- 
 ments in the provinces. After the adoption of the system, the 
 congress and people proceeded with order and harmony, to 
 organize both the national and state governments, and to set 
 all the political machinery in operation. 
 
 In the month of January, previous to the adoption of the 
 constitution, a disturbance occurred in the provine of Puebla, 
 in consequence of General Echavarri, who commanded there, 
 refusing to obey the orders of the executive. The reason of 
 such strange conduct, or what were his designs, did not satis- 
 factorily appear. This officer is an European by birth, but 
 had contributed essentially to the establishment of the repub- 
 lic, by joining Victoria and Santana, which became the signal 
 for a general revolt against Uurbide. General Guerrero, at 
 the head of a few troops marched to quell the insurrection, 
 and Echavarri being deserted by his troops, was seized and 
 sent a prisoner to the capital, which terminated the insurrec- 
 tion without bloodshed. The public mind however, was not 
 settled, and this disturbance was soon followed by an insur- 
 rection, headed by one Hernandez, at Cuernavaca, which 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 193 
 
 General Guerrero was sent to suppress, and effected it with- 
 out difficulty. But not far from the same time, a more exten- 
 sive and alarming disaffection appeared in the capital, that 
 threatened more serious consequences. A formidable oppo- 
 sition, or faction, had been organized, including the garrison 
 and its commander, the object of which was to compel con- 
 gress to dismiss all the Europeans from office. The exclusive 
 employment of European Spaniards, to the entire exclusion of 
 the natives, or Creoles, had always been regarded, not only as 
 a great grievance in itself, but as the fertile source of the op- 
 pressions of the colonial system. The new government had 
 neglected to remove this source of political evil, but suffered 
 the Europeans still to hold most of the offices, in consequence, 
 as is supposed, of attaching a mistaken importance to their 
 being familiar with the routine of public duties, and from their 
 connexion by marriage with the wealthy and influential Creole 
 families. This conduct of the government was regarded by 
 many as equally impolitic and unjust, and the garrison, with 
 Lobato at their head, demanded of Congress the immediate 
 removal of all European Spaniards from office. Congress 
 with great firmness resolved to maintain its authority ; and 
 with the assistance of the numerous friends of the govern- 
 ment, made great exertions to induce the garrison to return to 
 their duty, and to collect and imbody a force sufficient to intim- 
 idate, and, if necessary, to put down the insurgents. Instead 
 of complying with the demand, congress ordered Lobato to 
 appear befoffe them, and after two days' negotiation, he deliv- 
 cred himself up to the government, and in consideration there- 
 of was pardoned. Lieutenant-colonel Staboli, an Italian by 
 birth, and some other officers obstinately refused to submit ; 
 but were finally abandoned by their adherents, who delivered 
 them up to the government, and Staboli was sentenced to be 
 shot, by a court martial.* 
 
 There is but one evidence, that a king is more than mortal, 
 and this fact is fully proved by history, that when an indi- 
 vidual has once become a king, he can no longer live as a man. 
 It is, with him, aut Gesar, aut nihil he must be a king, or no- 
 thing ; he cannot exist as a man. This truth was not more 
 strongly illustrated by the great Napoleon, than by the humble 
 Iturbide, The former's example, and all the lessons of his- 
 tory,, were lost on the cidevant emperor of Mexico, and the 
 generosity of the government towards him, instead of produc- 
 ing a deep sense of gratitude, and preparing his mind to be 
 content to follow the paths of wisdom, which are pleasantness 
 
 * Poiosett's notes on Mexico. 
 Vofc. I. 17 
 
194 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 and peace, probably contributed to lead him into the mad 
 course of ambition, which proved his ruin. Imperial power 
 appears never to have been absent from his mind, after his 
 banishment from Mexico. Whether he had any correspond- 
 ence with his partisans in the Mexican Republic, or not, it is 
 certain that he soon meditated returning to Mexico. He was 
 the more in haste to return, as he asserts, from an apprehen- 
 sion that the ministers of the powers of the holy alliance, at 
 the Court of Tuscany, would attempt to frustrate his inten- 
 tions. He arrived in England in February, 1824, when he ad- 
 dressed a letter to the Mexican Congress, in which he commu- 
 nicates his intention of returning to America, although in di- 
 rect violation of the decree of the 8th of April, 1822 ; and 
 gives, as a reason, the hostile designs of the powers of Eu- 
 rope against the new world, which would soon be developed ; 
 and his wish to be in a situation where he might fly to the aid 
 of his countrymen, if they should desire his services. He sub- 
 mits to the congress, whether his services, in a military capa- 
 city only, may not be of some utility, in uniting the public 
 voice, and contributing with his sword to secure the independ- 
 ence and liberty of his country. He assures the congress of 
 his ability to bring arms, ammunition, clothing, and money ; 
 declares that his only object is to aid in securing the liberty of 
 Mexico, and that when that is established, he shall cheerfully 
 retire to private life.t Being apprised of his intentions, con- 
 gress, instead of abrogating the law by which he was exiled, 
 or inviting him to return, to assist in a military capacity in se- 
 curing the liberties of his country, immediately passed a de- 
 cree, declaring Iturbide a traitor and outlaw, the first moment 
 he should enter any part of the territory of the republic, un- 
 der any title or pretence whatsoever ; also declaring all per- 
 sons traitors, who should, by any means whatever, aid or en- 
 courage Itur hide's return to the republic, or any other foreign 
 invader, and that they should be judged conformably to the 
 law of the 27th of September, 1823. This decree bore date 
 the 28th of April, 1824 ; and the executive was charged with 
 its execution, and with causing it to be published and circu- 
 lated through the confederacy. These effective measures did 
 not prevent a conspiracy being formed in the capital, for the 
 purpose of overturning the present government, and the re- 
 storation of Iturbide, which was afterwards discovered. 
 
 The constitutional congress passed a decree on the 28th of 
 June, 1824, for the establishment of public faith and national 
 credit, which recognizes the debts contracted under the gov- 
 
 f See his letter. 
 
DEVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 1 95 
 
 eminent of the viceroys, to the 17th of September, 1810, when 
 the colonial government was considered as abrogated by the 
 will of the nation ; and all debts contracted with the Mexi- 
 can people by the viceroys, where the loans were made by 
 compulsion or involuntarily, from the 17th September, 1810, 
 to the entrance of the Mexican army into the capital in the 
 year 1821. The decree also recognizes all debts contracted 
 for the service of the nation by the independent chiefs, from 
 the declaration of independence, to the entrance of the aymy 
 into the capital, and those of the army of Iguala, or liberating 
 army, until its occupation of the capital ; and also all debts 
 contracted by the established governors, from the first epoch 
 of independence. This decree is founded on the principle, 
 as it respects the authority of Spain, that the Mexican nation 
 was not lawfully subjected to that authority, after the declara- 
 tion of its wishes for independence, and therefore it does not 
 acknowledge the loans which were voluntarily made to the 
 viceroys after that period, as such an act was affording volun- 
 tary aid to an unlawful government, attempting to enslave the 
 nation, and in one sense, was an act of hostility against the 
 rightful government. It seems to be somewhat doubtful, 
 whether the debts contracted by Iturbide after his dissolution 
 of the congress, are included in this decree ; the debts of the 
 liberating army are recognized down to the time of its enter- 
 ing the capital only ; so that there is no clause in the decree, 
 which would include the debts created by Iturbide, unless it 
 is that recognizing those of the " established governors." We 
 should think that this was intended to include the contracts of 
 Iturbide, during his rash and foolish usurpation, as he was an 
 established governor de facto. On the 13th of July, the con- 
 gress passed a decree prohibiting the importation of slaves, 
 under the penalty of confiscation of the vessel and its cargo, 
 if any, and the captain, owner, and purchaser of the slaves, to 
 suffer ten years' imprisonment. Slaves were declared free the 
 moment they land on the Mexican soil. 
 
 The conspiracy in the Mexican capital was discovered, and 
 twenty persons implicated, were arrested, among whom were 
 several general officers, a number of colonels, and some citi- 
 zens of distinction. The papers of the conspirators were 
 headed, " God, independence, and the hero of Iguala ;" it is 
 said, that a woman acted as secretary. The criminals were 
 brought to trial before a council of war, and two of them sen- 
 tenced to death, and the rest to perpetual banishment. After 
 this premature explosion of the conspiracy, the infatuated 
 Iturbide landed at Soto la Marina in disguise, on the 1 4th of 
 July, 1824. He came in an English brig with .Charles de 
 
196 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 Beneskie, a foreigner, who pretended that his object was to 
 treat with the Mexican government concerning a plan of co- 
 lonization, and that he had powers for that purpose, from three 
 Irish capitalists of London. Beneskie presented himself to 
 general Garza, military commandant, who inquired concerning 
 Iturbide, arid was informed by Beneskie, that he left him at 
 London, residing quietly with his family. Iturbide being dis- 
 guised, passed himself as the companion of Beneskie, who 
 was permitted to go into the country, and thus attempted to 
 advance into the interior. On the 1 6th, general Garza was 
 informed by an officer who commanded a detachment of troops, 
 that he had seen Beneskie, with another person in disguise, 
 proceeding into the interior, which excited his suspicion. Gen- 
 eral Garza immediately went in pursuit with some troops, and 
 overtook them at Arrogas, and immediately recognized, in the 
 disguised person, Don Augustin Iturbide, arrested him and 
 conveyed him under a strong guard to Soto la Marina. Gen- 
 eral Garza communicated the arrest of Iturbide t j the pro- 
 vincial congress of the state of Tamanlipas, then in session, 
 which resolved that the decree of the general congress of the 
 28th of April, 1824, be carried into immediate effect, -'and or- 
 dered the minister of state to cause Iturbide to be immediately 
 executed. Accordingly, he was shot in the town of Padilla, 
 on the 19th of July, 1824. Thus terminated the career of 
 Don Augustin Iturbide, the first, and it is hoped it may long 
 be said the last usurper of sovereign power in America. The 
 wife and two children of Iturbide accompanied him, the rest of 
 his family and suite were left in London. This event relieved 
 the republic from one source of apprehension, and one cause 
 of the vacillation of public opinion ; by annihilating forever 
 the hopes and designs of the partizans of a military usurper. 
 It- tended to concentrate public opinion in favour of the polit- 
 ical system which had been adopted, and to give stability and 
 energy to the government. 
 
 Since this period, the public tranquillity has not been dis- 
 turbed in Mexico by civil commotions ; the government ha^ 
 been administered with success, and has enjoyed the increas- 
 ing confidence of all classes of the population. 
 
 . The only foreign relations which the Mexican federation 
 has established, is with the United States, and the independent 
 governments of South America. 
 
 The Spaniards still retained possession of the strong fortress 
 of St. Juan Uloa, which, commanding the entrance into the 
 port of Vera Cruz, greatly deranged the Mexican commerce, 
 by exactions from all vessels entering the harbour. This was 
 the more vexatious, because of there being no seaport to which 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 197 
 
 the trade of Vera Cruz could be transferred. The annoyance 
 \vhich the castle occasioned to the commerce of the country, 
 united with the desire to reduce the last strong hold of Span-* 
 ish power in Mexico, rendered the government and the nation 
 anxious to accellerate an event which it was evident could not 
 be long delayed. The superiority of the Mexican navy to 
 that of the Spanish, prevented the governor general, Cappin- 
 ger, from receiving any re-enforcements, or even supplies, from 
 abroad, whilst the garrison continually wasted away by disease 
 and hardships, till they at last became reduced to a handful of 
 men. Still the governor obstinately refused to capitulate. At 
 length, however, the time arrived when he could hold out no 
 longer, and accordingly, on the 18th of November, 1821, the 
 castle surrendered, to the great joy, both of Vera Cruz and all 
 Mexico. The garrison (except the sick, who were conveyed 
 to Vera Cruz,) were, with the governor, sent to Havana. 
 
 Thus the Spanish flag, which, since the clays of Cortes, had 
 been a memorial of the slavery and debasement of the country 
 of Montezuma, ceased to wjave in any part of its territories it 
 was struck, never, it is hoped, to be raised again in Mexico. 
 
 Mexico, as well as the other independent states, at one pe- 
 riod felt some apprehension that the allied powers in Europe, 
 which interfered in the internal concerns of Spain, would ex- 
 tend their kind offices to her possessions on this side the At- 
 lantic ; but the disposition manifested by Great-Britain has re- 
 moved such apprehensions, as her ministers have declared, that 
 England would not agree to any cession Spain might make of 
 the states which were de facto released from her dominion. 
 
 Mexico has probably received less aid from foreigners, than 
 most of the other new republics ; some enterprises have been 
 undertaken from the United States against the Texas country, 
 but these have had no influence on the great contest ; and 
 some individuals from the United States and the British isles 
 have engaged in the Mexican service ; but she has had no for- 
 eign succour of any importance ; the Mexican patriots have 
 maintained the long and sanguinary struggle alone, without al- 
 lies and without assistance ; and by their own valour and per- 
 severance, have overcome both foreign and domestic, tyranny. 
 
 The patriots of Mexico, as well as those of the other parts 
 of America, formerly Spanish, made an early attempt to secure 
 the countenance, if not assistance, of the United States. In 
 1811, Don B. Gutierrez was sent by the patriots of Mexico as 
 their agent or commissioner to Washington, where he contin- 
 ued until nearly the close of the following year, at which time 
 he joinedToledo in an expedition against the eastern internal 
 provinces, In 1816 the Mexican congress sent Doctor Her- 
 
198 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 rera to the United States. But these missions were produc- 
 tive of no other advantage than the promotion in the breasts of 
 our citizens, feelings of friendship and sympathy for a people 
 who were struggling and suffering for the same rights, the at- 
 tainment of which a few years since had cost the United States 
 so much blood and treasure. But for our government to have 
 assisted the Spanish colonies would have been violating the 
 fundamental principles of the consjitution and the genius of 
 our foreign policy. Hence it is that congress, in 1817, passed 
 an act for the more effectually preserving the neutrality of the 
 United States, which authorized the president to prevent the 
 sale of vessels of war by the citizens of the United Slates to 
 the subjects of any foreign power, and prohibiting the expor- 
 tation of arms or ammunition, except bonds were given as a se- 
 curity against their being conveyed to either of the belligerant 
 parries. In consequence of this, an expedition which was pre- 
 paring at New-Orleans in i815, arid destined against the north- 
 eastern provinces of Mexico, was prevented from marching, by 
 u proclamation of the president. 
 
 ,Near the close of the year the president appointed commis- 
 sioners to visit some of the South American states, which 
 claimed to be independent ; and in 1822, congress formally 
 acknowledged the independence ,of Mexico and the other re- 
 publics of the south. Mr. Poinsett was afterwards commis- 
 sioned as resident minister from the United States, and has; 
 remained in Mexico in that capacity ever since. 
 
 Great-Britain has acknowledged the independence of Mex- 
 ico, not only by the recognition of her flag and the pursuits of 
 commerce, but by, the establishment of political regulations. 
 The British government has recently sent a charge d'affairs 
 to the Mexican government, and has for some time had con- 
 suls and commercial agents in the country ; her commerce 
 with Mexico being very important and constantly increasing. 
 By the last intelligence from Europe, it is stated that France 
 had secretly acknowledged the independence of the Mexican 
 and South American republics ; but whether this be correct 
 or not, France, Holland, Portugal, and most of the other com- 
 mercial powers of Europe, admit the Mexican flag into their 
 ports, maintain commercial relations with the republic, and 
 have consuls and commercial agents residing there. 
 
 The Mexican patriots received little or no assistance from 
 abroad, except in funds, and not that until the contest was de- 
 cided. The war had destroyed the machinery and stopped the 
 operations of the mines, destroyed the government magazines 
 of tobacco, and essentially impaired every branch of revenue, 
 whilst at the same lime it bad augmented h , ratio tho 
 
REVOLUTION 1 IN MEXICO* 199 
 
 expenses of the government Whilst the colonial authority 
 existed, the patriots secured the public property for their 
 own use, and destroyed what they could not thus appropriate ; 
 both parties had recourse to forced loans. These causes, 
 together with the devastation of a civil war, and the suspension 
 of industry, had so impoverished the country that the revenue 
 vv 7 as almost entirely annihilated, and the government which 
 .succeeded the overthrow of Itui'bide was placed under the 
 most distressing embarrassments. Until the resources of the 
 country could be called into action, the only relief was from 
 loans. To supply the immediate wants, a million and a half 
 of dollars were borrowed of the house of Robert Staples &, Co., 
 London, who had a partner in Mexico ; and afterwards a loan 
 of twenty millions of dollars was obtained of Barclay, Herring, 
 Richardson & Co. of the same place. In 1824, Mexico made 
 an additional loan ; the whole of their loans in England amount- 
 ing to thirty millions, besides their domestic debt. But the re- 
 sources of the country are great, and are rapidly developing 
 themselves. The government have made great efforts to re- 
 trieve the condition of the treasury, by introducing a rigid sys- 
 tem of economy, and creating an entire new system of finance. 
 And such is the activity given to commercial enterprise, by 
 just and equitable laws, that the duties on imports and tonage 
 are even at this time very considerable, and will eventually, 
 independent of the mining and agricultural interests, become a 
 source of abundant revenue to Mexico. 
 
 The plan of Bolivar* for forming a general confederacy has 
 bee.n zealously seconded by Mexico. This plan was commu- 
 nicated by the liberator, (so is Bolivar styled by his country- 
 men) as president of Colombia, to the other republics, early 
 HI 1823, and on the 6th of June, of that year, a treaty was con- 
 cluded between Peru and Colombia for carrying it into effect. 
 Don Miguel Santa Maria, minister from Colombia, proposed 
 this union to the Mexican government during the usurpation 
 of Iturbide, but without success ; but after the establishment 
 of the republican government the negotiations were renewed, 
 and on the 3d of October, 1823, a treaty was signed by the 
 ministers of the two republics, having for its object the pro- 
 motion of a confederacy or family compact, designed to unite 
 all the new states for the defence^ of their liberty and indepen- 
 dence. This body will also take cognizance of all cases of 
 difficulty or misunderstanding which may hereafter arise be- 
 
 The man, to whom, in a great measure, is owing the iodepend- 
 e of all South America. 
 \i\rn in the history of the rev 
 
 ence of all South America. A particular account Tvill be giren of 
 evolution iu Colombia. 
 
200 HISTORY OF TH 
 
 tween the governments of the different republics. Some of 
 the new republics not having agreed to the proposition, no- 
 thing further was done until the 7th of December, 1824, when 
 Bolivar, as the head of the" republic of Peru, addressed a cir- 
 cular to the several republics, inviting them to appoint pleni- 
 potentiaries to meet at Panama, and install the congress of the 
 confederacy. Victoria, president of Mexico, answered the 
 circular of the liberator on the 23d of February following. 
 Cordially approving the measure, he says, had it been suffer- 
 ed to rest much longer, he intended to have taken the lead 
 himself, and send a despatch to the president of Peru, propo- 
 sing the same course. 
 
 He says he shall appoint his plenipotentiaries, and send 
 them to PaRama, as soon as he is informed of the time of as- 
 sembling the congress ; and adds that through his, ministers at 
 Washington, he has invited the President of the United States 
 to send plenipotentiaries to the congress. The Mexican gov- 
 ernment appointed its representatives, who repaired to Pana- 
 ma near the close of the year 1825. Mexico continues tran- 
 quil, and every thing indicates the stability of the political sys- 
 tem, and prosperity of the Nation. The states appear to be 
 satisfied with the federal government, and are forming consti- 
 tutions, and organizing their authorities, conformably to the 
 constitution of the Union. The distant, and isolated state of 
 Yucatan, has sent deputies to the national Congress at Mexi- 
 ico, porclaimed a constitution, and organized a government, at 
 the head of which is Jose F. Lopez, who has been elected 
 governor. The constitution of the State of Mechoacan, was 
 also sworn to by the public authorities on the 20th of June, 
 1825. A special session of the national congress was con- 
 vened at Mexico, by' the President, on the 4th of August, 
 1825. President Yictora in his message, congratulates the 
 representatives upon their not having been convened, to provide 
 against foreign invasion, or to quell internal commotions, and 
 adds that the republic, prosperous and at peace, advances un- 
 obstructed in her political career ; that in its infancy it has 
 obtained the respect, and admiration of the world. " The 
 government" says he "is engaged in a system of defence ; 
 the republic is invincible ; its sons feeling the dignity, and an- 
 imated by the spirit of freemen, will bravely defend the 
 rights of their country." The president urges the establish- 
 ment of tribunals of justice, which appear not to have been 
 organised since the new system went into operation, and for 
 want of which, he says disorder and confusion will ensue. It 
 would not seem that "the executive was empowered to estab- 
 lish judicial tribunals, and he informs the congress that his 
 
REVOLUTION IN MEXICO. 201 
 
 profound regard for the separation and independence of the 
 different branches of government, has prevented his exer- 
 cising the authority, reposed on him by the nation. The mes- 
 sage also recommends further provisions for securing the lib- 
 erty of the press ; reform in the treasury, the more perfect 
 organization of the land and naval forces, the conclusion of 
 treaties with maritime nations, and for the protection and en- 
 couragement of the commerce of the republic. The presi- 
 dent speaks with pride of the good order of society, the mild- 
 ness of the laws, and the protection they afford, and of the 
 fame of Mexican opulence, having attracted a vast concourse 
 of foreigners into the country, and submits to congress the 
 propriety of encouraging their enterprise, by exclusive privi- 
 leges. 
 
 The nation is tranquillized, and faction has subsided ; it is 
 not only in the enjoyment of independence, but of peace and 
 security, which are the first fruits of republican institutions. 
 The power of Spain is annihilated, and the government, re- 
 spected and energetic, is advancing steadily in the great work 
 of regenerating the nation, With such distinguished patriots 
 and enlightened statesmen as Guadalupe Victoria and gener- 
 al Bravo, the president and vice-president, Alaman, secretary 
 of state, and others less known, but perhaps not less worthy, 
 at the head of affairs, we have every thing to hope. The mea- 
 sures of the government, hitherto, have been marked by wis- 
 dom, foresight, and political sagacity. The administration 
 combines vigour with a respect for the rights of the people 
 and of the states, and with a sacred regard for the constitu- 
 tion, [t has reduced the arrny, adopted measures for the or- 
 ganization of a national militia, and acquired a respectable ma- 
 rine, fully adequate to the defence of the country against 
 Spain. It has adopted a system of primary education, re-or- 
 ganized the old colleges, and established new ones ; corrected 
 some of the abuses of the ecclesiastical system, restored the 
 natives to the rights of men and citizens, and encouraged them 
 in habits of industry. Freemasonry, at the very time that it is 
 proscribed in Spain, is introduced into Mexico, under the pat- 
 ronage of the officers of the government. A lodge has been 
 installed in the capital by Mr. Poinsett, the minister of the Uni- 
 ted States ; and liberal principles seem rapidly gaining ground. 
 
 The Mexican republic has a larger territory than that of the 
 original United States, with a milder climate, and greater na- 
 tional resources ; it has nearly twice the population the North 
 American states had at the period of their separation from 
 Great-Britain, although its character is inferior ; it has made 
 our institutions the moddel of their own, and what reason is 
 
202 HISTORY OF THE REVOLUTION IN 
 
 there to doubt that their career will be as successful and glo- 
 rious as has been that of the republic of the north 1 If we had 
 brave generals, distinguished patriots and enlightened states- 
 men, so has she ; if we had a Washington, she has a Victoria, 
 who is scarcely less entitled to be regarded as the father of hi^ 
 country. If we have preserved onr freedom, guarding it 
 against all tendencies to despotism on the one hand, and pop- 
 ular anarchy on the other, have avoided civil commotions with- 
 in, and defended ourselves from foreign aggression and vio- 
 lence, who can say that Mexico will not be equally successful / 
 The republican institutions of the United States were in a great 
 measure an experiment ; but Mexico has the light of our ex- 
 ample to direct her course ; she has copied from a correct 
 model, and it now only remains for her to preserve the likeness 
 of the copy to the original, and her destiny will not be less glo* 
 rious than her illustrious prototype, the first American repub- 
 lic. The influence of liberty is the same every wher^e ; in the 
 torrid as in the temperate zone, on the table-lands of Mexico 
 as on the rugged hills of New-England. 
 
 The Mexican territory, like that of the United States, is, a 
 large portion of it, unsettled, and in a state of nature, and is 
 capacious enough to carve out states, which would double the 
 present number, as has already been done in the northern con- 
 federacy. The vast interior regions of the east, north, and 
 west, are very fertile, enjoying a fine climate, possessing great 
 facilities and advantages for settlements, and are capable of 
 sustaining an immensejpopulation. Mexico affords flattering 
 prospects to foreign emigrants, and the government is fully 
 sensible of the advantages of recruiting its population from oth- 
 er nations. It is no longer prophesy to say, that the time is 
 not distant when there will be two great republics in North 
 America, each uniting numerous subordinate republics, and 
 possessing a vast population, free and enlightened, enjoying 
 all the blessings of liberty and republican institutions. 
 
SKETCH 
 
 OF THE 
 
 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE 
 
 OF 
 
 GUATEMALA. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 General divisions of the country its mountains, rivers, bays. 
 and harbours the country subject to earthquakes agricul- 
 tural productions of the country commerce civil divisions 
 -principal towns Guatamala Leon government and his- 
 tory. 
 
 THE Republic of Guatamala, or of the United Provinces of 
 the Centre of America, comprises the territory that was for- 
 merly included in the captain-generalcy of Guatamala, with 
 the exception of the territory of Chiapa, which has since been 
 attached to the Mexican federation. The former captain- 
 generalcy extended from about 82 degrees to 94 degrees of 
 west longitude, and from 8 to 17 degrees of north latitude. 
 The territory of the present Republic of the Centre of Amer- 
 ica, is bounded on the west by the province of Chiapa ; on 
 the north-west, by Yucatan ; on the south-east by Veragua, 
 in Colombia ; on the south and south-west, by the Pacific ; 
 and on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, or Gulf of Mexico. 
 Its length along the coast may be estimated at about seven 
 hundred miles. The distance, from sea to sea, in no place 
 exceeds four hundred miles, but at each end, it is not half 
 that distance. This territory formerly composed of fifteen 
 provinces, is now divided into five states. The Pacific coast 
 of this territory, like that of Peru, is traversed by the ridge 
 of the Andes, which presents several lofty peaks, to the 
 height of nearly fifteen thousand feet above the level of the 
 sea. 
 
 The waters of this territory are unrivalled for their conven* 
 
204 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY AND 
 
 ience, and the great facilities they afford to commercial inter- 
 course with every other part of the world. The whole south- 
 ern and south-western border of the country, is washed by the 
 gentle Pacific, the queen of oceans ; and the whole of its 
 northern border, by the Atlantic, or commodious Gulf of Mex- 
 ico, the great Mediterranean Sea of the American continent. 
 Both the Pacific and the Atlantic coasts are indented with 
 numerous bays and harbours ; tfie most considerable of which 
 is the bay of Honduras, on the Atlantic side. The bottom of 
 this bay communicates with an extensive sheet of water, cal- 
 led the Gulf, or Lake of Dolee. Into this gulf are dis- 
 charged several streams, the principal of which is the Rio de 
 Verapaz. The most considerable interior waters of this ter- 
 ritory, are the lakes Nicaragua and Leon which are connected 
 together, forming the most extensive and beautiful sheets of 
 water, nearly three hundred miles in circumference. They 
 discharge their waters into the ocean, by the river San Juan, 
 the course of which is about 90 miles. The waters of the 
 Nicaragua, and its outlets, are said to furnish one of the most 
 favourable and practicable routes for a ship canal, or water 
 communication, between the Atlantic and Pacific. The dis- 
 tance from Lake Leon, (which communicates, as has been 
 observed, with Lake Nicaragua,) to the Pacific ocean, is said 
 by some authorities to be thirty miles, and by others, to be on- 
 ly fifteen ; the land is level all the way across to the Pacific. 
 It is stated, that the outlet of the Nicaragua, the San Juan, 
 might be so deepened with little expense, as to be made navi- 
 gable. A survey of this route is already projected ; and 
 should it be carried into effect, and the report be favourable, 
 it is not improbable that this great work of uniting the waters 
 of the Pacific and Atlantic, which has awakened the attention 
 of this age of enterprise and improvement, may soon be un- 
 dertaken and finally accomplished, by which event the Nicara- 
 gua and its waters will become the grat thoroughfare for the 
 commercial world. 
 
 The river Vuagua is remarkable for the verdant hues of its 
 waters, from whence it receives the name of Ferdes Agua : 
 the river Veragua, formed from the Zacapa, and St. Augus- 
 tine, is navigable for a considerable distance into the interior, 
 and much of the indigo and cochineal exported, find their way 
 down this river. There are numerous small streams which 
 discharge into both Oceans. 
 
 The principal seaports are Sansonata, on the Pacific, ninety 
 miles south-west of the city of Guatamala ; in 16 degrees 
 north latitude ; Truxillo, and Puerto Cavellos, on the Bay of 
 Honduras. The northern coast of Honduras is called the 
 
PRESENT STATE 0F GUATAMALA. 205 
 
 Musquito shore, and is inhabited by the Musquito Indians, an 
 indolent, ignorant race, much attached to the British, who 
 have settlements on the Balize river, which falls into the Bay 
 of Honduras ; they ascend the river two hundred miles, for 
 the purpose of cutting logwood. 
 
 Guatamala lies wholly within the tropics j^and enjoys a cli- 
 mate similar to that portion of Mexico lying within the same 
 zone a climate peculiar to America, which has none of the 
 varieties of the seasons, and which embraces in the same de- 
 gree of latitude, a graduation of temperature from the deso- 
 lating heat of a tropical sun, to the atmosphere of perpetual 
 frost. This seems almost a derangement of nature, as the 
 frigid, the temperate, and the torrid zones, are brought togeth- 
 er under the equator. The temperature does not depend on 
 the degree of latitude, but on the elevation from the sea. The 
 country, like Mexico, from the peculiarity of its climate, pro- 
 duces the cerealia,- or grains of temperate climates, and like- 
 wise the fruits, in the same latitude with the productions of 
 the tropics. 
 
 In the^tate of Guatamala, the vallies are well watered, and 
 the streams overflowing their banks. The soil is extremely 
 fertile. On the^ low and marshy shore of the Bay of Hondu- 
 ras, log-wood abounds of a most excellent quality. This bay 
 includes a compass of five hundred miles, and is of dangerous 
 navigation. There are several islands on the coast of this bay, 
 one of which, called Rattan, is about thirty miles in length, 
 and long the resort of pirates ; and to prevent their depreda- 
 tions, the British established a settlement on it. The State of 
 Guatamala, has been much subject to earthquakes ; and the 
 city of that name, which formerly stood in a beautiful valley 
 near the west coast, was repeatedly destroyed by volcanic e- 
 ruptions, which occasioned it to be removed to its present sit- 
 uation, on a plain, about twenty-four miles from its former 
 scite. The province of Nicaragua has also been visited by 
 earthquakes ; and on the west border of the lake, near the 
 town of Granada, is a volcanic mountain. 
 
 The agricultural productions of this republic are various and 
 abundant, of which the following are the principal indigo, to- 
 bacco of a superior quality, cocoa, vanilla, sarsaparilla, woods 
 of various kinds, balsam, sugar, tar, pitch, rice, corn, wheat, 
 cotton, copper, silver, gold, hides, spices, ginger, honey, and 
 gums. At New-Segovia, and other places, there are valuable 
 silver and gold mines, which are worked. 
 
 The chief articles of exportation are cocoa, cattle, indigo, 
 cotton, and dye-woods. The log-wood trade, and that in the 
 indigo of Guatamala, have been the most important. As early 
 
 VOL* I. 18 
 
206 SKETCH OP THE HISTORY AND 
 
 as 1 730, the British established a settlement on Black River, 
 seventy-five miles to the east of Honduras, and another on a 
 navigable stream, near Cape Gracios a Dios, for the purpose 
 of the log-wood trade. At the latter place, there is a spacious 
 and secure road for ships. The country being extremely level, 
 these small streams are navigable a considerable distance, and 
 are ascended for the purpose of cutting dye-woods. The log- 
 wood cut here is of the best quality, and superior to that on 
 the borders of the Bay of Cam peachy. Since the indepen- 
 dence of Guatamala, in 1823, five millions of cochineal trees 
 have been planted in its territories. 
 
 The indigo of Guatamala is of excellent quality, and has 
 long been an important article of commerce. The rich pas- 
 tures of Guatamala covered with perpetual verdure, support 
 vast herds of cattle ; and hides form a considerable article of 
 commerce. A coasting trade is carried on with San Bias in 
 Mexico, Panama in Colombia, and Lima in Peru ; the town 
 of Granada, as well as Guatamala, is a place of considerable 
 commercial activity. The revolution which is calculated to 
 give a stimulus to industry of every kind, cannot fail, should 
 the republic continue tranquil, to promote the commerce of a 
 country so advantageously situated for trade, and possessing 
 such great and diversified agricultural resources. 
 
 Civil divisions, towns and population. Guatamala, formed 
 the jurisdiction of a chief called a captain-general, and was 
 divided into fifteen provinces, but it now comprises five states ; 
 Guatamala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, 
 Baron Humboldt in 1822, estimated its population at 600,000 
 but his calculations were not founded on any correct statisti- 
 cal data ; and Simon del Valle, late president of the expedi- 
 tion, is of opinion that the central republic cannot now contain 
 a population of less than 2,000,000. If this be correct, the 
 central republic exceeds in population, Peru, Chile, the re- 
 public of Bolivar on the United Provinces ; but there is a less 
 proportion of whites, one half of the whole population being 
 Indians. 
 
 Principal towns. The city of Guatamala is the capital of 
 the republic ; and stands in a beautiful interior plain, in lati- 
 tude 14 degrees north. It is a large town, containing a uni- 
 versity, and numerous convents and churches, with a popula- 
 tion, estimated by some at forty thousand, by others, at twenty- 
 four thousand. 
 
 Leon, the capital of the State of Nicaragua, is situated near 
 the Pacific, on the south-west border of the lake of the same 
 name, distinctly seen from the hill of St. Petre, in the vicinity, 
 and from which the roar of the sea may be frequently heard. 
 
PRESENT STATE OP GUATAMALA. 207 
 
 although the distance is twelve miles. The climate is warm, 
 but the town is healthy ; the public offices of the province are 
 located here ; its public buildings consist of a cathedral, a uni- 
 versity, and three convents. The population of Leon, and 
 that of the two adjoining parishes, amounts to thirty-two thou- 
 sand. 
 
 The other principal towns are Granada, Nicaragua, Masaya, 
 and San Salvador. Conception is a small place, near a ruin 
 of the same name. Santa Fe, is a small town, and a bishop's 
 see, in the middle of the ancient province of Veragua. San- 
 tiago, a small place, and bishop's see, in the middle of the pro- 
 vince of Costa Rica, or Rich Coast, so named from its mines 
 which were formerly worked, but have since been abandoned in 
 consequence of the difficulty and expense of working them. 
 Valiadolid is an inconsiderable place, and a bishop's see, situa- 
 ted in a pleasant valley in the State of Honduras, and one hun- 
 dred miles east of which is St. Jago, both formerly towns of 
 considerable business, but now greatly declined. About ninety 
 miles east of the town of Guatamala, is Sansanata, or Trin- 
 idad, which is the nearest harbour for ships from Panama or 
 Peru, trading with Guatamala. Omoa, at the extremity of 
 the bay of the same name, is only a negro village, with some 
 merchants, and a fortress, but is a favourable place for busi- 
 ness. Zacapa is a large interior village, on the road from 
 Omoa to Guatamala, said to contain six thousand inhabitants 
 of all descriptions. 
 
 Government and History. The government of the United Pro- 
 vinces is a federal republic, called the Confederation of the Cen- 
 tre of America, similar to that of Mexico, and like that, formed 
 on the model of the government of the United btates. The con- 
 stitution provides for a general or national government, and local 
 or state governments, for the direction of infernal concerns. 
 The national legislation is vested in a general congress, consist- 
 ing of a chamber of deputies, elected in the proportion of one 
 to every thirty thousand of the population ; and a senate com- 
 posed of two members from each State, chosen by the electors, 
 and not by the provincial assemblies. The chamber of deputies 
 is to be renewed one half every year, and the same person is 
 eligible only the second time, in succession ; but is again eli- 
 gible after an interval of one term. The powers of the nation- 
 al legislature are much the same as those of our congress, and 
 the only essential difference in the two bodies, is, that in Gua- 
 tamala the senators are chosen by the people, and not by the 
 states ; and consequently are not the representatives of the 
 states in their corporate character. The executive power is 
 vested in a president and vice-president, elected by the people, 
 
208 SKETCH OF THE HISTORY AND 
 
 for the term of four years, and are eligible a second time in 
 succession. The vice-president presides in the senate. In 
 the organization of the judiciary, the constitution departs 
 widely from what are considered established principles. In- 
 stead of being independent, and raised above the popular influ- 
 ence, the judges of the supreme court are elected by the people, 
 one third to be renewed every two years ; there is however no 
 ineligibility of the members. 
 
 The provincial, or state governments, consist of a popular 
 assembly and senate, and two executive chiefs, one governor, 
 and the other president of the senate, elected by the people, 
 for the term of four years, and eligible once only without an in- 
 terval. On the subject of religion, the constitution is the same 
 as those of the other new governments formed in Spanish 
 America ; the Roman Catholic is established as the national 
 faith, which is defended by law, and all others prohibited. 
 
 The progress of the revolution, in the neighbouring colonies, 
 was not without its influence on Guatamala ; it excited a spirit 
 of inquiry among the people, awakened a sense of their op- 
 pressions, and prepared their minds to throw off the Spanish 
 yoke ; and the revolution of Iguala, which, in 1821, overthrew 
 the royal authority in Mexico, afforded a favourable opportu- 
 nity to the central provinces to put an end to the odious do- 
 minion of Spain. Indeed, such was the connexion between 
 the two countries, that the subversion of the royal authority 
 in Mexico, opened the way to the emancipation of Guatamala. 
 Accordingly, on the 15th of September, 1821, the general 
 wish of the people for independence was openly proclaimed 
 in the capital, and that day was afterwards decreed, by the 
 constituent Assembly, to be observed as an anniversary festi- 
 val, on which donations were to be made to the poorest 
 young persons who had married during the past year. Like a 
 latent flame long smothered, the spirit of independence hav- 
 ing once burst forth, spread with electric effect ; the people 
 were every where aroused to secure their freedom, and the 
 captain-general, having no army to support the Spanish au- 
 thority, it fell without a struggle. As the revolution which 
 resulted in the liberation of Mexico, had contributed to the 
 emancipation of the central provinces, Iturbide and his asso- 
 ciates were disposed to annex Guatamala to Mexico, and to 
 establish one government over the two countries , and by in- 
 triguing with the captain-general, and some of the leaders in 
 the revolution in the central provinces, and ordering Filisola 
 with a body of troops to march into the country, the opposi- 
 tion to the union was overawed or silenced, and Guatamala 
 was united to the Mexican empire. This union, however, 
 
PRESENT STATE OF GUATAMALA. 209 
 
 which it was pretended was the voluntary act of the people, 
 was effected by intrigue, deceit, and force ; and immediately 
 symptoms of uneasiness and disaffection appeared among the 
 inhabitants. The province of San Salvador taking the lead, 
 revolted against the government of Mexico, declared the un- 
 ion to be forced and illegal, and prepared to defend its inde- 
 pendence by arms. Troops were sent against them, and they 
 were compelled to submit ; and from this time to the over- 
 throw of the imperial government in 1823, the central pro- 
 vinces followed the fortunes of Mexico ; it sent deputies to 
 the Mexican congress, and when the regency and the congress 
 were dissolved by Iturbide, in 1822, the central provinces 
 also submitted to the usurper. Not however quietly, for the 
 Mexican forces having been previously withdrawn, the spirit 
 of revolt again broke out in the province of San Salvador, and 
 preparations were making to resist, by force, the union with 
 Mexico ; but before they had occasion to do it, the imperial 
 authority was overthrown, and the government which suc~ 
 ceeded it, being entirely occupied with its own affairs, the 
 central provinces were for a time left to themselves. Every 
 thing now favoured the recovery of their independence the 
 commandant, Filisola, an Italian by birth, now favoured the 
 independence of the country, from the hopes of becoming the 
 chief of the new rejnfblic. Availing themselves of these fa- 
 vourable circumstances, the partizans of liberty convoked a 
 congress, which, on the 24th of June, 1823, declared the act 
 of union with Mexico null and void, and erected Guatamala 
 into an independent republic, by the name of The United Pro- 
 vinces of the Centre of America. Mexico being now free, and 
 its government influenced by the maxims of justice, and a 
 regard to the interest and liberty of all Spanish America, in- 
 stead of opposing the will of Guatamala, ordered the com- 
 mandant, Filisola, to return with his troops from that quarter.* 
 The congress created a junta, or executive power, of which 
 Senor del Valle was president, and he immediately took steps 
 to assemble a constituent assembly, to form a constitution 
 for the new republic ; but whilst this assembly was engaged 
 in deliberations to secure the independence and liberties of the 
 republic, both were threatened with destruction from a domes- 
 tic enemy. A most bold and alarming conspiracy had been form- 
 ed against the government by several officers of the army, 
 who had drawn several corps into their viows. On the 1 4th 
 of September, 1823, the plot broke out, and for two days the 
 fate of the republic was suspended on the result of a furious 
 
 * Report of Mexican secretary of state. 
 18* 
 
210 SKETCH OP THE HISTORY AND 
 
 struggle between the rebel troops, and the inhabitants of th& 
 capital, aided by some few troops, which remained faithful. 
 The hall of the constituent assembly was converted into a fort 
 for the protection of the patriots. The patriotism and cour- 
 age of the inhabitants finally prevailed, and the leaders of the 
 conspiracy were compelled to flee to save the lives they had 
 so justly forfeited. A sergeant only was executed ; the names 
 of the inhabitants who fell fighting for their country, were 
 engraved on marble in the hall of congress. The troops en- 
 gaged in the conspiracy were disbanded, and tranquillity again 
 restored. The constituent assembly resumed their delibera- 
 tions, and after several months' labour, completed the consti- 
 tution for the republic, already noticed. On the 20th of Feb- 
 ruary, 1825, the constituent assembly was dissolved, and was 
 succeeded by the federal congress, elected in pursuance of 
 the constitution, the members of which, on the 10th of April 
 following, swore to preserve inviolate the constitutional char- 
 ter. On this occasion, Senor del Valle, the president of the 
 executive, resigned his authority, and pronounced a patri- 
 otic and eloquent speech : " the people believe," says this 
 patriot, " that, from the moment they have made choice of a 
 citizen to be a representative, the private character of the man 
 should cease, and nothing exist but his public capacity ; that 
 self should die, and nothing live in him mit his country ; that 
 all personal likes and dislikes should be annihilated, and no- 
 thing survive but the sublime and delightful sentiments of pat- 
 riotism." Most noble sentiments ! well worthy the attention 
 of some of our own politicians, too many of whom, instead 
 of losing themselves in the republic, lose the republic in them- 
 selves. With such specimens of sublime patriotism before us, 
 who will say that this people are not deserving of liberty 1 
 
 The province of Chiapa determined to adhere to the Mexi- 
 can union, and now forms one of the states of that republic ; 
 but all the other provinces, although for some time disturbed, 
 finally declared in favour of the federal government, which 
 has gradually acquired stability and energy. Guatamala is 
 tranqiul, Mexico has acknowledged its independence, and, to- 
 gether with the other new republics of the south, maintains 
 friendly relations with it ; some of the states have formed con- 
 stitutions conformably to that of the union ; the sacrifices of 
 the revolution have fallen more lightly here than on any of the 
 southern states ; its geographical position is in the centre of 
 the world, looking east towards Asia, and west towards Eu- 
 rope and Africa, with a soil and climate affording, in abun- 
 dance , all the productions of both temperate and tropical re- 
 
PRESENT STATE OF GUATAMALA. 211 
 
 gions ; every thing seems to argue favourably to its prosper- 
 ity and rapid advancement in population and national im- 
 
 portance 
 
 * Most of the facts, in this sketch, are taken from an article on 
 Guatamala, in the New Monthly Magazine, said to have been writ- 
 ten on the authority of Senor del Valle, late president of the exe~ 
 eutive junta, and one of the most learned citizens of the republic : 
 Senor Herrera, ex-deputy of the constituent assembly, and the jour- 
 nal of Dr. Lavagnino, who travelled in the central republic in the 
 summer of 1825. 
 
 END OF VOLUME FIRST. 
 
VIEW 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 MEXICO, 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 THEIR HISTORY, THE POLITICAL CONDITION, GEOGRAPHY, AGRICUL- 
 TURE, COMMERCE, &C. OF THE REPUBLICS OF MEXICO, GUATA- 
 31ALA. COLOMBIA, PERU, THE UNITED PROVINCES OF SOUTH 
 AMERICA AND CHILE, WITH A COMPLETE HISTORY OF 
 THE REVOLUTION, IN EACH OF THESE 
 
 1XDEPENDENT STATES. 
 
 BY A CITIZEN OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 TWO VOLUMES /JV OJV.E. 
 VOL. II. 
 
 NEW- YORK : 
 
 PUBLISHEp BY H. HUNTINGTON, JR. 
 
 2826. 
 
District of Connecticut, ss. 
 
 BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the twenty" 
 T ^ C second day of October, in the fiftieth year of the in" 
 dependence of the United States of America, H* 
 HUNTINGTON, JR. of the said district, has deposited in 
 this office the title of a Book, the right whereof he claims as propri- 
 etor, in the words following 1 , to wit : " A View of South America and 
 Mexico, comprising their history, the political condition, geography, 
 agriculture, commerce, &c. of the republics of Mexico, Guatamala s 
 Colombia, Peru, the United Provinces of South-America and Chile, 
 with a complete history of the Revolution in each of these indepen- 
 dent States. By a citizen of the United States. Two volumes in 
 one, Vol.11." 
 
 In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, en- 
 titled, " An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the 
 copies of Maps, Charts and Books, to the authors and proprietors of 
 such copies, during the times therein mentioned." 
 
 CHARLES A. INGERSOLL, 
 Clerk of the District of Connecticut: 
 
 A true copy of Record, examined and sealed by me, 
 
 CHARLES A INGERSOLL, 
 
 Glerk of the District of Connecticut' 
 
COLOMBIA. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 
 General description proposed route of the great canal climate., 
 soil, and productions drugs and medicinal productions 
 civil divisions population and principal towns mines 
 roads, canals, fyc. government commerce manufacture^, 
 fy Ct army, navy, 4*c. character of the people education 
 religion. 
 
 THE Republic of Colombia comprises an extent of coun- 
 try, embracing 22 deg. or 1320 miles of longitude, stretching 
 from the mouth of Orinoco, to the western extremity of the 
 Isthmus of Panama ; and of 18 degrees, or 1080 miles of lat- 
 itude, extending 11 1-2 degrees to the north, and 6 1-2 to 
 the south of the equator, calculating from Cape la Vela to the 
 sourthern extremity of the Republic. This vast territory is 
 bounded, north and east by the Atlantic ocean, and by the ter- 
 ritories of Guiana ; west, by the republic of Guatamala, ,or 
 central America, and the Pacific ocean ; and south by the re- 
 public of Peru, and the river Amazon. The territory com- 
 prised within the above mentioned limits, constitutes one of 
 the most magnificent regions on the globe. Bordering on 
 two oceans, its waters are unrivalled ; it embraces a large 
 portion of the immense valley of the Amazon, with the whole 
 of the great vallies of the Orinoco and Magdaiena, and is 
 traversed by some of the loftiest mountains in the world. It 
 possesses every diversity of soil and climate ; unrivalled com- 
 mercial advantages, and mineral treasures, which afford the 
 most powerful stimulus, and promise the greatest reward to the 
 industry and enterprise of civilized man. 
 
 The Cordillera of the Andes, which traverses the whole con- 
 tinent of South America, in the southern part of the Repub- 
 lic, divides into two parallel ranges, forming the lofty valley of 
 
4 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 Quito, the plain of which is elevated 9000 feet above the 
 level of the Ocean. To the right of this valley, rise the sum- 
 mits of the Copacureu, 16,380 feet high ; Tunguragua, 16, 
 720 feet high ; Cotopaxj, 17,950; and Guyambu, 18,180. 
 To the left is Chimborazo, towering above the clouds, whose 
 height is 20,100 feet ; Tlenisa, 16,302 ; and Pichinca, 15,380, 
 all covered with perpetual snows, and subject to volcanic erup- 
 tions. Near Tulcan, the Cordillera, after having been irreg- 
 ularly united by lofty groups of mountains, a^ain divides itself 
 into two chains, which forms the elevated valley of Pastos, 
 beyond which it diverges into three ridges, the most western 
 following the coast of the Pacific ocean, terminates in the 
 Isthmus of Panama ; the central divides the valley of Cauca 
 from that of the Magdalena, and declines near Mompox, on 
 the river Magdalena. In the eastern range, the most con- 
 siderable and loftiest of the three, the numberless streams 
 which unite to swell the majestic Orinoco have their rise ; it 
 forms the table land, on which stands the city of Santa Fe de 
 Bogota, at an elevation of 8,100 feet. This range again di- 
 vides into two ridges, one of which extends to the north, 
 separating the waters of the Magdalena from those that fall 
 into lake Maracaibo, and terminates near the ocean in the 
 province of Santa Martha ; the other, with its numerous 
 branches and ramifications, takes a north-easterly direction 
 along the maritime border of the republic, and finally is lost at 
 the gulf of Paria, constituting the northern boundary of the 
 great valley of the Orinoco. The southern boundary of this 
 valley, is terminated by the Paramo mountains, which extend 
 from near the Andes easterly, and are lost in Guiana. To 
 the south of this ridge, lies the most extensive valley on the 
 globe, watered by the majestic Amazon, and its innumerable 
 branches. 
 
 The waters of Colombia are no where surpassed, affording 
 superior advantages for commerce, both internal and foreign. 
 In addition to its extensive maritime border on the Atlantic, 
 which reaches from the Isthmus of Panama to Guiana, and 
 abounds with numerous harbours, some of which are among 
 the best in the world, it has an extensive sea coast on the 
 Pacific, which also affords a number of good harbours. The 
 most valuable harbours on the Atlantic coast are Porto Bello, 
 Chagres, Carthagena, Savannilla, at the mouth of the Magda- 
 lena ; Santa Martha, Rio de Hacha, the gulf or lake of Mara- 
 caibo, Coro, Tacargua, Puerto Cabello, La Guayra, Barcelo- 
 na, Cumana, and the gulfs of Paria and Cariaco. On the 
 Pacific, are the gulf of Guayaquil, and the bays Buenaventura, 
 or Choco, and Panama. The interior waters are extensive 
 
STATE OF COLOMBIA. 
 
 and affords valuable navigable advantages. The superb river 
 Amazon, which waters the most fertile regions of the globe, 
 clothed in perpetual verdure, and blooming with fruits and 
 flowers, washes the southern border of the republic. This 
 majestic stream, flowing over golden sands, through groves of 
 cinnamon and spices and primitive forests, of the most magnifi- 
 cent character, taking its rise among the auriferous mountains 
 of Peru, and discharging its immense vol&ne of waters into 
 the Atlantic, under the line, is said to be navigable to the foot 
 of the Cordillera of the eastern Andes. A free navigation, of 
 this noble river, would afford incalculable advantages to the 
 commercial world, and is a subject worthy of the attention 
 of the enlightened government of Colombia. The next river, 
 in magnitude and importance, is the Orinoco, which rises in 
 the heart of the republic, and after a course of nearly 1 500 
 miles, in a north easterly direction, discharges the mighty wa- 
 ters of its numerous branches into the Atlantic, in latitude 
 9 deg. north. The Meta and Apure, are the two principal 
 branches of the the Orinoco. These magnificent rivers are sub- 
 ject to periodical overflowings, which convert the whole country 
 during four months of the year into an immense lake or 
 inland sea ; and when the floods retire, the whole plain is 
 covered with luxuriant pasture, on which innumerable herds 
 of cattle are raised : nor are these plains less rich in agricul- 
 tural advantages. The banks of the rivers are covered with 
 primeval forests, of the most precious kinds of woods, for dye- 
 ing, furniture, and building ; and exhibit, when cleared, a soil 
 capable of yielding abundantly, every species of tropical 
 produce. 
 
 The climate, though hot, is neither so unhealthy nor debili- 
 tating, as that of the sea-coast, the air being refreshed and 
 purified by the strong breezes blowing constantly over this 
 verdant plain, which extends not less than 300 miles in every 
 direction, between the Andes and the Orinoco. The great 
 valley of the Orinoco is wholly within the territory of the re- 
 public, and will, undoubtedly, at some future period, sustain a 
 great population, when its resources become fully developed. 
 The Orinoco is navigable for sea vessels, to the city of An-, 
 gostura, and for smaller vessels, further into the country. The 
 use of steam boats will probably give great extension to the 
 navigation of this river and its branches, as it is stated that the 
 Meta is capable of being navigated to within 150 miles of the 
 city of Bogota. The next most considerable river is the Mag 
 dalena, which descends to the north more than 700 miles 
 through the vallies of the Andes, and is navigable to the port 
 of Honda, 550 miles from its entrance into the Atlantic. TJu> 
 
 VOL. II, 19 
 
6 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 river communicates directly with some of the richest sections 
 of the republic, and is represented to be very favourable to 
 steam navigation ; the Cauca runs through a valley of the 
 same name, and unites wkh the Magdalena. 
 
 The next most considerable river to the west, is the Atrato, 
 which falls into the gulf of Darien. This stream, together 
 with the St. Juan of the Pacific, is said to afford the best route 
 for a canal, to unite the two oceans. " A communication can 
 be effected by making a canal from the head waters of the 
 Atrato, a fine navigable river falling into the gulf of Darien, in 
 lat. 8, and the River St. Juan de Chirambira which falls into a 
 bay of the same name, in the Pacific ocean, in lat. 4. The 
 point of junction would be at about 400 miles from the Atlan- 
 tic, and about 260 from the Pacific. About 15 miles of the 
 river Atrato, or rather the Quito, which flows into the Atrato, 
 would require a few locks, but not many, as the current of the 
 river is only, in the dry season, about one mile per hour. 
 Twenty miles too of the St. Juan would require locking, leav- 
 ing an intervening space of level land of only four miles and a 
 hulf to cut through. The rivers Atrato, Quito, and St. Juan 
 de Chirambira are free from every sort of obstruction until we 
 reach the points where the locking becomes necessary ; and 
 there is depth enough on the Atlantic side for vessels drawing 
 seven, and on the Pacific twenty feet of water. The rivers 
 flow through a country abounding with the most magnificent 
 forests of mahogany, dye-woods, and other valuable timber, 
 and the only disadvantageous circumstance is, that the mouth 
 of the Atrato is obstructed with a bar, upon which there is on- 
 ly seven feet of water. We should, however, not despair of 
 human ingenuity, devising some means to remedy this impedi- 
 ment. 
 
 Nature seems to have designed this for the passage. The 
 frowning Andes are here for a moment lost, and in obedience 
 to the will of Providence and the wants of man, seem here to 
 have defiled, that commerce may march from the old world to 
 the new. It is a fact no less curious than true, that a canal 
 did formerly exist in this spot. About the year 1 745, a priest 
 of Citira, with the assistance of the Indians, opened this same 
 communication known by the name of the Raspadura canal, 
 through which loaded canoes passed, but the jealous policy of 
 the Spanish government caused it to be closed, and prohibit* 
 ed, under severe penalties, any attempt to re-open it. The 
 remains of this canal are visible to the present hour, and the 
 fact is mentioned by Humboldt, Bonnycastle, and Robinson. 
 We derive this information from a gentleman now in this city, 
 [Aew York J who has resided twelve years in Colombia, and 
 
STATE OF COLOMBIA. 7 
 
 who has travelled over every part of the route from sea to sea. 
 The utmost confidence may of course be reposed in his state- 
 ments ; he has, moreover, constructed a map in which the en- 
 tire tract of the country is accurately laid down. 
 
 In 1821, the same gentleman applied to the Government of 
 Colombia for permission to open this communication at his 
 own expense, with exclusive privileges for one hundred years. 
 The Congress passed a vote in favour of the application, but 
 it was objected to by Bolivar, on the ground that it might af- 
 ford facilities to the enemy. The applicant was, however, 
 desired to rCiiew his proposals at the peace, for a term some- 
 what less than 100 years, which he is now about to do, and 
 nothing, we believe, will defeat his object, but the fact of the 
 government undertaking the business itself, which is not im- 
 probable." 
 
 During the year 1825, this route was examined by an agent 
 employed for the purpose, by a company of merchants in the 
 city of New- York ; whose report of its practicability, it is un- 
 derstood, was favourable. 
 
 The river ChUgres falls into the Atlantic, at a town of the 
 same name, 54 miles west of Porto Bello, and is navigable as 
 far as Cruzes, within five leagues of Panama. The Palmar 
 and Zulia, are the chief tributaries of Lake Maracaibo ; the 
 other considerable and navigable rivers, are the Tocuyo, the 
 Aroa, the Yaracay, Tuy, and Unare, all of which run to the 
 north, and discharge their waters^ into the Atlantic ocean . 
 and most of which* are accommodated with harbours, and 
 some of them are navigable a considerable distance. In ad- 
 dition to the St. Juan, the Pacific border has the Guayaquil, 
 which empties into the Gulf of that name, the Verd, the Mira, 
 and many smaller rivers. 
 
 Climate, soil, and productions. The climate of Colombia, 
 although the whole country lies geographically, within the tor- 
 rid zone, like Mexico it possesses all the characteristics which 
 diversify the three zones into which the earth is divided. 
 With respect to climate, soil, and productions, the tract of 
 country adjacent to its maritime border, both on the Atlantic 
 and Pacific, is invariably hot, and generally unhealthy, to 
 strangers from northern climates. The soil here is luxuriant 
 wherever it is sufficiently watered by rivers or periodical rains, 
 and produces abundantly all the natural and agricultural pro- 
 ductions common to tropical regions ; sugar, cotton, coffee, 
 cocoa, indigo, tobacco, and the various kinds of dye woods 
 abundantly reward the hand of industry, and constitute the 
 staple productions of this region.* The extensive vallies ly- 
 
 * Some districts on the coast, from their peculiar position relative 
 
HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 ing on the borders of the great rivers, have a climate some- 
 what more temperate, affording the greatest variety of produc- 
 tions, and support immense herds of cattle on their verdant 
 savannas. Hence hides have become one of the great sta- 
 ples of the country, and are exported in great quantities. In 
 the elevated vallies, at the height of 4000 feet above the lev- 
 el of the sea, the climate becomes temperate, and vegetation 
 continues uninterrupted through the year. 
 
 To the agricultural and natural productions already jnen- 
 tioned, many precious drugs and medicines, might be added ; 
 a great variety of dying plants, bees wax, hone , cochineal, 
 which abounds about Quito ; the coarser metals, copper and 
 iron, are found abundantly in many places ; the precious met- 
 als also enrich many districts, particularly Choco and An- 
 tioquia, where considerable quantities of gold, silver, and pla 
 tina, have been obtained. The article platina is said to exist 
 in great abundance in Choco, and emeralds abound in many 
 parts of the country. Salt is also among the natural produc- 
 tions of this country ; and immense herds of cattle, horses, 
 sheep, and deer, are found running wild in the woods and sa- 
 vannas. There is also, an abundant supply of wild fowl, and 
 the coast and rivers are well stored with turtle and fish com- 
 mon to tropical regions. 
 
 Civil divisions, population, and principal to&ns. The terri- 
 tory now comprised within the republic of Colombia, previous 
 tG thG revolution, formed the vice royalty of New Granada, 
 and captain-ifeneralcy of Venezuela. The western section o 
 New Granada comprehended the following provinces, which 
 contained, previous to the revolution, a population of 2,380,000 
 souls, as will be seen in the annexed table. 
 
 Rio Hacha, ... 20,000 
 
 Santa Martha, . . 70,000 
 
 Carthagena, . . 210,000 
 
 Panama, . . . 50,000 
 
 Antioquia, . . . 110,000 
 
 Socoro, . . . 130,000 
 
 Pamplona, . . . 80,000 
 
 Tunja, . . 200,000 
 
 Choco, . . . 40,000 
 
 Veragua, . . - 40,000 
 
 Cundinamarca, . 130,000 
 
 Mariquita, . . 100,000 
 
 Popayan, . . 320,000 
 
 Casanare, . . 20,000 
 
 Quito, . . . 500,000 
 
 Cuenca, . . . 200,000 
 
 Guayaquil, . . 50,000 
 
 Loxa and Jean, . 80,000 
 Quixos and Maynas, 40,000 
 
 Nevay, .... 70,000 
 
 The population of the eastern section of the republic or 
 the captain-generalcy of Venezuela, before the revolution, 
 was as follows : 
 
 to the mountains are exposed to almost incredible droughts. It is 
 said the territory of Coro once received no rain for four years, a,nd 
 hat other districts have suffered in a less degree. 
 
STATE OP COLOMBIA. 9 
 
 Venezuela, . . , 460,000 
 Cumana, , . . 100,000 
 Maracaibo, . . . 120,000 
 
 Barinas, .... 90,000 
 Guiana, .... 40,000 
 Tsl. of Margarita, . 15,000 
 
 Total, 825,000. 
 
 The provinces of New Grnaada suffered much less by the 
 revolution, have been longer tranquil than those of Venezuela, 
 and have probably maintained their original population with 
 perhaps some increase within the last six years. But Vene- 
 vuela, having been the seat of war for nearly twelve years, 
 experiencing all its horrors and devastations in constant suc- 
 cession, has suffered an unexampled diminution of its inhab- 
 itants ; nearly one half are supposed to have been destroyed, 
 and whole districts depopulated. Years of peace and tran- 
 quillity will be required to supply the waste of life which has 
 been occasioned by a revolution unexampled for violence and 
 blood shed, and by the ravages of the desolating Spanish ar- 
 mies in a war of extermination. Within the last two or three 
 years, the tide of emigration has set towards this country, both 
 from Europe and the United States ; and should the war not 
 be revived with Spain, which is little to be apprehended, it 
 will probably rapidly increase, and thousands of the enter- 
 prising and industrious population of Europe and North Amer- 
 ica will be transplanted to the fertile regions of Colombia. 
 In the year 1822, the republic was divided into seven de- 
 partments, and a census taken, which gave a population of 
 2,644,600. In June, 1824, it was divided, by a law of con- 
 gress, into twelve departments, embracing thirty-seven pro- 
 vinces ; these provinces were subdivided into two hundred 
 and thirty cantons, and the cantons divided into parishes, 
 which are the smallest civil corporations. The names of the 
 twelve departments, composing the republic, are 
 
 1. Orinoco, 
 
 2. Venezuela, 
 
 3. Zulia, 
 
 4. Magdalena, 
 
 5. Istmo, 
 0, Cauca, 
 
 7. Cundinamarca, 
 
 8. Boyaca, 
 
 9. Apure, 
 
 10. Escuador, 
 
 11. Asuay, 
 
 12. Guayaquil, 
 
 It is supposed there is no great accuracy in the estimate qf 
 the' population made in 1822 ; the year preceding, it was sta- 
 fed by Manuel Torres, charge des affairs of Colombia to the 
 'United States, and one of the most enlightened citizens of his 
 Country, that Colombia had a population of 3,600,000. This 
 
 19* 
 
10 HISTORY AMD PRESENT 
 
 probably considerably exceeded the amount at that time, but 
 there must have been considerable increase since 1822. 
 
 The population of Colombia, like the other countries in 
 America colonized by Spain, consists of European Spaniards, 
 Creoles, or descendants of Spaniards, Negroes, Indians, and 
 the different casts. With respect to the European Spaniards, 
 their numbers, always small, have been greatly diminished by 
 the revolution, and few are now remaining in the country. - 
 Most of this class being hostile to the independence of Amer- 
 ica, took a part in the revolution, and either fell victims to its 
 ravages, or returned to Spain. A portion of the Indians arc 
 civilized, and citizens of the republic ; whilst others, like the 
 Indians in the United States, are independent tribes, and not 
 included in the estimate of the population of the country. The 
 negroes and mixed races are mostly free, and have contributed 
 greatly to fill the ranks of the republican army ; and some of 
 this class have risen to distinction in the army, and are consid- 
 ered among the firmest supporters of the independence of the 
 republic. 
 
 The principal cities of the republic are Bogota, Quito, and 
 Caraccas. Bogota, which has been the seat of the national 
 government, since the adoption of the constitution, is situated 
 in lat. 4 deg. 35 min. N. at an elevation of 8,100 feet above the 
 level of the sea, on a beautiful and spacious plain on the banks 
 of a river of the same name, a tributary of the Magdalena, thir- 
 ty-five miles from its mouth. It lies a considerable distance 
 east of the western Andes. The streets of the city are broad, 
 straight, and regular, and the houses are handsome. The ca- 
 thedral is magnificent, and richly endowed ; there are three 
 parish churches, eight monasteries, four nunneries, and one 
 hospital. The public institutions are an university, a mint, a 
 mining school, and a library, containing a very great and valua- 
 ble collection of books. The city has a very central position, 
 with a temperate and salubrious climate, and is surrounded by 
 one of the most healthy and fertile regions in Colombia. It 
 was the sieat of the Spanish vice royal government, before the 
 revolution. Its present population is estimated at 35,000. 
 Bogota was founded by Quesada, in 1538 ; its distance from 
 the Atlantic ocean, by the way of Magdalena, is 600 miles,, 
 and from the Pacific, at the bay of Choco, 217 miles. It is 
 (50 miles from the navigable waters of the Meta, a branch 
 of the Orinoco, and 60 miles from the port of Honda, the 
 head of navigation on the Magdalena. The citizens of Bogo- 
 ta have been distinguished for their patriotism, during the long 
 struggle of the revolution, and have made great sacrifices for 
 the cause of Liberty. It is pjoposed to remove the seat of 
 
STATE OF COLOMBIA, 11 
 
 government from this city to the town of Ocana, until the new 
 city, to bear the name of Bolivar, from the founder of the na- 
 tion, shall be built in a central situation, according to the or- 
 dinance of the republic. 
 
 The city of Quito, which was rebuilt in 1534, on the ruins 
 of an ancient Indian town ; is situated at the elevation of 9000 
 feet above the level of the sea, in lat. 13 min. 33 sec. N. on 
 the eastern acclivity of Pichinca, a lofty eminence of the west- 
 ern Cordillera of the Andes, about 130 miles from the Pacific. 
 The site of the town is vt ,-y uneven and irregular ; the princi- 
 pal square is spacious, and has an elegant fountain in the centre. 
 The four streets on ea;h side of the square, are straight, 
 broad, and handsome ; the others are crooked, and so rough 
 and broken, as to be impassable for wheel carriages. The 
 houses are all one story only, and generally have balconies to- 
 wards the street. 
 
 The public buildings consist of a cathedral, town house, and 
 numerous churches and convents. The surrounding country 
 is rich, beautiful, and fertile, in the most valuable productions 
 of the temperate and torrid zones. The climate is healthy and 
 delightful. The city is distinguished for its manufacturing in- 
 dustry, and is repre >ente to be the most populous city in the 
 whole territory of the republic ; its population being usually 
 estimated at 70,000. In full view of this city, rise some of the 
 most lofty summits of the Andes, covered with perpetual snows, 
 and frequently emitting, with awful grandeur, torrents of flames 
 and clouds of smoke, from their bursting volcanoes. The na- 
 tural port of Quito is Guayaquil. 
 
 The city of Caraccas, tie capital of the ancient captain gen- 
 eralcy of Venezuela, and the present seat of government for 
 the department of Venezuela, was founded in 1567 ; and is 
 situated in lat. 10 deg. 31 min. N. in the beautiful, elevated 
 valley of the same nam -,*, which extends twelve miles from 
 east to west, at the height of 2,598 feet above the level of the 
 sea. The city lies in a delightful and fertile spot in the val- 
 ley, at the foot of the cloud capted Cielo, one of the summits 
 of the Atlantic branch of the Andes. Its site is a square with 
 a side of 2000 paces, and its surface every where uneven and 
 irregular, just as nature formed it. The houses are well built, 
 some of brick, but the greater part are of masonry, in frame 
 work, after the manner of the Romans. The climate is de- 
 lightful. This city, which may be considered as the cradle of 
 the revolution in South America, contained, previous to the 
 year 1811, 45,000 inhabitants. It was the seat of an univer- 
 sity, and its inhabitants were distinguished for their intelli- 
 gence and patriotism. 
 
12 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 In addition to the calamities of the war of the Revolution, 
 in which the city had its full share since its commencement iii 
 1810, it was partly destroyed by an earthquake on the 26th of 
 March, 1812 ; many of its houses and churches were destroy- 
 ed, and more than 10,000 inhabitants are said to have perish- 
 ed beneath the ruins, ^ince the expulsion of the Spanish ar* 
 my, and the restoration of tranquillity, the city is represented 
 to be again in a prosperous condition. Its population is in- 
 creasing, its commerce and industry reviving, and many Eng- 
 lishmen and North Americans have lately emigrated to this 
 city. Among others, is the celebrated Joseph Lancaster, with 
 a view of diffusing the benefits of his system of education. 
 The seaport of Caraccas is La Guayra, one of the most thri- 
 ving and commercial towns on the Atlantic border. The dis- 
 tance from Caraccas to La Guayra is fifteen miles over a lofty 
 ridge. 
 
 The other considerable cities ure Popayan, which was foun- 
 ded in 1636, and stands in lat. 2 deg. 50' N. on the east side of 
 a mountain of considerable height, called M. from the resem- 
 blance it bears to that letter. The streets are broad, straight, 
 and level ; the houses are built of unburnt bricks, and some 
 of them are two stories high. Its public buildings consist of 
 a cathedral, three monasteries, and two nunneries. The 
 population is estimated by some at 20,000, and by others at 
 5,000. The Molino, issuing from the mountain of M. runs 
 through the city. The Cauca runs about three miles to the 
 north ; the distance from Popayan to the Pacific is 90 miles. 
 
 Guayaquil, the sea port of Quito, is situated in south lat. 2 
 deg. 12' on the river of the same name, which empties into the 
 gulf or bay of Guayaquil. The city stands about 18 miles up 
 the river, and contains a population of 20,000 souls. The 
 streets are broad and straight : the houses are built of wood, 
 large and beautiful, it is the principal naval station of the 
 republic on the Pacific, and enjoys an extensive and increas- 
 ing commerce. Guayaquil, having recently changed her polit- 
 cal condition, by the spontaneous will of the people, almost 
 without a struggle, her commercial prosperity has scarcely beeji 
 interrupted by the events of the war. She may, therefore, be 
 ranked among the richest cities of the republic. The females 
 of this city are distinguished for the fairness of their complex- 
 ions, and the social character of the inhabitants is much com- 
 mended by strangers. The town is defended by three forts ; 
 the river is navigable to the town for vessels of any size, and 
 affords the best harbour on the coast. A naval school hfrs 
 lately been established at this place. 
 
 Fanama, the other important commercial teWn on the Pa. 
 
STATE OP COLOMBIA. 13 
 
 cific, is the oldest city on the South Sea ; it was founded in 
 15 H, and is situated in N. lat 8 57' 4 8" on a bay of the same 
 name. The town is built on a rocky peninsula, and is fortified* 
 This place has lost much of its commercial prosperity, but 
 nevertheless enjoys a very commanding local position. Its 
 population is about 10,000, a considerable portion of which are 
 slaves ; most of the inhabitants have some knowledge of the 
 English language, which is acquired by their intercourse with 
 the Island of Jamaica. A good road to Porto Bello, on the 
 opposite shore of the gulf of Mexico, would be an object of 
 great utility, and the ground is said to be very favourable for 
 such an undertaking. Porto E ello, in N. lat. 9 33' has a 
 beautiful local and commercial situation. This town has shar- 
 ed the same fate as Panama, and has greatly declined from its 
 former glory, whilst the seat of the commerce of the galleons ; 
 but still it maintains so ne trade, which is supposed to be in- 
 creased since the revolutic- 
 
 Chagres, a town situated on a fine bay, at the mouth of the 
 river of the same name, 44 miles east of Porto Bello, enjoys 
 some commerce. The mo " important commercial city on the 
 Atlantic sea board is Carthagena, which is the principal naval 
 station of the republic on the Atlantic. This city is situated 
 inN. lat. 10 25' 48", the distance of 102 miles west of the 
 river Magdalena, and is divided into two parts ; the city pro- 
 per, so called, and Gimani. The city is surrounded by a thick, 
 high wall, and Gimani is vjilt in a semicircular form ; it ig 
 fortified in front by a strong wall, and united to the city by a 
 bridge over the ditch. The city is defended by a strong fort 
 and batteries, on the surrounding hills. Near the town is the 
 lake Tesca, which is 3 mil ^s in circumference, and communi- 
 cates with the city and the sea. The bay of Carthagena is 
 nine miles in extent ; its principal entrance is defended by 
 strong fortifications. The population of the city is estimated 
 at 16,000, arid its comrm v tte is considerable and increasing. 
 This town has partaken largely of the bitter fruits of the revo- 
 lution ; it has experience* itwo long and tedious sieges, during 
 the last ten years. On the 5th of December, 1815, 2000 of 
 its patriotic inhabitants emigrated in a body, embarking in elev- 
 en armed vessels, being unable any longer, to resist the sue* 
 cessful efforts of the royalists under Morillo. A naval school 
 hasf recently been established at Carthagena. 
 
 Savanilla, a new commercial town, is on the Magdalena, 2 1 
 miles from its mouth. ' anta Martha, a considerable com- 
 mercial town, of 5000 inhabitants, connected with the Magda- 
 lena by interior navigation, lies 45 miles east of the Magdale- 
 
14 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 na ; 150 miles further east is Rio Hacha, which is also a place 
 of considerable trade. 
 
 Maracaibo, on the lake or gulf of the same name, is likewise 
 a considerable ommercial town, the population of which was 
 more than 20,000 previous to the revolution ; but it is now 
 much reduced by the calamities of the revolutionary war. This 
 city, by its easy communication with the interior, possesses 
 superior commercial advantages. 
 
 Puerto Cabello, the sea-port of Valencia, has an excellent 
 harbour, with strong fortifications. This town has also suffer- 
 ed much by the operations of the war, and has been consider- 
 ed a very important military position. It is the last from 
 which the royalists were expelled in the whole territory of 
 the republic. It lies in lat. 10 20' N. and its population was 
 estimated at 7, 500 before the war. 
 
 Cumana and Barcelona are the principal cities on the east- 
 ern coast of the republic. The former lies one mile south of 
 the gulf of Curiaco, on a sandy and dry soil, in lat. 10 37' N. 
 and was built in 1520 ; it contained before the revolution, 24, 
 000 inhabitants, chiefly Creoles, who were industrious and en- 
 terprising. The climate is warm, but healthy; the popula- 
 tion of Cnmana was much diminished by the revolutionary 
 struggle. Barcelona was founded in 1634, and is built on a 
 plain on the left bank of the Neveri, three miles from its 
 mouth, in N. lat. 10 10'. Its population was 14,000 previous 
 to the revolution ; it is now much reduced ; its distance from 
 Cumana, is 60 miles. Thirty miles E. N. E. of Cumana is 
 situated the city of Curiaco, on a river of the same name, 
 that discharges its waters into the gulf of Curiaco. 
 
 La Guayra, the port of Caraccas, is at present next to Car- 
 thagena, the most important sea port on the Atlantic border ; 
 its population was 6,000 before the revolution ; the road to 
 Caraccas is over a mountain 6095 feet high, and is very diffi- 
 cult and laborious to travel during the wet season. The city 
 of Angostura, the chief seat of commerce on the great river 
 Orinoco, with a population of 10,000 inhabitants, is situa- 
 ted about 270 miles from the mouth of this river. Angostu- 
 i-a was wrested from the royalists in 1817, and was for several 
 years the seat of the Venezuelan republic, while most of the 
 country was in possession of the Spaniards. From this place 
 the gallant Bolivar led forth the little army of his own crea- 
 tion composed of foreigners and natives hastily collected 
 together, and penetrated into the beart of New Grenada ; and 
 with astonishing celerity, emancipated that fine country from 
 the Spanish yoke, and laid the foundation of a free, independ- 
 ent, and powerful nation, 
 
STATE OP COLOMBIA. 15 
 
 Coro, in lat. 10 8' N. at the bottom of the gulf of the same 
 name, stands on a dry, sandy plain, with a population estimated 
 at 10,000 before the revolution, and is distant from Maracaibo 
 165 miles east. The province of Coro, belonging to the de- 
 partment of Zulia, is in many parts arid and TSteril. 
 
 Among the numerous interior towns, that abound in every 
 section of the republic, is Valencia, situated on a beautiful 
 lake of the same name. This place was at one period the seat 
 of government for the Venezuelan republic, and is situated 
 24 miles south of Puerto Cabello, and 90 miles to the west of 
 Caraccas. Cucuta, the town where the constitution was 
 formed, is situated in a valley of the same name, about 300 
 miles to the north east of Bogota ; near Cucuta lies the su- 
 perb valley of San Crystobal. Mompox, a military position, 
 situated on an island in the Magdalena, 195 miles from the 
 mouth of the river, is 375 miles from Bogota. The cities of 
 Barinas, Guanore, Araure, San Carlos, and San Fernando de 
 Apure, are situated in the department of Venezuela, and 
 were rapidly advancing previous to the war, which visited this 
 province with the full measure of its destructive fury. The 
 province of Barinas, which, with that of Caraccas, forms the 
 department of Venezuela, consists entirely of plains intersec- 
 ted by numerous rivers, most of them navigable, which de- 
 scend into the Apure, and thus communicate with the Orinoco. 
 The banks of these rivers are covered with superb forests, and 
 when cleared, the soil produces, abundantly, cocoa, indigo, 
 cotton, sugar-cane, tobacco, maize, rice, and all kinds of fruits 
 and vegetables. The savannas support innumerable herds of 
 cattle. The Cordillera of Pamplona, Merida, and Truxillo, 
 border on this province on the west and north, and supply it 
 with wheat and every other production of temperate climates, 
 even to the luxury of snow. 
 
 The city of Merida was founded in 1593, and is situated in 
 a valley 9 miles long, in lat. 8 10' N. ; its population was . 
 1 1,500 previous to the revolution ; it is 240 miles from Mara- 
 caibo, and 420 S. E. from Caraccas. The province of Meri- 
 da, now belonging to the department of Zulia, possesses the 
 advantages of a delightful climate, and a fertile, though moun- 
 tainous territory. Wheat, tobacco, and all fruits and grains 
 of temperate climates, are raised abundantly in the high 
 lands ; while the low, warm vallies, produced sugar-cane and 
 cocoa, and all tropical fruits ; coffee could be cultivated to 
 great advantage on the mountains. The city of Truxillo, is 
 situated in lat. 8 40' N. 60 miles from Merida, with a popula- 
 tion of 7,600. The district of Truxillo differs little from that 
 of Merida, except that its mountains are steeper, and the vat- 
 
16 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 leys more confined. Barquisimeto is situated in lat. 9 44' N. 
 on an elevated plain, which is o;.^nto every breeze ; its popu- 
 lation is 11,000, it was founded R 1552, and is 450 miles N. 
 N. E. from Bogota. Tocuyo is situated 45 miles S. W. of 
 Barquisimeto, iirlat. 9 35' N. in a valley of the same name, 
 with a population estimated at 10,000. before the revolution. 
 There are several towns near the southern border of the re- 
 public ; among which is the city of Cuenca, with a population 
 of 20,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The island of Margaritta, which belongs to the department 
 of Orinoco, is situated 24 miles north of the peninsula of Araya. 
 in Cumana. The island consists of two peninsulas connected 
 by a narrow isthmus, andlier, between lat. 10 50' and 11 10' 
 -N. ; the surface of the island is uneven, consisting of hills and 
 dales. The soil is sandy, producing some cotton, sugar, and 
 other tropical productions. The capital of the island is As- 
 sumption, situated near its centre. There are several other 
 villages in the vallies. The principal port is Fampater, which 
 is fortified. The population of this island is estimated at 20,000 
 inhabitants, who are distinguished for their bravery and patri- 
 otism, particularly for their gallant deeds in the month of x No- 
 vember 1816, when every citizen became a soldier, and with 
 desperate bravery, defeated, in ten pitched battles, the formi- 
 dable hosts of Gen. Morillo ; and also, for the memorable de 
 fence made in July, the following year, when 3,500 Spanisfy 
 troops, under the same commander, were forced to retire hi 
 disgrace, with the loss of a thousand men. 
 
 Mines. The gold which has heretofore been obtained in 
 Colombia, has been found mingled with the soil near the sur- 
 face, from which it is separated by repeated washings. This 
 service was formerly performed by negro slaves, who cannot 
 bear the cold air of the mines in Mexico, but are more able 
 than the Indians to perform labour in the field. The metal 
 has been found in some districts in large grains, particularly 
 near Pamplona, where single labourers have collected, in one 
 day, the value of seven hundred and fifty dollars. A mass of 
 fine gold was found of the value of more than three thousand 
 dollars, which was sent to Spain by the governor. Gold is 
 very generally dispersed in the town of Rio Hacha ; it is found 
 in the sand washed down from the declivities ; but the prov- 
 inces of Antioquia and Choco, now included in the departments 
 of Cundinamarca and Cauca, where gold, silver, and platina 
 abound, are the most distinguished for their mineral wealth. 
 Gold is hot only found mixed with the soil, which has been 
 washed down from the declivities of mountains, but also in the 
 beds of rivers ; emeralds are likewise found in the beds of 
 
STATE OF COLOMBIA. 17 
 
 rivers, particularly in a small stream, about sixty miles from 
 Bogota, where almost every stone contains an emerald. There 
 are unworked mines of silver in Mariquita, and undoutedly 
 undiscovered mines in various parts of Colombia, as the mines 
 here have been an object of less attention than in Mexico or 
 Peru, and from the want of capital and machinery, they have 
 not been worked to the same extent or productiveness. But 
 little attention comparatively has been paid to mining in Co- 
 lombia, and it has generally been supposed that the precious 
 metals were less abundant in the former, than in the latter 
 countries ; but the late Manuel Torres, Charge des Affairs 
 from Colombia to the United States, asserted that the precious 
 metals in Colombia are not inferior to those of Mexico or Pe- 
 ru, with the advantage of their discovery being more easy and 
 less expensive.* Since the commencement of the nineteenth 
 century, the product of the mines in the departments now com- 
 posing the Colombian republic, were, 2,990,000 dollars. The 
 revolution cannot fail of having a most favourable influence on 
 the mining operations, by the introduction of foreigners and 
 foreign capital, the reduction of the duties, and the patronage 
 of a liberal and enlightened government. When adequate 
 machinery, and scientific skill, are applied to the mining ope- 
 rations in Colombia, the immense treasures which now lie 
 bedded in the bowels of the earth, will be developed, and prove 
 an inexhaustible source of wealth and of national prosperity. 
 There are mints at Popayan and Bogota, where the gold and 
 silver is coined. Formerly, a considerable part of the gold 
 was not coined in the country, but smuggled into the West 
 Indies. 
 
 On the coast between Rio Hacha and Maracaibo, there is a 
 pearl fishery carried on by the Indios Bravos, or wild tribes, 
 who inhabit the country ; but the profits of the fishery, prob- 
 ably, are chiefly realized by their more civilized neighbours, 
 who trade with them. The pearls are much superior to those 
 of the east. By a decree of congress in August, 1823, all the 
 pearl fisheries of Colombia were granted to a company on cer- 
 tain conditions. 
 
 Roads and Internal Communications. Colombia, like every 
 part of what was Spanish America, is deplorably deficient in 
 these advantages. This country is not like Mexico, destitute, 
 in a great measure, of internal water communications ; its nat- 
 ural advantages are almost unrivalled ; but from the want of 
 mechanic arts and of science, the country has not yet enjoyed 
 the benefit of them. The Orinoco, the Magdalena, the lake 
 
 * See his letter to the Sec. State, Nov. 30th, 1821, 
 VOL. 1L 26 
 
18 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 Maracaibo, and the river Zulia which empties into it, particu- 
 larly afford resources for extensive lines of internal navigation, 
 which only want to be improved. The Orinoco, by means of 
 its large branches, the Apure arid the Meta, opens a commu- 
 nication with the whole level country, to within about one 
 hundred and fifty miles of Bogota, extending more than six hun- 
 dred miles into the interior. From the mouth of the Magda- 
 lena to Honda, the head of boat navigation, is about 550 miles; 
 the current is very rapid. The internal navigation is rude 
 and unimproved, consisting of canoes poled up and down the 
 rivers by the bogas or boatsmen, of whom there is a great 
 number on all the navigable streams. It is said that there are 
 ten thousand of this class of men on the Magdalena ; their 
 principal residence is at Mompox. From the rapidity of the 
 current of the Magdalena, in going up the stream, thirty miles 
 a day is reckoned a good day's journey ; and from the various 
 delays, which usually occur, the voyage from the mouth of the 
 river to Honda is seldom performed in less than thirty days, 
 and Captain Cochrane, who lately ascended this river, was 
 forty-six. The lake Maracaibo is the most beautiful expanse 
 of water in the world, extending 150 miles into the interior, 
 and with the river Zulia, its principal tributary water, affords 
 extensive advantages for interior navigation. 
 
 In this age of improvement, when " unconquerable steam" 
 has wrought such a revolution in river and coast navigation, 
 and under the auspices of a free and enlightened government, 
 it cannot be doubted that this simple and rude navigation of 
 some of the noblest rivers in the world, the same that was pur- 
 sued by the natives, when the country was discovered, will 
 soon be superseded by steam boats : or, if there should be 
 found any difficulty in the use of these, by some other impro- 
 ved plan of internal navigation. The congress have directed 
 their attention to this object, and at their session, in 1823, 
 granted patents, on certain conditions, to James Hamilton, 
 and John Elbers, for the privilege of running steam boats on 
 the Orinoco and the Magdalena. Steam navigation has con- 
 sequently been introduced into Colombia ; in the fall of 1825, 
 a steam boat made the first passage up the Magdalena to- 
 Honda. From the many difficulties attending the first at- 
 tempt, which could not be foreseen, or measures taken to ob- 
 viate them, the passage was protracted to eighty days. This 
 experiment not only led to a knowledge of the river but sug- 
 gested many improvements, so that it was expected the second 
 trip which was commenced the last of November, would be 
 made in thirty days. Mr. Anderson the minister of the Uni- 
 ted States, Senor Gual, the Colombian secretary of foreign af 
 
STATE OF COLOMBIA. 19 
 
 fairs, both destined to Panama, to attend the Congress, were 
 among the passengers. Several steam boats, one named Boli- 
 var, destined for internal navigation in Colombia, have been 
 built in the United States. Perhaps no country in the world 
 is better accomodated with great natural canals, than Colom- 
 bia ; the Orinoco and its branches, lake Maracaibo, the Zu- 
 lia, Palma and its other tributaries, the Magdalena, the Cau- 
 ca and the Atrato, afford an extent of interior navigation un- 
 rivalled. The advantages of these interior waters will be in* 
 creased an hundred fold by the introduction of steam naviga- 
 tion ; and probably the time is not very distant, when there 
 will be as many steam vessels on these great inland canals, as 
 there are now on the Mississippi, the Ohio and the Missouri.'* 
 
 As it respects roads, they are scarcely known in Colombia ; 
 throughout the whole republic, there is not a road passable 
 for any considerable distance with wheel carriages, nor scarce- 
 ly for mules, without exposure of life or limbs. Travelling, 
 and transportation of every kind by land, is done by mules : the 
 carriage is, consequently, tedious and expensive, so that the 
 bulky produce of the interior will not bear transportation to 
 the coast ; and the expense of carriage, on the more heavy 
 and bulky articles of importation, raises them to a high price 
 in the interior. Whilst the Spaniards possessed Puerto Ca- 
 bello, the cocoa, coffee and cotton, raised in the vicinity of Va- 
 lencia, would scarcely bear the expense of transportation to 
 Caraccas. The want of good internal communications is most 
 seriously felt in Colombia, and greatly depresses the agricultu- 
 ral interests in the interior. These disadvantages will, prob- 
 ably, soon be partially overcome by improving the navigation 
 of rivers, and opening turnpike or artificial roads. 
 
 Government. The natural, but mistaken apprehension of a 
 union among states similarly situated, and having a common 
 interest, of which history affords so many examples, has been 
 strikingly illustrated in Colombia. When the country threw 
 off the Spanish yoke, not only Venezuela and New Granada, 
 which had been separate governments, but many of the prov- 
 inces of each, formed juntas for themselves, declared their in- 
 dependence, and raised military forces to maintain it, not only 
 against the authority of Spain, but that of the general govern- 
 ments established by the revolutionists claiming jurisdiction 
 over them. In New Granada, the congress composed of dep- 
 uties from a number of the provinces, were obliged to make 
 war upon the provinces of Cundanimarca and Carthagena, to 
 force them into a union, or to compel obedience to the decrees 
 of the congress. Although these contentions disparaged and 
 greatly injured their cause ; yet it is not improbable that the 
 
20 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 existence of so many independent governments, was, an the 
 whole, serviceable in the prosecution of the war. Hostilities 
 were carried on by the general governments of Venezuela and 
 New Granada, and also by the governments of many of the 
 provinces at the same time, in conjunction or separately, and 
 some times in the latter mode, when they were at war with 
 each other. When the patriots were overcome in one prov- 
 ince, they kept up resistance in another ; and when the armies 
 of the congress were defeated, and the government itself 
 overthrown ; still the provincial juntas would keep alive the 
 spirit of resistance. W hen the cause was prostrated in Vene- 
 zuela, it was maintained in New Granada, and the former 
 again liberated by troops, furnished by the latter. The exist- 
 ence of so many independent separate governments, all of 
 whom were engaged in carrying on the war, distracted the 
 attention of the Spanish chiefs, and greatly embarrassed their 
 operations ; but on the other hand, it prevented the concen- 
 tration of power, and the establishment of an energetic and 
 efficient government, as well as occasioned almost constant 
 dissentions. 
 
 It required, however, a long course of fatal experience to 
 overcome the apprehensions and prejudices which existed 
 against a consolidated government, embracing all the provin- 
 ces composing the present territory of Colombia ; and it is 
 probable, that it could not have been effected, at least, in a 
 peaceable manner, except for the great influence of Bolivar. 
 The government established in Venezuela, in 1811, was a con- 
 federacy similar to that of the United States, and at that time, 
 and long after, that plan was almost universally popular, both 
 in Venezuela and New Granada. General Miranda, by fa- 
 vouring a more concentrated and energetic government, gave 
 great offence, and occasioned himself to be viewed with sus- 
 picion. The province, (now department) of Cundanimarca, 
 in 1814, could not be induced to unite, under the most urgent 
 circumstances, with the other provinces, with which it had 
 formerly been connected, and the employment of troops, and 
 the capture of Bogota its capital, only, could compel it to join 
 the confederation. When these circumstances are consider- 
 ed, it is apparent that the revolution, in the public mind, must 
 have been very great, which should lead to the union of Vene- 
 zuela and New Granada, an event not apparently even thought 
 of, at the time of which we have been speaking, and to the 
 establishment of a government, which is not a confederacy 
 of provinces, but an entire consolidation of them into one 
 state, with a unity of authority. The first of these events 
 took place in December, 1819, when, after the overthrow of 
 
STATE OP COLOMBIA. 21 
 
 he royal power, by the great victory of Boyaca, a congress 
 vas convened at Angostura. Bolivar delivered to the con- 
 gress an elaborate speech, which shews that he had studied 
 profoundly, the principles of government, their forms, and 
 their spirit ; the object of which was, to produce a conviction 
 of the importance of a union of Venezuela and New Grenada, 
 and the establishment of an efficient government. On the 
 17th of the month, a fundamental law was passed, which 
 united, in one state, Venezuela and New Granada, to be 
 called the Republic of Colombia. This was followed by 
 the appointment of a committee to prepare a constitution ; 
 and one having been reported, it was considered and adopted, 
 by the general congress assembled at Cucuta, on the 30th of 
 August, 1821, and has ever since been in operation, although 
 ' the government was not organized under it, for some time.* 
 Its^ strength and merits have borne the test of several years' 
 trial, during which, the government founded on it, has been 
 administered with regularity, firmness and success. 
 
 The principles of this constitution are those of a represent- 
 ative democracy or republic, but not on the federative plan. 
 There is but one supreme national legislature, and no subor- 
 dinate ones. There is a complete unity of authority or gov- 
 ernment, consequently, in this important particular, the system 
 differs, essentially, from that of the United States. The de- 
 partments are only the civil divisions of the state, and do not 
 possess any subordinate powers of government, not so much 
 as the town corporations in New England. They are under 
 the immediate direction of an Intendant appointed by the 
 president of the republic ; and the provinces or subdivisions 
 of the departments are under a governor, also appointed by 
 the president. 
 
 Another important principle is different from our constitu- 
 tion ; the right of suffrage is not exercised directly, but indi- 
 rectly > as was done in France. The people, or such as are 
 qualified to vote, (and for this purpose a small amount of pro- 
 perty is necessary, or the exercise of some trade or profes- 
 sion) vote for electors, of which there are ten for every repre- 
 sentative, and these electors choose the representatives and 
 senators to congress, the president and vice-president. There 
 is one representative for every 30,000 of the population ; and 
 when the fraction, in any province, is more than one half that 
 
 * When Morales invaded Maracaibo, the constitution was sus- 
 pended in that and some of the adjoining provinces ; and during- the 
 war in Quito, the constitution was suspended in the Southern prov- 
 inces. 20* 
 
22 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 number, it is entitled to another. Each department is entitled 
 to four senators, two of which are chosen every four years. 
 The representatives are chosen for four years, and the sena- 
 tors for eight ; the president and vice-president for four, the 
 first of which is eligible only two terms in succession. 
 
 The elections of the people are held once in four years, in 
 the parishes, at which each qualified voter gives his suffrage 
 for the number of electors to which the province is entitled. 
 The electors meet in the capital of their respective provinces, 
 once in four years, and choose all the important officers of the 
 government representatives, senators, president and vice- 
 president. The votes of the electors are returned to con- 
 gress, where they are canvassed, and the validity of the elec- 
 tion decided. The president and vice-president are chosen 
 by a majority of the votes of the electors in all the provinces ; 
 but whether the senators are chosen, like the executive by the 
 whole body of electors, or by the electors of their respective 
 departments, we cannot determine from any intelligence we 
 have obtained. It would seem, however, that they are chosen 
 by the electors of their respective departments. 
 
 In our apprehension, there are great objections to this indi- 
 rect mode of election ; it is interposing an intermediate body, 
 between the people and their rulers ; it weakens the respon- 
 sibility of the latter, and diminishes the interest which the 
 former feel in the government. It is, also, more complicated, 
 and more exposed to intrigue and corruption. In a province 
 having one representative, six electors control the choice ; 
 where there is two, eleven electors possess the whole control 
 of the election ; in the departments, a small number of per- 
 sons must possess the power of appointing the senators ; and 
 estimating the whole population at 3,600,000, there would be 
 1200 electors in the republic. The number would be, proba- 
 bly, something greater in consequence of the fractions of the 
 population of the provinces. The establishment of electoral 
 colleges, composed of a small number of individuals, opens a 
 door to executive influence and corruption ; and this must be 
 the more dangerous, from the extent of the executive power, 
 arising in part from the central system. The president is en- 
 trusted with the general administration of the government ; 
 he appoints the secretaries of the home and foreign depart- 
 ments, of finance and of war, ambassadors, members of the 
 high court of justice, the intendants of the departments and 
 the governors of the provinces ; he commands the army and 
 the navy, makes all the appointments therein, arid directly or 
 indirectly appoints all inferior magistrates and officers of cor 
 porations. 
 
STATE OF COLOMBIA. 23 
 
 The consolidation system, or unity of authority ; the length 
 of the term of all legislative and executive offices, and the 
 indirect mode of election, all contribute to diminish the pow- 
 er and influence of the people, and consequently, to prevent 
 their feeling an interest in public affairs. The people, unless 
 it be in mere municipal concerns, have no participation in the 
 government, except the choice of electors once in four years, 
 the same as is done in the United States ; the difference being, 
 that our electors vote only for president and vice-president, 
 and theirs choose not only these officers^but also the repre- 
 sentatives and senators. What interest, with all the exertions 
 of politicians and expectants, would the people in the United 
 States take, in public affairs, if their only power or influence 
 was to vote once in four years for electors ? During the late 
 election of president, after a long and most animated discus- 
 sion, the people in most of the states manifested but little in- 
 terest in the question, and gave but few votes. In most of the 
 towns in New-England, more interest is felt, in the appoint- 
 ment of town officers, and incomparably more in the election 
 of representatives to the state legislatures. 
 
 In Colombia, it is true, the appointment of electors is much 
 more important, not only because the electors choose the 
 members of, both branches of the legislature, but also because 
 the people are more directly and immediately interested, both 
 in congress and the executive, than is the case in the United 
 States. Here, neither the laws of congress, nor the acts of 
 the president, scarcely touch the people in their common con- 
 cerns. What would the people of the United States think of 
 fiving up their State Legislatures, and of suffering the presi- 
 ent to appoint their governors, judges, sheriffs, and all civil 
 and military officers ? They would as soon consent to return 
 to their colonial dependence on Great Britain. 
 
 It is, however, to be remembered, that the condition of Co- 
 lombia is entirely different from the United States, or what it 
 was when our constitution was adopted. Just emerged from 
 the most degrading and oppressive colonial despotism, the 
 people at large are not sufficiently enlightened, or in any way 
 prepared for a government founded on the principles of that of 
 the United States, where so much power is reposed in the 
 hands of the people. It will take time to overcome habits, 
 the effects of forms of government, and modes of thinking, 
 
 which are the bitter fruits of a jealous and gloomy despotism. 
 
 But whether the constitution is theoretically defective or not, 
 in preferring the central to the federative plan, and the indi- 
 rect, to the direct mode of election, it possesses many just and 
 -ble principles, constituting the great landmarks of liberty, 
 
 , 
 
24 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 which evince the liberal spirit that actuated its frarners. It 
 recognises the freedom of the press ; the trial by jury ; it 
 abolishes hereditary rank and monopolies ; prohibits all ar- 
 rests not authorised by law, and all extraordinary tribunals and 
 commissions, and declares the inviolability of the houses and 
 papers of individuals, the independence of the nation, the 
 sovereignty of the people, the responsibility of magistrates, 
 and the equality of rights. 
 
 The judiciary and administration of justice are imperfect, 
 from the influenc^of Spanish laws, ordinances, and juridical 
 regulations. Their civil and criminal codes are only a collec- 
 tion of Royal Ordinances, Laws of Castile, Laws of the In- 
 dies, compilations of Spanish decrees, and colonial regulations, 
 abounding in contradictions, and only calculated to vex the 
 suitor with the " law's delay," and the law's expense, and to 
 enrich the lawyer. The government is fuily sensible of the 
 defects of this system, and is attempting to remedy the evil 
 as fast as it can be done ; it has established the trial by jury 
 in cases of libels, and declared in favour of introducing it 
 generally. But the long established habits, prejudices, and 
 usages of the people, oppose serious obstacles. 
 
 There are two laws that have been adopted by the congress, 
 that deserve particular notice, and the highest commendation ; 
 one relates to . slavery, and the other to education, both of 
 which will be more properly considered under different heads. 
 And generally, the laws which have been adopted, by the pres- 
 ent government, are founded on just principles and an enlight- 
 ened policy, calculated to consolidate and strengthen the gov- 
 ernment, to promote the happiness of the people, and the pow- 
 er and prosperity of the republic. 
 
 Commerce, Manufactures^ and Revenue. The principal ar- 
 ticles of Colombian commerce are cocoa, coffee, chocolate, 
 cotton, indigo, sugar, hides, cattle, tobacco, dye-woods, medi- 
 cinal drugs, and the precious metals, gold, silver, and platina. 
 The foreign commerce is carried on principally with Great 
 Britain and the United States : from the former Colombia re- 
 ceives manufactures of various descriptions, and military stores, 
 with ships for her navy ; and from the latter, flour, manufac- 
 tured goods, military and naval stores, military and commer- 
 cial vessels of various sizes. A considerable trade is carried 
 on with the Antilles, or West India islands, which have al- 
 ways been principally supplied with mules and horses from 
 this country. The war of the r* volution, however, has made 
 such destruction of cattle of every kind as greatly to diminish 
 this trade. Of the less important articles of commerce, are 
 mahogany, and other woods of the most exquisite beauty and 
 

 STATE OF COLOMBIA. 25 
 
 durability for cabinet work, and other uses ; dying plants, 
 bees wax, honey and cochineal. The commercial resources 
 of the country are scarcely yet touched. No portion of the 
 world possesses a more commanding geographical position, 
 more valuable maritime advantages for commerce, than Co- 
 lombia ; situated in the centre of the American continent, 
 washed by two oceans, possessing an extensive maritime coast 
 on both, and penetrated by noble rivers affording extensive 
 lines of navigation. Its Atlantic coast is in the immediate 
 neighbourhood of the West Indies, and it is centrally and fa- 
 vourably situated for commerce with Europe, the United 
 States, Mexico, the West Indies, and the Atlantic countries 
 of South America ; whilst its Pacific coast opens to the repub- 
 lic the commerce of the south sea and whale fisheries. But 
 great as are the geographical facilities and advantages of Co- 
 lombia for commerce, they do not surpass its natural internal 
 resources. Situated under the line, and embracing the cli- 
 mate, the soil, and the productions of the three zones ; rich in 
 mineral treasures, in boundless forests of valuable woods, com- 
 prising immense savannas, whose spontaneous, perpetual ver- 
 dure sustains, almost without the care, and entirely without 
 the expense of man, vast herds of cattle ; in short, no coun- 
 try possesses more extensive and diversified natural resources 
 of wealth and of commerce. Industry, art, and capital only 
 are wanted, under the protection and encouragement of a free 
 and enlightened government, to develope these exhaustless 
 treasures. In a country possessing these vast resources, when 
 peopled, the produce of agriculture, of the mines, and of the 
 forests, must constitute its wealth, and the sources of its com- 
 merce. The application of industry to these objects will aug- 
 ment the commercial ability of the country, in a ratio corres- 
 ponding with the increase of labour ; and this will be greatly 
 stimulated by a free and stable government, by the multiplica- 
 tion of population, the improvement of the arts, and the intro- 
 duction of capital. Wise laws and a judicious tariff must 
 have great influence on the commercial prosperity of Colom- 
 bia. In a new country, so thinly inhabited, arid possessing 
 such unbounded natural wealth, requiring developement, there 
 can be no doubt that freedom of commerce, with all nations, 
 is the most correct policy, and will best advance the prosperity 
 of the country. 
 
 The pernicious consequences of the restricted and monopo- 
 lizing system of Spain, it migM have been supposed, would 
 have induced the present government, immediately, to secure 
 to the country one of the most important advantages of their 
 independence freedom of commerce, and to open their ports 
 
26 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 to all the world. But long established regulations^, although 
 founded in despotism and ignorance, are not easily given up 
 at once, aud hence it is that despotism is felt long after the 
 power, which sustained it, is overthrown. In the year 1823, 
 during the recess of congress, the vice-president of Colombia, 
 administering the government, promulgated a decree, prohib- 
 iting foreigners trading in the country, on their own account, 
 and requiring that they should consign themselves to the na- 
 tives. This injudicious and illiberal measure, which savour- 
 ed much of the jealoas and monopolizing, system of Spain, 
 could not be enforced, and the congress had the wisdom not 
 to pass it into a law. Tobacco has been prohibited from be- 
 ing imported into the country ; likewise, all kinds of foreign 
 spirits, to encourage the manufacture of domestic brandy, 
 called aguaidiente. Every species of Spanish produce and 
 manufactures, introduced into the country, is forfeited by the 
 laws of the republic. This, however, is not so much a com- 
 mercial as a political measure, it being intended to distress 
 Spain ; but it must, also, occasion some inconvenience to Co- 
 lombia, and particularly prove injurious to the cocoa produce, 
 and trade of Venezuela, as Spain is the principal consumer of 
 that article. Of the policy of these, or any other particular 
 prohibitions or restrictions, we have not the means of deci- 
 ding ; but it is evident, that, for a considerable period, the 
 commerce of Colombia must consist of an exchange of the 
 produce of her exuberant soil, of her mines, and of her for* 
 ests, for the manufactures of Europe and the United States, 
 Colombia must afford an extensive market for the manufac- 
 tures of England, which country will enjoy the principal part 
 of the Colombian commerce ; although the enterprise of our 
 citizens will, undoubtedly, come in for a share. r l he amount 
 of European goods, imported into New Granada, previous to 
 1810, was two million, five hundred thousand dollars annually, 
 and the exports were one million, five hundred thousand dol- 
 lars, exclusive of the precious metals ; and the cast and ingots 
 of gold exported, are two million, six hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand dollars. 
 
 The manufactures of the republic are chiefly confined to the 
 southern departments. Previous to the year 1810, their an- 
 nual value was computed to be five millions of dollars. A 
 very great extension of this branch of industry cannot be ex- 
 pected in a country abounding in such immense agricultural 
 resources, capable of affording an extensive and profitable 
 commerce with most of the world. The mechanic arts must 
 be generally established, and advanced to a state of considera- 
 ble perfection in any country,, before manufactures, except a 
 
STATE OP COLOMBIA. 27 
 
 few of a coarse kind, can be introduced. This has not been 
 done in Colombia ; and where there is a great want of arti- 
 sans, of almost every description, such as carpenters, joiners, 
 shipbuilders, masons, blacksmiths, tanners, shoemakers, sad- 
 dlers, and cabinet makers, it will hardly be expected that man- 
 ufactures will be introduced to any extent. Furniture is im- 
 ported in all the sea-ports, from Jamaica, Curracoa, and the 
 United States ;< but this article is too bulky to be conveyed in- 
 to the interior, with the imperfect communication which exists. 
 
 The sources of revenue of the republic are direct and indi- 
 rect taxes ; but the custom-house duties constitute, by far, the 
 most certain and important branch, which is constantly in- 
 creasing, whilst many of the ancient sources of revenue have 
 been abolished. The duties received at La Guayra sometimes 
 amount to 60,000 dollars per month. There are some of the 
 old monopolies continued, as well as duties on salt. The pro- 
 duce of the Mint, including the expenses of coinage, amounts 
 to about two millions of dollars annually. The national debt 
 is principally due to foreigners, and is not so great as might be 
 expected, considering the character and duration of the war in 
 which the republic has been engaged. In 1822, the republic 
 borrowed of Messrs. Herring, Graham & Powles 2,000,000 
 sterling, and in 1824 a further loan was obtained in London of 
 4,750,000, so that her whole foreign debt is 30,000,000 dol- 
 lars, besides which she owes a domestic debt, probably of no 
 great amount. This sum must be regarded as small, when we 
 consider the long and destructive war which the country has 
 gone through ; and although considerable, it can form no ob- 
 stacle to the national prosperity, as the ability of the republic 
 to sustain it will be constantly and rapidly increasing. The 
 revenue of New Granada, previous to 1810, amounted to 
 3,200,000 dollars. Among the sources of this revenue, was 
 the royal right of a fifth of the gold extracted from the mines, 
 the tribute or capitation tax paid by the Indians, the bulls of 
 crusade, the alcabala, or duties paid on the sale of every arti- 
 cle of consumption, and partially the monopoly of tobacco, 
 which are now abolished. The revenue of Venezuela, at the 
 same time, was two millions, one hundred twenty-six thousand 
 Collars. 
 
 In consequence of the revolutionary war, the abolition of 
 many of the old branches of revenue, the entire change which 
 has taken place in the political and financial condition of the 
 country, and the increase of expenditure, which this and the 
 war attending it have occasioned, the finances of the republic 
 are unpromising, and the system imperfect , and undigested. 
 In 1823 an attempt was made to levy a direct contribution, in 
 
28 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 the form of income tax, which completely failed in consequence 
 (according to the report of the minister of finance) of the diffi- 
 culty of obtaining a fair assessment. The amount of gold and 
 silver coined for the government, is estimated at two millions 
 of dollars ; but the expenses attending which, are computed 
 at one million three hundred thousand dollars. The revenue 
 from the salt works is about one hundred thousand dollars, 
 equal to its former amount ; but the tobacco monopoly is un- 
 productive, The imposts, or duties on goods imported, is the 
 main brancfy of revenue ; but at present, very far from being 
 sufficient to meet the expenses of the government. The rev- 
 enue, however, from this source, must increase with great ra- 
 pidity, with the increase of population, the developement of 
 the mineral and agricultural wealth of the country, and the 
 extension and prosperity of the commerce of the republic ; so 
 that, at no distant period, it may suffice for the entire demands 
 of the government. 
 
 Army, navy, and military resources. The army of the re- 
 public is highly respectable, both for size and character. In 
 addition to the garrisons which are maintained in the fortified 
 towns, an efficient corps is reserved in each department, for the 
 purpose of defence. In 1823, provision was made for raising, 
 immediately, 50, 000 men, in case of an attack from Spain, and 
 a powerful Colombian army has already liberated Peru, and 
 covered itself with glory. The fields ofBoyaca, Carabobo, in 
 Colombia, and Ayacucho, in Peru, bear ample testimony to the 
 valour and discipline of the heroic army of Colombia. There 
 are few, if any examples on record, of a country of the same 
 population and resources, having carried on so long and de- 
 structive a war as Colombia has done, and bringing the same 
 to so successful and glorious a termination. The navy of the re- 
 public has not arrived at maturity ; but ample provision has 
 been made for its extension and efficiency by large appropri- 
 ations for the purpose of building and purchasing vessels of 
 war. Naval schools, for scientific and practical instruction, 
 have been established at Carthagena and Guayaquil, the prin- 
 cipal naval stations belonging to the republic. A respectable 
 navy has already been created, on both the Atlantic and Paci- 
 fic oceans, composed of frigates and smaller vessels, which has 
 been found of great utility in assisting the military operations. 
 A frigate of thirty-eight guns, called the Chapman, lately arri- 
 ved at Carthagena, from Sweden, purchased for the Colombi- 
 an government ; a ship of the line, the corvette Boyaca, the 
 sloop of war Protector, and several other ships of war were 
 purchased in England for the Colombian service in 1825, most 
 of which have arrived at Carthagena. In December of the 
 
STATE OF COLOMBIA. 2^ 
 
 same year, the frigate South America, a most beautiful and el- 
 egant vessel was launched in New-York, designed for Colom - t 
 bia, another has also been built at Philadelphia for the same 
 service. The republic has now a considerable naval force at 
 Carthagena, and most of the Mexican navy is at the same place,. 
 It is supposed that an expedition is meditated against Cuba or 
 some other of the Spanish dominions. 
 
 The military resources of the republic are ample for the 
 purposes of defence ; and the materials, for the formation of 
 an efficient army, are abundant. The people of colour, of all 
 classes, make excellent soldiers, and some of them have risen 
 to a distinguished rank in the army ; and it cannot be doubted 
 that the brave people of Colombia are as capable of maintain- 
 ing ineir independence, as any other nation, of the same mag- 
 nitude, on the globe. 
 
 Character of the People, Education, $-c. A late traveller re- 
 marks, that the most pleasing trait, in the character of the 
 Colombian Creoles, is good nature ; the same writer further 
 remarks, that they are not vindictive nor cruel. It cannot be 
 expected that a newborn natvjn, which has just emerged from 
 a state of colonial degradation, can immediately develope 
 any very strong, or peculiar characteristics ; but it is due to 
 justice to observe, that the inhabitants of Colombia, during 
 their long and arduous r iruggle, have displayed a constancy 
 and devotion to the cause of liberty anil indepencence, that 
 has rarely been equalled by any people of ancient or modern 
 times ; and it is also worthy of remark, that the government 
 of Colombia has maintained its public credit with scrupulous 
 fidelity, and that all its relations with foreigners have been 
 characterized by the love of justice and liberality ; that it has 
 omitted no means of diffusing knowledge, or extending the 
 blessings of the republican system among its citizens, and of 
 preparing them, for the enjoyment of liberty arid the exalted 
 destiny which awaits them, as citizens of a free, prosperous, 
 and powerful republic. The enlightened policy of the pres- 
 ent government, is gradualy obliterating the casts and classes, 
 into which the population was divided under the colonial sys- 
 tem. These distinctions, so inconsistent with a republican 
 government, will soon be entirely lost. The constitution and 
 the laws recognize no distinction of colour, and all free per- 
 sons are equally eligible to office. To the eternal honour of 
 the present congress, one of its earliest acts had, for it? ob- 
 ject, the gradual abolition of slavery. It provides that no per- 
 son can be born a slave in the republic, and prohibits the im- 
 portation of slaves under a severe penalty. It does not stop 
 here, but makes provision for a manumission fund, by a tax 
 
 VOL. II. 21 
 
30 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 which, according to the colonial laws, was retained by the 
 government. These regulations are similar to those which 
 were adopted by the republican government at Buenos Ayres, 
 at an earlier period. The manumission fund is applied to 
 the purchase of slaves, a great number of which are redeem- 
 ed annually ; their characters are strictly inquired into by the 
 highest magistrates, and those are redeemed who are the most 
 deserving. 
 
 Previous to the revolution, Caraccas and Santa Fe de Bo- 
 gota, were the seats of learning, and like luminous bodies, 
 diffused their light through the dark atmosphere of the provin- 
 ces. Caraccas gave the first impulse to the revolution in 
 Venezuela ; and Bogota, in New Granada ; and a great por- 
 tion of the political intelligence, which afterwards was scat- 
 rered through the provinces, was disseminated from these 
 cities, which were the two eyes of the republic. Not only the 
 light, but the first heat of the revolution, originated in these 
 two capitals ; they not only diffused a knowledge of their rights 
 among the people, but set the first examples of defending 
 them. The inhabitants of Caraccas were more enlightened, 
 from commerce, and the intercourse of foreigners, than those 
 of Bogota, and their acquirements were in a different depart- 
 ment of science. Politics, philosophy, eloquence, metaphys- 
 ics, and the moral sciences, received the most attention at 
 Caraccas ; whilst at Bogota, mathematics, natural history, 
 chemistry, botany, and other physical sciences, were chiefly 
 attended to.* Politics, however, were not neglected at Bo- 
 gota, where there were many individuals of enlightened 
 and liberal principles, all of whom took part in favour of the 
 revolution, and most of them fell a sacrifice to their patriot- 
 ism. 
 
 There were, perhaps, few cities in America, that possessed 
 a greater number of learned and scientific men, at the break- 
 ing out of the revoution, than Bogota. Doctors Mutis, Cal- 
 ders, Zea, and other members of the university, cultivated 
 mathematics with success ; and the former was, also, a dis- 
 tinguished botanist. The great work, on that subject, which 
 he left unfinished at his death, was prosecuted by his nephew, 
 Dr. Senforso Mutis, Don Jose Lozano, and Don Francisco Jose 
 Caldas, assisted by the pencil of Don Salvados Rezo. They 
 were encouraged in their researches by the popular govern- 
 ment ; but their labours and their lives were cut short by the 
 blood thirsty Morillo, who, on his capture of the capital in 1816, 
 
 * Hall's Colombia. 
 
STATE OP COLOMBIA. 31 
 
 put to death all the learned men, as well as all the actors 
 in the revolution, which fell into his hands. 
 
 Under the colonial despotism, the studies of all the univer- 
 'sities and colleges were established by law, and all others strict- 
 ly prohibited, so that these institutions were rather calculated 
 to cramp, than to expand the intellect to confine, rather than 
 extend the knowledge of the student. All books, which did 
 not tend to strengthen the despotism of the state, or the church, 
 were prohibited, and the Inquisition charged to prevent their 
 introduction into the country. With all the restrictions and 
 vigilance of the holy office, however, liberal books found their 
 way into America, and the students, in a clandestine manner, 
 devoted that time to Voltaire, Rousseau, and Volney, which 
 they were required to apply to scholastic and theological stud- 
 ies. Don A. Narino, afterwards one of the leaders of the 
 revolution, translated Rousseau's Social Compact, for which 
 offence, although he had previously obtained the consent of 
 the viceroy, he was immured in the dungeons of Carthagena, 
 and from thence removed to Spain. Under such a despotism, 
 which feared nothing so much as light, it is rather astonishing 
 that science and learning made the progress they did in many 
 parts of Spanish America, than that they did not make more. 
 Among the first subjects, which received the attention of 
 the constitutional coagress, was that of education. At its first 
 session, it passed an act concerning schools, colleges, and uni- 
 1 versities. The report of Mr. Restrepo, the secretary of state c 
 shows that the government engaged, zealously, in this impor- 
 tant work. The Lancastrian system has been introduced, 
 and numerous schools have been established on that plan. 
 The founder of the system is now in Colombia, using- his ex- 
 ertions to extend the blessings of his system of education, and 
 to scatter light in dark places. Some few seminaries of a 
 higher order have been put in operation, and the universities 
 and colleges have undergone a thorough reformation. A por- 
 tion of the old ecclesiastical revenue, particularly the property 
 ol certain monasteries and nunneries, has been- appropriated 
 to the purposes of education. The restrictions on books 
 have not only been removed, but they are allowed to be im- 
 ported free of duty, and also maps, charts, engravings, scienti- 
 fic apparatus, &c. Useful books for schools, and good teach- 
 ers are much wanted. Considering the shortness of the time, 
 much has been done, although this is only to be considered as 
 the first fruits of the great work of mental regeneration and 
 illumination, which Bolivar and his patriotic associates in Co- 
 lombia have undertaken. There has been established, during 
 lie past year, forty schools on the plan of Bell and Lancaster, 
 
32 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 ten colleges, and three universities, and a public library at the 
 capital, containing 14,000 volumes ; and Bolivar, the founder 
 of the republic has lately made a large donation to Caraccas, 
 his native city, to constitute a fund for the support of primary 
 schools. His constant efforts to emancipate the people frqii) 
 moral darkness may add a brighter lustre to his name, than his 
 great and astonishing exploits to liberate his country from the 
 tyranny of Spain. 
 
 Religion. In Colombia, as well as in all parts of what was 
 Spanish America, the Roman Catholic religion is established 
 and maintained by law. More liberality, however, prevails in 
 Colombia than in Mexico, and a certain degree of toleration, 
 to other religions, is allowed. In August, 1821, the congress 
 passed a decree, abolishing the Inquisition, and conferring on 
 the ecclesiastical courts, jurisdiction in all matters of religion, 
 according to the canons and customs of the Roman Catholic 
 church. The law provides, that juridical proceedings in such 
 cases (in matters of faith) shall take place only with respect 
 to Roman Catholics born in Colombia, their children, and 
 those who, having come from other countries, shall have en- 
 rolled themselves in the parish registers of the Catholics ; but 
 not with respect to strangers, who may have come to reside 
 temporarily, or permanently, nor with their descendants, who 
 can, in no manner be molested on account of their belief, 
 though they ought to respect the Roman Catholic worship and 
 religion. 
 
 This is a qualified kind of toleration, even as it respects 
 (of eigners ; as the law declares that they shall not be molest- 
 ed, " on account of their belief," which leaves it uncertain, 
 whether they are to be protected in the open public worship 
 of religion, differing from the Catholic. This is a question of 
 construction, arising from the face of the law, and it is uncer- 
 tain how it may be decided. The clergy will be disposed to 
 put the most illiberal interpretation on the law ; but the offi- 
 cers composing the government, and all the enlightened men 
 throughout the republic, it is presumed, will be inclined to 
 construe this act, in the most favourable and liberal manner. 
 This qualified toleration, is but just raising the veil of an es- 
 tablished faith, to let in a glimpse of light to the mental vis- 
 ion. It may be all that the prejudices of the people, and the 
 influence of the clergy will admit ; but it is not what the con- 
 dition, and prosperity of the country, or the civil institutions 
 which have been adopted, demand. It is justly observed by a 
 recent writer, " If Colombia intends to tread in the steps of 
 t,he United States, and to grow powerful, by the admission of 
 foreigners into her bosom, some change in her religious sys 
 
STATE OF COLOMBIA, 33 
 
 tern, either legally sanctioned, or conventially allowed, must 
 take place."* In other respects, the government has adopt- 
 ed the most liberal regulations to promote the emigration of 
 foreigners into the country ; that is, Europeans and the citi- 
 zens of the United States ; the president being authorised 
 to distribute or dispose of one million and a half of acres of 
 the lands of the state, for the encouragement of emigration. 
 
 The bondage of the mind, is the most debasing and humili- 
 tating kind of slavery ; and until that is free, the nation is not 
 completely emancipated. Civil liberty cannot long exist with 
 religious intolerance and despotism : one must acquire the en- 
 tire ascendancy, when it will destroy the other, which will end 
 the conflict. The result in Colombia cannot occasion doubt 
 or apprehension. If the present free republican institutions 
 maintain their ground, unqualified toleration and freedom of 
 inquiry, and of action in matters of religion, must inevitably 
 follow. This requires time, as it cannot be supposed that a 
 nation, long enslaved, can be redeemed in a day ; or that the 
 accumulated rubbish of three centuries of political oppression 
 and hierarchical craft and corruption can be removed by the 
 first effort of liberty. The enjoyment of entire religious free- 
 dom, will form the capstone of the political edifice, whose sure 
 | foundation, and lofty structure, it is hoped, will long reflect 
 the sunlight of liberty and truth, on the vast declivities of the 
 Andes, and over the outstretched vallies of the Orinoco. 
 
 * Hall's Colombia. 
 
HISTORY 
 
 REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 Causes of the Revolution events in Spain establishment of 
 Juntas there overthrow of the Central Junta establishment 
 of Juntas in America massacre at Quito success of the 
 French in Spain establishment of the Regency of Cadiz 
 effect of these events on the Colonies Junta Suprema of Ca- 
 raccas blockade of Caraccas by the regency troops sent from 
 Spain conduct of the Cortes towards America congress of 
 Venezuela declaration of Independence proceedings in 
 Spain policy of England and France propositions of Ac- 
 commodation rejected by the Cortes junta of Caraccas sends 
 Deputies to England. 
 
 WE have seen what America was, whilst a part of the do- 
 minions of Spain, and subject to the government of the Span- 
 ish crown, and are now to behold her in a different and more 
 interesting character ; in maintaining, for a long period, with 
 unexampled perseverance, a desperate struggle for her inde- 
 pendence, characterised by scenes of bloodshed and cruelty, 
 unparalleled in modern times ; to behold her exertions finally 
 crowned with success, and half a dozen independent States 
 suddenly emerging from colonial degradation, take their rank 
 in the family of nations ; to witness these states, founded on 
 the will of the people, and calculated to secure, to the present 
 and future generations, independence, liberty, peace, and all 
 fheir attendant blessings. 
 
 The revolution in Colombia is more important than in other 
 parts of Spanish America, as the war commenced here, and 
 
HISTORY OF THE REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 3/> 
 
 the struggle was more protracted and severe ; here Spain 
 made her greatest exertions, and the success of the revolution 
 in Colombia, in no small degree, has been the means of its 
 ultimate triumph through the Spanish American dominions. 
 We shall, therefore, in noticing the causes or events which led 
 to the revolution, have to consider many whose influence was 
 general on all parts of the Spanish dominions in America, as 
 well as on those now constituting the Colombian republic. 
 
 The first causes of the civil commotions in America are to 
 be sought for in the disturbances which occurred in Spain ; 
 and among the other benefits to mankind, which the ambition 
 of Napoleon Bonaparte produced, without his intention, that of 
 opening the way for the revolution in South America is by no 
 means the least important. His proceedings at Bayonrie, in 
 compelling Ferdinand to abdicate the throne of Spain, in fa- 
 vour of Joseph Bonaparte, and the evident designs of Napoleon, 
 threw Spain into confusion. The loyalty and spirit of the na- 
 tion was roused, and the people refused to submit to a monarch 
 imposed on them by treachery, and supported by foreign bayo- 
 nets. In the provinces not occupied by the French, juntas 
 were established, which assumed the government of their dis- 
 tricts ; and that at Seville, styling itself the supreme junta of 
 Spain and the Indies, despatched deputies to the different gov- 
 ernments in America, requiring an acknowledgment of its au- 
 thority ; to obtain which, it was represented that the junta was 
 acknowledged and obeyed throughout Spain. At the same 
 time, the regency created at Madrid by Ferdinand, when he 
 left his capital, and the junta at Asturias, each claimed supe- 
 riority, and endeavoured to direct the affairs of the nation. 
 
 Napoleon, on his part, was not less attend* e to America ; 
 agents were sent in the name of Joseph, king of Spain, to com- 
 municate to the colonies the abdication of Ferdinand, and his 
 accession to the vacant throne, and to procure the recognition 
 of his authority by the Americans. Thus the obedience of the 
 colonies was demanded by no less than four tribunals, each 
 claiming to possess supreme authority at home. There could 
 scarcely have occurred a conjuncture more favourable for the 
 colonists, to throw off their dependence on Spain, being con- 
 vulsed as she was, by a civil war, the king a prisoner, the mon- 
 archy subverted, and the people unable to agree among them- 
 selves where the supreme authority was vested, or which of 
 the pretenders to it were to be obeyed. The power of the 
 parent state over its colonies was de facto at an end ; in con- 
 sequence of which, they were, in a measure, required to 
 " provide new guards for their security." But so totally un- 
 prepared were the colonists for a political revolution, that in- 
 
36 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 stead of these events being regarded as auspicious to their 
 prosperity, they only served to prove the strength of their loy- 
 alty and attachment to Spain. Notwithstanding. that the vice- 
 roys and captain-generals, excepting the viceroy of New Spain, 
 manifested a readiness to acquiesce in the cessions of Bayonne. 
 to yield to the new order of things, and to sacrifice their king, 
 provided they could retain their places, in which they were 
 confirmed by the new king, the news of the occurrences in 
 Spain, filled the people with indignation ; they publicly burnt 
 the proclamations sent out by king Joseph, expelled his agents, 
 and, such was their rage, that all Frenchmen in the colonies 
 became objects of insult and execration. A French brig ar- 
 rived at Caraccas with despatches, in July, 1808, and anchor- 
 ed two miles from the town. The fact was no sooner known 
 to the inhabitants, than the utmost excitement ensued, attend- 
 ed with such hostile feelings towards the French, that the cap- 
 tain of the brig was obliged to steal out of town secretly, in 
 the night, to save his life. 
 
 " On entering the city," says a British naval officer, " I ob- 
 served a great effervescence among the people, like something 
 which either precedes or follows a popular commotion ; and 
 as I entered the large inn of the city, 1 was surrounded by in- 
 habitants of almost all classes. 
 
 " I here learned that the French captain, who had arrived 
 yesterday, had brought intelligence of every thing which had 
 taken place in Spain in favour of France ; that he had announ- 
 ced the accession in the Spanish throne of Joseph Bonaparte, 
 and had brought orders to the government from the French 
 emperor. 
 
 " The city was immediately in arms ; 10,000 of its inhabit- 
 ants surrounded the residence of the captain-general, and de- 
 manded the proclamation of Ferdinand the Seventh as their 
 king which he promised the next day. But this would not 
 satisfy them : they proclaimed him that evening by heralds, in 
 form, throughout the city, and placed his portrait, illuminated, 
 in the gallery of the town-house. 
 
 " The French were first publicly insulted in the coffee- 
 house, from whence they were obliged to withdraw ; and the 
 French captain left Caraccas, privately, about eight o'clock 
 that night, escorted by a detachment of soldiers, and so saved 
 his life ; for, about ten o'clock his person was demanded of 
 the governor by the populace, and when they learned that he 
 was gone, three hundred men followed him to put him to 
 death. 
 
 4 'Though coldly received by the governor, I was surround- 
 ed by all the respectable inhabitants of the city, and hailed a^ 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 37 
 
 their deliverer. The news which I gave them from Cadiz wa? 
 devoured with avidity, and produced enthusiastic shouts of 
 'jrratitufle to England."* 
 
 A French brig, with an envoy from Napoleon, arrived at 
 Buenos Ay res the latter part of July, with despatches to Li- 
 mers, the Viceroy, who issued a proclamation, informing the 
 people of the events which had occurred in Spain, and inten- 
 ded to persuade them to acquiesce in the proceedings at Bay- 
 onne, and submit to the authority of Joseph Buonaparte. This 
 proclamation was badly received by the people, and the gov- 
 ernor of Monte Video accused Liniers of disloyalty, and, dis- 
 regarding his proclamation, established a junta for the prov- 
 ince, similar to those in Spain, and thus withdrew it from the 
 jurisdiction of Liniers. 
 
 The intelligence of the general revolt in Spain, against the 
 government of Joseph Buonaparte, and the establishment of 
 juntas, was received in Mexico about the same time, and oc- 
 casioned the greatest enthasiasm among the inhabitants ; and 
 when the deputies, some time after, arrived from the junta of 
 Seville, they were ready to acknowledge their authority, and 
 would have done it, had not despatches arrived from the junta 
 of Asturias, cautioning them against the ambitious designs of 
 the Andalusian junta. At this period, so little thought had the 
 colonists of attempting to avail themselves of the disorders, 
 which existed in Spain, to establish their independence, and so 
 strong was their loyalty, that they seemed ready to acknowl- 
 edge the authority of any self-created tribunal in Spain, which 
 claimed to be respected and obeyed at home ; although it is 
 evident, that there was no more propriety in the colonies ac- 
 knowledging the authority of any of the juntas in the Spanish 
 peninsula, than there was of Spain's recognising the authority 
 of a junta established in the colonies ; as America had been 
 subject to the king of Spain, not to the nation. 
 
 As the disorders in the peninsula continued, and no sove- 
 reign power existed there, that the colonies could respect, a 
 number of the most distinguisned inhabitants of Caraccas pre- 
 sented a petition to Cacas, the captain-general, recommending 
 the establishing of a junta silmlar to those in Spain. And al- 
 though the petitioners had evidently no other object than to 
 provide for the security of the province ; and, notwithstanding 
 the principles of the petition were taken from the laws, the 
 petitioners were answered by being arrested and thrown into 
 prison ; but they were released in a few days. 
 
 No one of the several juntas in Spain, being able to acquire 
 
 
 Extract from Capt. Beaver's letter to A. Cochrane. 
 
38 HISTORY OF TH 
 
 supreme authority, and feeling the want of unity of power, thtf 
 provincial juntas agreed to send deputies to a central junta., 
 and thus constitute a national authority and tribunal. In case 
 of a suspension of the royal functions, the laws of Spain re- 
 quired the establishment of a regency ; yet, nevertheless, this 
 irregular tribunal was obeyed, not only in Spain, but in Amer- 
 ica, and so implicitly in the latter, that, down to the year 1810, 
 more than ninety millions of dollars were sent to Spain by the 
 colonies. This money not only enabled the Spanish patriots, 
 as they were called, to carry on the war with France, but gave 
 vigour to the measures they subsequently adopted towards 
 America, so that the colonies furnished the means of their 
 own subjugation. ' Many of the most intelligent individuals 
 in America, did not feel satisfied with the authority of the 
 central junta of Spain, and generally much anxiety was felt, 
 for the fate of the colonies, in case the French should prevail. 
 These sentiments led to the establishment of a junta in the 
 province of Quito, in August, 1809; and the Marquis Selva 
 Allegre was chosen its president. A similar junta had previ- 
 ously been created in La Paz, the capital of one of the dis- 
 tricts under the dominion of the audience of Charcas, and was 
 suppressed by the military force of the viceroy of Buenos 
 Ayres. The viceroy of New Granada, Don Amar, determin- 
 ed to destroy the junta formed at Quito ; but desirous of ex- 
 hibiting an appearance of acting in conformity to the will of 
 the people, he convened together the principal inhabitants of 
 Santa Fe de Bogota, for the purpose of consulting them on 
 the subject ; believing that they would not have independence 
 sufficient to oppose his will. In this however, he was disap- 
 pointed ; the assembly not only approved of the proceedings 
 at Quito, but declared, that a similar body ought to be formed 
 in Santa Fe, for the security of the country, in case Spain 
 should finally be conquered by the French. The assembly, 
 with the consent of the viceroy, was adjourned, to meet again 
 on the llth of September, 1809, the first meeting being on 
 the 7th. Still thinking to intimidate the members, the viceroy 
 required that each one should give his vote in writing. When 
 the assembly again met, they were surprised to see that the 
 guards of the palace were doubled, and that great military 
 preparations had been made, as if an enemy was approaching 
 the city. But even this seasonable display of military force 
 did not have the effect of overawing the assembly ; its debates 
 were bold and spirited, and the voting by written ballots, 
 shewing the opinions of the different members, tended to 
 strengthen their firmness and resolution ; so that the friends of 
 the measure were rather increased than diminished. This 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 39 
 
 occasion first brought into notice several individuals, who af- 
 terwards became distinguished patriots ; Camillo de Torres, 
 Gutierrez, Father Padilia, and Moreno, were among the num- 
 ber. Being at length persuaded that he could not have even 
 the appearance of acting in conformity to public opinion, the 
 viceroy took immediate steps to suppress the popular junta at 
 Quito, by an armed force ; and the viceroy bf Peru, having 
 despatched troops for the same object, the junta was obliged 
 to succumb to a power, it had no means of resisting. And 
 although an assurance was given, by the president of the au- 
 dinencia of Quito, that no one should, in any way, suffer on 
 account of what had taken place; yet, in violation of this 
 plighted faith, a large number of those who had belonged to, 
 or supported the popular government, were arrested and im- 
 prisoned ; and on the 2d of August, the following year, they 
 were all massacred, in prison, on pretence of a revolt. The 
 troops stationed in the city, after massacreing the prisoners, 
 were suffered to plunder the inhabitants ; the scene of rapine 
 and carnage was shocking, and involved the property of thou- 
 sands, and the lives of more than three hundred persons, mur- 
 dered in cold blood. The anniversary of the fate of these 
 early victims, to the liberation and independence of Colom- 
 bia, was commemorated by order of the junta of Caraccas, 
 in 1810, in a solemn manner, with appropriate funeral hon- 
 ours. 
 
 These tyrannical and sanguinary measures, produced great 
 excitement throughout the colonies, greatly increased the fer- 
 ment which prevailed, and tended to weaken the attachment 
 that was felt towards the parent country. Few individuals, 
 however, even thought of independence ; they all were anx- 
 ious for a re-establishment of the government of Spain, and a 
 reformation in the colonies. The intelligence of the distur- 
 bances in America, and the violent measures pursued by the 
 colonial chiefs, alarmed the central junta of old Spain, and 
 with a view to conciliate the wounded feelings of the Ameri- 
 ,< cans, they issued a pompous declaration, in which they assert- 
 ed that " the colonies were equal to the mother country." 
 But this was entirely deceptive ; no reformation of the system, 
 no correction of abuses was attempted ; and, notwithstanding 
 the disturbances which the violence of the governors had oc- 
 casioned, Spaniards were sent to America, to fill all places, 
 and occupy all public employment, as had been done for ages 
 past ; and the colonies were drained of money to supply the 
 pressing wants of Spain engaged in a struggle with the gigan- 
 tic power of France. 
 
 Nothing could exceed the astonishment of the Americans, 
 
40 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 when, at the very time they were expecting to hear of the final 
 triumph of the patriots in Spain, and the restoration Ferdi- 
 dinand VII. they learnt that the French were masters of Mad- 
 rid, and that the central junta had been driven to Andalusia. 
 But their confidence, in the courage of the people of Spain, 
 remained unshaken ; and instead of being discouraged, by 
 these disasters, they only served to awaken the zeal of the 
 Americans in the cause of the mother country, which they still 
 regarded as their own ; not only the regular remittances were 
 made, but large sums raised by subscriptions from every class 
 of the population. The intelligence of war breaking out be- 
 tween Austria and France, and the victory of Talavera, occa- 
 sioned as great joy in America, as it did in the Spanish penin- 
 sula ; but this enthusiasm was soon allayed by intelligence of 
 the most alarming dissentions among the patriots ; general de 
 la Romana published a manifesto, declaring the power of the 
 central junta illegal, and the juntas of Seville and Valencia 
 protested against it. These dissentions were followed by the 
 defeat of their armies, and the dispersion of the central junta, 
 which, having become obnoxious to popular rage, its members 
 were pursued and insulted by the people, and denounced as 
 traitors. A. few of the members assembled in the isle of Leon, 
 but not daring to exercise the powers of government any lon- 
 ger, and trembling for their own safety, they vested their au- 
 thority in a regency consisting of five members. At this time, 
 all of Spain was under the dominion of Buonaparte, except 
 Cadiz and Gallicia, which would have been the extent of the 
 jurisdiction of the regency, had it been legally constituted ; but 
 for one illegal body, whose authority the national will had an- 
 nulled, when unable any longer to maintain its own power, to 
 attempt to transfer it to another tribunal, of its own creating, 
 was such a palpable attempt at usurpation, tkat the new gov- 
 ernment would not have been respected one moment, by any 
 one in Spain, had it not been for the awful crisis which threat- 
 ened the annihilation of the last hopes of the Spanish patriots, 
 " What a favourable conjuncture for the Americans to eman- 
 cipate themselves from a government which had tyrannised 
 over them for three centuries ! But instead of promptly em- 
 bracing the opportunity, they appear to have been only think- 
 ing of the re-establishment of the legitimate power of their 
 oppressors the restoration of Ferdinand the adored. The 
 prevailing anxiety of the colonists, from the commencement 
 of the disturbances in Spain, had been an apprehension of 
 falling under the power of Bonaparte, in the event of his be- 
 coming master of the Spanish peninsula ; and as the cause of 
 the Spanish patriots became more desperate, the fears of the 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 41 
 
 colonists increased. " What will become of us if Spain shall 
 be conquered 1" was a question universally asked ; and its dis- 
 cussion directly led to the consideration of the necessity and 
 the right of providing new guards for their own security. The 
 question only admitted of two answers ; for if Spain fell under 
 the power of France, her colonies must have sjiared her fate, 
 or taken care of themselves. The case supposed, presented 
 but an alternative to America, to fall under the power of 
 France, or become independent. The first ideas which the 
 Americans had of independence, did not relate to independ- 
 ence, as it respected Spain, but as to France. How different 
 was the origin of the revolution which resulted in the inde- 
 pendence of the British American colonies, from that which 
 separated the Spanish colonies from the mother country. The 
 revolution in the British colonies originated from measures of 
 oppression on the part of the parent state, and long and system- 
 atical resistance to those measures on the part of the colonies. 
 The Anglo-Americans were alarmed, from an apprehension 
 of being oppressed by the parent country ; but the Spanish 
 Americans, although tyrannised over by Spain for centuries, 
 were terrified at the prospect of the overthrow of the power ol 
 their oppressors, and that that event would place them under 
 the dominion of a foreign power, which they detested. Al- 
 though such, generally, were the feelings of the Spanish colo- 
 nists ; yet at this period, and before, there were some few en- 
 rightened individuals in the different settlements, who enter- 
 tained higher views and hopes ; who wished to avail themselves 
 of the present juncture to restore their country to its natural 
 rights, of which it had been deprived for three hundred years. 
 
 The illegal regency in Spain, being encouraged by the man- 
 ifesto of the merchants of Cadiz, addressed a proclamation to 
 the colonies in America ; and with the intention of conciliating 
 them, at a crisis when it was evident Spain could do nothing 
 without their assistance, the proclamation contains sentiments 
 not less true than remarkable, as emanating from such a source. 
 
 " Americans, ye have been long weighed down by a yoke 
 naore oppressive to bear, because ye were distant from the 
 centre of power. We now place your future destiny in your 
 3wn hands. Ye have hitherto been the football, as it were, of 
 :he viceroys, always subject to their ambition and caprice, 
 vvhile at the same time ye were a prey to their cupidity. From 
 his time your fate shall Hot depend on them." 
 
 The regency, also, endeavoured to impress on the Ameri 
 cans, that Spain and her colonies were to share the same fate, 
 whatever it might be. " It is not sufficient," they observe, 
 
 VOL. II. 22 
 
12 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 "for you to be Spaniards, unless, whatever be the event of 
 fortune, you also belong to Spain." 
 
 The news of the disastrous events in the Spanish Peninsula, 
 and the proclamation of the regency, reached Caraccas in the 
 year 1810, and occasioned great alarm. The struggle in 
 Spain was believed to be nearly at an end, and the final tri- 
 umph of Bonaparte certain. At such a conjuncture, the in- 
 habitants felt it to be their duty and their right to provide for 
 their own security ; the legitimate government of the mother 
 country being annihilated, and the colonies exposed to fall 
 into the hands of a foreign power. They felt the more con- 
 firmed in this course, as they had no longer any reason to 
 doubt that it was the design of the Spanish chiefs at home, and 
 of all the colonial officers in America, who were determined to 
 yield obedience to every species of government established in 
 the Peninsula, however illegal, that the colonies should fall 
 under the dominion of Bonaparte in case he conquered Spain. 
 We have seen that the colonial chiefs were willing to sacrifice 
 their king, and recognize the power of Joseph Bonaparte, as 
 sovereign of Spain ; and after the insurrection in the Peninsu- 
 la, they had evinced a readiness to acknowledge the authority 
 of any self-created tribunal in Spain, however palpably illegal, 
 and at the same time to resist every attempt of the colonists 
 to establish any provisional tribunal, which might preserve the 
 country from anarchy in case of the subjugation of the parent 
 country. The prime object of the colonial rulers was to keep 
 the colonies in a state of dependence on some power in Europe i 
 and they seemed hardly to care where or what it was. And it 
 ife not difficult to discover the motives of this conduct ; as long 
 as America could be kept in a state of dependence, the colo- 
 nial rulers supposed a readiness to acknowledge any authority 
 which claimed dominion over Spain, and consequently over 
 America, was the most sure way of preserving their station. 
 They wished to keep America dependent, not so much from a 
 regard to the interests of Spain, as to preserve their own pow- 
 er ; being very sensible that they could have no part in any 
 government constituted by the people. Hence the violence 
 with which they pursued the American patriots ; every act, 
 every movement tending towards the independence of the colo- 
 nies, although temporary, and with entire and express recog- 
 nition of Ferdinand VII. was regarded as a blow aimed at 
 their own power. This is the cause of the fury with which 
 they pursued the first patriots in the colonies, and the zeal 
 they pretended to feel for their country, was stimulated by an 
 apprehension of losing their own power, a passion of all oth- 
 ers the most violent and vindictive. 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 43 
 
 The inhabitants of Caraccas were well acquainted with the 
 opinions and feelings of the captain-general of the province, 
 and aware that he intended, at all events, to keep them in 
 a state of dependence ; and considering that, as the legiti- 
 mate government in Spain was at an end, the powers of govern- 
 ment during this suspension of authority in the parent state, 
 had reverted to the people : and that in the language of their 
 brethren in the north, in their solemn declaration to the world, 
 it consequently had become a right and a duty to " provide 
 new guards for their own security." By the almost unani- 
 mous voice of the people, the Spanish colonial officers were 
 deposed, and the cabildo, or municipal body, together with 
 several other persons, designated by the people, were vested 
 with the powers of government, and styled a Junta Suprema. 
 The junta, however, acted in the name of Ferdinand VII. ; 
 and although they disallowed the authority of the regency at 
 Cadiz, they offered to afford all the aid in their power towards 
 the prosecution of the war against France. 
 
 1 he influence which the condition of Spain had on the col- 
 onies, the measures that the Americans had adopted, and the 
 violence with which they had been opposed by the Spanish 
 rulers, both in Spain and the colonies, had greatly increased 
 the jealousy and unfriendly feelings between the Creoles or 
 native Americans, and the European Spaniards in America. 
 In July, 1810, an affray occurred at Santa Fe de Bogota, which 
 originated from a European Spaniard, insulting a native Amer- 
 ican, and including in the opprobrious and reproachful lan- 
 guage which he applied to him, all his countrymen. The 
 quarrel between two individuals soon assumed a serious as- 
 pect ; the citizens collecting to the scene of contention, the 
 Spaniards joining on the side of their countrymen, and the 
 Creoles taking part with theirs, a contest ensued, in which the 
 latter, being the most numerous, were triumphant. 
 
 Under the influence of the excitement, which this popular 
 contest had occasioned, a meeting of the inhabitants was con- 
 vened, and a junta established. In Chile the captain-general 
 exasperated the people to such a degree, that he was obliged 
 to resign his office, and a junta was formed in September ; 
 and in Mexico an insurrection broke out the same month in 
 consequence of the violent measures of Venegas, the new 
 viceroy. 
 
 Accounts of these proceedings in the colonies, were sent to 
 Spain, by the colonial governors, with all the exaggeration 
 which their exasperated feelings were calculated to give to 
 them ; and their effect on the regency must have gratified their 
 most violent resentments. The official despatches f the 
 
14 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 junta of Caraccas, containing the reasons which had induced 
 the people to take the course they had, the nature of the pow- 
 er assumed, and that, although they could not submit to the 
 authority of the regency, they recognised the supremacy oi' 
 Ferdinand, had no influence on the unstable and violent, 
 councils of a distracted state.* The regency of Spain, ille- 
 gal and impotent as it was, with that rashness and violence 
 which oppugnation to illegal power, usually occasions, im- 
 mediately declared Caraccas in a state of blockade. This 
 decree was published on the 31st of August, 1810, and its 
 importance, as well as to exhibit its spirit, requires its inser- 
 tion here : 
 
 " Scarcely had the council of regency received intelligence 
 of the occurrences at Caraccas, whose inhabitants, instigated 
 ho doubt by some intriguing and factious persons, were guilty 
 of declaring themselves independent of the mother country, and 
 of forming a governing junta to exercise this supposed independ- 
 ent authority, when it determined to take the most active and 
 efficacious means to attack the evil in its origin, and prevent its 
 progress. But, in order to proceed with mature deliberation, 
 the regency consulted the council of Spain and the Indies, and 
 has taken such measures as will answer the end proposed, 
 particularly as neither the province of Maracaibo, nor the de- 
 partment of Coro, have taken part in the criminal proceedings : 
 but, on the contrary, have acknowledged the council of regency ; 
 and taken the most efficacious measures to oppose the absurd idea 
 ~yCd7ZCZZ" dzdaring herself independent, without being possess- 
 ed of the means of obtaining this independence ! The regency 
 hereby declares the province of Caraccas in a state of rigorous 
 blockade," &c. " These resolutions do not extend to the 
 above-mentioned divisions, which, having refused to follow 
 the pernicious example of Caraccas, have manifested their 
 constant fidelity by opposing the plan of rebellion, which only 
 originated in the unlimited ambition of some persons, and in 
 the blind credulity of others, who suffered^ themselves to be 
 hurried away by the ardent passions of their fellow countrymen. 
 The regency has taken the most secure measures to extirpate 
 these evils, and to punish the authors of them with all the 
 rigour which the rights of sovereignty authorize it to use, un- 
 less there be a previous and voluntary submission, in which 
 case the regency grants them a general pardon. The regen- 
 cy commands that these resolutions be circulated through all 
 the Spanish dominions, that they may be carried into effect 
 there as well as in foreign countries, and that they may act 
 
 * Walton's Expose to the King of England. 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA, 45 
 
 conformably to the measures taken for the blockade of the 
 said coasts," &c. 
 
 If the causes which led to the revolution, in the British col- 
 onies in America, were unlike those which occasioned the 
 first movements of that, in the Spanish colonies, the conduct 
 of the two parent governments, occasioned by the first pro- 
 ceedings of the colonies, were very similar, and proceeded 
 from the same feelings. The blockade of Caraccas, is a 
 measure that compares very well with the Boston Port Bill, 
 and other acts of Parliament, which instantly followed the 
 news of the destruction of the tea ; and although, perhaps, 
 more violent, it was dictated by the same spirit, and justified 
 on the same, principles. 
 
 This decree of the regency was a declaration of war, and 
 its authors, without inquiring into the causes which occasioned 
 the measures pursued in the colonies, or making a single ef- 
 fort for conciliation, rashly plunged the two countries into all 
 the horrors of civil war. The answer of the junta of Carac- 
 cas, to the Marquis de las Hermazas, minister in Spain, con- 
 taining an expose of the reasons, which occasioned the estab- 
 lishment of the junta, and justifying the measure, instead of 
 tending to allay the feelings of the regency, and the people of 
 Spain, greatly inflamed them ; and the intelligence, that other 
 colonies were following the examples of Caraccas, excited 
 their resentment to the highest pitch. The Cortes had been 
 convened, and both the government and the people seemed 
 ripe for war, and thirsting for vengeance. The severest in 
 vectives, reproaches, and sarcasms, against the Americans, 
 were published in the Cadiz newspapers ; and the most vio- 
 lent measures were adopted, not only calculated, but intend- 
 ed, to enkindle the flames of civil war in America, and thus 
 either coerce her into an acknowledgement of the authority of 
 Spain, whatever it might be, or make her destroy herself. A- 
 gents or emissaries were sent to Puerto Rico, Montevideo, 
 Panama, and Mexico, for the purpose of arousing political and 
 religious prejudices in favour of Spain, and against the new 
 governments in America, and by making promises to some, 
 and threatening others, to produce dissentions among the pat- 
 riots, and thus destroy the new governments in the bud. But 
 the principal reliance of the rulers of Spain was on the sword, 
 and consequently, troops were sent to Montevideo, Vera Cruz, 
 Coro, Santa Martha, and Panama, with a view to dragoon the 
 Americans into submission ; although at this time, every sol- 
 dier was wanted at home for the defence of the country. The 
 rage however, which prevailed against the invaders of their 
 country, violent as it was, did npt equal that tawatds the 
 22* 
 
46 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 rebellious Americans. The animosity of the Cortes, againsf 
 the colonists, corresponded with the feelings of the regency : 
 and although some Americans, who happened at the time to 
 be in the Isle of Leon, were chosen members of the Cortes, 
 so strong were the feelings of that body, they scarcely daied 
 to speak in favour of their countrymen. 
 
 Such was the spirit which animated the councils of Spain, 
 and dictated the measures they adopted towards America ; 
 and their agents and officers in the colonies, exasperated by 
 the loss of power, or alarmed from an apprehension of it, were 
 fit instruments to execute measures of vengeance, to scatter 
 the fire brands of civil dissentions, and carry on a vindictive 
 and sanguinary war, the object of which was, either to subju- 
 gate the rebellious Americans, or to exterminate them. 
 Those who possess supreme power, however acquired, regard 
 the invasion of it as the greatest of all crimes. The patriots 
 of America were denounced as rebels and traitors, and the 
 vengeance of the state, and the anathemas of the church, di- 
 rected against them. That a contest commenced under such 
 auspices should have become a war of extermination,, and in 
 its progress have exhibited horrid scenes of cruelty, desola- 
 tion and deliberate bloodshed ; that all offers of accommoda- 
 tion should be repelled with insult or outrage ; capitulations 
 violated, public faith disregarded, prisoners of war cruelly 
 massacred, and the inhabitants persecuted, imprisoned, and 
 put to death, cannot occasion surprise. As violence and cru- 
 elty produce the bitter spirit of recrimination and revenge, the 
 outrages of the Spaniards exasperated the Americans, and led 
 to retaliation, which rendered the contest a war of death, as it 
 was ofteia called, characterised by a ferocious and savage spir- 
 it, scarcely surpassed by that of the Cortes and Pizarros, who 
 first desolated this fair portion of the earth, and drenched its 
 mountains and plains with the blood of its innocent inhabit- 
 ants. The events of the ^evolutionary struggle, which we have 
 now commenced narrating, will fully justify us in what we have 
 asserted as to the spirit and conduct of the Spanish chiefs and 
 rulers ; in charging them with the first disregard of the laws 
 of war among civilized nations, and the first outrages agaiast 
 the rights of humanity. The violent measures of the Spanish 
 rulers, and the furious and cruel conduct of their agents in 
 America, towards the patriots, produced an effect directly 
 contrary from what was expected ; but nevertheless, what 
 was natural, and would have been foreseen, had they taken 
 counsel from their understandings, instead of their mortified 
 pride and exasperated feelings. The high-toned measures, 
 enforced with rigour and cruelty, which it was expected would 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 4 
 
 have intimidated the patriots, and stifled the spirit of indepen- 
 dence, only served, like violent winds, acting on half extin- 
 guished coals, to enliven its latent sparks, and blow them into 
 a flame. The authority of a state over its colonies, especial- 
 ly when at a great distance, cannot long be supported on any 
 ojher basis than that of mutual affection and attachment be- 
 tween the inhabitants of the two countries. Spain, notwith- 
 standing the example of Great Britain, from which she might 
 have profited, seems to have entirely disregarded this maxim ; 
 and instead of attempting to allay the spirit of disaffection, 
 which disclosed itself, and restore the mutual attachments and 
 confidence between the two countries, by injustice and cruel- 
 ty, alienated the affections of the colonists from the parent 
 country ; dissolved the ties of fraternity, and enkindled, from 
 a few sparks, a revolutionary flame, which spread through all 
 her dominions. In consequence of the tyrannical and perse- 
 cuting conduct of the Spanish rulers at home and in America, 
 so wide had the disaffection spread, and to such a degree were 
 the people alienated from Spain, and irritated against their op- 
 pressors, that in one year they became ripe for a revolution, 
 and prepared to assume the responsibility of taking the reins 
 of government into their own hands ; of declaring to the 
 world "that they were, and of right ought to be, free, sove- 
 reign and independent," at the hazard of their lives and for- 
 tunes. 
 
 Caraccastook the lead, and a congress of the several provin- 
 ces in Venezuela was convened, which on tke 5th of July, 
 1811, in imitation of the American Congress, just thirty-five 
 years before, published a declaration of independence ; con- 
 taining the reasons which impelled them to the separation, and 
 pledging their lives, fortunes, and the sacred tie of national 
 honour, to maintain it. 
 
 The noble example of Venezuela was followed by Cartha- 
 gena, Socorro, Tunja, Pamplona, Antioquia, and the other 
 provinces forming the confederation of New Granada, and like- 
 wise by Mexico, which published similar declarations ; and at 
 a later period Buenos Ayres, also, promulged a declaration of 
 Independence. 
 
 The proceedings in America opened the eyes of the Cor- 
 tes of Spain to the tendency of their conduct, and perceiving 
 that they were driving the Americans to a separation, they be- 
 came alarmed, and had recourse, after it was too late, to con- 
 ciliating measures. The members of the Cortes, who belong- 
 ed to America, had submitted a plan for the accommodation 
 of the differences existing between Spain and her colonies* 
 but the Cortes had refused even to consider it $ yet in Januar* 
 
48 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 ry, 1811, their project, containing eleven propositions, was dis- 
 cussed ; and, notwithstanding the apprehensions of the Cor 
 tes, arising from the movements in America, they remained 
 not only deaf to the calls of justice, but insensible to the dic- 
 tates of expediency. The project was rejected, three propo- 
 sitions only being approved of. As these propositions reflect 
 light on the dispute between America and Spain 1 , and at the 
 same time, tend to show the restrictions and oppressions un- 
 der which the colonies have suffered for ages, it deserves a 
 place in the history of the revolution which separated the two 
 countries. 
 
 " 1st. In conformity to the decree of the central junta, da- 
 ted the 15th of October, 1809, which declared the inhabitants 
 of Spanish America equal in rights to those of the peninsula, 
 the national representation of every part of Spanish America , 
 the Spanish West Indies, and the Phillipine Islands, including 
 every class of their inhabitants, shall be the same in form, 
 manner, and without distinction, as in the kingdom and islands 
 of European Spain. 
 
 " 2dly. 1 he free natives and inhabitants of Spanish Ameri- 
 ca shall be allowed to plant and cultivate whatever their cli- 
 mate will produce ; with license to encourage industry, and 
 to promote manufactures and arts in their fullest extent. 
 
 "3dly. Spanish America shall enjoy the liberty of export- 
 ing her own natural and manufactured productions to the pe- 
 ninsula, as well as to the allies, and to neutral nations ; and of 
 importing whatever she may want. All her ports are conse- 
 quently to be opened." This and the preceding demand were 
 agreed to, but the order to carry them into execution was 
 never published. 
 
 " 4thly. There shall be a free trade between Spanish 
 America and the Spanish settlements in Asia. Every thing 
 militating against this freedom to be abolished. 
 
 " 5thly. Freedom of trade to be granted from all the ports 
 in Spanish America and the Philippine Islands to other parts 
 of Asia. Any law existing contrary to such freedom to be 
 annulled. 
 
 " 6thly. All estancos or monopolies in favour of the public 
 treasury, or of the king, shall be suppressed ; but the public 
 treasury shall be indemnified for the loss of profit arising from 
 such monopoly, by new duties on the same articles. 
 
 ' 7thly. The working of the quicksilver mines shall be free 
 in Spanish America, but the administration of the produce 
 shall remain in charge of the officers of the minery department* 
 independent of the viceroys and captain-general, and officers 
 -of 4he red hacienda" This was granted, and orders 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 49 
 
 published for carrying it into execution in the provinces under 
 the Spaniards. 
 
 " Sthly. All Spanish Americans shall be eligible equally 
 with Spaniards to all appointments of rank or emolument, 
 whether at court or in any part of the monarchy, either in po- 
 litical, military, or ecclesiastical departments. 
 
 " 9thly. Consulting the natural protection of each kingdom 
 in Spanish America, half of the public appointments shall be 
 filled by Spanish subjects born in America. ._ 
 
 " lOthly. That the above stipulations may be punctually 
 adhered to, a consultive junta shall be formed in each capital, 
 to the intent that it may propose persons suited to fill each va- 
 cancy. 
 
 It is curious to notice the fluctuating policy of both France 
 and England, as to the dispute betw< en Spain and her colo- 
 nies. After the occurrences at Bayonne, France attempted 
 to acquire dominion over America as ap appendage of Spain, 
 and wished to maintain the dependence of the former on the 
 latter. But they soon became satisfied, from the extreme re- 
 pugnance manifested by the Americans to their dominion, that 
 whatever might be the event of the war as to old Spain, the 
 colonies would never acknowledge or submit to the sway of 
 France. The Bonapartes, therefore, changed their views, 
 and became the abettors of the independence of America, for 
 the purpose of cutting off from Spain the pecuniary resources 
 she derived from her colonies, as well as to weaken her by in- 
 yolving her in a civil war. Thus, whilst all the different gov- 
 ernments in the Spanish peninsula, maintaining the rights of 
 Ferdinand, were opposing the independence of America, Jo- 
 seph Bonaparte, claiming the throne of Spain, against whose 
 sovereignty the Americans had shown so much hostility, was 
 attempting to promote it. He despatched agents to America 
 for the purpose of exciting and encouraging the revolution 
 there ; giving them full and minute instructions, embracing 
 even the motto to be inscribed on the revolutionary banners, 
 which was, " Long live the catholic, apostolic, and Roman 
 religion, and perish the bad government." These instructions 
 were given to M. Desmolard, of Baltimore, who was the prin- 
 cipal agent of Joseph Bonaparte, and to other emissaries sent 
 i nto the colonies. A copy of these instructions was found in. 
 Caraccas in the office of the secretary of the junta, and for- 
 warded to the admiral of the Barbadoes station, as a caution, 
 against the intrigues of the Bonapartes.* The French agents 
 penetrated into different parts of the American settlements, 
 and one of them was discovered in the town of Habana, and 
 shot. 
 
 * See Outline of the Revolution, p. 55, 
 
50 HISTORY OF 1?HE 
 
 The court of St. James, in 1797, openly encouraged a rev 
 olution in Venezuela, as appears by the proclamation of the 
 governor of Trinidad, which we have copied in this work. 
 Spain then being an ally of France, and her resources wasted 
 by Napoleon, in supporting his wars against England and her 
 allies, the British ministry wished to separate her colonies from 
 Spain, to deprive her of the supplies she received from them, 
 and also to secure to Great- Britain a lucrative trade with 
 America. But after the general rising in Spain, against Bona- 
 parte, the tables were turned, and the Spaniards, from being 
 the enemies of Great-Britain, became her friends and allies. 
 Feeling interested in the success of the war prosecuting in 
 the Spanish peninsula, against France, Great-Britain became 
 the mediator between Spain and her colonies, and in June, 
 1810, Lord Liverpool wrote to general Layard, governor of 
 Curracoa, " That his Britannic majesty had strong reasons for 
 hoping that the inhabitants of Caraccas would acknowledge 
 the authority of the regency of Spain." The governor sent 
 copies of this letter to the government at Caraccas, and also 
 to the regency at Cadiz, in both of which places it was pub- 
 lished ; and soon after colonel Robertson, the secretary of the 
 governor of Curracoa, arrived at Caraccas, with the evident 
 design of promoting the wish of the British cabinet ; but per- 
 ceiving how universal the disaffection of the inhabitants was 
 towards the regency of Spain, he did not communicate the 
 object of his mission. Not discouraged, however, in her ef- 
 forts to restore harmony between Spain and her Colonies, in 
 April, 1811, Great-Britain offered her mediation,* which was 
 accepted by the Cortes, on certain conditions ; among which, 
 the principal were, that the revolted provinces should swear 
 allegiance to the Cortes and regency ; and in case the Ameri- 
 cans should not accede to the terms proposed, that the British 
 government should engage to assist Spain to subdue them by 
 force. Unreasonable as these terms were, the British govern- 
 ment appointed commissioners ; but probably from an expecta- 
 tion that the Cortes might be induced to accede to more liberal 
 terms of accommodation. In 1812, the British government 
 submitted to the Cortes the following propositions, as the basis 
 on whicn they would undertake the mediation : 
 
 " 1st. That there should be a cessation of hostilities between 
 Spain and Spanish America. 
 
 " 2dly. An amnesty shall be granted, and perfect oblivion 
 of all acts, or even opinions that may have been expressed, by 
 the Spanish Americans against the Spaniards or their govern- 
 ment 
 
 " 3dly. That the Cortes shall confirm and enforce all the 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA* 51 
 
 rights of the Spanish Americans, and that they shall be allow- 
 ed justly and liberally their representatives in the Cortes. 
 
 " 4thly. That Spanish America should be permitted per- 
 fect freedom for commerce, though some degree of preference 
 may be allowed to Spain. 
 
 " 5thly. That the appointments of viceroys, governors, &c, 
 shall be given Indiscriminately to South Americans and Span- 
 iards. 
 
 " 6thly. That the interior government, and every branch of 
 public administration, shall be intrusted to the cabildo, or mu- 
 nicipalities, who shall act in conjunction with the chief of the 
 provinces ; and that the members of the cabildo shall be ei- 
 ther South Americans or Spaniards, possessing property in the 
 respective provinces. 
 
 " Tthly. That Spanish America shall swear allegiance to 
 Ferdinand VII. as soon as she is put in possession of her rights, 
 and has sent deputies to the Cortes. 
 
 " 8thly. That Spanish America shall acknowledge the 
 sovereignty possessed by the Cortes, as representing Ferdi- 
 nand VII. 
 
 " 9thly. That Spanish America shall pledge herself to main- 
 tain a mutual and friendly intercourse with the peninsula. 
 
 " lOthly. That Spanish America shall oblige herself to co- 
 operate with the Cortes and the allies of Spain to preserve the 
 peninsula from the power of France. 
 
 These proposals occasioned very long and animated debates 
 in the Cortes, in secret session, and were finally rejected, 
 principally on the grounds that the Americans had not solicit- 
 ed the mediation of England, and that the British govern- 
 ment had sinister views in offering it. That to secure to 
 themselves the commerce df the colonies, was the principal 
 motive which prompted the interference of the British, there 
 is no room to doubt. During the same period, the British 
 minister at Cadiz was pressing the regency hard to obtain the 
 privilege of opening a trade with their trans-atlantic dominions, 
 and in April, 18 11, the subject was brought before the Cortes, 
 which occasioned much excitement among the merchants of 
 Cadiz, and the papers were rilled with invectives against the un- 
 reasonable demands and sinister friendship of England. On the 
 24th of July, the board of trade at Cadiz discussed this ques- 
 tion, and issued a protest or manifesto, in which they assert, 
 " That the Americans had not required the establishment of 
 this free trade ; that they even detested it as prejudicial to 
 their interest : That Spain would be ruined, made the tool of 
 foreigners, and that her merchants and manufactures being 
 destroyed, she would herself lose all freedom. : That, in short, 
 
e)2 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 this commerce would be subversive of religion, order, society^ 
 and morality." This reasoning seems to have convinced the 
 Cortes ; for in August following, the demands of the British 
 were formally rejected. 
 
 After the establishment of the junta at Caraccas, in 1810, 
 Don Telesford Ore a was sent to Washington to solicit the 
 friendship of the only republic then in the world ; and which, 
 it was hoped, would approve of the stand they had assumed, 
 if not aid them in sustaining it. It could hardly have been ex- 
 pected, that, at this early period, the government of the Uni- 
 ted States would compromit the peace of the republic, by di- 
 rectly or indirectly affording aid to a cause, the nature and 
 design of which they could know little about, and the issue of 
 which was so uncertain. But from the very commencement 
 of thejcontest the first dawn of the light of liberty in Spanish 
 America, the people of the United States sympathised with 
 their brethren of the south in their political afflictions, and 
 wished them success in the glorious cause in which they had 
 embarked. 
 
 About the same time the Caraccas junta deputed Don Luis 
 Lopez Mendez, and Don Simon Bolivar, a name that has since 
 become illustrious, to solicit the support of the British govern- 
 ment ; but the latter declined the mission. From the instruc- 
 tions given to Sir Thomas Picton, in 1797, by the minister of 
 the colonial department, wherein the British government open- 
 ly attempted to induce the inhabitants to revolt, and pledged 
 itself to afford them assistance, the Venezuelans considered 
 that they had a right to expect the countenance and succour 
 of the British government. So deeply was this sentiment im- 
 pressed on the minds of the inhabitants of Caraccas, both 
 Spaniards and Americans in 1810, that it had great influence v 
 on the revolutionary movement which took place at that time. 
 But the war which broke out in the Spanish peninsula, against 
 Bonaparte, as has before been remarked, changed the policy 
 of the English government ; and the only effect the agent of 
 the junta of Caraccas produced, was an order in council, di- 
 recting the governors of their West India islands to maintain 
 a strict neutrality in the contest between Spain and her colo- 
 nies, so long as the latter should act in the name of Ferdinand 
 VII. This order not only excluded all hope of assistance from 
 England, but seemed to imply, that if the patriots should de- 
 clare themselves independent of Ferdinand, the British would 
 take a part against them. 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA, 53 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Measures of the junta of Caraccas arrival of General Miran- 
 da congress plans of a constitution patriotic society con- 
 spiracy execution of conspirators operations at Valencia 
 formation oj a constitution conspiracy against the junta of 
 New Granada regency attempt to conciliate the colonies 
 junta of Carthagena congress of New Granada civil dis- 
 sentions massacre at Quito defeat of the royalists in Popay- 
 an defeat of the patriots. 
 
 Iiif the preceding chapter we have examined the leading 
 causes of the revolution, and traced its events, for a period of 
 two years, so far as respects the relations between the colo- 
 nies and Spain, and the conduct of the two parties towards each 
 other ; and also as regards the intentions and policy of Eng- 
 land and France, relative to the revolution. We will now 
 look into the interior of the revolution, view the political 
 measures of the new governments, and proceed to enter on the 
 distressing details of the dreadful war, which, for more than 
 twelve years, raged with the greatest fury in Colombia. 
 
 The junta at Caraccas, organised in 1810, after deposing 
 the Spanish authorities, of which the captain-general and 
 members of the audience were sent to the United States, 
 adopted several popular regulations ; they abolished the trib- 
 ute paid by the Indians, and the slave trade, and removed the 
 restrictions on commerce and agriculture, and made other re- 
 formations which the oppressed condition of the colony requir- 
 ed. These decrees being published, by order bf the junta, in 
 the other provinces in Venezuela, all of them except Maracai- 
 bo, formed juntas in imitation of that of Caraccas ; they did 
 not, however, acknowledge the supremacy of that, but propo- 
 sed a general congress for all the provinces of Venezuela. 
 Soon after the establishment of the junta in Guiana, the Span- 
 iards, gaining the ascendency, it declared against the junta of 
 Caraccas, and in favour of the regency of Cadiz. Don Fer- 
 nando Miyares, governour of Maricaibo, opposed the innova- 
 tions at Caraccas, arrested the deputies sent there, and confin- 
 ed them in the dungeons of Puerto Rico, from which, after 
 VOL. II. 23 
 
54 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 severe suffering, they were liberated by the interference of 
 admiral Cochrane. 
 
 After the regency of Spain declared all the ports belonging 
 to the new government in a state of blockade, it despatched 
 Don N. Cortavarria as cornmisioner, clothed with absolute 
 authority to reduce the rebellious Venezuelans to uncondition- 
 al submission, if they did not listen to reason and return to 
 obedience. He exhorted the inhabitants not to suffer them- 
 selves to be led astray by designing men, but to abandon their 
 evil counsels, and, like dutiful children, return to the arms of 
 the best of parents. He promised that if they would dissolve 
 their illegal governments, then Spain would redress their 
 grievances. His proclamations were answered, and his de- 
 signs exposed, in the papers at Caraccas, which induced him 
 to have recourse to secret means ; and emissaries were sent 
 into ail parts of Venezuela, to work on the prejudices and 
 fears of the people, and produce a counter revolution. The 
 prompt resistance of the governor of Maracaibo to the revo- 
 lutionary measures, was so pleasing to the regency of Cadiz, 
 that he was appointed captain-general of Venezuela. To 
 guard against any measures of opposition which he might pur- 
 sue, and to watch his movements, the Caraccas junta sent the 
 Marquis del Toro with a body of troops to Corora, which oc- 
 casioned two of the departments of the province of Maracai- 
 bo to dissolve their connexion with that province, and place 
 themselves under the protection of the marquis, and the junta 
 of the province of Barinas. Troops were sent under Don 
 Diego del Toro, and don Pedro Brizeno for the protection of 
 those departments. Agreeable to his instructions, the Mar- 
 quis del Toro opened a correspondence with Miyares, the 
 captain-general, and attempted to convince him of the neces- 
 sity and advantages of uniting the province of Maracaibo with 
 the rest of Venezuela, but without /success. 
 
 Believing that the inhabitants of the province of Maricaibo 
 were generally disposed to join their brethren of the other 
 provinces of Venezuela, several attempts at insurrection hav- 
 ing been made in the town of Maracaibo, and alarmed from an 
 apprehension of the arrival of troops from Spain, the Marquis 
 del Toro communicated to the government at Caraccas an 
 opinion, that if Coro, one of the departments of the province 
 of Caraccas which held out against the new government, was 
 attacked, and the royal party subdued, Maracaibo would join in 
 the general cause. This measure being approved of by the 
 junta, the Marquis del Toro entered the department of Coro. 
 in November, 1810, and, at first, all resistance yielding before 
 him, he took possession of the capital, of the same name as 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 55 
 
 the department. From the town of Coro, to Carora, from 
 whence the army had marched, is a distance of one hundred 
 and twenty miles ; the country is uncultivated, and sandy, and 
 from a neglect of the general to station his forces so as to 
 preserve a communication with Carora, his provisions for the 
 army failed ; and being disappointed in the co-operation of the 
 ships of war which sailed from Puerto Cabello for that pur- 
 pose, in consequence of the weather, the Marquis del Toro 
 was compelled to retreat, and relinquish the object of the ex- 
 pedition. But as the retreat was not effected without difficul- 
 ty and hard fighting, something was gained by the expedition, 
 as it tended to increase the confidence of the government and 
 and the people in the army. 
 
 At the close of the year 1810, general Miranda arrived at 
 Caraccas from England, contrary to the wishes of the govern- 
 ment, which had instructed its deputy sent to London to op- 
 pose his return to his native country at present. The reason 
 of this was, the junta of Caraccas believed that the return of 
 Miranda to Venezuela, which would be presumed to be in 
 pursuance of the desire of the government, would have an un- 
 favourable influence on the cause, in consequence of the known 
 revolutionary designs of Miranda and his repeated attempts 
 to free Venezuela from the dominion of Spain. As the os- 
 tensible views of the new government did not go so far as those 
 of general Miranda, they could not consistently invite him 
 into the country, or entrust him with any employment. 
 
 The general congress for all the provinces of Venezuela, 
 convened for its first session on the 2d of March, 1811, and 
 was constituted according to the regulations adopted by the 
 supreme junta of Caraccas ; which provided for taking a cen- 
 sus of the population, for forming the electoral colleges ; fixed 
 the ratio of representation and the mode of election. One 
 representative was allowed for every twenty thousand persons, 
 and about fifty deputies were elected and took their seats in 
 the congress. The junta, to expedite the business of the con- 
 gress, had, previous to their meeting, appointed a committee, 
 consisting of Don F. X. Ustariz, Don Fermin Paul, general 
 Miranda, Don J. Roscio and others, to frame a constitution, 
 to be submitted to the congress. The committee, after sev- 
 eral conferences, with the exception of Miranda, united in 
 the opinion that a confederation was. the best form of govern- 
 ment for Venezuela. General Miranda's opinion was widely 
 different ; he laid before the committee a plan of a constitu- 
 tion, the same he had intended to have presented to the people, 
 had he succeeded in his attempt to revolutionize Terra Firma 
 in 1806, It was designed for a more extensive territory than 
 
56 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 Venezuela, and did not essentially differ from the Spanish co* 
 lonial system. Miranda, who had been received at first with 
 jealousy, greatly increased the fears which prevailed of his 
 entertaining ambitious views, by his constitutional project* 
 And although the most distinguished advocates of independ- 
 ence had full confidence in his integrity, and highly venerated 
 his talents and patriotism, his friends could not obtain an elec- 
 tion for him to the congress, except in the insignificant depart- 
 ment of Araguita, in Barcelona. As is usually the case with 
 a state just emerged from oppression, the congress disclosed 
 much jealousy, and experienced much difficulty in disposing of 
 the executive power. At length, in the month of April, they 
 entrusted it to three persons, named by the congress, but so 
 limited and restricted, as evinced their fears of its subverting 
 the other branches of the government. 
 
 The congress was not united, even on the main question ;. 
 there was a party in favour of a re-union with Spain ; but a 
 decided majority were advocates for independence, and the 
 minority were afraid to declare their sentiments, in conse- 
 quence of the enthusiasm of the people of Caraccas in the 
 revolutionary cause. General Miranda, sensible that intelli- 
 gence was all that was necessary to increase the partizans of 
 the revolution, in conjunction with Don Francisco Espejo, a. 
 distinguished lawyer, established a club, called the patriotic 
 society, for the discussion of political questions, and all topics 
 relating to the general welfare of the state. 
 
 The 19th of April, the anniversary of the revolution, was 
 celebrated by the inhabitants of Caraccas, with an enthusiasm 
 which nothing but the spirit of liberty could inspire. After 
 service in the churches, all the inhabitants appeared in the 
 streets, richly and appropriately dressed, wearing cockades on 
 their hats, composed of blue, red, and yellow ribbands. The 
 city was filled with rejoicing, the streets were lined with 
 crowds of all classes, with countenances beaming with joy ; 
 even many parties of Indians collected in the environs of the 
 town, and by dancing, and various sports, according to their 
 customs, evinced that three hundred years of slavery and op- 
 pression had not extinguished from their race the sacred spark 
 of liberty, or rendered them insensible to its blessings. The 
 patriotic society moved in procession through the principal 
 streets, adorned with badges of liberty, and bearing appropri- 
 ate ensigns. At night the scene became more deeply inter- 
 esting and sublime ; the general joy seemed to increase ; the 
 city was illuminated throughout, and in the public and many of 
 the private buildings, the transparencies displayed with good 
 taste, appropriate and patriotic mottos and inscriptions. Bands 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA 57 
 
 of music paraded the streets, which, with numerous parties of 
 singers, filled the air with melody and song, which tended to 
 diffuse the joyous and patriotic feelings that universally pre- 
 vailed. 
 
 But the congress wanted courage and energy to profit from 
 the enthusiasm of the people ; by temporising and indecisive 
 conduct, the confidence of the inhabitants in the government 
 began to be weakened, and their enthusiasm declined. Sev- 
 eral attempts to overthrow the government were detected, and 
 the conspirators were only banished or imprisoned. In June, 
 1811, a most alarming plot was discovered, just as it was on 
 the point of breaking out. This convinced the government 
 and the people, that it was necessary to adopt more decisive 
 measures. Their condition, however, was critical and em- 
 barrassing ; they had established a government, disavowed 
 the existing authorities of Spain, and by these steps occa- 
 sioned the parent country to make war upon them, although 
 they had not declared themselves independent. They had 
 brought on their country the evils of war, and were exposed 
 to be punished as rebels, yet, unless they declared the country 
 independent of Spain, they had no object in view, in any de- 
 gree corresponding with such sacrifices. This subject was 
 taken up and discussed in the patriotic society, and the pre- 
 vailing opinion seemed to be, that nothing but a declaration 
 of entire independence could save the country from ruin. 
 Encouraged by these favourable sentiments among the people, 
 a declaration of independence was proposed in the congress, 
 and after being debated at great length, and with much earn- 
 estness, was finally adopted on the 5th of July, 1811. The 
 length of this document prevents its being embodied in this 
 work. It is drawn up in imitation of the declaration by the 
 North American congress, and may be found in the outline 
 of the Revolution, page 45. The good effects of the meas- 
 ure were immediately perceived ; it gave energy to the gov- 
 ernment, and the principal of the conspirators were arrested. 
 Their plan was to have secured the main barrack, by means 
 of the treachery of a Spanish sergeant in the employ of the 
 new government, which would have supplied them with am- 
 munition and arms, and then to have attacked the town, in 
 which several hundred of the conspirators were concealed, 
 who would have joined in the assault the moment the first 
 cannon was fired from the barracks. If it had succeeded, the 
 three members of the executive, and the leading members of 
 congress, were to have been instantly executed, and the re- 
 maining members sent to Spain. Notwithstanding the arrest 
 of the leaders, the conspirators began to assemble at about 
 
58 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 three o'clock in the morning on the llth of July, in that part 
 of the city called Las-tegues ; but the people who were ap- 
 prised of the danger, were prepared to meet them, and after 
 some resistance they were captured and thrown into prison. 
 The day preceding this event, an insurrection broke out at Va- 
 encia, situated in the interior, more than one hundred miles 
 from Garaccas. The Spaniards residing in the town surprised 
 and took possession of the barracks, garrisoned by a few sol- 
 diers, and were joioed by many of the other inhabitants 
 who were disaffected with the congress in consequence 
 of its having opposed their plan of separating themselves 
 from Caraccas, and forming a new province. Arms had been 
 privately introduced into the town by the Spaniards, which, 
 being put into the hands of the insurgents, they prepared to 
 defend the town against the government. 
 
 The appearance of a new and unexpected enemy, the off- 
 spring of disaffection, greatly embarrassed and perplexed th'e 
 government ; they knew not how far the disaffection extend- 
 ed, or hardly who to trust ; and the conspirators arrested, 
 refused to disclose their accomplices, from an expectation 
 that their numbers were such, that with the assistance of 
 the Spanish troops they should prevail, by which means 
 they would be released. It was thought expedient to crush 
 the insurrection in the germ, and immediately to attack 
 the conspirators at Valencia ; but the troops were required 
 at Caraccas, for the protection of the town and the govern- 
 ment. In this dilemma, the government appealed to the in- 
 habitants, and a sufficient number turned out in arms for the 
 defence of the place. General Toro was then sent against 
 Valencia. In the meantime, ten of the conspirators were 
 were tried, condemned and executed ; and what is more 
 shocking, and tends to prove that the revolution had not done 
 away the inhuman and barbarous spirit of the inhabitants, their 
 heads were placed on poles, at the entrance of the city, in 
 pursuance of their sentence. "Distrusting the military talents 
 of the Marquis del Toro, the congress ordered general Miran- 
 da to take command of the arrny sent against Valencia. The 
 insurgents had fortifiied two hills near the town, which com- 
 manded the road leading into it ; one of which had been at- 
 tacked and carried by general Toro, before the arrival of Mi- 
 randa , but with a very heavy loss to the patriots. Miranda, who 
 by his appointment regained some part of his lost popularity, 
 forced the other pass, stormed and entered the town, and 
 drove a party of the royalists into the barrack called de lo? 
 pardas. There they were attacked ; and with such deter- 
 mination did they defend the position, that the patriots were 
 several times repulsed with great loss. This encouraged 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA, 59 
 
 the royalists in the town, who, from the windows and roofs 
 of the houses, and from the towers of the churches and 
 monasteries, poured showers of musketry on the troops 
 with such destructive effect, that Miranda was obliged to re- 
 tire from the town. He retreated to Mariara, twelve miles 
 from Valencia, one of the hills that had been fortified by the 
 royalists, where he remained until the next month, when, be* 
 ing re-enforced, he assaulted and took possession of the town 
 and dispersed the royalists. Miranda was now at the head of 
 four thousand troops, with which he proposed to invade the 
 department of Coro, and although ,the executive was in fa- 
 vour of the proposal, it was defeated by the jealousy of the 
 congress, and the opposition of his enemies, whose animosity 
 was revived by his recent success. 
 
 The formation of a constitution had attracted the public at- 
 tention since the publication of the declaration of Indepen- 
 dence. A correspondence on the subject was carried on be* 
 tween Don F. X. Ustariz and Don J. Roscio, two of the com- 
 mittee to whom the subject had been referred, with several in- 
 dividuals in Santa Fe de Bogota, and others in the interior of 
 Venezuela, which, being published, seemed to interest every 
 body ; and a series of essays were published in the Caraccas 
 Gazette, written by one Burk, an Irishman, which, as well as 
 the correspondence, were designed to convince the people that 
 a federative republic, like that of the United States, was the 
 best form of government for Venezuela. Burk was patroniz- 
 ed by Ustariz, Roscio and others, who were warm advocates 
 of the federative system, and being well acquainted with the 
 principles of the British and American constitutions, he exhi- 
 bited the advantages of the plan proposed, confirmed and illus- 
 trated by the happy experience of the United States, in so stri- 
 king a manner, as produced an enthusiastic admiration of a 
 federal republic, which was almost universal. This sentiment 
 prevailed also extensively in New Granada. Whether this 
 plan of government was best, adapted to the condition of the 
 population, and situation of the country, may admit of doubt ; 
 at any rate, a more concentrated and energetic system was af- 
 terwards thought preferable, and adopted with better success. 
 The subject was entered upon in Congress, and after debating 
 the question several months, a constitution was prbpared, ap- 
 proved of by that body, and offered to the people for their 
 sanction on the 23d of December. Its outlines were similar 
 to those of the constitution of the United States, as it respects 
 the form or frame of the government, but in two particulars, at 
 least, it differed very materially ; it established the Romaa 
 Catholic religion as that of the state, and did not preserve a 
 
60 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 unity of power in the executive branch, that being confided to 
 three persons, to be chosen by the electoral colleges. The 
 legislative power was reposed in a congress consisting of a 
 house of representatives and a senate, the former chosen by 
 the electoral colleges, and the latter by the provincial legisla- 
 tures ; its authority was defined and limited, and the powers 
 of the legislatures of the several states or provinces were limit- 
 ed. A judiciary was to be organized, with a jurisdiction as to 
 matters relating to the federal compact and national concerns, 
 ft recognized the sovereignty of the people, declared the mu- 
 lattoes and other casts eligible to any employment in the state ; 
 abolished the use of the torture, the trade in slaves, the tri- 
 bute of the Indians, and provided for their civilization. Ma* 
 racaibo and Guiana were to be admitted into the confederacy 
 us soon as they might be free from the dominion of Spain* 
 A federal territory was acquired where the government was to 
 be established, in imitation of the United States ; the town of 
 Valencia was ceded to the confederacy, and the congress 
 opened its first session there, under the new constitution, in 
 March, 1812. 
 
 The territory comprising the present republic of Colombia, 
 consisted, whilst under Spain, it will be remembered, of two 
 distinct governments Venezuela and New Granada, each 
 comprising a number of provinces. When the authority of 
 the regency of Spain was disobeyed in 1810, these territories 
 acted separately, although with some degree of concert, and 
 established separate juntas and provisional governments. 
 Some of the provinces, also, availing themselves of the gene- 
 ral disorder, attempted to withdraw themselves from their 
 political connexions, and established governments for them- 
 selves. This led to much confusion, and in some instances 
 to war, among the different independent governments ; at the 
 same time, that they were all at war with Spain. It also 
 served to disconnect the events of the revolution, so that it 
 becomes necessary to trace them, for some time at least, dis- 
 tinctly in each of the new governments. We commenced 
 with Cara'ccas, or Venezuela, and having traced the events 
 of the revolution down to the establishment of the constitu- 
 tion, we will return to the opening of the bloody drama in New 
 Granada. 
 
 The government of New Granada comprised twenty-two 
 provinces, situated between Venezuela, Peru, and Guatama- 
 la. These provinces contained two and a half millions of in- 
 habitants, and the capital, Santa Fe de Bogota, nearly thirty- 
 five thousand. 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA* 61 
 
 It has been stated, that on receiving intelligence from Spain 
 of the dispersion of the central junta, and the creation of the 
 regency, a junta was established at Santa Fe de Bogota, in 
 July, 1810, by a public meeting assembled under the sanction 
 of the viceroy. This junta at first chose Don A. Amar, the 
 viceroy, president, and acknowledged the authority of the re- 
 gency of Cadiz. In a few days the junta were alarmed by the 
 report of a conspiracy, formed by the viceroy, and the mem- 
 bers of the audience ; and for their own safety, they caused 
 the viceroy, and most of the members of the audience, to be 
 arrested and sent to Carthagena, from whence they were con- 
 veyed to Spain. The junta disavowed the authority of the re- 
 gency, and published a manifesto, inviting the several provin- 
 ces of new Granada, to send deputies to a congress at Santa 
 Fe de Bogota, to establish a provisional government during 
 the captivity of the king. Nine of the provinces, namely, 
 Tunja, Pamplona, Casanare, Carthagena, Socorro, Antioquia, 
 Choco, Neyva, and Mariquita, declared in favour of the revo- 
 lution. Santa Martha, was also in favour of the revolution, 
 yet acknowledged the authority of the regency ; but some 
 months afterwards, the junta of the province was overthrown 
 by the intrigues of the Spaniards, and a new one created, en- 
 tirely devoted to Spain. In Popayan, the governor called a 
 public meeting of the most considerable persons in the prov- 
 ince, which decided that it was expedient to establish a junta ; 
 but the governor, chagrined at their conduct, dissolved the as- 
 sembly, and raised troops to attack the junta of Santa Fe. 
 The latter, however, aware of the hostile designs of the gov- 
 ernor, and to check his career, had despatched Baraya with 
 a body of troops to watch and oppose him. An action was 
 fought about twelve miles from the town of Popayan, in the 
 beginning of the year 1811, in which Tacon, the governor, 
 was defeated. The regency of Spain, alarmed at the progress 
 and diffusion of the disaffection, attempted to conciliate the 
 inhabitants of New Granada by sending among them two of 
 their countrymen, Don A. Villavicencio, and Don C. Montu- 
 far, as commissioners, to support the authority of the regen- 
 cy ; but they did not arrive until the revolution had progressed 
 too far, and the public mind become too deeply imbued with 
 liberal sentiments, to admit of their being of any use to their 
 employers. 
 
 Montufar arrived at Quito, a few days after the massacre 
 of the inhabitants, on the 2d of August, 1810, by the troops 
 sent from Lima ; which so exasperated the people, that, with 
 no other weapons than knives and clubs, they attacked the 
 soldiers with such fury as induced the Spanish authorities tp 
 
02 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 order the troops to withdraw from the city, and to pass a de- 
 cree of oblivion in favour of the inhabitants. Taking ad- 
 vantage of the fears of the Spanish authorities, Montufar pre- 
 vailed on them to establish a junta for the province. This 
 junta is the only one of which the regency of Spain ap- 
 proved. 
 
 In September, 1810, the junta of Carthagena issued a man- 
 ifesto, setting forth the advantages which would result to 
 New Granada, by a union of all the provinces in a federal go- 
 vernment ; and at the same time conceding that the provin- 
 ces were absolved from their political connexion, and had a 
 right to adopt what form of government they pleased ; for as 
 the cessions at Bayonne destroyed the compact between 
 Spain and America, so the revolution, at Santa Fe, severed 
 the bond of union which had bound together the provinces 
 of New Granada. This reasoning, calculated to mislead, was 
 carried a little farther by the inhabitants of some of the de- 
 partments, who supposed, that if the revolution had dissolved 
 the political bands which united the provinces, it had, also, 
 broken the ties which had connected together the different de- 
 partments of the same province. Mompox, a department of 
 Carthagenia, adopting the fallacious and dangerous reasoning 
 of the junta of the province, proceeded to form a junta for 
 the department, and also to appoint deputies to the congress to 
 be held at Santa Fe. The government of Carthagena, not 
 willing to have their doctrine applied to their own pro- 
 vince, by its departments, sent a military force under Don N. 
 Ayos, and compelled Mompox to return to her connexion with 
 Carthagena. 
 
 Near the close of the year 1810, the junta of Caraccassenf 
 an ambassador to the new government at Santa Fe, and an al- 
 liance was entered into between them for their mutual protec- 
 tion. And in December, some of the deputies to the general 
 congress had assembled at Santa Fe. Several deputies, also, 
 arrived from departments, which, like Mompox, were disposed 
 to be formed into separate provinces. This gave rise to a 
 question which threatened to increase the existing difficul- 
 ties, whether the deputies from the departments should be 
 admitted to their seats in the congress. At length, by the in- 
 fluence of Don A. Narino, secretary to the congress, it was 
 agreed to suspend the decision, to give time to bring about 
 an accommodation of the dispute. The pretensions of the 
 departments were finally silenced, and the congress, relieved 
 from this difficulty, convened again. A confederacy or com- 
 pact was formed by the representatives of Pamplona, Tunja, 
 Neyva, Carthagena, and Antioquia, on the 27th of November. 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 63 
 
 1811, at Santa Fe. The provinces retained the management 
 of their local and internal concerns, and those of a general 
 nature were confided to the federal congress. A supreme 
 judicature was established to decide on questions growing 
 out of the federal union, and the executive power, as well as 
 the legislative, was intrusted to the congress. 
 
 The province of Cundinamarca disapproved of the articles 
 of confederation, and refused to deliver up the mint, which it 
 was required to do, by the stipulations made by the congress. 
 An assembly of deputies of the province of Cundinamarca was 
 convened by the junta of Santa Fe, its capital, to frame a con- 
 stitution ; and one being prepared, it was ratified on the 17th 
 of April, 1812, by a convention called especially for that pur- 
 pose. Thus the junta of Santa Fe, who gave the first im- 
 pulse to the revolution in New Granada, by establishing a sep- 
 arate and opposing government for the province, were also the 
 first to sow the seeds of dissention which produced such bit- 
 ter fruits. The constitution was a limited monarchy, acknow- 
 ledging Ferdinand VII. ; but providing, that during the cap- 
 tivity of the king, a president, two counsellors, senators, 
 judges of a supreme court of judicature, and the members of 
 a military board, should be elected by the electoral colleges 
 once every three years. The president possessed the execu- 
 tive power, but was to act in concert with the two counsel- 
 lors, and the legislative power was confided to the senators 
 and members of the high court of justice. 
 
 After the defeat of Tacon, the royal governor of Popayan, 
 he tied to Pastos, where, for the purpose of raising an army to 
 oppose the troops of Santa Fe, he liberated the slaves, and 
 formed them into soldiers, for the purpose of enslaving his 
 countrymen. This was the first instance of slaves being in- 
 stigated to revolt against their masters, since the commence- 
 ment of the revolution. The forces he raised by these base 
 means, were not sufficient to oppose the troops sent against 
 him by the juntas of Quito and Popayan ; and he was com- 
 pelled to retreat to the south sea coast, near the port of San 
 Buenaventura. -Don N. Rodriguez, having succeeded Ba- 
 raya in the command of the army, pursued him closely, and 
 completely defeated him at Isquande, near the close of the 
 year 1811. 
 
 Don J. Lozano, president of the government of Cundina- 
 marca, proposed to the provinces of New-Granada to make a 
 new division of their territory, the whole to form four parts, 
 in each of which a subordinate republic was to be established, 
 and these formed into a a federal republic. This plan, he 
 thought, would give sufficient energy to the government to en- 
 
64 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 able it to overcome the difficulties attending the establishment 
 of their independence. The plan was opposed by the junta 
 of Carthagena, and also by the congress, then in session, at 
 the town Of Ibagua, where it had removed from Santa Fe, 
 after Cundinamarca refused to enter into the confederacy, 
 Lozano resigned his situation as president, and was succeeded 
 by Don A. Narino, who was not in favour of the proposed 
 federal government, but wished to establish one more ener- 
 getic. He was supported in his project by the provinces of 
 Mariquita, Neyva, and Socorro ; Tunja was, also, inclined to 
 fall in with his plan, when a body of the troops of Cundina- 
 marca, under Baraya, stationed in the town of Tunja, declar- 
 ed against Narino, and in favour of the congress. This indu- 
 ced the congres immediately to rem >ve to Tunja, and occa- 
 sioned a civil war between the adherents of Narino and those 
 of the congress, in the beginning of the year 1812. An ac- 
 tion was fought at Paloblanco, in the province of Socorro, in 
 which Narino's troops were defeated, and the agents of the 
 congress, availing themselves of this success, persuaded Mari- 
 quita and Neyva to join the confederacy. The congress, in 
 consequence, removed to the town of Neyva, in October, 
 1812. The army of the confederacy was again successful, 
 at Ventaquemada, which enabled the forces of the congress 
 to besiege Santa Fe in December. Narino resigned the presi- 
 dency before this event, but the legislative power refused to 
 accept it ; he proposed to the besiegers that he would quit 
 New Granada, on condition that they would spare the lives and 
 property of the inhabitants of the capital. This reasonable 
 proposal was not acceded to ; the besiegers, confident of suc- 
 cess, insisted on the surrender of the capital at discretion, 
 which being refused, they stormed the city, but were repulsed 
 with great loss, and a large part of their army dispersed. A 
 single division, under the command of Girardot, reached Tun- 
 ja. A monument of stone, called San Victorino was erected 
 in that part of the city where the action was fought, with in- 
 scriptions explanatory of the signal victory which saved the 
 capital. These civil dissentions, arming the patriots against 
 each other, who were engaged in the same contest, and that, 
 a contest for liberty, were equally injurious and disgraceful to 
 their cause. 
 
 The junta of Quito being threatened with hostilities from 
 the royalists of the province of Cuenca, raised an army for 
 its defence. The royal army of Cuenca was commanded by 
 the bishop, and many of its officers were ecclesiastics, who 
 carried black standards ; and to show that they felt the influ- 
 ence of the religion they professed, which teaches to " resist 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 6/> 
 
 not evil," they assumed the name of the army of death. When 
 the junta of the province of Quito was established in August, 
 1810, Ruiz de Castilla was named president; but when the 
 regency of Spain approved of the junta, they appointed Mo~ 
 lin to be its president. The junta refused to acknowledge 
 him as president, and complained of his conduct to the Cortes 
 of Spain. Placing himself at the head of the troops, which, 
 after the massacre of the 2d of August had retired from Quito 
 to Guayaquil, he marchad to attack Quito, and entered its 
 territories, notwithstahding the Cortes had ordered him to de- 
 sist from hostilities. He refused to obey this order, on pre- 
 . tence that it had been obtained by false representations. Don 
 C. Montufar commanded the troops of Quito, and was defeat- 
 ed by the royalists of Cuenca, which enabled the troops from 
 Lima, under Montes, who had succeeded Molin in the com- 
 mand, to enter the town of Quito on the 6th of November, 
 1812. .The bloody Montes destroyed every thing before him ; 
 a scene of devastation and massacre was exhibited shocking 
 to contemplate ; one fifth of the inhabitants, who had remain- 
 ed to defend the city, were cruelly murdered ; and not satis- 
 fied with this slaughter, a detachment of his army was sent in 
 pursuit of those who had fled from the town before its capture. 
 And as if to show his triumphing in such vandalism, he gave 
 an account of his bloody deeds, himself, in a letter of the 1 1th 
 of November, addressed to the governor of Guayaquil. After 
 the capture of Quito, Montes relinquished the command of 
 the army to Don N. Samano, a Spanish officer, who was sta- 
 tioned at Santa Fe when the revolution broke out. Samano 
 marched towards Santa Fe, and on his way took the town of 
 Popayan. Previous to this, Don J. Caycedo, president of the 
 junta of Quito, had fallen into the hands of the royalists of 
 Pastes, who had also defeated the troops of the province of 
 Popayan, commanded by Macaulay, a citizen of the United 
 States, who, with many of his officers, were made prisoners. 
 Caycedo, Macaulay, and the other prisoners, were all put to 
 death by the royalists. 
 
 Alarmed at the progress of the royal forces, every where 
 marked with rapine and massacre, the government of Cundi- 
 namarca and the congress were aroused to the necessity of 
 throwing aside their feuds, and uniting in the common cause , 
 and for their common safety. They agreed to unite their 
 forces, and to intrust the command to Narino, the president, 
 who by both governments was appointed dictator. The uni- 
 ted troops amounted to eight thousand men, at the head of 
 which Narino marched against the royalists under Samano. 
 He engaged and defeated them at El atto del Palace, from 
 
 VOL. II. 24 
 
66 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 whence they retreated to Tumbo, twenty miles south of the 
 city of Popayan, where, being re-enforced, they advanced to 
 Popayan, and encamped at Calivia. Here the Independents 
 attacked them, and a most obstinate action was fought ; the 
 contest was maintained with that desparate fury on both sides 
 which characterizes a civil war. Victory at length declared 
 for the patriots, and the royalists were forced to retreat. 
 Narino established a popular government at Popayan, and 
 marched towards Pastos. Samano was superseded in the 
 command of the Spanish army by Aymerci, who brought a 
 re-enforcement of fresh troops from Quito. The provinces 
 of Popayan and Pastos being situated in that part of the 
 mountainous regions of the Andes, where the country, rising 
 as it approaches the equator, is admirably calculated for de- 
 fence ; it abounds in advantageous positions and difficult de- 
 files, easily fortified,, and presents innumerable difficulties to 
 an advancing army encumbered with baggage. Pastos is 
 nearly two hundred and forty miles from Popayan, and Nari- 
 no, on his way thither, engaged and defeated the royalists at 
 El alto de Juanambu, Los Tacines and Aranda ; but in these 
 severe engagements he sustained the loss of many valuable 
 officers, of whom Salazar, young and valiant, was universally 
 admired, and his death deeply deplored. Hitherto the victo- 
 ries of Narino had cost him dear, and been productive of 
 comparatively little advantages, as from the situation of the 
 country he had f been unable to pursue the enemy ; but hav- 
 ing nearly reached the town of Pastos, he expected to reap 
 the advantage of his exertions. At the moment, however, 
 when the object of his expedition seemed within his grasp, it 
 was wrested from him by the artifice, rather than by the brave- 
 ry of the enemy. His army consisted of two divisions, of 
 which he had the immediate command of the one in advance. 
 The royalists succeeded by their spies in spreading a report 
 among the rear division of the army, that Narino, with the 
 advance, had been attacked and completely defeated, which 
 caused great consternation in that part of the army ; and the 
 enemy, taking advantage of it, marched with most of their 
 forces against Narino, and defeated and made him prisoner ; 
 thus verifying the truth of the premature report they had put 
 in circulation. This defeat was so serious, that it was with 
 great difficulty Don J. M. Cabal, who succeeded to the com- 
 mand, though a prudent and skilful officer, could effect a re- 
 treat to Popayan, being hotly pursued by the royalists, flush- 
 ed with victory and thirsting for vengeance. Most of the 
 prisoners were put to death ; but it is remarkable that 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 67 
 
 no was spared and sent a prisoner to Quito, thence to Lima, 
 and finally to Cadiz in Spain.* 
 
 The defeat near Pastes occurred in June, 1814, and the 
 account of it reached the congress about the same time they 
 received the disagreeable intelligence from Europe of the 
 overthrow of Bonaparte and the restoration of Ferdinand to 
 the throne of Spain, and of the defeat of the patriots in Vene- , 
 zuela. 
 
 *_" Don A. Narino is one of those few enterprising: characters 
 who had long viewed it with a prophetic eye, and even, in some mea- 
 sure, prepared the minds of the inhabitants of Santa Fe for inde- 
 pendence. His opinions and wishes, too freely expressed in the 
 early part of his youth, caused his imprisonment in 1794, and that of 
 many of his friends, distinguished young 1 men at Santa Fe de Bogota. 
 Duran, Cabal, Cortes, Urnana, Nanno, Zea, and others, were at 
 that time sent to Spain under an escort. Narino escaped the vigi- 
 lance of his guards, and made his escape in the very act of landing 
 at Cadiz, and presented himself to the government at Madrid. Not- 
 withstanding this act of suomission, the Spanish government was 
 going too'der his arrest, when Narino again escaped, and went to 
 France ; from whence he came to England at the very epoch when 
 Mr. Pitt's plan for separating Terra Firma from the Spanish govern- 
 ment was in contemplation in 1796. Then Narino returned to New 
 Granada incognito, with the view of carrying it into effect, but he 
 was discovered and confined many years : during which he suffered 
 the hardships of poverty, close imprisonment, &c. H last he re- 
 gained his liberty, on condition that he should never quit Santa Fe, 
 and that he should be always accompanied by a soldier. When the 
 war in Spain commenced, the fovernmeat of Santa Fe, being afraid 
 of his uncommon powers of persuasion, as well as of the credit he 
 possessed, had him arrested, ordering him to be sent to Carthagena; 
 but Narino again escaped at El Banco over the river Magdalena, 
 and went to Santa Maria A Spaniard, who knew the house where 
 he was concealed, discovered it to the governor, who had him im- 
 mediately taken, and then enforced the former orders of the govern- 
 ment, by sending him to Carthagena, where he was thrown into the 
 dungeons of Fort Bocachica When the revolution took place, he 
 was released; but his health was greatly impaired, and his legs had 
 suffered much from tue fetters he had been compelled to wear during 
 his imprisonment, Having been taken prisoner at Pastos, it is won- 
 derful that he was not executed, as almost all the prisoners were at 
 that time ; but he was conducted to Quito, thence to Lima, and he 
 is now confined at La Caracca, in Cadiz One of his sons, Antonio, 
 gave at Bocachica a noble example of fili I duty and affection, by 
 suffering himself to be imprisoned with his father, whose misfortunes 
 he wished, by sharing, to alleviate" Outline of the' Revolution in 
 South America, 
 
HISTORY OF THE 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Earthquake in Venezuela its influence on the revolution event* 
 of the war in Venezuela success of the royalists Caraccas 
 'taken capitulation of Miranda violation of it by the royal- 
 ists dungeons of Puerto Cabello filled with the patriots 
 Spanish authority, reestablished in Venezuela Bolivar he 
 revives the war penetrates into Venezuela his success the 
 war of death victories of the patriots Bolivar enters Ca- 
 raccas, and liberates Venezuela success of the patriots the 
 royalists arm the slaves devastate the country patriots 
 again successful battle of Carabobo Bolivar defeated at La 
 Puerta royalists re-conquer Venezuela surrender of Ma- 
 turin. 
 
 WE now resume the history of the revolution in Venezue- 
 la, which we had brought down to March, 1812, when con- 
 gress commenced its first session under the new constitution. 
 At this period the affairs of Venezuela prospered ; the gov- 
 ernment was popular, and great! unanimity prevailed among 
 the people ; the military force was adequate to the defence of 
 the republic, and, as was thought, to expel the royalists from 
 Guiana and Maracaibo. Commerce began to revive, to pro- 
 mote which, and at the same time conciliate the good opinion 
 of England, the congress reduced the duties four per cent, 
 in favour of the manufactures and commerce of that country. 
 Three thousand men, commanded by general Marino, were on 
 the banks of the Orinoco, ready to cross and attack the royal- 
 ists of Guiana in the city of Angostura ; another corps of the 
 republican troops was stationed at Barquisimeto, to check 
 the royalists of Coro. But this prosperity in Venezuela, and all 
 the hopes which it inspired, were annihilated in a moment. 
 On the 26th of March, between the hours of four and five 
 o'clock in the afternoon, one of those awful convulsions 
 which the earth sometimes experiences, spread desolation 
 and dismay over Venezuela. During a minute and fifteen 
 seconds, the earth groaned and agonized in convulsions, 
 which were attended with the most awful consequences ; the 
 towns of Caraccas, La Guayra, Mayquetia, Merida, and San- 
 felipe, were laid in ruins, and Barquisimeto, Valencia, Victo 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 69 
 
 na, and many others, were considerably injured. Nearly 
 twenty thousand persons fell victims to this tremendous earth- 
 quake. But the desolation great as it was, was not the 
 most serious part of this, calamity ; it raised up from its own 
 ruins the most dangerous enemy to the liberties of Venezuela 
 bigotry, and the religious prejudices of a superstitious and 
 priest-ridden people. The catastrophe occuired on Holy 
 Thursday, when, in Roman Catholic countries, the people all 
 commemorate the sufferings' of the Redeemer, of which, rep- 
 resentations are exhibited, and at the very hour when the peo- 
 ple were crowding on to the churches to attend to the ceremo- 
 nies and join the processions. The troops, as is usual, werd 
 stationed at the entrance of the churches to follow the pro- 
 cessions ; and most of the churches being thrown down, and 
 also the principal barracks at Caraccas, a considerable number 
 of the soldiers, as well as the citizens, were crushed to death 
 and buried under the ruins ; and most of the arms and ammu- 
 nition were likewise destroyed./ This calamity, happening on 
 the day and the very hour of a holy festival, the priests interprer 
 ted into a divine judgment, and a manifestation of the displeas- 
 ure of the Almighty, at the abominable wickedness of attempt- 
 ing to secure their liberty. They proclaimed from the pulpit that 
 a holy God had condemned the revolution, in language too au- 
 dible not to be heard, c^id too distinct to be misunderstood ; 
 and they denounced his vengeance on all who favoured it. 
 They told the credulous people, that as the earth swallowed 
 up the rebellious Korah and his crew, they were punished in 
 the same way, for the same sin rebellion against their gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Aided by the consternaton this catasprophe had occasioned, 
 they made the credulous inhabitants almost believe that hell 
 was opening its fiery jaws to devour them. And with an ig- 
 norant and superstitious people, accustomed to revere and im- 
 plicitly to obey the clergy, their interested zeal produced an 
 extensive and alarming effect. 
 
 At Barquisimeto, as well as at Caraccas, the barracks were 
 thrown down, and a considerable part of the troops buried un- 
 der the ruins ; and Xalon, their commander, severely wound- 
 ed. On the very day of this calamity, they were preparing 
 to march to attack the royalists at Carora, which place they 
 had taken possession of the day before. To fill the meas- 
 ure of the difficulties of the patriots, there was a serious de- 
 ficit in the public treasury, and the paper currency which 
 congress had been obliged to issue, and which maintained 
 its credit until the earthquake, since that e?e,nt, had rapidly 
 
 24* 
 
70 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 depreciated, and its circulation could only be kept up by se- 
 vere penalties. 
 
 The congress, sensible that a crisis had occurred which 
 threatened the existence of the republic, prepared to meet it. 
 General Miranda was intrusted with the chief military com- 
 mand, and discretionary power conferred on him to raise 
 troops, and in all things relating to the defence of the state, to 
 ' act as he thought best. After adopting the measures the con- 
 dition of the country demanded, congress adjourned to enable 
 the members to serve in the army, or return to the provinces 
 and attempt to rouse the people, dispirited and filled with su- 
 perstitious fears, to a sense of the danger which threatened 
 them and their country. 
 
 At the head of two thousand men, armed with the muskets 
 saved from the ruins, Miranda marched to meet the enemy, 
 who had .advanced from Carora after the earthquake, and took 
 possession of Barquisimeto without opposition. Here the 
 royalists received constant re-enforcements, as the inhabitants, 
 wishing to abandon a cause frowned upon by heaven, were 
 eager to ensure their own safety by enrolling themselves 
 among its opposers. Monte verde, who commanded the roy- 
 alists, moved on to Araure, where a detachment of the repub- 
 licans was stationed under Col. F. Palaciosojo ; but his troops 
 refusing to fight, he was made a prisoner, and the place taken 
 without exertion or sacrifice. Araure is on the confines of 
 those vast plains, which form a considerable part of the prov- 
 inces of Caraccas and Barinas, from which the cattle are ob- 
 tained that supply the settlements in the mountainous parts of 
 Venezuela, on which account it became an important object to 
 possess it. For this purpose Monteverde sent a detachment 
 of his army to invade Barinas, and w r ith his main force march- 
 ed to attack San Carlos. The latter place was entrusted to M. 
 Carrabano, who made a vigorous defence ; but the defection 
 of his cavalry, who went over to the royalists, decided the 
 fate of the town. There was no fci ce now opposed to Mon- 
 teverde that could check his progress ; and the army on the 
 Orinoco was at so great a distance that it could not re-enforce 
 General Miranda. 
 
 The difficulties with which the patriots had to contend in 
 defending the republic, were greatly increased by the scatter- 
 ed population, the distance between the capitals of the differ- 
 ent provinces, and the badness of the roads. The republican 
 troops on the Orinoco sustained some loss on the 25th of 
 March in crossing the river ; but still might have taken Angos- 
 tura, had not the earthquake, together with the intelligence of 
 

 REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 71 
 
 the rapid successes of Monteverde, disheartened them, which 
 led to disaffection, and finally desertion. 
 
 Monteverde advanced rapidly towards Caraccas with an 
 army flashed with victory and impelled by enthusiasm, being 
 told that they were only instruments in the hands of heaven 
 in putting an end to a revolution, which God and the church 
 had so emphatically condemned. To oppose his advance, Mi- 
 randa ordered the evacuation of Valencia, and concentrated 
 his forces in the pass, or defile, called La Cabrera, near the 
 lakes Tacarigua, through which the high road led. This was, 
 undoubtedly, the best position to oppose an army invading 
 Caraccas, on the western side ; but the inhabitants of that 
 district, ready to abandon the new government, in the hour of 
 adversity, declared f6r the royal cause ; and to recommend 
 themselves to Monteverde, acquainted him with an obscure 
 and unknown foot path, which avoided the defile of La Ca- 
 brera. Monteverde, with much difficulty, led his men in this 
 route, which compelled Miranda to retreat to the town of Vic- 
 toria, fifty miles from Caraccas. The royalists followed close- 
 ly in the rear of the republican army, and attacked it the last 
 of June with great spirit, but were received with steadiness, 
 and repulsed with loss. At this time, when Miranda's deci- 
 sive and judicious conduct was giving discipline and confi- 
 dence to the army, reviving the hopes of the people, and rous- 
 ing them to exertions worthy of the occasion, a disastrous 
 event occurred, which disconcerted all his plans, arid served 
 to extinguish the flickering blaze of the lamp of liberty. The 
 Spanish prisoners at Puerto Cabello, by the treachery of an 
 officer on guard, obtained possession of the castle and fort in 
 which they were confined. Simon Bolivar, then a colonel in 
 the service of the republic, who had the command of the 
 place, deemed it impossible to retake the fort by storm, with- 
 out destroying the town ; unwilling to do that, he embarked 
 with his officers for La Guayra. The fall of Puerto Cabello, 
 into the hands of the royalists, supplied them with ammuni- 
 tion, of which they were in great want, and opened to them a 
 communication by sea with Coro and Puerto Rico, whereby 
 they could supply their army, which they had before been 
 compelled to do, over land, for more than four hundred and 
 fifty miles. The intelligence of the fall of Puerto Cabello 
 reached Caraccas, and the army, on the 5th of July, when en- 
 gaged in celebrating the anniversary of their independence ; 
 and greatly discouraged the people and dispirited the troops. 
 The alarming aspect of affairs, and the general consternation 
 which prevailed, occasioned disaffection among the people, 
 and desertion among the troops ; and the forces of Miranda. 
 
72 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 being greatly inferior to those of Monte Verde, and lessening 
 daily by desertion, whilst the royalists were increasing, he 
 dared not hazard an engagement ; and sensible that Caraccas 
 could not long hold out, as the country which supplied it with 
 cattle was in the possession of the enemy, provided it could 
 withstand a storm, which, however, would probably have de- 
 stroyed what the earthquake had spared. The Spaniards in 
 the city, too, were prepared to revolt ; and it had been neces- 
 sary to arrest and confine them, as the only means of prevent- 
 ing it. Under these appalling circumstances and accumula- 
 ted difficulties, Miranda and the executive power thought it 
 adviseable to propose a capitulation. The offer was accepted 
 by Monteverde, and the following terms agreed upon between 
 him and the commissioners of Miranda, which were signed 
 and ratified : 
 
 " 1st. That the constitution offered by the Cortes to the 
 Spanish nation was to be established in Caraccas. 
 
 " 2dly. That no one was to suffer for former opinions. 
 
 " 3dly. That all private property was to be held sacred. 
 
 *' 4thly. That emigration was to be permitted to those who 
 wished to quit Venezuela.", 
 
 Thus Caraccas and the republican army fell into the hands 
 of the royalists ; and with them fell the republic of Venezuela. 
 Happily, however, it did not fall v " never to rise again," for 
 from its ashes has sprung up a republic, which has not only 
 been able to defend itself, but to become the liberator of its 
 brethren in other parts of Spanish America. 
 
 To give a finishing stroke to the republic, its army sent 
 against Guiana was defeated ; and the Spanish government 
 once more resumed its authority over Venezuela. But its 
 power being re-established, the articles of the capitulation 
 were forgotten ; it did not comport with the dignity or honour 
 of the Spanish government to keep its plighted faith with re 
 bels ; the capitulation was violated in the most shameful man- 
 ner, and the patriots were as much exposed to the vengeance 
 of the royalists, as they could have been if there had been 
 no guarantee of their safety. Miranda and many others pro- 
 ceeded to La Guayra, where they intended to embark for 
 Carthagena ; but Don M. Cacas, military commandant of La 
 Guayra, caused them to be arrested, thinking, by such base 
 conduct, to gain favour with the conqueror. Miranda and 
 nearly one thousand patriots were thrown into the dungeons 
 of La Guayra and Puerto Cabello. Many were sent to Puerto 
 Rico, and a number to Cadiz, who were condemned by the. 
 Cortes, without trial, to an unlimited imprisonment. Some of 
 those sent to Spain were Spaniards by birth, but had been in 
 

 REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA, 73 
 
 the service of the republic ; the greater number, however, 
 were South Americans ; the latter were released by the re- 
 monstrances of the British government, in 1816, but the Span- 
 iards were condemned to linger out a miserable existence in 
 the dungeons of Ceuta. 
 
 Monteverde now had the power of restoring peace to a dis- 
 tracted country, which, after two years of civil war, panted 
 for repose. But instead of being a minister of peace, or at- 
 tempting to sooth the irritations, and heal the wounds of the 
 revolution, his heart was filled with vengeance. The inhabit- 
 ants of Venezuela, being the first who shook off the Spanish 
 yoke, and gaveHhe first impulse to the revolution, it seems to 
 have been deemed expedient to make an example of them, 
 and by the severity of their punishment, to fill the insurgents 
 in other parts of Spanish Ametica with consternation, and thus 
 check the revolution. But whether it was from any calcula- 
 tions of this kind, or merely from a spirit of vengeance, the 
 whole population of Venezuela was proscribed, and Caraccas 
 converted into one great prison. Every royalis^ became a 
 public accuser ; and to have supported the late government, 
 even after it was established, was a crime in the eyes of a ty- 
 rant, which could only be expiated with blood. \\ hen all the 
 dungeons were filled, the buildings which would admit of it, 
 were converted into prisons ; and it was said, with appearance 
 of truth, that nearly the whole populatios was under confine- 
 ment. These severe measures, in direct and open violation of 
 the national faith, were not only justified by ,the government of 
 Spain, but the minister of war in a report to the Cortes on the 
 colonies, in October, 1813, complained "of the indulgence 
 that had been shown to the insurgents of Caraccas." 
 
 But this cruel and oppressive conduct of the royalists was 
 not more unjustifiable than it was impolitic ; had a mild and 
 conciliatory course been pursued, it might have 'allayed, at 
 least for some time, the revolutionary spirit ; but oppression 
 served to enkindle its latent sparks, and blow them once more 
 into a flame. '1 his broke out first in the province of Cumana, 
 which had suffered least in the late disasters, and consequent- 
 ly was less weakened in its means of resistance. Don. N. Ma- 
 rino, young, active, and brave, raised the standard of revolt, 
 and collected a force with which he surprised and took the 
 town of Maturin ; here he was attacked by the Spaniards, and 
 repulsed them ; a second attack was made by Monteverde in 
 person, and the royalists were again defeated. 
 
 But the revival of the revolution in Venezuela is principally 
 owing to the same individual who sustained and carried it 
 through a long and sanguinary contest, and finally brought it 
 
74 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 to a conclusion ; securing for his country, independence and 
 liberty, and for himself the well-earned title of The Liberator. 
 As the history of the revolution in Venezuela and New Grana- 
 da, from this period, is in a great measure identified with that 
 of the life and services of Don Simon Bolivar, it may be proper 
 to introduce him more particularly, and to shew what part he 
 had acted previous to this period. Bolivar is a native of Ca- 
 raccas, and belonged to one of the most respectable and 
 wealthy families of that city ; in his youth he went to Spain to 
 complete his education, and there obtained permission to trav- 
 el into France, England, and Italy. His liberal education, 
 improved by travel, and an acquaintance with many of the en- 
 lightened men in Europe, early imbued his mind with liberal 
 sentiments ; and having witnessed the condition and charac- 
 ter of an independent, if not a free people, he was deeply affect- 
 ed with the degradation and oppression of his native country. 
 At Paris he attended on all public lectures, and attracted no- 
 tice by his talents and learning here he contracted an inti- 
 macy with baron Humboldt and Bonpland, the celebrated 
 South American travellers ; in company with whom, he visit- 
 ed England, Italy, Switzerland, and a considerable part of 
 Germany, and made himself acquainted with the political con- 
 dition, the character and habits of the peopie in these differ- 
 ent countries. He had * fair opportunity of discovering the 
 wonder-working influence of political and religious institutions 
 on the human race ;- that the social character of man was 
 formed by them, and that they were the sources of the power 
 and prosperity of nations, as well as of their degradation, im- 
 poverishment and oppression. 
 
 He discovered that liberty was the natural element of man, 
 where alone his faculties attained their just growth and full 
 developement, and which gave to him his proper rank and dig- 
 nity in creation. As his soul warmed with the love of liberty, 
 he more deeply lamented the enslaved and degraded condi- 
 tion of his own country.' With these sentiments he returned 
 to Venezuela, just at the breaking out of the revolution. He 
 inherited more than one thousand slaves, which he emancipat- 
 ed, and embarked his whole property, a princely income, in the 
 revolutionary cause. He was solicited by the junta of Carac- 
 Cas to go on an embassy to England, in conjunction with Don L. 
 Lopez Mendez, which he declined. Disapproving of the pol- 
 icy pursued by the congress, he remained in retirement at Ca- 
 raccas, until after the earthquake, when the storm, which was 
 gathering over his country, called him forth in her defence. 
 He was appointed a colonel, and intrusted, by Miranda, with 
 the important command of Puerto Cabello, which place, a? 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 75 
 
 has been stated, he was unfortunately obliged to abandon to 
 the royalists. He disapproved of the capitulation of Miranda, 
 and after Monteverde entered Caraccas, obtained from him as 
 a special favour, a passport to embark for Curracoa ; from 
 whence he sailed to Carthagena, where he obtained from the 
 junta, or government of the province, the command of a small 
 body of troops, with which he freed the banks of the river 
 Macrdalena, from the power of the royalists, in the latter part 
 of 1812. Satisfied that the Venezuelans were disposed, once 
 more, to throw uff the Spanish yoke, now more intolerable 
 than before the revolution, he sent colonel Rivas, his second 
 in command, to Tunja, to solicit of the congress of New Gra- 
 nada, then in session at that place, a re-enforcement of troops, 
 to enable him to invade Venezuela. In the mean time, he ad- 
 vanced with his troops on the road to Ocana. The Congress 
 approving of the plan, and thinking they could not better pro- 
 mote the security of New Granada, than by affording employ- 
 ment for the royalists in Venezuela, they suppliedBolivar with 
 six hundred men. 
 
 Thus re-enforced, he crossed the Andes with his little army, 
 and approached the river Tachira, which is the boundary be- 
 tween New Granada and Venezuela. He surprised the royal- 
 ists at Cucuta, and dispersed them ; and from thence des- 
 patched Colonel Nicholas Briceno, with several other officers, 
 to Guadualito, to raise troops. Briceno, having raised a 
 squadron of cavalry invaded the province of Barinas ; and in 
 the mean time, Bolivar himself defeated the royalists at La 
 Grita, and occupied the department of Merida. Briceno, af- 
 ter several successful engagements, was at length defeated 
 and himself and seven of his officers fell into the hands of the 
 royalists, all. of whom, Tiscar, the royal governor of Barinas 9 
 soon after executed, together with eight of the most respect- 
 able inhabitants of the town of Barinas, on the pretence that 
 they were endeavouring to aid the enterprize of Briceno. 
 Bolivar, who had hitherto treated the Spaniards who had fal- 
 len into his power, as prisoners of war, and with humanity, 
 exasperated at such cruel and savage conduct, and believing 
 that the war could not be conducted on such unequal princi- 
 ples, as that the captured, on one side, should enjoy the rights 
 of prisoners of war, whilst those on the other were put to 
 death like ferocious beasts, resolved on retaliation, and declar- 
 ed that, henceforth, the prisoners which he made, should be 
 treated in the same manner as the royalists treated their pris- 
 oners. The contest, from this period, was called and appro- 
 priately, the 'soar of death la guerra a muerte. 
 
76 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 The cruelties and oppressions of the royalists, had so exas- 
 perated the people, that they rallied round Bolivar, as their 
 deliverer, and his forces increased daily. This induced him 
 to divide them into two corps, one of which he placed under 
 colonel Rivas, and both were destined against the province of 
 Caraccas. In passing through the province of Barinas and 
 the department of Truxillo, the royalists were engaged and de- 
 feated at Niquitao, Betijoque, Carache, Barquisimeto, Bari- 
 nas and Lostaguanes. The last action in which Monte verde 
 had collected his best troops, was decided by the desertion of 
 his cavalry, who went over to Bolivar. With the remnant of 
 his forces, Monteverde retreated to Puerto Cabello. Bolivar 
 now advanced rapidly on Caraccas, and the royal governor, 
 alarmed for its security, called a council, composed of the offi- 
 cers of the garrison, the members of the audiencia, and the 
 clergy, which agreed to propose terms of capitulation. The 
 commissioners from the governor, met Bolivar at Victoria, 
 and although confident of entering the city, as it had no ade- 
 quate force for its defence, he did not hesitate to accept, the 
 proposed terms. To prevent alarm, he declared that no per- 
 son should suffer on account of his former attachment to the 
 Spanish government, and that all who wished to emigrate, 
 would be permitted to leave Venezuela, with their property. 
 Eierro, the governor of Caraccas, embarked, carrying off all 
 the public and private property he could collect, and leaving 
 at the mercy of the conqueror, nearly fifteen hundred Span- 
 iards who had no means of escaping. The treaty of capitula- 
 tion, notwithstanding this violation of it by the governor, was 
 sent to Monteverde, at Puerto Cabello, who declined ratify- 
 ing it, for the wise reason, " that it was derogatory to the dig- 
 nity of the Spanish nation to treat with insurgents." 
 
 Bolivar made 3, public entry into the capital, on the 4th of 
 August, 1813 ; and the first meeting of his troops and the 
 inhabitants was affectieg and impressive in the extreme ; they 
 embraced each other as friends and brethren, who had long 
 been parted, and who had toiled, suffered and bled in the 
 same cause. The dungeons and prisons were thrown open, 
 and those victims of royal cruelty, whom a year's confinement 
 had not relieved by death, were restored to their liberty, their 
 friends, and their country. And not only the prisoners, but 
 their fellow citizens, with hearts overflowing with joy, greeted 
 Bolivar and his companions in arms as their deliverers, an 
 the liberators of their country. But universal as was the joy 
 gratitude and exultation of the inhabitants of Caraccas, they 
 did not reproach or insult the Spaniards. 
 
 Venezuela was again rescued from the dominion of tyrants > 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 77 
 
 the eastern part having been freed by Marino, and the rest de- 
 livered from their power by Bolivar, who justly obtained the 
 title of El Liber ador de Venezuela, the Liberator of Vene- 
 zuela. The town of Puerto Cabello, alone was in possession 
 of the royalists. Bolivar immediately sent a flag of truce, 
 proposing to Monteverde, an exchange of prisoners, and al- 
 though the Spanish prisoners in his possession were much the 
 most numerous, he proposed to release them all, if the Span- 
 ish commander would liberate the prisoners he had at Puerto 
 Cabello. But having received during the negotiation, twelve 
 hundred troops from Spain, Monteverde obstinately refused 
 any exchange. He now felt able to act on the offensive, 
 and attack the patriots at Aguacaiente, but suffered a dread- 
 ful defeat, nearly his whole force being either killed or 
 made prisoners, and Monteverde himself seriously wound- 
 ed ; in consequence of which Saloman took the command 
 of the remnant of the royalists which escaped to Puerto Ca- 
 bello. 
 
 Bolivar renewed the same offer of an exchange of prison- 
 ers, to Saloman, by whom it was not only refused, but the 
 bearer of the flag of truce, was seized, loaded with fetters, 
 and thrown into prison at Puerto Cabello. And Istucta, the 
 successor of Saloman, committed the savage outrage, of pla- 
 cing the patriot prisoners along his line, exposed to the bat- 
 teries of their countrymen, to prevent their firing ; and at night 
 ihey were thrown into prison, where nearly fifty died at one 
 lime, by suffocation. This led to retaliation, and the besieg- 
 ers exposed the Spanish prisoners before their line of battle ; 
 which occasioned a greater outrage still on the part of the 
 Spanish general. He ordered four of the most distinguished 
 patriots in his possession, to be placed in front of the encamp- 
 ment of their countrymen, and in their view publicly to be 
 shot. These were Pellin, Osorio, Pointet, and Manuel Puli- 
 do, all distinguished for their patriotic zeal, and highly esteem- 
 ed and admired by their fellow citizens.* No further at- 
 tempt at an exchange of prisoners, or communication took 
 place between the belligerant parties, but the contest became 
 3n exterminating war, and was carried on with destructive 
 fury on both sides. Bolivar prosecuted the siege of Puerto 
 Cabello, the place being invested by sea and land ; the town 
 fell into the hands of the besiegers, except that part com- 
 manded by the fortress, which alone remained as a refuge to 
 the royalists. But although the garrison wanted provisions, 
 and were wasting by disease occasioned by the damp soil. 
 
 * General Boliyar's Letter, published in Watonr's Expose, 
 VOL. II. 25 
 
78 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 the Spanish commandant refused to listen to terms of capitu 
 lation. A haughtiness of temper, a proud and unyielding 
 spirit, which no difficulties can subdue, and an obstinate 
 perseverance, are the primary characteristics of the Spanish 
 Character. Puerto Cabello continued to hold out and the 
 -position of the fortress is so advantageous, and the garri- 
 son, well supplied with ammunition, were so active and de- 
 termined in its defence, that it could not be taken by storm 
 without a sacrifice of live's, which Bolivar was unwilling to 
 make. 
 
 The royalists of Coro, being re- enforced with troops from 
 Puerto-Rico, marched into the territory of Caraccas, and on 
 the 10th of November, 1813, defeated a party of the Indepen- 
 dents at Barquisimeto. Bolivar marched to repel them ; he 
 engaged and routed them at Vigirima, Barbula, and Araure. 
 In the action of Barbula the patriots lost young Girardot, who 
 had been distinguished for his active intrepidity, in numerous 
 battles, both in Venezuela and New Grenada. The Liberator 
 ordered an annual mourning for this national calamity, and as- 
 signed a pension to the family of Girardot, for ever. 
 
 Bolivar had invaded Venezuela under the auspices of the 
 \r6nfederacy of New Granada, and had been directed, on his 
 liberating the country, to restore the republican government, 
 which, from the unsettled state of affairs he did not consider 
 adviseable to do. Since the capitulation of Caraccas, the 
 country had been under a military government ; and although 
 this power, odious in its mildest form, was not abused by the 
 i deliverer of the country, his inferior officers, not under his 
 immediate control, were in some instances guilty of arbitrary 
 and oppressive conduct, which occasioned complaints against 
 the military government, and Bolivar himself. This gave him 
 uneasiness, as he could not, from the commencement of his 
 career, endure, even that he should be suspected of enter- 
 taining ambitious projects, or any designs except the libera- 
 tion of his country. He summoned a general convention, 
 consisting of the magistrates, the higher ecclesiastics, the 
 members of the municipality, colleges, the board of trade* 
 and all the proprietors of lands, to resign his authority into 
 their hands, and leave them to establish such provisional gov- 
 ernment as they might deem expedient. This assembly con- 
 vened on the 2d of January, 1814 ; and Bolivar appeared be- 
 fore them ; after explaining his views and intentions in inva- 
 ding Venezuela, he resigned his authority ; and retiring, de- 
 sired the assembly to provide such authorities as in their opin- 
 ion, the safety of the country required. Mendoza, the gov- 
 ernor of Caraccas, Rodriguez, president of the municipality. 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 79 
 
 and Alzum, successively addressed the assembly, and urged 
 the expediency, under the existing aspect of affairs, of suffer- 
 ing the supreme power to remain in the hands of the Libera- 
 tor, and proposed to re-vest it in him, astoictator, until a repre- 
 sentative government could be established, either for Vene 
 zuela alone, or in conjunction with New Granada. This pro- 
 posal was approved of, and the supreme power vested in the 
 Liberator. 
 
 The royal chiefs were filled with rage at the success of Bo- 
 livar, and were determined, that, if they could not re-conquer 
 Venezuela, they would destroy it, and render it a useless ac- 
 quisition to the victorious patriots. Not satiated with the 
 blood and devastation of a civil war, they wished to light up 
 the torches of a servile one, and to arm the slaves against their 
 masters. For this purpose emissaries were sent into the in- 
 terior of the country, to incite the revolt of the slaves, and 
 organize a servile force. The most obnoxious of these, were 
 Boves, Yanez, Rosette, and Puy, Spaniards ; and Palomo, a 
 negro, who had been outlawed as a robber and an assassin. 
 The governor of Spanish Guiana supplied Boves and Rosette 
 with arms and ammunition, who were to operate in the east- 
 ern part of the province of Caraccas ; and Puy and Palomo. 
 had assigned to them, as their theatre of action, the western 
 part of the province of Caraccas, Barinas, Merida, and Trux- 
 i Ho, and were assisted by the royalists of Puerto Cabello, Co- 
 ro, and Maracaibo. There were 70,000 slaves in Venezuela, 
 who roused, not only by the prospect of obtaining their liber- 
 ty, but by the promise of the wealth and fortunes of their 
 masters, and of allthe disloyal part of the population of the 
 country, afforded materials for raising an army, alarming from 
 its number, and its turbulent character ; *n army every way 
 worthy of its leaders, and of the cause in which it was to be 
 employed. With this incendiary force, Puy and Palomo, sub- 
 jugated Barinas, Guiana, and several other towns, covering 
 the country with blood and desolation. Boves and Rosette, 
 marched from the banks of the Orinoco to the valleys of Tuy 
 ,and Aragua, spreading desolation before them, and tracing 
 their paths in blood, which if collected into one channel, the 
 '* purple current,' would have tinged the mighty waters of the 
 Orinoco. It is almost incredible, yet what was well establish- 
 ed, that in an extent of country of four hundred miles from 
 the Orinoco 1 , to the environs of Caraccas, forming the limits 
 of this murderous campaign, not a human being was spared, 
 who did not join the robbers. By such exterminatory and 
 murderous warfare, they spread terror over the country, which 
 served to increase their numbers to 8,000 men. Of this 
 
80 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 entire army, there were only fifty Spaniards and Creoles, tli< 
 rest, with the exception of a few free mulattoes, were slaves. 
 Animated by the hopes of plunder, and some of them stim- 
 ulated by revenge, their turbulent fury overcame every thing 
 which opposed them ; they spread terror before them, and 
 left ruin and desolation behind. Boves took possession of 
 Victoria, only forty miles from Caraccas ; and Rosette enter- 
 ed Ocumare, thirty miles from the capital, while Puy and 
 Yanez, having subdued Barinas, advanced to join Boves, in 
 February, 1814. Encouraged by these successes, the Span- 
 ish prisoners at Caraccas, and La Guayra, amounting to near- 
 ly 1400, entered into a conspiracy against the government, 
 and were prepared to revolt. Many Spaniards united into a 
 body, and stationed themselves in the road between Carac- 
 cas, and La Guayra, for the purpose of murdering travellers, 
 and to0ut off the communication. The situation of Carac- 
 cas was critical, and its danger imminent ; it required uncom- 
 mon exertions to prevent its falling into the hands of an ene- 
 my, whose mercies were like those the tiger shows to its prey. 
 The number of the forces of Bolivar were greatly inferior to 
 those of the enemy, and were scattered over the country. If 
 the garrisons of Caraccas and La Guayra were called into the 
 field, there would have been the greatest danger of the rising 
 of the Spanish prisoners in the city, who were rendered per- 
 fectly desperate from the determination of the Spanish chiefs, 
 to admit of no exchange with the insurgents. Under these 
 alarming circumstances, which threatened Caraccas with the 
 greatest of all evils, that of falling into the hands of the slaves, 
 harassed with cares, and his mind oppressed with anxiety, 
 and the responsibility of his situation, and at the same time, 
 highly exasperated at the outrages of a ferocious enemy, and 
 the recent massacres at Ocumare, Bolivar, from the distraction 
 of the moment, was hurried into an act, which, however it 
 might be justified by the lex talionis the principle of retalia- 
 tion, is shocking to contemplate, and was as impolitic as it was- 
 unjust. He gave orders to execute the. prisoners, and eight 
 hundred Spaniards were put to death on this dreadful occa- 
 sion. The commandent at Puerto Cabello, the moment he 
 heard of these executions, ordered every American prisoner 
 at that place, amounting to several hundred to be shot. 
 
 The danger from the slaves being removed, Bolivar march 
 ed against the enemy, and obtained a signal victory over Boves 
 at Victoria ; and Col. Rivas defeated Rosette on the banks oi 
 the Tuy, and about the same time, the forces of Yanez, were 
 also defeated, and their leader killed at Ospinos. These vie- 
 Dories were not won without severe fighting and a heavy loss. 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 8] 
 
 the patriots being greatly inferior in number to the enemy. 
 They cost them one third of their troops ; and the advantages 
 derived from them were not great, as from the want of caval- 
 ry the republicans had not been able to pursue the enemy but 
 a few iniles. Los Llanos on which Caraccas is dependant for 
 horses, being in possession of the enemy, Bolivar's cavalry 
 was but poorly furnished. 
 
 Boves and Rosette, having received some re-enforcements, 
 again took the road leading to Caraccas. Perceiving the 
 storm gathering over Caraccas, general Marino, marched from 
 Cumana to the assisistance of Bolivar, and having joined a 
 body of troops under general Montilla, their united forces at- 
 tacked and defeated the royalists at Bocachica, and about the 
 same time, Bolivar himself obtained a decisive victory at San 
 Mateo. These two victories relieved Valencia, which had 
 been besieged by the royalists under Cevallos and Calzadas. 
 
 These losses of the royalists compelled Boves to retire to 
 Los Llanos, and Cevallos to San Carlos, whither the latter 
 was pursued by general Marino ; but the republican general 
 being defeated on the 16th of April, retreated to Valencia. * 
 Monteverde was succeeded as captain general of Venezuela 
 by Cagigal, who brought re-enforcements from Coro, and uni- 
 ting them with the troops of Cevallos and Calzadas, marched 
 towards Valencia. After some delay and " reconnoitering on 
 both sides, the two armies engaged the 28th of May, 1814, on 
 the plains of Carabobo. The action was the most bloody that 
 had been fought ; royal rage and popular fury were brought 
 into t^e conflict ; the greatest efforts were made on both sides,, 
 and instances of valour exhibited, approaching to desperation : 
 victory was long doubtful, but at length fortune once more 
 declared in favour of the patriots. The royalists were com- 
 pelled to leave the field covered with their dead and wounded. 
 Their whole loss, including prisoners, was five hundred men, 
 and a large amount of arms and ammunition. 
 
 The royalists retired to Coro and Los Llanos, whither Boli- 
 var pursued them, with the intention of driving them from 
 these territories, from whence they drew all their resour- 
 ces. He sent Urdarieta with five hundred men against Coro^ 
 and Marino with about the same number to San Fernando, on 
 the river Apure, in the province of Barinas. The remaining 
 division of his army, of about the same strength, Bolivar re- 
 t ained under his immediate command, which he deemed suf- 
 ficient to oppose Boves. who not having been in the battle of 
 Carabobo, was marching against him with a numerous squad- 
 ron of cavalry. This dividing of his army by Bolivar was an 
 'wor which led to the most serious consequences. Fatal mis 
 
82 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 takes are often committed by military commanders, in not es- 
 timating correctly the ability or power of an adversary ; it was 
 this that occasioned the mistake of Bolivar, and also just be- 
 fore, a similar one on the part of the royalists. Had the latter 
 waited for the arrival of Boves, they probably would not have 
 been defeated on the plains of Carabobo, and had not Bolivar, 
 despising the force of Boves, divided his army, he would not 
 have been defeated by him on the plains of La Puerta. In a 
 few days the three divisions of the republican army were sep- 
 arated many miles, when Boves attacked Bolivar at La Puerta, 
 a plain near the town of Cura, and about one hundred and fif- 
 ty miles from Caraccas. The conflict was sharp, and main- 
 tained with great fury for several hours, but at length the pat- 
 riots were compelled to give way, and leave the field to Boves. 
 About the same time general Marino was attacked and repuls- 
 ed by the united forces of Cagigal and Calzadas, and his com- 
 munication with Caraccas cut off, which obliged him to retire 
 to Cumana for safety. When general Urdaneta heard of these 
 disasters, he was at too great a distance to be able to afford 
 any assistance to Caraccas, and therefore withdrew to Cucuta, 
 on the frontiers of New Granada. 
 
 The possession of Venezuela was again lost by the patriots, 
 after their dominion over it had been apparently well establish- 
 ed. Their reverses were great and sudden ; their affairs 
 were prosperous the first of June, and in one month they had 
 become perfectly desperate. They had no army for the pro- 
 tection of Caraccas ; they were obliged to raise the siege of 
 Puerto Cabello, the troops embarking for Cumana ; and to 
 complete their ruin, in Venezuela, much dissatisfaction pre- 
 vailed with Bolivar's military government, occasioned by the 
 conduct of some of his generals, and the people of Los Llanos 
 declared for the royalists. Bolivar marched with the remnant 
 of his force to Cumana, and almost the whole population ol 
 Caraccas repaired there : such was their dread of falling into 
 i-iie hands of an exasperated and barbarous enemy. BOVGF 
 took possession of .Caraccas and La Guayra in July, 1814 ; 
 Valencia was besieged, and held out until resistance became 
 of no further use, when it accepted terms of capitulation, 
 But from the many flagrant breaches of faith by the royalists, 
 Ilie patriots would not surrender the place unless the Spanish 
 general, in presence of the two armies, and after the solemn 
 celebration of mass, would bind himself by an oath, taken be- 
 ibre the host, religiously to fulfil the terms of the treaty. The- 
 oath was taken, and the town delivered up ; but soon after, 
 flie royalists believing that " oaths were but words, and word^ 
 i>ut wind," ordered the republican officers, and most of tlu 
 *<o<Miers, to be shot. Among those who fell was the learned 
 
REVOLUTION 13 COLOMBIA. 83 
 
 and eloquent Espejo, as a civilian one of the ablest defenders 
 and the brightest ornaments of the republican cause. 
 
 Boves pursued the patriots into the province of Barcelona, 
 and defeated them in Araguita ; success no longer followed 
 the banners of the patriots ; the good fortune of Bolivar seem- 
 ed to have forsaken him, and with the loss of his power was 
 lost the respect for his authority. The commandant of his 
 flotilla on the coast refused to obey his orders. The sun oi" 
 Venezuelan independence had once more set, and darkness 
 and despotism overspread the land where liberty had first 
 dawned. With the patriots, who had survived these dreadful 
 reverses, all was lost except hope, and the honour of their 
 services to redeem their country. But the invincible mind oi" 
 Bolivar was not to be subdued by misfortunes, however tre- 
 mendous, nor shaken from its purposes by the most overwhelm- 
 ing reverses. Sensible that nothing more could now be done 
 for the cause of independence in Venezuela, he embarked for 
 Carthagena with some of the boldest of his officers, who pre- 
 ferred to follow his fortunes, even in this night of adversity. 
 Rivas and Bermudas, with the remnant of troops, separated 
 from him, and marched to Maturin, already rendered celebra- 
 ted as the cradle of the last revolution, it being there general 
 Marino first raised the republican standard. Maturin became 
 the rendezvous of the desperate patriots, who had no quarters 
 to expect from the royalists ; and in a few days a considerable 
 number were assembled here from different quarters. This 
 ; forlorn hope' was successively attacked by Morales and 
 Boves, both of whom were repulsed with serious loss. Rivas 
 and Bermudas, who led the little remnant of patriots, maintain- 
 ed themselves for a considerable time ; but after obtaining 
 many advantages over the royalists, they were at last compel- 
 led to yield to a destiny, which the vast superiority of their en- 
 emies rendered inevitable. They were entirely defeated at 
 Urica, on the 5th of December, 1814, and soon after Maturin 
 fell into the hands of the royalists ; an acquisition, however^ 
 attended with the loss of their favourite Boves. Bermudas es- 
 caped with some of the troops, and embarked for the island 
 of Margarita, where he maintained the cause of the revolution 
 until the arrival of the expedition from Spain, under Morillo, 
 in 1815. The intrepid Rivas was taken prisoner, shot, and 
 his head sent to Caraccas for public exhibition, to convince 
 the inhabitants of that rebellious city, that such was the fat* 1 
 that awaited all traitors. 
 
 Bolivar proceeded from Carthagena to Tunja, where the 
 congress of the confederate provinces of New Granada was in 
 session, and offered Jits jsqrvice,s to the confederacy, which, 
 were accepted. 
 
81 HISTORY OF TIU 1 . 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Effect of the restoration of Ferdinand on the revolution his im- 
 politic measures respecting America dissentions among the 
 patriots Bolivar sent against Santa Fe de Bogota it capit- 
 ulates Cundinamarca joins the confederacy regulations of 
 the congress Bolivar proceeds against the royalists in Santa 
 Martha dispute between him and Castillo he lays siege to 
 Carthagena arrival of the expedition from Cadiz Morillo 
 reduces the island of Margarita he lays siege to Carthage- 
 na it capitulates republican standard again raised in Mar- 
 garita Bolivar fits out an expedition at Aux Cayes invades 
 Venezuela is defeated returns to Aux Cayes Morillo con- 
 quers New Granada enters Bogota massacre of the patri- 
 ots war in Venezuela Bolivar takes Angostura Morillo'* 
 unsuccessful attack on Margarita. 
 
 WE have now arrived to a period which forms an important, 
 epoch in the revolution. The overthrow of the mighty fabric 
 of the power of Napoleon, and his abdication, in April, 1814, 
 was an event, not less unexpected and astonishing, than impor 
 tant in its influence on the destinies of Europe. The restora- 
 tion of Ferdinand VII. to the throne of Spain, with all the ab- 
 solute powers of the monarchy, was a necessary and immedi- 
 ate consequence. The establishment of popular governments 
 in America was occasioned by the usurpations of Bonaparte, 
 and their object, at first, at least the ostensible one, to resist 
 his designs against Spain, and maintain the rights of their legit- 
 imate sovereign ; so that at an early period the intelligence 
 now received from Europe would have filled the colonies with 
 joy. But so great was the revolution in the feelings and opin- 
 ions of the people, produced by a contest of more than four 
 years, carried on with the greatest animosity and cruelty, that an 
 event which, but a short time before, might have given rise to 
 universal rejoicing in America, occasioned at first, anxiety and 
 alarm, and was soon regarded as the harbinger of the most 
 dreadful calamities. 
 
 The news of the defeat of Narino, and the retreat of the 
 remnant of the army of the confederacy to Popayan : of the 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA* 85 
 
 total overthrow of the republican cause in Venezuela, and thf 
 important intelligence from Europe, of the fall of Napoleon, 
 and the restoration of Ferdinand, were received by the con- 
 gress of New Granada about the same time. The defeat of 
 their army, and the complete triumph of the royalists in Vene- 
 zuela, was each a serious calamity ; but the intelligence from 
 Europe was of a more important character. It entirely 
 changed the general aspect of things, and in some measure 
 the character of the revolution. The resistance in America 
 commenced against the authority of the regency of Spain, and 
 in most of the provinces, the supremacy of Ferdinand was ex- 
 pressly acknowledged. Ferdinand was now on the throne, 
 and if resistance was continued, it must be against the power 
 of the legitimate sovereign of Spain. The restoration of the 
 king, therefore, changed the relations between the colonies 
 and the parent country, as well as placed the latter in a condi- 
 tion to direct all its strength against the rebellious Americans, 
 being relieved from the war at home, and having no longer any 
 employment for her armies in the peninsula. At an earlier 
 period of the contest, the restoration of Ferdinand would have 
 greatly damped, if not effectually checked the spirit of the rev- 
 olution ; but after the struggle had continued nearly five years, 
 arid the minds of the Americans became exasperated by the 
 cruelties and massacres of the Spanish colonial rulers, it was 
 calculated to have but comparatively little influence. "Had 
 Ferdinand, however, pursued a conciliatory line ot conduct 
 towards America ; had he condemned the rashness of the 
 colonial chiefs, who had driven the people into resistance ; 
 reformed the abuses and removed the oppressions of which the 
 colonies had justly complained, probably he might have so far 
 revived the sentiments of loyalty, as to have checked, if not 
 to have extinguished the flame of the revolution. But instead 
 of this course, the first official intelligence the Americans had 
 of his being reinstated on his throne, was a decree, treating 
 them as rebels, and commanding them to lay down their arms, 
 This was sufficient to satisfy the Americans that they had no 
 more justice to expect from Ferdinand, than from the regency ; 
 that no attention, whatever, was to be paid to their complaints, 
 no respect shewn to their rights. This decree, dated the 4th 
 of June, 1814, was soon followed by another, directing the 
 equipment of a formidable armament at Cadiz, to reduce the 
 disloyal Americans to unconditional submission. At the same 
 time, the most rigorous measures were adopted at home, by a 
 bigoted and absolute king, against the members of the Cortes 
 and other patriots, who had made such noble exertions, such 
 patriotic sacrifices, for *the defence of his throne. When such 
 
86 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 base ingratitude and injustice were experienced by the patri- 
 ots of Spain, what treatment had the insurgents of America to 
 expect from an infatuated monarch, a capricious tyrant 1 A? 
 the rupture between the Spanish patriots and America was 
 hurried on by the regency's declaring war against the Ameri- 
 cans, so the contest as between Ferdinand himself and the co- 
 lonies, was placed on a footing almost incompatible with ac- 
 commodation, by the same rash measures on the part of Fer 
 din and. 
 
 Desperate and almost hopeless as the cause of the inde- 
 pendence was rendered, by this intelligence from Europe, and 
 the serious reverses which the patriots had suffered, the con- 
 gress of New Granada was riot disheartened by these appal- 
 ling circumstances, but viewing the approaching crisis in ite 
 true light, prepared to meet it. The first of September con- 
 gress published a proclamation, which, after detailing the 
 events of the war, and the sad reverses their arms had sus- 
 tained, concludes in the following language : 
 
 " Such is the situation of the military affairs of New Gra- 
 nada. Every step the republicans make costs a bloody battle 
 in the provinces of Venezuela, where hordes of assassins are 
 formed by the agents of the king to check the progress of the 
 friends of liberty. Our frontiers are constantly molested by 
 the loyalists of Maracaibo, and those who now possess Bari- 
 llas ; both of whom keep always in alarm the defenders of 
 Pamplona and Cassanare. The inhabitants of Santa Martha 
 obstinately refuse to co-operate with us. Carthagena want? 
 assistance from the general government, which is at the same 
 time obliged to provide for the defence of Popayan, which is 
 again threatened with invasion ; and this of course increase? 
 the difficulties we should have in rescuing the unfortunate 
 Quito from the power of her oppressors. These are the ob- 
 jects which imperiously call for the attention of the confede- 
 rate provinces. Useless shall be the declaration of our inde- 
 pendence, if we have not resolution to support it. We pos- 
 sess within ourselves the means of attaining this great object, 
 and no power whatever will be strong enough to conquer UF 
 if we avail ourselves of our own strength ; our exertions must 
 unquestionably be great, and our sacrifices for the common 
 cause unbounded. But such efforts are worthy of men raised 
 to the dignity of a free people, and are absolutely necessary 
 since we have nothing to hope, and much to fear from the Eu- 
 ropean nations. Notwithstanding the cessions at Bayonne. 
 and the torrents of blood that the French have shed by the 
 war in the peninsula, Ferdinand has been restored to Spain : 
 o nd the country, now freed from the "French, will have both 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA* 87 
 
 the power and the will to send a formidable array again to 
 sjubdae us." 
 
 " Ye people of New Granada! contemplate your fate, and 
 that of your posterity ; you may easily judge of it ; and let 
 your resolution be formed accordingly and nobly. Again we 
 repeat, your destiny depends on your own exertions." 
 
 Alarming, however, as the crisis was, it was not capable of 
 producing union among the republicans, or of extinguishing 
 those feuds which had been equally detrimental and disgrace- 
 ful to their cause. That men engaged in the same cause, and 
 Exposed to the same dangers, should waste their strength in 
 their own dissentions, at the very time that the common ene- 
 my was at the gates of their capitals, and threatening them 
 with one common ruin, evinces the inveteracy of their ani- 
 mosities, and the prevalence of a factious spirit. Such conduct 
 \yas scarcely less absurd than that of the two owners of a 
 building, who were disputing about the extent of their re- 
 spective rights to the property, whilst it was in flames, instead 
 of uniting their exertions to save it from the conflagration. 
 Don Bernardo Alvarez, president of Cundinamarca, persisted 
 in refusing to join that province to the confederacy, which it- 
 was evident would greatly strengthen the hands of the govern* 
 inent, and give energy to the measures that congress were 
 pursuing for the safety of the country. At length, however, 
 being satisfied that the people demanded the union, Alvarez 
 deputed Lozano to treat with the congress, and terms of union 
 were agreed upon ; but the president objected to a union, and 
 refused to ratify the treaty. He proposed an alliance, which 
 die congress declined to accept. This was the state of things, 
 when Bolivar arrived at Tunja, at the close of the year 1814, 
 find engaged in the service of the congress.. The confedera- 
 cy at this time consisted of the provinces of Casanare, Pam- 
 plona, Tunja., Neyva, Choco, Popayan, Cartha^ena, Mariquita, 
 Socorro, and Antioquia. The congress resolved to compel, by 
 military force, the province of Cundinamarca to acknowledge 
 its power and join the confederacy. They accordingly sent 
 Bolivar in December, 1814, to besiege Santa Fe de Bogota, 
 the capital of the refractory province. His army consisted of 
 that division of the army of Venezuela under general Urda- 
 neta, which, after the defeat pf the other two divisions, re- 
 treated to Cucuta, and was ordered from thence by the con- 
 gress to Tunja, with some additional troops. Bolivar stormed 
 the city and obtained possession of its principal suburbs, when 
 Alvarez accepted the terms of capitulation that had been of- 
 fered, which were that the province should join the confede- 
 racy, and enjoy the same privileges as the other confederate 
 
88 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 states. The electoral college of Santa Fe was then assem- 
 bled, which ratified the capitulation, and invited the congress 
 to adjourn its session to that capital, which it soon after did. 
 
 i his union greatly strengthened the arm of the federal gov- 
 ernment, and with the improvements arid changes in the sys- 
 tem, which had been made a short time before, gave it power 
 and energy. By these changes made in September and Octo- 
 ber preceding, each province, except Casanare, Neyva, and 
 Choco, which were less populous, sent two deputies to the 
 congress, and those provinces one ; the executive power, 
 which had been exercised by the congress, was confided to 
 three persons appointed by that body, and the federal govern- 
 ment possessed authority, to carry on the war, and over the 
 finances of the confederate provinces. Don M. R. Torices, 
 Garcia Rubira and M. Pey, all distinguished for their talents 
 and entire devotion to the republican cause, received the ex- 
 ecutive appointment. The governors of the provinces were 
 chosen by the electors, but acted as delegates or officers of 
 the general government, in all concerns relating to the confed- 
 eracy. 
 
 New Granada at this time, possessed a prospect of security, 
 stability and prosperity. Although threatened by the royalists 
 of Venezuela, Quito, and Santa Martha, it possessed the 
 means to repel all their attacks. The government was respec- 
 ted, and the congress had adopted several wise and popular 
 laws, calculated to relieve the burdens of the people, and pro- 
 mote the general prosperity. The monopolies of tobacco, 
 spirituous liquors, and the tribute paid by the Indians were 
 abolished ; foreigners were invited into the country, manufac- 
 tures of arms established, and liberty of speech and of the 
 press unrestricted. Many of the most intelligent of the clergy 
 embraced the cause, which was generally popular ; some pat- 
 riotic citizens tendered their services to the government, oth- 
 ers made contributions of money, and the friars of the order 
 of St. Dominic, set a worthy example of patriotism, by presen- 
 ting to the national treasury most of the specie, which for 
 years they had been hoarding up in the sanctuary of Chiquin- 
 quira. The government extended its patronage to the botani- 
 cal expedition under the direction of the celebrated Mutis, 
 which made important discoveries. To prevent the intrigues 
 of the Spaniards, they were banished from the territories of 
 the confederacy, until the independence of the country should 
 fee effectually secured ; but were permitted to remove or dispose 
 of their property. 
 
 The army under Cabal in Popayan was re-enforced, and be- 
 gun to make head against the royalists ; General Urdaneta 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 89 
 
 xvas sent with re-enforcements into the province of Pamplona, 
 to repel the royalists of Maracaibo, who harassed the country 
 by their incursions, and, when attacked, retired to their fast- 
 nesses in the forests bordering on the river Zulia. But against 
 the royalists of Santa Martha, the principal force of the re- 
 public was directed, under Bolivar, who was appointed cap- 
 tain general of the armies of New Granada and Venezuela. 
 The government and their general in chief, made great exer- 
 tions to ensure -success to this expedition, as the occupation 
 of the province of Santa Martha would have been of great 
 advantage to the patriots, in case the expedition then preparing 
 at Cadiz should be directed against New Granada. With very 
 great exertions 3,000 men were raised, at the head of which 
 Bolivar marched as far as the town of Mompox, on the river 
 Magdalena. Here he halted, to obtain from the province of 
 Carthagena the additional men and arms, which the congress 
 had ordered as its quota of troops for the expedition. Boli- 
 var applied to the governor of Carthagena for the re-enforce- 
 ment and supplies which congress had ordered ; but Don M. 
 Castillo, military commandant of Carthagena, being a person- 
 al enemy of Bolivar, exerted all his influence with the govern- 
 or, to prevent his complying with the demands of the congress, 
 and unfortunately was too successful. The pretences he 
 made use of, were, that Bolivar entertained ambitious views, 
 and had injured the cause by his sanguinary career in Venezu- 
 ela. The remonstrances of Bolivar were unavailing ; the 
 governor obstinately refused to comply with the requisitions 
 of congress, and Bolivar, disappointed and chagrined at this 
 unexpected delay, and exasperated at the unjustifiable con- 
 duct of Castillo and the governor, determined that having ex- 
 hausted the argument, he would stand by his arms." Bolivar 
 immediately marched against, and laid siege to the town of 
 Carthagena, in hopes to obtain by force, what he had failed to 
 accomplish by peaceable means ; and to compel the govern- 
 or of Carthagena to obey the authority of the congress, as he 
 had before, that of Santa Fe. Carthagena being a strong 
 place, was enabled to defend itself; for which object, the 
 troops were collected from other parts of the province, leav- 
 ing it defenceless, for the purpose of carrying on a civil war. 
 The royalists taking advantage of this, conquered Mompox, 
 and most of the province of Carthagena, with little or no op- 
 position, whilst the republicans were disgracefully weakening 
 and destroying themselves by their own dissentions. This 
 civil war completely frustrated all the judicious measures of 
 the federal government, and threatened the total ruin of the 
 cause of the patriots. It continued to rage until the expedt- 
 VOL. II. 26 
 
90 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 tion from Cadiz, the most formidable ever sent by Spain to 
 America, appeared off the coast of Venezuela. When intelli- 
 gence of this reached Carthagena, Bolivar, whose heart was 
 never for a moment estranged from the great cause of indepen- 
 dence, however he may have been led to engage in the civil 
 contests, from exasperated feelings, or misguided notions of 
 expediency, would not suffer a contest to be prolonged, which) 
 under existing circumstances must be attended with the most 
 fatal consequences. He proposed to the government of Car- 
 thagena, that he would retire from the province, and leave his 
 army, now considerably reduced by the civil war and disease, 
 to co-operate in the defence of the city, against the expected 
 attack from the expedition from Spain. 
 
 This expedition consisted of ten thousand of the chosen 
 and best troops of Spain, conveyed in fifty transport ships, 
 protected by two frigates ; the fitting it out had nearly ex- 
 hausted the national resources. It was commanded by Gen- 
 eral Morillo, whose memory will be ' damned to everlasting 
 fame,' for his cruelties in Colombia. It appeared before Ca- 
 rupano about the middle of April, 1815, and was justly regar- 
 ded as the harbinger of scenes of devastation and blood, sur- 
 passing what had already been witnessed. It spread universal 
 alarm among the patriots throughout Venezuela and New 
 Granada. From Carupano, Morillo proceeded against the 
 island of Margarita, where general Bermudas, with the rem- 
 nant of his troops, and many of the patriots of Venezuela, had 
 repaired. All the exertions of the patriots were not sufficient 
 to defend the island against the powerful force of Morillo ; 
 he, however, lost one of his frigates, the San Pedro Alcantara. 
 The patriots mostly escaped, embarking for Carthagena and 
 the West India islands. From Margarita, Morillo proceeded 
 to Caraccas, then in possession of the royalists, where, and at 
 other cities on the coast of Venezuela, he left two thousand of 
 his troops ; but received in exchange for those left, some 
 troops that were previously stationed at Caraccas. In the 
 month of June, the expedition sailed from Puerto Cabello for 
 the purpose of besieging Carthagena, but did not commence 
 the siege until August. 
 
 Carthagena is situated on a bay, nine miles in extent, and 
 is divided into two parts : the city, properly so called, and Gi- 
 mani, a suburb. The city is surrounded by a thick and high 
 wall, and there is a wall in front of Gimani, which is built in a 
 circular form : and a ditch or channel, fortified by stoccadoes 
 on each side, joins the walls of Gimani with the city. On the 
 east of the city is a fort, which overlooks Gimani ; and the bat- 
 teries on the hill, called Lapopa, about one hundred and fifty 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 91 
 
 yards distant, command the fort, and protect the town and its 
 environs. North of Lapopa is lake Tesca, that communi- 
 cates with the ditch or channel, which divides the city from 
 Gimani, but the two divisions of the city are connected by a 
 bridge. Morillo fixed his head quarters twelve miles from the 
 city, at a place called Turbaco, and formed his line so as to 
 cut off all communication by land with the town. Colonel 
 Soublet commanded Lapopa,, which was attacked by the roy- 
 alists on the 1 Hh of November, but they were repulsed with 
 considerable loss. They, however, by the erection of batte- 
 ries, and the introduction of gunboats into the bay, succeed- 
 ed in cutting off the communication with the sea, by Boca 
 Granda, one of the outlets to the ocean, which deprived the 
 besieged of all means of receiving provisions into the town. 
 The city was twice bombarded ; but suffered most from the 
 want of provisions, which, after a siege of nearly four months, 
 compelled the patriots to abandon it to the royalists. A gener- 
 al meeting was held on the 13th of October, which resolved 
 to put the province of Carthagena under the protection of the 
 British government : and Mr. tlislop, an English merchant, 
 was despatched to London for this purpose. But before any 
 answer was received to his despatches, the famine raged 
 to such a degree, that it became necessary to abandon the 
 city. The beginning of December, the deaths amounted to 
 one hundred persons daily. On the 5th of December the 
 place was evacuated. More than two thousand persons left 
 the city, in eleven ships, most of them armed ; the armament 
 was attacked by the royalists, who were repulsed ; and having 
 taken on board the garrison of Bocachica, it sailed out of the 
 harbour, and left the city to their enemies, which had now be- 
 come one vast charnel-house. The next day the Spaniards 
 took possession of it. Most of the patriots proceeded to Aux 
 Cayes. 
 
 The following translation from the official letter to his gov- 
 ernment, of Montalvo, the captain-general, exhibits a picture 
 of horror that almost staggers belief: " The horrible appear- 
 ance of the city is scarcely to be described : the streets, and 
 even the houses, were heaped up with dead bodies, or with 
 those who were expiring ; the atmosphere was in a pestilen- 
 tial state, which nearly stopped respiration ; groans and la* 
 mentations assailed our ears." 
 
 A list of prisoners was delivered by Morillo to Montalvo, 
 
 ^ with an intimation that they ought to be tried by the permanent 
 
 council of the army ; but the captain-general, by the advice of 
 
 his assessor, or lawyer, had them tried by a common council 
 
 of war, by which they were condemned to death. And not* 
 
92 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 withstanding that the judges of the court of audience, who 
 were consulted after their condemnation, declared the pro- 
 ceedings illegal, Don M. Castillo, Garcia Toledo, Ayos M. 
 Granados, M. Amador, M. Portocarrero, M. Anguiano, M. 
 Angulo, and S. Stewart, were executed on the 2rth of Janua- 
 ry, 1816. Montalvo assigns among other reasons, for these 
 executions, that it would have been scandalous to have sent 
 these rebels to Spain, when others less criminal had been ex- 
 ecuted by Morillo ; and declares that these were the first exe- 
 cutions he had ordered, and that he was the only one of the 
 Spanish chiefs in America, whose conduct had been so hu- 
 mane. " Unfortunately," he says, " the war now presents so 
 direful an aspect, that it is not easy to foresee its termination. 
 All might have been prevented in the beginning ; perhaps 
 then to have punished the heads of the resolution would have 
 been sufficient, and peace might have been restored by a steady 
 conduct, politic measures, and mildness in the chiefs, which 
 always sooner or later produce good effects." 
 
 There was about two thousand troops at Carthagena when 
 the place was first besieged, who, with its inhabitants, defend- 
 ed the city ; the federal congress of New Granada was unable 
 to afford them any assistance. Bolivar went to Jamaica to fit 
 out an expedition for the relief of Carthagena ; but the town 
 surrendered before he carried his plan into execution, and he 
 again turned his attention to Venezuela. About the same 
 time that the Spaniards took possession of Carthagena, Aris-, 
 mendi again raised the republican standard in the island of 
 Margarita ; and after defeating the garrison Morillo had left, 
 in several actions, took possession of a part of the island. In 
 the mean time, the spirit of the revolution revived in Venezue- 
 la, so that those parts of the country which the royalists had 
 reduced, and where they considered all resistance at an end, 
 were again either in the possession of the patriots, or the seats 
 of war. The insolence and arrogance of the royalists at Ca- 
 raccas revived the disaffection of the inhabitants, and occa- 
 sioned many of the provincial troops, who, after the conquest 
 of the province, had consented to fight under the royal stand- 
 ard, to desert and join themselves to the republican troops, 
 who were dispersed over the country, after the defeat at Uri- 
 ca. T hese troops served as rallying points for the disloyal 
 from all quarters in Venezuela. 
 
 The guerrilla system of warfare was now adopted, in imita- 
 tion of the Spaniards in the war with the French. Various 
 guerrilla parties were formed, at the head of which were Mo- 
 nagas, Piar, Roxas, Zaraza, Llanos, and other intrepid leaders, 
 who occupied the interior of the provinces of Guiana, Cu 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA* 93 
 
 mana, Barcelona, Caraccas and Barinas. More unanimity 
 prevailed among the inhabitants of Venezuela than had at any 
 former period ; alarmed at the impending danger, they seem- 
 ed disposed to forget former differences, and to unite in de- 
 fence of the independence of their country. The guerrillas 
 carried on an active partizan warfare, harassing the Spanish 
 troops, and by rapidly advancing and suddenly retreating, wor- 
 ried them with constant marches and counter- marches, and 
 when a favourable opportunity presented, engaged them, and 
 often successfully. 
 
 To aid the exertions of theipatriots in the island of Mar- 
 garita and in Venezuela, Bolivar planned arid fitted out an ex- 
 pedition from Aux Cayes, in conjunction with Brion, a native 
 of Curracoa, who had served on board the flotilla, in the em- 
 ploy of the republican government of Venezuela. Brion, be- 
 ing wealthy, contributed largely towards the expenses of the 
 expedition, and as a remuneration, was appointed to command 
 the maritime force, which consisted of two ships of war and 
 thirteen transports, most of which carried guns. One thou- 
 sand troops were on board, made up of the emigrants from 
 Venezuela, and a part of the garrison that escaped from Car- 
 thagena. The expedition sailed from Aux Cayes the latter 
 part of March, 1816, a$d on its passage engaged and captur- 
 ed two Spanish ships of war, after a severe and bloody con- 
 flict, in which Brion was wounded. Early in May, the expe- 
 dition landed at the island of Margarita^ and disembarked the 
 troops. The patriots took possession of the whole island, the 
 Spaniards abandoning all but the fortress of Pampatar. The 
 expedition sailed from. Margarita to Carupano, fifteen miles 
 west of the town of Cumana, where Bolivar overcame the, 
 royalists, and took possession of the town. His successes 
 revived the spirit of resistance in Caraccas, and numerous 
 guerrilla parties came to join him, which he furnished with 
 arms. From Carupano, Bolivar sailed to Choroni and Ocu- 
 mare, situated between the ports of La Guayra and Puerto 
 Cabello, and landed there the 6th of July. Near Ocumare 
 and Choroni are numerous plantations of sugar, cocoa, and in- 
 digo, on which many slaves were employed. As the enemy 
 had set the example of liberating slaves, and thinking that this 
 measure would be expedient in the present aspect of affairs, 
 Bolivar, on landing at Ocumare, issued a proclamation to the 
 inhabitants of Caraccas, in which he declares that "justice and 
 policy demand the emancipation of the slaves, and that hence- 
 forth there shall be but one class of people in Venezuela ; all 
 shall be citizens." 
 
 The successes of the patriots under Bolivar, and on the 
 26* 
 
94 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 island of Margarita, astonished the royalists, and filled them 
 with rage. To perceive the patriots rising up, they scarcely 
 knew from whence, and defeating their garrisons and troops, 
 and re-occupying the country they had so recently conquered, 
 served not only to convince them what kind of enemies they 
 had to contend with, and how difficult it would be to conquer 
 a country, where, like the fabled hydra, for every head that 
 was cut off, two sprang up ; but these successes seemed to be 
 robbing them of the victories they had already won, and the 
 advantages they had obtained. Nothing could exceed their vio- 
 lence and fury towards all, without distinction of age or sex, 
 who favoured the cause of independence. Among other out- 
 rages which were committed in the town of Cumana, a female 
 of respectable family, for the crime of having spoken against 
 the Spanish government, was placed on an ass, led through the 
 streets, attended by a guard of soldiers, and publicly scourged 
 so barbarously as to occasion her death. 
 
 Bolivar left part of his troops at Choroni, under Sir Gregor 
 M'Gregor, a Scotchman, who had been a captain in the Eng- 
 lish army in Portugal, and had served in the cavalry of Vene- 
 zuela in 1811, but whose subsequent exploits acquired for him 
 more notoriety than honourable fame ; and the residue he dis- 
 embarked at Ocumare. M'Gregor, whose force formed the 
 vanguard of the army, took Maracay and La Cabrera, and was 
 proceeding against Victoria, when he was arrested in his suc- 
 cessful career by the arrival of a detachment of Spanish troops 
 under general Morales. He had been sent by Morillo on his 
 receiving intelligence of the expedition against Venezuela. 
 The two divisions of Bolivar's little army, consisting in all of 
 less than one thousand men, were unfortunately separated 
 several miles, of which Morales took advantage, and attacked 
 the rear guard under the liberator himself; and after a desper- 
 ate and sanguinary contest, Bolivar was compelled to leave 
 the field, with the loss of two hundred of his men, including 
 most of his best officers. The remnant of his army sought 
 safety by speedily re-embarking. This disastrous event indu- 
 ced M'Gregor to change his intended movements, and to take 
 the road to Barcelona by the plains. Encouraged by the de- 
 feat of Bolivar, the royalists thought that M'Gregor would fall 
 an easy prey : they pursued him so furiously, and were so cer- 
 tain of capturing him, that they sent official information to 
 Caraccas, that he had been defeated, all his men made pris- 
 oners, and himself killed, the very soldier being named who 
 had stripped him of his uniform on the field of battle. It was 
 one hundred miles to Barcelona, and Morales pursued the 
 patriots with all his forces, and came up and attacked them at 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 95 
 
 Alacran, but was repulsed. Morales also engaged the patri 
 ots at Juncal, where he was completely defeated, and M'Gre- 
 gor took possession of Barcelona in October, which opened to 
 him a communication with the other republican generals in. 
 Cumana and Guiana. 
 
 The royalists evacuated the fortress of Pampatar on the 
 2d November, leaving the island of Margarita in the quiet pos- 
 session of the patriots, which enabled general Arismendi te 
 embark from the island with part of his troops, and join the 
 patriots in Barcelona. Bolivar, after his defeat at Ocumare, 
 sailed again to Aux Cayes, where, having obtained re-enforce- 
 ments, he embarked in December, 1816, and stopping at Mar- 
 garita, he published a proclamation, calling a general congress 
 of the representatives of Venezuela, and proceeded with his 
 expedition to Barcelona. Here he organized a provisional 
 government, and was attacked by the enemy under Morales 
 and Real in the months of February and March, 1817, but 
 defeated them with great loss. The royalists were also de- 
 feated in Guiana by the patriots under Piar, in April, and 
 compelled to shut themselves up in the town of Angostura. 
 
 We return to the movements of general Morillo, who, it 
 will be remembered, entered Carthagena on the 6th of JDe- 
 cember, 1815. The possession of Carthagena, in a great de- 
 gree, opened to Morillo the conquest of all New Granada, 
 The army of the confederacy that had fought under Bolivar, 
 which was not destroyed in the civil war, had joined the gar- 
 rison of Carthagena, and the armies under Cabal and Urda- 
 neta were small, and occupied with the Spanish forces directly 
 opposed to them. Morillo had a powerful force, which ena- 
 bled him, by dividing it, to invade the confederate provinces 
 in three different directions. General Calzadas, with a force 
 consisting of some provincial royalists, and a part of the troops 
 left by Morillo at Caraccas, invaded the provinces of Pam- 
 plona and Tunja ; another division of the Spanish army march- 
 ed into the provinces of Antioquia and Popayan, and Morillo, 
 with the principal division of his army, proceeded up the river 
 Magdalena. He followed up the river nearly to Sanbarto- 
 lome, where he divided his forces, taking himself the road to- 
 wards Ocana and Sangil, in the province of Socorro ; whilst 
 a part of his troops continued up the river as far as the town 
 of Honda, the head of boat navigation. 
 
 Formidable and appalling as was this invasion, the congress 
 exerted themselves to the utmost to meet it, and defend the 
 country. The members either joined the army, or returned to 
 the provinces to rouse the people. The greatest efforts were 
 made to raise an army such as the crisis demanded ; and the 
 
96 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 government was greatly aided by the emigrants from Venezu- 
 ela, among whom were many experienced officers. But con- 
 sternation prevailed among the people, which paralysed every 
 exertion. The day of triumph had arrived for the Spaniards, 
 and the republicans could riot stop their victorious career. 
 The confederacy, however, was not overrun and subjugated 
 without a struggle and severe fighting. The denies through 
 which the enemy were obliged to pass, were fortified, and many 
 of the towns put in a state of defence, which were not over- 
 come by the royalists without many bloody conflicts. At Za- 
 ragoza and Remedies the patriots made a resolute defence, 
 and in the attack on the latter place, they repulsed the enemy, 
 and obtained considerable advantages, in most of the skir- 
 mishes .nd actions, however, which occurred, the advantage 
 was on the part of the royalists. At length the hard-fought 
 and sanguinary battle of Cachira, in which the best troops and 
 most of the officers of the confederate army fell, decided the 
 fate of New Granada. The congress immediately separated, 
 and the remnant of the army that survived the action, under 
 generals Cerviez and Ricaute, sought safety by taking the road 
 to Los Llanos.. There being no longer an army to oppose 
 him, Morillo entered Santa Fe de Bogota, in the month. of 
 June, 1/816, where he remained until November, carrying on 
 the work of pacification. Vengeance now opened her flood- 
 gates, and the blood of the patriots flowed as freely and pro- 
 fusely as the waters down the Andes. " More than six hun- 
 dred persons," says an authentic work, " of those who had 
 composed the congress and the provincial governments, as 
 well as the chiefs of the independent army, were shot, hang- 
 ed, or exiled ; and the prisons remained full of others who 
 were yet waiting their fate. Among those executed were the 
 botanists, Don J. Caldas and Don J, Lozano, who had been or- 
 dered by the congress of New Granada to publish the works 
 of Dr. Mutis; Don J. M. Cabal, a distinguished chemist ; 
 Don C. Torres, a man distinguished for his learning ; Don 
 J. G. Gutierrez Moreno, and Don M. R. Torices, both well 
 known for having teen entirely devoted to the cause of their 
 country ; Don Antonio Maria Palacio-faxar, Don J. M. Guti- 
 errez, Don Miguel Pombo, D. F. Ulloa, and many other learn- 
 ed and valuable characters. The wives of persons executed, 
 or exiled by Morillo, were themselves exiled too.'' 
 
 What but the outstretched arm of exasperated despotism, 
 could produce such a picture of cruelty, suffering, and blood- 
 shed ; such waste of life , such accumulated misery ? Surely, 
 tyranny, this is thy own work ! Well might the author of 
 such horrid deeds conclude, that " a military government is 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 97 
 
 the worst of any known form ; that it is the most tyrannical 
 and destructive ;" and, after viewing the works of his own 
 hands, with truth might he speak of America, as a country 
 " in which all was war, desolation and horror."* If any thing 
 could aggravate these enormities, it would be the considera- 
 tion, that they were committed against a people who, Morillo, 
 himself, says, were timid^ and would not have made much re- 
 sistance, had not the insurgents from Venezuela come to en- 
 courage and assist them. " In Santa Fe," says Morillo in a 
 letter to the Spanish minister of war, which fell into the hands 
 of the patriots, " there are but few blacks and mulattoes ; in 
 Venezuela a considerable part of the white population has 
 perished in the revolution. The inhabitants of Santa Fe are 
 timid ; those of Venezuela, bold and sanguinary. In Santa 
 Fe much has been published during the revolution, and the 
 learned have ruled all with their pens ; but in Caraccas they 
 displayed earlier the naked sword. From this dissimilarity of 
 character arises the different opposition we have met with : 
 but in their dissimulation and perfidy, the people in all the 
 provinces resemble each other. Probably, in this viceroyalty, 
 the inhabitants would not have opposed so firmly the king's 
 troops, had not many from Venezuela come to support them. 
 It was spurred on by them, that Carthagena resisted so strenu- 
 ously. The division of the army that attacked Zaragoza and 
 Remedies has opposed many troops disciplined by these insur- 
 gents. The government of Antioquia has already twice pro- 
 claimed la guerra muene, and has skilfully fortified the defiles 
 of the province by engineers from Venezuela. It was by the 
 activity of the same insurgents that Santa Fe, was obliged to 
 submit to the congress, and received their sanguinary ideas. 
 All is effected by the rebels from Venezuela. They are like 
 ferocious beasts when they fight in their own country ; and if 
 they get able commanders, it will require many years to sub- 
 due them, and even then it will be done &t the expense of 
 much blood, and considerable sums of money." 
 
 Yet the man wiio could commit such horrid outrages as 
 these, against a " timid" people, who were influenced by the 
 pens of their learned men, talks about his having " displayed 
 that clemency, so much recommended by the king, which was 
 unbounded." 
 
 The success of the patriots in Venezuela, induced Morillo 
 to leave Santa Fe, at the head of two thousand men, in 
 November, 1816, to re-enforce the royalist troops at Caraccas. 
 
 * Extract from Morillo's Letter to the minister of war in Spain, 
 found on board of the schooner La Leon, captured by the privateer, 
 The Congress, from Buenos Ayres. , 
 
98 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 He was attacked on his way by the patriot general Paez, near 
 San Fernando de Apure, with success and advantage on the 
 part of the Independents. During the months of February 
 and March, of 1817, the patriots kept possession of the town 
 of Barcelona, which was the only important place held by 
 them in Venezuela ; although they had several guerrilla corps 
 scattered over the interior. And their flotilla under Brion 
 commanded the sea coast, which enabled them to declare the 
 whole coast of Venezuela in a state of blockade. Bolivar 
 having advanced with a considerable part of his troops into 
 the interior, the royalists availing themselves of this circum- 
 stance, made another attempt against the town of Barcelona, 
 and after besieging it for some time, finally succeeded in ta- 
 king it by assault on the 7th of April. In the month of May, 
 the royal troops in Venezuela were re-enforced by sixteen 
 hundred men from Spain. 
 
 The loss of Barcelona was compensated by the success of 
 the patriots under general Piar, in Guiana, who defeated the 
 enemy at a place called Missions, about one hundred miles be- 
 low Angostura, ana this victory enabled Piar to march against 
 the town of Angostura, the capital of Guiana, and to lay siege 
 to it. Bolivar, the commander in chief, who had marched to- 
 wards the South, soon after reached Angostura, and joining 
 Piar, assumed the command. The town was now closely in- 
 vested both by sea and land, by the aid of the naval force un- 
 der Brion ; and the siege carried on with vigour and activity. 
 The flotilla cutting off all intercourse by water, and intercep- 
 ting all supplies, the town was compelled to capitulate in the 
 month of AugustJ and the province of Guiana, sharing the fate 
 of its capital, fell into the hands of the patriots. At a time 
 when the cause of the revolution, was in so low a condition, 
 and regarded abroad as annihilated, and at home as almost en- 
 tirely hopeless, the conquest of Guiana, was an important ac- 
 quisition, and gave a favourable impulse to the war. It added 
 greatly to the resources and means of the patriots for carry- 
 ing on hostilities ; and what perhaps was equally important, 
 the possession of the immense plains of the great valley of 
 the Orinoco, uncovered a long line of frontier, and enabled the 
 patriots not only to cut off ihe supplies which the royalists 
 were accustomed to receive from that quarter, but to make 
 constant inroads into the territory in the occupation of the en- 
 emy, and to destroy his small detachments stationed along the 
 line of the frontier. The possession of Guiana, also afforded 
 access to the sea which not only opened to the patriots a com- 
 munication with the Island of Margarita, their naval rendez- 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA 99 
 
 vous, but likewise enabled them to receive from the West In- 
 dies and elsewhere, military supplies. 
 
 Whilst the republicans were thus strengthening themselves, 
 by the occoupation of Guiana, the royalists were engaged in 
 an unsuccessful expedition against the Island of Margarita, 
 which, since its emancipation in 1816, by the efforts of gener- 
 al Arismendi and its heroic inhabitants, had been the principal 
 naval station of the patriots. 
 
 The congress of Venezuela which had been re-established 
 by Bolivar, on the 8th of May, 18 1 7, in the city of San Felipe 
 de Cariaco, in Cumana, and which on the fall of that place, 
 had taken refuge in Margarita, after remaining there twelve 
 days only, was obliged again to seek safety by retiring on 
 board the patriot flotilla, in consequence of the threatened in- 
 vasion of the Island.* In the month of June, the royalists ap- 
 peared before Margarita, with a squadron consisting of two 
 corvettes and five brigs ; and on the 14th of July, 1817, gen- 
 eral Morillo arrived with a formidable re-enforcement, con- 
 sisting of 3,500 troops, and an additional naval force. He im- 
 mediately stormed Pampatar, the principal fert and fortress of 
 the Island, which he reduced, and of which he possessed him- 
 self, after a most determined and desperate resistance. Mo- 
 rillo now supposed that the principal obstacle to the conquest 
 of the Island was overcome, and being exasperated against 
 the inhabitants, in consequence of their having been the first 
 to raise the Republican standard, after his conquest of ail Ven- 
 ezuela in 1815, he resolved to make an example of this de.- 
 voted island, and to exterminate all the inhabitants who made 
 any resistance. There were but few troops on the Island, and 
 general Morillo possessed a numerous and veteran army, ap- 
 parently sufficient to crush in a moment all resistance. Never 
 was the remark more fully, illustrated than on this occasion, 
 that in a contest against liberty, the inhabitants all become 
 soldiers, and that not only the armies but the whole population 
 must be overcome, before a conquest can be obtained. The 
 entire population of the island of Margarita, was but about 
 
 * This although called the supreme congress, was only a junta or 
 provisional government established by general Marino, second in 
 command, by the directions of Bolivar. No election of deputies 
 took place, nor had any election been held since the overthrow of the 
 first congress, in 1812. This provisional congress consisted of the 
 following persons, most of whom had been members of the first con- 
 gress : Admiral Brion, J. C. Madariga, A. Zea, J. X. Mays, presi- 
 dent of the former executive, F. X. de Alcala, D. Valenilla, D. A. 
 Alcala, M. Ysalia, F. de Paula Naval, D. B. Urbanesa and M. 
 Maneyro. See documents communicated to the president of the United 
 States in 1811. 
 
100 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 20,000 ; yet such was their truly Spartan heroism, that if they 
 could not say with that ancient city, that they never saw the 
 smoke of an enemy's camp ; like its renowned citizens, they 
 \vere resolved that the enemy should enter their capital only, 
 by passing over the dead bodies of its inhabitants. They had 
 determined to defend the island or perish in the attempt, and 
 their desperate bravery, firmness and perseverance, complete- 
 ly baffled all the efforts of a powerful and veteran aimy, led on 
 by an able and experienced general. After fighting five bat- 
 tles, and approaching in different directions nearly to Assump- 
 tion, the capital of the island, marking his progress every 
 where, with the most inhuman butcheries, and reducing the 
 island nearly to a state of desolation, the blood-thirsty Moril- 
 lo was compelled, reluctantly to retire, with the loss of 1000 
 of his troops, and to abandon the object of his expedition. 
 This heroic and successful defence has not received the no- 
 tice it is entitled to ; it is scarcely surpassed by any examples 
 in history, and the bravery, firmness, and self-devotion of the 
 inhabitants, is worthy of the highest admiration. 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA, 101 
 
 CHAPTER YI. 
 
 Defection of Piar Bolivar re-elected governor of Venezuela 
 attempts of the patriots to obtain foreign aid they receive as- 
 sistance from Great Britain Bolivar 's plan for emancipating 
 New Granada Congress installed at Angostura expedition 
 for the liberation of New Granada incredible difficulties if, 
 lias to encounter its success battle of Boyaca Bolivar en- 
 ters Santa Fe de Bogota establishes a provisional govern- 
 ment for New Granada he returns to Angostura installa- 
 tion of the Congress his speech union of Venezuela and 
 New Granada defeat of M'Gregor success of the revolution 
 its influence abroad preparations for the approaching cam- 
 paign it opens by the capture of Rio de let Hacha. 
 
 IN the month of October, 1817, a most alarming conspiracy, 
 vvas discovered, headed by general Piar, which threatened to 
 blast the hopes of the patriots, and ruin the cause of the revo*. 
 lution. General Piar had fought bravely and rendered im- 
 portant services to the republic, particularly in the libera- 
 tion of Guiana, and he had been rewarded by the highest 
 rank in the army, and even the second post in the republic, 
 then vacated by the separation of general Marino, was pro 
 posed to be conferred on him.* But intoxicated with suc- 
 cess and the favours of fortune, his boundless ambition, nof 
 satisfied with these honours, aimed at the chief command. 
 To attain this object, he had formed an atrocious plot, involv- 
 ing not only a civil war, but the sacrifice of his companions 
 in arms. 
 
 This unfortunate victim of ambition, was tried by a council 
 df war, and sentenced to be executed, the 16th of October, 
 1817. During this month, the patriots defeated the Spaniards 
 in Pamplona, and liberated that province. On the llth oi 
 November, the same year, the supreme congress of Venezue- 
 la, was organized at Angostura, and general Bolivar, was re 
 elected president of the republic. The close of the year 
 found the affairs of the patriots in a comparatively prosperous 
 Condition, and hope once more scattered light in the path df 
 
 * See Bolivar's proclamation of 17th Oct. 1817. 
 
 bVot. II. 27 
 
 ' 
 
102 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 independence and liberty. The arms of the republic for the 
 last six months, had been crowned with signal success ; in ad- 
 dition to Guiana and the plains, they had liberated the provin- 
 ces of Casanare, Barinas, Pamplona, and the interior of Cu- 
 mana, Barcelona, and Caraccas. The possession of the vast 
 plains of the Orinoco, was of the greatest advantage in supply- 
 ing the patriots with cattle and horses for the army, and at 
 the same time deprived the enemy of these resources ; it also 
 laid open an extensive frontier, and enabled their guerilla par- 
 ties to annoy the enemy by a predatory warfare along the 
 whole line of this frontier, and facilitated the fitting out of for- 
 midable expeditions against the enemy's posts. 
 
 Availing himself of these advantages, great exertions were 
 iiow made by Bolivar, aided by the congress, to open the cam- 
 paign the ensuing year with an imposing force. His first ob* 
 ject was to wrest from the enemy one of his principal posts, 
 called San Fernando de Apure ; for which purpose he des- 
 patched an expedition by water, consisting of thirty gun-boats, 
 and marched himself to form a junction with general Paez, 
 who was in that quarter. Paez was a distinguished patriot 
 chief, and an able commander of cavalry, who had already 
 liberated an extensive district of the country, from the Span- 
 ish domination, and raised numerous corps of cavalry, for the 
 service of the republic. The united forces of Bolivar and 
 Paez, were successful in their first operations, and they pene- 
 trated into the interior beyond Calaboza, driving the enemy 
 before them, and in some instances destroying their detach- 
 ments. But after various sanguinary conflicts, many of them 
 sharp and obstinate, and which were attended with alternate 
 success, no important advantages were gained by the patriots, 
 and Bolivar was obliged to relinquish the object of liberating. 
 Venezuela this season, and retire to Guiana. 
 
 Although the republicans made little or no progress this 
 year, in rescuing from the Spaniards that part of Venezuela 
 which they held, yet the campaign was by no means lost, as it 
 had changed the order of operations and obliged the royalists 
 to act wholly on the defensive. There is a negative, as well 
 as positive success in war ; and not to be vanquished, is some- 
 times almost equivalent to victory. Even victory, in some 
 cases, is attended with the ultimate, if not the immediate con- 
 sequence of defeat. It was no small success for the patriots, 
 most of their forces consisting of raw troops, to be able to 
 maintain the field, and to contend with advantage and often 
 with success, with the veteran troops of Spain, and to arrest 
 the successful career of the enemy. 
 
 Every conflict, was improving their knowledge in the prc 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA, 103 
 
 tice of war, and diminishing the advantages of the royalists, 
 in military experience and discipline ; and when the sacrifi- 
 ces attending this acquisition, were nearly equal, the patriots 
 were relatively great gainers, as their losses could be easily 
 supplied, while the losses of the royalists, were nearly irrepar- 
 able. The operations of 1816 and 17, which effectually check- 
 ed the victorious career of the barbarous Morillo, broke the ' 
 spell of invincibility which had been attached to his name, so 
 that it no longer spread terror and dismay through the ranks of 
 the patriots. 
 
 Hitherto the independents had sustained the unequal con- 
 test unaided and alone ; the friends of liberty, both in Europe 
 and the United States, had contented themselves, with ex- 
 tending to them, their good wishes, a succour not very effica- 
 cious, in the struggles of war. The revolutionists, at first 
 looked with great expectations to Great Britain, in conse- 
 quence of the disposition she had long manifested, to favour 
 the independence of Venezuela, to promote her commerce 
 with South America. After the establishment of the junta ID 
 Caraccas in 1810, L. L. Mendez, and Simon Bolivar were ap~ 
 pointed to solicit the countenance and support of the British 
 government, in favour of the revolution. But the policy of 
 the British cabinet was now changed, as it was engaged in 
 supporting the Spanish patriots in the peninsula, against the 
 French ; and the only effect of this mission, was a decree or- 
 dering the governors of their West India islands to maintain a 
 strict neutrality, in the contest between Spain and her colo- 
 nies, provided the new governments continueoj to act in the 
 name of Ferdinand the VII. This decree seemed to imply, 
 that if the patriots declared the country independent, the Bri- 
 tish government might favour Spain in reducing them to obedi- 
 ence. And in a treaty concluded with Ferdinand, after his 
 restoration, it was stated " the Prince Regent hoped that Fer- 
 dinand would restore peace in his American colonies ; and 
 that entertaining this hope, he would engage not to assist the 
 insurgents, and would even endeavour to prevent his subjects 
 from affording them any assistance." 
 
 In the year 1810, the junta of Caraccas deputed Telesferp 
 Orea, and John Vincente Bolivar, to the government of the 
 United States, and in 1815, the congress of New Granada sent 
 Don Pedro Gaul, now secretary of foreign affairs in Colombia, 
 on a mission to this country ; the following year Bolivar des- 
 patched to Washington, Don Lino de Clemente, and in 1817. 
 the congress of Venezuela, soon after it was re-established, 
 commissioned Joseph Cortes Madariaga, as minister to the 
 United States. The policy of our government as it regards 
 
104 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 its foreign relations, adopted by Washington, and followed by 
 all his successors, did not admit of the government affording 
 assistance to the patriots, or even of its departing from a stricj 
 line of neutrality, however much the Executive might desire, 
 in common with all our citizens, success to their cause. 
 
 It is a curious fact, and strongly illustrative of the selfish po 
 licy which governs the conduct of nations, that France was 
 the only power that manifested any intention of assisting the 
 patriots in their arduous struggle. In 1812, after the royalists 
 had re-conquered and laid waste Venezuela, and the same 
 dreadful fate impended over New Granada, the congress of" 
 that country resolved to apply for succour to some foreign 
 power. It was in vain to apply to England ; little hope re 
 mained of assistance from the United States, and France, un- 
 der the despotism of Bonaparte, was the only power of which 
 there was any prospect of obtaining assistance to the sacred 
 cause of liberty and independence. It was determined, how- 
 ever, that application should be renewed to the United States, 
 arid if unsuccessful, then to be made to Bonaparte, who had 
 twice declared that he would assist the new world in obtaining 
 their independence. Accordingly, Don M. Placio Faxar wae 
 sent on a double mission to \\fashington. Having made known 
 the object of his mission to Mr. Madison, and informed him 
 that the people of New Granada were unable, without assist- 
 ance, to support the contest necessary to maintain their free 
 (lorn, he was answered by the president, that, " though the 
 United States were not in alliance, they were at peace with 
 Spain, and could not, therefore, assist the independents ; stilK 
 as inhabitants of the same continent, they wished well to their 
 exertions." The commissioner then addressed himself to M, 
 Serrurier, the French minister, resident at Washington, who 
 encouraged him to apply to Napoleon, which he did, with every 
 prospect of success. The arrangements were actually making 
 to give effective assistance to the South Americans, when the 
 battle of Leipsic took place, which threatened the invasion of 
 France, and left the Emperor no opportunity to attend to any 
 thing, but the maintenance of his own power.* 
 
 During nine years, the patriots of Venezuela and New Gra- 
 nada, unaided and alone, without allies and without assistance, 
 sustained the most desperate and sanguinary struggle in de- 
 fence of their independence, with a firmness and persever- 
 ance almost unexampled, under sufferings and sacrifices truly 
 incredible ; a large proportion of the white population in Ven- 
 ezuela having been destroyed, and both countries devastated 
 
 > 
 * Outline of the Revolution of South America, 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 1(}S 
 
 with fire and sword. But the time had now arrived, that the 
 South American patriots were to receive a more efficient sup- 
 port from abroad than the sympathies of the friends of liberty. 
 Their sufferings and sacrifices ; their bravery, firmness, and 
 perseverance; their patriotic devotion to the sacred cause of 
 liberty, under the most appalling circumstances, awakened the 
 attention of the world, and inspired the confidence, and exci- 
 ted the highest admiration of the friends of liberty in the Uni- 
 ted States and in Europe, particularly in the British Isles. 
 The cries of liberty, the voice of struggling freedom, were 
 heard across the waters, and excited the most lively sympathy 
 in kindred breasts.* Notwithstanding the policy of the gov- 
 ernment founded on the dictates of prudence and caution, the 
 people of the United States almost universally felt a deep and 
 lively interest in the success of their brethren in South Amer- 
 ica, engaged in the same desperate struggle for liberty as they 
 themselves had gone through ; not, however, without foreign 
 succour, which the South Americans had not hitherto been so 
 fortunate as to obtain. Near the close of the year 1817, the 
 president of the United States appointed three commissioners, 
 Messrs. Rodney, Bland, and Graham, to visit the independent 
 states in South America to ascertain their political condition, 
 and their means and prospects of securing their independence : 
 and early in 1818, the legislature of Kentucky adopted reso- 
 lutions, expressing their sense of the propriety and expedien- 
 cy of the national government, acknowledging the independ- 
 ence of the South American republics. These resolutions. 
 
 * The history of the revolution in South America abounds, Dot 
 only in deeds of desperate bravery, but aifords instances of the truly 
 Roman spirit of liberty and of self devotion. In 1817, Morillo, hav- 
 ing got into his power a son of the patriot general Zaraza, conferred 
 on him the commission of ensign, by which means he was in hopes 
 to induce the patriot chief to embrace the advantages offered in the 
 Indultp, or act of oblivion, and join tfye royal standard Accordingly, 
 Morillo sent a priest of the name of Sutil, accompanied by the young" 
 Zaraza, to the patriot general, who was informed, by the clerical 
 messenger, that Morillo would make him a brigadier, if he would 
 go over with his troops to the royal standard. To this proposal Za- 
 raza made the following noble reply : k * Not until I behold my wife 
 and unfortunate children, cruelly murdered by the legions of general 
 Morillo, restored to life again, shall I desist from the noble underta 
 king and glorious strife in which I am now engaged against the ty- 
 rants of their country, and the assassins of their innocent posterity.'' 
 Having said these words, he handed a sword to his son, who, scorn- 
 ing a rank which was given him merely for the sake of necessity or 
 convenience, grasped the weapon ; when his father added, " witb 
 this, you must defend the rights of your country, and avetfge tlte 
 dfestth of your mother and brethren." 
 
 27* 
 
106 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 probably, emanated from the influence of Mr. Clay, now sec 
 sretary of state, who, from the first, has been a zealous and 
 steadfast friend of the South American patriots. Some indi- 
 viduals from the United States joined the patriots, and some- 
 supplies of ammunition and muskets were furnished them from 
 this country. 
 
 It was from the British Isles, however, that they received 
 the greatest assistance, both in men and munitions of war. 
 Both in England and Ireland, a number of patriotic individuals 
 espoused the cause of the South American patriots with zeal 
 and disinterested devotion. Such was the success of the exer- 
 tions of these disinterested patriots in England and Ireland, 
 that, in the summer of 1818, and early in the year of 1819 r 
 not only large supplies of arms and munitions of war were 
 sent to the Orinoco, but a considerable auxiliary force, con- 
 sisting of several hundred volunteers, arrived at the island of" 
 Margarita, from whence they were forwarded to the Orinoco 
 in season for the next campaign. A number of experienced 
 English and Irish officers either accompanied or followed these 
 troops, which was an invaluable acquisition to the patriots ; 
 being extremely useful in imparting military knowledge and 
 skill to the officers, and discipline to the troops, in the patriot 
 service. The troops, too, were veteran soldiers, who had 
 seen much service ; and the foreign officers and soldiers prob- 
 ably contributed, in no small degree, to the glorious successes 
 of the ensuing campaign. 
 
 The indefatigable Bolivar, whose extraordinary exertions 
 for the emancipation of his country, have, by the unanimous 
 voice of America and Europe, justly entitled him to the illus- 
 trious appellation of the Washington of South America, now 
 conceived the bold project of emancipating New 7 Granada, 
 when Morillo supposed that the whole efforts of the patriot* 
 would be required in Venezuela. In opening a campaign in 
 Mew Granada, numerous difficulties were to be overcome ; 
 unexplored tracts of wilderness were to be traversed ; rapid 
 and dangerous rivers, swelled into lakes by the rains, were to 
 be crossed, and mountains, apparently inaccessible, to be 
 passed ; and with an army hastily collected, a considerable 
 part of which were destitute of discipline, and unaccustomed 
 to the hardships of service ; badly equipped and clothed, and 
 scantily provided with the means of subsistence. Formidable 
 as were these difficulties, they did not surpass the resolution 
 of the chief of the republic, or shake the firmness of his pur- 
 pose. The liberation of New Granada, whether regarded 
 with reference to the relief it would afford to the oppressed 
 inhabitants, the importance of the acquisition, or the influence 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 107 
 
 it would have on the revolutionary cause, was an object de- 
 manding the utmost efforts of the republic. The cause of 
 Venezuela and New Granada were essentially identified, and 
 reciprocally influenced each other. Animated by the magni- 
 tude, and even by the difficulties of the enterprize, Bolivar 
 made every possible effort his situation and resources would 
 admit of, in preparing for this important campaign. 
 
 But the preparations for the approaching campaign did not 
 engross the entire attention of Bolivar, who was not only the 
 liberator, but the legislator of his country ; not only the com- 
 mander in chief of her armies, but the head of the govern- 
 ment, and the founder of her institutions. The congress of 
 Venezuela was installed at Angostura in February or March. 
 1819, to deliberate on the form of a constitution for the re- 
 public. The session was opened by a long and elaborate 
 speech by the president, exhibiting his views of the most suit- 
 able government for Venezuela, under existing circumstances. 
 This speech comprises twenty-five printed folio pages, and 
 evinces a profound acquaintance with the history, principles, 
 and practical operations of various forms of government, and 
 a heart warmed with the holy fire of patriotism, deeply anx- 
 ious to secure to his country wise institutions, affording the 
 surest pledge of preserving its liberty, and securing its pros- 
 perity and happiness. It concludes in the following glowing 
 language : 
 
 " Legislators ! Condescend to receive, with indulgence, the 
 declaration of my political creed, the highest wishes of my 
 heart, and earnest petition, which, in the name of the people, 
 I have dared to address you. 
 
 " Vouchsafe to grant to Venezuela a government purely pop- 
 ular, purely just, and purely moral, which will enchain oppres- 
 sion, anarchy, and crime a government which will cause in- 
 nocency, philanthropy, and peace to reign a government 
 which, under the dominion of inexorable laws, will cause 
 " equality and liberty to triumph. 
 
 " Gentlemen ! Commence your duties. I have finished 
 mine. 
 
 " The congress of the republic of Venezuela is installed. 
 In it, from this moment, is centered the national sovereignty. 
 We all owe to it obedience and fidelity. My sword, and those 
 of my fellows in arms, will maintain its august authority." 
 
 Having discharged this responsible duty, respecting the es 
 tablishment of a system of government for the republic, Boli- 
 var directed his whole attention to preparations for the libera- 
 tion of New Granada. He organized a select corps compo- 
 sed of Irish and English foreign auxiliaries, and some of hfe 
 
108 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 best troops. General Paez, whose name had become a terror 
 to the royalists, was to remain behind, entrusted with the im- 
 portant duty of watching the motions of Morillo, and defend- 
 ing Guiana and the territories of Venezuela in the possession 
 of the republicans. Every thing being in readiness, taking 
 advantage of the rainy season, when the royalists had aban- 
 doned the plains, and were reposing in security, the army 
 commenced its march in the month of April, on an enterprize, 
 the importance of which was only surpassed by its intrinsic 
 difficulties. The constancy and fortitude of this army, in sus- 
 taining the fatigues and hardships which it had to endure, and 
 surmounting the numerous obstacles that opposed its progress, 
 will not surfer from a comparison with the army with which 
 the Garthagenian hero conquered the Alps. " The rainy sea- 
 son," says Bolivar, k ' had commenced, and the plains present- 
 ed only vast sheets of inundations ; the frozen summits of the 
 Andes lay in our route ; the sudden mutations of adverse cli- 
 mates were to be encountered ; a well disciplined army, three 
 times our' own number, were in front of us, and occupying all 
 the military positions of those regions." 
 
 On the arrival of the army in the province of Casanare, it 
 formed a junction with the troops of that province under the 
 command of general Santander ; on which occasion Bolivar 
 issued a proclamation to the inhabitants of New Granada, in 
 which he says, that " the groans which Spanish tyranny ex- 
 torted from you, have reached the ears of your brethren in 
 Venezuela, who, after having thrown off the yoke of our com- 
 mon oppressors, wish to share their liberty with you. A Bri- 
 tish legion,, from more distant climes, has left the glory of its 
 country to acquire the renown of saviours of America ; this 
 liberating army of friends and benefactors is now in the bosom 
 of your country, and God, who always protects suffering hu- 
 manity, will make the arms .of > your redeemers triumphant." 
 
 The united armies were a whole month in marching through 
 the province of Casanare, and in overcoming the obstacles 
 which every day appeared to multiply as they advanced. Tlv \ 
 had to cross a number of navigable rivers, which, at this sea- 
 son of the year, overflowed their banks, and inundated the 
 country and the roads over the plains. It rained almost con- 
 stantly day and night. The roughness of the mountains ren- 
 dered them almost inaccessible, and in four days' marching 
 over them, all the transports were rendered useless, and all 
 the cattle provided for the army were lost. No enemy was 
 discovered until they reached the river Guya, on the 27th of 
 June, 1819, when the vanguard of the liberating army attack- 
 ed and dislodged a detachment of three hundred royafisfs> oc- 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 109 
 
 oppying a position so strong, by nature, that one hundred men 
 are sufficient to stop the passage of ten thousand.* The roy* 
 alists' destroying the bridge across the river, prevented their 
 being pursued, so that the only direct advantage of the victory^ 
 was the possession of the harbour, and the provisions left by 
 the enemy. But as this was the opening of the campaign, it 
 had a favourable influence on the army after their incredible* 
 fatigues, as the first events are often regarded, in some de^ 
 gree, as presages of the final result. 
 
 This affair was immediately followed by a succession of the 
 most splendid victories the revolution affords, and which not 
 only speedily terminated the campaign, but decided the fate 
 of New Granada, and perhaps it is hardly too much to say of 
 the revolution in the whole of Spanish America. The first 
 action was fought on the first of July, in the valley of Saga- 
 moso, in the province of Tunja, between the liberating army 
 and the main army of the royalists of New Granada, command- 
 ed by Bareyro. The contest was long, obstinate, and con- 
 tinued until ten o'clock at night, when the Spaniards were 
 routed and compelled to retreat in great disorder, to save them- 
 selves from destruction. 
 
 After considerable maneuvering by both the hostile armies, 
 they encountered each other again on the 25th of July, at Pan- 
 tano de Bargas, near the capital of the province of Tunja. 
 The action lasted for five hours, both parties fighting with the 
 greatest desperation. Victory at length declared for the pat- 
 riots, and the rout of the royalists was complete ; they were 
 obliged to retreat in confusion, leaving their artillery, baggage, 
 and treasures, on the field of battle, with their killed and 
 wounded. The Spanish army retreated by the road of Sama- 
 ca, in the direction of the capital, and were pursued and over 
 taken by the liberating army on the 7th of August, at Boyaca. 
 At day-light the advanced corps of the patriots discovered thai 
 the enemy intended to pass the bridge at Boyaca, when Boli- 
 var ordered the whole army under arms for action, and to 
 inarch to the high road to prevent the royalists from crossing 
 the bridge, or force them to give battle. At two in the after- 
 noon, the enemy's first division reached the bridge, where 
 they saw the advance cavalry of the patriots, and supposing it 
 a reconnoitring party, they attacked it to clear the way for the 
 main body of the royal army. The divisions of the liberating 
 army quickened their march, and, to the great surprise of the 
 royalists, the whole of its infantry appeared in a column on a 
 height commanding a view of their position. The main body 
 
 *. Despatch of Bolivar, dated 30th of June, 1819. 
 
110 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 of the enemy was stationed about three fourths of a mile from 
 the bridge. The infantry of the liberating army came dowii 
 from the height, and, together with the cavalry, marched along 
 the road to give the enemy battle ; who, in the mean time 
 made a movement by his right, which was opposed by the 
 British legion. The battalions of Barcelona, the intrepid 
 corps of Paez, and the squadron of cavalry of the upper plains, 
 formed the centre of the liberating army ; the battalion of the 
 line of New Granada, the battalion of Cozadores, and the 
 guards of the rear, formed the left, and the columns of Tunja 
 and Socorro remained as a reserve. The enemy was formed 
 in a column on a height, with three pieces of artillery in the 
 centre, and two squadrons of cavalry on the flanks, where they 
 waited the attack. The patriot general Anzoatequi directed 
 the operations of the centre and right, and Gen. Santander the 
 left. The troops of the centre comprising the invincible corps 
 of Paez, whilst exposed to the fire of a body of the enerm 
 posted on their left flank, attacked with great intrepidity the 
 main body of the royalists. The enemy received them with 
 firmness, and poured into them a tremendous. fire ; but the in- 
 dependents, regardless of this, by the most daring and active 
 movements surrounded all the enemy's corps, when the cavalry, 
 charging with great impetuosity and courage, the enemy was 
 driven from his posit on and thrown into disorder, which ren- 
 dered all the efforts of the Spanish commander unavailing. 
 The horse grenadiers set the first example of flight ; the infant- 
 ry attempted to form on another height, but were assailed so 
 hotly that they were instantly routed, and being enclosed on 
 all sides, threw down their arms and surrendered. By an al- 
 most simultaneous movement, general Santander, who com- 
 manded the left, and who had met with but little resistance 
 from the enemy's van, charged, passed the bridge, and com- 
 pleted the victory. The conflict was short, but terrible, and 
 victory was not for a moment doubtful ; the slaughter was 
 great, and the Spanish army entirely annihilated. General 
 Bareyrojthe commander in chief, Ximines, the second in com- 
 mand, a great number of field and inferior officers, and 1600 
 men, were made prisoners. The spoils of the vanquished, 
 which fell into the hands of the patriots, were great, consisting 
 of artillery, arms, ammunition, horses, &c. General Santan- 
 der, with the van, pursued the fugitives 'to Venta Qucmada, 
 and the rest of the army remained all night on the field of battle. 
 The Spanish army consisted of above 3,000 men ; that oi" 
 Bolivar of something less.* 
 
 * Official despatch of Bolivar. 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOIVIBIA. Ill 
 
 This great and decisive action, which may be regarded as 
 holding that place in the Colombian revolution that the victo- 
 ry at Saratoga did in our own, gave the patriots the possession 
 oT Santa Fe, the capital of New Granada, and the neighbour- 
 ing provinces. The viceroy, Samano, immediately on obtain- 
 ing news of the defeat of the royal army, with a few attendants 
 left the capital, and reached Carthagena by way of Mompox* 
 where he was defeated, and escaped with a handful of men to 
 Tericabo, an elevated position about twelve miles from Car- 
 ihagena. He left all his military stores at Santa Fe, and a 
 large sum in specie in the treasury and mint, said to amount to 
 two or three millions. 
 
 It is impossible for language to describe the joy and enthu- 
 siasm with which the inhabitants of Santa Fe de Bogota re- 
 ceived the victorious Bolivar, who had generously come to 
 I heir relief when hope had almost forsaken them ; he was hail- 
 od as their deliverer, their redeemer ; as the first of patriots 
 und the greatest of heroes, who surpassed the renowned Han- 
 nibal in overcoming the obstacles of nature, and the still great- 
 er Bonaparte, in the rapidity of his movements and the success 
 of his bold and noble enterprises. In seventy-five days he 
 performed a march of nearly one thousand miles, fought three 
 pitched battles, and emancipated a nation struggling under the 
 weight of oppression, and whose wounds, inflicted by the san- 
 guinary Morilio, were not yet healed. 
 
 Improving the advantages which fortune and his own valor 
 had conferred on him, Bolivar immediately directed his atten- 
 tion to making the best dispositions of the augmented military 
 resources now at his command. The inhabitants flocked to 
 his standard, and two armies were raised, organised, and put 
 in motion about the 20th of September ; one for the south* 
 and the other destined to liberate the provinces of the north, 
 still in the possession of the royalists. A provisional govern- 
 ment for New Granada was also established, and all the ne- 
 cessary arrangements made for the security of the country, in 
 which Bolivar was seconded by the inhabitants ; and after sub- 
 mitting to Samano proposals for an exchange of prisoners, he 
 left the capital of New Granada to return to Angostura, where 
 the congress of Venezuela was expected to be in session. He 
 travelled with expedition corresponding with the celerity of his 
 movements when at the head of the army. From Pamplona 
 to Angostura, which usually requires twenty-five or thirty days, 
 he went in seventeen, and arrived at the latter place on the 
 llth of December, 1819, where he was received with the 
 greatest demonstrations of joy, no\y the liberator of New Gra- 
 nada as well as of Venezuela. 
 
112 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 On the 14th of December the congress was installed, cm 
 which occasion the president delivered aepeech, giving a brief 
 account of the campaign, the difficulties the army had to en- 
 counter from the inundations of the plains, the roughness and 
 frozen summits of the mountains, and the superior force of 
 the enemy, which occupied all the strong positions of the coun- 
 try. But notwithstanding these difficulties, in less than three 
 months ihis victorious army, besides overcoming the floods of 
 the plains and the frosts of the Andes, annihilated an army of 
 three times their number, and liberated twelve provinces of 
 New Granada. The president does justice to the inhabitants 
 df New Granada : "It is not alone to the liberating army that 
 we are indebted for these signal events ; the people of New 
 Granada have shown themselves worthy of liberty ; their effi*- 
 cient co-operation retrieved our losses and augmented our 
 Strength." He recommends the commemoration of these great 
 achievments of his companions in arms ; and concludes by in- 
 forming the congress of the desire of the people of New Gra- 
 nada to unite their destiny with Venezuela, and his own ardent, 
 wishes for the union of the two countries. " Yes, legislators, 
 the unanimous determination of perishing free, rather than to 
 live slaves, hath given to the people of New Granada a title 
 to our admiration and respect. Their ardent desire to unite 
 their destiny with Venezuela is not less magnanimous. The 
 inhabitants of New Granada are intimately penetrated with 
 the great advantages to be derived from the union of both 
 countries in one republic. The re-union of Venezuela and 
 New Granada have been the unceasing object of my d esires, 
 from the commencement of my military career. It is also the 
 original wish of the citizens of both countries, and a certain 
 guarantee of the liberties of all South America. 
 
 " Legislators The time to give a fixed and eternal basis to 
 our republic has at length arrived ; it belongs to your wisdom 
 to decree this great social act, and to establish the principles 
 <rf the sacred compact upon which the republic was to be 
 erected. Proclaim it to the whole world, and my services and 
 those of my companions in arms will be amply remunerated, 
 and their utmost wishes accomplished." 
 
 Bolivar having closed his address, Mr. Zea, the vice-presi- 
 dent, arose and replied : 
 
 " Among the many glorious and illustrious days consecra- 
 ted by you to the republic, none has been more auspicious 
 than that of the present, in which you have laid at the foot of 
 the national representatives the laurel wreaths of victory, and 
 the chains cut in pieces by your swords, which had bound in 
 letters two millions of people." After describing in glowing 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 113 
 
 language the obstacles the army had to encounter, on account 
 of the rainy season, in passing the Andes, and from the supe- 
 rior force of the enemy, he says : " But every difficulty dis- 
 appeared before the courage and impetuosity of the soldiers 
 of independence. Scarcely can victory keep pace with the 
 victor, and in less than three months, the principal and great- 
 est part of New Granada is liberated, by those troops whose 
 destruction the viceroy of Santa Fe, had declared, in anticipa- 
 tion, as an inevitable consequence of their rashness and te- 
 merity." In conclusion, he adds his desires to those of the 
 president for the union of the two Countries : " Quito, Santa 
 Fe, and Venezuela united in one republic, who is competent 
 to calculate the measure and magnitude of prosperity which 
 belongs to such a mass of physical and moral power. May 
 heaven bless this propitious union whose consolidation is the 
 first object of all my cares, and of the most ardent desires of 
 my heart." 
 
 On the 17th the congress passed what is called the funda- 
 mental law of the republic, which unites Venezuela and New 
 Granada into one state, under the name of the " REPUBLIC OF 
 COLOMBIA." This act of union declares that the debts of the 
 two republics shall be consolidated, and remain the national 
 debt of Colombia ; that the new republic shall be divided into 
 departments, over each of which there shall be a chief magis- 
 trate, to be appointed by the president ; that a city shall be 
 built, bearing the name of Bolivar, which shall be the capital 
 of the republic ; that a general Congress of Colombia shall be 
 assembled at Rosario de Cucuta, in January, 1821, and that 
 the present congress shall be dissolved in January, 1820 ; that 
 the general congress shall form a constitution for the new re- 
 public, and decree the arms and flag of Colombia. It further 
 provides that a commission of six members should be invested 
 with special powers during the recess of congress ; that the 
 new republic should be solemnly proclaimed to the citizens 
 and the armies, with public festivals and rejoicings on the 25th 
 of December, the nativity of the Saviour, and that the anni- 
 versary of this political regeneration shall be perpetually cele- 
 brated by a national feast, wherein virtue and talents shall be 
 rewarded as at the Olympic games in ancient Greece. This 
 fundamental law of union was ordered to be recorded in the 
 archieves of the cabildos and municipalities, and to be promul- 
 gated throughout the republic. 
 
 This great political measure being accomplished, the foun- 
 der of the new republic directed his attention to the prosecu- 
 tion of the .war and to preparations for an expulsion of the 
 enemy from it. The army brought back from New Granada 
 
 VOL. II. 28 
 
114 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 was augmented by detachments of troops, to ten or twelve 
 thousand men. 
 
 While the arms of the patriots were crowned with such 
 signal success in the interior, some disasters occurred on 
 the sea board. General M'Gregor fitted out an expedition, 
 with a force of one thousand men, and on the 8th of April, 
 1819, attacked and captured Porto Bello ; but after posses- 
 sing the place twenty-one days, he was attacked by the roy- 
 alists under general Hore, and defeated with the loss of 
 his entire force, except a few attendants who escaped with 
 their commander by swimming to one of their vessels. This 
 fatal disaster did not discourage M'Gregor from his predato- 
 ry warfare, and about the first of September, he sailed from 
 Aux Cayes, with another expedition, with two hundred and 
 fifty men, and succeeded in taking Rio de la Hacha, which 
 he held five days, when the Spaniards rallied, attacked the 
 assailants, and after a short conflict, M'Gregor, perceiving 
 the enemy too strong for him, fled, leaving his men to make 
 the best shift they could for themselves ; and finding that 
 they could make no further defence, such was their horror at 
 falling into the hands of the Spaniards, that they blew up the 
 fort, by which most of them fell the victims of their own folly 
 and delusion. 
 
 On the 20th of December, Bolivar communicated to general 
 Santander, vice-president of Cundinamarca, the fundamen- ; 
 tal f law, which he desires him to carry into effect ; and ob- 
 serves, that " the prospects opened by this ever memorable 
 act are as comprehensive, as magnificent ; freedom, power, 
 grandeur, and stability will be secured by such an union. By 
 the unanimous voice of the deputies of Venezuela and New 
 Granada, the foundation has been laid, upon which the public 
 happiness will be established with solidity and durability, and 
 that character has been designed, by which this infant nation 
 shall be recognized, and its political relations established with 
 all the world. 
 
 On receiving this despatch, Santander assembled on the 
 12th of February, 1820, the constituted authorities of the 
 new department of Cundinamarca, and laid the subject of the 
 union before them with the fundamental law, who unanimous- 
 ly approved of the union, and ordered a solemn publication of 
 it to be made in Bogota, the capital, which was done amidst 
 the universal rejoicings of the people. In his answer to the let* 
 ter of Bolivar, general Santander, after informing him of what 
 had taken place at Bogota, and the unanimity with which ten 
 provinces of New Granada had acceded to the union, con- 
 cludes by offering his congratulations on this auspicious event 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 115 
 
 to the illustrious president. The cause of South American 
 independence was now gaining ground abroad, as well as at 
 home ; although no power, as yet, acknowledged its independ- 
 ence, or directly or indirectly afforded either of the new gov- 
 ernments any assistance, or even countenance. In his mes- 
 sage to congress, in December, 1819, president Monroe says, 
 that " the greatest care has been taken to enforce the laws 
 intended to preserve an impartial neutrality ; that our ports 
 have been equally open to both parties, and that our citizens 
 have been equally restrained from interfering with either, to 
 the prejudice of the other." He admits that the contest is of 
 the highest interest to the United States, but considers it of 
 the greatest importance to our national character, and the 
 morality of our citizens, that all violations of our neutrality 
 should be prevented, and with a view to this, he recommends 
 to congress to designate by law, the several ports at which 
 foreign ships of war and privateers may be admitted. The 
 people of the United States, however, felt an increasing inter- 
 est in the success of the South American patriots. But it 
 was to Great Britain that the patriots were principally indebted 
 for foreign assistance. The English, Irish, and Scotch auxil- 
 iaries engaged in the last campaign, amounted to four or five 
 hundred ; one quarter of which only survived, their loss being 
 much greater than that of the troops of Venezuela, in conse- 
 quence of their not being accustomed to the climate, or to a 
 service attended with such fatigue and hardships. This waste 
 of the British troops, however, did not discourage their coun- 
 trymen ; and during the year 1819, an Irish legion of one 
 thousand men was raised by general D'Evereux for the service 
 of Colombia. The troops were disembarked on the island 
 of Margarita, where they were afterwards joined by general 
 D'Evereux, from whence they proceeded to the main in season 
 for the campaign of 1820. 
 
 After the close of the session of congress, president Boli- 
 var repaired to the head-quarters of the army on the Apure, 
 where he made the necessary arrangements for the approach- 
 ing campaign. Before this opened, however, he proceeded to 
 the capital of New Granada, where, on the 8th of March. 
 1820, he published a proclamation to the people of Colombia, 
 in which he congratulates them on the auspicious event 
 of the union of the two countries, which he says will cause 
 them to be respected by foreign powers, who will admire 
 their devotion to their country, and even cause Spain to ac- 
 knowledge them as deserving the enjoyment of their rights. 
 
 " Colombians, I promise to you, in the name of congress, 
 that you shall be regenerated. Your institutions will reach 
 
116 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 high perfection your tributes will be abolished the restraints 
 upon your liberty and enterprize will be destroyed your vir- 
 tues will be your patrimony, and capacity, courage, and vir- 
 tue, will alone be considered and rewarded." He concludes, 
 by observing, that it had been the sole object of his whole 
 life to form this free and independent republic of two families 
 of brethren. 
 
 Bolivar, in his proclamation, intimated that there was a pros- 
 pect of the war being soon terminated, and for the expulsion 
 of the enemy, from the territories of the republic, he now di- 
 rected all his exertions* and to hasten the movements of the 
 different corps, which had been organized to act against the 
 royalists in Venezuela, and in the northern and southern prov- 
 inces of New Granada, still in the possession of the Spaniards. 
 The campaign commenced in April, 1820, by the capture of 
 Rio de la Hacha by a combined attack of the land and naval 
 forces of the republic, the former commanded by general 
 Montilla, and the latter by admiral Brion. After this event, 
 a detachment of this army was despatched to form a junction 
 with the northern army of New Granada, which was descend- 
 ing the Magdalena. 
 
 The southern army of New Granada, commanded by the 
 intrepid general Valdes, also opened the campaign with suc- 
 cess. The enemy posted several hundred of his bravest troops 
 under the traitor Lopez, at Paramo, where they waited the ap- 
 proach of the patriots. Lopez attacked the vanguard of the 
 republicans with great boldness, which was compelled to give 
 way, when general Valdes ordered a charge to be made, with 
 250 men, of which 200 were British auxiliaries, which deci- 
 ded the action. The enemy sustained a loss in killed and pris- 
 oners of about 300. Lopez escaped with the remnant of his 
 troops, in consequence of the cavalry of the patriots not be- 
 ing in a condition to pursue. Following up this success, Val- 
 des pursued the enemy with great celerity, obtained several 
 advantages, and finally drove the royalists out of the province 
 ofPopayan, of which the patriots took possession ; the royal- 
 ists fled into Quito, where they hoped to retrieve their losses 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 117 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Morillo proposes an armistice writes to the congress and Boli- 
 var the Colombians invest Carthagena by sea and land an 
 armistice concluded revolution in Guayaquil Morillo re- 
 turns to Spain succeeded by Morales armistice expires 
 the liberator's proclamation installation of the congress at 
 Rosario de Cucuta speech of the president campaign com- 
 mences Coro captured battle of Carabobo congress con- 
 venes ratifies the itnion -flotilla if the royalists destroyed 
 Carthagena capitulates United States acknowledges the in- 
 dependence of Colombia battle of Pinchincha siege of Pu- 
 erto Cabello Mr. Zea's mission to Europe Spanish flotilla 
 destroyed at lake Maracaibo the town surrendered Puerto 
 Cabello surrenders to the patriots installation of the congress 
 speech of the president arrival of a minister from the 
 United States Bolivar's plan for liberating Peru treaty 
 with the United States grand confederacy of all the states 
 conclusion. 
 
 The great revolution that had taken place in Spain, which 
 re-established the constitution of the Cortes of 1812, produ- 
 ced no effect on the war in America, until June, 1820, when 
 general Morillo, agreeably to orders received from the consti- 
 tutional government of Spain, issued a proclamation, propos- 
 ing a suspension of hostilities predicated on the events which 
 had taken place in Spain. On the 17th of June he addressed 
 a letter to the congress, whom he styled " high and mighty 
 lords," in which he states that he had received positive orders 
 from the constitutional monarch of the Spains to propose a 
 just and generous accommodation, which should re-unite all 
 the family, in order to enjoy the advantages of their political 
 regeneration. He informs the congress that he has appointed 
 Thomas Cires and Jose Domingo Duarte, as commissioner to 
 treat with the congress, on principles honourable to both par- 
 ties ; and that he has given orders to his subalterns to suspend 
 hostilities, and to remain at their several positions, and make 
 no movement unless they are first attacked. He beseeches 
 the congress to cast away from their remembrance, from that 
 
 26* 
 
118 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 moment, as he does from his, the odiousness of the re-ar, which 
 had, unhappily, distracted their common country, and only to 
 think of the glory of a re-union of countrymen, kindred, and 
 brethren. The congress was not in session when this commu- 
 nication was received ; but they were convened for the pur- 
 pose of considering it on the 13th of July, 1820, when the 
 following decree was passed, and sent to Morillo as an answer 
 to his communication. 
 
 " The sovereign congress of Colombia, anxious to see peace 
 re-established, will hear, with pleasure, the proposals which 
 may be made on the part of the Spanish government, provided 
 they shall have for their end the absolute acknowledgement of 
 the entire sovereignty and independence of the republic of 
 Colombia ; and that they will not admit of any other overture, 
 which shall not conform to this principle, proclaimed by the 
 government, as well as by the people at different epochas." 
 
 On the 22d of June, general Morillo addressed a letter to 
 president Bolivar, informing him that he had appointed Rod- 
 riguez Toro, and Gonzales Linares, as commissioners to nego- 
 tiate terms of peace, and that he had given the necessary or- 
 ders for the suspension of hostilities. Accompanying this 
 despatch, was one from the Spanish general Torres. The re- 
 ply of Bolivar, to Morillo, contains the most noble and dignifi- 
 ed sentiments. After acknowledging the receipt of his com- 
 munication, he says, "The republic of Colombia most seri- 
 ously congratulates itself on seeing the day on which liberty 
 extends her beneficent influence over unhappy Spain, and to 
 see her ancient metropolis treading in the steps of Colombia, 
 and in the path of reason. The people of Colombia, more 
 than ten years ago, determined to consecrate the last of its 
 members to the only cause worthy of the sacrifice of peace 
 that is the cause of an oppressed country ; and confiding in 
 the sacredness of their cause, in the most solemn manner on 
 the 20th of November, 1818, resolved to combat, perpetually, 
 against all exterior domination, and not to be reconciled to peace 
 but upon the recognition of absolute independence. I take the 
 liberty to enclose to you, sir, the fundamental law, which 
 prescribes the only basis upon which our respective govern- 
 ments can enter into negotiations 
 
 He informs Morillo that he could not accede, entirely, to 
 the amnesty which he proposes, until he knew the nature of 
 the negotiations entrusted to Toro and Linares, who, lie says, 
 would be treated with the respect due to their sacred char- 
 acter. 
 
 Early in the season, Bolivar took a central position at Cucu- 
 fa,- where he could direct and observe the operations of the 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 119 
 
 several corps under his command as general in chief, and be 
 enabled to afford assistance, where it might be most wanted, 
 or most efficacious. The army of the north, under general 
 Urdaneta, which descended the Magdalena, captured Mom- 
 pox, and proceeded to the coast, where it formed a junction 
 with that division of the army under general Montilla, which 
 had previously been despatched for that purpose. Admiral 
 Brion, with the naval force, took possession of Savanilla, and 
 general Montilla laid siege to Carthagena. General Monagas^ 
 commanding a corps of cavalry, defeated the royalists in June, 
 at Guire, in Barcelona ; their commander Lozana was slain, 
 and a great part of the enemy made prisoners. General Za~ 
 raza, also a commander of cavalry, surprised and defeated a 
 small division of the royalists on the 7th of June, the whole of 
 the enemy being killed or made prisoners. The central divis- 
 ions of the republican army, in the month of October, 1 820, 
 entered the provinces of Merida and Truxillo, and drove the 
 royalists before them, who, being pressed hard in all directions, 
 were obliged to abandon those provinces. < 
 
 The republic this year had a large number of troops in the 
 field, well equipped, and commanded by experienced generals, 
 and although no decisive battle took place, the arms of the re- 
 public were almost every where successful, and much was done 
 towards the liberation of the country, notwithstanding the prop- 
 osition for a suspension of hostilities, calculated to damp the 
 spirit of operations. 
 
 The cause of the revolution was gaining ground, not only by 
 the success of the arms of the republic, but by the spontaneous 
 struggles of the inhabitants. In the month of October, before 
 the conclusion of the armistice, the inhabitants in Guayaquil 
 revolted against the Spanish authorities ; and with little loss, 
 on either side, succeeded in overthrowing the royal govern- 
 ment, and uniting the province to the republic. The success 
 of this revolution in Guayaquil, extended its influence to the 
 adjacent districts to Ambato, Riobamba, Quaranda, and Tu- 
 cunga, in all of which the inhabitants rose against the royal 
 authorities, and liberated themselves from the dominion of 
 tyrants. In the eastern section of the republic, the patriots, 
 also, obtained possession of Barcelona, in the month of Octo- 
 ber ; and all the northern part of New Granada, with the ex- 
 ception of the city of Carthagena, and the isthmus of Panama, 
 was liberated at the close of the year 1820, or the beginning of 
 1821. Maracaibo, was, also, soon added to the republic, the 
 Spanish authority being overthrown by the spontaneous efforts 
 of the inhabitants. 
 
 After an unsuccessful attempt at negotiation by the com- 
 
120 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 missioners, in the month of August an armistice or treaty for 
 the suspension of hostilities was concluded and ratified on the 
 26th of November. This treaty provides that hostilies shall 
 cease the moment of its ratification, on land, in the American 
 seas in thirty days, and in ninety days in the seas of Europe. 
 It defines the limits of the territories which each party is to 
 occupy ; provides for disbanding some of the guerrillas ; for 
 promoting a free communication between the territories occu- 
 pied by the different parties ; and contains an article binding 
 both governments, in the event of peace not being concluded, 
 to form a treaty for the prosecution of the war according to 
 the laws of nations, to prevent, m future, the horrors and cru- 
 elty with which the contest had been characterized. This ar- 
 mistice was to continue six months, with a provision for re- 
 newing it for a longer period ; hostilities, however, might be 
 commenced within that time, by giving forty days' notice to 
 the adverse party. This suspension of hostilities was propo- 
 sed by Bolivar, at a time when the troops of the republic were 
 every where victorious, affording the strongest presages of the 
 successful result of the campaign. But the president, as hu- 
 mane and magnanimous as he is brave, as long as there was 
 any prospect of peace, was anxious to stop the effusion of 
 blood, which had so profusely flowed during this long and fero- 
 cious contest. 
 
 Near the close of this year the congress published a mani- 
 festo to the people of Colombia, recapitulating the events of 
 the revolution, and the atrocities of the Spanish chiefs during 
 the war ; and which contains the reasons why Colombia ought 
 not to accept of the proffered terms of peace, but to insist on 
 the acknowledgement of her independence, as the only admis- 
 sible basis of negotiation. Among these reasons is the abil- 
 ity, approaching almost to certainty, of the republic to main- 
 tain its independence. 
 
 " On commencing hostilities, Colombia neither had great 
 armies, nor the materials to form them ; to-day she has skilful 
 generals, expert officers, veteran soldiers inured to war, and 
 plenty of arms and ammunition. 
 
 " Many citizens were then afraid to be soldiers ; now they 
 are all in arms, and delight in being so. Colombians are no 
 longer what they were ; and the population of Colombia are 
 anew people, regenerated by a ten years contest, in which 
 have disappeared those physical and moral disqualifications 
 that render her independence doubtful, and are become wor- 
 thy and fit to govern themselves, instead of obeying another's 
 will, or any sovereignty but their own." 
 
 The Irish legion of general D'Evereux rendered very im* 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA 121 
 
 portant services ;n the campaign of 1820, notwithstanding 
 many of them became dissatisfied and left the service, and 
 that great mortality prevailed among them in consequence of 
 their being unaccustomed to a tropical climate. One division 
 of this legion landed in Rio de la Hacha, in March, 1820, and 
 formed a part of the army of general Montilla, which in the 
 course of the campaign liberated the provinces of Rio de la 
 Hacha, Carthagena and . : anta Martha. In April, 1821, gen- 
 eral D'Evereux* issued an address to what remained of the 
 Irish legion. He says, ' Although unable to stern the torrent 
 of insubordination and disaffection, which unfortunately swept 
 away so great a portion of our force, you have on all occa- 
 sions in which the enemies of Colombia have presented you 
 the opportunity, evinced your native courage, and added fresh 
 laurels to the crown of Ireland's fame. It gives me sincere 
 pleasure to know, that your merits are duly appreciated by 
 the governor general of these provinces, his excellency Ma- 
 rianna Montilla. The possession of the provinces of Rio de 
 la Hacha, Carthagen ;, Santa Martha and Maracaiho, has been 
 the result of the campaign of 1820 ; a campaign, of which 
 our legion was the origin." 
 
 General Morillo, after the ratification of the armistice in 
 November, 1820, retired from the command of the Spanish 
 armies in America, and returned to Spain, with both the hon- 
 ourst and execrations of the country he had ravaged. Gen- 
 eral Morales and La Torre succeeded to the command of the 
 Spanish forces, who, refusing to extend the armistice, both 
 parties made preparations in the month of April, 1821, for the 
 renewal of hostilities. 
 
 Commissioners were sent out from Colombia to the constitu- 
 tional government of Spain, to attempt to negotiate a peace. 
 
 * General D'Evereux, although a native of Ireland, was a citizen 
 of the United Ssates, and resided at Baltimore for several years. 
 He devoted himself to the cause of South American independence, in 
 a manner as disinterested as La Fayette did to that of North Ameri- 
 ca. In 1815, he conveyed succours to Carthagena when besieged by 
 Moriilo, and his services during that siege obtained for him the 
 thankg and friendship of Bolivar. Finding that nothing could then 
 be done in Venezuela, he went to Buenos Ay res. where he gave to 
 the patriots a large supply of munitions of war. He received a 
 commission of general in the service of Buenos Ayres, and finally 
 returned to the United States as an agent of that government. He 
 afterwards went to his native country to raise troops for the Colom- 
 bian service. From his distinguished and patriotic services, he is 
 justly entitled to be regarded as the La Fayette of the South Ameri- 
 can revolution 
 
 f Morillo was created count of Carthagena for his services in 
 America, 
 
122 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 The subject was taken up by the Cortes on the 3d of May. 
 1821, and a committee appointed to devise measures in con- 
 junction with the ministers for terminating the dissentions in 
 America. A plan was matured for establishing three govern- 
 ments in Spanish America, to be under a constitution, the 
 .same, with some exceptions, as that of Spain ; the legislative 
 power to be entrusted to a Cortes, elected by the people, and 
 the executive power to be exercised by a delegate to be nam- 
 ed by the king. Ferdinand strongly objected to this project, 
 \vhich caused it to be abandoned. The commissioners of" 
 Mexico agreed to it, but those of Colombia were expressly 
 instructed to listen to no terms of accommodation short of 
 unqualified independence. This being the only basis of peace, 
 the Spanish 'government declined even to enter on any nego- 
 tiation. Mr. iiavenga, one of the commissioners of Bolivar, 
 in July, 1821, had an interview with Mr. Brent, the charge 
 de affairs of the United States at Madrid, and complained of 
 the ignorance, illiberality, and prejudices of the government 
 and nation as to America, and informed him that the republic 
 of Colombia relied on the friendship of the United States, 
 and calculated that it would take the lead in the acknowledg- 
 ment of its independence. Mr. Brent stated, that so far as 
 he was able to form an opinion, the ministers of the foreign 
 powers had exerted themselves during the agitation of the 
 American question, to prevent any arrangement between the 
 parties.* 
 
 On the 17th of April, Bolivar issued a proclamation to the 
 army, styling it the liberating army. " Peace," he says, " was 
 to have been the fruits of that armistice which is now broken ; 
 but Spain regarded with indifference the afflictions to which 
 we have been exposed through her neglect." He says that 
 the remnant of the Spanish force cannot resist twenty-five 
 provinces which have been liberated from slavery ; that the 
 nation expects from the army its entire emancipation, and 
 also that in future it will religiously fulfil the duties of human- 
 ity, that the war may no longer wear a ferocious character. 
 On the same day he addressed a proclamation to the inhabit- 
 ants of Colombia, in which he states that it is more than a 
 year since Spain had enjoyed a representative government ; 
 yet she had taken no steps to abate her tyranny in America, 
 or withdraw her armies ; that the republic had sent ministers 
 to Madrid to negotiate a peace without success, owing to the 
 insincerity of the Spanish government, and that the renewal 
 
 * Communication of Mr. Brent to the secretary of state of July, 
 10, 1821. 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 123 
 
 of hostilities is the only means of putting an end to the dread- 
 ful calamities ^which afflict the country. On the 25th of April, 
 the president issued another proclamation to the army, in 
 which he says that in three days hostilities will commence. 
 
 " Soldiers! Every presage is in favour of a victorious issue, 
 because your courage cannot any longer be resisted, you 
 have already done so much that almost nothing remains for 
 you to do ; but I must apprise you that the government ex- 
 pects from you to display compassion with your courage, and 
 that every infringement which may be committed of the regu- 
 lations of war, will subject the guilty to capital punishment ; 
 if the enemy should disregard these regulations, we shall not 
 imitate them ; the glory of Colombia shall not be stained with 
 blood dishonourably shed." 
 
 As is usual in similar cases, each party charged the other 
 with violating the armistice, and of being the cause why peace 
 was not concluded. The Spanish general addressed a proc- 
 lamation to his troops, in which he asserts that the government 
 of Colombia had rejected peace, which was offered on the 
 most liberal and honourable terms, and had violated the ar- 
 mistice. This called forth a reply from Bolivar, addressed to 
 the Spanish army, in which he assures them that their general 
 is mistaken, and charges the continuance of the war to their 
 government ; he also assures them that his army will observe 
 most religiously the treaty entered into for the regulation of 
 the war, and that a capital punishment is already decreed 
 against every person who shall infringe it. Bolivar was at 
 this time at Varinas, which was the head-quarters of the liber- 
 ating army. 
 
 On the 6th of May, the general congress of Colombia was in- 
 stalled at Rosario de Cucuta, agreeably to the fundamental 
 law ; and on the 10th, the president addressed a communica- 
 tion to the congress, resigning the executive power. 
 
 " The act of the installation of the general congress of Co- 
 lombia, composed of the representatives of twenty-two free 
 provinces, has consummated the most ardent wishes of my 
 heart. The republic, founded on the complete union of the 
 representatives of the people of Cundinamarca and Venezue- 
 la, is now destined to accomplish that liberty and prosperity 
 which every free people have the right to secure ; and I have 
 at length had the good fortune to see that day when the only 
 legitimate depositaries of the sovereign authority of the peo- 
 ple, are already in the happy exercise of their sacred func- 
 tions From this moment I consider myself exonerated from 
 the charge of the executive power, with which it has been the 
 pleasure of my country to entrust me." 
 
124 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 He declares his adhesion to the authority of the nation, and 
 his entire submission to the congress, and the institutions and 
 laws which they were about to establish ; but says, that if the 
 congress should again insist on investing him with the presi- 
 dency, he must protest against it, and repeats the reasons he 
 had before urged, that the military profession, in his opinion, 
 was incompatible with the office of chief magistrate ; and 
 that now the danger was past, he did not wish any longer to 
 endure the insinuations and reproaches of his personal ene- 
 mies, who accused him of ambitious designs. The congress, 
 by their president, F. Restrepo, now secretary of state for the 
 home department, replied to the communication of Bolivir ; 
 and whilst they acknowledge the weight of the reasons urged 
 by him, which they say they have not time then fully to delib- 
 erate upon, they urge in eloquent language the imperious ne- 
 cessity of his continuing at the head of the republic, and add, 
 that they are persuaded he will make this additional sacrifice, 
 and thus furnish a new proof of his ardent zeal for the welfare 
 of his country. This appeal of the national representation, 
 could not be resisted, and the illustrious Bolivar consented to 
 remain at the head of the government, as well as at the head 
 of the armies. 
 
 In the month of May, the campaign was opened by the cap- 
 ture of Coro, by the division of the liberating army under gen- 
 eral Urdaneta, on the, eleventh of the month. On the 15th, 
 another division of the army, commanded by general Bermu- 
 dez, took possession of Caraccas ; but this was premature, 
 for not being supported, he was compelled, by Morales, to 
 evacuate the place on the twenty-sixth, without much loss, 
 however, on either side. 
 
 In the month of June both parties were concentrating their 
 forces, and seemed to be preparing not only to close the cam- 
 paign, but to decide the fate of the contest by a general ac- 
 tion. The head- quarters of the royalists was on the plains of 
 Carabobo, where they concentrated most of their forces, 
 amounting to 6,000 men, commanded by Morales and La Tor- 
 re. The divisions of the liberating army were concentrated 
 on the fields of Tinaquillo ; the first division, was composed 
 of 1,500 cavalry, and the valiant British battalion of Apure, 
 commanded by general Paez ; the second division consisted 
 of the second brigade of the guards, the battalions of Tyra- 
 dore, Boyaca and Vargas and the squadron of Sagrada, com- 
 manded by general Sedeno ; the third division consisted of the 
 first brigade of the guards, with the battalions of rifles and 
 grenadiers, conquerors of Boyaca, and the regiments of horse, 
 under the command of colonel Plaza. This brave army; 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 125 
 
 Fieaded by Bolivar in person on the morning of the 23d of 
 June, marched towards the enemy, and early the next day. 
 Continued its march through the defiles of the mountains, 
 which separated it from the enemy's camp ; and by a rapid 
 but orderly movement, it reached the plains of Carabobo by 
 eleven o'clock, and defiled its left in front of the enemy, with- 
 in reach of their fire. In its march, it had to pass a rivulet, 
 exposed to the fire of the whole royal army, on an inaccessi- 
 ble height, which would admit but one person t<t pass at a time. 
 The action was commenced by the brave general Paez, who 
 with two battalions of his division, and a regiment of cavalry, 
 attacked the enemy's right wing, with such resolution and in- 
 trepidity, that in half an hour, it was totally routed, and cut to 
 pieces, which decided the fate of the day, and it may almost 
 be said, of the war. The second division, except some of 
 its light troops, was not engaged, in consequence of local 
 barriers ; but its brave general, Sedeno, impatient at the im- 
 possibility of bringing his division into action, engaged a party 
 of infantry alone, and was killed in the midst of the enemy, 
 lighting in the most heroic manner. The British battalion, 
 commanded by colonel Farrier, distinguished itself for its 
 bravery, and lost many valuable officers ; and the valour and 
 activity of all the troops, led on by the invincible Paez, was 
 never surpassed. The defeat of the enemy was complete ; 
 their entire army was annihilated ; only 400 men savins: 
 themselves by taking shelter in Puerto Cabello. The fug 
 lives were pursued with great ardour as far as Valencia, where 
 the Spanish general La Torre, was overtaken, with a column, 
 which he had formed after a defeat, and retreated on that 
 city ; this column was put to flight, and took refuge in Puerto 
 Cabello, whither colonel Wrangel was ordered with his divis- 
 ion, to besiege the place. The forces of the republic, were 
 about the same in number as those of the Spaniards, but only a 
 part were engaged. Their loss in killed and wounded, was 
 about 400, including general Sedeno, colonel Plaza, and many 
 other brave officers. As a reward for the distinguished brave- 
 ry ajid services of general Paez, in this great victory, the pres- 
 ident Bolivar, on the battle ground, appointed him general in 
 chief of the army.* This was the second decisive victory 
 which had been obtained by Bolivar on the plains of Carabobo ; 
 _and if the victory of Boyaca, was the Saratoga, this was the 
 Yorktown of the Colombian revolution. 
 
 Having ordered colonel Wrangler to lay siege to Puerto Ca- 
 bello, and another division of troops, under Heras to pursue 
 
 * See Despatch of Bolivar in Niles* Register, Vol. 21, page J5, 
 IL 29 
 
126 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 the Spanish colonel Tello, who had been despatched from Car- 
 abobo to Philipe, Bolivar, at the head of three battalions, and 
 ii regiment of cavalry, marched toward Caraccas, which place 
 he entered on the 29th of June, the royalists having abandon- 
 ed it on the 28th, on the approach of the patriots. On enter- 
 ing his native city, after having rescued it the third time from 
 the dominion of tyrants, Bolivar was received by his fellow 
 Citizens, assembled in immense crowds, with the transports of 
 joy, which the occasion, calling forth so many recollections of 
 past sufferings and present hopes, was calculated to inspire. 
 The president addressed a proclamation to the inhabitants 
 of the city, in which he observes that a decisive victory has 
 closed the war in Venezuela, and that only one fortified place 
 remains to be subdued ; and adds, that peace, far more glori- 
 ous than victory, will soon put the Colombians in possession 
 of all places, and of all the hearts of their enemies. 
 
 In the month of July, the congress assembled again at Cu- 
 quta, and on the 12th, after a full deliberation, solemnly rati- 
 fied the fundamental law, and re-enacted its provisions. They 
 decreed a national anniversary festival, to be held on the 25th, 
 26th, and 27th of December, for the celebration, first, of 
 the emancipation and entire independence of the people of 
 Colombia ; second, of the union of the republic and the estab- 
 lishment of the constitution ; and, third, the great victories by 
 which these blessings have been established. The decree 
 ratifying the fundamental law of union, is signed by all the 
 members of the congress. At this session, the congress also 
 passed a decree for the abolition of slavery, which we have 
 considered in another place. 
 
 The last of June, the squadron of Colombia, under Brion, 
 entered the harbour of Carthagena, which place was invested 
 by land and water, where it engaged the flotilla of the royal- 
 ists, and in a severe action, succeeded in capturing four of the 
 enemy's launches, and in destroying the remainder. The 
 Spaniards suffered a loss of two hundred men. The city, 
 however, from its great natural and artificial strength, held out 
 until the 23d of September, when it capitulated. Shortly 
 after, Cumana also surrendered to general Bermudez, which 
 left no part of the present territory of Colombia in the posses- 
 sion of the Spaniards, except the fortress of Puerto Cabello ? 
 the isthmus of Panama, and Quito. 
 
 In the monh of May, the army of the republic under gen- 
 eral Sucre, destined to act against the royalists in Quito, arri- 
 ved in Guayaquil, which frustrated the plans of the enemy, 
 who was intending to invade that province, which had revolted 
 against the Spanish authorities, and liberated itself the pre- 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 127 
 
 ceding October, and established a junta for its immediate 
 government. After the arrival of Sucre, the junta, on the 
 15th of May, sent to Bolivar a communication, expressing 
 their desire and expectations of being regarded as a part of 
 the republic, and saying that their only object in throwing off 
 the Spanish authority, was to place that province under the 
 auspices of Colombia. Panama declared itself independent 
 of the authority of Spain, on the 15th of December, and im- 
 mediately sent deputies to the government of Colombia, to an- 
 nounce the pleasing event, which at the same time gave them 
 freedom, and connected their destinies with those of the Co- 
 lombian republic. 
 
 The year 1821, will ever be auspicious in the annals of Co- 
 lombia ; its arms were every where successful, and crowned 
 with one of the most splendid and important victories in mod- 
 ern times ; it witnessed the final destruction of the power of 
 Spain, and the liberation of the whole territory of the repub- 
 lic, except Quito. But not more glorious in the success of 
 her arms, brilliant as that was, than in establishing her political 
 institutions, and the consolidation of the republic. Whilst the 
 armies of Colombia were defeating its enemies in the field, 
 and liberating its provinces, the congress were ratifying the 
 the union, and establishing political institutions, founded on 
 the great principles of the rights of man, and calculated to se- 
 cure, and give the utmost value to the blessings of independ- 
 ence and freedom, which had been so gloriously won in the 
 field, the fruits of twelve years of barbarous war, and an 
 hundred battles. The congress continued their delibera- 
 tions, and on the 30th of August, adopted the constitution 
 of the government, which has been considered, and whose 
 highest praise, perhaps is, that the government has been 
 administered under it for four years with stability and won- 
 derful success, considering the condition of the country, 
 impoverished and torn to pieces by all the evils, miseries, and 
 horrors of war. The constitution was not only framed this 
 year, but the government completely organized under it ; 
 and the illustrious Bolivar, now the acknowledged father of 
 his country, was elected president, and general Santander 
 vice-president. A law was also passed, for securing the liber^ 
 erty of the press, which declares that it ought to be as free 
 as the faculty of speech itself ; a resolution was likewise 
 adopted at this session, in honour of certain patriots abroad, 
 who had taken a deep interest in the independence of Co- 
 lombia. Of the number were Lord Holland and Sir Robert 
 Wilson in England, and Mr. Clay and colonel Duane in the 
 "United States, 
 
128 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 The cause of the revolution having made such astonishing 
 progress the last three years, the independence of Colombia 
 being in fact established, and the destinies of the republic so 
 glorious at home, it at last began to be viewed in a more fa- 
 vourable light by foreign powers. From every consideration 
 of sympathy, national honour and interest, it was fit that the 
 government of the United States should take the lead. It 
 was so. On the 8th of March, 1822, president Monroe com- 
 municated to congress a message, in which, after alluding to 
 the epochs of the revolution, and the progress of the war, 
 he says, " that when we regard the great length of time 
 which this war has been prosecuted, the complete success 
 which has attended it in favour of the provinces ; the pres- 
 ent condition of the parties, and the utter inability of Spain 
 to produce any change in it, we are compelled to conclude 
 that its fate is settled, and that the provinces which have de- 
 clared their independence are in the enjoymement of it, and 
 ought to be recongnised." This message, and the accompa- 
 nying documents, were referred to a committee, who made 
 a long report recommending the recognition of the independ- 
 ence of the Mexican and South American republics : which 
 was adopted with great unanimity by congress. Not long af- 
 terwards, ministers were appointed to Colombia, Mexico, and 
 Buenos Ayres. 
 
 The campaign of 1822, was destined for the deliberation of 
 Quito. During the past year, general Sucre had maintained 
 himself in that quarter, confirmed the independence of Guaya- 
 quil, and checked the designs of the Spaniards. The destruc 
 don of the royal army on the plains of Carabobo, and the libe- 
 ration of all the northern territory of the republic, enabled 
 Bolivar to direct his whole attention to the expulsion of the 
 Spaniards from the southern provinces. The army in the 
 south under Sucre was re-enforced by the troops which could 
 be spared from other situations, to the amount of 7000 men. 
 and the illustrious president placed himself at its head. Both 
 parties having at length concentrated their forces, the campaign 
 and the fate of Quito was decided at the great battle fought 
 at Pinchincha, about the first of June, 1822. The good for- 
 tune of Bolivar still attended him, and the arms of the repub- 
 lic were again crowned with a most signal victory, which an- 
 nihilated the power of the royalists in the south, rescued Qui- 
 to from the dominion of foreign tyranny, and connected its 
 destinies with Colombia. This splendid victory was in a great 
 measure gained by general Sucre, a young but most gallanl 
 officer, and procured for him afterwards the station of com- 
 mandant general of that department. After the victory of 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 129 
 
 Pmehmcha, Bolivar, at the head of his victorious liberating 
 army, entered the city of Quito amidst the acclamations and 
 rejoicings of the people. 
 
 On the Atlantic coast, the Spanish still possessed Puerto 
 Cabello, whither the remnants of their forces were collected 
 The place was closely besieged by the Colombians, under gen- 
 eral Paez. Morales, having equipped and manned a flotilla 
 superior to that of the patriots, commenced a system of pre- 
 datory warfare on the coast. He made a sudden irruption in- 
 to the province of Coro, where he routed a body of Colombi- 
 an troops, who sustained a loss of several hundred men. He 
 laid waste the country before him, and seemed to be influenced 
 by the principle of destroying what he could not hold or re- 
 claim. Encouraged by this success, he proceeded against 
 Maracaibo, which was obliged to surrender, and in the true 
 spirit of piracy and plunder, Morales seized all the private 
 property within the reach of his power. Exulting in his suc- 
 cess, he published the most barbarous decrees, which would 
 have disgraced an Attila or Tamerlane. But fortunately the 
 destructive career of this barbarian was checked before he 
 had accomplished any thing of importance in a military point 
 of view. Some apprehensions, however, were felt for the 
 safety of La Guayra and Caraccas, and great exertions were 
 made by the Colombians to equip a fleet at the former place 
 superior to Morales'. Commodore Daniels was appointed to 
 command it. The Spaniards were defeated with great loss 
 and driven out of Coro, and escaped to Curracoa, but still 
 held possession of Maracaibo and Puerto Cabello. The prin- 
 cipal fort of the latter place on the main land capitulated to 
 general Paez, and this rendered the garrison entirely depend- 
 ent on receiving supplies by sea, which, however, it was ena- 
 bled to do as long as the royalists maintained a naval superi- 
 ority. 
 
 Early in the year 1822, Mr. Zea was sent by the government 
 ef the republic as ambassador to France ; and on the 8th of 
 April he presented a long communication to the French min- 
 ister of foreign affairs, and to the ministers of the other pow- 
 ers resident at the French court, urging the grounds and rea- 
 sons for recognizing the independence of Colombia, which 
 was returned unanswered. From France, Mr. Zea went to 
 England, where, in March, 1822, he negotiated a large loan 
 in London for Colombia. The Dutch and Portuguese admit- 
 ted the vessels of Colombia into their ports in Europe and 
 America, but did not formerly, acknowledge its independence. 
 A minister was sent by Colombia to Lisbon to treat with that 
 government respecting the boundary of the republic of Cplom 
 
130 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 bia on the Brazils, The war in Colombia was now drawing 
 to a close. At the commencement of the year 1823, the 
 Spaniards continued in possession of the fortress of Puerto 
 Cabello and of Maracaibo ; but the naval force of the republic 
 was so augmented as to be in a condition to dispute with the 
 enemy, the mastery of the sea. General Padilla was appoint- 
 ed to command the Colombian squadron, which, on the 23d 
 of July, 1823, attacked the Spanish flotilla commanded by com- 
 modore Laborde, in the lake Maracaibo, and in a desperate 
 and sanguinary action, totally destroyed it. The Colombians 
 captured twelve vessels ; three were blown up, and two driv- 
 en on shore and destroyed, and not a vessel of the enemy es- 
 caped. The Spaniards had about 250 men killed and wound- 
 ed, and 1,500 made prisoners. Their commander, Laborde. 
 made his escape in a boat, and got on board of his frigate out- 
 side of the castle. The destruction of the Spanish squadron 
 rendered it impossible for Morales to maintain himself long in 
 Maracaibo, and accordingly he surrendered with all his troop? 
 to the patriot general Marique, commanding the troops in- 
 vesting the place on the 3d of August. General Bermudez 
 mailed on board of the ship Bolivar, from La Guayra, a short 
 time before, to take command of the besieging army, but the 
 enemy surrendered before he arrived at Maracaibo. Notwith- 
 standing, the atrocities and barbarities of the savage Morales, 
 which had fairly outlawed him from the pale of humanity, and 
 the protection and rights of the laws of wai, he and all his 
 men were treated humanely, and permitted to embark for 
 Cuba, 
 
 The last act, in the bloody drama, now only remained to be 
 performed ; the torch of war, which, for twelve years, had 
 desolated the fairest portion of the globe " a country bles- 
 sed by nature, but cursed by man," now only shed its hideous 
 but flickering glare, from the ramparts of Puerto Cabello. 
 Biit these last gleams were soon to be extinguished. The 
 destruction of the squadron of the enemy enabled the patri- 
 ots to invest Puerto Cabello by sea, as well as land, which cut 
 off all communication, and deprived it of supplies. General 
 La Torre, however, with true Spanish obstinacy, held out to 
 the last extremity ; but was obliged to capitulate about the 
 first of December. This event, which terminated the long 
 and desolating war, which has given to Colombia existence, 
 independence, and liberty, was announced to the nation by a 
 proclamation from the vice-president, general Santatfder 
 exercising the executive functions, dated the 9th of December, 
 1823. 
 
 a Colombians ! I announce to you your country entirely fn?;c 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 131 
 
 from the enemies, who have so obstinately presumed to oppose 
 the immutable decrees of Providence. The Spanish flag 
 which lately floated on the walls of Puerto Cabello, has been 
 rent in pieces by the valiant troops of the republic, and the 
 tri-coloured flag planted thereon in its stead. 
 
 " No longer does an enemy exist for us to contend with. 
 The Colombian territory is entire, and the code of happiness 
 and equality protects all who inhabit the country of Bolivar. 
 
 " Colombians, may you enjoy the reward of your constancy, 
 and of your individual triumphs : they secure the reign of lib- 
 erty in America, and enable you to offer a sacred asylum to 
 freemen throughout the world. To be a citizen of Colombia, 
 is : to belong to a nation possessing liberty, constancy, and 
 valour." 
 
 We have passed over some civil occurrences, to close the 
 events of the war. The first congress, the elections to which, 
 had taken place since the adoption of the constitution, was 
 installed at Bogota, in April, 1823, on which interesting occa- 
 sion the vice-president, Santander, charged with the execu- 
 tive power, laid before the national representation a long and 
 highly interesting message, containing a complete exposition of 
 of the internal conditon of Colombia, and the state of its for- 
 eign relations. On the latter subject, he speaks of their rela- 
 tions with the United States, in the following complimentary 
 terms : 
 
 " The government of the United States has given a sublime 
 example of justice in the solemn acknowledgment of the in- 
 dependence and sovereignty of the states of South America, 
 That nation, the cradle of liberty, has seen, with satisfaction, 
 this act so justly acquired by policy and sound reason, and the 
 enlightened members of its government, by this noble con- 
 duct, have added a new lustre to the glory of a free people 
 and to themselves. An agent from the United States, at pre 
 sent, resides in this Capital, who has communicated to me the 
 friendly sentiments of his government, and a desire to com- 
 mence and consolidate an intercourse with the republic. The 
 executive has hastened to testify our sentiments through the 
 .means of a Minister Plenipotentiary, thereby preparing for our 
 future negotiation." 
 
 He speaks of the unsuccessful attempt to treat with Spam, 
 and says, that the failure of that negotiation induced the gov- 
 ernment to establish solid relations with the independent gov- 
 ernments of the new world, and it had proposed the establish 
 rnent of an American confederacy, uniting the political inter 
 ests of the vast territories separated from Spain, and mutually 
 g their protection. "The arms of (he republic, 5 * 
 
132 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 says the executive, " have been covered with glory wherever 
 they have carried liberty and law, and even in misfortune, 
 their honour has been untarnished." The message unfold;-. 
 the deplorable condition of the national revenue, which, it says, 
 requires a new creation ; and urges on congress to provide 
 means to pay the defenders of the country ; and it invokes 
 the national representation to recognize the public debts, pro- 
 vide for paying the interest of them, and to establish national 
 faith and credit. The improvement of the organization of the^ 
 regular army, and of the militia ; the preservation and increase 
 of the navy, and the fortifications, are recommended to the 
 attention of congress, as well as the interests of commerce, 
 agriculture, and the mines, neglected and almost destroyed by 
 the- war. 
 
 On the 9th of December, 1823, Mr. Anderson, minister of 
 the United States to Colombia, arrived at Bogota, the seat of 
 government ; and on the following day, with solemn and ap- 
 propriate ceremonies and honours, he was presented to the 
 acting executive of the republic, and addressed to him the 
 following noble sentiments, honourable alike to himself and 
 his country : 
 
 " Mr. President : The president of the United States, ani- 
 mated by an ardent wish to continue the relations of perfect 
 harmony and generous friendship between our respective coun- 
 tries, has commanded me to give the most satisfactory expres- 
 sion to the liberal feelings which he, as well as the people of 
 the United States, must ever entertain towards the institutions 
 of freedom in every country. I tender to you his anxious 
 wishes for the restoration of peace to this republic, and pros- 
 perity to its citizens. My own admiration of the liberal insti- 
 tutions of Colombia, and of the glorious manner in which they 
 have been created and sustained, affords the surest pledge oi' 
 the sincerity of my sentiments. If this mission shall have the 
 happy effect of giving solidity and duration to the harmonious 
 feelings of our countrymen, it will be a source of unaffected 
 joy to every friend of free government. 
 
 " It is on this continent, and in this age, Mr. President, that 
 man has been awakened to the long lost truth, that, undei 
 heaven, he is capable of governing himself ; that God has not 
 given to him in vain the part and intellect of a human being. 
 Every motive that can operate on a good man, urges him to 
 cherish the institutions founded on the developement of these 
 truths, and to nourish the principles which can alone sustain 
 them. The sublimest spectacle that we can enjoy, is to con- 
 template our fellow man explaining and teaching, by reason 
 and argument, the truth, that " voluntary agreement is the only 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 133 
 
 legitimate source of political power." When a nation is pene- 
 trated with this truth, its liberty is placed beyond the reach of 
 force or fraud.'* 
 
 Having concluded, Mr. Anderson delivered to the vice-pre- 
 sident his credential letters of minister plenipotentiary of the 
 United States ; and his excellency, on reading them, congrat- 
 ulated him on his safe arrival in the capital of the republic, 
 saying among other things, that, " as the United States had 
 always been the great luminary which the inhabitants of 'this 
 part of America had held in view during their conflicts, so 
 now they, and particularly the people and government of the 
 republic of Colombia, would delight to express to the classic 
 land of American liberty the high esteem which they had ever 
 entertained for its government and political institutions, and 
 their desire to improve and draw, still more closely, the friend- 
 ly relations which happily exist between the two nations." 
 
 This was an interesting occasion to the two republics, par- 
 ticularly to Colombia, Mr. Anderson being the first minister 
 received from any foreign power ; as the other independent 
 governments, engaged in the same glorious cause, can hardh 
 be regarded as such. This act of amity and official connex- 
 ion, between the two great republics in the new world ; whose 
 emancipation and independence were acquired by similar 
 struggles and sacrifices ; whose institutions are founded on 
 the same principles of liberty and justice ; both free both 
 asylums for the oppressed of the old world ; one flourishing 
 and powerful, and the other enjoying, in prospect, the high 
 destinies which its sister republic has attained, was an occa- 
 sion of the deepest interest, and calculated to inspire the most 
 pleasing sensations and the most exalted hopes in the bosom 
 of every friend of liberty. 
 
 After the glorious termination of the war in Quito, in 1823, 
 Bolivar, at the earnest solicitation of the people of Peru, pro- 
 ceeded with a part of the liberating and victorious army ol 
 Colombia, into the territory of that country, to emancipate 
 that interesting portion of Amerira. The groans of the op- 
 pressed and suffering inhabitants of Peru awakened the most 
 tender sympathies of their brethren in Colombia ; but none 
 felt more sensibly for their sufferings than the illustrious libe- 
 rator, not more distinguished for his bravery than for his hu- 
 manity and magnanimity. He considered himself not only as 
 the liberator of Colombia, but of all Spanish America. He 
 resolved to afford succour to the Peruvians, and to overthrow 
 there, as he had done in his own country, an odious foreign 
 tyranny ; both humanity and policy dictated this course. The 
 people and government of Colombia approved and seconded 
 
134 HISTORY OP THH* 
 
 this noble and patriotic design, and a large body of troop? 
 were placed at the disposal of the president to march into a 
 neighbouring state ; not as enemies, but as friends and bene- 
 faciors ; not as invaders, but as liberatars ; not to conquer, 
 but to emancipate the people, and break with their arms the 
 chains which enslaved them. The events of this expedition 
 and its glorious success belong to the history of Peru. To 
 prosecute this war, for the emancipation of a neighbouring 
 state, the Colombian government obtained a loan in London 
 of twenty millions of dollars ; such solidity had the national 
 credit already acquired. 
 
 In the Spring of 1824, the congress of Colombia passed a 
 decree for the defence of the country, directing the executive 
 to raise fifty thousand men in addition to the troops then in 
 service ; but to diminish the number as circumstances might 
 require. The reasons given for this decree, were the estab- 
 lishment of an absolute government in Spain, which left no 
 hope of its recognizing the independence of the American 
 states, and the avowed designs by the European cabinets uni- 
 ted under the name of holy alliance, which the congress says 
 ought to awake the attention of the free nations of the nerc 
 world, as the principles on which their independence and in- 
 stitutions are founded, are proscribed by these allied despots. 
 
 On the 3d day of October, a treaty, or convention. of ami tj 
 and commerce, was concluded and signed at Bogota, between 
 the United States and the republic of Colombia, by Mr. An* 
 derson, our minister, and the vice-president of Colombia, and 
 Pedro Gual, secretary of foreign affairs. 
 
 The first article provides, that " there shall be a perfect, 
 lirm, and inviolable peace and sincere friendship between the 
 United States of America and the republic of Colombia, in 
 all the extent of their possessions and territories, and between 
 their people and citizens respectively, without distinction oi 
 persons or places." 
 
 The second article provides, that if either government grant 
 any favour to any other nation, as to commerce or naviga- 
 tion, the same shall immediately be enjoyed by the other par 
 ty to this treaty. The third article allows the citizens of one 
 republic to frequent the coast and countries of the other, to 
 reside and trade therein, and to pay no greater duties and 
 charges than the most favoured nation, and to enjoy all the 
 rights and exemptions in commerce and navigation, which are 
 enjoyed by the most favoured nations. The merchants, com- 
 manders of vessels, and other citizens of one nation, residing 
 temporarily for business in the ports or other places of the 
 other, arc to be treated as citizens of the country in which 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 135 
 
 they reside. There are numerous articles of less importance. 
 The treaty is to remain in force for twelve years from the time 
 of its ratification. The respective ratifications were ex- 
 changed at Washington on the 27th day of May, 1825, by 
 Mr. Brent, chief clerk of the department of state, and Jose 
 Maria Salazar, minister plenipotentiary of the republic of Co- 
 lombia. This, the first treaty between the two republics, is 
 founded on principles of perfect reciprocity, and will be equal- 
 ly and highly advantageous to both nations ; and, we trust, 
 long remain the basis of the commercial and friendly inter- 
 course between them, which will be continually and rapidly 
 increasing. 
 
 A convention has also been concluded between the two re- 
 publics, to put an end to the horrible slave trade. 
 
 During the year 1824, the executive of Hayti sent an agent 
 to Bogota, to propose a treaty of defensive alliance between 
 the Colombian and the Haytien governments which was not 
 acted on by the executive, but referred to congress, who did 
 not recommend the conclusion of such a treaty. 
 
 Colombia acknowledged the independence and sovereignty 
 of Guatamala, and an accredited minister from that republic 
 resides in Bogota. 
 
 The constitutional congress of Colombia commenced its 
 third session at the capital the first of January, 1825. A long 
 and satisfactory message was delivered by the vice-president, 
 exhibiting the tranquillity and increasing prosperity of the coun- 
 
 fry- 
 
 " The congress," says the executive, " may remain satisfied 
 that our means of defence are most abundant, and whatever 
 enterprize may be attempted by Spain, will only end in her dis- 
 grace, and add to the lustre of our arms. 
 
 " Our relations with the American governments are on the 
 footing of friendship and good intelligence, that ought ever to 
 exist between states maintaining the same cause. The assist- 
 ance we have afforded Peru has produced such an important 
 change in that country, that her independence can no longer 
 be matter of doubt." 
 
 In speaking of the United States, he observes : 
 
 " With the United States we maintain the most friendly and 
 cordial relations. You will have before you in a short time, 
 for your examination and approbation, the treaty of peace, 
 friendship, navigation and commerce, that the executive has 
 concluded with the government of those states. 
 
 " Colombia will be proud of having been the first of the 
 old Spanish American states that has presented itself to the 
 'world, united by means of public treaties with a nation pre- 
 
136 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 eminently favoured by the genius of Liberty. You will like- 
 wise receive, for examination, the Convention which has been 
 .settled with the same states, to put an end to the horrible 
 slave trade ; our laws have declared against that execrable 
 commerce, and on this basis the executive regulated its con- 
 duct. The law of the 21st of July, of the 1 Hh year, prohib- 
 its the introduction of slaves : the law regulating cruizers de- 
 dares all vessels found trafficking in slaves in the waters 
 vvithin the jurisdiction of the republic, to be lawful prizes ; 
 but as there are no punishments for the infraction of the law, 
 and it being for the benefit of the human race, that the au- 
 thority of the law regulating cruizers should be extended, it 
 appears to the executive that this convention with the United 
 States supplies this deficiency." 
 
 This interesting and able document concludes with the fol- 
 lowing flattering recapitulation : 
 
 " This is the present state of our republic, in every brancli 
 of its administration. Friendship and the best disposition with 
 the American and foreign governments regularity in treaties 
 and conventions order and tranquillity in the interior re- 
 spect and submission to the laws a free press the increase 
 of public education well founded hopes of improving the na- 
 tional wealth an army covered with glory, consecrated entire- 
 ly to the cause of liberty and independence ; and sufficient re- 
 sources to meet any event, and to sustain its dignity, govern- 
 ment, and laws. It is for you to remove the obstacles that im- 
 pede the rapid progress of this republic to happiness and pros- 
 perity, and to reform those defects which public opinion point- 
 dd out, and which you acknowledge to exist. If we cast our 
 eyes back on the period when the code of laws was first pub- 
 lished, and recollect what Colombia was then, we shall per- 
 ceive with agreeable surprise, that we have made a rapid 
 stride, and conquered vast difficulties. This ought to animate 
 Us to prosecute our designs with the greatest zeal and patriot- 
 ism. The executive firmly believes that these virtues exist in 
 the legislative body ; and you, I hope, will have sufficient con- 
 fidence in me to believe, that I shall afford all the assistance 
 that the experience of administration may have placed in my 
 power ; and above all, I shall be extremely punctual in the ex- 
 ecution of your wise deliberations." 
 
 Among the important laws passed this session, is one com- 
 pleting the territorial divisions of the republic ; dividing it in- 
 to twelve departments and thirty-seven provinces, which has 
 been noticed in speaking of the government. 
 
 Among the noble projects of Colombia, or perhaps we ought 
 to say of Bolivar, is that of forming a general confederacy, 
 
REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA. 137 
 
 composed of all the states of what was formerly Spanish Amer- 
 *ka ; and having the same origin, bound by the same interests, 
 and threatened with the same dangers, it seems just that they 
 should have a common destiny, and wise laws, reciprocally to 
 support and defend each other. The object of this confede- 
 racy is to unite the resources and means of the several inde- 
 pendent states for the general security ; for the defence of 
 their independence and liberty ; to strengthen the ties of am- 
 Uy betwixt them, uniting them as members of the same family. 
 The plan has been approved of by Mexico, Peru and Chile, 
 which states have concluded treaties with Colombia, to carry 
 it into execution. This plan is highly honourable to Colom- 
 bia, which possesses greater power and a more commanding 
 attitude that any of the other independent states : but instead 
 of her attempting to make use of these advantages, to become 
 the arbitress of what was Spanish America, her only ambition 
 seems to be, to do most for the common cause, to employ her 
 power and resources for the liberation 01 all America, and by 
 lier example and counsels; by her assistance and friendly 
 conduct, to unite the several states in the bonds of a family 
 compact, which will insure the independence and liberty of 
 all, and promote their general prosperity. Most noble ambi- 
 tion ! worthy the high destinies which await Colombia ! wor- 
 thy the illustrious fame of her founder, the invincible soldier 
 of liberty, to whom history will award the rare but distinguish- 
 ed honour of having emancipated a greater portion of the globe 
 than the most renowned heroes ever enslaved. 
 
 VOL. II. 30 
 
HISTORY 
 
 AND PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 PERU. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Extent and boundaries of Peru its natural features mountains 
 and waters civil divisions intendancies - geographical 
 view of principal towns Lima climate soil and natural 
 productions animals population commerce government. 
 
 ,THE republic of Peru extends from Tumbez, in latitude 3 
 30' south, to the Cordillera of Vilcanota, in latitude 14 30' in 
 the interior, and to the province of Atacama in Upper Peru, 
 now the republic of Bolivar, in about 20 30' south, on the 
 coast of the Pacific, embracing nearly 17 degrees of latitude, 
 or 1180 miles. From west to east, it extends from the Pacific 
 ocean, eastwardly across the Andes, to the great vallies of the 
 head branches of the river Amazon ; but its eastern boundary 
 has never been correctly defined. Geographers, however, have 
 usually allowed 500 miles for its with, east and west. 
 
 The whole of Lower Peru is traversed by the Andes, the 
 eastern range of which approaches within from 30 to 100 miles 
 of the Pacific. The country is naturally divided into three 
 distinct sections, with respect to soil, surface, climate, and 
 natural productions. The first section is that which borders on 
 the ocean, and is one of the most extraordinary tracts of coun- 
 try on the globe. The whole of this region, nearly from the 
 entrance of the river Guayaquil to Coquimbo, in Chile, or 
 from 4 to 30 of south latitude, is an irreclaimable desert, ex- 
 cept in the vallies of the rivers, where the soil is capable of 
 the highest cultivation. The barren high country, along the 
 inner margin of this extensive desert, is rich in mineral trea- 
 sures, but destitute of verdure. The whole coast of this re- 
 
HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE OF PERU- 139 
 
 gion is always free from storms, and its waters may be safely 
 navigated at all seasons of the year. It never rains, nor is 
 there any thunder or lightning on the borders of the Pacific, 
 which singular phenomena have established here perpetual 
 spring. A gentle mist, or dew, {alls from May to September, 
 to moisten and fertilize the soil ; the water for the use of the 
 inhabitants and cattle, and for the purposes of irrigation, is de- 
 rived from the rivers which descend from the Andes. Out of 
 the vallies, the whole country is one bleak, miserable, sandy 
 waste ; alike destitute of trees or any kind of vegetation. This 
 tract of country is also often subject to earthquakes. 
 
 The next section consists of the elevated vallies of the 
 Andes. These vallies and plains, of a moderate elevation, 
 like those of Bolivar, enjoy a temperature favourable to 
 health and human comfort, and yield abundantly the animal 
 and vegetable productions of temperate and tropical regions. 
 At a higher elevation, the country becomes cold, sterile, and 
 destitute of vegetation ; but is often rich in mineral produc- 
 tions. The district bordering on the rivers that discharge 
 their waters into the great Amazon, comprises the last section 
 of country, and is characterised by half yearly alternations, of 
 rainy and dry seasons ; but possesses all the natural resour- 
 ces, and luxuriance of vegetation, of other tropical, alluvial 
 regions. 
 
 Peru is washed by the Pacific ocean on the whole of its 
 western border, affording it superior advantages for commer- 
 cial intercourse with the rest of the world, and for fisheries : 
 although the coast is not indented, like the maritime borders 
 of most other countries, with bays and harbours, yet the 
 small rivers that descend from the Andes, form a sufficient 
 number of convenient harbours and landing places on this 
 tranquil ocean, to accommodate all the purposes of commerce 
 and navigation. 
 
 The eastern section of Peru is watered by the Ucayle and 
 Tunguragua rivers, two of the principal branches of the Am- 
 azon. The Mautaro and Inamberi form the Ucayle ; and the 
 Apunmac and Jauja are the two branches of the Mautaro, and 
 water some of the most flourishing districts in Peru. The 
 Tunguragua and its numerous branches water the extensive 
 districts in the northeastern section of Peru. This branch of 
 the Amazon is navigable to the city of Jaen, in south latitude 
 5 21', near 40Cfc) miles from the mouth of the Amazon. A 
 free navigation of these rivers would open a great field for 
 commercial enterprize. 
 
 The republic of Lower Peru, includes eight intendancies, 
 eight populous cities, and fourteen hundred and sixty small 
 
140 HISTOBY AND PRESENT 
 
 towns or villages ; three of the intendancies are situated oo 
 the coast of the Pacific, and five in the interior. The three 
 first, are Arequipa and Lima, in the centre, and Truxillo in the 
 north. Those in the interior are Cusco, Huamanga, Tarma, 
 Huancavelica, and some writers add Guantayja. The inten- 
 dancies are subdivided into districts, townships, and curacies 
 or parishes. 
 
 The intendancy of Arequipa^ has an extensive maritime 
 border on the Pacific, but much of its territory is a dreary 
 waste ; it is, however, intersected by many fertile vallies, the 
 principal of which are the vallies of Quilca, Moguegua, Lo- 
 cumba and Tacna. These vallies abound with excellent 
 vineyards, which produce great quantities of wine and brandy ; 
 there are also olive plantations ; wheat, sugar, cotton and 
 Guinea-pepper, are likewise produced in these fertile vallies, 
 There are many valuable silver mines in this intendancy, of 
 which several are very productive ; copper is also found in the 
 greatest abundance. Its capital is the city of Arequipa, situ- 
 ated in south latitude 16 13' 30" in the valley of Quilca, in a 
 fertile country. It was founded in the year 1530, by Pizarro ; 
 near it is a dreadful volcano ; the climate is very temperate, 
 and the best in the country ; but it has been four times laid in 
 ruins by earthquakes. The houses are well built, generally 
 of stone, and vaulted ; the streets are kept clean by means of 
 canals. Its distance is sixty miles from the port of MolendOj, 
 on the Pacific, and two hundred and ninety miles from Lima, 
 in a south-easterly direction. Its population is 23,988. The 
 next most considerable place is the city of Moguegua, situa- 
 ted in the interior, about fifty miles east from the port of Ilo > 
 ina rich valley already mentioned, which contains about 2,000 
 inhabitants. The principal ports of this intendancy are Iqui- 
 que, in latitude 20 7' south, a very commodious harbour, out 
 a small village ; Arica, in lat. 18 20' south, a small town, 
 but the principal seaport of Arequipa. This intendancy has 
 136,800 inhabitants, and embraces seven districts. 
 
 Lima lies north of Arequipa, and south of Truxillo, and is 
 the central intendancy on the Pacific border. Like Arequipa, 
 the province of Lima is generally a sandy desert, except the 
 vallies on the borders of the rivers, which descend from 
 the mountains. The most beautiful and productive of these 
 vallies, is that which is watered by the river Rimac. The 
 plains watered by this river are covered with a luxuriant 
 vegetation, and produce sugar, maize, rice, and the choicest 
 fruits in abundance. In this delightful valley, on the banks 
 tf the river Rimac, stands the ancient and populous city 
 
STATE *F PERU* 141 
 
 * 
 
 *>f Lima, the capital, not only of this intendancy, but of all 
 Peru. 
 
 This city, which is the great emporium of trade for the 
 whole Pacific coast of the continent of America, and the grand 
 depot of the metallic regions of South America, into which 
 they have been pouring their wealth for nearly three centuries, 
 is situated in south latitude 12 3'. About six miles west is 
 Callao, its natural harbour and port, at the mouth of the river 
 Rimac. Lima is elevated about six hundred feet above the 
 level of the sea, and is skirted by hills which overlook the city ; 
 is surrounded by a wall of brick, and has seven gates. The 
 form of the town is nearly triangular, the base extending along 
 the river. Notwithstanding the frequent earthquakes which 
 have destroyed this city, it occupies an area of ten miles in 
 circumference, including thp suburb of San Lazaro, situated 
 on the north side of the city, and separated from it by the 
 Rimac, over which there is an excellent stone bridge. The 
 streets are paved, and through them streams of water flow, 
 . conducted from the river a little above the city ; they are broad, 
 and cross each other at right angles, forming squares of one 
 hundred and fifty yards on each side. The houses are low, but 
 commodious and handsome, having fruit gardens attached to 
 most of them. Tn the centre of the great square there is a 
 spacious and superb fountain. The city is divided into five 
 parishes, and contains 23 monasteries, fourteen nunneries, and 
 sixteen hospitals ; a cathedral and a viceroyal palace. It is 
 the seat of an university, a school for medicine, and numerous 
 other public schools, besides being accommodated with a the^ 
 atre^ and other places of public amusement. In 1798, its 
 population, by an accurate census was 52,627 ; it is now esti- 
 mated to contain near 70,000. 
 
 Lima was founded in 1535 by Pizarro, and is situated at the 
 distance of 2,865 miles from Buenos Ayres, in a north west- 
 erly direction ; 1,215 miles from Potosi, in the same direction, 
 and about 500 from the city of Cusco. Callao, the port of 
 Lima, is situated at the mouth of the river Rimac, and is 
 strongly fortified. The other ports belonging to this iiitendan- 
 cy are Ancan and Huacho in the north, and Pisco and Cho- 
 rillos in the south. It comprises eight districts, and a popula 
 tionof 149,112. 
 
 Truxillo is north of Lima, and the climate, soil, and produc- 
 tions, are similar. Its capital is the city of Truxillo, situated 
 irilat. 8 6' south, in the valley of Chimo, and was founded by 
 Pizarro, in 1535. It lies about one and a half miles distant 
 from the sea. The houses are generally built of brick, and 
 only one story high ; its population is 5,790. The port of 
 
142 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 Truxillo is Guanchaco, situated six miles north. The other 
 port in this intendancy is Payta, in lat. 6 56'. It contains a 
 population of 230,967, and is divided into eight districts. 
 
 Cusco is situated 500 miles south-east of Lima, adjoining 
 Upper Peru, among the rich vallies beyond the Andes. It is 
 watered by the Apurimac, and other head waters of the Ama- 
 zon. This intendancy enjoys a healthy and temperate climate, 
 and is extremely rich in agricultural resources, producing 
 wheat, sugar, and the choicest fruits in the greatest abun- 
 dance ; it contains, also, many valuable and productive gold 
 mines. Its capital is the ancient city of Cusco, situated in 
 13 32' south lat. and was founded in the eleventh century by 
 Manco-Capac, the first Inca of Peru, and taken possession of 
 by Francisco Pizarro, in 1534. It stands on an uneven scite, 
 skirted by mountains on thfc north and west. The ruins of 
 the famous fort, built by the Incas, are still visible on the 
 mountain north of the city. The houses are principally built 
 of stone, and its public buildings are a cathedral, nine church- 
 es, and numerous convents. The Guatanay, a small river, 
 runs past the town. Its population is estimated at 32,082. 
 
 Huamanga is centrally situated, west of Cusco, embracing 
 many rich and fertile vallies, and is well watered by the head 
 branches of the river Amazon, possessing many rich and pro- 
 ductive silver mines. The principal city is Huamanga, lying 
 in lat. 13 1' south, on a declivity of a mountainous ridge, not 
 remarkable for its height, but still, so far above the river as to 
 be scantily supplied with water. It was founded by Pizarro, 
 in 1539, and is situated 180 miles south-east of Lima. Its 
 population is 25,970 ; it has a cathedral, an university, sever- 
 al chapels and convents, and a hospital. The country around 
 the city is fertile and populous. The climate of the inten- 
 dancy is temperate, and abounds with various kinds of grain, 
 fruit, and cattle. There are several mines near Huamanga, 
 but few of them are worked. This intendancy is sub-divided 
 into seven districts, and contains a popalation of 1 1 1 ,559. 
 The intendancy of Huancavelica comprises four districts., 
 and 30,917 inhabitants. Its principal town of the same 
 name is situated in south Int. 12 53', and has a population of 
 5,156. The productions of the province are grain, sugar and 
 cattle. 
 
 Tar ma produces grain, cattle, cocoa, and bark, and pos- 
 sesses several silver mines, one of which called Yauricocha, 
 yielded, in one year, 2,816,703 dollars. Its population is 
 201,259, and it is divided into eight districts. Its capital, of 
 the same name as the province, lies in lat. 12? 33', and has 
 5,538 inhabitants. 
 
STATE OP PERU. 143 
 
 These intendancies are divided into curacies or parishes, 
 which are or were under the colonial system, governed by a 
 curate, a cacique, and an alcade ; the^first a spiritual chief, 
 whose business it is to teach the Roman Catholic religion ; the 
 second a collector of revenue ; and the third a magistrate. 
 The dignitaries of the church consist of bishops and arch- 
 bishops, who enjoy immense revenues and formerly a corres- 
 ponding influence. The churches and .other religious houses 
 are numerous and rjchly endowed. The population of Peru 
 has been estimated at 1 ,300,000. This population is similar 
 to other parts of America, formerly Spanish, consisting of 
 Creoles, European Spaniards, Indians, Negroes, and the va- 
 rious mixed races. The European Spaniards have nearly dis- 
 appeared in consequence of the revolution. The Creoles 
 constitute the enlightened portion of the community, and are 
 the most efficient and patriotic supporters of liberty and inde- 
 pendence. The people of colour comprising the Indians and 
 all the casts, have been much devoted to the revolution. The 
 Indians, heretofore a much degraded class, have generally 
 filled the ranks of the armies, and made excellent soldiers. 
 The Negroes and Mulattoes are most numerous on the coast 
 of the Pacific, and the Indians, Mestizos, and Cholos, in the 
 interior. The latter class are derived from Mestizos and In- 
 dians. These degraded classes possess great muscular pow- 
 er, and are remarkable for the quickness of their perception, 
 and their faculty for imitation. They make ingenious artizans 
 and mechanics, but excel in painting and sculpture ; many of 
 their performances in these arts are said not to be inferior to 
 those of the Italian masters. Many of these classes have been 
 leaders in the revolution. Many mulattoes on the coast possess 
 property, and make pretensions to learning, particularly medi- 
 cine, as they are not permitted to enter into the professions of 
 law or divinity, and they afford many expert quacks. Before 
 the revolution, they obtained letters patent of the king, confer- 
 ring on them the dignity and title of " Don," of which they 
 were extremely vain. 
 
 The territory between the eastern and western range of the 
 Andes, is generally windy and cold, although some temperate 
 and fruitful vallies intervene. This tract is called La Sierra, 
 and is rich in metallic wealth. There are frequent storms of 
 rain, hail, and snow on the mountains often attended with 
 tremendous thunder. The year is divided into only two sea- 
 sons the wet and dry ; the former commencing in November, 
 and continuing until April ; and the latter, the remainder of 
 the year, during which there is no rain. This is the winter oi 
 the climate, there being frequent frosts of considerable se- 
 
144 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 verity. The coldest weather occurs in May and June, and 
 resembles the months of October and November in the north* 
 ern states of North America, but fires are never lighted to 
 warm apartments. The same kind of dress is worn the year 
 round, and cattle are never housed. The lofty regions are 
 destitute of trees ; the table lands only exhibit a stinted shrub- 
 bery, and a species of wire grass or rush, which grows where 
 nothing else will vegetate, upon which the Vicunas and Gua- 
 nacps feed. In the vallies and ravines of this tract of country, 
 the climate is temperate and the soil fertile, and they are pro- 
 fusely watered by the torrents which roll down the mountains^ 
 and are well adapted to the production of luxuriant crops. 
 
 On the eastern side of the eastern range, the climate is 
 uniformly warm ; the seasons are divided in the same manner 
 as in the former tract. There are here no frosts or snow, and 
 all the varieties of tfie climate consist in the gradations of 
 heat, and in humidity and dryness. On the west of the west- 
 ern range, or the territory of the coast, it never rains ; the 
 moisture of the earth is supplied from the torrents which de- 
 scend from the mountains, and from dews. There is some 
 chilly weather, but the extremes of heat and cold are incon- 
 siderable ; thunder storms never occur, but earthquakes are 
 not uncommon. There are some volcanic mountains in the 
 eastern range of the Andes, but their visible fires have long 
 since been extinct. The climate of Peru is highly salubrious. 
 On the coast of the Pacific, fever and ague prevails in some 
 places, but acute diseases are almost entirely unknown. The 
 inhabitants who live a temperate life, attain generally an ad- 
 vanced age. Peru has been called the country of old men. 
 
 Among the animals peculiar to Peru, are four distinct kinds 
 of sheep ; the Llama, the Alpacha, the Guanaco, and the Vi- 
 cuna. The Llama and Alpacha are domestic animals ; the 
 Llama is about the size of a stag, of different colours, white, 
 brown, arid black ; it chews the cud like common sheep ; its 
 flesh is excellent fqod, equal to mutton the wool long and 
 coarse ; it is used as a beast of burden, andean carry a load 
 of one hundred twenty-five pounds, but is slow in motion, 
 having a lofty and majestic gait, carrying its head high in the 
 air. It is mild and docile. 
 
 The Alpacha is a smaller animal than the Llama ; its col- 
 our is white, black, and sometimes spotted ; its flesh is not eat- 
 en, but its wool is very fine and useful. The Guanaco is still 
 smaller than the Alpacha ; its colour is usually red, resembling 
 a dried rose in the sun ; its wool is fine and valuable. This 
 animal is wild and frequents the most rude and inaccessible 
 parts of the mountains, and is extremely fleet. The Vicuna 
 
STATE OF PERU, 145 
 
 is somewhat taller than the common English sheep, but with 
 a smaller body ; its colour is brown, with white belly and legs. 
 This animal is more vigorous in the elevated regions of the 
 mountains, than in low and temperate situations ; its wool is 
 very fine. They are found in abundance on the high ranges 
 of the Andes are swift in their course, and very timid. They 
 are usually seen in droves of many hundreds, among the clifts 
 of ,the mountains. 
 
 The Chinchilla, a little animal about the size of a Cat, pro- 
 duces valuable fur, not inferior to the Marten. The most re- 
 markable bird of Peru, is the Condor, which is between three 
 and four feet in height, and whose wings are at least fourteen 
 feet from end to end ; its colour is dark brown, with a white 
 collar round its neck. This bird possesses great strength, and 
 will run and fly with amazing swiftness. 
 
 Among the peculiar vegetable productions, is Cinchona, or 
 Peruvian bark. This important article in the Materia Medi- 
 ca, is found only in Peru, and the adjacent territory of Co- 
 lombia ; there are several species of this bark the pale, yel- 
 low, and red ; the trees from which it is taken, are slender 
 and straight, rarely exceeding ten feet in height, and are about 
 the size of a man's leg ; they never occur in clusters, but are 
 thinly scattered throughout the forests. The bark is princi- 
 pally collected by the Indians. 
 
 The commerce of Peru, was, originally, during the galleon, 
 trade, carried on at Porto Bello, across the isthmus. Peru ? 
 also, participated in the Manilla trade. In consequence of 
 the difficulty of conveying bulky and heavy articles across the 
 country, Spain granted to Peru the privilege of cultivating the 
 vine and olive, to make wine and oil a privilege not enjoyed 
 in other parts of Spanish America, except in Chile. But it 
 was not allowed to furnish any of the Spanish possessions with 
 these articles, which could be supplied from Spain. And for 
 this privilege, Peru and Chile were restricted in the cultiva- 
 tion of tobacco, and some other articles. The foreign com- 
 merce of Peru, since 1778, with Europe and the East Indies, 
 *has been carried on around Cape Horn, and by way of Ma- 
 nilla. 
 
 The interior commerce between what were formerly Upper 
 and Lower Peru, now Bolivar and Peru, has been estimated 
 at the annual value of $6,693,513 ; and the amount of foreign 
 goods introduced into these countries, through Buenos Ayres, 
 has been calculated at g 18,000,000 annually, previous to the 
 revolution. The independence of the country will increase 
 its foreign commerce almost beyond conception ; it has not only 
 opened the ports and removed the restrictions on trade, SQ 
 
HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 that the existing wants of the people can be supplied, but it 
 will increase those wants an hundred fold. The Indians, the: 
 Mestizos, Cholos, and all the mixed races, comprising the 
 principal part of the population, have been kept in so degra* 
 ded a condition, that they did not consume any portion of for- 
 eign goods. These classes being raised to the dignity of free 
 citizens, and protected in their rights and the products of 
 their industry, will all become consumers of foreign goods. 
 No country in the world has more ample national resources 
 than Peru. In addition to the produce of the mines, which, 
 in Lower and Upper Peru, have been estimated at $14,000,000 
 per annum, the country affords many valuable exports ; Peru-* 
 vian bark, numerous mineral substances, valuable for medi- 
 cines, paints, and other purposes ; copper, precious woods for 
 dyeing and cabinet work, cochineal, wool of the Alpacha and 
 Vicuna, chinchilla skins, tobacco, &c. At the present time, 
 the foreign commerce is principally enjoyed by Great Britain 
 and the United States ; the principal articles sent from the 
 former are manufactured goods of every description ; and from 
 the latter, coarse cottons, ships, leather and its manufactures, 
 hats, furniture, iron, castings, nails, carriages, paper, and some 
 other articles. These articles often command a very high 
 price, even in time of peace ; iron has been $80 and $90 per 
 cwt., and steel $135; common writing paper $12 a ream ; 
 broadcloth from $15 to $20per yard; Levantine silks, $5 or 
 $6 ; and boots, $25 per pair.* 
 
 Peru maintains a coasting trade with Acapulco and San 
 Bias in Mexico ; Guayaquil and Panama in Colombia ; and 
 with Guatamala and Chile. Peru is favourably situated to en* 
 gage in the whale fishery, but has not participated in it, whilst 
 the British and our own citizens traverse half the globe to pur- 
 sue this lucrative branch of commerce. The free navigation 
 of the Amazon to the foot of the eastern Andes, will follow as 
 a consequence to the independence of the country, which will 
 have a favourable influence on the interior trade. 
 
 Peru is entirely emancipated from the dominion of Spain, 
 except that the fortress of Callao is still possessed by the 
 Spaniards ; and has recently established a government on the 
 republican plan. It declared its independence in 1821, after 
 it was liberated by San Martin, and organized a government. 
 This government, however, maintained its authority but a 
 short time after San Martin left Peru, and the Spaniards re- 
 established their authority over the country, which continued 
 
 *Pazos' Letter, p. 241. 
 
STATE OF PERU. 147 
 
 until the arrival of the liberating army undei the magnanimous 
 Bolivar, in 1824. 
 
 After the great victory of Ayacucho, which annihilated the 
 Spanish army, and liberated the whole of Peru, Bolivar, who 
 had been appointed dictator, convened a congress, and re- 
 signed, into their hands, his authority. This congress, which 
 was installed on the 10th of February, 1825. conferred on the 
 liberator the supreme political and military power, until the 
 constitutional congress should be installed in the year 1826. 
 The government, therefore, in Peru, is not yet actually estab- 
 lished ; its powers are exercised by the Liberator as president, 
 and dictator ; it is expected that a congress will be convened, 
 a constitution framed, and a republican government organi- 
 sed and put into operation during the year 1826. The Peru- 
 vian territories are the last of the Spanish American domin- 
 ions redeemed from foreign despotism, and this has been ef- 
 fected by the other independent, governments. 
 
HISTORY 
 
 THE 
 
 REVOLUTION IN PERU. 
 
 CHAPTER JX. 
 
 JKvents before the revolution expedition from Chile Lord Coek,- 
 rane appointed to command the naval squadron San Martin 
 appointed commander in chiej landing at Pisco attack on 
 Callao expedition proceeds to Huara the 'army advances 
 towards the capital, which is abandoned by the royalists de- 
 claration of independence congress assembles San Martin 
 resigns and sails for Chile congress dissolved Bolivar en" 
 ters Peru desertions of the royalists battles of Junin and 
 Ayacucho treaty signed congress installed speech of the 
 president his resignation general Sucre events in Upper 
 Peru- expected meeting of congress conculsion. 
 
 Notwithstanding Peru has been the last of the Spanish col- 
 onies, which has participated in the renovating and salutary 
 influence of the spirit of independence and reform, that has 
 so extensively prevailed in both North and South America ; 
 yet this region, in the early part of its history, produced one 
 f the most distinguished reformers of the age in which he 
 lived. Don Jose Antequera, a native of the city of Lima, 
 was one of those extraordinary men, who, possessing a noble- 
 ness of soul, and being animated, by the most exalted senti- 
 ments, and the purest patriotism, devoted himself, enthusias- 
 tically, to the cause of liberty and the happiness of mankind* 
 
 Being appointed commissioner to inquire into the abuses of 
 the Jesuits of Paraguay, and having found the administration 
 jprofligate and corrupt, he endeavoured to reform it, and estab- 
 lish a representative government. But, after an ineffectual 
 
HISTORY OF THE REVOLUTION IN PERU. 
 
 struggle, he was defeated, arrested, conveyed to Lima, and 
 with his companions, imprisoned for nearly five years, and was, 
 finally, barbarously executed by the Spanish authorities. 
 
 The spirit of independence that was excited by Antequera, 
 was now suppressed by his death, for nearly fifty years ; when, 
 in 1780, during the struggle for independence among the 
 North American states, it again burst forth in Cusco. Jose 
 Gabriel Tupac Amaru, illustrious by his descent fromlnca Say- 
 ri Tupac, but more illustrious as the first martyr to the eman 
 cipation of Peru, from the degradation and calamities of Span- 
 ish colonial despotism, was the valiant leader of this revolu- 
 tion. But, like his predecessor Antequera, he was unsuccess- 
 ful, and died like a hero. The manner of his death was re- 
 volting to humanity, and characteristic of the brutality of the 
 Spanish colonial tyranny ; his tongue was cut out, and his body 
 drawn in quarters by horses, and the mutilated fragments were 
 burnt to ashes. His wife and children were also murdered iu 
 the most shocking manner, and an exterminating war was 
 waged against his successors, which did not cease until nearly 
 one third of the population of Peru were destroyed by the hand 
 of violence.* 
 
 Notwithstanding the horrid devastation and massacre of all 
 engaged in this struggle, another patriot devoted to the cause 
 of liberty and independence arose in Peru, in 1805, of the 
 name of Ubalde. He was a native of Arica, and was the as- 
 sessor or chief lawyer of the presidency of Cusco ; an enlight- 
 ened man of acknowledged talents and excellent character. 
 Before his project was matured, Ubalde was betrayed, and felt 
 a victim ( to his patriotism and devotion to the cause of his 
 country. He was sentenced to death, with eight of his com- 
 panions, and more than one hundred others were banished 
 from the country. Ubalde was executed at Cusco, in August, 
 1805, and died with Christian serenity, maintaining his pirnci- 
 pies to the last. While seated on the scaffold, he declared 
 that his death would not stop the progress of liberty ; that the 
 independence of South America was not far distant ; and, al- 
 though he was going down to the grave, without the satisfac- 
 tion of witnessing that glorious event ; yet his mind was corv 
 soled with the hope, that his friends who survived him would 
 
 * " I passed over, (says Don Vincente Pasos) the plains of Cica 
 Cica and Calamarca, about twenty years after these massacres, and 
 for an extent of forty miles I beheld numerous heaps of bones of th< 
 miserable brings who had fallen there by the sword ; and at that time 
 were to be seen at the cross roads and in the public places through- 
 out the country, the heads of the leaders of the insurrection suspend 
 ed on gibbets." 
 
 Voi4.ll. 31 
 
150 HISTORY OF 
 
 one day enrol his name among the martyred patriots of his 
 country. His lamentable fate drew tears from every eye.* 
 Most excellent man, and martyred hero! thy prayers have 
 been heard scarce twenty years have elapsed, and the day of 
 retribution has come upon thy murderers the oppressors of 
 thy country. The eagles of liberty have already winged their 
 flight to the summits of the Andes, and the cry of independ- 
 ence and freedom is heard from the loftiest mountains, and the 
 deepest recesses of the vallies ; and the same enlivening page 
 that records the liberation of thy country, shall inscribe thy 
 glorious devotion to the sacred cause of humanity and justice. 
 
 No further effort was made for the emancipation of Peru, 
 until after the battle of Maypu, which gave liberty to Chile, 
 when the gallant general San Martin, perceiving that the in- 
 dependence of Chile would be much exposed, while the roy- 
 alists were able to command the wealth and resources of Pe- 
 ru, conceived the noble project of liberating that country also. 
 He, accordingly, with the aid of the governments of Chile and 
 Buenos Ayres, made immediate preparations to fit out an ex* 
 pedition against that country. A naval armament was provi- 
 ded with all possible haste, and lord Cochrane, arriving in 
 Chile, in November, 1818, was immediately appointed to the 
 command. Many English and American officers and seamen 
 flocked to his standard, and by great exertions a formidable 
 squadron was equipped and sailed in 1819. This squadron 
 visited the coast of Peru, and continued to harass the enemy 
 by capturing their ships, and blockading their ports, until the 
 army was ready, which was not until August, 1820. The ex- 
 pedition was reported ready for sailing on the 15th, and on the 
 18th the troops were embarked at Valparaiso. Their appear- 
 ance and discipline were worthy of any country, and their 
 numbers amounted to 4, 900; 15,000 stand of arms, with a 
 proportionate quantity of ammunition and clothing, were ship- 
 ped for the purpose of organizing a corps of Peruvians, who, 
 it was expected, would flock to the revolutionary standard as 
 soon as the expedition landed. General San Martin was ap- 
 pointed commander in chief of the liberating army of Peru. 
 The fleet under lord Cochrane consisted of the flag ship of 
 fifty guns, one of sixty guns, another of forty, and four smaller 
 vessels ; the transports were twenty in number.! 
 Before the expedition sailed, a bulletin was published : 
 44 An expedition, equipped by means of great sacrifices, is 
 at length, ready to proceed, and the army of Chile, united to 
 
 * Pasos' Letters, 
 t Journal of B. Hall. 
 
DEVOLUTION Of PERU. 15J 
 
 that of the Andes, is now called upon to redeem the land in 
 which slavery has long existed, and from whence the latest ef- 
 forts have been made to oppress the whole continent. Happy 
 be this day on which the record of the movements and the ac- 
 tions of the expedition commences. The object of this enter- 
 prise is to decide whether or not the time is arrived, when the 
 influence of South America, upon the rest of the world, shall 
 be commensurate with its extent, its riches, and its situation.'* 
 
 The expedition sailed from the port of Valpraiso in Chile 
 on the 20th of August, 1820, and reached Pisco, which is sit- 
 uated about one hundred miles south of Lima, on the 7th of 
 September, and by the llth the whole army was disembarked. 
 The Spanish troops stationed in the neighbourhood had pre- 
 viously retired to Lima, where the viceroy resolved to collect 
 his whole army. The liberating army at first encountered no 
 resistance, and on the 26th of September an armistice for 
 eight days was concluded, at the request of the viceroy, and 
 commissioners from both parties held a conference. On the 
 4th of October, the armistice terminated without any success- 
 ful result to the negotiation which had been attempted, and 
 on the 26th the expedition moved northward to Ancon. Lord 
 Cochrane, with part of the squadron, anchored in the outer 
 roads of Callao, the sea port of Lima. The inner harbour is 
 extensively and very strongly fortified, and is called the castle 
 of Callao. Under the protection of the batteries, lay three 
 Spanish armed vessels of war, a forty gun frigate and two 
 sloops of war, guarded by fourteen gunboats. On the night 
 of the 5th of November, lord Cochrane, with 240 volunteers 
 in fourteen boats, attempted the daring enterprize of cutting 
 out the Spanish frigate, and succeeded in the most gallant 
 manner, with the loss of only forty-one killed and wounded. 
 The Spanish loss was 120 men. This success annihilated the 
 Spanish naval power on the Pacific. 
 
 The joy occasioned by this splendid naval exploit was in- 
 creased by Col. Arenales, who had been sent from Pisco with 
 1000 men, with orders to proceed by a circuitous route around 
 Lima, until he rejoined the army ; and on his march he attack- 
 ed and defeated a detachment of the royal army sent from 
 Lima to oppose him ; the general was taken prisoner. Many 
 districts declared in favour of th6 liberating army, and the rev- 
 olutionary cause become so popular, that on the 3d of Decem- 
 ber a whole regiment of the royalists, with their colonel at their 
 head, deserted from the Spanish service, and joined the libe- 
 rating army. 
 
 After a short stay at Ancon, San Martin proceeded to Hu* 
 ara, a strong position near the port of Huacho^ about seventy* 
 
152 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 five miles north of Lima. Here the army remained for six 
 months, engaged in recruiting ; in disseminating the spirit oi 
 independence, and cutting off the resources of the royalists in 
 Lima. After another unavailing armistice, the liberating ar- 
 rny began to advance towards the capital on the 5th of July. 
 1821, when the viceroy, alarmed for its security, issued a proc- 
 lamation, announcing his intention of abandoning the city, and 
 pointing out Callao as an asylum for those who felt insecure 
 in the capital. This was a signal for an immediate flight ; 
 the consternation was excessive throughout the city ; the road 
 to Callao was crowded with fugitives, carrying their most val- 
 uable effects. The women were seen flying in all directions 
 towards the convents, and the narrow streets were literally 
 choked up with loaded waggons, mules and mounted horsemen : 
 the confusion continued all night, and until day-break. The 
 viceroy marched out with his troops, not leaving a single sen- 
 tinel over the powder magazine, having previously nominated 
 the marquis Montemire as governor of the city, who imme- 
 diately called a meeting of the inhabitants, and the cabildo, or 
 town council, which resolved to invite San Martin to enter the 
 capital. The answer of San Martin was full of magnanimity, 
 and immediately inspired the greatest confidence among the, 
 inhabitants. He told them that he did not desire to enter the 
 capital as a conqueror, but as their liberator ; and added, as a 
 proof of his sincerity, that the governor might command a 
 portion of his troops, for the security of the persons and pro- 
 perty of the inhabitants. The people who had deserted the 
 city, now returned to their dwellings, and order was restored ; 
 and San Martin, who a few days before was considered an en- 
 emy, was now hailed as a benefactor. On the 12th of July, 
 he made his entry into the capital, without ostentation or cer- 
 emony, and in a manner worthy of a republican general. He 
 was accompanied by a single aid-de-camp only, but received 
 with the greatest enthusiasm by most of the inhabitants ; and 
 all classes were anxious to behold the man who had perform- 
 ed such distinguished services for their country : he was kind, 
 courteous, and affable to all. The females caught the enthu- 
 siasm of the men, and vied with each other in paying their re- 
 spects to their liberator. To every one he had something kind 
 and appropriate to say, occasioning an agreeable surprise to 
 the person he addressed. San Martin now commenced the 
 difficult task of reforming the abuses of the colonial govern- 
 ment, and published an address to the Peruvians, containing 
 Bonnd and judicious sentiments, which justly entitles it to 
 preservation.* 
 
 * Journal of captain Basil Hall 
 
REVOLUTION JN PERU 153 
 
 'On the 28th of July, 1821, the independence of Peru was 
 solemnly proclaimed. The troops were drawn up in the great 
 square, in the centre of which was erected a lofty stage, from 
 which San Martin, accompanied by the governor and some of 
 the principal inhabitants displaying for the first time the inde- 
 pendent flag proclaiming that Peru was free and independent, 
 by the general wish of the people, and the justice of her 
 cause : Then waving the flag, San Martin exclaimed, Vive La 
 Patria ! Vive La Liberia ! Vive La Independence ! which 
 was reiterated by the multitude in the square, while the bells 
 rung a joyous peal, and cannon were discharged amidst the 
 universal acclammations of the people. On the 3d of August, 
 San Martin took upon himself the title of protector of Peru, 
 and issued a proclamation. 
 
 It concluded by declaring, that the supreme political author- 
 ity and military command were united in him, under the title 
 of protector, and that Juan Garcia del Rial was named 
 secretary of state, and by specifying the other appointments 
 under his new government. He also addresssed a proclama- 
 tion to the Spaniards, bearing date the 4th of August, in 
 which he says that he has respected their persons and pro- 
 perty, agreeably to his promise, but notwithstanding which, 
 they murmur in secret and maliciously propagate suspicions 
 of his intentions. He assures those who remain peaceable, 
 swear to the independence of the country, and respect the 
 new government, of being protected in their persons and 
 estates ; offers to such as do not confide in his word, the priv- 
 ilege of passports, within a given* time, to leave the country 
 with all their effects, and declares that those who remain and 
 profess to submit to the government, but are plotting against 
 it, shall feel the full rigour of the -law, and be deprived of 
 their possessions. 
 
 San Martin now proceeded steadily in recruiting and disci- 
 plining his army, in reforming the local abuses in the adminis- 
 tration of affairs, and in preparing and organizing a provisional 
 government, until the permanent constitution of the state 
 could be established. When absent, he appointed the marquis 
 of Torre Tagleas supreme delegate, to exercise the functions 
 of government. 
 
 On the 10th of September, the Spanish army returned from 
 the interior, and marching past Lima, .entered Callao. As it 
 passed the capital, San Martin drew up his army, but did not 
 attack the enemy, wisely foreseeing that an increase of the 
 garrison of Callao would diminish their provisions, and hasten 
 the surrender of the fortress. The Spanish army, after a 
 short stay, retired, carrying off the treasures deposited in 
 
 31* 
 
154 HISTORY AND 
 
 the castle, which shortly after surrendered to the independ- 
 ents. 
 
 The liberating army now remained inactive until the follow- 
 ing May, when a detachment was sent against the Spaniards, 
 which proved unsuccessful. In July, 1822, San Martin left 
 Lima for Guayaquil, where he had an interview with Bolivar, 
 the liberator of Colombia, and, during his absence, the people 
 of Lima, irritated against the minister, Monteagudo, forcibly 
 deposed, imprisoned, and afterwards banished him to Panama. 
 Tn August, San Martin returned with a re-enforcement of Co- 
 lombian troops. 
 
 On the 20th of September, 1822, the sovereign constitu- 
 tional congress of the federal provinces of Peru, was assem- 
 bled, and the patriotic and popular chief, was happy to di- 
 vest himself of the dictatorship, and gladly resigned into their 
 hands, the supreme authority, which he had exercised for 
 more than a year. The congress duly appreciating his mag- 
 nanimity and patriotic services, elected him, by an unanimous 
 vote, general and commander in chief of the armies of Peru ; 
 but he declined the appointment, only accepting the title, as a 
 mark of the approbation and confidence of the Peruvians, 
 declaring that in his opinion, his presence in Peru in command 
 of the army, was inconsistent with the authority of the Con- 
 gress. 
 
 " 1 have," says this illustrious patriot, " fulfilled the sacred 
 promise which I made to Peru. I have witnessed the assem- 
 bly of its representatives. The enemy's force threatens the 
 independence of no place that wishes to be free, and posses- 
 ses the means of being so. A numerous army under the 
 direction of warlike chiefs, is ready to march in a few days to 
 put an end to the war. Nothing is left for me to do, but to 
 offer you my sincerest thanks, and to promise, that if the lib- 
 erties of the Peruvians shall ever be attacked, I shall claim 
 the honour of accompanying them, to defend their freedom 
 like a citizen." 
 
 The congress expressed much regret at his declaration, and 
 entreated him to take the actual command of their armies ; 
 but their appeal had no effect on the conduct of San Martin, 
 whose resolution was formed on mature consideration. He 
 had accomplished the object of his mission ; he had emanci- 
 pated the country, which he had visited for that purpose, and 
 not to become its ruler. On retiring from a country which he 
 had redeemed from slavery, and given a new creation, he pub* 
 lished a proclamation, in which he says that he is repaid for ten 
 years of his life spent in revolution and war : " I hold in my 
 
REVOLUTION IN PERU 155 
 
 hand the standard which Pizarro brought over to enslave the 
 empire of the Incas." 
 
 " My promises to the countries in which I made war are ful- 
 filled I give them independence, and leave them the choice 
 of their government." 
 
 San Martin proceeded to Callao, and immediately sailed for 
 Chile. 
 
 The congress now left to themselves, appointed a supreme 
 junta of three enlightened men to whom they confided the ex- 
 ecutive power. In November, 1822, an expedition sailed 
 from Lima, for the southern coast, but in Janury, 1823, short- 
 ly after landing, the army was defeated and dispersed. This 
 disaster was followed by a general discontent among the peo- 
 ple, and in February, the sittings of the congress were suspen- 
 ded by Rivaaguero the president, who shortly after dissolved 
 them in a most unconstitutional manner, and every thing was 
 in confusion. Availing themselves of these disorders, in 
 June 1823, the Spanish army under general Canterac, re-en- 
 tered Lima, having driven the patriots into Callao. They 
 remained in the capital about a fortnight, levying contribu- 
 tions on the defenceless inhabitants. This was a short and 
 sad termination of a struggle which had been so successful 
 under the direction of an able leader. Whilst the cause of 
 the revolution was thus prostrated in Peru, general Bolivar 
 was bringing the war to a close in Colombia. Foreseeing 
 that if the affairs of Peru were not placed in a better condi- 
 tion, the royal authority would shortly be re-established in 
 that country, and the independence of Colombia would be 
 endangered, and being invited by the Peruvians, he resolved 
 to proceed to that country ; which he did, at the head of a 
 considerable force, and was most cordially received at Lima, 
 and appointed dictator until the Spaniards should be expelled 
 or subdued. On his approach, the royalists retired into the 
 interior. 
 
 The liberator, in addition to a formidable enemy, that pos- 
 sessed the whole of Upper, and most of the interior of Lower 
 Peru, soon found himself surrounded with difficulties, in the 
 dissentions among the patriots, which threatened the entire 
 destruction of the revolutionary cause. Rivaaguero, the 
 late president of the congress, collected a force to oppose the 
 congress and general Bolivar. This insurrection, however, 
 was soon suppressed, and the principal instigators were made 
 prisoners and exiled ; but the disasters of the army, and the 
 conflicts of the parties, soon obliged the congres to confer on 
 general Bolivar, the supreme power as dictator, to preserve 
 the republic from ruin ; notwithstanding, however, general 
 
HISTORY OF THE 
 
 Bolivar found it necessary to return to Truxillo for safety, un- 
 til the arrival of his re-enforcements from Colombia. 
 
 In the month of February, 1824, the royalists under gener- 
 al Canterac, took possession of the city of Lima without op- 
 position, and about the same time, of the important fortress of 
 Callao, by means of a defection of the troops from Buenos 
 Ay res, forming part of the garrison. The state of affairs in 
 Peru was now critical and alarming. The factious exerted 
 themselves to prejudice the people against Bolivar, and charg- 
 ed him with entertainining ambitious designs, which induced 
 him to address a proclamation to the people dated at Truxil- 
 lo, the llth of March, 1824. Great exertions were made by 
 the liberator to forward his re-enforcements from Colombia, 
 and to organize a force for the ensuing campaign, sufficient 
 to liberate the whole of Peru, from the power of the royal- 
 ists ; it was also necessary to acquire a naval superiority, 
 in order to conduct the operations of the war in the most 
 efficient manner. Such additions were therefore made, to 
 the naval force, as to enable the patriots, not only to blockade 
 the port of Callao, but to destroy a number of vessels in that 
 harbour. 
 
 The army being at length completely organized, commenced 
 its operations in the month of June, 1824, and crossing the 
 Andes, routed the vanguard of the enemy, consisting of 
 3,500 men, with great loss. In addition to the other advanta- 
 ges of this victory, it was productive of an accession to the 
 forces of the patriots, of five hundred of the enemy's infantry, 
 and one hundred of his cavalry, who deserted the royal stand- 
 ard, went over to the patriots, and fought bravely against Span- 
 iards. 
 
 The beginning of August, 1824, the liberating army was at 
 Conocancha, and the royalists having approached near it, for 
 the purpose of reconnoitering, Bolivar marched with his 
 whole force, with the determination of bringing the enemy to 
 a general action. Alarmed by this movement, the royalists 
 re-traced their steps by forced marches, and succeeded in pas- 
 sing the point on the road to Jauja, [where Bolivar had inten- 
 ded to have taken a position, with the view to bring them to 
 an engagement,] several hours before the Independents arri- 
 ved. Perceiving that the enemy continued to retreat in the 
 most precipitate manner, Bolivar, unwilling that they should 
 escape, and seeing it impossible to engage them with his 
 whole force, placed himself at the head of his cavalry, although 
 greatly inferior in point of numbers, to that of the enemy, and 
 pursued at full speed. The patriots came up with the ene- 
 *ay on the plains of Junto, and took a position ner theiri, 
 
REVOLUTION IN PERU. 15t 
 
 hoping that the inferiority of their numbers would induce the 
 royalists to engage them. The event answered their expec- 
 tations ; for relying on his superior numbers, the enemy 
 made a furious charge on t^e patriot cavalry, which sustained 
 the shock with great firmness. The conflict was sharp, and 
 in the successive charges, each party, at times, seemed to 
 have the advantage ; but at length the royalists were thrown 
 into confusion, beaten and compelled to fall back on their 
 infantry for safety, which had continued its retreat towards 
 Jauja, and was many miles from the scene of action when 
 the battle was decided. The enemy sustnined a severe loss ; 
 two hundred and thirty-five lay dead on the field, among whom 
 were ten chiefs and officers ; many were wounded and disper- 
 sed, and eighty made prisoners, besides which, three hundred 
 horses were taken, with all their equipments, and immense 
 spoil. The loss of the patriots was sixty killed and wounded.* 
 This action toek place on the 6th of August. This brilliant 
 success, almost annihilated the enemy's cavalry, on which 
 they principally relied, at the commencement of the campaign, 
 and had a very formidable influence on the army and the people 
 of Peru. 
 
 Two days after this victory, the republicans followed in pur- 
 suit of the enemy towards the valley of Jauja. From the 
 battle of Junin, no important action occurred until the 9th of 
 December. After much skilful manoeuvreing on both sides, 
 general Sucre, commanding the liberating army, consisting of 
 the united forces of Colombia and Peru, took a position at 
 Ayacucho early in December, near the enemy, who was post- 
 ed on a height. On the 8th of the month, some skirmishes 
 took place^ and on the following day, the enemy attacked the 
 liberating army ; his right was commanded by general Valdez, 
 composed of four battalions and two squadrons of huzzars, 
 with four field pieces ; his centre by general Monet, consist- 
 ing of five battalions ; and general Villalobos commanded the 
 left, composed of four battalions, with seven pieces of artil- 
 lery. The remainder of the enemy's cavalry formed a reserve 
 in the rear. General Cordova commanded the right of the 
 liberating army, with the second division of Colombia, con- 
 sisting of the battalions of Bogota and the voltigeurs of Pin- 
 chinca and Caraccas ; general Llamar commanded the left, 
 composed of the battalions of Peru, and three legions of Co- 
 lombians, and the division of general Lara formed the reserve. 
 According to the official returns, there were 9,310 of the Span* 
 ish army, commanded by Canterac, the viceroy, in person; 
 
 * See Bolivar's despatch, 
 
HISTORY OF THE> 
 
 and only 5,780 of the liberating army, headed by the intrepid- 
 general Sucre. But although the two armies were unequal in 
 numbers, they were both ardent to engage, and both confident 
 of victory. The Colombian division marched with supported 
 arms, in the most intrepid manner, and took their station near 
 the Spanish line, and opened a fire with such coolness and de- 
 structive effect, that the enemy soon began to give way ; and 
 in spite of all their efforts to maintain their ground, they were 
 driven back and thrown into confusion. The division of Peru 
 on the left, experienced a more vigorous resistance, and was 
 re-enforced by general Lara with two battalions of the reserve, 
 consisting of the Colombian guards. This enabled the left, 
 as well as the right, ta gain ground on the enemy ; and in a few 
 moments, nothing could resist the impetuosity of the troops 
 of the united army. The second squadron of huzzars of Ju- 
 nin made a brilliant charge on the enemy's cavalry posted on 
 the right of general Valdez, and repulsed them ; the Colom- 
 bian grenadiers alighted and charged the Spanish infantry on 
 foot, and the regiment of huzzars of Colombia, charged with 
 their lances the grenadiers of the viceroy's guard, and put 
 them to the rout. The ardour and impetuosity of the repub- 
 lican troops soon decided the battle, which was short, but ter- 
 rible. The slaughter was immense for the numbers engaged. 
 The enemy had 2, 600 men killed and wounded on the field of 
 action, including the viceroy wounded, and six generals killed. 
 The united army sustained a loss of 823 killed and wounded, 
 of which there were one general, eight officers, and 300 men 
 killed, and six generals, thirty-four officers, and 480 men 
 wounded. What remained of the Spanish army capitulated, 
 and a treaty was signed on the field of battle, between the 
 royal commander, Canterac, and general Sucre, whereby all 
 the royal troops in Peru, all military posts, all royal artillery 
 and magazines, and the whole of Peru occupied by the Span- 
 ish, were surrendered to the patriots as the trophies of the 
 victory of Ayacucho. 
 
 This is one of the most distinguished victories which the an- 
 nals of the South American revolution afford, whether con- 
 sidered with reference to the brilliancy offthe achievement, its 
 decisive character, or its important consequences. It annihi- 
 lated the Spanish power, and liberated all of Lower Peru. Its 
 immediate trophies were, 9,310 men held and made prisoners 
 on the field of battle, and 348, which surrendered in garrisons 
 in Cusco, Arequipa, and Puno, including the column of gen- 
 eral Ramirez disperied in Quilca. The troops, which after- 
 wards surrendered in Upper Peru, on Sucre's marching into 
 that country, in consequence, of this victory, amounted to 
 
DEVOLUTION IN PERU. J59 
 
 4,610, making a grand total of 18,598, including 25 general 
 officers, and 1,100 chiefs and officers.* 
 
 The liberator addressed a proclamation to the Peruvians, 
 and another to the army of Colombia. In the former he says, 
 that " the army has fulfilled the promise he made to them in 
 its name, of emancipating Peru ;" and adds, that the time has 
 now arrived that he must, also, fulfil the premise he had made 
 to them, of divesting himself of the dictatorship the moment 
 victory declared their freedom, and sealed their destiny." 
 
 General Rodel, who commanded the castle of Callao, re- 
 fused to comply with the terms of capitulation, entered into 
 by his superior officer, Canterac ; in consequence of which, 
 that fortress was immediately invested by the Colombian 
 troops, and rigourously blockaded by a naval force, part of the 
 navy of Chile being placed under the orders of Bolivar by the 
 government of that country for that purpose. 
 
 On the 10th of December, the Peruvian congress was in- 
 stalled, on which occasion the liberator transmitted to them an 
 interesting message, containing a resignation of his authority. 
 
 He speaks of the internal disorders of the country the ex- 
 ertions he had made to remedy them, and of their relations 
 with the other independent governments. " Colombia," he 
 observes, " their ally and confederate had employed her army, 
 her navy, and her treasure, in fighting the common enemy, 
 making the cause her own ; which ought to convince the con- 
 gress of the infinite value that she attaches to a close confed- 
 eration of all the new states. The governments of Mexico, 
 Guatamala, and Buenos Ayres, had offered their services ; 
 but our rapid successes had rendered their assistance unne* 
 cessary." The agent of Colombia had been accredited, and 
 the consuls of Great-Britain, the United States, and of Co- 
 lombia, had presented themselves in the capital, to exercise 
 their functions. He speaks, with confidence, of the probabil? 
 ity of England and France recognizing the independence of 
 Peru on being informed of its complete liberation, and the en- 
 tire extinction of the Spanish power. 
 
 The constituent congress passed a decree, by which they 
 conferred on general Bolivar the supreme, political, and mili- 
 tary command of the republic, until the installation of the con- 
 gress prescribed by the constitution, to take place in 1826. 
 They voted him one million of dollars for his eminent services, 
 'which he magnanimously declined accepting. They also or- 
 dered that an equestrian statue of the liberator should be 
 erected in the constitutional square of Lima, and a medal 
 
 > Official despatch of general Sucre, dated 19th April, 
 
*160 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 Struck, with the bust of the hero on one side, and on the other 
 this inscription: "To OUR LIBERATOR, SIMON BOLIVAR." 
 These proceedings of the congress were communicated to the 
 illustrious Bolivar, by its president, whose answer contains the 
 most noble and patriotic sentiments. 
 
 After the liberation of the interior provinces of Lower Peru, 
 general Sucre proceeded to Upper Peru, where general Ola- 
 neta still held out against the patriots, and refused to agree to 
 the terms of capitulation ; but as the conquerors of Ayacucho 
 advanced into the country, the corps of the royal army at Cho- 
 encamba, Chiquisaca, Santa Cruz, and other places, sponta- 
 neously proclaimed their independence, and declared in favour 
 of the cause of the country. What adhered to Olaneta were 
 dispersed by the brave Sucre, their general killed, and what 
 survived compelled to surrender, which liberated the whole of 
 Upper Peru, except the province of Chiquitos, which had been 
 invaded and occupied by a division of the Brazilian army. 
 
 During the summer of 1825, most of the Colombian troops 
 which had been employed in Peru,, embarked at Lima for Pa- 
 nama. Bolivar visited Upper Peru in June, and after his re- 
 turn to Lima he has remained in Lower Peru, as dictator and 
 tuler of the country. He prosecuted the siege ofCallao, and 
 kept it closely invested. In August, the scurvy raged among 
 the troops, and sickness prevailed among the unfortunate in- 
 habitants, who were compelled to retire within the Spanish 
 lines. Neither the inhabitants or the troops had any other 
 than salt provisions, arid many of the former left the place and 
 threw themselves on the generosity of the besiegers, whilst 
 the latter deserted daily. General Rondel, however, obsti- 
 nately continued to hold out, when it was evident that the pos- 
 session of the castle could be of no use to Spain, and that it 
 must soon yield to a destiny which was inevitable. The last 
 advices represent that the fortress has surrendered, but this 
 wants confirmation. 
 
 Bolivar, whilst administering the government of Lower Pe- 
 ru, and preparing it for the adoption of republican institutions, 
 has not confined his attention to that republic. His mighty 
 mind and capacious patriotism compass all the vast countries 
 formerly Spanish, in America. On the 7th of December, he 
 despatched a circular from Lima, to all the new republics, 
 urging the appointment of plenipotentiaries, to form a general 
 confederacy, which were to meet at Panama. The circular 
 having been favourably received by the governments of Co- 
 lombia and Mexico, the liberator soon after appointed two 
 delegates to represent Peru, who immediately repaired to the 
 
REVOLUTION IN PERU. 161 
 
 Isthmus of Panama, to await the arrival of the plenipotentia- 
 ries from the other republics. 
 
 The liberator has made provisions in Peru for the education 
 of the Indians, at the expense of the republic ; three hundred 
 dollars a month are appropriated for instruction of Indian 
 youth in the colleges of Liberty and St. Charles, and two hun^ 
 dred, monthly, are to be expended for the same laudable pur- 
 pose, at the college of Independence. There is no doubt that 
 the Peruvian Indians are as susceptible of improvement by 
 aiacation as the whites. 
 
 VOL. II. 32 
 
HISTORY 
 
 AND PRESENT STATE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 REPUBLIC OF BOLIVAR. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 of territory, and face of the country description of de- 
 partments city of Potosi, Charcas and La Paz rivers, cli- 
 mate, productions, mines, commerce and population. 
 
 THE new Republic of Bolivar, is composed of that exten- 
 sive and highly interesting country heretofore called Upper 
 Peru, consisting of seven separate territorial governments, 
 formerly denominated intendencies, but now called depart- 
 ments, which are Potosi, Charcas, or La Plata, Cochabamba, 
 La Paz, Santa Cruz or Puno, Moxos and Chiquitos. This 
 tract of country extends from lat. 14 to 24 south, a distance 
 of nearly 700 miles from the Pacific ocean to the river Para- 
 guay, about the same distance ; and is watered by the head 
 branches of the Amazon and La Plata, and traversed by the 
 lofty Andes. It possesses a climate of almost every variety of 
 temperature, from the torrid to the frozen zone, and a soil 
 well suited to the productions of both Europe and the Indies. 
 The region which extends from Oruro to Jujui, from 17 52' 
 to 22 south latitude, comprises the most mountainous and 
 irregular part of the country, ascending, gradually, on every 
 side to Potosi, which is the most elevated part. Here the two 
 noble rivers, Amazon and La Plata, take their rise within 
 about seventy miles of each other, in lat. 17 30' south, and 
 discharge their waters into the Atlantic ocean, the former un- 
 ier the equator, and the lattejf in 35 south lat. at a distance 
 
OF THE REPUBLIC OF BOLIVAR. 163 
 
 of nearly 2,500 miles from each other. This whole country 
 is cold and mountainous ; but sterile as its surface is, its bow- 
 els are rich in the precious metals. 
 
 There are two ranges of the Andes extending through this 
 territory, from north to south, which are called the eastern 
 and western. The eastern is the loftiest, and its summit is 
 covered with perpetual snow,*while the western range, is more 
 low, irregular, is less a region of frost, and the communica- 
 tion, through the intervening vallies to the Pacific ocean, is 
 not obstructed by one continuous and unbroken range.* 
 
 Potosi is the most southern department, and is divided into 
 eight provinces. Extending from the Pacific across the ridges 
 of the Andes, it is generally a lofty and mountainous region, 
 with the exception of some beautiful and fertile vallies, which 
 are watered by the river San Juan and its branches, discharg- 
 ing its waters into the Pilcomayo, one of the principal 
 western tributaries of the great La Plata ; the head waters 
 of the San Juan approach very near the Pacific. The princi- 
 pal river on the coast of the Pacific, is Loxa. Here the val- 
 ies are rich in the various productions of the tropical and tem- 
 perate zones ; the mountains, however, are cold and sterile, 
 almost excluding vegetation, but rich in the metalic treasures. 
 In addition to the celebrated mines of Potosi, which are con- 
 sidered the richest and most productive in South America, 
 almost every section of this department abounds with valua- 
 ble mines of silver. There are also, many rich mines of gold, 
 copper, and iron ores, scattered over the whole face of the 
 country in fact, the mineral resources of this region, are not 
 surpassed by any other in the world, either as it respects 
 abundance or variety. 
 
 The population of Potosi has been variously estimated, but 
 is supposed, by the best authorities, to be about 112,000, in- 
 cluding 25,000 Indians. The principal town, and also the 
 capital of the Republic of Bolivar, is the celebrated mining 
 city of Potosi, situated in lat. 19 30' south, at the elevation 
 of 1 1 ,000 feet above the level of the sea, on the* great post 
 . road leading from Buenos Ayres to Lima ; 1,650 miles from 
 the former, and, 1215 from the latter, and about 300 miles 
 east of the Pacific ocean. The city is built at the bottom of 
 the celebrated mountain of the same name, so famous for the 
 
 * For this account of the new Republic of Bolivar, we are prin 
 cipally indebted to the Letters of Don Vincente Pazos, on the United 
 Provinces of South A.merica, the most authentic and valuable work 
 on that country. The author is a native of the country and a man of 
 teaming and intelligence as well as patriotism and humanity. 
 
164 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE 
 
 immense riches, which it has been pouring forth for the laat 
 three centuries. The figure of this mountain is conic, and 
 it is covered with green, red, yellow, and blue spots, that gives 
 it a very curious appearance, resembling no other mountain in 
 the world, and it is entirely bare without trees or shrubs. 
 The city of Potosi is nearly nine miles in circumference ; it 
 is divided into the city proper, and Yngenios, where are situa- 
 ted the labratories of the mines, and which are separated by 
 a small river, called the river of the lakes, over which there is 
 a stone bridge. The city and Yngenois k are nearly a mile a- 
 part. The streets are narrow and irregular, and paved with 
 round stones, with side walks. The houses are uniformly of 
 one story, built of stone and brick, with balconies of wood, 
 and without chimneys, each one having a yard in the rear sup- 
 plied with fountains of water. There are in Potosi, three 
 monasteries, five convents, and nineteen parochial churches, 
 which are richly ornamented with silver. On the north side 
 of the public square is situated the mint, which is a grand edi- 
 fice of free stone, of a quadrangular figure, two stories high, 
 and nearly 450 feet square, in which are offices for the govern- 
 ors and workmen, and apartments for the extensive machinery. 
 The coining of this mint surpasses that of Lima or Santiago, 
 and is said to have produced in prosperous times 4,000,000 of 
 dollars annually. The climate of Potosi is very cold, and 
 for a distance of twelve miles around the city there are no 
 trees or shrubbery of any kind, and nothing vegetates except 
 a species of green moss. On the hills above the town, there 
 are about thirty artificial lakes, for supplying the city with 
 water, and turning the mills of the miners ; the number of 
 mills, or amalgamation works, are one hundred and twenty ; 
 the ores worked in these, are brought down from the moun- 
 tains above, at the height of 16,250 feet above the level of 
 the sea.* The extraordinary mines of this mountain were 
 
 m 
 
 *The following is the process of separating the metals from the 
 ores : The miils set in operation several copper or iron hammers of 
 the weight of 200 pounds, by which the ore is reduced to powder. 
 To prepare it for this operation, it is sometimes dried ; at others, 
 moistened with water. This powder is sifted through large iron or 
 copper seives, requiring four or five Indians each ; what passes 
 through the sieve, is taken for amalgamation ; and what does not, is 
 returned to the mills. The pulverised ore is wet, and kneaded with 
 the feet by the Indians, and then spread on floors about one fool 
 thick, in parcels of about 2,500 weight each. On these heaps, aboul 
 200 weight of salt, and a quantity of mercury, which varies accord- 
 ing to the richness of the ore, are strewed, and the whole mass is 
 stirred eight or ten times a day, sometimes for a month or six weeks. 
 This is the process of amalgamation, the object of which is to have 
 the mercury unite or amalgamate with the grains of silver. When 
 
OF THE REPUBLIC OF BOLIVAB. 165 
 
 discovered in 1545 by an Indian named Hualpa, accidentally, 
 as he was pursuing his goats up the mountain ; but others say 
 that the first discoverer was Potocchi, from whom the moun- 
 tain derives its name. Potosi, according to the best authori- 
 ties, contains a population of 40,000 inhabitants, who subsist 
 chiefly by mining ; it is the focus of all the commerce be- 
 tween Buenos Ayres and Upper and Lower Peru, and is a 
 place of great business and wealth. The other considera- 
 ble towns in this department, are Pilaya, the capital of a 
 province of the same name, containing 12,000 inhabitants ; 
 it enjoys a fine climate, and is surrounded with a fertile 
 country; Tarija, situated in lat. 21 30' south, in a delight- 
 ful valley of the same name, and has a population of 10, 
 000, Tupiza, Lipiz, Tarapaca, St. Francisco de Atacama 
 near the Pacific. 
 
 The intqiidancy of Charcas or La Plata is watered by the 
 river Pilcornayo, and its branch, the Cachimayo, which flow 
 into the La Plata, and are celebrated for the abundance and 
 excellence of their fish, their banks are clothed with verdure 
 and covered with forests. This is an excellent agricultural 
 district, its climate is generally warm, and it has some vine- 
 yards and sugar plantations ; abounding with cultivated farms, 
 and affording fine cattle and sheep, wheat, and excellent fruits. 
 There are few mines in it. 
 
 Charcas the capital, in lat. 19 S. is distant 75 miles north- 
 east of Potosi, and was founded by one of Pizarro's captains, 
 in the year 1538, and stands on a plain, surrounded on every 
 side by several small hills, with a fine climate. The streets 
 cross each other at right angles, are very wide and well pa- 
 ved. The houses are regularly built one story high, with 
 balconies of wood, and spacious gardens in the rear ; its pop- 
 ulation at present does not exceed 15,000. The cathedral is 
 a very magnificent edifice ; the gate is of copper, very massy 
 and much ornamented. The palace of the arch bishop is a 
 splendid building, with grand saloons and spacious gardens 
 with fountains of water ; and it is furnished in a princely style. 
 There are also five convents, three nunneries, an university, 
 two colleges, and an academy for law-students. In the uni- 
 versity and colleges, there are about five hundred students who 
 
 this process is through, the mass is removed into vats, where the 
 earth is washed off, and the amalgam is found at the bottom, which 
 is put into bags and hung up for the quicksilver to drain off; the bags 
 are beaten and pressed, and finally the amalgam is hardened, and the 
 remaining quicksilver evaporated by means of ignited charcoal* 
 What remains, is a lump of grains of silver, which require to bte fu- 
 sed to unite them into a mass. 
 
 32* 
 
166 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE 
 
 come from all parts of the country. The city of Oruro is 
 situated in south lat. 17 58', 171 miles north west of Potosi 
 It is admirably located for inland commerce, and is about 170 
 miles east of the port of Arica on the Pacific, and the post 
 road from Buenos Ayres to Lima passes through it ; there is 
 a good mule road to Arica. The city is built at the foot of a 
 mineral mountain of the same name. Its figure is a cres- 
 cent ; it is well laid out, and its houses are regularly of one 
 story. It has five convents, and its markets are well suppli- 
 ed with fresh fish from the ocean. The population is about 
 15,000. 
 
 The department of Cochabamba forms an oblong tract of 
 land, extending from east to west 520 miles, and from north 
 to south 92 miles. The western section of this territory is 
 traversed by the lofty Andes, from which there is a gradual 
 slope, or gentle declivity from the west until it is lost in the 
 interminable plains on the east. This district of country is 
 well watered by the head branches of the Amazon, and pos- 
 sesses every variety of soil and climate. On the summits of 
 the mountains, eternal winter reigns, while the plains below 
 are covered with perpetual verdure. The fecundity of nature 
 is here displayed in all its richness and beauty ; all the ani- 
 mals and vegetables of every class and variety, attract the cu- 
 riosity of the observer ; trees and plants innumerable, cover 
 the soil with prodigious abundance, and fill the atmosphere 
 with a salubrity and fragrance beyond any other region. 
 Among the agricultural productions, are wheat, vines, and the 
 olive, in the greatest abundance, the choicest fruits of both 
 temperate and tropical climates ; and so productive is the 
 country in grass, that its name in the dialect of the aboriginal 
 inhabitants, means rich grass. This territory as might be sup- 
 posed, of such extraordinary excellence, in both its animal 
 and vegetable productions, is not rich in mineral treasures. 
 Its population is estimated at 115,000 consisting principally of 
 industrious farmers and skilful mechanics, distinguished for 
 their intelligence. The capital is the city of Oropesa, or Co- 
 chabamba, in south lat. 18 31', situated on a beautiful plain 
 near the river Sacabo. The city is square, and the streets, 
 which are spacious, cross each other at right angles. It con- 
 tains five convents and two nunneries, with a population of 
 25,000. 
 
 The department of La Paz, has a population of 110,000, 
 exclusive of Indians. The western section of this territory 
 is an extensive plain, bordering on the eastern shore of the 
 great lake Titicaca, The climate is cold on account of its 
 proximity to the Andes, and its productions are principally po- 
 
OF THE REPUBLIC OP BOLIVAR. 167 
 
 tatoes and barley. The appearance of the mountain Illumani is 
 wonderfully grand, particularly when seen in the night time 
 from the city of La Paz, situated in the vallies below, at a dis 
 tance of thirty miles. 
 
 This territory abounds with valuable silver mines, and many 
 fertile vallies : its waters are chiefly imbodied in the great 
 lake Titicaca which forms its western boundary. This lake is 
 about 240 miles in circumference, its medium-width is about 
 30 miles, containing several beautiful islands. Its borders are 
 picturesque and covered with villages, and cultivated fields. 
 It abounds with excellent fish, and on its shores and islands 
 are found great numbers of water-fowl, of various species. 
 The waters of the eastern section of this department consists 
 principally of the river Tipuani, and its branches. This river 
 pours down from the eastern Andes, like a torrent, and flow- 
 ing with an impetuous and roaring current, a distance of 120 
 miles, through the narrow defiles of the mountains in a north- 
 erly direction to the valley of Tipuani, it unites with the 
 Challana which rises in the same chain of mountains, and 
 assumes the name of Beni ; here it loses its rapdity, and 
 flows with a smooth and even current towards the coast. The 
 river Beni after a course of several hundred miles, in a north 
 easterly direction, unites with the Madeira, and these uni 
 ted waters constitute the great southern branch of the Ama- 
 zon. 
 
 The capital of this department, is the city of La Paz, situa- 
 ted in lat. 16 30' south, 180 miles east of the Pacific. It lies 
 in a hollow, considerably below the elevation of the plains 
 which extend from the eastern Andes to the lake, and is divi- 
 ded by the river Chookeago which is a branch of the river 
 Tipuani. There are four stone bridges across the river ; the 
 streets are rectangular and well paved, and the houses are 
 principally built of stone, of two and three stories high, many 
 of them exhibiting much taste and elegance in their structure. 
 In the public square there are some splendid edifices ; in the 
 centre, stands a fountain of water, constructed of transparent 
 alabaster. There are four convents, three nunneries, five pa- 
 rochial churches, a college and an alms-house, where the poor 
 are entertained. The city stands at the base of the peak of 
 Ilimani, which overlooks it, and whose snowy summit and 
 verdant sides exhibit a splendid view. The plains which sur- 
 round the city are clothed in perpetual verdure, are very fer- 
 tile, supplying it with all kinds of vegetables. The population 
 of the city is 40,000. 
 
 The department of Santa Cruz or Puno, is well watered by 
 f ho Rio Grande and other head waters of the Marnore, a 
 
168 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE 
 
 branch of the Amazon. Its population is 10,000, and it k 
 divided into two provinces, Misque and Santa Cruz, from which 
 the department takes its name. The province of Misque is 
 comprised in its western section, enjoying a warm climate. 
 The chief town, which is of the same name, stands in a fine 
 valley, of twenty-four miles in circumference, with a popula- 
 tion of 12,000. This is an extremely fertile province, produ- 
 cing, in great abundance, corn, sugar, grapes, bees wax,, and 
 honey. The province of Santa Cruz is situated east of Misque. 
 The chief town is of the same name, and is the capital, situ- 
 ated in lat. 17 4 9' south, at the foot of a small range of moun- 
 tains. The productions of this province are the same as those 
 of Misque, but cultivation is more neglected ; there are no 
 mines in the district. 
 
 Moxos arid Chiquitos are departments of great extent of ter- 
 ritory, but small population. Moxos extends from north to 
 south 360 miles, and nearly the same distance east and west. 
 It is watered by three rivers, Berii, Mamore, and Santa Cruz, 
 which, rising in the eastern Andes, flow into the Amazon. 
 Chiquitos lies south-east of Moxos, east of Santa Cruz, and 
 west of the river Paraguay, and is a country of great extent, 
 but thinly settled. The territory of Moxos and Chiquitos ex- 
 tend from lat. 14 Q to 20 south, embracing an extensive and 
 fertile tract of country mostly in a state of nature, and without 
 cultivation, but possessing immense natural resources, and ca- 
 pable of sustaining a vast population in affluence. The cli- 
 mate of these intendancies is like the East-Indies, with half 
 yearly alternations of rainy and dry seasons, and the produc- 
 tions are similar ; cinnamon is produced in abundance. The 
 rivers and lakes abound with fish; honey is also collected in 
 great quantities in the forests. The silk worm abounds, and 
 the mulberry, on which it feeds, is a common tree of the coun- 
 try. The intendancies or departments are divided into pro- 
 vinces, and the latter into curacies or parishes, like Peru, in 
 each of which there is a curate, a cacique, and an alcade. 
 
 The territories of the new republic of Bolivar, are an inte- 
 rior country, embracing only about three degrees of coast on 
 the Pacific ; yet no portion of South America possesses a 
 more salubrious climate, or more exuberant soil, variety of 
 productions, or inexhaustible mineral treasures. Although its 
 territory is not so extensive as some of the other republics, 
 and is almost without sea coast; yet so abundant are, the re- 
 sources of the soil and mines, that it is capable of sustaining 
 a large population, and of becoming a wealthy and prosperous 
 republic. A free and stable government, with just and lib- 
 eral institution?, securing to all classes of people their right's* 
 

 OF THE REPUBLIC OP BOLIVAR. 169 
 
 protecting and encouraging their industry, and diffusing among 
 them the light of knowledge, by means of education, is all 
 that is necessary to ensure prosperity to this country. Its pop- 
 ulation has been estimated at 1 ,740,000, considerably exceed- 
 ing that of Peru ; its character is similar, but perhaps more 
 hardy and industrious. There are more Indians, Mestizos, 
 and Cholos, but less Negroes and Mulattoes than in Peru. 
 The Indians alone amount to 1,155,000. They are sober and 
 honest, and have the most persevering habits of industry ; 
 they make good agriculturists and labourers of every kind, 
 and are very robust, muscular, and free from diseases. They 
 perform all the heavy work of the country, without the aid of 
 machinery, carrying on their shoulders 150 pounds. The Mes- 
 tizos and Cholos usually possess moderate fortunes ; they 
 carry on most of the internal commerce of the country, and 
 superintend the Haciendas, or plantations of the men of for- 
 tune. They are expert mechanics, and have astonishing fac- 
 ;ulties of imitation.* 
 
 The vegetable productions of the republic are similar to 
 Peru, comprising those of both temperate and tropical climates, 
 all in the greatest abundance, and almost spontaneously. 
 Among those more rare or peculiar to the country, are cinna 
 mott, the potatoe, which is believed to be indigenous in this re- 
 gion ; o/ra, a sweet root and important article of food ; gui- 
 nea, or Peruvian rice, much used as a grain for food, and from 
 which, together with Indian corn, a liquor is made, called chi- 
 ca, of universal use among the Indians ; agi, or Guinea pep- 
 per ; coca, a bitter herb, which constitutes the tobacco of the 
 Indians, and is extensively used ; quinquina, or Peruvian bark, 
 Manilla and ginger. The forests abound with various gums, 
 fesins, and balsams, and the mountains with common, epsom 
 &nd glauber salts, nitre, green vitriol, native soda, and riumer 
 bus other mineral substances. 
 
 The Llama and other animals mentioned in Peru, are com- 
 mon in this country ; the cochineal insect is reared with great- 
 er facility than in Mexico. A large proportion of the pro- 
 ducts from the mines exported from Peru, has been from the 
 territories of this republic. From 15 e to 23 Q south latitude, 
 
 * In 1801, a Swede, with a company of equestrian performers, ar- 
 rived at Lima, and after obtaining permission of the king, proceeded 
 into the interior to Cusco, and exhibited their performances, to the 
 delight and astonishment of the inhabitants. The young Cbolos 
 soon began to imitate the feats they had witnessed, and with such 
 succe-% that in a short time they could perform all the frats of the 
 equestrians, who, with astonishment, viewed the streets filled with 
 performers, which obliged them to abandon their enterprise. 
 
170 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE, $C, 
 
 there are twenty-two silver and eleven gold mines, which have 
 been worked, besides gold washings found in the river Tipau 
 ni and its numerous branches. The precious metals extract- 
 ed from these mines have been estimated at $14,000,000, an- 
 nually ; and the coin and bullion exported, at $8,240,000, 
 Gold is found every where on the banks of the Tipauni by 
 digging a sufficient depth, and finer in its native state by a 
 carat and a half than the gold coin of the United States. The 
 gold is found mixed with a hard blue clay, which is all taken 
 out together, and the clay separated by washing in canals pre- 
 pared for the purpose. The annual product of the river Ti- 
 pauni has been 35,200 ounces, worth $16 per ounce. 
 
 The commerce of this country is almost entirely inland ; it 
 has maintained an extensive interior trade with Peru and Bue- 
 nos Ayres ; the former has been estimated at nearly $7,000,- 
 000, and the goods received from the latter, at $18,000,000, 
 previous to the revolution, part of which must have been con- 
 sumed in Lower Peru. Foreign goods have been introduced 
 either through Lima or Buenos Ayres. The Spaniards and 
 Creoles hitherto have been almost the only consumers of fo- 
 reign goods, as the Indians and mixed races have used the 
 manufactures of the country, consisting of coarse cottons and 
 baizes, the king having prohibited the fulling and dressing of 
 cloths. The consumption of foreign goods must now increase 
 rapidly and to a very great extent, as the freedom of the In* 
 dians and Mestizos will cause them to imitate the manners and 
 style of the whites. The churches, monasteries, nunneries, 
 and convents in this republic are numerous, and have amassed 
 wealth to an extent almost incredible, even in a country abound- 
 ing in the precious metals. All the vessels and chandeliers 
 of the churches are of silver or gold, and the altars and even, 
 the pulpits are often covered with silver ; but the greatest 
 wealth is hoarded in the nunneries and monasteries. Don Vin- 
 cente Pozos says that he saw, in a nunnery in La Paz, two 
 boxes, each of four feet and a half long, and two feet broad, fill- 
 ed with doubloons. The republic, in August, 1825, by its rep- 
 resentations declared its independence, not only of Spain, but 
 of both Lower Peru and the United Provinces of Rio de la 
 Plata, and took the name of BOLIVAR, who liberated it from 
 the dominion of Spain. It has, at present, only a provisional 
 government, not having yet adopted a constitution. Gen- 
 eral Sucre was appointed by the congress captain-general 
 of the republic, and commander of the military force ; the 
 departments are under the government of an officer called a 
 president. 
 
HISTORY 
 OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 IN THE 
 
 REPUBLIC OF BOLIVAR. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 Revolution breaks out in La Paz a government is established - 
 the patriots are attacked by the royalists, dispersed, and the 
 rity sacked Buenos Ayres sends an army to Peru ; it is at 
 first successful, but finally defeated, and Peru lost the revolu- 
 tion breaks out again Cochabamba is sacked, and its inhab- 
 itants massacred retaken by the patriots the royalists drive 
 the patriots from La Paz, covering it with desolation an ar- 
 my of Buenos Jlyres again advances into Peru it is defeated 
 at Sipesipe the war kept up by several guerrilla leaders the 
 country emancipated by the victory of Jlyacucho Sucre pro- 
 ceeds to Upper Peril, and all the royal troops surrender Chi- 
 quitos invaded by the Brazillians a congress convened, whi ch 
 declares the country independent and passes several decrees. 
 
 THE seven intendencies, now departments, composing the 
 Bolivarian republic, belonged to the viceroyal jurisdiction of 
 Peru, until 1778, when they were annexed to the viceroyalty of 
 Rio de la Plata. They were not, however, embraced in the ju- 
 risdiction of the royal audience of Lima, but constituted a dis- 
 tinct jurisdiction, called the district or audiencia of Charcas, 
 and the city of that name was the seat of government of the 
 yoyal audiencia. This territory suffered severely during the 
 rebellion of Tupac Amaru, in 1 780, many of its cities being 
 almost desolated, and one third of its whole population destroy- 
 ed by the war. 
 
172 HISTORY OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 This country has poured its blood prodigally in the late rev- 
 olutionary struggles, and has experienced the singular ill-for- 
 tune of having the first and the last scenes of the bloody dra- 
 ma exhibited within its territory ; of being the first to throw 
 off the Spanish yoke, and the last to be redeemed from its do- 
 minion. Upper Peru and its borders, the neighbouring prov- 
 inces of Salta and Jujuy have been the theatres of war during 
 almost the whole revolution ; but as the operations on the part 
 of the patriots were carried on by the popular government of 
 Buenos Ayres, or the United Provinces, and are closely com- 
 bined with the events of the revolution there, we have deemed 
 it advisable to relate them in connection with the history of the 
 revolution in that republic. Some events, however, which 
 occurred in this territory, less connected with the struggle in 
 the United Provinces, will be noticed here. 
 
 In the city of La Paz, distinguished for the intelligence, 
 bravery and wealth of its inhabitants, the flame of the revolu- 
 tion first burst forth, and such was the implacable fury which 
 it excited in the breasts of the royal chiefs, that it served im- 
 mediately to light the torch of civil war, which to the inhabit- 
 ants of this devoted city, became a consuming fire. After wit- 
 nessing the subversion of the Spanish monarchy, and the sub- 
 sequent establishment of a government in the peninsula, emana- 
 ting from the people, the inhabitants claiming the same rights 
 as those of old Spain, and believing it disgraceful to remain in 
 the same state of apathy as they had during the war for the 
 succession to the crown of Spain, convened in a public meet- 
 ing on the 25th of March, 1809, to consider their political sit- 
 uation. They deposed the Spanish authorities, and erected a 
 provisional government called a Junta Tuitiva, and published 
 a manifesto, maintaining their right of governing themselves, 
 as Spain had done. Authorities were established for the ad- 
 ministration of justice, and soon the junta found it necessary 
 to raise an armed force, to defend the new government against 
 the hostile designs of the royal chiefs. An army was sent 
 against them by Cisneros, the viceroy of Buenos Ayres, under 
 Nieto, and another by the viceroy of Lima, commanded by 
 Goyeneche, which were expected to form a junction ; but Goy- 
 eneche, without waiting for the arrival of Nieto, stormed the 
 city of La Paz, which not being in a situation for defence, 
 was obliged to surrender ; not, however, without a resolute 
 resistance. The monster Goyeneche, immediately caused all 
 the principal citizens to be arrested and thrown into prison, 
 who for several days were sent to the scaffold without trial an4 
 without discrimination. At length it was thought expedient 
 to give some colour or form to this massacre, and Goyeneche 
 
IN THE REPUBLIC OP BOLIVAR. 173 
 
 applied to Cisneros, who, instead of restraining this bloody 
 assassin, decreed that all who remained in prison should be 
 executed ; but, fortunately, before this tyrant had carried this 
 sanguinary decree into execution, the revolution broke out in 
 Buenos Ayres, which wrested the bloody sceptre from his 
 hands, and saved the lives of the remaining prisoners. Such, 
 however, had been the work of death and desolation, that La 
 Paz had become like a desert. Filled with terror or revenge, by 
 such horrid barbarities, its inhabitants who escaped massacre or 
 confinement, fled to the forests and mountains, whither they 
 were pursued by the royal troops, and such was their horror 
 at falling into the hands of the enemy, that except a few who 
 escaped, they all either fell in battle or perished with famine. 
 The leaders of this unfortunate revolution were the two 
 Lanzas and Rodriguez, who were among its victims.* 
 
 After the revolution broke out in Buenos Ayres, more than 
 a year from the commencement of that at La Paz, the popu- 
 lar government which was established, was immediately threat- 
 ened by the royalists who had collected from all quarters in 
 Upper Peru. An army was sent against them commanded by 
 Ocampo, which dispersed them ; this army was re-enforced, 
 and the command given to general Balcarce. The royalist 
 army of Peru, under Sanz, governor of Potosi, Nieto, presi- 
 dent of the audience of Charcas and Cordova, fortified an 
 advantageous position, at Suypacha, where they were attacked 
 by Balcarce and completely routed. The patriot general fol- 
 lowing up his advantages, attacked them at Tupiza with equal 
 success ; the royal chiefs were captured and shot. Nieto 
 was cut short in his career of tyranny ; he had treated the gar- 
 rison at Charcas with the greatest severity and cruelty, con- 
 demning all who were suspected of entertaining opinions fa- 
 vourable to the patriots, to hard labour in the mines. The 
 rapacity of this man was equal to his tyranny ; in less than one 
 year after entering into his office he is said to have accumula- 
 ted one hundred thousand dollars. The successes of the pat- 
 riots enabled them to advance to the river Desaguedero, on 
 the left bank of which they extended their line occupying the 
 villages of Saxa, Guaqui, and several others. Balcarce had 
 6,000 men and the royal army commanded by Goyeneche of 
 about 5,000 was at the village of Desaguedero. The patriots 
 had hitherto been victorious ; in every town through which they 
 passed, the people received them with acclamations, and Abas 
 eal the viceroy of Lima, trembled for the safety of his govern- 
 ment. He consented to have the cabildo of Lima open 
 
 * Pazos* Letters, p. Si. 
 VOL, U> 83 
 
171 HISTORY OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 gotiation with Castelli, who accompanied the army as the rep- 
 resentative of the popular government of Buenos Ayres ; 
 the result was an armistice for forty days which only served 
 to afford the royalists time to prepare to renew hostilities 
 Availing himself of this opportunity, Goyeneche, made 
 every exertion to rouse the superstitions of his troogs, and 
 to excite among them a religious enthusiasm. The troops 
 from Buenos Ayres from their intercourse with .strangers, were 
 more enlightened than those of Peru, and manifested but lit- 
 tle respect for the religious worship of the Peruvians, which 
 consisted only of external forms and unmeaning ceremonies. 
 Goyeneche told his troops, principally Indians and Mestizos 
 from Cusco, miserably ignorant and superstitious, that the Bue- 
 nos Ayreans had come into the country to destroy their reli- 
 gion, and that they were the enemies of God and the king ; 
 and the more effectually to inflame their religious zeal he pro- 
 claimed to the whole army, that the Virgin del Carmen was the 
 commander in chief, and himself only her lieutenant. His 
 exertions were too successful, his troops were filled with en- 
 thusiasm, which inspired them with courage ; and taking ad- 
 vantage of these favourable circumstances, Goyeneche> with- 
 out waiting for the expiration of the armistice, on the 20th 
 July 1811, attacked the patriots at Guaqui with great fury, 
 and completely routed them ; so great was their panic, that 
 they fled, leaving all their artillery and baggage on the field of 
 battle. 
 
 After this unfortunate defeat, the patriots never regained 
 possession of Upper Peru, but it remained under the domin- 
 ion of the royalists until liberated by Sucre after the victory of 
 Ayacucho. In February, 1813, Belgrano, at Salta, defeated 
 general Tristan, commanding the advance corps of the royal- 
 ists, and captured his whole army. This compelled Goyene- 
 che to retire from Potosi, and rekindled the fire of the revolu- 
 tion throughout Upper Peru. The people were roused to 
 arms, in the intendancy of La Paz, and Cochabamba. The 
 revolutionists, principally Indians, besieged the city of La Paz, 
 and Arce the leader of the patriots in Cochabamba, drove the 
 Spaniards from that province, took possession of its capi- 
 tal, and established a junta for its government. Goyeneche 
 juarched with his best troops against the patriots of Cochabam- 
 ba, and as he drew near the city, it was proposed by the pres- 
 ident of the junta, to implore the clemency of the royal chief, 
 but the people opposed it, as they preferred the horrors of war 
 to submission in any form to their oppressors. The city was 
 Defended with matchless valour and resolution ; the inhabitants 
 fought with the utmost fury and desperation, which nothing 
 tjrranny and cruelt/ could inspire j the women mixed 
 
IN THE REPUBLIC OP BOLIVAR. 175 
 
 promiscously with the men and combatted with equal ardour 
 and courage regardless alike of hardships and danger. But 
 the patriots had more bravery than discipline ; their efforts 
 were irregular ; and they were in a great measure destitute of 
 arms, but fought with the best weapons they could raise. 
 After a most fearful struggle, the royalists entered the city over 
 the dead bodies of its inhabitants and what survived were de- 
 voted to massacre and rapine. The city was delivered up to 
 the lawless plunder of a ferocious soldiery, and exhibited a 
 picture of desolation and horror. The president of the junta, 
 Antesana, who had sought an asylum in a < onvent, was drag- 
 ged forth, beheaded, his head placed on a pike, and carried in 
 triumph through the streets of the city.* Whilst Goyeneche 
 was engaged in suppressing the insurrection in Cochabamba, 
 one broke out near Potosi, in the provinces of Chayante and 
 Paria, whither he sent a body of troops commanded by, Emas, 
 whose cruelties exceeded those of his master. Devastation 
 and murder marked his path ; he laid waste more than sixty 
 villages with fire and sword, and converted the country into a 
 desert. Having become weary of putting the inhabitants to 
 death, this savage indulged himself in the brutal sport of cut- 
 ting off the ears of the patriots to mark them, and then setting 
 them at liberty. 
 
 The royal army was re-enforced by troops from Lima un- 
 der Pezuela, who assumed the command, and in two actions, 
 one fought at Vilcapugio, the other^at Ayoma, defeated, and 
 nearly destroyed, the army of Buenos Ayres, under JBelgra- 
 no, making the royalists master of the whole of Upper Peru. 
 But dominion over the country did not subdue the spirit of 
 the people, and the standard of revolt was again raised in 
 different quarters. The Cochabambians who survived, had 
 fled, and united in the Valle Grande, where, impelled by de- 
 spair and revenge, they made a furious charge on a division of 
 1,000 royalists, and cut them to pieces ; then uniting with the 
 patriots of Santa Cruz, under Warnes, an intrepid leader, they 
 again liberated the intendancy of Cochabamba. The hopes 
 of the people were once more revived, and the spirit of revolt 
 appeared in every province ; a partizan warfare was carried 
 on with success. Warnes marched into Chiquitos, where he 
 defeated the royalists ; general Chamargo liberated and took 
 possession of the province of Chayante and Padilla, defeated 
 the royalists under Tacon at Yampares. In the meantime 
 the spirit of resistance revived in La Paz, where Pinelo and 
 ^lunecas a priest succeeded in taking possession of the city. 
 
 Pazos' Letters, 
 
176 HISTORY OF THE REVOLUUTION 
 
 Nothing could equal the rage which these successes occasion- 
 ed in the royalits ; such was their frantic fury that they poi- 
 soned all the springs of water in La Paz, and undermined, and 
 blew up a barrack, killing 300 of the patriots. These diabol- 
 ical and incendiary deeds excited such vengeance in the in- 
 habitants, that they cut the throats of every European Span- 
 iard in the city. Such bloody scenes drew Pezuela to La 
 Paz, and the patriots retiring to Desaguedero, where they 
 were pursued, and completely routed by the royalists, compel- 
 led Pinelo and Munecas to retire towards Cusco. One of 
 the leaders of the insurgents was an Indian of the name of 
 Pomakagua, who marched to Arequipa, which he attacked, 
 and after severe fighting defeated the royalists, and took pos- 
 session of the place, making prisoners, the royal governor and 
 commander in chief. Pezuela and Ramires marched in pursuit 
 of him ; he evacuated Arequipa, and was attacked near the 
 river Ayavere, and defeated, after displaying prodigies of 
 valour. He was taken prisoner, and sent to Cusco, where 
 he was executed with several other of the leaders of the rev- 
 olution.* 
 
 The spirit of resistance, which prevailed in Upper Peru, 
 encouraged Rondeau, at the head of the army of Buenos 
 Ayres, to advance into the country ; and having defeated the 
 enemy at Mochares and Pueto Grande he established his 
 head quarters at Potosi. He took possession of Cochabam- 
 ba, and despatched Rodriguez at the head of a division sta- 
 tioned to keep open the communication between that city, and 
 Potosi. Rodriguez was repulsed, which compelled Rondeau 
 to fight the battle of Sipesipe, in which, after a most obstinate 
 contest, he was defeated. The Cochabambians had prepar- 
 ed triumphal arches, to honor their brethren in arms, who they 
 expected would have been victorious ; instead, however, of be- 
 holding a triumph, they were compelled to witness the sacking 
 of their city, the second time, and a repetition of those scenes 
 of blood and carnage, which had spread over it the face of 
 desolation.! After the defeat of Rondeau, the dissentions 
 among the different parties and factions in the United Pro- 
 vinces, prevented their prosecuting the war with success on 
 the frontier of Peru ; and the government of Buenos Ayres 
 never regained possession of the upper provinces. A parti- 
 
 * This noble Indian, took part with the king in the revolution cf 
 Tupac Amaru, which so recommended him to royal favour that he 
 was appointed a brigadier general in the Spanish army, and had co.n 
 serred on him the seighory of his town. 
 
 f Pazos' Letters. 
 
IN THE REPUBLIC OP BOLIVAR. 177 
 
 san or guerrilla warfare, however, was maintained, and often 
 with success, by Padilla, Warnes, Rivera, Calla, and numer- 
 ous other leaders, which contributed to occupy tjje attention, 
 aiid the forces of Pezuela, who was now appointed viceroy of 
 Peru, and to weaken the royal authority. The Spaniards 
 however, maintained their dominion in the territories of the 
 Boliverian republic until 1825 ; it was the last strong hold of 
 their power in America, from whence they annoyed the neigh- 
 bouring independent territories. The glory of the illustrious 
 individual whose name it bears, would not have been con> 
 plete, had he not added to his former renown, that of fhe 
 emancipation of Peru, thus becoming the liberator, the foun- 
 der, and the father of three independent republics. After the 
 great victory of Ayacucho, general Sucre was directed te 
 proceed with the victorious liberating army, into Upper Peru. 
 There was an armed force in the upper province, of 
 5, or 6,000 men, commanded by general Olaneta, and station- 
 ed in all the principal towns. As the heroic Sucre advanced 
 into the country, he was not only received with universal joy by 
 the inhabitants, but the royal corps at Cochabamba, Chiquis- 
 aca, Santa Cruz, and Chica, spontaneously abandoned aa 
 unjust and sinking cause, and declared for the independence 
 of the country. Sucre advanced to Potosi in April 1825, 
 where Olaneta made what resistance he could ; but was himself 
 slain, and all the royal troops in Upper Peru surrendered tQ 
 the hero of Ayacucho. The number of men in the upper 
 provinces which capitulated, was 5,490, which together with 
 those destroyed, and taken on the field of battle, and in the 
 garrisons of Lower Peru, made a total of 18,598, as the tro- 
 phies of the great victory of Ayacucho, which holds that rank 
 in the revolution in South America, that the victory at York- 
 town, does in the revolution in North America. About the 
 time of the arrival of Sucre at Potosi, the Intendency of Chi- 
 quitos, was invaded and taken possession of, by the Brazilian 
 troops, from the interior province of Mattogrosso ; the Brazil- 
 ian commander informed Sucre that he had taken possession 
 of the province, in pursuance of a capitulation concluded be- 
 tween the chief of Mattogrosso, and the governor of Chiqui- 
 tos. Sucre in reply to this communication on the llth of 
 May, says that Ramas the governor of Chiquitos, had n 
 power for a negotiation with the authorities of Brazil, that his 
 delivering up the province of Chiquitos, was an act of treason, 
 and the occupation of it by the Brazilian general, an unprovo-^ 
 ked aggression, and that he had ordered the commandant of 
 Santa Cruz^to march against him, unless he immediately evac- 
 uated the territories of Peru. It is supposed that this deci- 
 
 33* 
 
178 HISTORY OP THE REVOLUTION 
 
 sive conduct, caused the Brazilians to withdraw from Chiqui* 
 tos. 
 
 The territories of Upper Peru, so long the theatre of the 
 most fearful and terrific struggles of the revolution, being at 
 length entirely free from every foreign power, measures were 
 adopted to convene a general congress of delegates from the 
 intendancies, to decide on their political destiny, whether they 
 would unite with Lower Peru, the United Provinces, or form 
 a separate and independent nation. The congress was con- 
 vened at Chiquisaca, and after long deliberation, on the 6th of 
 August, 1825, it published a solemn declaration of the inde- 
 pendence of Upper Peru. They say that at length " the hap- 
 py day has arrived, when Upper Peru has become liberated 
 from unjust power, from the tyrannic and wretched Ferdinand 
 VII. , and that this fertile region has escaped the debasing re- 
 lation of a colony of Spain ; that it is important to its welfare, 
 not to incorporate itself with any of the co-terminous repub- 
 lics, but to erect itself into a sovereign and independent state, 
 in relation to the new as well as to the old world ; that the 
 provinces of Upper Peru, firm and unanimous in their resolu- 
 tion, proclaim to the \yhole earth, that they will govern them- 
 selves, under their own constitution, laws and authorities^ 
 in that way which they may think most conducive to the pros- 
 perity of the nation, the inviolable support of the Catholic re- 
 ligion, and the maintenance of the sacred rights of honour, 
 life, liberty, equality, property and security. To carry into 
 effect this determination, they bind themselves through this 
 sovereign representation, by their lives, property, and sacred 
 honour." This declaration was signed by Jose Mariano Ser- 
 rano, the president, and fifty- seven members of the congress. 
 It was the direction of Bolivar, that the representatives of the 
 people should be left entirely free in their deliberations and 
 decision on this important question, and it is supposed that he 
 was in favour of these provinces uniting with Lower Peru. 
 The congress decreed that the new state should be called 
 u THE REPUBLIC OF BOLIVAR," in honour of the liberator of 
 Colombia and Peru, whom it acknowledges as the father of 
 the nation ; and that he should exercise the supreme power, 
 whilst he remained in the limits of the republic ; that the 6th 
 of August and the 9th of December, the days on which the 
 fcattles of Junin and Ayacucho were fought, should be annu- 
 ally kept as national festivals ; that in the capitals of each of 
 Che departments, an equestrian statue of the liberator should 
 6e placed on a column ; and his portrait in all the tribunals, 
 cabildoes, universities and schools, on the left of which, in the 
 same situations ta be placed, the portrait of Sucre, whom the 
 
Or THE REPUBLIC OF BOLIVAR. 
 
 Congress calls grand marshal of Ayacucho ; a pedestrian statue 
 of the grand marshal is also decreed to be placed in the capi- 
 tals of each department, and he is to be further honoured by 
 the capital of the republic and its department, being called 
 Sucre. The grand marshal is declared captain-general of the 
 republic, and invested with the command of all the depart- 
 ments. Every soldier in the battles of Junin and Ayacucho 
 was declared a citizen of the republic, and one million of dol- 
 lars directed to be distributed among them by Bolivar.* 
 
 No constitution has been adopted, or permanent government 
 established, and the republic must at present be considered 
 as under the authority of general Sucre as dictator, who, how- 
 ever, acknowledges the superiority of Bolivar, so that the lib- 
 erator may be considered as exercising supreme power in both 
 Upper and Lower Peru. Measures, it is supposed, will soon 
 be taken to establish free republican institutions in both of 
 these interesting republics, which, it is hoped, will secure to 
 them all the blessings of freedom to which they have so just* 
 a? claim for their sacrifices and heroism. 
 
 * Decree of the 14th of August, 1825. 
 
HISTORY 
 
 AND PRESENT STATE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNITED PROVINCES. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Extent and boundaries description of the country the pampas f 
 rivers, bays and harbours productions and commerce civil 
 divisions population and principal towns government, ar- 
 my, navy, andfinances character of the people amusements 
 the herdsmen of the plains. 
 
 THE republic of the United Provinces of South America 9 
 or Rio de la Plata, extends from the northern boundary of Par- 
 aguay in about lat. 23 south, ttfSt. George's bay, in lat. 45 
 south, comprehending 22 of latitude, or 1529 miles from 
 north to south. On its northern boundary from the Brazilian 
 territory to the Andes, it is nearly 900 miles ; but on its 
 southern boundary it is not more than 300 across the continent, 
 from St. George's bay to the gulf of Guaytecas, and less than 
 200 miles to the Andes. These limits do not include Upper 
 Peru which was attached to the vice royalty of Buenos Ayres, 
 in 1778. The present boundaries of the republic are north 
 on Upper Peru and Brazil, west on the Andes or Chile, and ac- 
 cording to Pazos, partly on the Gulf of Guaytecas ; south on 
 Patagonia, east on Brazil and the Atlantic ocean. 
 
 The territory included within the above mentioned limits, is 
 mostly comprised within the great valley of the La Plata and 
 
HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE, &C. 181 
 
 its branches, one of the most extraordinary vallies on the 
 earth ; both with respect to its magnitude, and its peculiar 
 soil and surface. The region which is watered by the vast 
 river La Plata and its branches, rises towards the west into 
 lofty mountains, whose bases extend into immense plains which 
 terminate on the La Plata and the Atlantic ocean. The east- 
 ern boundaries of this valley, are mountainous ridges, not far 
 from the coast of Brazil, whence the eastern branches of the 
 La Plata have their sources. Perhaps there is no country in 
 the world, that presents so level a surface, as the republic of 
 the United Provinces of South America, with the exception of 
 the elevated tracts at the head branches of the rivers, near the 
 extreme boundaries of the great valley. The country west 
 and south of the La Plata is one wide extended plain, embra- 
 cing all the varieties from the richest alluvial to the high, brok- 
 en, sterile plain ; most of this vast level tract is destitute of 
 timber except near the borders of the rivers. The lower sec- 
 tion of this interminable plain^ extending from the northern 
 part of the province of Cordova south, on the borders of the 
 river La Plata and the Atlantic, far into Patagonia, and from 
 the river and the coast into the interior to the highlands, at the 
 foot of the Andes, is usually ca'lled the Pampas, and extends 
 nearly 1500 miles from north to south, with a breadth of near- 
 ly five hundred miles in many places. Over all this immense 
 space, there is scarcely a tree or shrub, or a single perennial 
 plant to be seen. There are neither hills nor eminences and 
 the undulations are so gentle, as only to l/e perceived by ta- 
 king a long view over its surface. The keen winds called 
 Pamperos sweep over this unsheltered plain without the least 
 obstruction. The surface of the earth, appears to be a soft, 
 black, rich soil, without stone, gravel, or sand. On the banks 
 of some of the rivers and in some other places, reddish clay 
 apppears on the surface. 
 
 Many of the rivers intersecting the Pampas, are brackish, 
 and salt lakes abound. Near the La Plata and other consid- 
 erable streams, there are a few trees and some shrubbery, but 
 most of the lesser ones creep through the plains, resembling 
 crooked ditches of stagnant water, more than living streams ; 
 their courses not being marked by vallies, trees or shrubbery. 
 The whole of the pampas, is rich pasture, and exceedingly 
 productive in grass ; a species of thistle also abounds, which 
 grows from two to seven feet high. The only tree that seems 
 to flourish is the Embudo, or perennial Poke, the trunk of 
 which is a mere watery pulp, and is useless for fuel. The 
 peach tree thrives when cultivated, as does also the olive and 
 
182 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE 
 
 fig tree ; and the soil produces good wheat, barley and Indian- 
 corn, but the crops sometimes fail. 
 
 The pampas is chiefly useful for pasturage ; on its im* 
 mense surface are fed innumeroble herds of horned cattle, 
 horses, mules, and sheep ; deer, ostriches, and wild dogs, also 
 abound. Thousands of these animals may often be seen at 
 one view. 
 
 The more elevated plains to the north and west of the Pam* 
 pas, are likewise generally destitue of timber, except on their 
 water courses, but have a soil more dry and sandy. The riv- 
 ers here are more numerous and the country is copiously sup- 
 plied with pure water. This region is also well adapted to 
 pasturage, particularly to the rearing of horses, mules and 
 sheep ; and many districts are suitable for cultivation, and 
 produce grain and fruit, of which they yield great abundance. 
 The country east of the La Plata, has generally a waving, or 
 an undulated surface, every where abundantly irrigated with 
 never-failing springs and streams of the purest water. This 
 tract is generally found clothed with stately forests, with the 
 exception of some of the lower districts on the La Plata, and 
 has a rich and fertile soil producing in great abundance, all 
 the Varied productions of temperate and tropical regions. 
 
 Waters. The great river La Plata embodies most of the in- 
 terior waters of the United Provinces. The principal head 
 water of the river La Plata, is the Paraguay, which rises in 
 lat. 13 south, in Brazil, and after a southerly course of 1250 
 miles, receiving numerous branches and passing through the 
 great lake or morass of the Xaraes, it assumes the name of 
 La Plata, at its junction with the river Parana, about 750 
 miles from the mouth of the La Plata. The waters of the La 
 Plata and Paraguay are navigable for vessels to Assumption, 
 977 miles from the sea ; and the latter river is said to afford a 
 boat navigation 1 ,500 miles further into the interior. The 
 two great eastern branches of the La Plata and Paraguay, are 
 the Parana and Maguay ; the first unites with the Paraguay 
 after a course of 900 miles, 500 of which are navigable ; the 
 Maguay has its source in Brazil, and after a southerly course 
 of 900 miles, discharges its waters into the La Plata above 
 the city of Buenos Ayres, having in its course received the 
 Negro. The principal western branches of the La Plata and 
 Paraguay, are the Pilcomayo, which rises in Peru, and after a 
 course of 1000 miles discharges its waters into the Paraguay 
 below Assumption by two mouths, fifty miles apart, affording 
 navigation into the heart of the high Provinces ; the Rip 
 Grande, which unites with the Paraguay fifty miles above 
 fte mouth of the Parana after a coime of 600 miles, nearly 
 
OF THE UNITED PROVINCES. 183 
 
 the whole of which admits of navigation ; and the river Sala 
 do, which after a southerly course of 800 miles empties into 
 the La Plata at Santa Fe. Besides these there are two rivers 
 of the name of Salladillo and innumerable small streams which 
 empty into the La Plata from the west. The Colorado, the 
 Camaronies, and the waters emptying into St. Matthias' bay 
 are the principal which discharge into the Atlantic below the 
 La Plata. The bays of St. Matthias and St. George, afford 
 the only considerable harbours except those of the great bay 
 of the La Plata. 
 
 Productions and Commerce. Enjoying every variety of cli- 
 mate of the temperate and tropical reigions, and blest with ex- 
 tensive tracts of fertile soil, the republic of the United prov- 
 inces possesses ample agricultural resources ; but its immense 
 herds of cattle, horses and sheep, that graze on its extensive 
 plains, constitute its principal source of wealth and of com- 
 merce. These have been estimated at 1,200,000 cattle, and 
 3,000,000 of horses, which roam in vast herds over the inter- 
 minable savannahs of the Pampas. The principal articles for 
 exportation are included in the following list : hides, tallow, 
 jerked beef, wool of various qualities, not only from the com- 
 mon sheep, but of the Gunaco and Vicuna : skins of lions, 
 tigers, and wild dogs, horns, hair, and the matte or yerba of 
 Paraguay. Its exports have amounted to 6,000,000 dollars, 
 one half of which consisted of hides ; and the imports to eight 
 millions, the balance has been made up by specie received 
 from the high provinces and Chile by the trade with them. 
 The imports consist principally of European and India goods ; 
 about one half of the whole amount are English manufactures ; 
 the articles received from the United States are cordage, pitch, 
 tar, fish, furniture, rice, butter, spermaceti candles, ale, gin, 
 plank and timber. The interior trade with Peru and Chile is 
 extensive, and consists principally of a sale of foreign goods, 
 matte, and mules, for the precious metals, and some produc- 
 tions of the high provinces. Mules are purchased in the ter- 
 ritories of the pampas and plains at two years of age, and drove 
 to Cordova, where they are wintered, and then taken to Sal- 
 ta, where they spend the second winter, by which time they 
 have attained their growth, when they are driven in droves of 
 two thousands to Lima, for market. From fifty to seventy 
 thousand mules were driven from Salta to Lima annually, be- 
 fore the revolution, which interrupted this trade. All trans- 
 portation is performed by mules in the high provinces, but ox 
 teams are used in the pampas country. Six pair of oxen are 
 attached to a cart, very large and coarse, made without iron, 
 and covered with thatch or hides, as a protection to the driver. 
 
184 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE 
 
 These teams pass over the immense plains in carravans of thir- 
 ty or forty ; they stop at night in the midst of the waste, and 
 turn the oxen loose to graze, which is their sole support.- 
 These carts carry about four thousand weight, arid perform 
 the route from Buenos Ayres to Mendoza, which is 900 miles, 
 or to Tucuman, which is the same distance, in about thirty 
 days, the fare being from 100 to 140 dollars per load. The 
 mules carry 400 pounds on their backs, and are' employed in 
 the high provinces in droves of fifty or one hundred ; they are 
 relieved from their burden and turned loose at night to feed, 
 which is their only subsistence, even on the mountains where 
 there is no grass, and they can only browse. 
 
 Civil divisions, population and principal towns. The terri- 
 tory within the present limits of the republic, during its colonial 
 state, was divided into the intendancies or provinces of Bue- 
 nos Ayres, Paraguay, Cordova, and JSalta ; its present provin- 
 cial divisions are involved in some obscurity, but for some pur- 
 poses of government the republic may be considered as com- 
 prising fifteen provinces : Buenos Ayres, Paraguay, Corrien- 
 tes, Entre Rios, Banda Oriental, Cordova, Mendoza or Cuyo, 
 Tucuman, Salta, San Luis, San Juan, Rioja, Calamanca, San- 
 tiago and Jujuy.* 
 
 Buenos Ayres, the first in importance, is situated in the 
 south-eastern section of the republic, and is estimated to com- 
 prise an area of 50,000 square miles, composed entirely of the 
 pampas territory, adapted to pasturage ; but produces some 
 fruit and grain when cultivated. The population of this 
 province is estimated at 120,000, and including Indians at 
 250,000. The city of Buenos Ayres, 'the capital of the repub- 
 lic, its principal commercial town, and the seat of government 
 for the province, is situated in lat. 34 37' south, on the south- 
 west bank of the river La Plata, about 200 miles from its 
 mouth. The river is here thirty miles across, and is merely 
 an open road ; the opposite bank is low and rarely visible. 
 The creek Reachucio falls into the La Plata, on the east bor- 
 der of the town. The city extends along the bank nearly 
 three miles ; the streets intersect each other at right angles, 
 dividing the town into solid squares of 150 yards each. The 
 houses are generally two stories high, and built with terrace 
 
 * Entre Rios andCorrienties are sometimes regarded as constituting 
 one province only, and Santa Fe included in Entre Rios is often call- 
 ed a province ; Jujuy is not always considered as a distinct province, 
 but is included in Salta. Paraguay has never joined the union, and 
 is an independent state, and Cornentes, Entre Rios, and Banda Ori- 
 ental, were also for a longtime independent, and not members of the 
 confederacy. 
 
OP THE UNITED PROVINCES. 185 
 
 roofs. It is defended by a fort, and its public buildings con- 
 sist of a cathedral, several convents, nunneries, churches, and 
 a town house, and the building formerly appropriated to the 
 royal monopolies. The number of dwelling houses is estima* 
 ted at 6000, mostly built of brick, and they generally have gar- 
 dens attached to them. Among the public institutions, are 
 an university, an academy, and a library containing nearly 
 20,000 volumes. There are a number of public schools, and 
 the means of education have been greatly extended since the 
 revolution. The city is accommodated with several book- 
 stores, and newspaper establishments devoted to the republi- 
 can principles of the government, and the independence of the 
 country. The population of Buenos Ayres is estimated at 
 from 62 to 70,000 ; about one half are whites, and the other, 
 people of colour, of various mixtures, 
 
 The climate is healthy and temperate, but subject to the 
 pamperos, or south-west winds, during the prevalence of which, 
 the atmosphere is remarkably dry. In the vicinity of Buenos 
 Ayres are some very productive farms, and wheat and corn are 
 abundantly raised with little attention. Peach orchards also 
 abound, and are cultivated to supply the town with fuel. Bue- 
 nos Ayres is 1215 miles from Potosi, and 2865 miles from Li- 
 ma, in a south-easterly direction. The other principal towns 
 and villages in the province, are Ensenada, St. Isidro, Las 
 Conchas, on the river La Plata, and Luxan, on the plains. 
 
 Paraguay, the next most important province, is bounded by 
 the river Paraguay on the west, the Parana on the east and 
 south, and by Brazil north, comprising about 43,000 square 
 miles. Its population is estimated at 110,000, and 300,000, 
 including Indians, which are numerous in this region. This 
 province is considered as the fairest portion of the La Platan 
 territory ; its climate is delightful ; the face of the country is 
 not mountainous, nor any where flat ; it is well supplied with 
 a great variety of streams of pure water ; its soil is every 
 where found to be exceedingly fertile and productive, and was 
 originally covered with rich and variegated forests of stately 
 timber. Grain, cotton, sugar, and excellent fruit, oranges, 
 figs, the olive and the grape are produced abundantly, as well 
 as the singular vegetable called matte, or the yerba Paraguay , 
 so extensively used in South America as a tea, or beverage.* 
 
 * This is a perretmia! shrub or tree, which grows to the size of an 
 appple-tree. In the Spring, when the leaves are about half grown , 
 the young succulent shoots aie cut and dried, and afterwards cured 
 and put into sacks of raw hide containing 100 pounds each. This 
 herb is used like the teas of China, and its consumption is as univer- 
 sal among all classes, as tea is in the United States. 
 
 VOL. II. 34 
 
186 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE 
 
 The capital of this province is the ancient city of Assump- 
 tion, founded in 1538, situated in lat. 25 16' south, on the 
 east bank of the river Paraguay, 977 miles from the ocean, at 
 the head of vessel navigation. The population of this city 
 is not ascertained. Paraguay maintains an independent gov- 
 ernment, under a chief, called a dictator. 
 
 The provinces of Corientes, Entre Rios, and Banda Orien- 
 tal lie east of the river La Plata, helow Paraguay ; a narrow 
 strip of territory belonging to Entre Rios lies on the west side 
 of the river, stretching entirely across the country to the Pat- 
 agonian pampas. Corientes and Entre Rios comprise 104,500 
 square miles ; the former has a population without including 
 Indians of 40,000 and the latter of 45,000. This territroy 
 is very fertile, abounding in timber, and besides the richest 
 pasture affords grain, tropical fruits, wine, and matte. The 
 city of Santa Fe situated in latitude 31 Q 40' south, on the 
 right or west bank of the La Plata, at the confluence of the 
 Salado, 300 miles above Buenos Ayres, is the capital of En- 
 tre Rios. Its population exceeds 6,000. The city of Cori- 
 entes on the east side of the La Plata, twenty miles below the 
 rnouth of the Parana, with a population of about 6,000, is the 
 capital of the province of Corientes. Monte Video is the 
 principal town in the Banda Oriental, situated in latitude 34 
 50' south on the east bank of the La Plata. The harbour, 
 which as well as the city derives its name from a high moun- 
 tain in the vicinity, has sufficient depth of water for the first 
 rate ships. Its population, much reduced by the war is esti- 
 mated at 10,000. The town is strongly fortified but was ta- 
 ken by the Portuguese and Brazilians in 1817, who have ever . 
 since retained possession of it. The town of Maldonado, on 
 the La Plata near the sea coast, contains about 10,000 inhab- 
 itants, Colonia, is a port on the La Plata nearly opposite to 
 Buenos Ayres, and Purification is a town of about 4,000 in- 
 habitants, and was the seat of government whilst the province 
 was under Antigas. The territory of the Banda Oriental is 
 extremely fertile, its climate salubrious, and its waters abun- 
 dant and pure. The northern sections are clothed with forests, 
 and its southern part is a vast prairie, affording the most lux- 
 urient pasture, and supporting throughout the year immense 
 herds of cattle, mules, and horses. This province contains 
 about 86,000 square miles, and a population not including In- 
 dians, of about 45,000. The extensive province of Cordo- 
 va lies west of the Salado, and the territory of Entre Rios, ex- 
 tending south to the Atlantic and Patagonian region, and 
 west to the provinces of San Luis, and San Juan, and is com- 
 posed principally of plains and pampas devoted to pasturage. 
 
OF THE UNITED PROVINCES. 187 
 
 It contains about 90,000 inhabitants ; the city of Cordova, its 
 capital, contains 10,000 inhabitants, situated on the river Pri- 
 meo, and is the seat of an university. West of Cordova is 
 the extensive territory composing the province of Mendoza, or 
 Cuyo, which extends south to the pampas of Patagonia, and 
 west to the Cordillera, which separates the republic from Chi- 
 le. This territory consists of plains, mountains, and vallies 
 among the eastern ridges of the Andes. Its population is es- 
 timated at 38,000, about 20,000 of which are in its capital, 
 the city of Mendoza, pleasantly situated at the foot of the 
 eastern Andes. It was here San Martin disciplined his army 
 for the liberation of Chile. 
 
 North of Cordova is the province of Tucuman, extending 
 west to the eastern Andes, and containing 40,000 inhabitants. 
 Its seat of government of the same name is situated on the 
 river St. Miguel de Tucuman, just above its junction with the 
 Rio Dulce in lat. 27 25' south. This town is 900 miles from 
 Buenos Ayres ; it was honoured with the congress at the time 
 independence was declared. North of Tucuman is the pro- 
 vince of Salta, stretching north to the Rio Grande, and west 
 to the mountains, and embracing many beautiful and fertile 
 vallies amongst the ridges of the Andes. Its population is 
 40,000, and its chief town, Salta, contains 9000 inhabitants, 
 and carries on considerable trade with Peru, Bolivar, and 
 Chile. This province was long the seat of war, and occupied 
 alternately by the contending parties, suffereing severely in 
 the long struggle for independence. Lying west of Cordova, 
 are the provinces of San Luis, or Punta San Luis, and San 
 Juan, carved out of the original province of Cuyo, or Mendo- 
 za, containing each about 27,000 inhabitants ; the former 
 extends south to the boundary of the republic on Patagonia, 
 and the latter stretches along at the foot of the eastern An- 
 des ; the capital town of each is of the name of the province. 
 North of the two last is the province of Rioja, lying in a val- 
 ley of the same name, and containing 25,000 inhabitants ; to 
 the east is the valley of Catamarca, which, with that of Co- 
 nando, form the province of Catamarca, which has a popula- 
 tion of 30,000. To the east of this is the province of Santi- 
 ago, lying north of Cordova ; its capital, the city of Santiago 
 del Estero, contains ten or fifteen thousand inhabitants, and 
 the province 60,000. Stretching north of Salta is the pro- 
 vince of Jujuy bounded, north on the Bolivarian republic, 
 with a population of 25,000 ; this is a mountainous country, 
 and its chief town of the same name contains about 3,000 in- 
 habitants. 
 
 The population of the states, belonging to the present con- 
 
188 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE 
 
 federacy, according to the latest estimates, amounts to nearly 
 700,000, exclusive of civilized Indians, which may, probably, 
 swell the aggregate to 1 ,200,000, in the whole United Provinces. 
 The various races which compose the population, are the same 
 as in other parts of what was Spanish America. The Span- 
 iards have greatly diminished since the revolution, whilst other 
 natives of Europe have increased. The Creoles, or descend- 
 ants of Europeans, as in all the rest of America, comprise 
 the most efficient, the most patriotic, and intelligent class of 
 the population. The people of colour, comprehending the In- 
 dians, Africans, and the various mixed races, constitute the 
 labouring class, as in other parts of Spanish America, and 
 make, when disciplined, good soldiers. 
 
 Government, army, navy, and finances. A governing junta 
 was established at Buenos Ayres, on the 25th of May, 1810, 
 from whence the country dates the commencement of the rev- 
 olution, and its political regeneration. In March, 181 1 , a con- 
 gress, composed of deputies from the different provinces, 
 was convened, and a new junta appointed. After this, various 
 changes and revolutions took place in the government, some 
 of which occasioned civil wars. A triumvirate, or executive 
 of three persons was established, and this was followed by a 
 single executive, called a director. But the government con- 
 tinued unstable, and shaken by factions the dissentions of 
 parties, and the ambitious designs of individuals, until March, 
 
 1816, when the election of Juan Martin Pueyredon, supreme 
 director, quieted the factions, and gave stability to the govern- 
 ment for a considerable period. This was followed by a de- 
 claration of independence by the general congress on the 9th 
 of July, 1816. Since that period, until recently, no attempt 
 has been made to organize a general government ; one is now 
 in successful operation, and adopted by most of the provinces. 
 Measures have lately been taken to organize and maintain an 
 efficient army for the purpose of defence ; by a decree adopted 
 in 1825, organizing and apportioning the military force among 
 the provinces, it is to consist of 7,600 men ; very little at- 
 tention has yet been paid to the formation of a navy. The ac- 
 tual revenue of the provinces, belonging to the republic, in 
 
 1817, was $3,037, 187; the national debt, at the same time, 
 amounted to $1,438,054, and the property, belonging to the 
 government, was valued at $19,055, 597, exclusive of the pub- 
 lic lands. The principal source of revenue is that derived 
 from duties on imports and exports. 
 
 Character of the population, fyc. The same classes are found 
 here as in the other states ; but there is one portion of the 
 population, which is, in some measure, peculiar ; we allude to 
 
OF THF UNITED PROVINCES. 1 89 
 
 the herdsmen of the plains and pampas. Neither the Spanish 
 or the French have been as successful in colonizing as the 
 English, and one principal reason has been, the disposition of 
 the two former to crowd themselves together in towns. In 
 the United States, the population is spread over the whole 
 country, and was, at an early period, as far as the settlements 
 extended ; but in South America, almost the whole Spanish 
 population are grouped together in towns. Even the great 
 landholders reside almost entirely in the cities, which owe 
 their growth to mines, commerce, and to being seats of gov- 
 ernment. Among other consequences of this state of things, 
 is the wide dissimilarity between the inhabitants of the cities 
 and those out of them. Where landholders reside on their 
 estates, and men ofVwealth and intelligence live in the country, 
 they have a powerful influence in enlightening and impro- 
 ving all classes of the people. That a population living in 
 solitude, scattered over an immnse waste, without the means 
 of education, and without enjoying any social intercourse, 
 should be sunk low in ignorance, cannot be surprising. What 
 intelligence is found, is in the cities, and more in the maritime 
 ones than those in the interior, owing to their intercourse with 
 foreigners. Buenos Ayres, from various reasons, ranks first 
 in intelligence, as well as wealth and population. The ad- 
 vantages of the other cities have not been so great as those of 
 the capital ; yet their inhabitants are but little behind those of 
 Buenos Ayres in intelligence and general information. The 
 revolution has excited a spirit of inquiry, and to a considera- 
 ble extent provided the means of indulging it ; newspapers, 
 schools and colleges have been established. The means of 
 improvement have not been confined to the higher classes, 
 but have produced important effects among every description 
 of the population, not excepting the Indians. The inhabit- 
 ants of Paraguay are a peculiar race, differing from those of 
 the other provinces, being a mixture of Spanish and Indian 
 blood ; they are an industrious, peaceful, taciturn, supersti- 
 tious, and obedient people ; much attached to their country, 
 desiring never to see any other, or to have any intercourse 
 with foreigners. Their character was formed by the Jesuits, 
 and has ever since been maintained. 
 
 But the herdsmen, who form a considerable proportion of 
 the population of the country, are the most peculiar class. 
 They are scattered over the immense pampas and plains, each 
 one having the charge of an estancia, or grazing farm, of many 
 miles in extent ; their houses, or cabins, consist of mud walls, 
 with a thatched roof, without furniture, and as simple and rude 
 within as without ; they are generally erected near an embudo, 
 
 34* 
 
190 HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE 
 
 which is the herdsmen's favourite shade. Here, in the midst 
 of an immense waste, and unbroken solitude, he spends his 
 days, shut out from the world and from the " cheerful ways of 
 man," scarcely less the child of nature than his Indian ances- 
 tors. Horse riding is both the herdsmen's employment and 
 amusement, and being in the practise of it from their infancy* 
 they are the most dexterous'horsemen in the world. They wear 
 a cloak, called a poncho, the same that is worn by the Indians ; 
 it is larger than a Dutch blanket, and has no more the form of 
 a garment, being only a square piece of cloth, with a slit for 
 the head, hanging down all around the body. It serves not 
 only for a cloak, but for a saddle covering, and a bag, during 
 the day, and for a bed at night. The herdsman is armed 
 at all times with a large butcher knife secured about his waist, 
 and the lazo, which is a thong or cord of hide, about thirty 
 yards in length, with an iron ring at one end, by means of 
 which a noose is formed in an instant, and the other end is 
 fastened to the chinco, or girth of the saddle. The lazo is 
 used with a dexterity truly astonishing ; it is thrown with un- 
 erring aim on horse-back at full speed, at the swiftest animal. 
 If it take effect, and it seldom fails, the horse, being practised 
 in the business, either stands still, or moves off, as directed by 
 the rider. The lazo is suspended to the hinder part of the 
 saddle, and always ready for use, as occasion may require. 
 The habits and character of the herdsmen fit them for soldiers, 
 particularly for cavalry j and during the long wars in which 
 the country has been engaged, particularly the Banda Orien- 
 tal, they have become as expert in the use of a gun on horse- 
 back, as of the lazo ; hardy, brave, accustomed to fatigues and 
 privations, they form the most formidable guerrilla soldiery 
 that every existed. Such are the men who formed the forces 
 of Artigas, which made such astonishing efforts, and exhibited 
 such bravery and perseverance. They are commonly called 
 Gauchos, and are usually one half or one fourth of Indian blood. 
 The means of education in this, as well as in other parts of 
 South America, have been greatly extended since the revolu- 
 tion. The schools have been multiplied new institutions of 
 learning established, and all kinds of books permitted to circu- 
 late freely. The newspaper establishments have increased, 
 and a spirit of inquiry become prevalent among all classes of 
 the people, by the successful exertions of the brave and intel- 
 ligent citizens, by whose patriotic labours a new republic has 
 been brought into life. Go on, illustrious people ! do what 
 has been accomplished in another part of the same hemis- 
 phere ; " establish justice, ensure domestic tranquillity, and 
 perpetuate the blessings pf liberty to yourselves and your pog- 
 
OF THE UNITED PROVINCES. 191 
 
 terity." Go on, and be the pride of your friends, and a terror 
 to your enemies. 
 
 The Roman Catholic religion is the established religion of 
 the United Provinces ; but the advocates of universal tolera- 
 tion are increasing, and the rigours of the ancient laws are 
 considerably relaxed. The executive has recently presented 
 to the congress the project of a law, providing for the general 
 toleration of all religions.* 
 
 * We are indebted for many of the details concerning the United 
 Provinces, to Judge Eland's Report. 
 
HISTORY 
 OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNITED PROVINCES. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Arrival of a French brig at Buenos Ayres with despatches pro- 
 ceedings of Liniers, the viceroy junta formed at Monte Vi- 
 deo R. H. de Cisneros appointed viceroy proceedings of the 
 revolutionists junta established at Buenos Ayres Liniers de- 
 feated and taken prisoner junta sends a deputy to Chile 
 an army marches against the royalists in Upper Peru its suc- 
 cesses war in the Banda Oriental dissentions among the pat- 
 riots change in the government Monte Video besieged ar- 
 my in Peru defeated royalists defeated at Salta new polit- 
 ical regulations supreme director appointed Monte Video 
 
 ' capitulates quarrel with Artigas political revolution na- 
 val events war with Artigas /. M. Pueyredon Portuguese 
 invade Monte Video war in Peru Portuguese take Monte 
 Video events of the war in Peru. 
 
 THE forcible seizure of Spain by Napoleon Bonaparte, and 
 his attempt to establish his authority over the American colo- 
 nies, gave the first impulse to the revolution in Spanish Ameri- 
 ca. In July, 1808, a French brig, with an envoy from Napo- 
 leon, arrived at Buenos Ayres with despatches to Liniers, the 
 viceroy, informing him of the cessions of Bayonne, and the 
 events which had taken place in the peninsula. 
 
 The viceroy called together the cabildo, and the members 
 of the court of audience for consultation ; and it was decided, 
 that the extraordinary occurrences in Spain required that the 
 people should be officially made acquainted with them. Ac- 
 
HISTORY OF THE REVOLUTION, &C. 193 
 
 ebrdingly, Liniers issued a proclamation, and being himself 
 inclined to support the pretensions of Bonaparte, and knowing - 
 that the people were strongly opposed to the transfer of the 
 country to France, he only mentioned, in an obscure manner, 
 this important event ; but reminded the people of the indiffer- 
 ence they had shown in the war for the succession to the 
 crown of Spain, and concluded, by assuring them of the high 
 opinion Napoleon entertained for them, on account of their 
 recent triumphs over the British. He exhorted the inhabit- 
 ants, in the name of Napoleon Bonaparte, to remain quiet, 
 and preserve the public tranquillity. A personal enmity sub- 
 sisting between Liniers and Don F. X. Elio, the governor of 
 Monte Video, the latter accused the viceroy of disloyalty, and 
 forming a junta in imitation of those in Spain, he, by these 
 means, separated the country under his command from its al- 
 legiance to the viceroy. About this time, Don J. Goyeneche, 
 one of the agents sent to America by the junta of Seville, ar- 
 rived at Monte Video with despatches from the junta ; he ap- 
 proved of the conduct of Elio, in forming a junta, and declared 
 that " his mission had no other object but to promote the es- 
 tablishment of juntas, to secure the tranquillity of the country." 
 Notwithstanding this language and conduct, which probably 
 were occasioned by his knowing that Liniers favoured the pre- 
 tensions of Bonaparte, Goyeneche, at Lima, not only opposed 
 the establishment of juntas, but conquered the troops which 
 supported the junta of La Paz. 
 
 Whilst the body of the people considered the events in the 
 peninsula as important only, by exposing the colonies as well 
 as Spain, to fall under the dominion of the French emperor, ' 
 a few individuals, distinguished for their intelligence and pat- 
 riotism, regarded them as the dawn of a new era. They per- 
 ceived that the connection between the two countries was dc 
 facto, at an end, and that the time had at last arrived, to break 
 the chains which had so long enslaved their country. Castel- 
 li, a lawyer of distinguished reputation, was the leader of the 
 patriots in Buenos Ayres, and their secret meetings were held 
 at his country-house, where they eluded the vigilance of the 
 spies of the government. His associates were Belgrano, Chi- 
 clana, Pena, Beruti, Donado, Thompson and others. The 
 central junta of Spain injudiciously displaced Liniers, who was 
 respected for his services in defending the country against the 
 British a few years before, and sent Don B. H. Cisneros from 
 Spain to succeed him. The revolution which broke out in La 
 Paz in 1809, alarmed the new viceroy, and led him to establish 
 the most severe political inquisition. But neither the activity 
 and vigilance of the government, nor the melancholy termina- 
 
194 HISTORY OF THB REVOLUTION 
 
 tionof the revolution in La Paz, deterred the patriots of Bue- 
 nos Ayres from their bold and patriotic designs. They succeed^ 
 edin attaching to the popular cause three regiments of troops, 
 comprising the greater part of what were in the capital. These 
 regiments were commanded by colonels Saavedra, Ocampo 
 and Rodriguez. The revolutionists also gained over to their 
 interests the most intelligent Creoles, and in some measure 
 prepared the public mind for the great political change which 
 they meditated. Things were in this state, when, in May, 
 1810, the news was received of the dispersion of the central 
 junta of Spain, and the advance of the French armies through 
 the pass of Sierra Morena, which removed every doubt of the 
 speedy subjugation of the peninsula. Cisneros, the viceroy, 
 issued a proclamation, informing the people of the disastrous 
 and alarming events which had occurred in Spain, and at the 
 same time intimated a doubt or the uncertainty he felt as to 
 his own authority. This enabled the revolutionists to prevail 
 on the cabildo, or municipality, consisting of five Creoles and 
 one Spaniard, to present a petition to the viceroy, praying him 
 to assemble a meeting of the citizens, to decide on the course 
 proper to be pursued at such a conjuncture. The meeting, 
 which the viceroy could not prevent, was held on the 22d of 
 May ; the debate was long and animated ; the bold and popu- 
 lar eloquence of Caste! li confounded the royalists, and convin- 
 ced them that the patriots had not only the advantage of a just 
 cause, but of superior talents. During the debate, a body of 
 armed citizens assembled in the public square, to protect the 
 friends of the people, should any violence or danger menace 
 them. The meeting deposed the viceroy, and declared that 
 the only lawful authority existed in the cabildo, who immedi- 
 ately proceded to appoint a junta, naming the viceroy, howev- 
 er, as president. The people were dissatisfied, on account of 
 the viceroy being a member of the junta, and a tumult ensued, 
 which was followed by a memorial addressed to the cabildo, 
 praying for his removal. This occasioned the establishment of 
 a new junta, of nine persons, to exercise the powers of govern- 
 ment, in the name of the captive king ; who were, Saavedra, 
 Azcuenaga, Alberti, Matheu, Larrea, Castelli, Belgrano, Pa- 
 so, and Moreno. This junta was created on the 25th of May, 
 when it commenced its session. The measure of the inhab- 
 itants, deposing the viceroy, was not without a precedent, it 
 having been done in 1807, when an attack was threatened by 
 general Beresford, which met the approbation of the Spanish 
 government.* 
 
 * Pazos' Letters, p. 349. 
 
IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. 195 
 
 Its first act was to depute Don J. J. Passo to acquaint the 
 inhabitants of Monte Video with the events which had occur- 
 red at Buenos Ayres. This intelligence occasioned the call- 
 ing of an assembly of the inhabitants of that city, who appro- 
 ved of the proceedings at Buenos Ayres, and agreed to sup- 
 port the new government. The Spaniards, however, at Mon- 
 te Video, were violently opposed to the revolution at Buenos 
 Ayres, and causing the troops to be landed from on board the 
 Spanish vessels in the harbour, the royal party became 
 strengthened, and bold in their opposition. The Spanish 
 chiefs of Paraguay, Cordova, Chuqaisaca, and Potosi, were 
 roused to oppose the junta, and the late viceroy, Cisneros, 
 and the members of the audience, secretly assisted them, and 
 contrived to overthrow the new government, the former, hav- 
 ing privately despatched circulars to all the royal governors to 
 incite them to civil war. The ex-viceroy, Liniers, was also 
 among the enemies of the junta ; and having raised a force of 
 two thousand men, he laid waste the environs of Cordova, to 
 prevent the approach of the popular troops. The part secret- 
 ly acted by the viceroy, and members of the audience being 
 discovered, they were seized, and ordered to quit the country, 
 and embarked for the Canary Islands. The Junta appointed 
 colonel Ocampoto command the army, who attacked Liniers, 
 and took him prisoner, his troops having principally deserted 
 him. Liniers, Concha, the late governor of Cordova, Allen- 
 de, Moreno, and Rodriguez, who had been the most active 
 opposers of the revolution in that quarter, were condemned 
 and executed, to the astonishment of the Spanish chiefs. 
 
 An English ship of war having assisted the royalists, and 
 opposed the commerce of Buenos Ayres, the junta remonstra- 
 ted against the conduct of captain Elliott, its commander, to 
 lord Strangford, the British ambassador at Rio Janeiro, who 
 ordered him not to interfere in the dispute between the royal- 
 ists and the pepular government. 
 
 Sensible of the importance of extending the revolution to 
 Chile, the junta despatched Don A. A. Jonte, who was well 
 known to the inhabitants in that country, to Santiago, to has- 
 ten the forming of a junta there, which measure had the desi- 
 red effect. The royal chief was deposed, a junta established, 
 and Jonte was continued there in the capacity of charge de 
 affairs from the government of Buenos Ayres ; and obtained 
 from the junta of Chile, 300 troops for the assistance of his 
 government, at a critical conjuncture. 
 
 The army under Ocampo having been considerably re-enfor- 
 ced, he was ordered to march against the Spaniards, who had 
 collected in Upper Peru, under colonel Cordova, and the royal 
 
196 HISTORY OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 chiefs Sanz, and Nieto. They were attacked by general Bal- 
 carce, who had brought re-enforcements to the army of the 
 junta, and assumed the command, and after a hard fought ac- 
 tion, the royalists were completely defeated, although occupy- 
 ing a strongly fortified position at Suypacha ; and Cordova, 
 Sanz, governor of Potosi, and Nieto, president of the audi- 
 ence of Charcas, were taken prisoners and shot. This victo- 
 ry was followed by another at Tupiza. These successes led 
 to the occupation of Upper Peru, as for as the river Desaquade* 
 ro, which is the boundary between the territories of Peru and 
 Buenos Ayres. The army was accompanied by Castelli, a 
 member of the junta of Buenos Ayres, as its representative, 
 and also general governor of Upper Peru. With this victo- 
 rious army it was intended to invade that part of Peru where 
 the viceroy Abascal maintained the Spanish authority ; but 
 Castelli, having received proposals from the municipality of 
 Lima for the suspension of hostilities, as a preliminary step to 
 peace, the invasion was suspended. The municipality sent at 
 the same time the eleven propositions which had been submit- 
 ted to the Cortes of Spain by the members of that body, rep- 
 resenting the American colonies, and believing that they had 
 been acceded to by the Cortes, they offered them as the basis 
 of an accommodation, or treaty of peace. These proposi- 
 tions were sent by Castelli to the junta, who then entered into 
 an armistice with Goyeneche, commanding the royal troops. 
 The danger on the side of Peru was now considered at an 
 end ; but a storm was gathering in another quarter. Velasco, 
 governor of Paraguay, had raised an army to attack the new 
 government of Buenos Ayres, which ordered 800 men under 
 Don M. Belgrano, against Velasco. Don N. Yedros com- 
 manded the royalist army of Paraguay. An engagement took 
 place on the banks of the Tacuari, and the army of Buenos 
 Ayres was defeated, which led Belgrano to propose a confer- 
 ence with Yedros, the result of which was, that the patriot 
 army was allowed to retreat without molestation. Velasco 
 was afterwards deposed by the people, and a junta establish- 
 ed for Paraguay, which formed an alliance with Buenos Ayres : 
 but refused to join the confederacy. 
 
 The regency of Spain ^iad appointed Elio captain-general 
 of the provinces of Rio de la Plata, and in that capacity he 
 governed the province of Monte Video, or the Banda Orien- 
 tal ; and was now the most dangerous and powerful enemy 
 with which the popular government of Buenos Ayres had to 
 contend. Don J. Artigas, a native of Monte Video, and a 
 captain in the royal service, having, in consequence of a per- 
 sonal difficulty, determined to abandon the royal cause, appli- 
 
IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. 197 
 
 td to the junta of Buenos Ayres early in 181 1, for assistance,, 
 in arms and ammunition, to enable him to excite a revolt in the 
 Banda Oriental. The junta, anxious to destroy the royal au- 
 thority in the provinces east of the river La Plata, not only 
 furnished the supplies requested, but ordered the army which 
 had withdrawn from Paraguay, to proceed to the Banda Orien- 
 tal, to co-operate with Artigas, who had collected a body of 
 guerrillas. Rondeau was appointed to the command of the 
 troops of Buenos Ayres. In the contests with the British in 
 1807, he was made a prisoner and carried to England, and from 
 thence he went to Spain, and served some time in the war in 
 the peninsula. After gaining several less important advanta- 
 ges, Rondeau and Artigas obtained a signal victory over the 
 royalists at Las Piedras, in May, 1811; all the royal troops 
 which survived being made prisoners, together with their com- 
 mander. The victors immediately marched against Monte 
 Video, and having received re-enforcements from Buenos 
 Ayres, they laid siege to the city. 
 
 At Buenos Ayres, as well as in the other parts of Spanish 
 America, the patriots soon became divided among themselves, 
 and the cause of the revolution suffered greatly from their 
 dissentions. There were two parties in the junta, one head- 
 ed by Don C. Saavedra, the president, and the other by doc- 
 tor Moreno, the secretary, who accused the president of am- 
 bitious views, and Saavedra charged the doctor with being the 
 leader of the mob. The president, with a view to strengthen 
 his party, procured a decree, that the deputies nominated by 
 the provinces to the general congress, should also be entitled 
 to seats in the Junta, whereby its members were increased 
 from nine, to twenty two. This plan succeeded, and deprived 
 Moreno of his influence, which induced him to resign his situ- 
 ation. He was afterwards sent to England to solicit the pro- 
 tection of the British government, and died on his passage.* 
 The dissentions among the civil rulers extended to the milita- 
 ry, and occasioned two parties in the army, which consisted of 
 three corps, commanded, one by colonel Diasvelez, one by Vi- 
 amont, and one under the immediate command of brigadier 
 
 * Moreno, was a young man of distinguished talents, and a true 
 patriot. Saavedra had procured a decree of the junta, directing- the 
 same honors and respect to be sh wn to their president as had been 
 to the viceroys. a His house was called the palace ; and had senti- 
 nels posted at every avenue ; he rode out in a carriage drawn by six 
 horses, and accompanied by an escort of dragoons Moreno, oppo- 
 sed these relics of royalty, and anti-republican ceremonies, and pro- 
 cured them to be abolished. They were however revived by the 
 director Posadas. 
 
 VOL. II. 35 
 
498 HISTORY OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 ^Balcarce, commander in chief. The first and last declared fdT 
 Moreno's party, and Viamont for the president's. 
 
 Notwithstanding the armistice, which had not yet expired) 
 Goyeneche, taking advantage of these dissentions, in July, 
 1811, attacked Diasvelez, at Guaqui, who, not heing supported 
 fey the other corps, was easily overcome ; and his defeat com- 
 pelled the other two divisions to retreat, and enabled Goyen* 
 eche, who had been appointed to the command of the royal 
 army of Peru, by the viceroy of Lima, to take possession of 
 Upper Peru. Pueyredon, president of the audience of 
 Chuquisaca, was chosen by the troops to command them, in 
 -.preference to their former leader, and he and Viamont reti- 
 red to the province of Salta. Goyeneche, was checked in his 
 career, by the rising of the people of the provinces of Cocha- 
 bamba, and Santa Cruz rle la Sierra, and the bands of the gu- 
 errillas which overrun the provinces he occupied, and con- 
 stantly harassed his troops ; and being greatly exasperated 
 at this annoyance, he determined to shoot every prisoner he 
 took, and put to death every partizan of the revolution who 
 fell into his hands. This bloody and savage measure did not 
 .produce the expected effect ; the guerrillas still kept the field, 
 and prevented Goyeneche from advancing into the low coun- 
 try. The junta appointed Saavedra commander in chief, and 
 ordered him to raise a new army. Having left the capital 
 with officers and muskets for this purpose, his enemies, taking 
 advantage of his absence, accused him of ambition and ar- 
 bitrary conduct, particularly in h.ving by his influence obtain- 
 ed the decree of the 6th of April, exiling Larrea, Pena, Po- 
 sadas and others, who opposed his ambitious designs. Saave- 
 dra was deposed, by the Cabildo, and a change in the gov- 
 ernment determined on, the junta being considered too nu- 
 merous and slow in its decisions to save the country in so 
 alarming a crisis. The municipality of the city called a meet- 
 ing of the inhabitants in September, which resolved that a 
 -new government should be established, consisting of only three 
 members, and two secretaries. M. Sarratea, F, Chiclana, 
 and J. J. Passo, were entrusted with the powers of the gov- 
 ernment ; and B. Rivadavia and J. Perez, chosen secretaries. 
 (Regulations were adopted, called a provisional statute, provi- 
 ding for the renewal of the members of the executive : a 
 ; meeting, composed of deputies of the municipalities of the 
 provinces, was to be held every six months, when one mem- 
 ber of the government vacated his seat, and another was cho- 
 sen by the deputies to supply his place. The liberty of the 
 press was guaranteed, and a junta was to be established annu- 
 ally, who, together with the municipality, were to have 
 
IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. T99 
 
 give jurisdiction of all questions, relating to the liberty of the 
 press, and augmented public revenue, by confiscating proper- 
 ty of the Spaniards to the amount of nearly $ 1 ,400,000. 
 
 In the meantime, Artigasand Rondeau prosecuted the siege 
 against Monte Video with vigour and success ; and the cap- 
 tain-general, Elio, being unable to hold out long without as- 
 sistance, applied to the Portuguese government in the Brazils 
 for succour, and by the influence of the Princess Charlotte, sis- 
 ter to Ferdinand VII. with Souza, the minister, Elio obtained 
 four thousand men, besides money and jewels from the Prin- 
 cess herself. The troops were commanded by general Souza, 
 brother of the minister ; but, notwithstanding their arrival at 
 Monte Video, Elio offered teims of peace to the government 
 of Buenos Ayres, and in November, 1811, a treaty was con- 
 cluded. The Portuguese troops were to return to their own 
 territory, and the army of Buenos Ayres to raise the siege 
 and evacuate the Banda Oriental, as far as the river Uruguay. 
 The siege was raised, but the Portuguese troops, instead of 
 being withdrawn according to the treaty, committed acts of 
 hostility in the territory of Rio de la Plata. 
 
 The army of Peru was destined to experience further disas- 
 ters, and was defeated by the royalists under general Tristan, 
 who added the province of Salta to those then in the occupa- 
 tion of the royal troops. The revolutionary cause in Buenos 
 Ayres was now in a dangerous and critical situation ; the gov- 
 ernment having no troops to re-enforce the army of Peru, to 
 enable it to check the royalists, who were advancing victori- 
 ously towards the capital, and at the same time threatened by 
 the Portuguese in an opposite quarter. Unappalled by the 
 dangerous aspect of affairs, the government prepared to act 
 with all the energy of which their situation would admit. Sar- 
 ratea, one of the members of the government, marched at the 
 head of four thousand men to oppose the Portuguese army ; 
 and general Belgrano, who commanded in Peru, was ordered 
 to retire to Tucuman. The unexpected advance of the army 
 against the Portuguese, occasioned alarm, and the minister 
 Souza, dying about the same time, his successor, count de Las 
 Galveas, proposed terms of peace, and an armistice was con- 
 cluded in June, 1812, without limitation of time. The Por- 
 tuguese troops withdrew from the territory of Buenos Ayres, 
 and peace was concluded between the two governments^ 
 which mutually guaranteed each other's territories. 
 
 But external hostilities were not the only danger, nor 
 perhaps the most alarming, with which the government of Bue- 
 nos Ayres was threatened. A bold and daring conspiracy was 
 $>rmed against it for the purpose of arresting the 
 
200 HISTORY OP THE REVOLUTION 
 
 All the members of the junta and all the partizans of the rev- 
 olution were to be put to death. Don M. Alzaga, a Spaniard^ 
 and a rich merchant of Buenos Ayres, was at the head of the 
 conspiracy, who, with twenty more of the principal leaders, 
 was tried, condemned and executed. The plot was discover- 
 ed by means of the Portuguese ambassador, who was solicited 
 to join in the conspiracy, but declined, and gave intimation to 
 the government of their danger. General Belgrano, retreating 
 agreeably to his orders, was pursued to Tucuman, by the royal 
 general Tristan, and would have continued to retire, had not 
 the inhabitants of Tucuman armed themselves and compelled 
 him to keep his ground. He was attacked by the royalists un- 
 der general Tristan, on the 24th of September, who suffered a. 
 most signal defeat, losing eleven hundred men, killed, wound- 
 ed and prisoners. This victorious field was honoured with the 
 appellation of Caa-po del honor. The royalists were compelled 
 to retreat, after their defeat, which relieved the government 
 and people from apprehension on the side of Peru. 
 
 On the 5th of April, 1812, an assembly was held at the 
 capital, which elected Don J. M. Pueyredon, a member of the 
 government ; and at a meeting held on the 6th of October* 
 Don M. Medrano was nominated a member. Both of these 
 assemblies claimed to possess the sovereign power of the 
 provinces of Rio de la Plata, and undertook to form a consti- 
 tution ; this was evidently exceeding their authority, and was 
 opposed by the governing junta, and both assemblies were 
 dissolved by military force. Two days after the dispersion of 
 the last assembly, a general meeting of the inhabitants of 
 Buenos Ayres was held, which confided the government to 
 Don N. Pena, J. J. Passo, and A. A. Jonte. 
 
 The captain general, Elio, having violated the treaty with 
 Buenos Ayres, by hostilities committed by the Portuguese 
 troops, the governing junta determined again to besiege Monte 
 Video ; and the foundry which had been established at the 
 capital by Monasterio, who was director of the military school 
 at Madrid in the reign of Charles the IV., supplied the re- 
 quisite bombarding cannon. Don G. Vigodet, succeeded Elio 
 in his command, and having received re-enforcements from 
 Spain, he not only felt confident of defending Monte Video, 
 but entertained hopes of crushing the junta at Buenos Ayres. 
 Rondeau again commanded the troops sent against Monte Vi- 
 deo, and on the 31st of December, Vigodet attacked him., 
 but was defeated with loss. Re-enforcernents were sent from, 
 Buenos Ayres under Sarratea, who assumed the chief com- 
 mand, but a misunderstanding soon arising between him and 
 Artigas, and the officers supporting the latter, Sarratea, wan 
 
fN THE UNITED PROVINCES 2Q& 
 
 to quit the army, and leave the command again to Ron* 
 deau. Not discouraged by his defeat, Vigodet, availing him- 
 self of his naval superiority, embarked a body of troops and 
 landed them at Parana on the coast of Buenos Ayres, in Feb* 
 ruary, 1813, for the purpose of procuring provisions of which 
 the besieged were in great want. The governing junta 
 obtaining information of this expedition, despatched col* 
 onel San Martin, to oppose the royalists ; and having come 
 up with the enemy with his cavalry at San Lorenzo, on 
 the river Parana, this gallant officer gave them battle with- 
 out waiting for his infantry, and obtained for his country 
 most decisive victory, and for himself, the first fruits of the 
 distinguished fame which he afterwards acquired. 
 ' Belgrano having received re-enforcements, attacked the 
 royalists at Salta, on the 20th of February, 1813, and af- 
 ter a hard fought battle of nearly four hours, victory de- 
 clared for the patriots, and general 1 ristan and all his troops 
 fell into the hands of the victors. But the advantages of this 
 victory, were partially lost by an act of indiscreet generosity 
 on one part, and base perfidy on the other. Belgrano an<J 
 Tristan had been intimate friends, and the former confiding iu 
 the faith and honour of the latter, perm tted him to withdraw 
 with all his troops on taking an oath that neither himself nofc 
 any of his soldiers, would ever take arms again against Bue- 
 nos Ayres. But^so lightly did he regard his honour or hi$ 
 oath, that he immediately with all his men, joined the royal- 
 ists under Goyeneche, who was preparing to take the field, 
 The government disapproved of the generosity of BelgranQ, 
 but its consequences could not be prevented. This victory^ 
 however, compelled Goyeneche to retreat to Oruro, and re* 
 stored to the patriots the provinces of Potosi, Charcas, Chay* 
 anta, and Cochabamba. On the 31st of January, a congress 
 called the Constituyente, composed of deputies from the towng 
 and cities of the provinces of Rio de la Plata, met in the cap- 
 ital. The sovereignty of the congress was acknowledged by 
 each inhabitant. The style of the governing junta was chang* 
 ed to that of the supreme executive, and consisted of Pena ? 
 Perez, and, Jonte. The congress adopted some liberal meas- 
 ures ; that every future child of a slave, should be free, an4 
 that all slaves from any part of the world, who might com 
 into Rio de la Plata, should immediately be emancipated. A 
 plan was also formed for the gradual manumission of th$ 
 slaves ; all proprietors were to sell to government when re- 
 quired, one third part of their slaves, the price of which was 
 to be liquidated as a debt against the state. The government 
 was to manumit the slaves purchased ; but they were to lie 
 
202 HISTORY OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 formed into battalions, their officers to be whites, and to b 
 fed, clothed, and paid by the government.* 
 
 A new conspiracy was formed at Monte Video, against the 
 popular government, instigated by Spaniards at Buenos Ayres j 
 but it was discovered, and the conspirators arrested, tried, and 
 four of them executed. In August, the term of Jonte as a 
 member of the executive, expired, and the congress filled the 
 fflace by Don G. Posadas. Jonte and Don J. Ugarteche, 
 were appointed commissioners to visit the provinces and make 
 the necessary political reforms and arrangements, conformable 
 to the new order of things, and particularly as it respected the 
 finances. 
 
 The armies of the hostile parties in Peru, the royalists un- 
 der Pezuela, the successor of Goyeneche, and the patriots 
 commanded by Belgrano, met at Vilcapugio in the north of 
 Potosi, where a very severe and long contested engagement 
 took place ; the advantage was on the side of the royalists ? 
 and Belgrano retreated to Ayoma on the north of Chuquisaca, 
 and being hotly pursued, another action was fought near the 
 close of November, in which the patriots were completely de- 
 feated, after righting with such determined bravery and perse- 
 verance, as extorted a tribute of praise from the royalist gen- 
 oral in his official despatch. This victory made the royalists 
 Masters of all Upper Peru, and also Jujuy and Salta. These 
 serious disasters placed the government at Buenos Ayres in a 
 critical situation, and occasioned general alarm. A victorious 
 arrny, without any troops to oppose it, threatened the country 
 on the side of Peru, and the war on the east side of the river 
 t'equired additional forces. These threatening circumstances, 
 which demanded the entire resources of the country, instead 
 of calling into requisition those resources, served to impair 
 both the energy of the government, and its means, as the pub- 
 lic mind began to waver as to the issue of the contest ; and 
 w,hen their country had most need of their services, many 
 \re thinking only of their own safety. Under the influence 
 of this appalling aspect of affairs, the governing junta propo- 
 sed to concentrate the executive power in one magistrate, to 
 give more energy and decision to the government ; and on the 
 5lst of December, the congress repealed the decree establish- 
 ing a triplicate executive, and vested the powers of govern- 
 ment in one chief magistrate, called the supreme director. 
 Don G. Posadas was nominated director, and an executive 
 council of seven members was also appointed for his advice 
 and assistance. 
 
 * Outline of the Revolution in South America. 
 
tSf THE UNITED PROVINCES. 203* 
 
 At this gloomy period, an individual, whose name afterwards 
 becanre illustrious, was brought into notice. This individual 
 was San Martin, who was appointed to succeed Belgrano, the 
 latter having been ordered to be tried for his late defeat. San 
 Martin, in the course of a few months, created a new army of 
 three thousand five hundred men ; besides which, he formed 
 the guerrillas into several corps, which cut off the communi- 
 cations between the different divisions of the royalists, and by 
 constantly watching and harassing foraging parties, deprived 
 them of provisions. In consequence of these annoyances by 
 the guerrillas, the Spanish general was obliged to abandon 
 Salta, Jujuy, and a part of the Upper Peru, where the war was 
 carried on by Pinelo, Munecas, the Indian Pumakagua, and 
 other partizan warriors. In the mean time, Don Juan Larrea, 
 secretary of finance, contrived and executed a plan for estab- 
 lishing a naval force superior to that of the enemy. Two 
 brigs, three corvettes, and one schooner, were equipped, 
 manned, and ready for sea, with troops on board. Mr. Brown, 
 an English merchant at Buenos Ayres, was appointed to com- 
 mand this little flotilla, which, having put to sea, engaged some 
 ships of the enemy, in April, 1814, near the island of Martin- 
 garcia ; and on the 25th of May, another engagement took 
 place off Monte Video, and in sight of the town, of a more 
 decisive character. Two of the enemy's corvettes were ta- 
 ken, two others destroyed by fire, and the rest escaped. This 
 victory enabled Brown to blockade Monte Video. General 
 Rondeau, in consequence of a difficulty with Artigas, had 
 been obliged to withdraw his troops from the siege, but had 
 renewed it with more vigour than ever, before colonel Alvear 
 arrived from Buenos Ayres with re-enforcements to assume 
 the command.* San Martin having demanded leave of ab- 
 
 * General Rondeau, in the name of the government, convened an 
 Oriental congress, for the purpose of appointing deputies to repre- 
 sent the Banda Oriental, and to choose a governor for the pro- 
 vince. Artigas, as chief of the Orientals, demanded that the elec- 
 tors should appear at his head-quartets, and receive instructions 
 from him. This arbitrary demand being disregarded, he opposed the 
 congress, declared it illegal, and attempted to dissolve it. The elec- 
 tors, however, appointed deputies and a governor, which so exaspe- 
 rated Artigas, that he exerted himself to spread disaffection among 
 the Oriental troops, and finally withdrew from the army, and carried 
 off nearly all the Orientals. This conduct produced great indigna- x 
 tit n against Artigas, at B:jenos Ayres, and the director, Posadas, de- 
 clared him a traitor and an outlaw, deprived him of all his offices, 
 and offered $6,000 to any one, who would bring him in dead or alive. 
 This rash measure, fraught with great cruelty and injustice, only 
 served to strengthen the influence of Artigas over the Orientals, and 
 render the breach between them and the government of Buenos 
 Ayres almost irreparable. Funes. 
 
204 HISTORY OP THE REVOLUTION? 
 
 sence, in consequence of the impaired state of his health. 
 Rondeau supplied his place, as commander of the army of 
 Peru. Soon after Alvear took command of the besieging 
 army, the town not being able to hold out any longer. Vigo- 
 det proposed to capitulate, and the terms agreed on, were, 
 that the garrison should be permitted to embark for Spain, and 
 the troops of Buenos Ayres should enter Monte Video, and 
 hold possession of it until the result of the deputation was 
 known, which the congress intended to send to Spain. There 
 were 5,500 prisoners surrendered, 11,000 muskets, and an 
 immense park of artillery and military stores. The govern- 
 ment did not strictly comply with the terms of the capitula- 
 tion, and for neglecting to do which, they assigned various 
 reasons ; but the principal one was, the right of retaliation for 
 Tristan and Goyeneche's breaches of faith. Vigodetwas per- 
 mitted to embark for Spain, but the troops were distributed 
 through the interior provinces of Rio de la Plata, except what 
 could be induced to enlist into the popular service. 
 
 The difficulties between the government of Buenos Ayres 
 and Artigas, commenced almost immediately after their united 
 exertions had captured Monte Video, and reduced the Spanish 
 power in the Banda Oriental. Artigas claimed that Monte 
 Video ought to be given up to him, as chief of the Banda Ori- 
 ental ; this demand was resisted by the government of Bue- 
 nos Ayres, and to check the designs of Artigas, a part of theii? 
 troops were left in the country under the command of colonel 
 Soler, who was appointed governor of Monte Video. To 
 the contention with Artigas, was added mischievous dissen- 
 tions among the patriots at Buenos Ayres. Availing himself 
 of the ephemeral popularity, which the capture of Monte 
 Video had given him, Alvear obtained the appointment of 
 commander in chief of the army in Peru, and marched with 
 a large re-enforcement to join the army ; but, learning before 
 he arrived, that, from the influence of Rondeau, the troops 
 were opposed to him, he returned to Buenos Ayres. Here 
 he solicited the place of supreme director, which he obtained 
 in January, 1815, Posados resigning the post. These events 
 occasioned deep animosities and general anarchy. The army 
 of Peru refused to acknowledge Alvear. Some of the prov- 
 inces declared for Rondeau, and others. supported the direct- 
 or. Communication between the capital and many of the 
 provinces was obstructed, although the two factions did not 
 commit actual hostilities. To complete the difficulties of the 
 republic, their troops were defeated in the Banda Oriental, by 
 Rivera, one of Artigas' generals, which compelled the direc- 
 tor to order Soler, to evacuate the country with the remnant 
 
iff THE IWITED PROVINCES. 205f 
 
 of his forces. Artigas now entered Monte Video, and being 
 in the undisputed possession of the Banda Oriental, he was a 
 more formidable enemy to Buenos Ayres, than the royalists in 
 that quarter had been. He determined to invade the territo- 
 ries of Buenos Ayres, and proceeded against Santa Fe, which, 
 instead of opposing him, declared in his favour. The director 
 sent two thousand men to oppose Artigas, commanded by gen- 
 eral Viana and colonel Alvarez ; but the latter delared against 
 the director, arrested Viana, the commander in chief, and uni- 
 ted with Artigas, for the purpose of overthrowing the director. 
 The army in Peru sent Jonte to insist on Alvear's renouncing 
 the directorship ; and being at last satisfied that he could not 
 rule a people against their will, and who had lost all confidence 
 in him, in consequence of his rash ambition, he reluctantly 
 yielded to the general voice, and resigned his post. So indig- 
 nant were the inhabitants against the director, that when Al- 
 varez had joined Artigas, and was marching against Buenos 
 Ayres, they collected in crowds, and denounced the director 
 instead of the apostate officer. These occurrences occasion- 
 ed a public meeting of the inhabitants, which declared the 
 .authority of Alvear, and also that of the congress, illegal and 
 disannulled, and vested the government in the municipality 
 of the city. The ex-director, Alvear, retired three miles 
 from the city, where the troops were encamped, of which he 
 assumed the command ; and it being reported that he medi- 
 tated attacking the town, the inhabitants were thrown into 
 alarm and confusion, and the municipality ordered every citi- 
 zen under arms, and arrested the wife of Alvear, and several 
 deputies, who were his partizans. An accommodation final- 
 ly took place, and Alvear engaged to leave the country, and 
 embarked for England in a British frigate, commanded by 
 captain Percy, who acted as mediator between the parties, and 
 engaged to guarantee the performance of Alvear. 
 
 The municipality established a new junta, called de observ- 
 ation, and promulgated a new provisional constitution. The 
 junta of observation were a sort of tribunes ; whose duty it 
 was to see that the laws were executed, to watch the conduct 
 of the director, check his ambition, and oppose his acts when 
 prejudicial to the public interest. But Rondeau, retaining 
 his post at the head of the army, colonel Alvarez was appoint- 
 ed his substitute. The public papers were filled with invec- 
 tives against the members of the late administration ; more 
 than twenty persons were arrested, and the government was 
 occupied in preparing for their trial. Colonel Paillardel was 
 Condemned to death and executed, but the people of 
 
206 KflSTORY OP THE REVOLUTION 
 
 Ayres being much dissatisfied, the rest of the accused were 
 exiled.* 
 
 The destruction of the Spanish naval force, procured for 
 Brown the rank of admiral, and in 1815, he proposed to the 
 government to sail with his flotilla on a cruise into the Pacific 
 ocean, for the annoyance of the Spanish commerce. The 
 government approving of the proposal, and having made the 
 necessary preparations, the expedition sailed at the end of the 
 year. For some time it cruised with success, but the admi- 
 ral's ship having grounded on the sands near the coast of 
 Guayaquil, it was captured by the Spaniards. Brown, howev- 
 er, was exchanged for the newly appointed governor of Guay- 
 aquil, who had been captured on his way from Panama, a few 
 days before, by one of Brownl? cruisers. Whilst on this sta- 
 tion, Brown greatly annoyed the Spanish commerce, and cap- 
 tured many vessels, some of which he sent to Buenos Ayres. 
 On his return in the Hercules, with a rich booty on Board s 
 Brown was captured by the British ship of war, Brazen, and 
 the Hercules carried into Antigua, where it was condemned, 
 on pretence that it had violated the navigation laws. 
 
 Great disorders prevailed at Santa Fe, and a body of troops 
 were sent there under general Viamont to overawe the par- 
 tizans of Artigas and the disaffected. The death of the gov- 
 ernor, and the selection o( a lieutenant governor, occasioned 
 fresh tumults. The inhabitants, rising in a mass, led by Vera, 
 and aided by a few troops, attacked Viamont with that fury 
 which a spirit of faction inspires, and compelled him and ali 
 his troops to surrender. To this disaster, succeeded one 
 more serious. The royalist general Pezuela, having received 
 re-enforcements from Spain, attacked the patriot army in Peru, 
 and defeated it at Sipesipe, in November, 1815. This victo* 
 ry enabled the royalists the third time to occupy the provin- 
 ces of Oharcas, Potosi, and Jujuy. Civil dissentions still con* 
 tinued to agitate the state. Alvarez, who exercised the su- 
 preme executive authority, in consequence of the absence of 
 Rondeau, ordered the convocation of a new congress ; but 
 before it assembled, he was displaced from his command, by 
 a popular revolution, and Balcarce appointed to succeed him ; 
 but he was, also, soon removed by the popular voice, and the 
 government placed in the hands ef a committee. Notwith- 
 standing these commotions, the new congress assembled in 
 Tucuman, and their first act was the appointment of a supreme 
 director. Don J. M. Pueyredon was elevated to the supreme 
 
 * Outline of the Revolution. Dean Fane's Hist, Rev. in 
 Provinces. 
 
IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. 20*7 
 
 Executive authority ; which gave great satisfaction to the in- 
 habitants, tired and disgusted with repeated revolutions, and 
 revived the hopes of the friends of liberty. Pueyredon com- 
 menced his administration with energy ; he gave the command 
 of the army of Peru to general Belgrano, and sent troops to 
 re-enforce San Martin, who was defending the frontiers of the 
 country bordering on Chile. But he found the republic in a 
 general state of anarchy ; not only the Orientals under Arti- 
 gas, opposed the government, but Santa Fe maintained its in- 
 dependence, and Cordova and other cities refused to submit 
 to the government of Buenos Ayres. The capital was charg- 
 ed with arrogating every thing, and of assuming all the powers 
 of government. Those opposed to the government were in 
 favour of a federative system, securing to all the provinces an 
 influence according to their population. Previous to this time, 
 a corps of troops from Buenos Ayres had been sent against 
 Santa Fe, under E. D. Velis, which being aided by a small 
 squadron, the inhabitants, seeing no chance of defending the 
 city, resolved to abandon it, and all fled, leaving every thing 
 they could not remove to their invaders. So inveterate was 
 their animosity against Buenos Ayres. Having captured the 
 vessels of the enemy, they not long after returned and besieged 
 their invaders in their own capital. Affairs being in this situa- 
 tion, the director sent deputies, to attempt to effect an accom- 
 modation with Santa Fe ; but before they arrived, the troops 
 of Buenos Ayres had evacuated the city and gone down the 
 river. The threatened invasion by the Portuguse, rendered 
 the director more anxious for a reconciliation with Artigas, 
 and he sent to him a deputy and a supply of arms and muni- 
 tions of war, offering to furnish all the assistance he wanted to 
 enable him to repel the threatened invasion. Artigas received 
 the supplies, but refused to listen to any terms of accommoda- 
 tion. The congress issued a manifesto, deploring the disor- 
 ders, exhorting the people to obedience, and threatening the 
 disturbers of the public tranquillity ; but it produced no effect. 
 
 The congress, on the 9th of July, 1816, in a short, yet so- 
 lemn declaration, announced the independence of the United 
 Provinces. At a subsequent period, a manifesto was publish- 
 ed, assigning, at greater length, the reasons which moved them 
 to a separation. 
 
 The invasion of the Portuguese induced Pueyredon, the di- 
 rector, to make a second attempt at reconciliation with Arti- 
 gas, and commissioners were appointed to treat with him. A 
 treaty was finally concluded, wherein it was stipulated that the 
 province of the Banda Oriental should acknowledge the au- 
 iherity of the government of Buenos Ayres j that it shoulct 
 
*208 HISTORY OP THE REVOLUTION 
 
 send members to the congress, and that the government should 
 immediately furnish troops for its defence. This event occa- 
 sioned great joy with the inhabitants, on both sides of the river ; 
 which, however, was soon checked, by information that the 
 Orientals refused to ratify the treaty, influenced, as is suppo- 
 sed, by Artigas. The executive of the United Provinces re- 
 monstrated with the Portuguese general, Lecor, and warned 
 him of the consequence of an unprovoked and unjustifiable 
 . invasion, but without any effect. His pretext was that the 
 disorders and anarchy in the neighbouring provinces rendered 
 it necessary to occupy the country, to prevent the contagion 
 from spreading into Brazil. 
 
 In the mean time the war raged in Upper Peru, where col- 
 onel M. A. Padilla checked the progress of the bloody Facon. 
 To oppose the successful career of Padilla, the enemy des- 
 patched one thousand men towards Laguana. Padilla pre- 
 pared to meet the assailants, and entrusted to his captains the 
 defence of several posts, and one to the command of his 'wife; 
 the enemy made a furious assault, but was completely repulsed 
 and routed, and this heroic female, deserving of Spartan re- 
 nown, had the satisfaction of presenting to her husband a stand- 
 ard of the enemy, taken with her own hands. Padilla pursued 
 the fugitives in every direction, and what escaped were driv- 
 en into the town of Chuquisaca, where they were shut up. 
 This heroine was rewarded by the government for her servi- 
 ces, by the commission and pay of a lieutenant colonel. 
 
 Another victory was obtained over a body of Spaniards of 
 one thousand men, under the command of Facon, in person, 
 by the patriot officer Warnes, the royalists being almost entire- 
 ly destroyed. In Salta and Jujuy, general Guemes, with a for- 
 midable guerrilla force, and numerous other corps of guerrillas 
 under difierent leaders, constantly annoyed the royalists, de- 
 prived them of their conquests as fast as they were made, and 
 finally compelled Pezuela to retreat. 
 
 Internal dissentions, and the voice of faction had not yet 
 ceased to disturb the public councils. The removal of the 
 congress from Tucuman to the capital was deemed expedient 
 for the better management of the war ; as it was convenient 
 to have the different departments of the government near 
 each other. This measure was opposed by most of the pro- 
 vinces, who desired to have the congress out of the reach of 
 the influence of the capital. After much discussion, a vote 
 was obtained in congress to remove the capital, which gave 
 rise to new commotions and disturbances. Don Francisco 
 Borges was the leader of the factions ; and a body of veteran 
 troops being sent against them, they were routed and dispers- 
 
IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. 209 
 
 ed, and their leader, Borges, taken prisoner, who paid with his 
 life the price of his factious temerity. Disturbances also oc- 
 curred in the province of Cordova ; the governor, Antonio 
 Funes, brother of the historian of that name, although a man 
 of great firmness and prudence, could not protect himself 
 against intrigue and conspiracy. He was seized in his house 
 by the conspirators, led by Bulnes, his son-in-law, and thrown 
 into prison with Sayos, the military commandant. The insur- 
 gents not having sufficient confidence in Bulnes, appointed 
 another person to be their leader ; but the governor, ob- 
 taining his liberty, collected a small force of militia, with 
 which the conspirators were dispersed, and took refuge in San- 
 ta Fe, and their leader was taken prisoner, who, with several 
 others was sent to Buenos Ayres, where they were condem- 
 ned and executed. Tranquillity was restored, and the govern- 
 or re-established in his authority. 
 
 The boundary between the Portuguese possessions in Amer- 
 ica and those of Spain, was long a subject of dispute, and not- 
 withstanding the treaty of St. Ildefonso, concluded in 1777, 
 the court of Brazil had made frequent attempts to extend its 
 limits to the La Plata ; and since the emigration of the royal 
 family to Brazil, it had become an object of more importance 
 to obtain the territory east of the river, and it was hoped that 
 the distractions of the Spanish provinces would afford a fa- 
 vourable opportunity to accomplish this desirable object. It 
 was this consideration which induced the court of Brazil so 
 readily to send an army to Monte Video, in 1811, at the soli- 
 citation of Elio. Encouraged by the disorders in the provin- 
 ces, particularly in the Banda Oriental, which afforded a pre- 
 text for the measure, and urged on by Alvear, Garcia, Herre- 
 ra, and other disaffected persons, who having been banished 
 from Buenos Ayres had retired to Monte Video, the Brazilian 
 government resolved on invading the eastern shore. Troops 
 were obtained from Lisbon, and an army of 10,000 men was 
 collected at Rio Grande, with which the Portuguese general 
 Lecor, in December, 1816, invaded the Banda Oriental in 
 three directions. General Lecor, with 5,000 men, marched 
 by the way of Santa Teresa ; general Silviera, with a division 
 of 1,600 troops, advanced by the way of Serno Largo, and the 
 third corps of 3,400, led by general Curau, proceeded towards 
 Purification. It was impossible for the Orientals to oppose 
 this overwhelming torrent. Rivera, one of Artigas' generals, 
 attacted the Portuguese general Pinto, at India Muerte, but 
 after a sharp conflict was repulsed, with the loss of half of his 
 men ; mortified with this defeat, soon after one hundred Ori- 
 entals fell in with the same number of the enemy, who ha$ 
 VOL. II. 36 
 
21i HISTORY OP THE REVOLUTION 
 
 marched out of Maldonado, and attacked them with such fury 
 that they were literally cut to pieces. Rivera and Forges, op- 
 posed general Silviera ; they harassed him on his march, but 
 had not a force sufficient to engage him, or prevent his junction 
 with Lecor, whose march Artigas had not been able to oppose. 
 After this junction, general Lecor proceeded to Monte Video, 
 which was evacuated by the garrison on the 1 9th of January, 
 1817, and entered by the Portuguese the next day. Artigas 
 still occupied the province of Banda Oriental, and by his guer- 
 rillas continued to harass the Portuguese, and to cut off their 
 supplies of provisions from the interior.* 
 
 * Dean Fune's Hist, Revolution in the United Provinces. 
 
IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. .21-1 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 War between the Portuguese and Artigas San Martin his ex- 
 pedition into Chile difficulties in passing the Andes victory 
 of Chacabuco San Martin returns to Buenos Ayres events 
 in Upper Peru affairs in the Banda Oriental events of the 
 war in Chile parties in Buenos Ayres conspiracy arrival 
 of Spanish transport revolt of Spanish prisoners threaten- 
 ed expedition from Cadiz constitution proclaimed resig- 
 nation of Pueyredon negotiations with France invasion by 
 the Monteneros they defeat Rondeau the director Pueyre- 
 don' s party overthrown anarchy and civil war ensue de- 
 feat of Alvear and Carrera Rodriguez appointed govern- 
 our of Buenos Ayres Ramirez defeated treaty with Spain 
 arrival of Mr. Rodney, minister from the United States 
 minister sent to Washington meeting of congress revolution 
 in the Banda Oriental conduct of the emperor of Brazil. 
 
 After the fall of Monte Video into the hands of the Portu- 
 guese, on the 20th of January, 1817, the right wing of the Por- 
 tuguese army under Curau, marched against the Orientals, 
 and at Arrayo de los Catalanos, they were attacked by general 
 La Torre, who commanded 3000 men, in opposition to the ad- 
 vice of his officers. The action was obstinate and sanguina- 
 ry ; but terminated most disastrously to the patriots, who were 
 defeated with very great loss. Artigas occupied a position in 
 the rear of the army, with one hundred men, and before he 
 was aware of this disastrous result, he was surrounded with 
 four hundred men, and only escaped by the aid of an Indian, 
 leaving all his baggage to the enemy. In the meantime, Le- 
 cor found himself shut up in Monte Video, and all supplies 
 being cut off, he was suffering for provisions, and exposed to 
 all the privations of a siege, which compelled him to march 
 into the interior with 2,000 men in pursuit of cattle. His 
 movements were watched by Rivera, one of the Oriental 
 chiefs, and he was surprised and attacked by this officer seve- 
 ral times, and sustained considerable loss. 
 
 The calamities which now afflicted, and the more serious 
 
212 HISTORY OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 ofie which threatened the Banda Oriental, produced a univer- 
 sal cry among the inhabitants, for a re-union with the confed- 
 eracy ; and even some of their chiefs were in favour of the 
 measure, believing it the only means of saving the country 
 from conquest and desolation. Under the influence of these 
 sentiments, a correspondence was opened with the director, 
 who, to evince his desire of an accommodation, immediately 
 sent some military supplies and arms by way of Colonia. Ri- 
 vera consented to the union, subject to the provision, that it 
 met the approbation of Artigas. This daring chief, influen- 
 ced only by ambition and a determination to preserve his own 
 power, used all his influence, and all the artifice he possessed 
 to prevent the union. The party in favour of a union, how- 
 ever, was numerous, and several corps and detachments of 
 the troops elected Don Tames Garcia their commander, 
 and entered into articles of union with the government of 
 Buenos Ayres. Rivera, after a warm altercation with Garcia, 
 sent to Artigas for a re-enforcement of five hundred men ? to 
 oppose him by force. Being decidedly opposed by general 
 Forges, who expressed great horror at a measure calculated 
 to enkindle again the flames of civil war, Artigas sent only 
 fifty men to Colonia, under the pretext of defending that place 
 from the Portuguese flotilla, but as is supposed, with the real 
 design of uniting with Rivera, to make war on the party in 
 favour of the union. Finally, the party of Artigas prevailed, 
 and this favourable opportunity for an accommodation passed 
 by without producing this desirable object. 
 
 Whilst disorders reigned in the east, which cast a shade 
 over the political horizon, a more brilliant prospect was open- 
 ing in the west. San Martin, then governor of Cuyo or Men- 
 doza, had, for some time, conceived the bold and noble de- 
 sign of crossing the Andes, with a force sufficient for the 
 emancipation of Chile, which was groaning under an exaspe- 
 rated tyranny, the Spaniards having re-established their au- 
 thority over the country, and banished a large number of the 
 most influential patriots to the island of Juan Fernandez. Chile 
 had sent men and money to assist the United Provinces, when 
 threatened by the Spanish general Elio, which required a re- 
 turn ; but the constant annoyance of the United Provinces, by 
 the royalists of Chile and Peru, rendered it an important ob- 
 ject to the security of the republic, that the royal authority, 
 in those countries, should be overthrown. The invasion of 
 Chile, therefore, promised, not only the emancipation of that 
 country, but security to the frontiers of the United Provinces, 
 and to advance the general cause. But how was this to be 
 Affected ? San Martin had no army, and the confederacy hac? 
 
IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. 213 
 
 no means of raising or supporting one ; its affairs had never 
 been in a more deplorable condition, since the commencement 
 of the war. The province of Cuyo was thinly peopled, and 
 impoverished and devastated by the predatory incursions of 
 the Spaniards. These discouraging circumstances, however, 
 did not deter San Martin from his noble enterprize, but only 
 served to bring into requisition the wonderful resources of his 
 mind. Such was his influence over the people of Cuyo, and 
 so completely had he engaged their affections and confidence, 
 that they placed every thing they had at his disposal. They 
 voluntarily furnished him with six hundred slaves, three hun- 
 dred horses, ten thousand mules, and contributed, by money 
 and personal exertions, to the construction of barracks, and 
 providing arms, munitions and equipments. They furnished 
 the means, also, of conducting troops from Buenos Ayres. 
 
 After one year spent in organizing and disciplining an army, 
 composed of such materials, $an Martin set out on his patri- 
 otic and daring enterprize. He had to cross the majestic An- 
 des, with an army accompanied with baggage and artillery, 
 which, for three hundred miles, presented rugged and almost 
 inaccessible summits and narrow defiles, admitting of two per- 
 sons only abreast along the giddy verge of frightful precipices, 
 where eternal frosts hold their undisputed reign. This pas- 
 sage with an army, over the highest mountains in the world, is 
 an achievement more daring and difficult than that of the re- 
 nowned Hannibal in crossing the Alps ; and perhaps there is 
 nothing on the page of history that surpasses it. But no ob- 
 stacles could shake the purpose of San Martin ; no difficulties 
 were too great for his genius to overcome. In thirteen days, 
 the frozen Andes were vanquished and passed, with the loss of 
 five thousand horses and mules, and a few men. The libera- 
 ting army encountered the enemy at Chacabuco soon after ; 
 and the veterans, who had conquered the Andes, experienced 
 no difficulty in vanquishing the instruments of tyranny. Sel- 
 dom has a victory been more complete, or a triumph more splen- 
 did. " In twenty-four days," said the commander, " we have 
 crossed the most elevated mountains of the globe, terminated 
 the campaign, put an end to the sway of tyrants, and given 
 liberty to Chile." The remnant of the royalists took refuge 
 in Talcahuano. The inhabitants formed a junta at Santiago, 
 and, as a reward for his services, ordered to San Martin the 
 dictatorship of Chile, which he declined, and this power was 
 vested in Bernando O'Higgins. 
 
 After this splendid victory, the general of the Andes, as San 
 Martin was now called, returned to Buenos Ayres to concert 
 % plan with the government to direct the victorious arms of the 
 
 36* 
 
214 HISTORY OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 republic against Peru. As he approached Mendoza, the cap- 
 ital of Cuyo, the whole inhabitants of the town flocked out to 
 meet him ; the youth strewed the road with roses, and all de- 
 monstrated the most lively sensations of admiration and joy 
 on beholding the hero of the Andes, and the liberator of Chi- 
 le. At Buenos Ayres, the same sentiments prevailed, and 
 preparations were making to receive him with every mark of 
 respect and honour ; but being apprised of what was intended, 
 he stole into the city, unobserved, to the no small disappoint- 
 ment of the people.* 
 
 General Belgrano, who had been appointed, by Pueyredon, 
 to the command of the army in Upper Peru, by his talents and 
 exertions, had retrieved the disasters of the republic in that 
 quarter. The Spanish general Pezuela, was succeeded in the 
 command by general Serna, a less skilful general than hi5 
 predecessor. After the death of Padilla and Merceces, the 
 bloody Facon was successfully .opposed by Warnes, Ganderil- 
 la, and Fernandez, who pressed him very hard ; but he was 
 destined to fall a victim to a higher power ; a stroke of light- 
 ning from heaven put an end to his days, and his cruelties. 
 General Serna, haughty and presumptuous, resolved to recov- 
 er the provinces which his predecessor had been obliged to 
 abandon. At the head of 2000 men, he pushed forwards into 
 Jujuy ; but was so closely pursued and harassed by Guemes 
 with his formidable guerrilla, that he soon had occasion to re- 
 pent of his temerity. After several engagements, in which he 
 sustained considerable loss, as well as from the continual an- 
 noyance of several guerrilla corps, Serna was compelled to 
 retreat with the remains of his army, and abandon his designs 
 of conquest. 
 
 The state of affairs in the Banda Oriental remained essen- 
 tially the same ; Erenu and Sarnanuego, the chiefs in the pro- 
 vince of Entre Rios, made some concessions, and manifested 
 a disposition for an accommodation with the United Provinces ; 
 but Artigas sent an abusive letter to the director, accusing 
 him of secretly favouring the Portuguese, of having connived 
 at the supplies which had been furnished them, and threaten- 
 ing to attack him even in the capital. To secure Santa Fe, 
 which commands the interior of the province of Buenos Ayres, 
 and at the same time to furnish relief to the people of Entre 
 Rios, the director sent a body of troops under Montes de Oca, 
 which were furiously attacked and defeated by a detachment 
 ordered against them by Artigas ; and a re-enforcement sent 
 
 *Funes. 
 
IN THE UNITFD PROVINCES. 215 
 
 under colonel Balcarce, was attacked with still greater despe- 
 ration, and shared the same fate. 
 
 These disasters were soon followed by intelligence still 
 more disagreeable from Chile. Whilst San Martin and O'Hig- 
 gins were exerting all their means to reduce the fortress of 
 Talcahuano, the last strong hold of the royalists, the viceroy 
 of Lima succeeded in throwing fifteen hundred men into that 
 fortress, which, as to strength, will almost compare with Gi- 
 braltar. San Martin, however, instead of being discouraged 
 by this untoward event, was re-enforcing his army, and prepar- 
 ing for a grand expedition to Peru, intending to strike the same 
 blow there, which he had with such important results in Chile. 
 Alarmed at this threatened invasion, the viceroy resolved to 
 decide the fate of Peru in Chile, and accordingly, after great 
 preparation, embarked an army of nearly five thousand men, 
 under Osorio, for Talcahuano. Almost immediately after the 
 landing of his troops, Osorio, confident of victory, and despi- 
 sing the army, and the general whose valour he had not yet 
 tried, commenced his march for the capital of Chile. Being 
 re-enforced by the garrison of rthe fortress, and the royalists 
 in the country, his arrny amounted to 8,000 men. He march- 
 ed rapidly through the province of Conception, and advanced 
 as far as Talca. Previous to this, the divisions of San Mar- 
 tin's army had united and kept up continual skirmishing with 
 the royalists, and on the 19th of March, the van of the Span- 
 ish army , was attacked and driven back into the streets of 
 Talca^. Osorio now* became alarmed for his safety, and resolv- 
 ed to attack the patriots in the night in their encampment. 
 The attack was made in the most unexpected and furious 
 manner ; and the independents were surprised, thrown into 
 confusion, and completely routed. San Martin, with the re- 
 mains of his army, retired to the pass of Angulemu, on the 
 route to Santiago, and in a few days marched towards the 
 capital, where, in a short time, by his own incredible exer- 
 tions, and the patriotism of the inhabitants, his army was re- 
 enforced, re-organised, and prepared to dispute the dominion 
 of Chile and of Peru, on the plains of Maypu. Here on the 
 5th of April, 1818, was fought one of the most sanguinary ac- 
 tions which the records of the revolution in South America 
 afford, the result of which was equally decisive and glorious. 
 It annihilated the Spanish army, secured to San Martin an 
 imperishable renown, and established the independence and 
 liberty of Chile and Peru. San Martin was universally greet- 
 ed as the saviour of the country, and the hero of the revolu- 
 <ion. Soon after this, he returned to Buenos Ayres, where 
 
216 HISTORY OP THE REVOLUTION 
 
 he was received with the honour due to his private worth and 
 important public services.* 
 
 At this period many privateers were fitted out at Buenos 
 Ayres, or sailed under commissions of the government of the 
 United Provinces ; some were fitted out in the United States, 
 in violation of our laws, and others in England, which obtain- 
 ed commissions from that government ; many also sailed witli 
 commissions from Artigas. These privateers scoured the 
 ocean, and destroyed what remained of the Spanish commerce, 
 and some of them committed outrages on neutral vessels. 
 
 The war on the other side of the river still continued be^ 
 tween the Orientals and the Portuguese ; but the government 
 at Buenos Ayres took no part against the Portuguese, and 
 Pueyredon was even accused of secretly assisting them. Gri 
 the first of May, 1818, the Portuguese got possession of Co- 
 Ionia, either by force or treachery, and stationed there a gar- 
 rison of one thousand men. About the same time the Portu- 
 guese general Curau, with a force of 3,500 men, took Purifi- 
 cation and Pysander, and a body of cavalry, crossed the river 
 Uruguay, and ravaged the country. Purification was after- 
 wards abandoned and the troops took a station between the 
 Uruguay and Pysander. Their vessels went up the river to 
 co-operate with their troops, without any efforts being made 
 by the government of Buenos Ayres to prevent it. 
 
 A strong party existed in the United Provinces, opposed to 
 the administration, which was charged with secretly favouring 
 the designs of the Portuguese against the Banda Oriental ; 
 but the principal ground of dissatisfaction, was an alleged op- 
 position on the part of the director and his party to the 
 rights of the provinces, which complained of the control- 
 ling influence of Buenos Ayres. The opposition were 
 in favour of what was called federalism, or a different 
 system of government, which should give to all the provinces 
 an equal participation therein. The violence of the opposi- 
 tion led to a conspiracy against the administration, which was 
 discovered in August, 1818. The plan was to sieze and car- 
 ry off the director, but the plot was discovered, and the leader 
 arrested, who accused three distinguished citizens as being 
 the authors of the conspiracy, who were arrested, tried, and 
 acquitted. This conspiracy, and the measures adopted to 
 suppress it, increased the agitation of the public mind, and 
 the director issued a proclamation to quiet the alarm, and 
 preserve tranquillity. 
 
 In the month of February this year, (1818,) the commis* 
 sioners of the United States, Messrs. Rodney, Bland, and 
 
 Hi?tor? of thq revolution in the IJ. Province . 
 
IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. 217 
 
 Graham, who sailed from our shores the preceding December, 
 arrived at Buenos Ayres, and were the first public functiona- 
 ries received by the republic from any foreign power. They 
 were sent by the president, as special agents to obtain inform* 
 ation as to the state of the country, and the condition of the 
 new government. They were received by the public au* 
 thorities at Buenos Ayres with much respect, and obtained 
 extensive information respecting the country and the war, 
 which the following year was laid before congress, contained 
 in the reports of the commissioners, and the accompanying 
 documents. 
 
 In the month of August, a Spanish transport, which had 
 sailed from Cadiz with two hundred troops for Lima, arrived 
 at Buenos Ayres. The troops mutinied, killed such of their 
 officers as would not join them, and compelled the captain and 
 crew to conduct the vessel to Buenos Ayres, where they took 
 the oath of allegiance to the independent government, and 
 joined the forces of the republic. On the 12th of December, 
 the congress passed a decree, recognizing the independence 
 of Chile. Most of the troops of the government being in 
 Chile, under San Martin, or on the frontiers of Upper Peru, 
 the monteneros, or hordes of Indians, disturbed the public 
 tranquillity, and cut off all communication with the interior. 
 Early in the year 1819, the Spanish prisoners at San Luis re- 
 volted, and seven of them, headed by a ; general officer, at- 
 tacked the goverorin his own house ; but, undaunted by their 
 number, he defended himself, killed one, and compelled the 
 rest to retreat. Twenty-seven of the conspirators were ar- 
 rested, condemned and shot including one brigadier-gene- 
 ral, two colonels, and several other officers. The expedition, 
 which had long been preparing at Cadiz, occasioned consider- 
 able excitement, and attracted the principal attention of 
 the government, which made all the preparations its situa- 
 tion would admit of, to meet any force that might invade the 
 country. 
 
 The congress of the confederacy assembled on the 25th of 
 February, and the session was opened by a message from the 
 supreme director, who speaks of the dissentions which pre- 
 vailed, and of the conspiracies against the government. He 
 says, that " the frequency of disorders, and the repeated in- 
 stances in which he had been under the painful necessity of 
 punishing the authors of disturbances, and the enemies of the 
 republic, had rendered him obnoxious to the malice and ven- 
 geance of many individvals who might be useful to the coun- 
 try," and adds that he would resign, did he not think it would 
 have an unfavourable influence, at home and abroad, under 
 present circumstances. He urges the speedy adoption of a 
 
218. HISTORY OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 constitution as the most effectual means of pacifying the dis- 
 affected, and restoring the public tranquillity. " The threat- 
 ened expedition from Spain," he remarks, " requires prepara- 
 tions for defence commensurate to the danger ;" and recom- 
 mends that the provinces assume a warlike attitude, and be 
 put in the most complete state of defence ; and intimates, 
 that, " this will require ahead, possessing more military expe- 
 rience and capacity, than he can claim." Whilst engaged in 
 providing for the defence of the country, congress were also 
 deliberating on a constitution for the state, and one having 
 been prepared, was publicly proclaimed on the 25th of May. 
 It was formed on the federal basis, and its principles did not 
 vary essentially, from the constitution of the United States. 
 It presented the great features of liberty ; the legislative pow- 
 er was vested in two chambers, one consisting of deputies 
 chosen by the people for four years, the other, of senators 
 elected by the provinces or states ; the executive authority 
 was vested in one person, called a director ; it declared the 
 equality of the citizens, the freedom of the press, the inviola- 
 bility of persons, their dwellings, &c. 
 
 Shortly after this event, Pueyredon, in consequence of ill 
 health, as he alleged, but perhaps from the disaffection to his 
 administration, and the apprehension of a gathering storm, 
 resigned the directorship, arid Joseph Rondeau succeeded him 
 ad interim, until a new director could be chosen acording to 
 the forms of the constitution. Great preparations to defend 
 the country against the long threatened expedition from Cadiz, 
 continued to be made until all apprehensions, from that quarter, 
 were put at rest by the revolution in Spain,, which defeated the 
 expedition. No important operations of the armies of the Uni- 
 ted Provinces, in Upper Peru and Chile, occurred this year ; 
 but the war, on the east side of the river, was kept up by the 
 indefatigable Artigas, who, with astonishing perseverance and 
 ability, maintained the unequal contest with the Portuguese, 
 without any assistance from the government of Buenos Ayres, 
 and whilst often at open war with it. 
 
 The revolution in South America, early attracted the atten- 
 tion of the great powers of Europe, forming the " holy alli- 
 ance ;" and from the period it became evident that Spain 
 could not re-establish her authority over her American colo- 
 nies, there is the strongest reason for believing that the allied 
 powers seriously meditated such an interference as should dis- 
 pose of the destinies of those countries. The primary object 
 of the allied powers, the proscription of all revolutions and 
 political reforms originating from the people, and their deter- 
 mination to oppose the establishment of free institutions, 
 could leave no doubt of the concern and hostility with which 
 
IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. , 2l9 
 
 they viewed the development of events in Spanish America, 
 and the probable establishment of several independent, free 
 states, resting on institutions emanating from the will and the 
 valour of the people. But there is more specific evidence of 
 their hostile intentions. Don Jose Vaventine Gomez, envoy 
 from the government of Buenos Ayres at Paris, in a note to the 
 secretary of his government of the 20th of April, 1819, says, 
 that " the dimunition of republican governments was a basis 
 of the plans adopted by the holy alliance for the preservation 
 of their thrones ; and that, in consequence, the republics of 
 Holland, Venice, and Genoa, received their death blow at 
 Vienna, at the very time that the world was amused by the 
 solemn declaration, that all the states of Europe would be re- 
 stored to the same situation they were in before the French re- 
 volution. I also expressed the belief, that the sovereigns as- 
 sembled at Aix la Chapelle, had agreed, secretly, to draw the 
 Americans to join them in this policy, when Spain should be 
 undeceived, and have renounced the project of re-conquer- 
 ing her provinces ; and that the king of Portugal warmly pro- 
 moted this plan through his ministers. 11 
 
 By a circular note addressed by the Spanish minister to the al- 
 lied powers in 1817, it appeared that these powers had agreed 
 with the Spanish sovereign to interfere in the dispute between 
 Spain and her American colonies, and that the manner and 
 extent of their interposition was to be determined on, at the 
 congress to be held at Aix la Chapelle.* The great obstacle 
 to the interference of the allied powers, was Great Britain, 
 whose commercial policy, in this instance, was opposed to the 
 political designs of the alliance, and to her own political 
 views. Her commercial interests were the strongest, and she 
 could not be persuaded to favour the designs of the other al- 
 lied powers against the independence and liberty of Spanish 
 America. The condition of the United States, and the atti- 
 tude assumed by the government, (the president having de- 
 clared, subsequently, that the interference of any foreign pow- 
 er against the independence of the states of South America, 
 would be viewed as dangerous to the peace and safety of the 
 United States,) were not without their influence on the designs 
 of these powers. 
 
 But, if the obstacles which Great Britain and the United 
 States interposed, prevented their attempting to dispose of 
 the countries of bouth America by force, as they had of Na- 
 ples and Spain, they were in hopes to control their destinies 
 fey the arts of diplomacy and disguised friendship. Taking 
 
 * See President Monroe's Message, i 
 
220 HISTORY OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 advantage of the threatened invasion from Spain, and the 
 alarms which it excited at Buenos Ayres, the French cabinet 
 attempted, by intrigue and artifice, to establish, in the United 
 Provinces, a monarchy under a European prince related to 
 the house of Bourbon. Rondeau, the director, was by birth 
 a Frenchman, a circumstance which favoured this bold in- 
 trigue. 
 
 The French minister for foreign affairs, in a conference 
 with Gomez, the envoy of the United Provinces, after express- 
 ing the ardent wish of the ministry for the success of the glo- 
 rious cause in which the United Provinces were engaged, and 
 regretting the obstacles which prevented France from afford- 
 ing them assistance, said, that on reflecting on their true in- 
 terests, he was convinced that these entirely depended on the 
 choice of a government, under whose influence they might en- 
 joy the advantages of peace ; and that he firmly believed this 
 form of government could only be a constitutional monarchy, 
 with a prince of Europe at its head ; whose relations might 
 command and increase a respect for the state, and facilitate 
 the acknowledgment of their national independence. This 
 measure he thought alone would ensure tranquillity to the 
 provinces, conciliate the powers of Europe, and even lead to 
 peace and a recognition of the independence of the country 
 on the part of Spain itself. He recommended the Duke of 
 Lucca, late heir of the kingdon of Etruria and a Bourbon by 
 his mother's side, as a suitable prince ; and said that the Em- 
 perors of Russia and Austria were very friendly to him, and 
 that England could find neither reason or pretext to oppose 
 his elevation. It was proposed that France, would furnish 
 the necessary land and naval forces to render the new king 
 respectable, and secure the independence of the country ; 
 that the duke should marry a princess of Brazil, on condi- 
 tion of a cession from the government of Brazil of the coun- 
 try east of the La Plata to the United Provinces, and that 
 France would use her influence with the king of Spain 
 to induce him to acknowledge the independence of the 
 country. 
 
 Gomez informed the secretary, that he had no authority to 
 negotiate on this delicate and important subject ; but that he 
 would communicate what he had expressed to him, to his gov- 
 ernment, which he did by a note dated the 19th of June, 
 1819. The same intrigue was undertaken with the govern- 
 ment of Chile through its deputy, Don Jose Yrizarri. The 
 despatches from Gomez were received in October, 1819, and 
 on the 26th of that Month, Rondeau, the director, communi- 
 cated them to congress, without expressing any opinion, but 
 
IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. 221 
 
 urging a speedy decision.* After long deliberation, at a se- 
 cret session on the 12th of November, strange as it may seem, 
 the congress approved of the project of France, subject to 
 nine conditions ; the principal of which were, that his most 
 Christian majesty, the king of France, should obtain the as- 
 sent of the five great powers of Europe, including England 
 and Spain ; that he should facilitate the marriage of the duke 
 of Lucca with a princess of Brazil, and procure a cession of 
 the provinces east of the La Plata ; that France should afford 
 to the duke all the assistance necessary to defend and consoli- 
 date the monarchy, and to comprise within it, all the east side, 
 including Monte Video and Paraguay, and also furnish troops, 
 ships, and four millions of dollars by way of loan, to put the 
 country in a condition to defend itself against Spain and secure 
 its independence. The design and result of this scheme, had 
 it succeeded, cannot occasion a moment's doubt. It was in- 
 tended to prostrate the republic, and to have established a 
 monarchy on its ruins, under the protection, and consequently, 
 entirely under the control of France. If this daring plot 
 against the independence and liberties of Spanish America, 
 had succeeded, the example would have been laid hold of, to 
 favour similar attempts, by other European powers, against the 
 other governments in Spanish America. Fortunately for the 
 interests of South America, and the cause of liberty, there 
 was too much virtue and intelligence in the people, in the 
 midst of all their dissentions, to permit so degrading and per- 
 nicious a scheme to be carried into effect. And those who 
 had favoured it, were soon treated with the indignation and 
 contempt which their conduct deserved. 
 
 In the month of November, the territory of Buenos Ayers 
 was invaded, by the Monteneros, headed by one of Artigas' 
 officers, and J. M. Carrera, a distinguished Chilese, well 
 known in the limited States, for his inveterate opposition to 
 the administration of Pueyredon in the United Provinces, and 
 that of O'Higgins in Chile. The director, Rondeau, placed, 
 himself at the head of the troops which could be collected, 
 and proceeded against the Monteneros ; and the beginning of 
 February, 1820, he was defeated by these formidable guerril- 
 las, commanded by Ramirez, formerly an officer under Arti- 
 gas, and a plain guacho, but shrewd, brave, and violent. Pre- 
 vious to this disaster, near the close of the last year, another 
 conspiracy had been discovered in the capital, against the ad- 
 ministration, and many persons were seized and banished from 
 the city. The dissentions and disorders that existed, were 
 
 * See the despatch of Gomez to his government 
 VOL. II. 37 
 
222 HISTORY OP THE REVOLUTION 
 
 much increased by the defeat of Rondeau, which produced 
 the greatest alarm at Buenos Ayres, and occasioned general 
 confusion and anarchy. The opponents of the administration 
 were now emboldened to act more openly and decided, and 
 the authority of the government was entirley prostrated. 
 Buenos Ayres, the cradle of the revolution in this part of 
 Spanish America, which had displayed distinguished patriot- 
 ism, and made immense sacrifices for the independence of the 
 country, and the cause of liberty, was now threatened with 
 invasion, without any army for its defence, without a govern- 
 ment ; and what was worse, had become a theatre of faction, 
 civil war and intrigue. Ramirez was at the head of 3000 men, 
 within seventy miles of the city : the congress and director 
 proposed to treat with him, and appointed commissioners, but 
 he refused, declaring that he would not negotiate, until a new 
 set of rulers were appointed, who should be free from the in- 
 fluence of Pueyredon. 
 
 The Pueyredon party, which had long maintained the ascen- 
 dancy, although with a powerful and violent opposition, could 
 no longer sustain their authority. They were accused of hav- 
 ing brought on the country all the evils x which afflicted it ; 
 of having occcsioned the dissentions which distracted the 
 state, by their mal-administration and violent measures ; of 
 promoting the disgraceful intrigue with France, of preventing 
 an accommodation with Artigas, and of having secretly aided 
 the Portuguese to crush his power, and in their encroach- 
 ments on the Banda Oriental, and of entirely neglecting to 
 prosecute the war against the royalists in Upper Peru. What- 
 ever truth there may be in these charges, it is evident that a 
 conjuncture had arrived, which rendered the fall of this party 
 inevitable. To avoid the storm, Pueyredon and his friends 
 fled to the Portuguese for safety, carrying off, as was said at 
 the time, a large sum of the public treasure, but the truth of 
 this was never established, and the charge was probably wholly 
 unfounded. 
 
 When Rondeau left the city, to command the army, the 
 congress, on the first of February, named Don Juan Pedro 
 Aquirre to fill the office of director, during the absence of the 
 incumbent ; and on the 5th of the month, Rondeau returned 
 after his defeat, and resumed the directorship ; but on the 8th 
 a revolution took place, which overthrew the administration 
 and dissolved the congress. A provisional junta was estab- 
 lished by the cabildo of the city, which assumed the govern- 
 ment. Manuel de Sarratea was appointed governor of the 
 city.* He opened a negotiation with the enemy, and on the 
 
 * The government constituted bj the cabildo was confined ( ti* 
 
Iff THE UNITED PROVINCES. 223 
 
 20th of February, concluded a treaty with Ramirez, whea 
 Carrera and the adherents of what was called the federal par- 
 ty, entered the city. Tranquillity, however, was not restored ; 
 for early in March a counter revolution was effected, headed 
 by general Balcarce, and Carrera and the leaders of the fed- 
 eral party were obliged to flee to the army. Balcarce was 
 invested with the powers of dictator until a government could 
 be provided ; but on the 12th of March, the troops on which 
 he relied, deserted him, when he immediately made his es- 
 cape. The same day Sarratea, who had been obliged to leave 
 the city, returned and resumed his authority, amidst the accla- 
 mations of the people. The officers of the two late adminis- 
 trations were arrested, and many of the adherents of Pueyre- 
 don. This revolution led to a discovery of the disgraceful 
 negotiation with France, for importing a king, and placing the 
 country under the protection of that monarchy, and all the 
 members of the congress who voted in favour of this measure, 
 with the exception of three, who accompanied their signatures 
 with a protest, were arrested. 
 
 The most dreadful factions, anarchy, and civil war followed 
 these events, and continued to distract the country, for several 
 months. Many valuable citizens fell victims to these disor- 
 ders. The seyerity of the storm fell* on Buenos Ayres, al- 
 though it was felt throughout the provinces. Numerous gov- 
 ernours of the city rapidly succeeded each other, and such 
 was the state of alarm, turbulence and faction, that there was 
 no safety of persons or property. Ramirez, Carrera, and Lo- 
 pez, were not pacified, but kept the field at the head of formi- 
 dable parties of Monieneros, cutting off all communication 
 with the interior, and threatening the capital. Alvear and for- 
 ty or fifty officers, who had formerly been in the service of 
 Buenos Ayres, had joined Carrera and the other chiefs of the 
 Monteneros. On the 10th of July, Martin Rodriguez, who 
 had been appointed to the command of the troops of Buenos 
 Ayres, amounting to nearly 3,000 men, had an engagement 
 with Alvear and his confederates, and obtained some advan- 
 tage ; they, however, still continued to threaten an attack on 
 the city, which was kept ill a continual state of alarm, so that 
 no business could be transacted. Alvear continued to menace 
 the city during the early part of the month of August, threat- 
 
 province of Buenos Ayres, which, for a considerable time after, stood 
 alone ; each province governed itself, or remained in a state of an- 
 archy. In the absence of higher authority, the cabildoes of the cap- 
 ital cities of the provinces assumed the power of government, or 
 'ested it in a junta. 
 
 
224 HISTORY OP THE REVOLUTION 
 
 ening vengeance against his enemies. He some years before 
 had been a director, and was banished. 
 
 For the restoration of tranquillity, or at least for the dis- 
 comfiture of its enemies, the country seems to be indebted 
 principally to Rodriguez, and general Dorego, governour of 
 Santa Fe. Dorego, the latter part of August, completely 
 routed the forces of Alvear and Carrera, and made prisoners 
 of Alvear and a number of officers, formerly in the Buenos 
 Ayrean service, and three or four hundred men. Carrera had 
 several hundred troops from Chile, and the rest of his force 
 consisted of the Monteneros, and the malcontents of the Uni- 
 ted Provinces. Carrera escaped with some followers; his 
 fate, however, was not long deferred. This victory promoted 
 the public tranquillity, and prepared the way for a better order 
 of things. A junta, which was chosen from the city and coun- 
 try, on the 26th of September, 1820, appointed Rodriguez 
 governor of Buenos Ayres. The turbulence of dissention., 
 however, had not yet subsided, for, on the 1st of October, 
 Rodriguez was driven from the capital by a desperate faction ; 
 but on the 5th he routed and dispersed them, resumed his au- 
 thority, and partially restored tranquillity to a distracted city, 
 so long the prey of factions and civil war. 
 
 The power of Artigas, which had experienced so many vi- 
 cissitudes, was completely prostrated about this period ; be- 
 ing defeated by the Portuguese, with the loss of nearly all his 
 army, Ramirez, the chief of Entre Rios, who had formerly 
 acknowledged the supremacy of Artigas, turned his arms 
 against him, and compelled him to take refuge in Paraguay. 
 Rodriguez maintained his authority, preserved the public 
 tranquillity of the capital, repelled the predatory incursions of 
 the Indians, and defeated the machinations and hostility of 
 the desperate malcontents. Great disorders, however, still 
 existed in the provinces, of which Carrera was regarded as 
 being the principal author ; he continued his predatory incur- 
 sions, and often committed dreadful outrages on the inhabitants 
 in remote settlements. He seemed to have become a despe- 
 rate and infatuated man, and to be bent on destroying every- 
 thing within his power, which finally4>rought destruction on his 
 own head. Ramirez also continued his hostility to the govern- 
 ment of Buenos Ayres, and even threatened the capital ; he 
 had the command of the forces of the Banda Oriental, former- 
 ly governed by Artigas. 
 
 The government exerted itself to oppose him, and fitted out 
 a flotilla, for which purpose it pressed some of the seamen of 
 the United States to complete the crew ; and an army, com- 
 posed of the troops of Buenos Ayres and Santa F 
 
IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. 
 
 against Ramirez, commanded by Rodriguez himself, which in 
 June, 1821, defeated him with great loss. His troops were 
 completely routed and dispersed, and he escaped himself, 
 with two hundred of his followers, and joined Carrera. 
 
 The commencement of the year 1822, found the affairs of 
 the United Provinces in a more prosperous condition ; the in- 
 ternal enemies of the republic had been destroyed, or driven 
 out of the country ; the voice of faction was silenced ; the 
 government had acquired energy and respect, and was enga- 
 ged in works of improvement, in forming schools, and estab- 
 lishing libraries, calculated to prepare the people for the ap- 
 preciation and enjoyment of liberty. The papers discussed 
 freely, and often ably, important political questions connected 
 with their new situation. A splendid edifice was erected for 
 a congressional hall, on the same spot, where, in 1780, was 
 reared the dungeons of Oruro, in which were immured those 
 accused of promoting the independence of Peru. Peace was 
 also restored with the provinces of Entre Rios, and Corientes, 
 a convention having been concluded between them and the 
 province of Buenos Ayres and the city of Santa Fe, on the 
 14th of January, whereby the parties stipulated to be at peace, 
 and make common cause against external and internal ene- 
 mies, and mutually to defend and assist each other. The 
 Portuguese or Brazilians maintained possession of the city of 
 Monte Video, and the province of Banda Oriental. The 
 public mind became more and more tranquilized, and the 
 government acquired energy and the confidence of the people. 
 The disaffected, however, were not entirely removed or con- 
 ciliated, as a conspiracy was discovered at the capital, on the 
 23d of August, said to be headed by Tagle, secretary of state, 
 during Pueyredon's administration ; and a number of persons 
 were arrested. It did not, however, occasion any commotion^ 
 and the public tranquillity continued undisturbed during the re- 
 mainder of the year. 
 
 On the 4th of July, 1823, a convention, or a preliminary 
 treaty of peace, was concluded between Buenos Ayres and 
 Spain, by the commissioners appointed by the Spanish gov- 
 ernment, under the direction of the Cortes and Rivadavia., 
 secretary of state for Buenos Ayres. It was stipulated that 
 hostilities should cease for eighteen months, that the relations 
 of commerce should be renewed between the two countries, 
 and that within the time the two governments should negotiate 
 a definite treaty of peace and friendship. The congress au- 
 thorized the executive to ratify the convention, and resolved 
 that on its being ratified by Spain, and a definitive treaty of 
 peace concluded, twenty millions of dollars should be vo- 
 
 37* 
 
226 HISTORY OP THE REVOLUTION 
 
 ted to Spain, to maintain her independence on the repre-* 
 sentative system, provided she should be invaded by France,, 
 that sum being the amount which the chambers "of Paris* 
 had granted the king for the prosecution of hostilities in Spain, 
 Notwithstanding this liberal conduct of the congress, the con- 
 vention was rejected by the Spanish government. 
 
 On the 16th of November, 1823, Caesar A. Rodney, minis- 
 ter from the United States, arrived at Buenos Ayres, and in a 
 few days presented his credentials. He being the first envoy 
 ever received from any foreign power, it was deemed impor- 
 tant by the government, that his recognition should be public 
 in the hall of the government house, attended with a solemni- 
 ty and splendour of ceremonies corresponding with the impor- 
 tance of the occasion. But the state of Mr. Rodney's health 
 would not admit of this, fit that time. On the 27th of De- 
 cember, his health having been restored, the ceremony of pre- 
 sentation took place. He was conveyed to the government 
 house, by the minister of foreign relations, in a coach of state, 
 attended with military display and every mark of honour, and 
 conducted by a deputation of the government into the halL 
 through an immense concourse of citizens, where he was pre- 
 sented to the governor, by the minister of foreign relations. 
 Mr. Rodney delivered an address in his own language, which 
 was interpreted ; and having concluded, he presented his cre- 
 dentials. Rodriguez, who was deeply affected, made a suita- 
 ble reply. But the interesting relations thus established be- 
 tween the government of Buenos Ayres, and the first minis- 
 ter from any foreign power, was destined to be of short con- 
 tinuance. Mr. Rodney's health was not re-established, and 
 he continued to languish until the 10th of June, 1824, when he 
 expired. The government passed a decree expressing their 
 grief at the event, directing his burial, with public funeral hon- 
 ours, and providing for the erection of a monument. 
 
 During the year 1824, the political and internal affairs of the 
 United Provinces continued tranquil and prosperous, and the 
 governments being relieved from the horrors of anarchy, and 
 in* a great measure, from the evils of war, were engaged in con- 
 solidating the republic, and in improving its condition. It is 
 an evidence of the stability of the public mind, that an elec- 
 tion of a new chief magistrate for Buenos Ayres took place 
 in a peaceable manner, and without occasioning any distur- 
 bance, which is the first instance in which there had been it 
 change in the executive without a revolution, or the employ- 
 ment of military force. Attempts were made for a re-union 
 of all the provinces of Rio de la Plata, and the establishment 
 of a general congress ; and a more favourable disposition, both 
 
IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. 22? 
 
 in the capital and in the provinces, was manifested for this de- 
 sirable object. 
 
 In October, 1824, general Alvear arrived in the United 
 States, from the United Provinces, as resident minister near 
 our government ; and on the 1 1th of the month he was pre- 
 sented to the President, by the seretary of state. In his ad- 
 dress on the occasion, he says that he was charged in the 
 name of all the provinces of Rio de la Plata, to express to 
 the government of the United States, the regard, friendship, 
 and gratitude they entertain for the magnanimous expression 
 with which they had been honoured in the solemn recognition 
 of their independence. He adds, that the letters which he has 
 to present to the president, will unfold more fully the solici- 
 tude and sincere desire which his government feels for an in- 
 timate union. The envoy of the United Provinces, however, 
 scarcely entered on the duties of his office, as he left Wash- 
 ington the following month, to return to his country, the gov- 
 ernment having appointed him to the chief command of the 
 army destined against the royalists in Upper Peru, where the 
 Spaniards still maintained their authority over some of the 
 provinces ; as the government of Buenos Ayres, in conse- 
 quence of the dissentions and civil wars which had prevailed, 
 for several years, had made but little effort in prosecuting the 
 war against the Spaniards of Peru. 
 
 A congress of the United Provinces, convened in Decem- 
 ber, 1824, at Buenos Ayres, and on the 15th of the month, 
 the executive delivered a message, which unfolds the present 
 condition of the republic. He speaks of the efforts which he 
 had made to secure the friendship of the American states en- 
 gaged in the same cause, and says, he has appointed ministers 
 to Colombia, and also to Peru. " The empire of Brazil," he 
 remarks, " forms a contrast to the noble republic of the Uni- 
 ted States, and a deplorable exception to the general policy of 
 the American nations." He complains of the base and low 
 artifices by which the province of Monte Video has been sep- 
 arated from the union, and retained in subjection by force of 
 arms. Every effort, he adds, has been made with the court 
 f Rio Janeiro, to induce it to abandon its usurpations and 
 listen to the dictatates of reason and justice, which might pre- 
 vent the terrible necessity of war, but without success. The 
 executive, however, does not despair of effecting an accom- 
 modation ; he speaks in high terms of the conduct of Great 
 Britain, and says, that the principles she has adopted towards 
 the American nations, must soon result in a recognition of 
 their independence. 
 
 The Brazilians still had possession of the province of the 
 
228 HISTORY OP THE REVOLUTION 
 
 Banda Oriental on the east side of the mer ; but in April, 
 1825, a revolution took place in the Banda Oriental, which 
 liberated it from the authority of Brazil* Lavalleja, Oribe, 
 and several other officers and inhabitants of the Banda Ori- 
 ental, on the 27th of April, left Buenos Ayres, and crossed to 
 the opposite side of the river, where they expected to have 
 found two hundred men assembled, who had collected, accor- 
 dingly, but had taken fright and dispersed. Having discover- 
 . ed that about forty of the Brazilian troops, and thirty of the 
 inhabitants, who had been pressed into their service, were at 
 Arenal Grande, Lavalleja and his party appeared before 
 them, and they joined and followed him. Being also joined 
 by a number of the inhabitants, he entered Soriano, and, re- 
 organizing the government of the place, marched to the Galli- 
 nas, where he destroyed about two hundred Brazilian troops, 
 who guarded it. Here Lavalleja found plenty of horses and 
 provisions, and was joined by the militia in the neighbourhood, 
 and even by many of the Brazilians. Re-passing the Negro, 
 he marched towards the Perdido, and by stratagem, got pos- 
 session of the person of Fructus Rivero, the Brazilian milita- 
 ry commander of the country, and his escort, all of whom, ex- 
 cept the officers, joined the party of Lavalleja. Rivero, 
 himself, afterwards joined the revolutionary cause, and public- 
 ly burnt his imperial uniform in the streets of Santa Lucia. 
 He also summoned the commander of Monte Video to surren- 
 der that place. More recent intelligence represents that the 
 revolution has extended throughout the province, the whole 
 population being engaged in it ; that a provisional government 
 had been established, which had sent deputies to the general 
 congress of the United Provinces, soliciting their assistance 
 and co-operation in expelling the Brazilians from Montevideo. 
 In pursuance of the solicitation of deputies sent to the gov- 
 ernment of Buenos Ayres, the congress passed a resolution, 
 authorizing the executive to guard the territory of the United 
 Provinces, from the dangers which might arise in the present 
 state of the Banda Oriental, and to re-enforce the line of the 
 Uruguay. 
 
 Lavalleja, was appointed governor and captain general of 
 the province of Banda Oriental, and on the I2th of Oct. 1825, 
 he attacked a corps of Brazilian cavalry, 2,000 strong, at La- 
 vandi, and obtained a signal victory. The Orientals form the 
 best cavalry in the world ; their number, was about the same 
 as that of the enemy. " To meet and to conquer/' says La- 
 valleja, " was the act of a moment. The charge was the 
 only manoeuvre that took place on both sides, and it was the 
 most obstinate ene that ever took place. The enemy com- 
 
IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. 229 
 
 menced theirs by a heavy discharge of fire arras, which was 
 despised by our brave troops, who with sabre in hand, and 
 carbine on the shoulder, met, encountered, and sworded the 
 foe ; and after completely routing, pursued them six miles 
 with great slaughter." The result was 400 killed on the field 
 of battle, and 522 prisoners, besides many wounded, and fu- 
 gitives afterwards taken. The entire province is now libera- 
 ted, and the Brazilians only hold possession of the city of 
 Monte Video. After carrying on open war with the country 
 east of the river for several years, and a disguised one with 
 Buenos Ayres, the Emperor of Brazil, on the 12th of Decem- 
 ber, 1825, declared war formally against the United Provin- 
 ces, and immediately published notice of the blockade of the 
 port of Buenos Ayres. No intelligence has been received of 
 the events of this war, which probably may result in important 
 consequences. Fortunately, the provinces are now harmonious, 
 are all at peace, and united on some plan or other, into one con- 
 federacy, the form and principles of which we have not been 
 able to ascertain. But there can be no doubt, that all the 
 provinces will make common cause against a troublesome, 
 and mischievous neighbour, who has so long manifested a dis- 
 position to encroach on their territory, by taking advantage of 
 their dissentions. Fortunately also, no enemy, now exists on 
 the side of Upper Peru, so that the provinces will be enabled 
 to direct their whole energies against the Brazilians. The 
 United Provinces have been so long engaged in war that they 
 possess the materials for forming large and efficient armies. 
 The military force, previous to this war, was nearly 8,000 
 strong. The Empire of Brazil is in an agitated state, and 
 almost exhibits the incipient stage of revolution. By the last 
 accounts, Bolivar was expected at Potosi, where general Su- 
 cre, has a veteran army, and there is great reason to believe, 
 that the conquerors of Ayacucho, intend to take a part in the 
 war against the Emperor of Brazil. Perhaps the liberator of 
 Colombia and Peru possesses the laudable ambition of being 
 the liberator of all South America ; he may believe that the 
 new governments will not be safe until royalty is exterminated 
 from the new? world, and every part of the American conti- 
 nent is not only independent, but FREE. When these facts 
 are considered, it cannot appear improbable, that this rash 
 step of Don Pedro, should bring upon him the arms of all the 
 southern republics, and result in the overthrow of his empire, 
 and the establishment of a republic which shall take its rank 
 in the family of nations, in the Southern hemisphere. The 
 province of Paraguay, is still entirely independent, and has 
 no political connexion with Buenos Ayres, or any of the otb* 
 
230 HISTORY OP THE REVOLUTION, &C. 
 
 er provinces ; it has taken no part in the bloody events of the 
 revolution, which disgraced and devastated the confederacy. 
 Not long after Belgrano, in 1810, marched against the royal- 
 ists of Paraguay, and was defeated on the river Tacuari* 
 within thirty or forty miles of Assumption, the Paraguays ef- 
 fected a revolution, without the aid of Buenos Ayres. They 
 deposed Velasco, the royal governor, and established a gov- 
 ernment for the province, but refused every solicitation to 
 unite with the confederacy. There were at first two parties, 
 one headed by Yedros, who had commanded the troops, which 
 defeated Belgrario, and the other by Dr. Francia who was ed- 
 ucated to the law ; an'd to avoid civil commotions, the people 
 appointed them both as joint governors. Dr. Francia, howev- 
 er, soon found means to displace his colleague, and a public 
 meeting of the citizens conferred on him the supreme au- 
 thority, which he has ever since exercised. He is styled dic- 
 tator, ^and has for years possessed the power of an absolute 
 sovereign, without any of the appendages or expenses of 
 royalty, or any of its usual means of support. He has no 
 nobility, no courtiers, and no favourites, nor does he make use 
 of official patronage, as a means of maintaining his ascenden- 
 cy. His government, is a mixture of patriarchial, and milita- 
 ry authority ; without any system, or written laws. He exer- 
 cises nearly all the funftions of government himself, man- 
 aging the affairs of the state, as a father does those of his 
 family. The only civil officers he employs, are a postmaster e 
 and a collector. The peculiarly submissive, and docile charac- 
 ter of the Paraguays, produced by the Jesuits, which still re- 
 mains, contributes to the support of this singular govern- 
 ment. ; yet the strength of it, is undoubtedly military power, 
 as the dictator has organized a national militia of 6,000 men, 
 a part of which are kept constantly in service. He prohibits 
 the freedom of the press, and excludes all foreigners from 
 Paraguay, 
 
HISTORY 
 
 AND PRESENT STATE OF 
 
 CHILE. 
 
 CHAPTER X1I1. 
 
 Extent and boundaries the Andes ; summits and passes ofmar* 
 itime border, bays and harbours rivers -face of the coun- 
 try soil climate and productions desert of Atacama 
 mines copper mines of Coquimbo districts islands San- 
 tiago Valparaiso government population army navy 
 ^commerce exports. 
 
 The republic of Chile comprises the tract of country that 
 extends from the summit of the Andes, westward to the Paci- 
 fic, and along the coast of the Pacific from the desert of Ata- 
 cama, in latitude 25 south, to the straits of Magellan, in lat- 
 itude 54 south, according to some authorities ; but according 
 to Pazos, it extends no further south than the gulf of Guayte- 
 cas, in latitude 42. its length, according to the first descrip- 
 tion, would be about 2,000 miles : according to the last, less 
 than 1,200; its average breadth is estimated at about 140 
 Biiles. Its northern boundary is the desert of Atacama ; its 
 eastern, the Andes ; its southern, the Patagonian territory, 
 or the straits of Magellan, and its western, the Pacific. 
 
 The lofty summits of the Andes, which traverse the entire 
 continent of South America, skirt the whole eastern border 
 of Chile, and form its eastern boundary. The highest sum- 
 mits in this range are Manflos, in latitude 28 45', the Tupun- 
 gato, in lat. 33 Q 24'; the Deseabezado, in lat. 35 Q ; the Blai> 
 guillo, in 35 4' ; the Langavi, in 35 24' ; the Chilian, in36 Q , 
 and the Cociabado, in 43 ; some of these are more than 
 
232 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 2,000 feet above the level of the ocean. There are fourteen 
 volcanoes, which are in a constant state of eruption, and a 
 greater number that discharge smoke only at intervals. The 
 two principal passes of the Andes lie between the united prov- 
 inces of La Plata and Chile, those of Putamda and Patos ; 
 the first leads from the city of Mendoza, and is about 200 
 miles in length ; the latter leads from the city of San Juan, 
 and is longer. To the north, the Andes are broader, but to the 
 south they are said to subside into such gentle slopes, that a 
 good carriage road might be made across the country .which is 
 unsettled. 
 
 Waters. Like Peru, Chile has an extensive maritime border 
 on the Pacific, and is much better accommodated with bays 
 and harbours, which are numerous along the whole coast. 
 The most considerable is the great gulf of Guaytecas, in which 
 is situated the Archipelago of Chiloe. Few countries are so 
 well supplied with rivers as Chile. Lying at the foot of the 
 Andes, it naturally receives the waters produced by the melt- 
 ing of that immense body of snow, which annually falls upon 
 those mountains. There are more than one hundred rivers of 
 considerable size, which run westward, of which fifty-two fall 
 directly into the ocean. The principal of these rivers, some 
 of which are navigable some distance into the interior, are the 
 Huasco, Lospontos, Maypu, Maule, Chilian, Ilata, Biobio, 
 Imperial, and Valdiva. 
 
 Surface, soil, climate, and productions. The numerous ridg- 
 es by which the surface of Chile is broken, present obstacles 
 to the internal communication, but such as are no where in- 
 surmountable. The loose composition of those ridges is 
 such, that roads may be formed along their sides with compar- 
 atively little labour ; and when made, such is the temperate 
 regularity of the seasons, that, with few repairs, they may be 
 preserved for ages. But the wide desart, and the lofty Cor- 
 dillera, by which Chile is enclosed and separated from the 
 rest of the continent, presents a barrier, consisting of a dreary 
 waste, and a range of mountains elevated in such ragged 
 masses, and reared so far into the region of snow, that it is 
 only passable for mules by some few narrow passes, and dur- 
 ing particular seasons of the year. The desart of Atacama 
 may be said to commence in Chile, almost immediately after 
 crossing the Juncal, or dry river, as it is sometimes called ; 
 thence to the river Salado, the northern boundary of the state, 
 is a distance of fifty miles ; th,ence to the town of Atacama, 
 in Upper Peru, is a distance of nearly three hundred miles, 
 by the way of the coast, and the road passes wholly over a dry, 
 sandy plain, where the traveller meets no living thing, either 
 
S.TATE OF CHILE. 233 
 
 of the vegetable or animal kingdom ; and losing sight' of ev* 
 ery other guide, his way is often only to be directed by the 
 bleached bones of mules, which have perished in attempting 
 to force a passage over that terrible waste. Instead of pas- 
 sing this dreary region, it is generally thought safer and better 
 to climb the steep crags of the mountains, and take the road 
 leading over the Andes, along their giddy precipices and nar* 
 row passes. Travellers and post-riders sometime cross the 
 deserts of Atacama, along the lower and more level road ; 
 but few or no traders or carriers ever venture to pass that 
 way; nor is it presumed any military leader would lightly be 
 induced to encounter its difficulties for the purpose of carrying 
 hostlities along that route into Chile. The desart of Atacama 
 may, therefore, be considered as a great natural barrier, by 
 which it is closed on that side against both commercial and 
 hostile visiters. 
 
 From the Andes, the inclination is so great, that all the riv- 
 ers flow with the rapidity of torrents, and are, therefore, not 
 navigable. They serve to irrigate the vallies, and render 
 them the most fertile in the world. The climate makes this 
 method of cultivation absolutely necessary for from the Sa- 
 lado to the Data, that is from 25 to 36 of south latitude, 
 not a cloud is to be seen above the horizon from the month of 
 November to the month of May. The atmosphere, during 
 this period, is perfectly clear ; and the dews are scarcely per- 
 ceptible, nor is the heat oppressive. The proximity of the 
 Andes tempers the air, and the mercury fluctuates between 
 70 and 80 degrees of Fahrenheit, and rarely rises to 85 de- 
 grees. Thunder storms, so frequent on the east of the Andes, 
 are unknown in this part of Chile. Winter commences in the 
 month of May ; the cold is mild, and the rains gentle, and un- 
 attended with wind. The rains of the winter fertilize the 
 hills, and the plains which cannot be irrigated during that 
 season, afford pasture for the cattle. The spring commences 
 in September, and the face of nature, in Chile, is then pecu- 
 liarly beautiful. The hills are verdant and covered with innu- 
 merable flowering shrubs, and the plains present to the eye a 
 carpet of flowers. The abundance of water, and the pecu- 
 liarity of climate, enable the inhabitants to raise all the fruits 
 of the earth in great perfection. The wheat which is cultiva- 
 ted in the valleys, is of excellent quality, and the produce, sel- 
 dom less than forty times the seed sometimes ninety, and on 
 the best land, even one hundred. Indian corn is likewise cul- 
 tivated, and produces abundantly. Barley is raised in great 
 quantities for the use of horses and mules, which, in the win- 
 ter, are fed on this grain, mixed with chopped straw, as in 
 VOL. II. 38 
 
'234 HISTORY AND PRESENT 
 
 Arabia and old Spain ; hemp and flax grow luxuriantly. Cot- 
 ton is here and there cultivated for domestic manufactures, 
 and there is one sugar plantation. The climate and soil is well 
 adapted to the culture of sugar, but the inhabitants have been 
 long accustomed to get that article from Peru, in exchange 
 for their wheat, and are not disposed to change their ancient 
 habits. Rice, likewise, would grow on the low lands, but it 
 is brought from Peru. 
 
 South of the river Ilata, the climate varies ; rains are fre- 
 quent in the summer, and in the winter are attended by storms 
 of wind. The grape is chiefly cultivated in these districts, 
 and the wine is better than where the vineyards are irrigated ; 
 the olive grows luxuriantly throughout ail Chile, and the oil is 
 of the first quality. On the banks of the river Maule, and on 
 all the rivers south of 35 degrees 17 minutes, there is excel- 
 lent timber, and the whole country abounds with forests of a 
 thorny minosa, which makes good charcoal, and is in general 
 used for fuel. Mines of the precious metals abound in almost 
 every part of Chile, and their annual produce, in prosperous 
 times has been estimated at 3,000,000 of dolars. In the 
 year 1825, a silver mine was discovered, thirty or forty miles 
 from Coquimbo, which is represented to be of the most ex- 
 traordinary richness. The vein is about forty miles in extent, 
 and the metal is said to merit the name of native silver ; it is 
 thought riot to be mineralised, but rather mixed with quartz and 
 feldspar. Silver to the value of half a million of dollars is said 
 have been dug from this mine in twenty days, and it is suppo- 
 sed that in one year, its produce will exceed five millions. 
 Besides the precious metals, the copper mines of Coquimbo 
 actually produced, during the year ending the 1st of May, 
 1318, amidst the difficulties of the times, and shipped in foreign 
 vessels, chiefly of the United States, forty-one thousand quin- 
 tals. 
 
 The copper mines are principally situated near the coast, 
 and are believed to be the most productive in the world. In 
 addition to the copper, there has, also, been shipped from 
 Chile, a considerable amount of tin. Of these two metals, 
 the annual production may be estimated at about five hundred 
 thousand dollars. The mines of iron and quicksilver are 
 very abundant ; mines of lead are also numerous and rich, 
 but almost entirely neglected : antimony and fossil salt are 
 found in great quantities ; salt springs abound ; salammoniac 
 and salt-petre are also abundant. 
 
 The republic of Chile is divided into the following districts 
 or provinces : Copiapa, Guasco, Coquimbo, Cusco, Petorca, 
 Quillota, Melipilla, Santa Rosa, Rancagua, Colcbagua, Curi- 
 co, Maule, Chilian, Isla de Maule, Canquenes, Ilata, Pucha- 
 
STATE OF CHILE* 
 
 cay, Conception de Chile, Isla de la Laxa. The country oc- 
 cupied by the warlike tribes of Araucana, extends from the 
 river Biobio, in latitude 26 50' to the 39th degree of latitude, 
 and from the Andes to the Pacific. It is divided into four dis- 
 tricts or provinces, by lines running from north to south. The 
 country between the river Totlen and the southern boundary 
 of the republic, is called Huilli Maypro. There are eighty- 
 two islands in the Archipelago of Chiloe, thirty-two of which 
 are inhabited by Indians, or the descendants of Europeans. 
 The largest is Chiloe, 180 miles in length from north to south, 
 with a breadth of 60, at the widest place. 
 
 The city of Santiago is situated in the district of Melipilla. 
 and was founded the 17th of February, 1514, by Don Pedro 
 de Valdivia, on the south bank of ttye Maypu, in 33 31' south 
 latitude. Santiago contains 40,000 inhabitants. The plain on 
 which the city stands, extends along the foot of the Andes, 
 certainly to the line ; and it is believed quite to the isthmus of 
 Panama north, and south to the straits of Magellan. This is 
 the only uniform level in Chile ; from hence to the coast the 
 descent is rapid and broken by irregular mountains and vallies. 
 On the eastern- extremity of the city, rises the small rocky hill 
 of Santa Lucia, formerly called the mountain of Gudon. These 
 insulated hills are frequently seen on the great plain of Chile. 
 A broad road extends round the south side of the town like 
 the boulevards of Paris, and separates it from the suburbs, 
 which are extensive and well built. The river is broad and 
 shallow, and in summer flows in several channels. There are 
 in Santiago eleven convents, seven nunneries, four parochial 
 churches, three hospitals, an university, and a mint. 
 
 The port of Valparaiso is situated in 33 I' 45* south lati- 
 tude in the district of Petorca. The town extends around the 
 bay from the castle of Saint Antonio, for nearly a mile, and 
 is separated from Almindral, a suburb of Valparaiso, by a low 
 beach ; the houses are irregularly scattered over the sides of 
 steep hills, which rise abruptly from the shore, and extend 
 along the ravines of baint Augustine, Saint Francisco, and 
 Gomez, the ground being very broken and rugged. The coun- 
 try near the town is very barren, and all the supplies are drawn 
 ' from Quillotta. The population of Valparaiso, including the 
 Almindral, does not exceed 6,500 souls. Conception is the 
 third city of Chile, and is considered the metropolis of the 
 southern part. Talcahua.no, its port, is six miles distant, and 
 has a fine harbour. Coquimbo and Copiapo have good har- 
 bours. Valdivia has one of the finest on the coast ; but it has 
 no cultivated country around it to give it importance. The 
 city is five miles from the sea on a river of the same name. 
 
236 HISTORY AI$D PRESENT, &C. 
 
 The island of Juan Fernandes, off this coast, was the resi? 
 dence of Alexander Selkirk, whose story gave rise to the r<5- 
 mance of Robinson Crusoe. 
 
 Government and Population. Since the liberation of Chile, 
 in 1817, an independent republican government has been main- 
 tained the principal part of the time, under a chief magistrate, 
 called a supreme director. A congress was convened in 1 825. 
 which framed a constitution for the republic, f which now 
 forms the basis of the gouernment. The independence of this 
 country has been acknowledge by the United States and Great 
 Britain. The population of Chile, exclusive of the independ- 
 ent tribes of Indians, is estimated at 1,200,000 inhabitants, 
 most of which are north of the river Biobio. 
 
 Army, Navy, and Commerce. In July, 1818, the regular 
 armyY)f Chile amounted to 8,400 men, exclusive of militia* 
 which were 28,960 ; an army, respectable for its numbers and 
 discipline, is still maintained, and is distinguished for its well 
 known services in the liberation of Peru. A formidable navy 
 was organized in 1818, and has ever since been efficiently em- 
 ployed in aiding the great cause of liberty and independence. 
 The principal articles of export from Chile, consist of gold, 
 silver, copper, tin, wheat, flour, hemp, cordage, hides, tallow, 
 jerked beef, vicuna, and guanaco wool, chinchilla skins, 
 and several kinds of dried fruits, figs, raisins, &c. The trade 
 of Chile is chiefly carried on with the United States, England, 
 and the neighbouring republics. Chile may be considered the 
 
 ranary of South America. The commerce of the United 
 tates with Chile is important and increasing ; from February, 
 1817, to July, 1818, there was exported to Chile, by our citi- 
 zens, merchandize to the amount of $ 1,375,000. Besides the 
 direct commerce of the United States with Chile, which has 
 been estimated at $2,000,000, the opening of its ports, which is 
 one of the consequences of its independence, affords the most 
 important advantages to the whale fishery, pursued in front of the 
 coast of Chile, in which from fifteen to twenty American ships 
 are engaged yearly, and also to the trade with the north west 
 coast, in which about fifteen vessels from the United States are 
 employed annually. Great advantages will likewise accrue to 
 the trade, which our citizens pursue of collecting cargoes of 
 seal skins and sandal wood on the islands in the Pacific ocean, 
 and carrying them to China, where they find a ready market, 
 and the avails purchase a home cargo of great value. The 
 settlement on Columbia river will ultimately maintain an im- 
 portant trade with Chile, which will afford a good market for 
 ship and other timber with which that country abounds. 
 
HISTORY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 REVOLUTION IN CHILE. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Establishment of a juntadisturbance at Santiago congress 
 called complaints as to the mode of election measures of 
 the congress it is overthrown by the Carreras their admin- 
 istration^-Chile invaded from Peru events of the war revo- 
 lution in the government treaty concluded dissentions among 
 the patriots success of the royalists their authority re-estab- 
 lished expedition of San Martinvictory at Chacabaco 
 emancipation of the country O'Higgins appointed director 
 expedition from Peru defeat of the patriots victory oj 
 Maypu its effects squadron under lord Cochrane expedi- 
 tion to Peru war with the Jlraucanian Indians and Bene- 
 vides piracies of Benevides resignation of O'Higgins es- 
 tablishment of a new government general Freyre chosen di- 
 rector Chile affords further succour to Peru itsjleet block- 
 ades Callao its exploits expedition* to Chiloe state of the 
 country conclusion. 
 
 THE first revolutionary movement in Chile, occurred in San- 
 tiago, where the inhabitants, in July, 1810, compelled the cap- 
 tain-general to resign, and count de la Conquista was appoint- 
 ed to succeed him, who favoured a revolution. He called to- 
 gether the most respectable land-holders, in September, 1810, 
 to take into consideration the present condition of the country 
 and of Spain, and to decide an the measures proper to be 
 adopted. The result was the creation of a junta, of which the 
 count de la Conquista was president. The junta determined 
 on assembling a congress, and prescribed regulations for the 
 choice of representatives. The election in Santiago took 
 
238 HISTORY (JF THE 
 
 place on the 1 1th of April, 1811, and a detachment of 
 under Don J. Figueroa, was stationed in the square of the 
 consulado to preserve order. This officer, although a Span- 
 iard, had declared in favour of the revolvtion, and was in the 
 employ of the junta ; yet, nevertheless, he had formed a fac- 
 tion against it, and availed himself of his situation and of the 
 Occasion, to attempt to crush the revolution. A skirmish en* 
 sued between the troops that adhered to Figueroa, and those 
 who remained faithful to the junta, in which fifty or sixty men 
 were killed. The result was favourable to the popular cause, 
 and the leading conspirators were seized and banished, except 
 Figueroa, who was executed. After this, the royal audiencii 
 was dissolved, and its powers vested in a new tribuunal. 
 
 The election of deputies to the congress was made accord- 
 ing to the regulation of the junta, which prescribed the num- 
 ber for each municipality, but not according to the population. 
 There was consequently little equality in the representation of 
 different towns, which occasioned complaints and remonstran- 
 ces. The three brothers, of the name of Carrera, sons of a 
 wealthy land-holder in Santiago, joined in the clamours, and 
 put themselves at the head of the disaffected, of which the 
 military of that city formed a part. The congress acknowlddg- 
 ed the necessity of a reformation in the representation, which 
 being made, tranquillity was restored, and the congress re- 
 sumed its session. It passed a decree, declaring that all Span- 
 iards who were dissatisfied with the new order of things, should 
 leave the country within six months, in which period they might 
 dispose of their property and remove with all their effects. The 
 congress also enacted many salutary laws for the reformation 
 of the abuses of the old system ; the curates were to be paid 
 from the public treasury, not by their parishioners ; the chil- 
 dren of slaves born in future were declared free, and the re- 
 strictions were removed from commerce ; the ancient law by 
 which government disposed of places in the municipalities, 
 was abrogated, and it was provided that the members of the 
 municipalities should be elected annually ; many useless offi- 
 ces were abolished, and the salaries of others reduced. A 
 manufactory of fire-arms, and a military school, called artillc- 
 . ria practica, were estabished, and the powers of the junta 
 prescribed. 
 
 Notwithstanding these revolutionary measures, Abascal, the 
 viceroy of Peru, remained on apparent terms of friendship 
 with the new government. 
 
 Encouraged by the success of their first attempt, the Car- 
 reras formed a plan for effecting the revolution, and placing 
 themselves at the head of that government. And their connec- 
 
iH OtflLE. 
 
 tidn with the army, one being major in the grenadiers, and 
 another captain in the artillery, facilitated the success of theit 
 enterprise. Having acquired an ascendancy over the troops* 
 and placing themselves at their head, on the 15th of November, 
 1811, they compelled congress to depose the junta, and ap- 
 point three new members of whom J. M. Carrera was one. 
 This junta, the offspring of violence and usurpartion, immedi- 
 ately attempted to render itself absolute ; a new regiment of 
 cavalry was formed, and J. M. Carrera placed at its head ; arfd 
 having strengthened themselves sufficiently, on the 2d of De- 
 cember they dissolved the congress. The junta now ruled 
 without control, relying for its support entirely on the military, 
 who were greatly devoted to the Carreras. 
 
 The administration of the Carreras occasioned opposition 
 and disaffection, which surrounded them with difficulties and 
 dangers ; one conspiracy against them was formed after anoth- 
 er, four of which they succeeded in suppressing. At length, 
 to increase their embarrassments, they quarrelled among them- 
 selves, and J. M. Carrera withdrew from the government; 
 but a reconciliation having been effected, he resumed his for- 
 mer situation in October, 1812. 
 
 These dissentions and disorders in Chile, induced the 
 viceroy of Lima to send an expedition against that country, 
 under general Pareja, which early in the year 1813, attack- 
 ed and took possession of the post of Talcahuano, with- 
 out resistance. From this place he advanced to La Con- 
 ception, where the garrison declared in his favour, which in- 
 creased his force to 4,000 men. He marched towards the 
 river Maule. 
 
 To oppose Pareja, J. M. Carrera, leaving his brother Juan 
 Jose in his place in the government, marched at the head of 
 0,000 men and approached the royal army. On the night of the 
 12th of April, 1813, he sent a detachment of troops to sur- 
 prise and attack the enemy in their encampment. This 
 attack was successiul, but not without great loss to the 
 patriots. It however induced Pareja to retire to Chilian, 
 where he erected fortifications for his security ; and the gar- 
 risons which he had left at Talcahuano and La Conception, 
 were obliged to capitulate, but their commanders escaped to 
 Peru. 
 
 To free themselves from the influence of the Carreras, the 
 junta sent Juan Jose Carrera to the army, and filled his place, 
 so that it now consisted of J. A. Perez, A. Eyzaguirre and 
 M. Infante. They removed to the town of Talca, near the 
 seat of war, the better to direct its operations and watch over 
 the safety of the country. J. M. Carrera continued to com- 
 
240 HlSTdftY OF THE 
 
 inand the an&y, and governed without restraint over the coiin- 
 try where his troops were stationed ; and his conduct and the 
 devastations of his army'so exasperated the people throughout 
 the intendancy of La Conception, that they declared for the 
 royalists. It was deemed necessary to remove from the com- 
 mand of the army a man who had rendered himself so obnox- 
 ious to the people. Carrera was accordingly displaced by 
 the junta, and colonel O'Higgins appointed to succeed him, 
 and colonel M'Kenna, second in command, on the 24th of 
 November, 1813. Carrera refused to relinquish the com- 
 mand, but being abandoned by the army, he was compelled 
 to yield, and on his way to Santiago, with his brother Luis, 
 both were taken by a party of royalists and conducted to Chil- 
 ian. 
 
 For nearly a year the Spanish forces remained at Chilian, 
 and no important military operations took place. On the 
 death of their commander, Pereja, general Gainza arrived 
 from Lima, with re-enforcements, and took the command. 
 On the 19th of March, 1814, Gainza attacked M'Kenna, with 
 one division of the Chilean army, encamped at El Membril- 
 lal, twelve miles from Chilian, but was repulsed with loss ; and 
 the next day O'Higgins, who had come to the relief of M'Ken- 
 na, engaged the royal army with success, and it suffered se- 
 verely. Not discouraged by these checks, Gainza resolved 
 to march against Santiago, which was in a defenceless con- 
 dition ; and advancing rapidly, the royalists crossed the 
 Maule, and O'Higgins pursuing them, encamped on the oppo- 
 site side of the river. In the night, O'Higgins crossed the 
 river with his army, without destroying his encampment, by 
 which movement Gainza was completely deceived ; being so 
 surprised in the morning at seeing an army before him, and 
 an encampment in his rear, which he supposed filled with 
 troops, he abandoned his plan and retired to the town of Tal- 
 ca, which he had taken a few days before. O'Higgins open- 
 ed a communication with Santiago, and cut off that of the en- 
 emy with Chilian. 
 
 The fall of Talca was attributed to the want of energy and 
 courage in the junta, who left the town several days before 
 the approach of the enemy, and took off a part of the garri- 
 son for their own security. This occasioned a revolution ; 
 the junta was deposed and the government entrusted to Don 
 F. Lastra, governor of Valparaiso, who was styled supreme 
 director. At this time, propositions for an accommodation 
 were received from the viceroy of Lima, brought by captain 
 Hilly ar of the British frigate Phoebe, which induced Lastra 
 to call a meeting of the principal inhabitants of Santiago. 
 
REVOLUTION 1% CJHILE. 241 
 
 which decided that the director should propose terms of capU 
 tulation to general Gainza. The result was a capitulation, 04 
 the 5th of May, whereby Gainza and his troops were to re* 
 Embark for Lima, within two months, and to leave the places 
 he then occupied in the same state of military defence as he 
 had found them. It was also stipulated that the viceroy should 
 acknowledge the government of Chile, and all the changes 
 which had been made, and that Chile should send a certain 
 number of deputies, to the cortes of Spain, as members of 
 that body. Two colonels were delivered by each party, as 
 hostages, and peace was restored for a season. The only ob- 
 ject of the Spanish chiefs, however, seems to have been to gain 
 time and save their army, as Gainza, under various pretences 
 refused to fulfil the articles of the treaty, and by this base ex- 
 pedient preserved his army until general Osorio arrived with 
 re-enforcements from Lima. 
 
 The two Carreras having made their escape from Chilian, 
 exerted all their influence to rouse their adherents, and form 
 a party subservient to their ambition ; and by the assistance of 
 their partizans, and by bribing the troops at Santiago, they de- 
 posed Lastra on the 23d of August, 1814, and re-established 
 the junta. J. M. Carrera, M. M. Ursua, and J. Urive, were 
 the members. This revolution, effected by force and corrup- 
 tion, excited much indignation with the inhabitants of Santia- 
 go, not so much on account of attachment to Lastra, as from 
 hostility to the Carreras, and disapprobation of the means by 
 which they had again placed themselves at the head of affairs. 
 At the desire of the inhabitants, O'Higgins marched with his 
 troops towards the capital. Some skirmishing took place be- 
 tween the troops of O'Higgins, and those of Carrera, and when 
 a decisive action was on the eve of being fought, and breth- 
 ren engaged in the same cause, were about to shed each oth- 
 er's blood, a deputy arrived from the Spanish general, Osorio, 
 with intelligence, that Abascal, the viceroy of Lima, disapprov- 
 ed of the capitulation. This put an end to the civil war, and 
 the imminent danger of the country induced O'Higgins to sub- 
 mit to the authority of the junta. Carrera, under pretence of 
 newly organizing the army, dismissed such of the officers as he 
 considered unfriendly to himself, many of whom happened to 
 be the best officers in the service. This occasioned discon- 
 tent among the troops, which was followed by alarming deser- 
 tions. Leaving O'Higgins at the head of the army, Carrera 
 returned to Santiago. The Spanish general Osorio, who had 
 succeded Gainza, advanced as far as Cachapual, at the head 
 of 4,000 men, and O'Higgim , being unable to oppose him, 
 threw himself into Rancagua, seventy miles from Santiago^ 
 
falSTORY OF THJE 
 
 Siege was immediately laid to the town, and an attack made 
 On it, which lasted thirty-six hours. During the action, Car* 
 Fera approached the town with re-enforcements, which indu- 
 ced Osorio, to recross the river Cachapual, leaving two hun- 
 dred men to cover his retreat. But Carrera, instead of en- 
 tering the town, fell back on Santiago, when Osorio returned 
 to the attack. Seeing no prospect of relief, and having lost 
 two thirds of his men, O'Higgins resolved to evacuate the 
 place, which he could only effect by opening a way through 
 the lines of the enemy. He was retiring towards the capital, 
 but on learning that the Carreras were making no preparations 
 for its defence, and only appeared to think of escaping, he 
 changed his plan, and retreated in a different direction. Not- 
 withstanding the Carreras had fifteen hundred troops under 
 their command, they made no attempt to oppose the royalists, 
 or defend the capital, and their soldiers committed such depre- 
 dations on the inhabitants, that, becoming exasperated, they 
 sent deputies to Osorio, inviting him to enter the capital, to 
 re-establish order, and afford them protection. Great conster- 
 nation now prevailed throughout Chile, and more than two 
 thousand of its inhabitants fled to Mendoza, in the province 
 of Cuyo, one of the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, 
 bordering on Chile. J. M. Carrera also retired to that place 
 with six hundred troops. There being no army to oppose Oso- 
 rio, he entered Santiago, and took possession of Valparaiso, 
 and all the principal towns, without opposition, and at the end 
 of October, 18 14, the Spanish authority was completely re-es- 
 tablished throughout Chile. Here, as well as in other parts 
 of Spanish America, the inhabitants became the victims of 
 royal vengeance ; arrests, imprisonments, punishments, and 
 banishments followed, and filled the country with terror, suf- 
 fering and horror. More than one hundred patriots were ex- 
 iled to the desert island of Juan Fernandes, three hundred and 
 eighty miles from the coast. 
 
 For more than two years, the royalists maintained their 
 power in Chile, and governed with the greatest rigour, which 
 produced general discontent among the people, who, however, 
 had no means of throwing off the yoke. At length, like the 
 Israelites of old, they found a deliverer, who was raised up to 
 rescue them from the hand of the oppressor, and liberate them 
 from bondage. General San Martin, governour of thfe neigh 
 bouring province of Cuyo, conceived the noble design of eman- 
 cipating Chile, and having spent a year in levying and disci- 
 plining troops for the purpose, his army commenced its march 
 in January, 1817 ; and by the most incredible exertions and 
 perseYerance, crossed the lofty and rugged Andes, over frozen 
 
HEVOLUTION IN CHILE, 
 
 -summits, along precipitous ledges, and through narrow and 
 dangerous defiles, many of which were fortified by the enemy. 
 These appalling difficulties, however, were overcome, but not 
 without the loss of some men, and several thousand mules 
 And horses. The army consisted of two divisions, one com- 
 manded by Don E. Soler, and the other by O'Higgins, and oc- 
 cupied Aconcagua, Santarosa, and other places along the 
 road which the royalists had abandoned, and concentrated 
 their forces at Chacabaco, a position of difficult access, and 
 which overlooks the plain of Santarosa, through which the on- 
 ly road to Santiago passes, which is distant only forty miles. 
 Notwithstanding the strong position occupied by the enemy, 
 San Martin did not hesitate to attack them without waiting for 
 the arrival of part of his troops, and his artillery. The attack 
 was made on the morning of the 12th of February, in the 
 most spirited manner, and the enemy was disloged from their 
 position, with six hundred men killed, and about the same 
 number made prisoners. The remainder of the royalists fled, 
 and took refuge in the fortress of Talcahuano. Their com- 
 mander, and the captain general of Chile, Marco, was after- 
 wards taken near Valparaiso. This victory terminated the 
 campaign, and emancipated the country. San Martin proceed- 
 ed to Santiago, where a meeting of the principal inhabitants 
 was convened, which elected him supreme director of Chile, 
 which he declined, and the office was conferred on O'Hig- 
 gins. All of Chile was again under the government of the 
 patriots, except a few fortresses occupied by the Spaniards. 
 San Martin returned to Buenos Ayres, to concert meas- 
 ures for an expedition into Peru, for the liberation of that 
 country, leaving O'Higgins to reduce the places which still 
 held out. Before this was effected, the viceroy of Lima suc- 
 ceeded in throwing fifteen hundred men into the fortress of 
 Talcahuano, which, in point of strength, will compare with 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 Great exertions were now made, to fit out a formidable ex- 
 pedition against Peru, both by Buenos Ayres and Chile. 
 The new levies made in Chile, increased the liberating army 
 to nearly double its number ; but time was required to disci- 
 pline these raw troops. The want of transports was the prin- 
 cipal cause which delayed the expedition. Aware of these 
 preparations, and alarmed at the consequences of a victorious 
 army in Peru, knowing* the disposition of the people to revolt, 
 the viceroy resolved to decide the fate of Peru in Chile, and 
 by very great exertions, collected and embarked 5,000 men, 
 commanded by Osorio, which landed at Talcahuano. They 
 immediately marched for the capital, intending to overtake 
 
244 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 and engage O'Higgins before he could unite with San Mar* 
 tin. Being re-enforced by the garrison, and the inhabitants*, 
 Osorio had nearly 8,000 men, with which he advanced rapid- 
 ly through the country ; but before he passed the Maule, the 
 different divisions of the patriot forces had formed a junction, 
 and San Martin appealing to the capital, its inhabitants in the 
 niost patriotic manner, voluntarily stripped themselves of 
 plate, and all utensils of silver, to supply the wants of the ar- 
 my. The moment the troops were in a condition to take the 
 field, San Martin marched to meet the enemy, and coming up 
 With them, a skirmishing commenced, and was kept up for 
 several days. On the 19th of March, 1818, a more serious 
 affair took place. O'Higgins, with the advance of the army, 
 having attacked a part of the Spanish force, drove them back 
 With precipitation, and pursued them into the streets of Talca. 
 This forced back the whole of the Spanish army, and discov* 
 cred to Osorio, that he had estimated too lightly the prowess 
 of the patriot army and its general. He apprehended that 
 San Martin would attack him in the morning, with all his force, 
 and dreading the consequences, he resolved to select two 
 thousand of his best troops, and try to seal a victory, by a night 
 attack. Accordingly, about nine o'clock in the evening, when 
 the right wing of the liberating army had taken its position foi- 
 the night, and the left was in motion, the enemy rushed upon 
 them in the most furious manner. The surprise and impet- 
 tiosity of the attack threw the artillery into confusion, which 
 Communicated to the troops on their march, who, after a 
 slight resistance, broke and dispersed, and all the efforts of 
 their officers to rally them, were ineffectual. The right of 
 the army continued the contest for some time, and retired in 
 good order. One half of the army was dispersed, and near- 
 ly all its baggage and artillery were lost. With what remained, 
 San Martin retired to the defile of Angulemu, on the route to 
 Santiago, where he left the remains of his troops, and pro- 
 ceeded with the director to the capital, to rouse the inhabit- 
 ants, and procure means for increasing and re-organizing his 
 army. Animating proclamations were circulated through the 
 country, by San Martin and the director, and by the most in- 
 credible exertions, the army, after marching two hundred and 
 forty miles, in a few days presented a formidable front on the 
 plains of Maypu. 
 
 Following up his advantage, Osorio marched with great ce- 
 lerity, and in twelve days reached the banks of the Maypu. 
 After some skirmishing on the 3d and ,4th of April, on 
 the 5th, the royalists crossed the river, and the two armies 
 came in sight of each other. Considerable maneuvering 
 
REVOLUTION IN CHILE. 24/> 
 
 look place, each commander endeavouring to get the advan- 
 tage of his opponent. San Martin continued riding along the 
 lines, and addressed each separate corps, infusing his own an- 
 imation, confidence and spirit, into them ; whilst patriotic 
 songs resounded through the army, by which means the en- 
 thusiasm of the troops was raised to the highest pitch. San 
 Martin expected that Osorio would attack him, but peceiving 
 that the enemy did not intend to make an attack that day, and 
 seeing the ardour with which his army was inspired, he gave 
 orders to prepare for action. The right, composed of infant- 
 ry, was commanded by general Balcarce, and colonel Las 
 Heras, and the infantry on the left was under colonel Alvarado ; 
 a part of the artillery and cavalry was posted on each wing, 
 and there was a strong reserve in the rear, under colonel 
 Quintana. The army thus formed, advanced towards the 
 enemy, who received them with a tremendous fire from his 
 infantry and his artillery, posted on a small eminence. This 
 did not stop the progress'of the patriot army ; the enemy's cav- 
 alry made a charge upon them, who were met and driven back 
 under their guns, by the cavalry of the patriots. The action 
 now became general along the whole line, and soon the fire 
 was tremendous and destructive. Each party displayed equa) 
 obstinacy ; at length the line of the Independents began to 
 vacillate, when the reserve was ordered up, and the whole 
 returned to the charge with an impetus irresistible and over 
 whelming. So obstinate, however, was the resistance of the 
 enemy, that they were literally pushed from the ground with 
 the bayonets ; and the regiment of Burgos, twelve hundred 
 strong, and the best troops of Spain was not broken until re- 
 peated charges were made on it, led by San Martin in person, 
 The contest was long and obstinate, continuing from noon un- 
 til six in the evening ; never was a field more sharply con- 
 tested, or a victory more decisive and complete. The entire 
 Spanish army was destroyed ; its chief, with a few horsemen, 
 alone escaped, when they saw that the day was lost. The 
 whole of the enemy's baggage, military chests, artillery, and 
 every thing belonging to the army, fell into the hands of the 
 victors. Two thousand of the enemy covered the field of 
 battle, and two hundred officers, and three thousarid rank and 
 file were made prisoners. The patriots lost one thousand 
 killed and wounded. 
 
 The capital, which, since the defeat of the army, had been 
 covered with gloom, ^vas now filled with joy and rejoicing ; 
 the sublime effusions of popular and patriotic feeling, which 
 were exhibited, cannot be described, nor even conceived by 
 those who have never witnessed a similar scene. The people 
 
 VOL. II. 39 
 
246 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 in transports of joy universally exclaimed, " at last the plain* 
 of Maypu have sealed our Independence," while San Martin 
 was hailed as the saviour of the country, and the master-spirit 
 of the revolution. 
 
 Great exertions were now renewed to prepare an expedi- 
 tion to Peru ; to collect a well disciplined army, and a suffi- 
 cient naval force and transports for the expedition. The lat- 
 ter was attended with the most difficulty, and was the princi- 
 pal cause of delay. Lord Cochrane arrived in Chile, in No- 
 vember, 1818, and was immediately appointed commander in 
 chief of the Chilean squadron. By great exertions, the fleet 
 was rendered so efficient, under the wonderful genius of Lord 
 Cochrane, that it drove the Spanish from the Pacific, and in 
 September, 1818, attacked their shipping and batteries at 
 Callao. Lord Cochrane proceeded from thence to Guaya- 
 quil, where he captured a number of valuable Spanish ships 
 laden with timber ; and from hence he sailed to Talcahuano, 
 on the frontier of Chile, where he took on board a detach- 
 ment of troops, and proceeded for Valdivia, a town in the 
 south, in the possession of the Spaniards, and strongly forti- 
 fied. This town and district he captured on the 2d of Feb- 
 ruary, 1820, by a bold and skilful combination of operations. 
 The squadron returned to Valparaiso, where, on the 18th of 
 August, 1820, the troops were embarked, and the expedition 
 sailed for the liberation of Peru. An account of its proceed- 
 ings and success has been given in the history of the revolu- 
 tion in Peru. 
 
 For three years, the southern frontier of Chile was devasta- 
 ted by the hostilities of the Araucanian Indians, headed by 
 Benavides, an outlaw and pirate. Benavides was a native of 
 Quirihue, in the province of Conception, and served as a pri- 
 vate in the patriot army, during the first revolution. He be- 
 came a sergeant of grenadiers, and finally deserted to the Span- 
 iards, at Membrilla, and subsequently at the action at that 
 place, was made a prisoner ; but when conducting him to the 
 court martial to be tried, he made his escape, and continued 
 in the service of the Spaniards until again taken prisoner, on 
 the plains of Maypu. He was condemned to be shot as a de- 
 serter, and was supposed to have been killed ; but being only 
 dreadfully wounded, he feigned to be dead, and was carried 
 off, and left with the dead bodies of others, shot at the same 
 time, and in the night crawled off to a cottage, where, being 
 taken care of, he recovered. Afterwards he offered his servi- 
 ces to San Martin to dissuade the Indians on the southern 
 bank of Biobio, from the predatory war in which the Spaniards 
 wished to engage them. His services were accepted, and he 
 

 REVOLUTION IN CHILE. 247 
 
 was furnished with a commission and documents. But instead 
 of attempting to persuade the Indians to remain peaceable, he 
 went to Nicimiento, and offered to Sanchez, the Spanish com- 
 mander in that quarter, to prosecute the war on the southern 
 frontier of Chile, if he would confer on him the command. 
 Sanchez accordingly retired to Valdivia, and left Benavides as 
 commander in chief on the whole of the southern frontier. 
 This savage now commenced a war of desolation and blood, 
 which perhaps has never been surpassed. He laid waste 
 every thing before him with fire and sword ; he put all his 
 prisoners to death, cut the throat of an officer bearing a flag 
 of truce ; he compelled the peasants to follow him on pain of 
 death, and even women and children were often murdered to 
 prevent their giving information of the route he had pursued, 
 or the mountain in which his party had secreted themselves. 
 His orders to the leaders of his guerrillas were written in 
 blood, and executed with an exactness which shew the terror 
 with which he had inspired the vile instruments of his cruel- 
 ties and murders. 
 
 The armies of the republic were employed in Peru ; but the 
 governor of the province of Conception, defended the frontier 
 as well as he could, against so ferocious an enemy. On the 
 26th of September, 1 820, he was attacked on the river Laja 
 by three hundred regulars, and some militia under general Al- 
 cazar, and was very hard pressed. At night Benavides sent a 
 messenger, offering to spare the lives of all who would surren- 
 der themselves up unarmed. His men being overcome with 
 fatigue, and his ammunition nearly exhausted, Alcazar was 
 obliged to accept these terms and capitulated. His officers 
 were all immediately shot, and himself delivered over to the 
 Indians. 
 
 At length this monster was defeated on the 27th of Novem- 
 ber, 1820; but still continued formidable. The success of 
 his predatory incursions, and the authority he had acquired 
 over the Araucanians, led him to fancy himself a powerful 
 monarch, and to increase his power for war, he attempted to 
 establish a navy. The town of Arauco, the capital of the 
 country of the Araucanian Indians is directly opposite the 
 island of St. Maria, where ships which have doubled Cape 
 Horn, stop for refreshments, which gave him opportunities for 
 surprising and capturing vessels. The first he captured was 
 the ship Hero, from the United States, and the second, the 
 American brig Herselia, which anchored in a small bay of the 
 island of St. Maria, opposite to Arauco. The captain and 
 crew of the Herselia were made prisoners, pillaged of every 
 thing they had, and compelled to engage in the service of Pen- 
 
2 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 avides. He despatched one of his vessels to the island of Chi* 
 loe, and obtained from the Spanish authorities nine pieces of 
 cannon, a quantity of ammunition, eleven Spanish officers, am 
 twenty soldiers. The royal chiefs did not hesitate to emplo 
 Such a savage monster in making war on the patriots. After 
 this, Benavides captured the English whale ship Perseverance, 
 and the American brig Ocean, having on board several thou- 
 gand stan ds of arms. He put the captain of the Perseverance 
 to death, for attempting to escape, and a seaman who desert- 
 ed, he cut in pieces, and exhibited the mangled body as a 
 warning to others. He compelled the crews of these vessels 
 to serve with his troops. 
 
 In the month of October, 1821, a Chilean expedition pro- 
 ceeded against Arauco, and their troops having defeated the 
 Araucanians, commanded by one .of Benavides' officers, the 
 Indians set fire to the town and shipping, and fled to the woods* 
 leaving every thing to be consumed which they could not car- 
 ry off. The affairs of Benavides had now become desperate ; 
 and in December he offered to surrender himself and all his 
 partizans to the Intendant of Conception ; but soon after he 
 embarked in a launch, and attempted to escape to one of the 
 southern ports of Peru, but having sent a soldier to swim 
 ashore, to look for water, the soldier betrayed him, and he was 
 arrested on the beach. He was tried, condemned, and exe* 
 cuted, on the 23d of February, 1822. 
 
 No important events occurred in Chile during the year 1822, 
 as their army and navy were employed in Peru ; the Spanish 
 authority was entirely overthrown in Chile ; the war with the 
 Araucanian Indians was at an end, and the Chilean squadron- 
 was triumphant on the ocean. On the 1 8th of November, the 
 town of Valparaiso was visited by one of those dreadful con- 
 rulsions of nature, to which this region is exposed. A consid- 
 erable portion of the town was laid in ruins by a tremendous 
 earthquake ; few houses were left standing, which were ten- 
 antable ; more than three hundred bodies were found among 
 the ruins. In January, 1823, Lord Cochrane retired from the 
 command of the Chilean navy, and on the 10th of the month, 
 addressed a letter to the officers belonging thereto, in which 
 he says, that by their united exertions, the naval power of the 
 enemy in those seas had been annihilated, and that the com- 
 merce of the Pacific was every where carried on under the 
 protection of the Independent flag. 
 
 O'Higgins had hitherto continued at the head of the gov- 
 ernment, as supreme director, but had become unpopular, and 
 an opposition to his administration extensively prevailed. 
 Among other things, the director was charged with having en* 
 
REVOLUTION IN 
 
 gaged in disgraceful speculations. General Frejrre, who was 
 at the head of the principal part of the military force, was 
 among the opponents of the director, and every thing threat- 
 ened a revolution in the government. O'Higgins was sensible 
 of the gathering storm which impended over him, and to 
 avoid its effects, or abate its violence, on the 28th of January, 
 1823, he called together the officers of the government and 
 authorities of the capital, to deliberate on the state of affairs, 
 and determine on the means of preserving the public tranquil- 
 lity. The result was, that the next day the director issued a 
 decree, containing the abdication of his authority, and resign- 
 ing it to a junta to be exercised provisionally, until the nation- 
 al representatives could be assembled. The junta were Ey- 
 zaguirre, Infante, and Errazuris. This decree was read to 
 the people, and O'Higgins himself proclaimed the election of 
 the new government. He untied the ribbon, the badge of his 
 office, and put into the hands of the junta, who then took the 
 oath of their new office. The new government appointed D. 
 A. Vial, minister of Finance and war, and D. M. Egana, min- 
 ister of state and marine. But, notwithstanding the resigna- 
 tion of the director, general Freyre who arrived at Valpa- 
 raiso not long after, at the head of a considerable army, order- 
 ed him arrested and imprisoned. A revolution in the govern- 
 ment took place ; the administrative junta decreed by O'Hig- 
 gins was overthrown, and a provisional government estab- 
 lished ; general Freyre was appointed director. The last of 
 March, 1823, a statute was published, providing for the as- 
 sembling of a supreme congress, to frame a constitution, and 
 until one was formed and adopted, the constitution of 1818, 
 except such provisions as were abrogated or altered by this 
 act, was to form the basis of the government. The act pro- 
 vided that the provisional government within thirty days from 
 its establishment, should issue warrants for the election of rep- 
 resentatives to congress, which should meet within two months 
 thereafter ; it also fixed the basis of population of the districts, 
 and the ratio of representation, which was one deputy to 
 15,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The expedition under San Martin, against Peru, was com- 
 pletely successful ; . the country was liberated from the au- 
 thority of Spain, and a government established, and San Mar- 
 tin returned to Chile, in October, 1822. But almost immedi- 
 ately after he left Peru, the new government was involved in 
 dissentions, which threatened the destruction of all the fruits 
 of the glorious expedition, from Chile, directed by the illustri- 
 ous San Martin. In June following, the Spanish general, Cam 
 terac, re-entered Lima, and the patriots took refuge in Gallae 
 
 39* 
 
250 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 the revolution in Peru, being thus speedily terminated, and 
 the royal authority re-established. These disastrous events in 
 Peru, induced the Liberator, Bolivar, who had recently brought 
 the war to a conclusion in the southern provinces of Colombia* 
 to resolve on proceeding to Peru with a considerable force. 
 The government of Chile, offered again to send an auxiliary 
 force, for the prosecution of the war in Peru. Accordingly, 
 their navy, with some troops, were placed under the command 
 of Bolivar. After the annihilation of the royal army, and the 
 emancipation of Peru, in 1824, a part of the Chilean fleet was 
 generously placed at the disposal of the Peruvian government, 
 for the investment of Callao, which place the royalists still 
 possess. 
 
 Notwithstanding all the disorders and civil wars, which have 
 prevailed in Chile, it is entitled to the honour not only of 
 maintaining its own independence, but of having fitted out. 
 two expeditions, and afforded important assistance for the 
 emancipation of Peru, and for the support of the revolution 
 in that country. For the last two years intelligence from Chi- 
 le, has been scanty and obscure ; some progress seems to have 
 been made, in maturing a system of government, and in con- 
 solidating the republic. The new government has adopted 
 some salutary laws, and among others, an act, in June, 1823 5 
 for the entire abolition of slavery. It declares all persons 
 born in the territories of the republic, all who^tread the soil of 
 Chile, and all who have been slaves, to be free from the pass- 
 ing of the act, and entitled to the rights of citizens. 
 
 The Spanish power is annihilated in Chile, and no important 
 military events have taken place since the overthrow of 
 O'Higgins' administration. Freyre, the director, fitted out an 
 expedition against the island of Chiloe, the only place in the 
 possession of the royalists, in 1824, which was unsuccessful. 
 The naval force of Chile has been principally employed in the 
 siege of Callao, and has performed some heroic exploits ; fifty 
 men in boats entered the harbour, and burnt and destroyed 
 six vessels, including the Spanish frigate Venganza ; and at 
 another time one hundred and twenty-five men, in boats, .at- 
 tacked five of the enemy's vessels in the harbour, one of twen- 
 ty guns, and captured and carried off three of them, and burnt 
 the other two. The Chilean squadron stilt continues the 
 blockade of Callao. 
 
 The dissentions and passions of the revolution appear to 
 have subsided in Chile, and the public sensibility to be tran- 
 quillized. During the year 1825, a congress has been in ses- 
 sion, which framed a constitution of government, that has gone 
 into operation without occasioning civil 'dissentionS or open op- 
 
REVOLUTION" Itt CJKILH7. 251 
 
 position. We have not seen this instrument, but it is to b 
 presumed that its form and fundamental principles are sim- 
 ilar to those of the other southern republics. General Freyrfe 
 is still at the head of the government, in which no revolution 
 has taken place since the spring of 1823. He bears the title 
 of supreme director. The Spaniards still possess the island 
 of Chiloe, and in November, 1825, a squadron, consisting of 
 seven vessels of war, and a number of transports, with 3,509 
 troops on board, under the command of the director himself, 
 sailed from Valparaiso destined against the Spanish establish- 
 ment at Chiloe. The result of this expedition is not known. 
 Although Chile has suffered severely from the revolution, she 
 is less burdene'H with debt than some of the other republics. 
 The amount she has borrowed in England is $4,6g6,000. The 
 immense product of her mines, and an unrestricted commerce, 
 will soon enable the republic to discharge its foreign debts. 
 
 Chile maintains friendly relations with the other independ- 
 ent states in the south, and its independence has been ac- 
 knowledged by the United States and Great Britain. Mr. Al- 
 len has resided there for several years as minister for the Uni- 
 ted States, and it is supposed that a treaty has been concluded 
 between the Chilean government aad that of the United States, 
 although it has not yet transpired. On the 21st day of Octo- 
 ber, 1822, a treaty was concluded between Chile and Colom- 
 bia, by which the two republics form a perpetual union, league 
 and confederacy, guarantee each other's independence, and 
 bind themselves not to enter in any treaty with Spain to the 
 prejudice of their independence, or yield any tribute or indem- 
 nity to Spain for the loss of her supremacy. This treaty also 
 provided for the appointment by the contracting parties of 
 plenipotentiaries to a general congress to be held at Panama, 
 or some other central place. The object of this congress is 
 stated to be " to cement, in the most solid and stable manner, 
 the relations which ought to exist between the states of the 
 confederacy, to serve as a council in the great conflicts, as a 
 rallying point in common dangers, as the faithful interpreter 
 of public treaties when difficulties occur, and as an umpire or 
 conciliator in their disputes and differences." This treaty was 
 ratified by Colombia on the 12th of July, 1823. As the re- 
 public of Colombia has taken the lead in the measures for 
 forming a general confederacy of the southern republics, an 
 account of them would have been more properly given in the 
 history of that republic ; but having been unintentionally omit- 
 ted, the details relating to this subject are subjoined here.. 
 Colombia concluded a treaty with Peru similar to that with 
 Chile on the 6th day of Jftly, 1822 ; and a similar treaty \fsts 
 
CONGfeESS AT PANAMA. 
 
 entered into between Colombia and Mexico in 1823. A treat) 
 of alliance and confederacy was concluded between the Co* 
 Jombian republic and Central America on the 15th day of 
 March, 1825, and ratified by the former on the 12th of April 
 following. These treaties all contain substantially the same 
 provisions and stipulations. The United Provinces have hith- 
 erto declined acceding to the proposed confederacy, and have 
 entered into no treaty on the subject. 
 
 The sublime project of a confederacy of all the new repub- 
 lics, which have been established in America, formerly Span- 
 ish, owes its origin to Bolivar, although it may have been con- 
 ceived by others ; yet he was the first who attempted to carry 
 the plan into execution, and it is not probable that any thing- 
 short of his transcendant influence could have accomplished 
 so important an object. No time was named in any of the 
 treaties for the meeting of the congress, and no further ad- 
 vancement made in the business, until December, 1824, when 
 Bolivar, as president of Peru, sent a circular to all the repub- 
 lics, proposing the immediate appointment of delegates to as- 
 semble at Panama, by the states which had or should accede 
 to the confederacy. Mexico and Colombia promptly concur- 
 red in the measure, and together with Peru, immediately ap- 
 pointed delegates to attend the convention. The executive 
 of Colombia, of Mexico, and of Guatamala, invited the gov- 
 ernment of the United States, if not to become a party to the 
 Confederacy, to send plenipotentiaries to the congress, and 
 take a part in its deliberations. The invitation was accepted 
 by the president, without submitting it to congress, and minis- 
 ters haVe been appointed to represent the " first American na- 
 tion,"* in the first grand council of nations, held in the new 
 world. The delegates of Colombia and Peru were authori- 
 sed, on their arriving at Panama, to open a correspondence 
 with the other republics, to inform them that the conferences 
 were commenced, and renew their invitation to send delegates. 
 It was provided, that when delegates assembled from Colom- 
 bia, Mexico, Pern, and Guatamala, or any three of these 
 states, they were to instal the confederate congress, and com- 
 mence their deliberations. Buenos Ayres and Chile have not 
 yet appointed delegates, owing, it is supposed, to some local 
 or temporary obstacles.! 
 
 The congress of Panama is designed primarily to establish a 
 permanent confederacy and solemn league of all the new re- 
 
 * This language has been applied to the United States by some of 
 the republics of the south. 
 
 f North American Review for January 1.826-. 
 
CONGRESS AT PANAMA. 253 
 
 publics, for their general security, by strengthening the bonds 
 tif union between them, providing against foreign invasion, at 
 domestic commotion, perfecting and consolidating their infant 
 institutions, and fixing on a just and durable basis their com- 
 mercial and political relations. The object of this alliance of 
 nations is directly the converse of that called the " Holy Alii* 
 ance ;" it is to defend the rights of the people and free insti* 
 tutions in the states which are parties to it. Some questious 
 of a temporary nature, but nevertheless of great moment, arc 
 expected to come before the congress, of which the most im- 
 portant are the expediency of combining the forces of the con* 
 federate republics, for the liberation of the islands of Cuba and 
 Porto Rico from the yoke of Spain ; the propriety of carrying 
 on the war by sea on the coast of Spain, the Phillipine and 
 Canary islands, and to determine on what footing shall be 
 placed those portions of the western hemisphere which may 
 hereafter become independent.* This last question refers to 
 the Spanish islands in the American seas, and probably also 
 to Brazil. Mexico and Colombia have a considerable naval 
 force now at Carthagena, the employment of which may await 
 the decision of the confederate congress. 
 
 The nomination of ministers to the congress, by the presi- 
 dent of the United States, met with a very powerful opposition 
 in the senate ; and it is likely to divide public opinion in the 
 union. The expediency of the measure is believed to be 
 very questionable, and it is feared that from the discussion and 
 opposition which it is likely to excite, it may tend to disturb 
 rather than to advance the friendly relations between the Uni- 
 ted States and the republics of the South. If we do not be* 
 come a party to the confederacy, it is difficult to perceive 
 what use our plenipotentiaries can be at the congress, unless 
 it is to contribute their friendly counsels in the concerns of our 
 neighbouring republics, and to express to their representatives 
 the deep interest we feel in their prosperity. Perhaps either 
 of these objects could have been obtained as satisfactorily by 
 our own resident ministers at the governments of the respec* 
 tive republics, which would have avoided all the objections 
 that attend the sending of delegates to the congress. The 
 wise maxim of Washington and Jefferson is as immutable as 
 any moral principle, and is not effected by any change in the 
 circumstances of other nations. However deep interest we 
 may feel in the prosperity of the republics which have sudden?- 
 ly sprung into existence on the same continent, our policy w> ] * 
 remain the same ; to maintain " peace and honest friends 1 
 
 * The Colombian Gazette of 27th February, 1825. 
 
254 C&NGRESS AT PANAMA. 
 
 with all nations, and entangling alliances with none. ?! This- 
 project of a general confederacy is a wise measure for the 
 southern republics ; it is highly honourable to Colombia, who 
 has taken the lead in it, and whose only ambition seems to be 
 to do most for the common cause, to employ her power and re- 
 sources for the liberation of all America, and for the guarantee 
 of the independence and freedom of the southern republics. 
 
 KND OF THE SECOND VOLUME. 
 
FOR THE INSTRUCTION OP YOUTH, 
 
 Sale by the principal booksellers in the United 
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 History of the United States of America, for Schools, by 
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 An Outline of Bible History, with notes and observa- 
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