tJL 
 
THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
TEXT-BOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 MODERN CARPENTRY; 
 
 A TREATISE ON BUILDING-TIMBER, 
 
 WITH RULES AND TABLES FOR CALCULATING ITS STRENGTH, AND THE 
 STRAINS TO WHICH EACH TIMBER OP A STRUCTURE 
 
 is SUBJECTED; 
 
 on glaofs, Crosses, Sribgts, ttc. 
 
 A GLOSSARY, 
 
 EXPLAINING AT LENGTH THE TECHNICAL TERMS IN USE AMONG 
 CARPENTERS. 
 
 BY THOMAS W. SILLOWAT, 
 
 EllustrateH trg (Tfomtg (Copperplates. 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 CROSBY, NICHOLS, AXD COMPANY, 
 
 117, WASHINGTON STREET. 
 
 1858. 
 
 r/iy 
 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1858, 
 
 BY THOMAS W. SILLOWAY, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 PRINTED BY JOHN WILSON AND SON, 
 22. SCHOOL STREET. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE following work has been prepared as a book 
 of reference for the master-carpenter, and as a 
 manual of instruction for the journeyman and the 
 apprentice. The costliness of the works of Beli- 
 dor, Rondelet, Tredgold, and others, places them 
 beyond the reach of mechanics of ordinary means ; 
 and, being written with reference to scientific for- 
 mulas, cannot be appreciated, or even understood, 
 except by those versed in mathematics. Having 
 in view the interests of the large and important 
 class above named, we have scrupulously avoided 
 such abstruse algebraic and mathematical formulas 
 as would more properly belong to an encyclopaedia 
 of the science. 
 
 Works of distinguished authors have been con- 
 sulted, but nothing selected which did not commend 
 itself as of immediate practical utility ; and, while 
 the advanced student may perhaps regret the 
 absence of the higher mathematics, it is presumed 
 that their omission removes a great obstacle to 
 the progress of the less learned, though not less 
 worthy, mechanic. An extended essay on Car- 
 
 M363539 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 pentiy as a science being rendered unnecessary 
 by the comprehensive nature of the work, its place 
 is, we think, more properly occupied by such prac- 
 tical suggestions as have been considered most 
 useful. Practice and experience, those great and 
 successful teachers of all truth, are the privilege 
 of every mechanic ; but the lessons which they 
 convey, while perhaps sufficing for his ordinary 
 labors, may be greatly lightened, and far more 
 worthily directed, by a careful study of those 
 results of the experience and science of others, 
 which it is the aim of this work to embody and 
 explain. 
 
 The portion of this treatise devoted to building- 
 timber states an average of results arrived at 
 through many experiments and much observation. 
 The authorities on the subject are many, and the 
 field wide. It is, however, believed that the few 
 pages allotted to the subject comprehend nearly 
 all that is of practical value in the works of Hut- 
 ton, Barlow, Du Hamel, Perronet, and many other 
 writers both in Europe and America. 
 
 The illustrations are intended not only to exem- 
 plify the principles of the art, but also to suggest 
 examples for imitation ; and the amount of success 
 attending our efforts in selection at all times a 
 work of much difficulty must be judged of by 
 the reader. He will, however, bear in mind that 
 it has been an important consideration to give a 
 variety of each kind of work in a small compass. 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 The " Glossary," which forms so large a part 
 of the text, is the result of much labor, and, it is 
 hoped, may prove of corresponding value. 
 
 Our work is now presented to the public in the 
 belief, that, notwithstanding its imperfections, it 
 contains a sufficient amount of information to make 
 it a desirable companion to the apprentice in his 
 hours of study, as well as a ready assistant to the 
 man of business ; and, in this hope, it is respect- 
 fully dedicated to their service. 
 
 THOS. W. SILLOWAY. 
 
 BOSTON, May, 1858. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 CARPENTRY 1 
 
 Nature and Properties of Timber 6 
 
 Kinds of Timber in use 12 
 
 Foreign Timber 21 
 
 Felling Timber 24 
 
 Seasoning Timber 30 
 
 Preservation of Timber 33 
 
 Durability of Timber .38 
 
 Strength of Timber 41 
 
 Rules for determining its Tensile Strength .... 45 
 
 Cross-strength 52 
 
 n Compressive Strength . . 59 
 
 GEOMETRY 65 
 
 Square Hoot 77 
 
 EQUILIBRIUM OF STRAINS ox TIMBER 81 
 
 SCARFING TIMBERS 91 
 
 FLOORS 95 
 
 TRUSSED BEAMS 98 
 
yiii CONTENTS* 
 
 Page. 
 
 ROOFS 103 
 
 Observations on Eoofs 103 
 
 Timbers employed in Eoofs 107 
 
 Iron-work employed in Roofs 112 
 
 Heavy Roof-trusses 119 
 
 DOMES .124 
 
 BRIDGES 129 
 
 ARCH-CENTERINGS 134 
 
 JOINTS IN FRAMING 139 
 
 IRON . 141 
 
 Tables for calculating the Weight of Iron-work . . 143 
 TABLES FOR CALCULATING THE QUANTITY OF TIMBER 
 
 IN ANY GIVEN STICK 147 
 
 GLOSSARY 159 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 THE Art of Carpentry is one of the leading 
 parts of the sciences of architecture and en- 
 gineering. It has claimed and received the atten- 
 tion of the masters in those sciences, and must 
 always be a subject worthy of scientific considera- 
 tion. No unimportant portion of the writings of 
 Delorme, Palladio, and even Vitruvius, js that 
 which relates to the art under consideration. The 
 frame of a building sustains the same relation to 
 the whole edifice that the bones of the system do 
 to the human body. 
 
 It is a self-evident truth, therefore, that a know- 
 ledge of carpentry, as a science, is of great import- 
 ance to the builder ; for no edifice can be properly 
 constructed but in accordance with those rules and 
 principles to which the art is subject. Walls of 
 stone or brick may not for their construction 
 demand this information ; still, to all buildings 
 
2 CARPENTRY. 
 
 there must be roofs, floors, and partitions, to con- 
 struct which the art of carpentry will be employed. 
 
 The first and most important thing to be con- 
 sidered, in making or executing any design, is the 
 end to be attained. If a roof is to be produced, it 
 is not enough to know the span and the pitch, but 
 it is quite as essential to know the material with 
 which it is to be covered ; the design best adapted 
 for the purpose ; whether the determined inclina- 
 tion is best for that particular covering, &c. If 
 a floor is to be built, the carpenter is to consider 
 the purpose for which it \vill generally, or may 
 possibly, be used ; if a partition is to be erected, 
 what support it may have or may lack below, what 
 weight may rest upon it, and to what side-strains it 
 may be subjected. 
 
 It is, however, unnecessary to enumerate, since 
 it is plain, that, before commencing any work, it is 
 important to see the end as well as the beginning. 
 
 The next consideration is so to select both mate- 
 rials and design as to make the best possible use of 
 the means employed. This can be done effectually 
 only by the application of such rules as investiga- 
 tions have proved of value. A knowledge of the 
 nature and properties of the kind of timber used, 
 its strength and durability, the strains to which it 
 
CARPENTRY. 3 
 
 will be subjected, and many other things of like 
 nature, are of much moment in the successful prac- 
 tice of the art. It was a wise remark of Sir Tho- 
 mas Seppings, that "the strength of a piece of 
 framing, whatever may be the design, can never 
 exceed that of its- weakest parts; and a partial 
 strength produces general weakness." 
 
 The third consideration is in regard to construc- 
 tion itself. This science, like all others in which 
 are involved mechanical principles, has many 
 parts, each of which is closely interwoven with the 
 others. Most authors have divided the art into two 
 parts. One is called mechanical carpentry, and 
 treats of the nature and properties of timber ; the 
 other, practical carpentry, or the use of timber. 
 The division is, to a good degree, warranted : yet 
 they are mutually dependent ; and, in order to 
 make a knowledge of one useful, it is necessary 
 to understand both. 
 
 Having determined the things suggested, and, in 
 addition, such incidentals as may be connected with 
 them, the next step is to execute the work. The- 
 ory must now give place to practice ; and what 
 exists but on paper, or in the imagination of the 
 artificer, is to be produced as a thing of life. To 
 one who has thoroughly informed himself on the 
 
4: CARPENTRY. 
 
 principles involved in the work he is to do, this 
 part of his labor will not be without a correspond- 
 ing degree of satisfaction and entertainment : for to 
 execute a design is, or may be, as inspiring as it 
 was to conceive and project it ; and it is a question 
 of some nicety to determine, whether the architect 
 and the engineer experience more real pleasure in 
 witnessing a design as it is wrought out and pro- 
 duced, than the mechanic, who, by care and labor, 
 gives to comparatively crude and unfashioned ma- 
 terials condition and form which endow them 
 with a power 
 
 " That flings control 
 Over the eye, breast, brain, and soul ; 
 Chaining our senses to the stone, 
 
 Till we become 
 
 As fixed and dumb 
 As the cold form we look upon." 
 
 There are many things essential for the attain- 
 ment of the desired end ; but the most important 
 of them all, and, in fact, the great and govern- 
 ing principle involved throughout, is, that the 
 workman understand well every part of his work, 
 and that he be possessed of a desire to excel in his 
 profession. In this, as in all arts, "knowledge is 
 power." The advice of Mr. Tredgold is apt, and 
 to the point. He says, " Nothing will assist the 
 
CARPENTRY. O 
 
 artist more in forming a good design than just con- 
 ceptions of the objects to be attained ; and nothing 
 will render those objects more familiar to the mind 
 than drawing them." 
 
 To make enlarged copies of the designs published, 
 and at the same time to study with care the rules 
 which govern them and the principles that are 
 involved, will insure success to any one who may 
 be disposed to make the attempt. 
 
NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF 
 TIMBER. 
 
 TIMBER is the substantial substance of all trees. 
 "Woods differ in their properties ; some being tough 
 and hard, while others are brittle or soft. They 
 are, therefore, of value proportional to the kind of 
 work for which they are required. A great variety 
 of opinions exists in regard to the manner in which 
 wood is formed. All are, however, agreed, that 
 the trunk and branches of trees are composed of 
 three parts, the bark, the wood, and the pith. 
 
 The BARK is a covering which incases the entire 
 wood, and is composed of three distinct parts, 
 the Epidermis, the Cellula, and the Liber. 
 
 The EPIDERMIS is a thin skin, being the extreme 
 outer covering. 
 
 The CELLULA is the organic matter next inside 
 the Epidermis. It answers to the flesh of animals, 
 and is formed into an infinite number of tubes. 
 
PROPERTIES OF TIMBER. 7 
 
 The LIBER is the inner or newly formed bark. 
 The Epidermis and the Liber together form what 
 is called the Cutis, or outer bark, the Liber being 
 the inner. 
 
 The WOOD is the material that exists between the 
 pith and the bark, and is of two kinds, the heart- 
 wood, or Duramen ; and the sap-wood, or Alburnum. 
 
 The HEART-WOOD is the hard and dark part 
 next the pith. 
 
 The SAP-WOOD is that which is between the 
 heart-wood and the bark. 
 
 The PITH is the soft and spongy substance which 
 is enclosed by the heart-wood at its centre. 
 
 In all new shoots, the pith and bark are in con- 
 tact, without wood between them ; but, as the shoot 
 extends, it enlarges by the deposit of a secretion 
 called cambium, which lies in a cylindrical ring 
 between the pith and the bark. The deposit thus 
 made is of two kinds. One is formed into bark, 
 and the other ultimately hardens into wood. A 
 deposit of this nature is made annually ; and, if the 
 trunk of a tree be cut off across the fibres of 
 the wood, the surface will present a series of con- 
 secutive layers or rings, so that one is enabled to 
 determine by their number the age of the tree in 
 which they exist 
 
8 PROPERTIES OF TIMBER. 
 
 It is unusual to find any two rings that are alike, 
 either in regard to their whole thickness, or the 
 proportion of the solid part to the porous ; the di- 
 mensions and proportion being governed by the 
 amount and nature of the deposit, some years being 
 more favorable to each respectively than others. 
 
 So exact are the laws by which this is governed, 
 that the part of the rings on the north side of 
 trees is thinner, making the heart-wood nearer 
 the north side. This results from the fact, that, the 
 south side being more exposed to the action of 
 the sun, the pores are expanded, and a larger 
 quantity of sap is transmitted through that side. 
 
 The wood of no tree is entirely solid, but is filled 
 with tubes, or pores ; and the only substance of a 
 solid nature that exists is that which forms the 
 walls of the cells before named. These vessels 
 are designed for the conveyance of a fluid called 
 sap, which is absorbed by the roots, and passes up 
 through the pores of the wood to the leaves, where 
 it undergoes a chemical change, and is then re- 
 turned through the cellula, or porous part of the 
 bark. 
 
 Sap, when it leaves the roots, is very limpid, 
 being nearly as thin as water : but, as it passes up 
 through the pores, it either meets with a substance 
 
PROPERTIES OF TIMBER. 9 
 
 which it dissolves and carries along with it, or, when 
 it arrives at the most distant parts, is condensed ; 
 for, on its return, it is thickened; and entirely 
 changed in its nature. 
 
 As it passes downward through the cellula, it 
 gradually deposits a large proportion of the mate- 
 rial it contains ; so that, when it arrives at the 
 roots, it is as thin as when it started to pass up- 
 ward. 
 
 As soon as the leaves are developed, sap ceases 
 to flow. The deposit gradually hardens ; and 
 thus is formed a new layer of material for wood 
 and bark. From this period till near autumn, ve- 
 getation ceases ; but, after this, the sap is again in 
 motion, and, as it passes up, deposits along the 
 pores of the wood the substance which the ascend- 
 ing sap of the next spring will dissolve and carry 
 along for the formation of the new wood and leaves. 
 As the tree increases in diameter, the wood at the 
 centre is compressed by the growth of the new 
 wood ; and, becoming more solid, the pores decrease 
 in size, and hence but little sap will flow through 
 them. The part nearer the bark, being less com- 
 pressed, is soft and porous ; and, as the larger part 
 of the sap passes through it, it takes its name sap- 
 wood. 
 
10 PROPERTIES OF TIMBER. 
 
 Those parts of the tree which need to be elastic 
 and porous are continually receiving new substance 
 of a proper nature for its replenishment ; while, at 
 the same time, those which are compressed into 
 hard wood serve to give the requisite and additional 
 support, or back-bone, to the increased tree. It has 
 been well remarked, that the life of a tree is like 
 that of a man, and may as properly be divided into 
 three periods, infancy, maturity, and old age. 
 
 During the whole of the first period, the tree 
 continues to increase. Through the second, it 
 simply maintains itself, and neither loses nor gains. 
 As soon, however, as the heart-wood begins to 
 decay, the second period ends, and signs of old age 
 soon appear : and the comparison is not then inapt ; 
 for like an old man who seems to be still fresh 
 and vigorous, but whom one storm of disease may 
 break and sweep away, so often does a venerable 
 and revered oak, clinging still to life, as if loath to 
 die, put on, with each returning spring, " its youthful 
 robes anew." But, its heart diseased, and vitality 
 expended, being engaged in some tempestuous hour 
 in an unequal contest, it falls to rise no more. 
 
 The timber of all trees partakes, to a greater or 
 less degree, of the nature of the soil on which it 
 grows. Trees grown on soft and spongy soil usually 
 
PROPERTIES OF TIMBER. 11 
 
 produce wood that is comparatively soft and irregu- 
 lar in fibre. Therefore, if oak be grown on dry 
 and good land, the wood will be solid arid tough ; 
 but, if grown on soft and wet land, it will be pro- 
 portionally poor, and of less value. This fact is 
 true of all timber-trees. 
 
 The wood of trees which stand alone, or where 
 there are but few, and those scattered, is better 
 than that grown in the middle of a forest, where 
 it is not exposed to the sun and air. Hence, for 
 building purposes, those trees which stand alone are 
 to be first selected. 
 
 It may be well to mention here, that if the soft- 
 wood trees are very large (as is often the case with 
 some of the pines), and most of the branches are 
 near the top, the wood near the base of the trunk 
 is sometimes found to be shaky. This defect is 
 produced by the action of heavy winds on the top 
 of the tree, which wrenches or twists the but, and 
 thus cleaves apart the fibres of the wood. 
 
12 
 
 BUILDING-TIMBER. 
 
 THERE are but five kinds of wood in common use 
 for carpentry in this country. These are spruce, 
 pine, oak, hemlock, and chestnut. 
 
 SPRUCE (Abies) is indigenous to the colder parts 
 of North America, where it grows in great abun- 
 dance. For most qualities which constitute good 
 framing-timber, it is excelled by no other wood in 
 use. 
 
 There are two varieties, which are familiarly 
 known as black or double (Pinus niger) and white 
 or single spruce (Pinus alba). Of these, the black 
 is of most value ; it being much tougher than the 
 white, and may be procured in much larger sticks. 
 The foliage of this variety is darker and heavier. 
 The white spruce is of a comparatively small 
 growth ; but the wood may be worked much 
 smoother than the other variety. Spruce-wood, 
 when seasoned, is of a clear yellowish white, the 
 
BUILDING-TIMBER. 13 
 
 annual rings being distinctly marked by a darker 
 tint of the same color, and having a silk-like lustre. 
 A cubic foot, when seasoned, weighs thirty-one 
 pounds and a half. It shrinks, in seasoning, about 
 a seventieth part of its dimensions, and loses a 
 fourth of its weight. 
 
 The principal defects of this wood are its liability 
 to twisting and splitting in the sun, and its ten- 
 dency to decay in all damp situations ; but where 
 due attention is paid to these points, and proper 
 care is exercised to prevent the exposures named, 
 little else need be done to insure the permanency 
 of work composed of this wood. 
 
 PINE (Pinus) is next in value as material for a 
 frame. Of this wood, there are many species. 
 The family ( Conifera) to which it belongs is large, 
 and comprises all that ranges from the most com- 
 pact and hard spruce to the softest white pine. 
 But two kinds, however, will claim our attention ; 
 the others, as framing-timber, partaking largely 
 of the nature of spruce. Remarks relating to that 
 wood may be applied with nearly the same pro- 
 priety to all the harder varieties of pine. 
 
 The two varieties most in use are known as 
 white pine and Carolina pine. 
 
 WHITE PINE (Pinus strobus) abounds in all the 
 
14 BUILDING-TIMBER. 
 
 northern portion of the United States, and is 
 the tallest of our native trees. It is remarkable 
 for the straightness of its trunk, which is often 
 found a hundred feet high, entirely clear of limbs. 
 The whole tree frequently attains an altitude of 
 two hundred feet. It is the same as that known in 
 England as Weymouth pine. In forests, all except- 
 ing the top branches decay early ; and these, being 
 above all other trees, make it conspicuous as far as 
 it can be seen. Pine is of rapid growth, and, in 
 favorable situations, increases an inch in diameter, 
 and two feet in height, in a single year. The bark of 
 trees which are less in diameter than fifteen inches is 
 very smooth, and of a bottle-green ; being, through 
 the warm season, covered with an ashy gloss. 
 
 The color of the seasoned wood is a brownish 
 white. A cubic foot weighs twenty-four pounds 
 and three-quarters. Its decrease of dimension in 
 seasoning is slightly more than spruce.* It has 
 little tendency to warp or twist ; and, for such parts 
 of a frame as are liable to be exposed to dampness 
 and continued wet, it is preferable to spruce. The 
 wood being softer, it is more liable to indentation 
 
 * It is the generally received opinion of carpenters, that all 
 wood is liable to some shrinkage in length; though, in most 
 instances, it is hardly perceptible. 
 
BUILDING-TIMBER. 15 
 
 at the joints ; and, being less stiff, it is not, for 
 general purposes, entirely equal to spruce. As a 
 whole, its average value for framing purposes may 
 be considered as nine to ten. 
 
 For finishiny-lumler, it excels all others, and 
 sustains the same relation to joinery that spruce 
 does to carpentry. None is better calculated to 
 withstand the effects of the sun and weather than 
 this ; for with the exercise of proper care in sea- 
 soning, and reasonable protection afterwards, it will 
 retain its natural strength and vigor as long as the 
 best of oak. 
 
 CAROLINA PINE (Pinus australis) is, in most 
 respects, entirely unlike the wood last described; 
 being very compact, and thoroughly saturated with 
 a resin, or pitch, which is remarkable for its intense 
 fragrance. It grows in great luxuriance in all our 
 States south of Virginia, and is familiarly known 
 at the north as southern pine. Timber of almost 
 any reasonable length and dimensions may be easily 
 obtained. This wood is seldom cut up into small 
 joists ; but, when not sawed into large framing- 
 timber, it is used for planks and floor-boards ; 
 the solidity of the wood, and the fineness of its 
 grain, making it of great value for the purpose 
 last named. 
 
16 BUILDING-TIMBER. 
 
 In all dry situations, it is exceedingly durable ; 
 but, in wet or even damp places, it loses its vigor, 
 and soon moulds and decays. Its tensive strength, 
 compared with oak, is nearly equal ; while its weight 
 is much less. This quality, added to its peculiar 
 stiffness and resilience, has of late years made 
 it a rival of oak, where a lighter yet solid wood is 
 required. It is, however, very brittle, and liable 
 to fracture by a sudden blow or concussion ; making 
 it inferior to oak, where toughness is needed. 
 
 This wood, when newly planed, is a rich yellow ; 
 the resinous parts giving it a finely variegated ap- 
 pearance. The average weight of a cubic foot, 
 when seasoned, is not far from thirty-eight pounds 
 and a quarter. It decreases a fifth of its weight 
 in seasoning, and a sixty-fifth of its dimensions ; 
 shrinking something more in the direction of its 
 length than either of the other woods in common 
 use. 
 
 OAK ( Quercus) is a wood, like all others, exist- 
 ing in many species. Only two, however, those 
 commonly known as white oak and yellow oak, 
 are in general use for building purposes. It is a 
 native of temperate climates, and is found in great 
 perfection and vigor in the United States, from 
 Virginia (the northern limit of the growth of Ca- 
 
BUILDING-TIMBER. 17 
 
 rolina pine) to the Canada line. The wood is very 
 durable, when kept immersed in water ; and, while 
 remaining in a perfectly dry situation, it has lasted 
 more than a thousand years. When subjected 
 alternately to the action of water and air, together 
 with more than ordinary warmth, it is subject to 
 early decay. Oak-wood is hard, yet elastic and 
 tough. Its texture is alternately porous and solid ; 
 the porous sections being the lighter colored por- 
 tion of the annual ring. The wood of young 
 trees is much tougher than that of old ones, and 
 is more difficult to work. That of old ones is 
 often quite brittle ; while at the same time, in 
 most other respects, it appears to retain its natural 
 qualities. It is the case with oak as with all 
 trees, that the wood, taken from the body and 
 large limbs, is stronger than that taken from 
 the small branches. The sap is possessed of a 
 peculiar odor and taste. It contains gallic acid; 
 and, in consequence, turns black or purple, when 
 brought in contact with iron. 
 
 The color of the wood is a whitish brown in the 
 white species, and a yellowish brown in the yellow. 
 A cubic foot, when dry, weighs forty-eight pounds. 
 It shrinks, in seasoning, a thirty-sixth part of its 
 dimensions, and loses a third of its weight. 
 2 
 
18 BUILDING-TIMBER. 
 
 For many purposes, such as strengthening- 
 pieces, keys, treenails, &c., oak is indispensable ; 
 though of late years, as a general framing-timber, 
 it has been little used. For the first two centu- 
 ries after the settlement of this country, it was 
 employed almost to the entire exclusion of other 
 wood ; but spruce and pine have gradually sup- 
 planted it, till now a new piece of oak-framing is 
 but seldom seen. When used to any great extent, 
 it is for open timber-roofs of churches, or some- 
 thing of the kind. The natural beauty of its se- 
 lected wood for a rich finish-lumber, and its great 
 strength and durability as a framing-timber, insure 
 the usefulness and value of the " monarch of the 
 forest." 
 
 In addition to the foregoing, the two next in 
 value are those familiarly known as the black oak 
 and the live oak. The former is nearly allied to 
 the yellow oak ; and is, in many respects, of equal 
 value. Live oak is principally used in ship- 
 building. The wood is nearly identical with white 
 oak; but the nature and habits of the tree tend 
 to produce only small and very crooked timber. 
 For the various purposes, however, for which the 
 timber is used, it is an important member of 
 the Quercus family. 
 
BUILDING-TIMBER. 19 
 
 HEMLOCK (Canadensis) is often used in the 
 cheaper kinds of carpentry. It is indigenous to 
 nearly all places which are favorable to the produc- 
 tion of spruce and the light pines. In dry situations, 
 when the wood has been properly seasoned, and is 
 carefully protected from the action of the sun, it 
 may be considered as a fourth-rate wood. Its pe- 
 culiar structure, tending to twistish or cleftish grain, 
 makes it entirely unreliable for large timbers where 
 either tensile or compressive strain is required. 
 It decays quickly in damp situations ; and, if 
 exposed while in an unseasoned state, its heart- 
 wood cleaves from the surrounding wood by the 
 action of either sun or wind. 
 
 Considering these tendencies (existing even in 
 the best specimens), it is usually cut into small 
 studding-joists or common boards. Hemlock pos- 
 sesses one quality in common with oak and the 
 other hard woods ; viz., the tenacity with which it 
 adheres to a nail. An ordinary tenpenny cut nail, 
 if driven into the wood half its length, will part 
 before it can be drawn out. This quality is one 
 of its first recommendations for common or rough 
 boarding, as it firmly holds the nails of shingling, 
 slating, clapboarding, &c. 
 
 The sap is possessed of an intense and some- 
 
20 BUILDING-TIMBER. 
 
 what unpleasant odor. It is unfit for use while 
 in an unseasoned state, as it corrodes iron im- 
 mediately at the part where it begins to project 
 from the wood. The color of the wood is a light 
 brown ; and a cubic foot, when dry, weighs twenty- 
 seven pounds. It shrinks, in seasoning, a little 
 less than spruce, and loses one-fourth of its 
 weight. 
 
 CHESTNUT ( Castanet) is a wood of great value, 
 and is in most respects nearly identical with oak, 
 which it resembles in color, toughness, and solidity. 
 It is a native of temperate regions, and is usually 
 found growing side by side with its rival. For 
 most purposes for which oak is used, chestnut is 
 of equal value. While exceedingly durable in 
 damp situations, it is equally so in those which are 
 dry ; and, in places partaking at times of both, it 
 .is preferable to oak. For posts set in the ground, 
 it may be considered good for a service of forty 
 years. Like oak, the grain of the wood is com- 
 pact ; and that of young trees is very tough and 
 flexible: but old wood is liable to brittleness, ap- 
 pearing sound and healthy without, while within 
 it is decayed and rotten. Chestnut contains one 
 valuable quality not possessed by either of the 
 other woods ; namely, when once seasoned, it is 
 
BUILDING-TIMBER. 21 
 
 but slightly susceptible of shrinking or swelling. 
 The weight of a cubic foot of the wood, when per- 
 fectly seasoned, is forty-one pounds. 
 
 FOREIGN TIMBER. 
 
 As many scientific experiments have been made 
 in Europe on woods which are, in their general 
 properties and strength, nearly identical with those 
 in common use in America, a brief synopsis of 
 these will be given, that the carpenter may avail 
 himself of the experiments by applying the results 
 to our corresponding timber. 
 
 ACACIA (Robina), a wood commonly known 
 in America as locust. A cubic foot, when seasoned, 
 weighs forty-eight pounds. It is slightly stronger 
 than oak. 
 
 CHRISTIANA DEAL (Pmus abies), a wood 
 nearly allied to the spruce of North America. 
 It is somewhat heavier and tougher. It will 
 bear one-fifth more strain, and is also one-fifth 
 stiffer. 
 
 COWRIE (Dammara australis), a New-Zea- 
 land tree, the wood of which answers well to the 
 
22 BUILDING-TIMBER. 
 
 pitch or yellow pine growing in the New-England 
 States. A cubic foot, when seasoned, weighs 
 forty pounds. Its general strength is that of our 
 spruce. 
 
 DANTZIC OAK is of the same stiffness as our 
 white oak, but is tougher and stronger. 
 
 ENGLISH OAK (Quercus robur) is one-tenth 
 lighter, and one-seventh stronger, than our white 
 oak; and, while it is one-fourth tougher, it is not 
 as stiff by one-SBventh. 
 
 MAR-FOREST FIR (Pinus sylvestris), a wood 
 which, in New England, would be considered as a 
 cross between spruce and northern pitch-pine. A 
 cubic foot, when dry, weighs thirty-eight pounds. 
 It is of the same tensile strength as our spruce, 
 but less elastic. 
 
 MEMEL FIR, a wood nearly identical with 
 that from Mar Forest. It answers well to the red 
 and yellow pines of New England, but partakes 
 of the nature of spruce, in being stiffer than the 
 pines named. 
 
 NORWAY SPRUCE (Pinus abies) is, in many 
 respects, like our black spruce. It is harder, and 
 has more pitch. "When seasoned, it weighs thirty- 
 four pounds to a cubic foot. 
 
 RIGA OAK is one-seventh stronger than our 
 
BUILDING-TIMBER. 23 
 
 white oak, but is one-seventh less stiff. It is one 
 of the toughest varieties of oak in use. 
 
 SCOTCH FIR is nearly identical with our New- 
 England red and yellow pine. 
 
 WEYMOUTH PINE (Pinus strobus) is a wood 
 identical with the white pine of New England. 
 
FELLING TIMBER. 
 
 THE felling of timber was looked upon by ancient 
 architects as a matter of much moment. Vitru- 
 vius was so minute in giving advice on this subject, 
 as to urge that timber should never be felled but 
 in the decrease of the moon; and we find good 
 Isaac Ware saying of the suggestion (it being what 
 he termed the opinion of the " Roman oracle "), 
 " This has been laughed at, and supposed to be an 
 imaginary advantage. . . . There may be good in 
 following the practice ; there can be no harm : and 
 therefore, when I am to depend upon my timber, I 
 will observe it." Sir John Evelyn quaintly says, 
 " It should be in the vigor and perfection of trees 
 that a felling should be celebrated." 
 
 'The end to be attained in the management of 
 timber-trees is to produce, from a given number, 
 the largest possible amount of sound and durable 
 wood. 
 
FELLING TIMBER. 25 
 
 To accomplish this requires not only attention 
 in felling the timber, but in caring for it after- 
 wards. The first, and perhaps most important, 
 advice is to fell a tree as near the time of its 
 maturity as possible : for, if it be cut earlier, the 
 sap-wood predominates ; and, the heart-wood being 
 comparatively soft, the timber cannot possess great 
 strength or much durability. If permitted to 
 stand long after this, it declines in quality; the 
 wood by degrees losing its elasticity, and becoming 
 brittle. 
 
 It is somewhat difficult to decide just when a 
 tree is at maturity. From the investigations of 
 naturalists, however, it may be safe to consider, 
 that hard-wood trees, as oak and chestnut, should 
 never be cut before they are sixty years old ; 
 the average age for felling being a hundred years. 
 For the soft woods, as spruce and pine, the 
 proper age is seventy years. It should be remem- 
 bered, that the times mentioned are by no means 
 arbitrary ; for situation, soil, &c., have much to do 
 with it. 
 
 When a tree, under conditions favorable to its 
 growth, entirely ceases increasing the diameter of 
 its trunk, and loses its foliage earlier in the autumn 
 than it is wont to do, these facts may be considered 
 
26 FELLING TIMBER. 
 
 as indications of decline, and that the tree is of 
 sufficient age to be felled. 
 
 The next consideration is the season of the 
 year most favorable for the work. All investi- 
 gations tend to prove that the only proper time 
 is that at which the tree contains the least sap. 
 As stated in another article, there are two seasons 
 in each year when the vessels are filled. One is in 
 the spring, when the fluid is in motion to supply 
 nutriment to the leaves, and deposit material for 
 new wood : the other is in the early part of the 
 autumn, when, after the stagnation which gives 
 the new wood time to dry and harden, it again 
 flows to make the vegetable deposits in the vessels 
 of the wood. At neither of these times should 
 trees be felled ; for, if the pores be full of vege- 
 table juices, which, being acted upon by heat and 
 moisture, may ferment, the wood will decay. 
 
 In the New-England States, August is, for this 
 purpose, the best month in the year ; for, at that 
 time, most of the fluids and vegetable matter 
 having been exhausted in the formation of leaves 
 and wood, and the watery parts evaporated, the 
 wood is dryest. Next to this is the month of 
 January ; for then, as in August, there is but little 
 sap in the tree. 
 
FELLING TIMBER. 27 
 
 The age at which trees should be felled, and the 
 most suitable time for the work, having been deter- 
 mined, there are two other things which claim at- 
 tention. 
 
 The first of these is the removal of the bark 
 from the trunk and principal branches of the trees. 
 This practice has, from time immemorial, been 
 considered of inestimable value : for, bj it, the 
 sap-wood is rendered as strong and durable as 
 the heart-wood ; and, in some particular instances, 
 experiments have shown it to be four times as 
 strong as other wood, in all respects similar, and 
 grown on the same soil, but felled with the bark 
 on, and dried in sheds.* Buffon, Du Hamel, and, 
 in fact, most naturalists, have earnestly recom- 
 mended the practice. The venerable Evelyn, in 
 his " Sylvia," says, " To make excellent boards and 
 planks, it is the advice of some, that you should 
 bark your trees in a fit season, and so let them 
 stand naked a full year before felling." 
 
 In regard to the time that should elapse between 
 the removal of the bark and the felling of a 
 tree, a variety of opinions exists. It was the usual 
 custom of early architects to remove the bark in 
 the spring, and fell the trees the succeeding winter. 
 * Emerson's " Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts," p. 33. 
 
28 FELLING TIMBER. 
 
 Later investigations have proved that it is better 
 to perform this work three, or even four, years 
 in advance, instead of one. Trees will, in most 
 situations, continue to expand and leaf out for 
 several seasons after the bark has been removed. 
 The sap remaining in the wood gradually becomes 
 hardened into woody substance ; thereby closing the 
 sap-vessels, and making it more solid. As bark 
 separates freely from the wood in spring, while 
 the sap is in motion, it should be taken off at 
 that period. 
 
 The second suggestion is to cut into and around 
 the entire trunk of the tree, near the roots, so 
 that the sap may be discharged ; for, in this manner, 
 it will be done more easily than it can be by 
 evaporation after the tree is felled. In addition 
 to this, if it be permitted to run out at the incision, 
 a large portion of the new and fermentable matter 
 will pass out with it, which would remain in the wood 
 if only such material is removed as would pass off 
 by evaporation. 
 
 This cutting should be made in the winter pre- 
 vious to the August in which the tree is to be 
 felled ; and the incision should be made as deep into 
 the heart-wood as possible, without inducing a 
 premature fall of the tree. 
 
FELLING TIMBER. 29 
 
 Many suggestions might be made as regards 
 the mechanical operation in felling trees : but, as 
 these are familiar to all intelligent workmen, we 
 will mention only one; namely, the value of re- 
 moving from the side of the tree such branches 
 as will strike the ground when it falls, and, by 
 wrenching, cleave the grain of the wood, and 
 thereby injure the timber. Such defects, which 
 are often found after the timber has become sea- 
 soned, could not be discovered when it left the 
 mill. 
 
30 
 
 SEASONING TIMBER. 
 
 NOTHING contributes more to increase the value 
 of timber than thorough and judicious seasoning. 
 The principal objects to be attained are, first, to 
 remove the saccharine or loose vegetable matter, 
 which by heat and moisture may ferment, and 
 thereby cause the wood to decay ; and, second, to 
 remove all moisture, in order that the wood may 
 shrink to its smallest dimensions, and thus be en- 
 abled to retain its shape and place after it has been 
 wrought. To attain this, many methods have been 
 used ; but, fortunately, the most simple and practical 
 of them all is of most value. If timber be properly 
 subjected to the action of water and air, it may, 
 by this means, be perfectly seasoned, and at small 
 expense. 
 
 As soon as it has been felled, timber should be 
 immediately removed to the mill, and sawed. If 
 this is impracticable, and the bark has not been 
 
SEASONING TI3IBER. 31 
 
 removed, it should be taken off, and the logs put 
 into the river or some running stream, there to 
 remain till they can be taken to the mill. 
 
 If no stream is near, they should be placed on 
 some dry spot, be well blocked up from the ground, 
 and covered with boughs of trees to keep from 
 them the action of the hot sun or of strong cur- 
 rents of wind. 
 
 After the lumber has been sawed, it should be 
 put into the water, and chained down beneath its 
 surface, for at least two weeks, when the vegetable 
 matter will be dissolved, and pass out into the 
 water. After remaining submerged for the time 
 named, it should be taken out, and piled in a dry 
 place, where it may be covered with boards to 
 protect it from the direct action of both sun and 
 wind. 
 
 It is not well to attempt to dry it too quickly ; 
 for, if it be subjected to great heat, a large portion 
 of the carbon will pass off, and thereby weaken the 
 timber. And, further, if it be dried by heat, 
 the outside will become hardened, and the pores 
 closed ; so that moisture, instead of passing out, 
 will be retained within. Timber, too suddenly 
 dried, cracks badly, and is thus materially in- 
 jured. 
 
32 SEASONING TIMBER. 
 
 In piling it, the sleepers on which the first pieces 
 are laid should be perfectly level and "out of 
 wind," and so firm and solid throughout, that they 
 will remain in their original position ; for timber, 
 if bent or made to wind before it is seasoned, will 
 generally retain the "same form when dried. Pieces 
 of wood should be put between the sticks, and each 
 piece directly over the other, so that air may freely 
 pass through the whole pile ; for, while it is neces- 
 sary to shield timber from strong draughts of wind 
 and the direct action of the hot sun, a free cir- 
 culation of air and moderate warmth are equally 
 essential. 
 
 More costly methods of seasoning such as 
 smoking, steaming, exhausting the sap by an air- 
 pump, &c. are not sufficiently valuable to com- 
 pensate for the trouble and expense. 
 
 The length of time requisite for seasoning tim- 
 ber depends entirely upon the size of the stick, the 
 kind of wood, its situation, &c., while drying. The 
 carpenter should exercise his own judgment ; 
 always remembering that a large stick is never so 
 dry that it will not season, and consequently shrink 
 still more, if sawed into smaller pieces, and new 
 surfaces be exposed to the action of the air. 
 
33 
 
 THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 
 
 To preserve timber is next in importance to ob- 
 taining it ; for, unless properly cared for, however 
 good may be the material, all previous precautions 
 avail but little. Wood is liable at any time to 
 change its nature, and part with its most valuable 
 properties. In all timber, even if well seasoned, 
 there remains a certain quantity of sap and vege- 
 table matter, which, when the piece is shut up in 
 stagnant air liable to be heated in summer, will 
 mould or ferment, and an acid be formed, decom- 
 posing the wood. 
 
 In no instance should a piece of framing be so 
 enclosed that fresh air cannot at all times come in 
 contact with it. To every roof, church-spire, dome, 
 &c., there should be air-holes at such points above 
 and below as will insure a continual circulation of 
 air about the wood. 
 
 The next consideration is to protect it from the 
 
34 THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 
 
 action of alternate moisture and dryness. If a 
 stick of timber be exposed to a continued heat, 
 as, for instance, over a baker's oven, it will in 
 time lose its elastic power, and become brittle. 
 If, on the other hand, a piece of the same timber, 
 in all respects identical in properties and nature, 
 be immersed in water, and remain submerged, it 
 will retain the larger part of its properties for 
 centuries. In fact, if not injured by insects or 
 acids in the water, it may be considered as almost 
 indestructible ; but the reverse of this is the case 
 if it be subjected to the alternate action of water 
 and air. 
 
 As soon as a piece of wood is exposed to the 
 action of moisture, the vegetable and saccharine 
 matter begins to dissolve; and a slimy coating is 
 formed wherever the solution exists. When ex- 
 posed to the air, this slime ferments ; and from it 
 grows a sort of fungus, which lives on the vital 
 parts of the wood itself. A continual series of 
 exposures of this kind soon induces a visible de- 
 cay, which ends in the entire destruction of the 
 timber. 
 
 Every part of a frame should in some way be 
 protected. No work should, therefore, be placed 
 on or very near the ground, where earth can in 
 
THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 35 
 
 any way come into immediate contact with it ; 
 nor should any be subjected to the direct action 
 of steam or vapor, without being in some way 
 shielded. The artificial methods of preserving 
 timber are numerous. Covering the work with 
 boards is in many instances effectual. Sometimes, 
 however, this is no protection, but, on the con- 
 trary, serves to retain moisture that would evapo- 
 porate if left exposed, as is often the case with the 
 sills of buildings, timber-bridges, &c. 
 
 In every instance where the timber must be 
 covered, but is necessarily exposed to moisture, 
 also when it is exposed to the action of the weather 
 without a covering, artificial means for preservation 
 must be resorted to. 
 
 The first step to be taken is to season the tim- 
 ber thoroughly. When this has been done, the 
 whole of the exposed surfaces should be covered 
 with some preparation that will strike into the 
 wood, and, as much as possible, harden the outside. 
 Thus, by closing the pores, the piece is made im- 
 pervious to the weather. 
 
 A valuable practice for the preservation of tim- 
 ber is to heat it by burning charcoal, or something 
 of like nature, beneath ; and, while it is in a heated 
 state, applying a hot solution of an ounce and a 
 
36 THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 
 
 half of corrosive sublimate, or one of aqua fords 
 (nitric acid), in a gallon of water. After this is 
 done, and the work well dried, it should be painted 
 with the best quality of white lead and oil. 
 
 A thin solution of hot coal-tar and whale-oil is 
 of great benefit to all timber that is to be placed 
 near the ground. If this operation be repeated 
 two or three times, and finely pulverized clinkers 
 from a blacksmith's forge, or the dust made from 
 the scales of iron which lie about an anvil, be sifted 
 upon the timber while the tar is newly put on, it 
 will possess great durability, since wood prepared 
 in this manner is scarcely susceptible of decay. 
 
 Pyroligneous acid, or the liquor that drips from 
 stove-pipes in which vapor condenses, also strong 
 decoctions of soot applied hot, are recommended as 
 good preservative agents. In all framing exposed 
 to the weather, every mortise that can hold water, 
 and their tenons, together with all the wood about 
 them, should have a good coating of one of the 
 preparations first named, before the work is put 
 together. 
 
 It not unfrequently occurs that the wood at the 
 lower end of posts, rafters, &c., of church-steeples, 
 is found to be entirely decayed, while other parts 
 of the structure are perfectly sound. In almost 
 
THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 37 
 
 all such cases, some part of the work, being imper- 
 fect, has admitted water, which, following down the 
 post to its end, has -filled the mortise, and thus 
 rotted the wood. 
 
 When a piece of framing is to be permanently 
 exposed to the weather, it should be treated with 
 one of the solutions first described, and then tho- 
 roughly painted and sanded. Wood in a proper 
 condition when felled, afterwards thoroughly sea- 
 soned, well saturated with diluted corrosive subli- 
 mate, and, finally, kept properly painted and sanded, 
 is as durable as it ever can be. 
 
 One caution it would be well to remember ; 
 namely, to refrain from applying paint or any 
 preparation to wood before it is thoroughly sea- 
 soned : for, should the outside be coated so as 
 effectually to prevent impenetration from without, 
 evaporation will also be prevented from within ; 
 therefore, all moisture that may be in the wood will 
 be retained, and rot the piece. 
 
 Another suggestion is to use timbers as small 
 as the nature of the work will permit. It is* a 
 mistake to suppose that large timbers will continue 
 good longer than small ones. We may see an 
 exemplification of this at any New-England farm- 
 house. The light spokes of a wheel will remain 
 
38 THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 
 
 sound and strong for years after the tongue of the 
 cart to which they belonged has entirely decayed. 
 
 If a timber is sufficiently Strong when first used 
 (the requisite allowance being made for permanent 
 strain), all has been done that prudence would 
 dictate, since no increase of the dimensions of 
 the piece will insure its longer duration. And, 
 finally, it should be scrupulously remembered, that 
 timber will not certainly remain sound because 
 a large portion, or even most of it, is in proper 
 condition, and well cared for. Only so much as is 
 actually protected will retain its qualities ; and any 
 part so exposed as to injure the whole stick will 
 as surely injure or destroy the unprotected part. 
 Therefore, the ends of timbers which are built into 
 walls, also all surfaces in contact, as where the 
 side or edge of one stick rests upon another, tenons 
 in mortises, &c., should be supplied with air, 
 kept dry, and in every way properly protected. 
 
 DURABILITY OF TIMBER. 
 
 The durability of timber is almost incredible. 
 The following are a few examples for illustration, 
 
THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 39 
 
 being vouched for by Buffon, Du Hamel, Rondelet, 
 and others : 
 
 The piles of a bridge built by Trajan, after hav- 
 ing been driven more than sixteen hundred years, 
 were found to be petrified four inches ; the rest 
 of the wood being in its ordinary condition. 
 
 The elm-piles under the piers of London Bridge 
 have been in use more than seven hundred years, 
 and are not yet materially decayed. 
 
 Beneath the foundation of Savoy Place, Lon- 
 don, oak, elm, beach, and chestnut piles and planks 
 were found in a state of perfect preservation, after 
 having been there for six hundred and fifty years. 
 
 While taking down the old walls of Tunbridge 
 Castle, Kent, there was found, in the middle of a 
 thick stone wall, a timber-curb, which had been 
 enclosed for seven hundred years. 
 
 Some timbers of an old bridge were discovered, 
 while digging for the foundations of a house at Dit- 
 ton Park, Windsor, which ancient records incline us 
 to believe were placed there prior to the year 1396. 
 
 The durability of timber out of the ground is 
 even greater still. The roof of the basilica of 
 St. Paul, at Rome, was framed in the year 816; 
 and now, after more than a thousand years, it is 
 still sound : and the original cypress-wood doors 
 
40 THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 
 
 of the same building, after being in use more 
 than six hundred years, were, when replaced by 
 others of brass, perfectly free from rot or decay ; 
 the wood retaining its original odor. The timber- 
 dome of St. Mark, at Venice, is still good, though 
 more than eight hundred and fifty years old. The 
 roof of the Jacobin Convent at Paris, which is 
 of fir, was executed more than four hundred and 
 fifty years ago. 
 
 The age of our country's settlement does not 
 enable us to refer to examples of like antiquity; 
 but no good reason appears to exist why timber 
 may not be as durable in America as in Europe. 
 Many old white-pine cornices here exist, which, 
 having been kept properly painted, have been ex- 
 posed to the storms of more than a hundred and 
 fifty years. The wood is still sound, and the 
 arrises are as good as when they were made ; 
 while freestone, in the same neighborhoods, has 
 decayed badly in less than fifty years. 
 
STRENGTH OF TIMBER. 
 
 To discover rules which will in all cases determine 
 the exact strength of timber has for many years 
 been an object of interest with scientific men. Mr. 
 Tredgold, an eminent writer on the science of car- 
 pentry, has laid down at length the results of the 
 best investigations made by himself and others ; 
 but, in summing up, he speaks as follows: "The 
 age of trees at the time of cutting ; the natural 
 defects, such as knots, shakes, &c. ; also the mode 
 of seasoning, or the comparative dryness, are 
 the cause of some difference in the strength and 
 stiffness of timber. All these things considered, it 
 is impossible to calculate correctly its strength and 
 stiffness." After reminding the reader that the 
 " precision which is so essential to the philosopher 
 is not absolutely necessary to the architect and 
 engineer," he says, " They content themselves with 
 approximations that are simple and easy to be 
 
42 STRENGTH OF TIMBER. 
 
 obtained ; and, provided that the limits which can- 
 not be passed with safety be pointed out, these 
 approximations are sufficient to direct their prac- 
 tice." * 
 
 Mr. Peter Nicholson (from whose works subse- 
 quent authors have borrowed ad libitum) remarks 
 as follows : " On that subtile subject, the propor- 
 tional strength of timber, on which I gave some 
 observations and calculations in my ' Carpenter's 
 Guide,' I was in hopes that I should have been 
 able to reduce the theory of scantlings to an arith- 
 metical rule of consequences certain, and of general 
 application. I have to lament that all my endea- 
 dors, assisted by several gentlemen well versed in 
 mathematics, have hitherto been unsuccessful." t 
 
 Experiments on the strength of timber have, 
 until a late day, tended but little to reform the 
 science of carpentry. Probably more has been 
 done by bold, and perhaps rash, experiments than 
 by all the works which have been written. It 
 remains a fact, however, that the strength of any 
 piece of timber may be determined with sufficient 
 accuracy for all practical purposes. In the ex- 
 
 * Tredgold's " Elementary Principles of Carpentry," art. 68, 
 p. 29. 
 
 t " Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant," pp. vi. and vii. (Pre- 
 face). 
 
STRENGTH OF TIMBER. 43 
 
 amples of framing published in this work, such 
 dimensions for the several timbers are given as 
 experience has approved ; and these examples 
 comprise all that any carpenter can need. But, 
 that he may be fully informed in regard to the 
 strength of the various kinds in common use, tables 
 and rules will be given, exhibiting the principles 
 involved. These tables have been prepared ex- 
 pressly for this work, and are founded on the 
 results of many experiments made on dry and 
 sound wood, grown in either Massachusetts, New 
 Hampshire, or Maine. The specimens were se- 
 lected as a just average of the respective kinds ; 
 and, as the experiments were carefully made, the 
 tables may be considered as reliable. 
 
TIMBER-STRAINS. 
 
 TIMBER may be subjected to three kinds of 
 strain : 
 
 IsZ, When the force tends to pull the piece in 
 the direction of its length : this is called tensile 
 strain. 
 
 2d, When the force tends to bend it in the direc- 
 tion of its depth, or across the fibres : this is com- 
 monly known as cross-strain. 
 
 3d, When it tends to compress it in the direction 
 of its length, or what is called compressive strain. 
 
 TENSILE STEAIN. 
 
 The following table exhibits the tensile strength 
 of an inch-square rod of each of the kinds of wood 
 in common use ; or, in other words, the power each 
 
TIMBER-STRAINS. 45 
 
 will resist when so applied as to tend to tear it 
 asunder in the direction of its length : 
 
 Kind of Wood. Weight in Pounds. 
 
 Black Spruce 10,260 
 
 White Pine 8,300 
 
 Carolina Pine 12,000 
 
 White Oak 13,200 
 
 Hemlock 9,100 
 
 Chestnut 10,500 
 
 PROBLEM I. 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF A RECTANGULAR 
 TIMBER. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the thickness of the piece in 
 inches by its depth * in inches, and the product by the 
 weight set against the kind of wood in the table. The 
 product so obtained will be the force in pounds the 
 piece will resist. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What force will be required to pull 
 asunder a tie-beam of spruce, 7 inches thick and 10 
 inches deep? 
 
 Thickness, 7 10,260 Breaking-power. 
 
 Depth, 10 70 
 
 70 Ans. 718,200 Ibs. 
 
 * The distance across the top of the beam, when it is in a 
 horizontal position, is commonly called its thickness; and that 
 of the side, from the top to the tinder part, its depth. 
 
46 TIMBER STRAINS. 
 
 PROBLEM II. 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE DIMENSIONS OF A PIECE OF TIMBER 
 THAT WILL RESIST A GIVEN STRAIN, ONE SIDE ONLY 
 BEING GIVEN. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the sum set against the kind of 
 wood in the table by the given side in inches, and divide 
 the force to be resisted by this product. The quotient 
 will be the dimension, in inches, of the side required. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What must be the depth of a beam of 
 white pine, 4 inches thick, to resist a strain of 232,400 
 pounds ? 
 
 8,300 Breaking-weight. 33,200) 232,400 (7 inches. 
 
 4 Thickness. 232,400 
 
 33,200 Ans. 4 by 7 inches. 
 
 The following table exhibits the tensile strength 
 of various kinds of wood, as given by the authors 
 named : 
 
 Kind of Wood. SqYncMnms. Experimentalist. 
 
 English Oak ...... 19,800 ..... Bevan. 
 
 ...... 17,300 ..... Muschenbrock. 
 
 Beech ......... 22,000 ..... Bevan. 
 
 ......... 17,300 ..... Muschenbrock. 
 
 Ash .......... 16,700 ..... Bevan. 
 
 .......... 12,000 ..... Muschenbrock. 
 
 Elm .......... 14,400 ..... Bevan. 
 
 .......... 13,489 ..... Muschenbrock. 
 
TIMBER-STRAINS. 4)7 
 
 Locust 16,000 Bevan. 
 
 20,582 Muschenbrock. 
 
 Walnut 7,800 Bevan. 
 
 8,130 Muschenbrock. 
 
 Poplar 7,200 Bevan. 
 
 6,641 Muschenbrock. 
 
 Pitch-Pine 7,818 Muschenbrock. 
 
 Larch 8,900 Bevan. 
 
 Teak 8,200 Bevan. 
 
 Mahogany 21,800 Bevan. 
 
 Lancewood 23,400 Bevan. 
 
 The following corollaries, in relation to the 
 strength of timber, have been established by ex- 
 periment : 
 
 1st, A piece of timber should not be subjected 
 to a permanent strain of more than a fourth of the 
 power that would break it. 
 
 2/, A piece of perfect timber, while in a level 
 position and properly' supported, is supposed to be 
 of equal tensile strength throughout ; and, whether 
 the piece be long or short, it is liable to part in 
 one place nearly as quick as in another. 
 
 3d, A piece of perfect timber, in a vertical po- 
 sition, is in tensile strength proportionate to its 
 length ; a short piece being stronger, since a long 
 one must, in addition to the power applied to the 
 
48 TIMBER-STRAINS. 
 
 lower end, sustain its own weight ; and hence, 
 when it breaks, will part near the top. 
 
 4th, In calculating the strength of any piece of 
 timber, only so much of the wood should be mea- 
 sured as is continued throughout the entire stick. 
 For instance, a tie-beam measuring eight by ten 
 inches, having an inch-and-a-half rod passing 
 through it, should be considered as measuring but 
 six inches and a half thick ; and if the ends of 
 struts, or any thing of the kind, be cut down, into 
 and across the top of the beam, two inches, it would 
 then measure but eight inches deep. 
 
 5th, A rectangular beam supported at both ends, 
 with its diagonal placed vertically, will thereby be 
 reduced, in cross-strength, one-tenth. 
 
 6th, The tough and hard woods, as oak and 
 chestnut, are about an eighth, and the soft ones, as 
 spruce, pine, and hemlock, from a sixteenth to a 
 twentieth, as strong, when the power is applied at 
 right angles to the fibres, as when applied to their 
 length. This power is that which a pin exerts on 
 the wood of a post through which it has been 
 driven, when the tenon, which is pinned in, tends 
 to drag it out, and thereby split the wood. 
 
49 
 
 CROSS-STRAIN. 
 
 WHEN a piece of timber is supported only at the 
 ends, and a weight or power is applied at the 
 centre, it will, if the force is sufficient, bend or sag. 
 If the power of resistance be great, the wood is 
 said to be stiff ; but, if it bends easily, it is said to 
 be flexible. Should it bend much, without fracture, 
 it is called tough. 
 
 If a beam, two feet long and an inch square, 
 will support, at its centre, five hundred pounds, 
 one of the same length, two inches wide and an 
 inch deep, will support a thousand pounds. Hence 
 we have as a rule, that beams of the same depth are 
 to each other as their thickness. Should the beam 
 described be turned upon its side, so as to make it 
 an inch thick and two inches deep, it will support 
 two thousand pounds. "We therefore have as a 
 second rule, that beams of equal thickness are to 
 each other as the square of their depth. 
 4 
 
50 CROSS-STRAIN. 
 
 If a beam, an inch square and two feet long, 
 will support, at its centre, five hundred pounds, one 
 four feet long will support but two hundred and 
 fifty pounds. A third rule, therefore, is, that learns 
 are to each other inversely as their length* 
 
 If a beam, sixteen feet long, supported at the 
 ends, will support, at its centre, a weight of eight 
 hundred pounds, it will support equally well twice 
 that amount if eight hundred pounds be placed at 
 points, each four feet from either side of the 
 centre, half-way between the centre and the 
 points of support. Again : it will equally well 
 support twice that amount (or 3,200 pounds), if 
 sixteen hundred pounds be placed at points, each 
 half-way from those last named and the points 
 of support (two feet). A beam, therefore, that 
 will support a thousand pounds at its centre, will 
 support two thousand pounds if the weight be 
 distributed equally over its entire length. 
 
 A beam, having but one end fixed in a wall, 
 will sustain only a fourth as much weight, when 
 applied to the end, as will one of the same dimen- 
 
 * Experiments made by Bufibn tend to prove that the 
 strength of a beam does not decrease in exact geometrical 
 progression to its length, but that it will actually bear some- 
 thing more than half the amount which would break one of 
 half its length. 
 
CROSS-STRAIN. 51 
 
 sions with both ends in like manner supported, and 
 the weight placed at the middle. When the weight 
 is equally distributed over the entire length of a 
 beam which has only one end supported, it will 
 sustain twice the amount that would break it if 
 applied to the middle. 
 
 Should three beams be fixed at one end in a 
 wall, and the other end left unsupported, one 
 of them inclined upwards, one at the same angle 
 downwards, and the third level or at right angles 
 with the wall, that inclined upwards would sus- 
 tain the least weight ; that inclined downwards, the 
 most ; and the horizontal one, a mean between 
 the two. In calculating the strength of an inclined 
 beam, the distance from the end of the beam, at 
 right angles with the wall, should be taken as the 
 actual length of the beam ; which length, as a 
 basis, will give the strength of the beam, if, instead 
 of being inclined, it were placed hi a horizontal 
 position. 
 
 From the foregoing data, it will be seen, that, 
 by the aid of tables and rules, it is easy to deter- 
 mine the strength of inclined as well as horizon- 
 tal timbers. 
 
 The following table exhibits the cross-strength 
 of each of the several kinds of wood ; the pieces 
 
52 CROSS-STRAIN. 
 
 being dry, an inch square, and twelve inches long 
 between the points of support : 
 
 Wood. Breaking-weight in Ibs. 
 
 Black Spruce 590 
 
 White Pine 548 
 
 Carolina Pine 684 
 
 White Oak 738 
 
 Hemlock 426 
 
 Chestnut . 595 
 
 PROBLEM III. 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE CROSS-STRENGTH OF A STICK OF 
 TIMBER. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the thickness of the stick in 
 inches by the square of its depth in inches, and divide 
 the product by the length of the piece in feet. With 
 the quotient multiply the sum in the table that is set 
 against the kind of wood ; and the product will be the 
 breaking-weight in pounds. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What weight will a spruce-beam, 18 feet 
 long, 6 inches thick, and 8 inches deep, sustain ? 
 
 
 Length. 
 
 Breaking-weight. 
 
 8 Depth. 
 
 18)384(21.3 
 
 590 
 
 8 
 
 36 
 
 21.3 
 
 64 Square. 
 
 24 
 
 177.0 
 
 6 Thickness. 
 
 18 
 
 590 
 
 
 
 
 
 1180 
 
 384 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 12,567.0 Ibs. 
 
CROSS-STRAIN. 53 
 
 PROBLEM IV. 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE DEPTH OF A STICK OF TIMBER THAT 
 WILL SUSTAIN A GIVEN WEIGHT, THE THICKNESS AND 
 LENGTH BEIXG GIVEN. 
 
 RULE. Divide the weight to be sustained by the 
 sum set against the kind of wood in the table. Mul- 
 tiply the quotient by the length of the stick in feet, and 
 divide the product by the thickness of the stick in 
 inches. The square-root of the quotient will be the 
 depth of the stick in inches. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What depth will be required to a stick 
 of chestnut, 19 feet long and 3 inches thick, that it may 
 sustain 27,251 pounds? 
 
 Breaking- 
 weight. . . . 
 
 595)27251(45.8 45.8 290.066(5.38 
 2380 19 Length. 25 
 
 3451 4122 - 103) 400 
 
 2975 458 309 
 
 4760 Thickness 3) 870.2 1068) 9166 
 4760 8544 
 
 290.066 
 
 Ans. 5 T 3 Q S 5 inches nearly. 
 
54 CROSS-STRAIN. 
 
 PROBLEM V. 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE THICKNESS OF A STICK OF TIMBER 
 THAT WILL SUSTAIN A GIVEN WEIGHT, THE LENGTH 
 AND DEPTH BEING GIVEN. 
 
 RULE. Divide the weight to be sustained by the 
 sum set against the kind of wood in the table. Multi- 
 ply the quotient by the length of the stick in feet, 'and 
 divide the product by the square of the depth in inches. 
 The quotient will be the thickness of the beam in 
 inches. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What should be the thickness of a 
 hemlock-beam, 21 feet long and 12 inches deep, that it 
 may sustain a weight of 19,170 pounds? 
 
 Breaking-weight. 
 
 426)19170(45 45 12 Depth. 
 
 1704 21 Length. 12 
 
 2130 45 144 Square. 
 
 2130 90 
 
 144) 945 (.56 
 864 
 
 810 
 720 
 
 900 
 864 
 
 Ans. 6 I 5J3_ inches nearly. 
 
 The following table exhibits the breaking-weight 
 of various kinds of wood as given by the authors 
 therein named : 
 
CROSS-STRAIN. 
 
 55 
 
 Experiments on the Strength of Woods. 
 
 END OP WOOD. 
 
 Length In Feet. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 IDr flrctlon In 
 Incites in the 
 time of fracture. 
 
 Welpht in Pounds 
 that l.roke the 
 piece. 
 
 ! 
 
 English Oak, young tree 
 Oak, old ship-timber . . . 
 ,, from old tree .... 
 ,, medium quality . . 
 Green Oik 
 
 2 
 
 2.5 
 2 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 187 
 
 1.5 
 1.38 
 
 482 
 
 264 
 218 
 284 
 219 
 
 Tredgold. 
 Ebbels. 
 
 Otk from Riga 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1.25 
 
 357 
 
 Tredgold. 
 
 Green Oak 
 
 11.75 
 
 85 
 
 85 
 
 3.2 
 
 25S12 
 
 Buffon. 
 
 Beech, medium quality . 
 Alder 
 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 271 
 212 
 
 Ebbela. 
 
 Plane-tree 
 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 243 
 214 
 
 
 
 
 2.5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 180 
 
 
 Ash, from young tree . . 
 \sh . . . 
 
 25 
 25 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.38 
 
 324 
 314 
 
 Tredgold. 
 
 Common Elm 
 Green Witch-Elm .... 
 ,, Acacia 
 Sp. Mahogany, seasoned . 
 Hond. 
 Green Walnut 
 
 25 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 25 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 116 
 192 
 249 
 170 
 255 
 195 
 
 Ebbe'ls. 
 
 Tredgold. 
 Ebbek 
 
 Lombardy Poplar .... 
 Abele Poplar 
 Teak 
 
 2.5 
 2.6 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 fl 
 
 1 
 1 
 ?. 
 
 1.5 
 4.0 
 
 131 
 228 
 820 
 
 Tredgold. 
 Barlow. 
 
 Willow 
 
 >5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 146 
 
 Tred'old 
 
 Birch . . . . - 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 2(>7 
 
 Ebbels. 
 
 Cedar of Libanfls, dry . . 
 Riga Fir 
 
 2.5 
 25 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2.75 
 13 
 
 165 
 212 
 
 Tredgold. 
 
 MemelFir 
 Norway Fir. fr. Long Sd. 
 Mar-Forest Fir 
 
 2.5 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 1- 
 
 9, 
 
 115 
 1.125 
 55 
 
 218 
 396 
 360 
 
 > 
 Barlow 
 
 Scotch Fir, Engl. growth 
 
 Christiania white Deal . . 
 American white Spruce . 
 Spruce-fir, British growth 
 American Pine, Weymouth 
 Larch, choice specimen . 
 ,) medium quality . 
 yery young wood . 
 Riu Fir 
 
 25 
 2.5 
 2 
 2 
 2.5 
 2 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 2:, 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 S 
 
 I 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 ft 
 
 1.75 
 
 0937 
 1.312 
 
 1125 
 3.0 
 
 1.75 
 
 233 
 157 
 343 
 285 
 186 
 329 
 253 
 223 
 129 
 4530 
 
 Tredgold. 
 Ebbels. 
 Tredgold. 
 
 Ebbels. 
 Tredgold. 
 
 Red Pine 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 3780 
 
 
 Yellow Pine . 
 
 4 
 
 ^ 
 
 ft 
 
 
 2756 
 
 
 Cowrie 
 Poona 
 
 4 
 , 4 
 
 IS 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 4110 
 3990 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
56 CROSS-STRAIN. 
 
 It has been decided by experiment, that a fifth 
 of the breaking-weight will cause deflection, in- 
 creasing with time, and ultimately producing a 
 permanent set. By an examination of the table, 
 it will be discovered that wood of old trees is much 
 weaker than that of those of mean age ; also that 
 timber is stronger as it is heavier, though the in- 
 crease in all examples is not exactly proportionate 
 to its solidity. 
 
57 
 
 COMPRESSION. 
 
 COMPRESSION is the power exerted on a post when 
 loaded with a superincumbent weight, as that which 
 is exerted on the collar-beam, or struts and rafters 
 of a truss. 
 
 It has been discovered, that a timber, if placed 
 as a post, whether long or short, would in either 
 case, if entirely inflexible, support a weight equally 
 well. But, inasmuch as there is some flexibility 
 in aU timber, a piece will, if higher than about 
 seven times its diameter, bend and break before 
 it can be crushed by compression ; and it is stated, 
 that a piece, if a hundred times as high as it is 
 in diameter, will be incapable of supporting the 
 smallest weight* 
 
 The nature of the subject under consideration 
 makes it next to impossible to determine rules 
 which will be of much service. As the compres- 
 
 * Gwilt's " Encyclopaedia of Architecture," p. 442, art. 1600. 
 
58 COMPRESSION. 
 
 sive strength of timber is so variable in different 
 specimens, and in none so geometrically propor- 
 tionate to its length as to give reliablfe data, rules 
 for ascertaining the exact size for all purposes and 
 situations would only confuse, if not deceive, the 
 mechanic. 
 
 The power of resistance to compression is so 
 great, that no serious danger need be apprehended 
 from the use of such dimensions of timber for 
 collar-beams, truss-rafters, struts, &c. (these being, 
 when in use, in a state of compression), as will 
 generally agree with the tie-beams and purlins ; 
 and the only rule that may be considered of value 
 is, that the compressed pieces of any work should 
 bear such a proportion to those subjected to a 
 tensile or cross strain as will make the whole truss, 
 whatever its design, comparatively uniform in ap- 
 pearance throughout. 
 
 The following table, prepared by Mr. Tredgold, 
 was designed to aid in determining the strength of 
 timber when compressed in the direction of its 
 length. The calculations were made for foreign 
 timber. It is presumed, however, they are quite 
 as reliable for timber grown in America as for that 
 grown in England, since in neither is their truth 
 susceptible of mathematical demonstration. 
 
COMPRESSION. 59 
 
 Kind of Wood. Proportional Strength. 
 
 English Oak 0015 
 
 Beech 00195 
 
 Alder 0023 
 
 Green Chestnut 00267 
 
 Ash 00168 
 
 Elm 00184 
 
 Locust 00152 
 
 Riga Fir 0015,2 
 
 MemelFir 00133 
 
 Norway Spruce . . -. . . . .00142 
 
 White Pine .00157 
 
 Larch .0019 
 
 PROBLEM VI. 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE DIAMETER OF A ROUND COLUMN THAT 
 WILL SUPPORT A GIVEN WEIGHT. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the weight in pounds by 1.7 times 
 the amount set against the land of wood in the table ; 
 then multiply the square-root of the product by the 
 length or height in feet ; and the square-root of the 
 last product will be the diameter of the post in inches. 
 
 If the column be shorter than ten times its 
 diameter, the dimensions ascertained by this rule 
 will be too small ; in which case, the true diameter 
 may be determined by Problem VIII. 
 
60 COMPRESSION. 
 
 PROBLEM VII. 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE SIZE OF A RECTANGULAR POST THAT 
 WILL, SUPPORT A GIVEN WEIGHT. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the weight in pounds by the 
 square of the length of the post in feet, and this 
 product+by the number set against the kind of wood 
 in the table. Divide the product by the breadth in 
 inches, and the cube-root of the quotient will be the 
 thickness in inches. 
 
 In case the post is less than ten diameters high, 
 the dimensions will be determined by Problem 
 VIII., as before directed. 
 
 RESISTANCE TO CRUSHING. 
 
 According to Rennie's experiments, the power 
 of wood to resist crushing (a cube an inch square 
 being used, and the power applied to the end of 
 the grain) is as follows*-: 
 
 Kind of Wood. Resistance. 
 
 Elm 1284 
 
 American Pine 1606 
 
 White Deal 1928 
 
 English Oak 3860 
 
COMPRESSION. 61 
 
 PROBLEM Vffl. 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE LOAD ANY POST OF LESS THAN TEN 
 TIMES ITS DIAMETEK IN HEIGHT WILL SUPPORT WITH- 
 OUT CRUSHING. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the area of the post in inches by 
 the weight that will crush a square-inch of the kind 
 of wood. A fourth of the product is the greatest 
 permanent load the post will bear with safety. 
 
 Only two other strains to which wood may be 
 subjected need be noticed. 
 
 One is that exerted by the foot of a truss, rafter, 
 or any thing of the kind, on the wood between it 
 and the end of the tie-beam on which it stands ; 
 the tendency being to slide, or push off the wood. 
 The quality which resists this is called the lateral 
 adhesion. Experiments have proved that the soft 
 woods, as spruce, pine, &c., will resist a force 
 of from five to seven hundred pounds, and the 
 hard woods, as oak and chestnut, from six to nine 
 hundred pounds, to the square-inch. As no piece 
 of good carpentry would be dependent on the 
 simple adhesion of the wood alone for support, 
 but, where the thrust is one of more than ordinary 
 moment, bolts or straps should be employed, rules 
 and further suggestions are uncalled for. 
 
62 COMPRESSION, 
 
 The other strain to which reference has been 
 made is where the power tends to tear asunder the 
 fibres of the wood in the direction of their length. 
 (See corollary 6, page 48.) Experiments made 
 on oak and chestnut show this resistance to be 
 from nineteen hundred and fifty to twenty-six 
 hundred pounds to the square-inch, and white pine 
 and spruce from six hundred and fifty to twelve 
 hundred pounds. 
 
GEOMETRY AND SQUARE-ROOT. 
 
65 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 " GEOMETRY is the foundation of architecture, and 
 the root of mathematics." Such being the case, 
 a knowledge of its leading principles is essential 
 to a successful practice of the art of carpentry. 
 While only a part of the science is necessarily 
 called into requisition, that part is all-important. 
 
 It is presumed that every apprentice will make 
 himself familiar with the science by the study of 
 some good treatise on the subject. A few rules, 
 however, for making calculations will be given 
 in this work. They are introduced, as in other 
 cases of like nature, more for the purpose of 
 refreshing the memory than for imparting original 
 information. 
 
 The diagrams on Plate I. exhibit such general 
 principles as are most frequently used by the car- 
 penter ; and it is believed they will convey all the 
 information he may require. 
 5 
 
66 GEOMETRY. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 FIG. 1. To draw a line perpendicular to another 
 at a given point. 
 
 From the points A and C, equally distant from the 
 given point B, with the radius AC describe arcs in- 
 tersecting each other at D. From this point to B draw 
 the line DB, which will be the line required. 
 
 FIG. 2. To draw a line perpendicular to another 
 at its extremity. 
 
 Let B represent the extremity of the line. From any 
 point above the line AB, as a centre, describe the arc 
 DBA. Draw AD from the point where the arc cuts the 
 line AB. Through the centre C, and from the point 
 where AD cuts the arc, draw the line DB, which will be 
 the line required. 
 
 FIG. 3. To draw an equilateral triangle to any 
 given base. 
 
 Let AB represent the base. From the points A and 
 
 B, with the radius AB describe arcs cutting each other at 
 
 C. From C, draw the lines CA and CB, which produce 
 the triangle required. 
 
 FIG. 4. To construct a square of any given di- 
 mensions. 
 
 Let AB represent the given side. From A and B, as 
 centres, describe the arcs AD and BC. From E, the 
 point of intersection, set off EC and ED equal to EF, 
 
" 
 
 \ 
 
 A' 
 
 Kig.G. 
 
 -I) 
 
 
GEOMETRY. 67 
 
 which are one-half the line EA; then draw from the 
 points the figure CABD. 
 
 FIG. 5. To describe a regular octagon, or figure 
 of eight equal sides, of a given dimension. 
 
 Let AD represent the diameter of the octagon. From 
 this, draw the figure ADBC; then draw the diagonals 
 AB and CD. With the radius AE, on the points ADBC, 
 describe arcs cutting the square. From the points of 
 intersection, draw diagonals, and the octagon is formed. 
 
 FIG. 6. To draw a regular hexagon or triangle 
 within a given circle. 
 
 Apply the radius of the circle six times around the 
 circumference, as at AB ; and the line is a side of the 
 hexagon. Draw a line from the points AC, and the line 
 is the side of an equilateral triangle. 
 
 FIG. 7 exhibits a method for finding the centre of a 
 circle when an arc is given ; also for describing a seg- 
 ment of a given height. 
 
 Let AB represent the base, and dC the height. Pro- 
 duce the lines AC and CB. On the points A and B, with 
 a radius of more than half the line AC describe the arcs 
 ef and gh. On the point C, with the same radius, de- 
 scribe the arcs ij and kl. Through the points of inter- 
 section, draw the lines mn and no, cutting each other at 
 the point n ; which will be the centre required. 
 
 FIG. 8. To inscribe in a circle a regular pentagon, 
 or figure of five equal sides. 
 
 Draw two lines, AB and CD, perpendicular to each 
 other. Divide the radius Ab into equal parts, as at a. 
 
68 GEOMETRY. 
 
 On a as a centre, with the radius C describe the arc 
 Cc ; then, on B as a centre, with the radius Be de- 
 scribe the arc cd, and from the point of intersection d 
 to C will be a side of the pentagon. A decagon, or 
 figure of ten sides, is described by drawing the lines fg 
 and gC, and then proceeding thus with each of the five 
 sides till the figure required is completed. 
 
 FIG. 9. This figure exhibits a method of deter- 
 mining the dimensions and form of a rectangular 
 stick of timber cut from a round stick, ivhich shall 
 be capable of supporting the greatest weight when 
 lying in a horizontal position. 
 
 The circle represents the outline of the log or stick, 
 and ABDC the stick to be cut therefrom. To determine 
 which, divide the line AD (the diameter of the log) into 
 three equal parts. On the points e and f erect perpen- 
 diculars ; which produced, cut the circumference at the 
 points BC ; which, together with the points AD, give 
 the corners of the required stick. 
 
 FIG. 10. To describe an elliptic arch by inter- 
 secting lines, the base and height being given. 
 
 Let AB represent the base, and AC the height. Di- 
 vide AC and BD into any number of equal parts ; then 
 divide CD into two equal parts, as at E. Divide CE 
 and DE each into the same number of parts as AC and 
 BD. Then, from the points described, draw lines as 
 shown in the figure ; and the points where these intersect 
 will be the track of the curve. Trace a line through 
 them, and we have the figure AEB. 
 
GEOMETRY. 69 
 
 I 
 
 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 The diameter of a circle is a right line drawn through 
 its centre, and terminated at each end by the circumfe- 
 rence, as AB, fig. 8. 
 
 The radius of a circle is a right line drawn from the 
 centre to the circumference, being half the diameter ; as 
 C6, fig. 8. 
 
 An arc of a circle is any portion of the circumfe- 
 ference ; as DB, fig. 2. 
 
 A chord is a right line joining the extremities of an 
 arc ; as AB, fig. 7. 
 
 A segment is any part of a circle bounded by an arc ; 
 as ABC, fig. 6. 
 
 A semicircle is half a circle ; as ACB, fig. 8. 
 
 A sector is any part of a circle bounded by an arc and 
 the radii ; as pus, fig. 7. 
 
 A quadrant is a quarter of a circle ; as A6D, fig. 8. 
 
70 GEOMETRY. 
 
 PROBLEM I. 
 
 TO FIND THE AKEA OF A PARALLELOGRAM, WHETHER IT 
 BE A SQUARE, A RECTANGLE, A RHOMBUS, OR A RHOM- 
 BOID. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the length by the perpendicular 
 height, and the product will be the area. 
 
 PROBLEM II. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the base by the perpendicular 
 height, and half the product will be the area. 
 
 PROBLEM III. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE WHOSE THREE SIDES 
 ARE GIVEN. 
 
 RULE. From the half-sum of the three sides sub- 
 tract each side severally. Multiply the half-sum and 
 the three remainders together, and the square-root 
 of the product will be the area required. 
 
 PROBLEM IV. 
 
 ANY TWO SIDES OF A RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE BEING 
 GIVEN, TO FIND A THIRD SIDE. 
 
 CASE I. When two sides are given, to find the hy- 
 pothenuse. 
 
 RULE. Add the squares of the two legs together, and 
 the square-root of the sum will be the hypothenuse. 
 
GEOMETRY. 71 
 
 CASE II. The hypothenuse and one of the legs being 
 given, to find the other leg. 
 
 RULE. From the square of the hypothenuse take 
 the square of the given leg, and the square-root of the 
 remainder will be equal to the other leg. 
 
 PROBLEM V. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF ANY REGULAR POLYGON. 
 
 RULE. Multiply half the perimeter of the figure 
 by the perpendicular falling from its centre upon one 
 of the sides, and the product will be the area of the 
 polygon. 
 
 PROBLEM VI. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF A REGULAR POLYGON, WHEN THE 
 SIDE ONLY IS GIVEN. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the square of the given side of 
 the polygon by that number which stands opposite to 
 its name in the following table, and the product will 
 be the area : 
 
 No. of Sides. Names. Multiplier. 
 
 3 ... Trigon 0.43301 
 
 4 ... Tetragon 1.00000 
 
 5 ... Pentagon 1.72047 
 
 6 ... Hexagon 2.59807 
 
 7 ... Heptagon 3.63391 
 
 8 ... Octagon 4.82842 
 
 9 ... Nonagon 6.18182 
 
 10 ... Decagon 7.69420 
 
 11 ... Undecagon 9.36564 
 
 12 ... Duodecagon 11.19615 
 
72 GEOMETRY. 
 
 As the foregoing table extends to five places 
 of decimals, it is exact enough for all practical 
 purposes. 
 
 PROBLEM VII. 
 
 THE DIAMETER OF A CIRCLE BEING GIVEN, TO FIND THE 
 CIRCUMFERENCE. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the diameter by 22, and divide 
 the product by 1 : the quotient will be the circumfe- 
 rence. Or multiply the diameter by 3, and add a 
 seventh part of the diameter to the product : the sum 
 will be the circumference as obtained before. Either 
 of these methods is sufficiently correct for common 
 purposes. 
 
 PROBLEM VIII. 
 
 THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE BEING GIVEN, TO FIND 
 THE DIAMETER. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the circumference by 7, and divide 
 the product by 22 : the quotient will be the diameter. 
 
 PR.OBLEM IX. 
 
 THE CHORD AND HEIGHT OF A SEGMENT BEING GIVEN, TO 
 FIND THE RADIUS OF THE CIRCLE. 
 
 RULE. To the square of the half-chord add the 
 square of the height, and divide the sum by twice 
 the height of the segment : the quotient will be the ra- 
 dius of the circle when it is less than a semicircle. 
 
GEOMETRY. 73 
 
 PROBLEM X. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF A CIRCLE, THE DIAMETER BEING 
 GIVEN. 
 
 RULE. Multiply half the circumference by half 
 the diameter, and the product will be the area. 
 
 PROBLEM XI. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF A SECTOR OF A CIRCLE. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the radius, or half the diameter, 
 by half the length of the arc of the sector; and the 
 product will be the area. 
 
 PROBLEM XII. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF THE SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE, THE 
 CHORD AND HEIGHT OF THE ARC BEING GIVEN. 
 
 RULE. To two-thirds of the product of the base, 
 multiplied by the height, add the cube of the height 
 divided by twice the length of the segment ; and the 
 sum will be nearly the area. 
 
 PROBLEM 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF AN ELLIPSIS, THE TRANSVERSE AND 
 CONJUGATE, OR LONG AND SHORT, DIAMETERS BEING 
 GIVEN. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the transverse axis by the conju- 
 gate, and the product multiplied by .7854 will be the 
 area. 
 
74 GEOMETRY. 
 
 PROBLEM XIV. 
 
 TO FIND THE AREA OF A PRISM. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the area of the base, or end, by 
 the perpendicular height; and the product will be the 
 solidity. 
 
 PROBLEM XV. 
 
 TO FIND THE SOLIDITY OF A PYRAMID. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the area of the base, or end, by 
 the perpendicular height; and a third of the product 
 will be the solidity. 
 
 PROBLEM XVI. 
 
 TO FIND THE SOLIDITY OF THE FRUSTUM OF A SQUARE 
 PYRAMID. 
 
 RULE. To the rectangle of the sides of the two 
 ends add the sum of their squares. That sum being 
 multiplied by the height, a third of the product will be 
 the solidity. 
 
 PROBLEM XVn. 
 
 TO FIND THE SOLIDITY OF A SPHERE, OR GLOBE. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the cube of the diameter by .5236, 
 and the product will be the solidity. 
 
GEOMETRY. 10 
 
 PROBLEM XVIU. 
 
 TO FIND THE SOLIDITY OF THE SEGMENT OF A GLOBE. 
 
 RULE. To three times the square of half the dia- 
 meter of the base of the segment add the square of 
 the height of the same. Multiply that sum by the 
 height named, and the product multiplied by .5236 
 will give the solidity. 
 
 PROBLEM XIX. 
 
 TO FIND THE CONVEX SUPERFICE OF A RIGHT CYLINDER, 
 THE CIRCUMFERENCE AND LENGTH BEING GIVES. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the circumference by the length, 
 and the product will be the area. 
 
 PROBLEM XX. 
 
 TO FIND THE CONVEX SUPERFICE OF A RIGHT CONE, THE 
 CIRCUMFERENCE AND SLANT SIDE BEING GIVEN. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the circumference by the slant 
 side, and half the product will be the area. 
 
 PROBLEM XXI. 
 
 TO FIND THE CONVEX SUPERFICE OF THE FRUSTUM OF A 
 CONE, THE CIRCUMFERENCES OF BOTH ENDS AND THE 
 SLANT SIDE BEING GIVEN. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the sum of the circumferences by 
 the slant side, and half the product will be the area. 
 
76 GEOMETRY. 
 
 PROBLEM XXII. 
 
 TO FIND THE SUPERFICE OF A SPHERE, OB GLOBE, THE 
 CIRCUMFERENCE BEING GIVEN. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the square of the circumference 
 by .3183, and the product will be the super/ice. 
 
 PKOBLEM XXIII. 
 
 TO FIND THE CONVEX SUPERFICE OF THE SEGMENT OF A 
 GLOBE, THE DIAMETER OF THE BASE OF THE SEGMENT 
 AND ITS HEIGHT BEING GIVEN. 
 
 RULE. To the square of the diameter of the base 
 add the square of twice the height, and the sum mul- 
 tiplied by .7854 will give the superjice. 
 
 PROBLEM XXIV. 
 
 TO FIND THE CONVEX SUPERFICE OF AN ANNULUS, OR RING, 
 WHOSE THICKNESS AND INNER DIAMETER ARE GIVEN. 
 
 RULE. To the thickness of the ring add the inner 
 diameter. Multiply the sum by the thickness, and the 
 product multiplied by 9.869 will be the superjice. 
 
77 
 
 SQUARE-ROOT. 
 
 As the extraction of the square-root of numbers is 
 required to calculate the strength of timber, the 
 rule will be given below, more to refresh the me- 
 mory than to give original information as to its 
 principles ; it being presumed that every intelligent 
 workman has made himself familiar with the rules 
 of common arithmetic through works especially 
 designed for the purpose. 
 
 RULE. 1st, Separate the given number into periods 
 of two figures each, by placing a point over the first 
 figure at the right hand, and then over every other 
 figure towards the left. 
 
 2d, Ascertain the greatest square-number contained 
 in the left-hand period, and place the root of it at the 
 right hand of the given number, after the manner of a 
 quotient in division. Subtract the square of this root 
 from the period named, and to the remainder bring 
 down the next period for a new dividend. 
 
 3d, Double the quotient already found, and place it 
 at the left of the dividend for a divisor. Find how 
 
78 SQUARE-ROOT. 
 
 many times this divisor is contained in the new divi- 
 dend (omitting the right-hand figure), and place the 
 figure in the root as the second figure of the same, 
 and likewise on the right hand of the divisor. Multi- 
 ply the divisor by the last quotient-figure, subtract the 
 product from the dividend, and to the remainder bring 
 down the next period for a new dividend. 
 
 4th, Double the quotient already found for a partial 
 divisor, and from these find the next figure in the root 
 as before directed : so continue the operation until all 
 the periods have been employed. Should a remainder 
 exist, add two ciphers as a new period, and so continue 
 pointing off the root after the rules of decimal frac- 
 tions. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What is the^ square-root of 59,325 ? 
 
 59325 (243.5 
 4 
 
 44)193 
 176 
 
 483) 1725 
 
 1449 
 
 4865) 27600 
 24325 
 
 Required the square-root of 326,041 : 
 
 326041(571 
 25 
 
 107) 760 
 749 
 
 1141) Till" 
 1141 
 
EQUILIBRIUM 
 
 STRAINS ON TIMBER. 
 
81 
 
 EQUILIBRIUM OF STRAINS ON 
 TIMBER. 
 
 A KNOWLEDGE of the relation that one part of a 
 frame sustains to each of the others is of great 
 importance to the carpenter ; for, if ignorant of 
 the force that each piece will be required to exert 
 or resist, he cannot determine beforehand whether 
 the assemblage will possess sufficient strength to 
 answer the purpose designed. The timbers of a 
 frame are usually acted upon by direct, and also 
 by complex, forces. 
 
 POSITION. 
 
 The strains to which the timbers of a structure 
 are subjected will always be governed by their 
 position ; and their particular inclination will in- 
 crease or diminish these strains in accordance with 
 the laws of mechanical forces. 
 
 6 
 
82 EQUILIBRIUM OP STRAINS. 
 
 PLATE H. 
 
 To the side of a beam, as shown at Fig. 1, Plate II., 
 affix two pulleys, A and B. To the ends of a string 
 passing over each, attach weights, as C and D. At some 
 point of the string between the pulleys, as E, tie 
 another; to the end of which affix weight F, which 
 must be lighter than the sum of the weights C and D. 
 
 If the work be then left to itself, the point E will 
 assume a certain position, and the whole will remain at 
 rest; and, if the arrangement be disturbed by pulling 
 down or lifting up either of the weights, each part will 
 recover its original position when left free. 
 
 It is thereby proved, that, when in that position alone, 
 the parts are in equilibria. If the position of the 
 strings, when the weights are thus balanced, be drawn 
 on paper, and any portion of the line Ei be divided into 
 a scale of parts representing the number of pounds in 
 the weight F, the line AE be continued to h, and the 
 line ik be drawn parallel to EB, then iTi, measured 'by 
 the scale, would show the number of pounds weight at 
 D ; and the line E^, measured in the same manner, the 
 number of pounds in the weight C : or, in other words, 
 the three sides of the triangle 'EM will be respectively 
 proportionate to the three weights. Therefore, to ascer- 
 tain to which weight either side corresponds, we have but 
 to find which weight draws in the direction of that par- 
 ticular side. 
 
 As a deduction of the foregoing, we have the follow- 
 ing rule : If a body be kept at rest by three forces, two 
 
STRAINS 03f TDIBEP. 
 
 pi.n 
 
 
 
EQUILIBRIUM OF STRAINS. 83 
 
 of which are represented in magnitude and direction 
 by two sides of a triangle, the third side will represent 
 the magnitude and direction of the other force. 
 
 NOTE. Before proceeding to the immediate consideration 
 of the strains to which timbers in a frame may be subjected, 
 the student should make himself familiar with the mechanical 
 principles demonstrated by Fig. 1, Plate II., as the principles 
 therein contained are the base on which rests the science of 
 carpentry. 
 
 We will now suppose that the point E, in Fig. 1, in- 
 stead of being sustained by the weights C and D, which 
 act in the direction Ea and E6, as shown at Fig. 2, is 
 supported by timbers HE and JE. The weight F being 
 suspended from the point E, the timber HE will sustain 
 a force equal to that which is exerted in the direction 
 of E6 ; and JE, a force equal to that exerted in the di- 
 rection of Ea. 
 
 To determine these forces, we proceed as follows : Let 
 any portion of the line EF, as EG, represent the weight 
 F. Draw op parallel to HE ; and op, measured by the 
 scale, will represent the weight sustained by HE, and oq 
 that sustained by JE. 
 
 From the above data we deduce the following : 
 
 1st, A force or power applied to the end of a timber 
 always acts in the direction of its length. 
 
 Id, If a post be somewhat inclined, as AC, Fig. 3, 
 and another timber put against it, as BC, the post will be 
 relieved of a part of the strain ; for each piece will sup- 
 port a weight proportional to its own inclination. 
 
 3d, Should a weight be applied to the apex of two 
 pieces of like inclination, as at Fig. 4, it will exert an 
 equal strain on each. 
 
84 EQUILIBRIUM OF STRAINS. 
 
 4th, A weight, applied as shown in Figs. 3 and 4, 
 tends to spread the timbers apart at the lower ends. In 
 Fig. 3, we have supposed them to rest against an im- 
 movable abutment. It is obvious, that, the strain being 
 a direct thrust, a tie connecting A and B will be an 
 equivalent to the abutments. Fig. 4 represents this, AB 
 being the tie-beam. 
 
 5th, If an inclined timber, as AB, Fig. 8, be cut at 
 the ends so as to rest level on the walls, it will have no 
 tendency to slide ; and therefore, so long as it remains in 
 this position, will not exert the slightest thrust on the 
 walls. 
 
 TO DETERMINE THE STRAINS EXERTED ON TIMBER. 
 
 Being in possession of the foregoing facts and deduc- 
 tions, the carpenter is enabled to determine the exact 
 strain to which the parts of any piece of framing will be 
 subjected. 
 
 Suppose it be required to determine the strain exerted 
 on each of the pieces shown at Fig. 3. From the point 
 where the pieces meet, draw the vertical line ab of any 
 convenient length ; from 6, draw cb parallel to AC. As- 
 suming the weight C to be five hundred pounds, we pro- 
 ceed as follows : 
 
 Let the line ab represent the weight. Divide it into 
 ten equal parts, and one of these again into ten others. 
 Each one of the divisions last named being a hundredth 
 part of the line 6, which represents the whole weight 
 of five hundred pounds will represent five pounds. 
 Measure the line cb by this scale ; and as many parts as 
 it contains, n^iltiplied by five, will be the number of 
 
EQUILIBRIUM OF STRAINS. 85 
 
 pounds the piece AC must support. Proceed in the 
 same way with ca, and the result will be the weight 
 supported by BC.* 
 
 The horizontal strain exerted on the tie-beam may be 
 determined as follows : From the point c, Fig. 4, draw a 
 line parallel to the tie-beam. The line cd, measured by 
 the scale as before described, will represent the pressure, 
 or strain, exerted thereon by each piece. If the pieces 
 be unequally inclined, as in Fig. 3, proceed as before 
 described ; and the parallel lines will represent the hori- 
 zontal strain, as in Fig. 4. af will represent the vertical 
 strain on A ; and ad, the strain on B. 
 
 If a weight be applied to any part of an inclined 
 beam, as W, Fig. 8, the direct transverse strain may be 
 determined on the same principles. From a point be- 
 neath the centre of the weight, draw the line ab of any 
 convenient length. From the end of the line at b, draw 
 cb at right angles with the beam. Having divided the 
 line ab into a scale of parts representing the number 
 of pounds weight at \V, we have, by measuring the line 
 cb with this scale, the number of pounds weight exerted 
 as transverse or cross strain on the beam AB. 
 
 It may also be observed, that ac will give the force 
 with which the ball would move down the beam ; or, in 
 other words, if the ball be fixed, it would show the force 
 exerted in the direction of the beam, dc will represent 
 the strain exerted on the wall, should the beam rest 
 against it. Those strains to which the several timbers of 
 
 * It should be borne in mind, that the particular inclination 
 of the pieces determines the aggregate pressure; and, although 
 the sum of the two may amount to more than the weight ap- 
 plied, it does not necessarily follow that the calculation is 
 wrong. 
 
86 EQUILIBRIUM OF STRAINS. 
 
 a crane are subjected are identical with those exerted on 
 the various timbers of most examples of framing. 
 
 While the crane is an exceedingly simple machine, it 
 fully illustrates every point under consideration ; and has, 
 in consequence, become with most authors a favorite 
 model for illustration. 
 
 Fig. 5 illustrates the nature and amount of strain a 
 weight will exert on both a tie and a strut at the same 
 time. Instead of the beams HE and JE of Fig. 2, as 
 substitutes for the ropes AE and BE of Fig. 1, we may 
 substitute, in place of rope EB, the strut CE, Fig. 5, 
 and permit a rope AE to remain. The weight is sup- 
 ported in this example precisely as it was in each of the 
 others, and the method of procedure to ascertain the re- 
 spective strains is the same. EG, as a scale representing 
 the weight, is the scale for measuring po, which is the 
 strain on the strut CE ; and os, the strain on the tie, or 
 rope. 
 
 Fig. 6 represents the same principle, and, in like 
 manner, illustrates the means of determining the strain 
 on inclined timbers. Ab represents the scale of weight. 
 The line Ac, measured by the scale, will give the strain 
 on AB ; and be, that on CA. Should the projecting tim- 
 bers be inclined downwards, the method of calculation 
 would be the same. 
 
 If a beam be inclined against a wall, as at Fig. 7, and 
 the inclination be less than forty-five degrees, there will 
 be a tendency to slide ; but there is an angle to which 
 the end of the beam may be cut, so that this tendency 
 will be entirely overcome. 
 
 This discovery is of great value to the carpenter, since 
 the ends of truss-rafters, struts, &c., formed in accord- 
 ance with the rule, will exert no lateral strain on the 
 wood against ^which it abuts. 
 
EQUILIBRIUM OF STRAINS. 87 
 
 From the centre of the beam at d, draw the line ab 
 parallel to AC. From a, draw of to the centre of the 
 beam at f; then, from a, draw ag to the centre of the 
 inclined beam at the lower end. ag will represent 
 the direction in which the beam presses upon the abut- 
 ment at B or g ; and the parts should therefore be cut 
 at right angles to the line named. 
 
 If we divide the line ab into a scale representing the 
 weight on the centre of the beam, and draw be perpen- 
 dicular thereto, be will represent the pressure against the 
 abutment, or the tensile strain exerted on the beam AB. 
 
 The foregoing comprehends all the important 
 principles relative to the strains exerted on the 
 timbers of a frame. In calculating these, however, 
 it is to be remembered, that the simpler a piece 
 of framing is, so is the resolution of the forces 
 exerted upon it; and vice versa. Although, in 
 most instances, strains are more or less complicated, 
 interfering with, and at times counteracting, each 
 other, still the exact strain upon each part is sus- 
 ceptible of calculation ; and any one who has suffi- 
 cient curiosity and perseverance may, by following 
 the rules, determine the nature and quantity of 
 the strain exerted on any specimen of framing, 
 however complicated. 
 
SCARFING, FLOORS, AND 
 TRUSSED BEAMS. 
 
91 
 
 SCARFING. 
 
 IT frequently occurs in the practice of carpentry, 
 that single lengths of timber are too short for the 
 distance required; in which case, the carpenter 
 unites two or more pieces by a process technically 
 termed SCARFING. The principal end to be at- 
 tained is, that, when put together, the scarfed stick 
 shall be equal in strength to a single piece of the 
 same dimensions. To attain this, it is necessary 
 so nicely to adjust the indentations, that the entire 
 surface of each part shall come in contact with 
 the corresponding part in the other piece ; so that 
 all may have a direct and uniform bearing, and 
 none be made to resist a force that should be 
 resisted by another. 
 
 Methods of scarfing are various ; and, of many, 
 we may truly say, that their design savors more of 
 the imagination of the artist than the sober expe- 
 rience of the mechanic. 
 
92 SCARFING. 
 
 As it is not the purpose of this work to illustrate 
 the whole range of experiments in these things, 
 such methods only will be given as have proved 
 themselves most useful, presuming these will meet 
 every reasonable demand ; remarking merely, that, 
 when more complicated forms of indentation are 
 made, it is always at the expense of utility. 
 
 Beams are seldom exposed to more than two 
 kinds of strain which act upon the scarfing. One 
 is, when the power is so applied as to exert a strain 
 in the direction of the beam's length, as that pro- 
 duced by truss-rafters on a tie-beam : the other is, 
 when the force or power tends to sag or break the 
 beam in the direction of its depth. 
 
 In consideration of which, attention should be 
 paid, in the selection of a method of scarfing, to the 
 particular kind of strain to which the beam is most 
 liable to be subjected. 
 
 The parts of a piece of scarfing are held together 
 by bolts passing through the stick, as shown in 
 the plate ; and oak-keys are frequently put into the 
 scarf to prevent the parts sliding past each other, 
 as seen at a. Figs. 1, 2, 3. Care should be taken 
 that neither bolts nor keys be so large as to require 
 the removal of such an amount of wood as will 
 materially weaken the timber. 
 
SCARFING. 93 
 
 These keys should be made of perfectly sound 
 dry white oak. They should be in two parts, each 
 slightly tapering on one side, so that, when driven 
 in, they may tighten the joint. 
 
 The iron straps or bars used on a scarf (as 
 shown on some of the examples) should be of the 
 best wrought iron, from a fourth to a half inch in 
 thickness, and from two to three inches wide, ac- 
 cording to the size of the beam scarfed ; and should 
 be four in number to each scarf. The length of the 
 scarfing for any beam should be about six times the 
 depth of the stick, and the bolts which confine 
 the work together should be from a half to three- 
 fourths of an inch in diameter ; making five-eighths 
 of an inch as the best average size for bolts to 
 beams of any dimension above eight or nine inches 
 square. 
 
94 SCARFING. 
 
 PLATE III. 
 
 Plate III. exhibits five specimens, or examples, of scarf- 
 ing. Figs. 1, 3, and 5 are best adapted to resist a strain 
 in the direction of the length of the beam ; and Figs. 1, 
 2, and 4, to resist one in the direction of its depth. In 
 Figs. 4 and 5, the pieces are too short to admit of either 
 of the other methods. The planks of example at Fig. 5 
 should be of good dry white oak ; and, if the work is well 
 done, this scarf is equal in strength to either of the more 
 complicated methods. This practice is called by carpen- 
 ters "fishing a beam." 
 
 It is well to observe here, that the examples cited as 
 being particularly adapted to resist a longitudinal strain 
 are also capable of sufficiently resisting a vertical one. 
 
SCARFING 
 
 Pl.Ul 
 
 i i T r i 
 
 i i 
 
 "T^-il 
 
 -^ 4- 
 
 I i ! 
 
 I I 
 
 Tig. 5. 
 
 T T 
 
95 
 
 FLOORS. 
 
 THE construction of floors is a branch of carpentry 
 which does not demand much scientific considera- 
 tion. If the timber be of proper size, sufficient in 
 quantity, and the work well done, all is accom- 
 plished that can be desired. To effect this, how- 
 ever, the carpenter should avail himself of such 
 rules as experience has proved to be valuable. The 
 timbers of a floor should be selected of proper size 
 to support any weight that will probably be placed 
 upon them. A warehouse-floor, for instance, may 
 at times be subjected to great strains, and should 
 therefore be heavily timbered. It is often the 
 practice, in constructing floors of the kind, to use 
 long floor-joists extending from eighteen to twenty- 
 four feet; in which case, the timbers vary in di- 
 mensions from three by thirteen inches to five by 
 fourteen inches, and they are usually placed from 
 fifteen to twenty inches apart from centres. A 
 
96 FLOORS. 
 
 church or hall floor, when covered with people in 
 a standing position, packed close, is loaded a hun- 
 dred and twenty-five pounds to each square foot. 
 Timbers three by twelve inches, if the bearings are 
 not more than ten feet apart, placed sixteen inches 
 from centres, will sustain the weight; and these 
 dimensions are generally used in buildings of the 
 kind. 
 
 The floors of dwelling-houses may be lighter. 
 If the joists are materially longer, the size should 
 not be much decreased. The lengths being from 
 nine to fifteen feet, two by twelve will answer the 
 purpose : two by ten inch joists, and even two by 
 eight inch, are frequently used in cheap buildings. 
 The principal objection to light timber arises, not 
 from its liability to break, but from its vibration, 
 which is apt to crack the plaster of the ceiling 
 below. 
 
FLOORS 
 
 n.r 
 
 .._ 
 
 Ffe.4. 
 
 : -, : ' . . 
 
 Cmith . Knight * Tappan.Eng' 
 
FLOORS. 07 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 The method of framing shown at Fig. 1 of this plate, 
 is, all things considered, quite as good as any in use. 
 More complicated methods are not often attended with 
 proportionate advantage. Fig. 2 exhibits the side of 
 the joists of the same floor, the girder, &c., all of which 
 will be readily understood without further explanation. 
 
 Fig. 3 exhibits a section of what is called a bridged 
 floor. It is, in principle, like the other, with the addi- 
 tion of the smaller joists which bridge over the principal 
 ones. Floors of this kind are seldom built in this coun- 
 try, but are much used in Europe. 
 , Fig. 4 exhibits a side-view, or section, of the floor 
 last described ; BB showing the ends of the principal, 
 and C the side of the bridging, joists. The part of 
 the diagrams at A illustrates the method of framing the 
 joists into the girder; the figures thereon denoting 
 the dimensions of each part, being calculated for a stick 
 twelve inches deep. 
 
 Even- floor should be well bridged. This may be 
 done in either of two ways : first, by cutting in between 
 the sides of the joists, and at right angles to them, 
 pieces of the same thickness and width as the joists 
 themselves; secondly, by cutting in pieces of board one 
 inch thick and three inches wide, crossing each other dia- 
 gonally, as seen at a, Fig. 1, Plate IV. The ends of 
 these pieces are scarfed, or cut bevelling, and firmly 
 nailed to the sides of the joists. 
 
98 
 
 TRUSSED BEAMS. 
 
 IT frequently happens that beams are required to 
 support a great weight, while they extend across 
 a wide space, and can have no support from be- 
 neath. In such cases, it is necessary to truss the 
 work. 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 Fig. 1, Plate V., exhibits a method of trussing a beam 
 by the use of an iron rod. All trussed beams are com- 
 posed of two pieces. In the example at Fig. 1, the 
 pieces are placed an inch apart, and the rod so bent as to 
 take the sag of the beam at the points aa. A bolt, an 
 inch in diameter, passes through the beam, and rests 
 on the truss-rod. At bb are iron plates, through which 
 the ends of the rod pass. This method may be employed 
 where the span is from twenty-five to thirty-five feet. If 
 the work is well done, the girder is strong ; but the ex- 
 pansion and contraction of the rod subject the work to 
 variation as the rod becomes longer or shorter. 
 

 - Ls 
 
 i-Eiagfet & Tampan. EngT? 
 
TRUSSED BEAMS. 99 
 
 Figs. 3 and 4 are examples where oak-pieces and cast- 
 iron keys are used instead of a rod. The oak-parts 
 should be two by four inches, and let into the wood a 
 quarter of an inch on each side, leaving the beams an inch 
 and a half apart. The keys should be made with a 
 screw and nut at c to tighten the work. The abutments 
 at dd should also be of cast iron, and let into the wood, 
 like the oak. 
 
 Fig. 2 represents a beam built with oak-keys, two 
 inches square, let half an inch into the pieces, and the 
 whole bolted together. This method produces a very 
 strong beam, and is of great value. It is often the prac- 
 tice in carpentry to bolt two pieces of spruce together, 
 with an oak-board an inch thick between them. The 
 bolts should be of wrought iron, and five-eighths of an 
 inch in diameter. Should unusual strength be required, 
 the beam may be built with three or even four pieces, 
 with the truss-work between them, and the whole bolted 
 together as in an ordinary beam. 
 
ROOFS, PARTITIONS, AND DOMES. 
 
103 
 
 E O F S. 
 
 tt THERE is no article," says the learned Ware, " in 
 the whole compass of the architect's employment, 
 that is more important, or more worthy of distinct 
 consideration, than the roof; and there is this satis- 
 faction for the mind of the man of genius in that 
 profession, that there is no part in which is greater 
 room for improvement." 
 
 The suggestions above quoted, although made 
 in the year 1756, remained quite unheeded till 
 near the close of the last century, when Mr. Peter 
 Nicholson made public the germ of an invention, 
 which has, in process of time, brought about as great 
 a revolution in the art of carpentry as the introduc- 
 tion of the arch did in that of masonry. The lead- 
 ing feature of the invention is the substitution of 
 iron rods for wooden king and queen posts. The 
 design by Mr. Nicholson was published in 1797; 
 but, as late as 1828, Mr. Tredgold says, in his ex- 
 
104 ROOFS. 
 
 cellent Treatise on Carpentry, " It has been proposed 
 to let the ends of the principal rafters abut against 
 each other, and to suspend the king-posts by straps 
 of iron ; but a piece of good carpentry should de- 
 pend as little on straps as possible." From the tenor 
 of his remarks, it is reasonable to suppose that few, 
 if any, successful experiments had been made ; for 
 he afterwards refers the reader to a design in his 
 work, where the rafters abut against each other, 
 and the beam is suspended by planks bolted to their 
 sides. "This method," he adds, "is perhaps the 
 best in use." A valuable standard work, entitled 
 " Treatise on Architecture, Building, &c.," was pub- 
 lished in Edinburgh in 1844. On page 154 of 
 the work, attention is called to the suggestion of Mr. 
 Nicholson, made forty-seven years before. The 
 writer (Dr. Thomas Young) says, " There is a very 
 ingenious project offered to the public by Mr. 
 Nicholson (' Carpenter's Assistant,' p. 68). He 
 proposes iron rods for king-posts, queen-posts, and 
 all other situations where beams perform the office 
 of ties. . . . "We abound in iron ; but we must 
 send abroad for building-timber. This is, therefore, 
 a valuable project. At the same time, however, let 
 us not overrate its value." From the foregoing, it 
 appears, that, up to a late day, but little advance had 
 
ROOFS. 105 
 
 been made ; the old methods of construction being 
 looked upon with more favor than the new. 
 
 At what time, or by whom, the idea was first 
 practically carried out in this country, is uncertain. 
 The burden of evidence, however, indicates, that, 
 although first published by Mr. Asher Benjamin, 
 he was indebted for the suggestion to Mr. Charles 
 G. Hall, now of Roxbury, Mass. Mr. Hall, an 
 Englishman by birth, and an able architect and 
 engineer, arrived in America in 1823. He soon be- 
 came associated in business with an eminent archi- 
 tect of that day, Mr. Alexander Parris. Under the 
 direction of these gentlemen, many large and im- 
 portant buildings were erected, in the roofs of most, 
 if not all, of which, the principle under considera- 
 tion was employed. Being thus freely used, it soon 
 commended itself to the judgment of other archi- 
 tects, who in turn adopted it ; and the work of Mr. 
 Benjamin was no sooner published than a reform 
 commenced, which has steadily advanced, until its 
 great value and economy are universally acknow- 
 ledged. 
 
 On the plates of this work pertaining to roofs 
 are designs calculated for various spans, and of such 
 rise, or pitch, as will accommodate them to any style 
 of building; each having been so designed that 
 
106 ROOFS. 
 
 timber may be used of such dimensions as will 
 properly support a covering of heavy slates. 
 
 Of the inclination, or pitch, of the several roofs, 
 but little need be said, since designs for buildings 
 are so varied, that an attempt to illustrate them all 
 would- only encumber the work. A few suggestions 
 will be made, which, together with those amendments 
 naturally presenting themselves in particular cases, 
 will give all the information required. 
 
 The pitch of any roof, covered with shingles or 
 slates, should never be less than one-fourth the 
 width of the entire span ; for, if it be less, rain and 
 snow will, in severe storms, be driven through the 
 crevices. If the design of the building demands 
 less inclination, a covering of tin, copper, lead, or 
 something of like nature, should be used ; in which 
 case, any rise above a twenty-fourth of the whole 
 span will be all that is required. The extent of 
 the span will, however, to a certain degree, govern 
 the inclination and form of the roof, in order to 
 give strength to the truss. If the span is great, 
 and a low roof is desired, it is best to truncate it, 
 as shown on Plate IX., Fig. 1. Where slating is 
 used, the boards should be matched, and planed to a 
 uniform thickness ; for if the joints are left open, 
 as may be allowed in shingling, the passage of air 
 
ROOFS. 107 
 
 through the openings carries with it rain or dry 
 snow, when, in ordinary storms, it would exhibit no 
 sign of defect. 
 
 TIMBERS OF A ROOF. 
 
 A trussed roof employs the following timbers, 
 tie-beams, principal rafters, collar-beams, struts, 
 purlines, and common rafters. 
 
 TIE-BEAMS are the large and long timbers which 
 lie in a horizontal position, and extend across the 
 building at the base of the roof. They are usually 
 subjected to two kinds of strain. One is that which 
 is exerted by the principal rafters : the other is the 
 cross-strain, and may be produced by the weight 
 of the ceiling below, or a load upon the beams 
 themselves. In mortising tie-beams, as little wood 
 should be removed as the nature of the case will 
 allow. Tenons may be small, their use being simply 
 to retain each piece in its proper place. If the 
 figuring laid down in this work is followed, the tie- 
 beams of each design will be of sufficient size to 
 resist the strains exerted by the inclined parts, and 
 the rods will resist the cross-strain. 
 
 The weakest part of a tie-beam, and hence the 
 
108 ROOFS. 
 
 one demanding most attention, is at its ends about 
 the foot of the rafters. To strengthen this part, it 
 is the usual practice to bolt pieces of strong white 
 oak or Carolina pine to the under side of the 
 beam. The pieces should be as thick as half 
 the depth of the beam, and of sufficient length to 
 extend from the end thereof to three feet beyond 
 the heel of the rafters. (See S, Fig. 2, Plate VI.) 
 Objections to the use of strengthening-pieces have 
 been made, because they present a joint or seam 
 where dampness may gather, and produce decay in 
 the wood ; also because they are in effect a camber 
 to the beam, exerting a thrust on the walls of the 
 building. To a certain extent, these objections are 
 valid ; but neither is of sufficient moment to out- 
 weigh the benefit produced. The objection first 
 named may be entirely obviated by thoroughly 
 painting the pieces when the work is put together. 
 The practice of cambering a tie-beam, by tightening 
 the rods till the beam is curved upwards, cannot be 
 considered advisable; for, if sufficient camber is 
 produced to give the beam additional strength by 
 its partaking of the nature of an arch, this is more 
 than counteracted by injury to the walls of the build- 
 ing. A large ceiling, if entirely level, presents an 
 optical delusion, leading the beholder to believe 
 
ROOFS. 109 
 
 that the surface has a sag, or downward curve. In 
 furring such ceilings, a rise of an inch in twenty 
 feet will obviate the difficulty. While the carpenter 
 is cautious in cambering beams for either of the 
 purposes named, or any of like nature, he should 
 remember that there will be a settlement from the 
 shrinkage of the timbers, till each part has found 
 a solid bearing. Hence the rods should be kept 
 tightened ; and, when the work is completed, the 
 centre of the beam should be slightly curved upwards, 
 that the tendency named may be counteracted. 
 
 PRINCIPAL RAFTERS are the large inclined 
 timbers which support the purlins : they should 
 be of the same thickness as the tie-beam, and about 
 four-fifths as deep. To a beam seven by ten inches, 
 the rafter would be seven by eight inches. In some 
 examples of framing, as that shown on Plate XL, 
 Fig. 1 , one rafter is placed above another ; in which 
 case, both should be of the same size, having pieces 
 of oak-board, an inch and five-eighths thick and 
 four inches wide, let into each rafter five-eighths of 
 an inch, leaving the rafters three-eighths of an inch 
 apart for the passage of air between them : the pieces 
 should be perfectly dry, and tightly driven into the 
 grooves. The timbers should be bolted together 
 with bolts five-eighths of an inch in diameter. 
 
110 ROOFS. 
 
 COLLAR-BEAMS are the horizontal timbers which 
 lie between the heads of principal rafters. They are 
 also known as straining-beams. As their use is 
 to prevent the rafters approaching each other, their 
 dimensions may be the same as the timbers named. 
 In designs where these beams are liable to sag, they 
 should be supported with struts, as seen at A, Plate 
 VIII. The case not unfrequently occurs where col- 
 lar-beams are serviceable as tie-beams, and thereby 
 strengthen the principal tie-beam : an example of 
 this kind may be seen at B and C, Plate XI. In 
 cases of this kind, separate rods will be required. 
 The top-truss, being needed as a truss, will require 
 rods of its own to make it complete in itself; the 
 main-beam being suspended by other rods. 
 
 STRUTS are the inclined pieces which support the 
 principal rafters. The ends of struts should always 
 be framed with a shoulder an inch and a half wide, 
 and sloping from this to the end of the piece. It 
 may be remarked here, that the ends of all braces 
 (whatever their position) should be formed with a 
 shoulder of like nature, proportional to the size of 
 the piece. Struts, being always in a state of com- 
 pression, need not be pinned to the beam or piece 
 they support, a short tenon being all that is required 
 to keep the parts in their proper place. The width 
 
ROOFS. Ill 
 
 of struts should be the thickness of the principal raf- 
 ter ; and they should be about half as thick as the 
 rafter is deep. The carpenter should make it an 
 invariable rule to place the curved or cambered 
 side of a timber upwards, whenever such cambered 
 side exists. 
 
 PURLINS are the horizontal timbers extending 
 from truss to truss to support the common rafters. 
 They should always be framed or bridged over the 
 principal rafters, by notching into the back of 
 them and breast of the purlins, each half an inch, 
 making an inch when the work has been put to- 
 gether. Their size is determined by their length 
 of bearing and distance apart. "When the trusses 
 are within ten feet from centres, and the purlins 
 less than eight feet apart on the principal rafters, 
 they may be ,to them in thickness and depth, 
 respectively, as five to eight. They should not 
 be cut into lengths which will reach only over 
 single spaces, but continued whole ; and, when 
 they are put on, they should be made to break 
 joints, by the use of short lengths at the end of 
 every other one. It is to be remembered, that the 
 joints should always be made over the principal 
 rafter. In cases where the roof is large, and ex- 
 posed to the direct action of heavy storms, the 
 
112 ROOFS. 
 
 purlins should be braced, like the posts and girts 
 of a side-wall. 
 
 COMMON RAFTERS are the outside timbers of a 
 roof, and are used simply to support the boarding. 
 Being uniformly loaded, only light pieces are re- 
 quired ; but they should always be jointed over the 
 purlins, and never placed more than eighteen or 
 twenty inches apart from centres. If the bearing 
 is not more than eight feet, they may be two by 
 six inches ; but, where it is more, their depth 
 should be proportionally increased. They should 
 be notched into a half-inch, to keep them from 
 sliding off the purlin ; but the purlin itself should 
 remain entire. 
 
 IRON WORK. 
 
 The bolts used at the foot of principal rafters 
 should not be less than five-eighths of an inch in 
 diameter, nor more than an inch. For most pur- 
 poses, three-fourths of an inch is best ; and, when 
 one of an inch in diameter is not sufficiently strong, 
 it is better to increase the number than the size, 
 and they should always be set at right angles with 
 the rafters. The rods which support the beams 
 
ROOFS. 113 
 
 must be of sufficient size to prevent vibration, but 
 may vary in diameter according to the nature of 
 the work, from five-eighths of an inch to two inches 
 in diameter. 
 
 Great cafe should be exercised in the selection, 
 using none but the very best material. 
 
 It is a common practice, in some instances, to use 
 cast-iron boxings at the ends of principal rafters, 
 and such other parts of a truss as will be subjected 
 to great pressure, causing the fibres of the wood to 
 indent each other. It is rare, however, that box- 
 ings are absolutely necessary. 
 
 Where a piece of framing is liable to be exposed 
 to dampness before the work is put together, the 
 iron should be heated to a blue heat, and well oiled 
 over with the best quality of raw linseed oil. If 
 this is properly done, the pores of the iron will be 
 filled, and the metal effectually protected against 
 corrosion. 
 
 Straps should be used sparingly, if at all ; as the 
 shrinkage of the wood leaves them loose, and 
 the work is liable to settle. In most examples of 
 old carpentry, these were freely used ; but modern 
 methods of framing with rods and bolts have ob- 
 viated the necessity for them, so that they are now 
 but rarely employed. 
 
114 
 
 ROOFS. 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 
 Fig. 3 of this plate exhibits a design for a roof of 
 from forty to sixty feet span. Being very simple in its 
 construction, it is more frequently used than any other. 
 The trusses should be not more than eight or ten feet 
 apart, and the common rafters twenty inches apart, from 
 centres. 
 
 Table of dimen 
 
 in inches, of limbers for roofs of various 
 spans. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 Span in Feet. 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 Tie-beams .... 
 Truss-rafters . . . 
 Collar-beams . . . 
 Common Eafters . . 
 
 6x8 
 6x7 
 6x7 
 2x6 
 5x7 
 3x6 
 4x6 
 lin. 
 iin. 
 
 7x8 
 7x7 
 7x7 
 2x6 
 6x7 
 4x7 
 5x7 
 Uin. 
 |in. 
 
 8x9 
 8x8 
 8x8 
 2x6 
 6x8 
 4x8 
 5x8 
 Uin. 
 fin. 
 
 8x10 
 8x9 
 8x9 
 2x7 
 6x8 
 5x8 
 5x8 
 Uin. 
 lin. 
 
 9x11 
 9x9 
 9x9 
 2x7 
 6x9 
 5x9 
 6x9 
 Uin. 
 Uin. 
 
 Struts 
 
 Strengthening-pieces 
 Rods 
 Bolts . ' 
 
 
 Fig. 1 exhibits in detail the framing at A, and Fig. 2 
 that at B. 
 

 Pl.TE 
 
 ' ~| 
 
 pp 
 
LOOFS 
 
ROOFS. 
 
 115 
 
 PLATE VH. 
 
 Fig. 2 exhibits a design for a roof of from thirty- 
 five to fifty feet span. This roof, from its simplicity and 
 strength, is, like that on Plate VL, much approved, 
 and in common use. 
 
 Table of timber-dimensions for various spans. 
 
 
 
 Span i 
 
 i Feet. 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 Tie-beams .... 
 
 6X7 
 
 6x8 
 
 7X9 
 
 8x9 
 
 Truss-rafters . . 
 
 6X6 
 
 6x7 
 
 7X8 
 
 8x8 
 
 Common Rafters .... 
 Struts . . 
 
 2X6 
 2x6 
 
 2X6 
 3X6 
 
 2X6 
 3X6 
 
 2X6 
 4X6 
 
 Purlins 
 
 4X7 
 
 5X7 
 
 6X7 
 
 6X8 
 
 Rod 
 
 r jn 
 
 1 in 
 
 li in. 
 
 Hin. 
 
 Bolt 
 
 1 ! 
 
 4 in 
 
 3 in 
 
 i in 
 
 1 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 1 exhibits an example of a roof, with tie-beams, 
 so framed as to admit of finishing a curved ceiling. The 
 practice of thus dispensing with a horizontal or single 
 tie-beam should be used with great caution, as the work 
 is always liable to settle. 
 
 Table of limber-dimensions for various spans. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 Span in Feet. 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 Tie-beams 
 
 6X8 
 6X7 
 2X6 
 2X6 
 5X7 
 4X6 
 1 in. 
 fin. 
 
 6X9 
 
 6X8 
 2X6 
 3X6 
 6X7 
 5X6 
 l|in. 
 iin. 
 
 6X10 
 6X9 
 2X6 
 4X6 
 6X8 
 6X6 
 Uin. 
 1 in. 
 
 Truss-rafters 
 
 Common Rafters 
 
 Struts 
 
 '. Purlins 
 
 
 Rods 
 
 Bolts 
 
 
116 
 
 HOOFS. 
 
 PLATE VHI. 
 
 Fig. 3 exhibits a design for a roof, with inclined tie- 
 beams,* and, having been executed many times with 
 perfect success, may be considered as entirely reliable 
 for any span of less than seventy-five feet. The tie-beams 
 are halved together; and the planks at the intersection 
 should be of dry white oak or chestnut, bolted to the 
 beams with bolts five-eighths of an inch in diameter. The 
 centre rod should be made forked at the lower end, one 
 part passing down outside of each plank, with an eye on 
 each tine, through which passes a bolt, crossing the beams, 
 and supporting them at the intersection. It is apparent, 
 that, so long as the distance from C to D remains the 
 same, no settling can take place, or thrust be exerted on 
 the side-walls. 
 
 Table of timber-dimensions for various spans. 
 
 
 Span in Feet. 
 
 NAMES 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 Tie-beam 
 
 6X8 
 
 6X9 
 
 7X10 
 
 7X11 
 
 8X10 
 
 8X11 
 
 9X12 
 
 Truss- rafter 
 
 6X7 
 
 6X8 
 
 7X9 
 
 7X10 
 
 8X9 
 
 8X10 
 
 9X10 
 
 Com. Rafter 
 
 2X6 
 
 2X6 
 
 2X6 
 
 2X7 
 
 2X7 
 
 2X8 
 
 2X8 
 
 Collar-beam 
 
 6X7 
 
 6X8 
 
 7X9 
 
 7X10 
 
 8X9 
 
 8X10 
 
 9X10 
 
 Purlins . 
 
 5X7 
 
 5X8 
 
 6X8 
 
 6X8 
 
 6X8 
 
 6X9 
 
 7X9 
 
 Struts . . 
 
 3X6 
 
 3X6 
 
 3X7 
 
 4X7 
 
 4X8 
 
 6X8 
 
 5X9 
 
 Long Rods 
 
 lin. 
 
 l*in. 
 
 1| in. 
 
 1| in. 
 
 lin. 
 
 If in. 
 
 l|in. 
 
 Short 
 
 Jin. 
 
 lin. 
 
 lin. 
 
 lin. 
 
 If in. 
 
 l] in. 14 in. 
 
 Bolts . . 
 
 fin. 
 
 fin. 
 
 Jin. 
 
 fin. 
 
 lin. 
 
 1 in. 
 
 IJln. 
 
 * This roof was executed first at the Unitarian church of 
 Sornerville, Mass., in the year 1850, from drawings furnished 
 by the author; the leading idea having been suggested by Rev. 
 Augustus R. Pope, minister of the society. A very heavily 
 stuccoed ceiling is appended to it, but, after a test of six 
 years, is as perfect as when first built. 
 

PI. IX 
 
 HOOFS 
 
ROOFS. 117 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
 Fig. 1, on Plate IX., is a design for a low roof of wide 
 span. The figures show the dimensions of timber for one 
 of from sixty-five to seventy-five feet. It may be ex- 
 tended to ninety feet by a proportional increase in the 
 size of the rods and timbers. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows a roof of from eighty to a hundred and 
 twenty feet span. The figures on the engraving are cal- 
 culated for one of a hundred feet, and should be increased 
 or diminished according to its width. 
 
 The tie-beam in this design should be made of two 
 four-by-fourteen-inch planks, with short pieces of two-inch 
 planks at intervals between them. 
 
 Some of the bearings in each of these examples are 
 designed to be of cast iron, as will be discovered by con- 
 sulting the drawing. 
 
118 ROOFS. 
 
 PLATE X. 
 
 Plate X. exhibits two designs for curved roofs. The 
 tie-beams of each are in two pieces, with a two-inch plank 
 between them; and the struts, where they cross, are 
 notched into each other, so that their sides may be flush 
 with those of the beams. 
 
 Fig. 1 represents a segmental roof. The figures denote 
 the size of timber for a span of seventy-five feet. If the 
 span be increased to ninety feet, the size of the timber 
 should be increased about one-seventh. The trusses may 
 be placed ten feet apart; and the rafters, two by eight 
 inches, notched two inches below the top of the curved 
 rib. The purlins at aaa should be six by six inches: 
 they are designed to give firmness to the roof at the 
 joints. The bearings at bb, &c., are of cast iron. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows a design for a roof of from seventy to a 
 hundred and twenty-five feet span. It is so designed, 
 that a room may be finished above the tie-beams. 
 If the span be great, with a room as proposed, the cen- 
 tre of the beam between the rods must be trussed, as 
 shown in the examples on Plate V. ; and the floor-joists 
 should bridge upon, rather than cut into, the tie-beams. 
 
 It will be seen, by an examination of the plate, that at 
 the line AB there is a tie-beam, which, with the work 
 above it, comprises a segmental roof, complete in itself; 
 and its rise may be increased as circumstances require. 
 The dimensions designated by the figures are for a roof 
 of eighty feet span, and should be increased one-eighth 
 for a span of a hundred feet, and one-fifth for one of a 
 hundred and twenty-five feet, the rods being increased 
 in the same proportion. 
 
ROOFS 
 
 Pl.X 
 
 
PI. XI. 
 
 ROOFS 
 
 
KOOFS. 119 
 
 PLATE XI. 
 
 The figures on this plate exhibit the design of a 
 portion of the large trusses which support the dome of 
 the State Capitol at Montpelier, Vt.* The span is sixty- 
 seven feet four inches between the walls, and the trusses 
 receive no support from below. The bearing-pieces are 
 of white oak, the rest of the timber being spruce. Each 
 truss is composed of two parts, or sections, like those re- 
 presented by the designs. The beams are placed fourteen 
 inches apart, with short transverse ones extending from 
 one to the other, as at aa, &c., with another crossing 
 them, as sedh at A. Upon the beams last named stand 
 the posts of the dome, which, when finished, will be forty- 
 two feet in diameter. Its frame being octagonal, the two 
 front and two rear posts are nearer together than the 
 others, and consequently require a differently constructed 
 truss. The student will readily discover, on examination, 
 the manner in which the particular strains are resisted 
 by the several parts of the work. 
 
 * These trusses, together with the framing of the roof and 
 dome, employing eighty thousand feet of timber, were exe- 
 cuted by Mr. Eobert Gunnison, the master-carpenter, under 
 the direction of Thomas E. Powers, Esq., the superintendent 
 of construction, from drawings furnished by the author in 
 1857. 
 
120 ROOFS. 
 
 PLATE XH. 
 
 Fig. 1 of this plate shows the design of a roof over 
 the Fitchburg Depot in this city. It was executed from 
 drawings furnished by Mr. Charles G. Hall in the year 
 1848. The second floor of the building (some eighty feet 
 wide, and a hundred and fifty feet long) is supported 
 entirely by rods from the tie-beams. It has been loaded 
 with people, at an average of a hundred and twenty-five 
 pounds to the square foot, without any settlement what- 
 ever. The trusses are ten feet apart from centres. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows the roof of the Boston and Maine Rail- 
 road Depot, in Haymarket Square, Boston. It was 
 executed from drawings made by Mr. Richard Bond, 
 architect of the building. The trusses are twelve feet 
 apart from centres. This roof remains as firm in every 
 part as when first built; and, considering the quantity 
 of timber used, it is a good roof. 
 
 The figures on each of these designs exhibit the dimen- 
 sions of each part as taken from actual measurement. 
 
ROOFS 
 
 pi.xa 
 
 
 

 ROOFS 
 
 Fig!. 
 E H F 
 
 ~B 
 
 Wg.2. 
 
 Jt 
 
 --- -k'-^ef D/ <^ 
 
 Fig.5. 
 
 Snith . Blnilu 
 
ROOFS. 121 
 
 PLATE XIH. 
 
 Figs. 1, 2, and 3 of this plate exhibit a method of 
 drawing the angle-ribs of a roof, the outline of which is 
 AH; and a portion of the plan, DEFG. Divide BH 
 into any number of parts, as 1, 2, 3, 4, and draw lines 
 through these points to the angle-line FB. From the 
 points of intersection, on and at right angles with the 
 line last named, draw abed equal to 1, 2, 3, 4, measuring 
 from BH to AH. Trace a line through the points, and 
 the angle-rib is formed. 
 
 Fig. 5 illustrates the method of ascertaining the length 
 and back of the angle-rafters of a hip-roof. 
 
 Let AB represent the pitch of the roof. From C, the 
 corner of the plan, draw CD ; and from D draw DE per- 
 pendicular to CD, equal to AB : from this point draw 
 EC, which is the rafter required. To determine the back 
 of the rafter, we proceed as follows : Draw ab perpen- 
 dicular to CD. On the centre c, with a radius S c6 (the 
 edge of the rafter) describe the semicircle fed; then from 
 e draw ea and eb, which will be the angle of the rafter 
 at e. 
 
 Where the plan of a roof is bounded by lines which are 
 not parallel, it is the usual practice, jn order that the 
 sides of the roof may be of the same inclination, to trun- 
 cate the work, as shown at A, Fig. 4. 
 
122 ROOFS. 
 
 PLATE XIV. 
 
 Fig. 1 of this plate exhibits a design for a roof of 
 large span. The figures designate the dimensions of tim- 
 ber for a span of eighty feet. With a proportionate 
 increase of the size of rods and timber, it may with safety 
 be extended over a span of a hundred and twenty-five 
 feet. The beam should be made in two sections, the 
 centre portion between the rods trussed, and an oak- 
 plank three inches thick bolted to the top of the beam, 
 as seen at AB. 
 
Fig.l 
 
 n 
 
 Kgr-2. 
 
 
 IP 
 
 E 
 
 
 Rg.3. 
 
 J 
 
123 
 
 PARTITIONS. 
 
 IN cases where a large partition cannot have a 
 proper support from below, as, for example, 
 where it stands over a hall or large room, it 
 should be trussed, so that its entire weight shall 
 rest on the points of support. 
 
 Figs. 2 and 3, Plate XIV., exhibit two designs for par- 
 titions, which will readily be understood without further 
 explanation. 
 
124 
 
 DOMES. 
 
 To frame a dome is one of the simplest branches 
 of the art of carpentry. It was, however, till a late 
 day, thought to require great ingenuity and scientific 
 skill. 
 
 A dome is, in all directions from the centre of 
 its plan, an arch : hence it is possessed of great 
 strength ; and, if properly constructed, its lightness 
 is its greatest recommendation. The dome of the 
 State House at Boston is a fine specimen of framing. 
 Its span is fifty-one feet, its height from the floor 
 nearly the same; and, with the exception of the 
 four posts which support the lantern, no timber is 
 used larger than three inches thick, and twelve 
 inches wide. Every other rib is at the base of 
 these dimensions, the alternate ones being two by 
 twelve inches. All are placed three feet apart 
 on the circle, and taper to about eight inches wide 
 at the top, where they are cut against a curb, 
 
DOMES. 125 
 
 being there, about twelve incnes apart from 
 centres. 
 
 The scarfs are similar to Fig. 2, Plate XX., and 
 are bolted together with bolts half an inch in dia- 
 meter, with plank two inches thick, spiked on each 
 side of the ribs over the scarfing. 
 
 The rough boarding is horizontal ; and, after 
 enduring the storms of more than half a century, 
 the structure has proved itself well adapted to its 
 intended purpose. Were the dome larger, the 
 size of its timbers would not necessarily have been 
 increased, since the principles of the arch pervade 
 the whole. A more complicated framing would have 
 detracted from its merit as a design, since all that 
 can be desired is accomplished by the present one ; 
 and so simple are the principles involved, that it has 
 not been thought necessary to illustrate them by an 
 engraving. 
 
 Where a dome rests upon a high drum, like that 
 of the Capitol at Montpelier, it may be necessary, 
 if the structure stands in an exposed situation, to 
 provide a skeleton-frame of posts, girts, braces, &c., 
 in order to strengthen the work. 
 
BRIDGES AND CENTERINGS. 
 
129 
 
 BRIDGES. 
 
 THE designing of wooden bridges was for many 
 years intrusted to the architect, but has, of late, 
 been considered as more properly belonging to the 
 engineer. As the mechanical part of bridge-build- 
 ing must be done by the carpenter, a few examples 
 are given in illustration of his province. Most of 
 them have been designed for this work ; and those 
 remarks which have been made in reference to 
 other descriptions of framing will apply equally 
 well to this. 
 
 9 
 
130 BRIDGES. 
 
 PLATE XV. 
 
 Fig. 1 of this plate represents what is familiarly known 
 as " Howe's Bridge" taking its name from its inventor. 
 The stringers A and B are of planks three inches thick, 
 bolted together. These planks are of different lengths ; 
 and the joints should be well broken. The struts cross 
 each other, without being notched or cut into ; and, at 
 their ends, they abut against a piece of white oak, as at C, 
 Fig. 2. The rods are two in number to each section, as at 
 DD, Fig. 3. The height of the sides, or trusses, should 
 be about one-twelfth of the entire length of the span. 
 The stringers should be wide enough to come out flush 
 with the sides of the struts, and the oak-pieces must be as 
 long as the stringers are wide. The depth of the stringer 
 should be two-thirds of its width; and the struts one- 
 twelfth the height of the truss, measuring between the 
 stringers as ef. The diameters of the rods should be 
 one-fourth that of the struts. An oak-piece, two inches 
 thick and three inches and a half wide, is put at the nut 
 at each end of the rod, as at g, Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 2 is the detail of the work at F ; and Fig. 3, a 
 sectional detail of that on the line HI. The figures on 
 the engraving denote the dimensions of timber for a 
 bridge a hundred feet long, eight feet high, and ten feet 
 wide in the clear. Should a wider bridge be required, 
 the number of sections must be increased. It is often 
 the practice to place the floor-joists on the top of the 
 upper stringer, instead of below ; in which case, rails, or a 
 balustrade, will be required. 
 
 Fig. 4 exhibits a design for a short bridge of from 
 twenty-five to forty-five feet span. It is made by placing 
 

 
BRIDGES. 131 
 
 one timber above another, as shown in the drawing. 
 The timbers being inclined, with oak-keys between them, 
 and bolted together, a very strong truss is formed. The 
 trusses should be about four feet apart, and the floor- 
 joists three inches thick and twelve inches wide, placed 
 twenty inches apart. These dimensions are for a bridge 
 of thirty feet span. 
 
 Fig. 5 exhibits a design for a common gallery truss. 
 The bearing-pieces should be of oak. 
 
 The dimensions are for a truss of sixty feet span. It 
 may be made somewhat flatter, if desired, and still be 
 sufficiently strong for practical purposes. 
 
132 BRIDGES. 
 
 PLATE XVI. 
 
 The figures on this plate exhibit designs for bridges of 
 from fifty to ninety feet span. Should it be desired, the 
 floor-timbers of Fig. 2 may be placed upon the centre 
 rail, and the work above them will answer for the rails 
 of the bridge : if this be done, the centre rails will need 
 additional support by bracing. The dimensions are for 
 bridges of sixty feet span ; all the bearing-pieces being 
 of the best dry and sound white oak, bolted with five- 
 eighth-inch iron bolts. It may be well to remark here, 
 that the floors of all bridges require strong horizontal 
 braces from the side-stringers, crossing each other at the 
 centre in order to prevent vibration. 
 
BRIDGE S 
 
 PI. AM 
 
 i 1 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 ^ L- 
 
 A 
 
 N 
 
 
F1.ZVE 
 
 BRIDGES 
 
 Kg.l. 
 
 Kg.3. 
 
BRIDGES. 133 
 
 PLATE XVII. 
 
 Fig. 1 represents a side-view of a timber-bridge over 
 the river Meuse, in France. Its span is sixty feet, and its 
 width twenty-eight feet. Each arch has four trusses. 
 
 Fig. 2 exhibits the design of a bridge over the river 
 Rhone, in France. It is similar in principle to the ex- 
 ample at Fig. 1, the trusses being secured by transverse 
 timbers bolted together. 
 
 Fig. 3 represents a bridge over the river Loiret, near 
 Orleans in France. Its span is sixty feet, and its width 
 six feet six inches. 
 
 Fig. 4 shows part of a lattice-bridge invented by Mr. 
 Ithiel Towne, of New Haven, Conn. Its span may be 
 from seventy-five to a hundred and fifty feet. The lattice- 
 framing is of planks three inches thick, and twelve inches 
 wide, so arranged as to cross each other at right angles. 
 They are confined together at the intersecting parts by 
 oak tree-nails, an inch and a half in diameter, passing 
 through each of the planks. The depth of the lattice- 
 work should be about an eighth of the entire span. 
 Plank-ribs are used at top and bottom on each side of 
 the lattice-work ; the sides being connected, top and 
 bottom, at distances of twelve feet, by cross-timbers, 
 and braced horizontally with diagonal braces. A bridge 
 of this kind exists at Philadelphia, eleven hundred feet 
 long, resting on ten stone piers. There is also another 
 on the New -York and Harlem Railroad, seven hundred 
 and thirty-six feet long, resting on but four piers. 
 
134 
 
 BRIDGE-CENTERINGS. 
 
 A CENTERING is a frame of timber designed to sup- 
 port the stones of an arch while building. Where 
 the bed of the river is not very deep, nor the tide 
 strong, a centering may be made at small expense ; 
 but in other circumstances, and where the span is 
 large, a more complex and expensive system of 
 framing must be adopted. 
 
 In the construction of a centering, the principal 
 object is so to arrange the timbers that a weight or 
 pressure, when exerted upon any particular part, 
 may be resisted, and the structure retain its original 
 form throughout ; and it should be so designed as to 
 admit of removal without injury to the work rest- 
 ing upon it. In most examples, this is done by the 
 insertion of a piece at the springing points, cut on 
 its sides into a series of inclined planes : over these, 
 oak wedges are driven, which, being easy of re- 
 moval, admit the uniform releasing of every part 
 of the work. 
 
PI XVlli 
 
 CEMRES 
 
BRIDGE-CENTERINGS. 135 
 
 PLATE XVIII. 
 
 Fig. 1 of this plate exhibits a centre designed by Mr. 
 Smeaton, architect of the celebrated Eddystone Light- 
 house. It is familiarly known as the " Cold-Stream 
 Centre," taking its name from the river over which the 
 bridge was built. The span of the large or middle arch 
 is sixty feet eight inches. The bridge is twenty-five feet 
 wide outside ; and, in its construction, five centres were 
 used to each arch. 
 
 Fig. 2 exhibits a centre used in building the arches of 
 a railroad-bridge over the river Ouse, near York, England. 
 The bridge consists of three arches, each sixty-six feet 
 span ; the soffit of the arch (or width of bridge) being 
 twenty-eight feet seven inches. 
 
 Fig. 3 is a design for a centre given by Mr. Tredgold, 
 which may be used for any span short of seventy-five feet 
 
136 BRIDGE-CENTERINGS. 
 
 PLATE XIX. 
 
 Fig. 1 exhibits a part of one of the centres used in 
 the construction of London Bridge. It was designed by 
 Mr. Rennie in 1826. The width of the bridge, from " out 
 to out," is fifty-six feet. The middle or centre one of its 
 five arches is a hundred and fifty-two feet span, and has 
 a rise of twenty-nine feet six inches. Each arch used 
 eight centres, composed of fir ; the springing-pieces being 
 of elm, and the striking-wedges of oak. 
 
 Fig. 2 exhibits the design of a centre executed by Mr. 
 Thomas Telford in building a stone bridge at Gloucester, 
 England. The bridge consists of a single arch of a 
 hundred and fifty feet span, with a rise of thirty-five 
 feet. It is thirty-five feet wide; and six centres were 
 used, connected by cross-bars and caps, and the whole 
 steadied by diagonal braces. Between the timber which 
 rested on the top of the piles, and the lower horizontal 
 timber of each centre, were placed the wedges, which, 
 being driven back, slackened it after the stone-work was 
 completed. The piles were of Memel fir, shod with iron 
 at each end, and the remainder of the work of Dantzic 
 fir ; the whole being fifteen inches square. Each centre 
 was framed entire ; and then, by the aid of barges and two 
 cranes on the shore, was lifted into its place. 
 
 Fig. 3 exhibits a centering, simple in construction, but 
 of great utility. It may be employed to advantage wher- 
 ever the bed of the river can be used, and the tide is not 
 too strong; and for any span from a hundred to two 
 hundred feet. 
 

 Fi.HX 
 
 Snridi.Kiaght 8c Tampan . Emgt 1 
 
JOINTS, IRON-WORK, AND 
 TIMBER-TABLES. 
 
139 
 
 JOINTS IN FRAMING. 
 
 NOTHING is more essential to the permanency of 
 a piece of carpentry than properly made .joints. 
 If the parts do not so fit together that each may 
 have its full bearing, the structure will inevitably 
 be weak. The examples on this plate are designed 
 to represent in detail the best manner of forming 
 joints of the various kinds most in use. 
 
140 JOINTS IN FRAMING. 
 
 PLATE XX. 
 
 Fig. 1 represents the framing at the foot of the rafters 
 of Fig. 1, Plate XIV. abed is a cast-iron shoe, or box- 
 ing. AAA are oak-keys, two inches square. BB are 
 wrought-iron straps, in place of which bolts may be 
 used if desired. 
 
 Fig. 2 exhibits the method of splicing an upright 
 timber; as, for instance, a tower-post. The length of 
 such a splice should be three times the diameter of the 
 stick, and bolted together with half or five-eighth inch 
 bolts. 
 
 Fig. 3 illustrates a method of framing work at the 
 foot of the rafters of a common roof. This method is 
 much used. Each timber is to be notched into a half- 
 inch to receive the purlin. 
 
 Fig. 4 shows the manner of framing a centre-bearing 
 like that at A, Fig. 2, Plate VII. ; or B, Fig. 5, Plate XV. 
 
 Fig. 5 exhibits the method of framing the foot of the 
 rafters in a roof having inclined beams, as the example 
 on Plate VIII. 
 
 Fig. 6 shows the detail of a piece of framing, as at 
 AB, Fig. 1, Plate VII. At A is an oak-key two inches 
 square. 
 
 Fig. 7 is the detail of framing at the intersection C of 
 the plate before referred to ; E being a wrought-iron 
 strap, three-eighths of an inch thick and three inches 
 wide, made in two parts, with shoulders, and a small bolt 
 at a for securing the work. 
 
: 
 
 fig.3. 
 
141 
 
 IRON. 
 
 As cast and wrought iron are used in all heavy 
 framing, a few pages of this work will be devoted 
 to a consideration of its nature and properties. 
 
 Iron is a metal found in nearly all parts of the 
 world. Its specific gravity is .7632 ; being, with 
 the exception of tin, the lightest of all metals : and 
 it differs from them all in the fact, that, while they 
 are made brittle by the action of heat, its mallea- 
 bility is thereby greatly increased. 
 
 Iron shrinks so much in cooling, that a pattern 
 for castings should be made an eighth of an inch 
 larger per foot than the piece is required to be 
 when cooled. It is heated so as to appear red in 
 the dark at 752 Fahrenheit ; and, in twilight, at 
 884. It is made visibly red-hot by day at 1,077, 
 and is thoroughly melted at 2,754. 
 
 Cast iron expands T^sWtf f * ts length, in each 
 direction, for every degree of heat ; and its greatest 
 
142 IRON. 
 
 expansion is T^TF f ^ ts length in the shade, and 
 TuVo- f i ts length when exposed to the sun. It 
 will bear an extension of T ^^ of its length with- 
 out permanent or serious alteration. 
 
 Wrought iron expands T4sW^ f i ts length for 
 each degree of heat. It will bear an extension of 
 TiVo^ f i ts length, and a pressure of 17,800 pounds 
 to a square-inch, without injury. Its cohesive 
 power is diminished ^^TF ^7 every degree of 
 heat. 
 
 The resisting power of cast iron has been greatly 
 overestimated. The best experiments show that a 
 force of 93,000 pounds to a square-inch will crush 
 it, and that it will not bear more than 15,300 
 pounds without visible alteration. 
 
 The tensile strength of wrought-iron rods has 
 been tested in a variety of ways. It has been 
 decided that no particular amount can be named as 
 the actual strain a rod will resist, as it has been 
 repeatedly proved that no rod is to be depended 
 upon as uniformly perfect throughout, a lesser 
 strain often parting a rod of larger diameter. The 
 cohesive power of cast iron is set down by most 
 authors at 40,000, and of wrought iron at 60,000, 
 ppunds to a square-inch. A vertical rod, having a 
 weight suspended at the lower end as in the case 
 
IRON. 
 
 143 
 
 of rods supporting a tie-beam, not only supports 
 the weight at the end, but must, in addition, sustain 
 its .own weight from the point at which it is sus- 
 pended ; so that a long rod will part near the upper 
 sooner than the lower end. A perfect rod, there- 
 fore, decreases in strength as it is longer, and vice 
 versa. The iron-work in the examples of framing 
 given in this work is so figured as properly to sup- 
 port the work, and, at the same time, prevent un- 
 necessary vibration. 
 
 The following table shows the weight of a 
 square-foot of cast or wrought iron plate, from 
 a sixteenth of an inch to an inch in thickness, 
 advancing by sixteenths : 
 
 Dimens. Wrought. 
 
 Cast. 
 
 Dimens. 
 
 Wrought. 
 
 Cast. 
 
 16ths. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 leths. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 1 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.3 
 
 9 
 
 22.8 
 
 21.1 
 
 2 
 
 5.1 
 
 4.7 
 
 10 
 
 25.4 
 
 23.5 
 
 3 
 
 7.6 
 
 7.0 
 
 11 
 
 27.9 
 
 25.8 
 
 4 
 
 10.1 
 
 9.4 
 
 12 
 
 30.4 
 
 28.1 
 
 5 
 
 12.7 
 
 11.7 
 
 13 
 
 32.9 
 
 30.5 
 
 6 
 
 15.2 
 
 14.0 
 
 14 
 
 35.5 
 
 32.9 
 
 7 
 
 17.9 
 
 16.4 
 
 15 
 
 38.0 
 
 35.2 
 
 8 
 
 20.3 
 
 18.0 
 
 16 
 
 40.6 
 
 37.6 
 
144 
 
 IRON. 
 
 The following table shows the weight of a foot 
 in length of wrought or cast iron, either round or 
 square, from half an inch to three inches in dia- 
 meter, advancing by eighths : 
 
 WROUGHT. 
 
 CAST. 
 
 Side of Square 
 or Diameter. 
 
 Circular. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Side of Square 
 or Diameter. 
 
 Circular. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 
 
 .65 
 
 .83 
 
 k 
 
 .61 
 
 .78 
 
 & 
 
 1.02 
 
 1.3 
 
 ft 
 
 .95 
 
 1.22 
 
 | 
 
 1.47 
 
 1.87 
 
 4 
 
 1.38 
 
 1.75 
 
 | 
 
 2. 
 
 2.55 
 
 I 
 
 1.87 
 
 2.39 
 
 1 
 
 2.61 
 
 3.33 
 
 1 
 
 2.45 
 
 3.12 
 
 1J 
 
 3.31 
 
 4.21 
 
 H 
 
 3.1 
 
 3.95 
 
 14 
 
 4.09 
 
 6.2 
 
 4 
 
 3.83 
 
 4.88 
 
 If 
 
 4.94 
 
 6.3 
 
 i 
 
 4.64 
 
 5.9 
 
 1* 
 
 5.89 
 
 7.5 
 
 i| 
 
 5.52 
 
 7.03 
 
 If 
 
 6.91 
 
 8.6 
 
 it 
 
 648 
 
 8.25 
 
 11 
 
 8.01 
 
 10.2 
 
 14 
 
 7.51 
 
 9.57 
 
 If 
 
 9.2 
 
 11 71 
 
 11 
 
 8.62 
 
 10.98 
 
 2 
 
 10.47 
 
 13.33 
 
 2 
 
 9.81 
 
 12.5 
 
 2| 
 
 11.82 
 
 15.05 
 
 2 
 
 11.08 
 
 14.11 
 
 24 
 
 13.25 
 
 16.87 
 
 
 12.42 
 
 15.81 
 
 2| 
 
 14.76 
 
 18.8 
 
 2f 
 
 13.84 
 
 17.62 
 
 24 
 
 1636 
 
 20.8 
 
 24 
 
 15.33 
 
 19.53 
 
 1 
 
 18.03 
 19.79 
 21.63 
 
 22.96 
 25.2 
 27.55 
 
 2| 
 24 
 2 
 
 16.91 
 18.56 
 20.28 
 
 21.53 
 23.63 
 25.83 
 
 3 
 
 23.56 
 
 30. 
 
 3 
 
 22.08 
 
 28.12 
 
 A cubic-foot of cast iron weighs 450.5 pounds ; 
 and one of wrought, 486.8. A cubic-inch of each 
 weighs respectively .260 and .281. 
 
IRON. 
 
 145 
 
 The accompanying table shows the weight of 
 bar-iron from a quarter of an inch to an inch in 
 thickness, and from one to four inches in width, 
 advancing by an eighth: 
 
 Width of 
 Bar. 
 
 Thick. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 Thick. 
 
 fin. 
 
 Thick. 
 
 Jin. 
 
 Thick. 
 
 fin. 
 
 Thick. 
 
 , fin- 
 
 Thick, 
 fin. 
 
 Thick. 
 
 lin. 
 
 in. 
 
 .84 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.66 
 
 2.08 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.31 
 
 | 
 
 .93 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.87 
 
 2.34 
 
 2.81 
 
 3.28 
 
 3.75 
 
 ^ 
 
 .04 
 
 1.56 
 
 2.08 
 
 2.6 
 
 3.12 
 
 3.64 
 
 4.16 
 
 a 
 
 .14 
 
 1.71 
 
 2.29 
 
 2.86 
 
 3.4 
 
 4.01 
 
 4.58 
 
 | 
 
 .25 
 
 1.87 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.12 
 
 3.75 
 
 4.37 
 
 5. 
 
 | 
 
 .35 
 
 2.03 
 
 2.71 
 
 3.38 
 
 4.11 
 
 4.73 
 
 5.42 
 
 I 
 
 .45 
 
 2.18 
 
 2.91 
 
 3.64 
 
 4.37 
 
 5.1 
 
 . 5.83 
 
 1| 
 
 .66 
 
 2.34 
 
 3.12 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.73 
 
 5.46 
 
 6.25 
 
 2 
 
 .77 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.33 
 
 4.16 
 
 5. 
 
 5.83 
 
 6.66 
 
 2| 
 
 .87 
 
 2.21 
 
 3.54 
 
 4.42 
 
 5.36 
 
 6.19 
 
 7.08 
 
 2-i 
 
 .98 
 
 2.81 
 
 3.75 
 
 4.68 
 
 5.62 
 
 6.56 
 
 7.5 
 
 2| 
 
 2.08 
 
 2.97 
 
 3.96 
 
 4.94 
 
 5.98 
 
 6.92 
 
 7.91 
 
 24 
 
 2.18 
 
 3.12 
 
 4.1G 
 
 5.2 
 
 6.25 
 
 7.29 
 
 8.33 
 
 2| 
 
 2.29 
 
 3.28 
 
 4.37 
 
 5.46 
 
 6.61 
 
 7.65 
 
 8.75 
 
 21 
 
 2.4 
 
 3.43 
 
 4.58 
 
 5.72 
 
 6.87 
 
 8.02 
 
 9.16 
 
 2& 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.59 
 
 4.79 
 
 5.98 
 
 7.26 
 
 8.38 
 
 9.58 
 
 3 
 
 2.6 
 
 3.75 
 
 5. 
 
 6.25 
 
 7.5 
 
 8.75 
 
 10. 
 
 3J 
 
 2.7 
 
 3.91 
 
 5.21 
 
 6.51 
 
 7.86 
 
 9.11 
 
 10.42 
 
 34 
 
 2.81 
 
 4.06 
 
 5.41 
 
 6.77 
 
 8.12 
 
 9.47 
 
 10.83 
 
 3| 
 
 2.91 
 
 4.22 
 
 5.62 
 
 7.03 
 
 8.39 
 
 9.83 
 
 11.24 
 
 3| 
 
 3.01 
 
 4.37 
 
 5.83 
 
 7.29 
 
 8.75 
 
 10.2 
 
 11.66 
 
 3| 
 
 3.11 
 
 4.56 
 
 6.04 
 
 7.55 
 
 9.10 
 
 10.56 
 
 12.08 
 
 3| 
 
 3.22 
 
 4.68 
 
 6.25 
 
 7.81 
 
 9.37 
 
 10.93 
 
 12.5 
 
 3J 
 
 3.30 
 
 4.84 
 
 6.46 
 
 8.07 
 
 9.64 
 
 11.30 
 
 12.92 
 
 4 
 
 3.34 
 
 5. 
 
 6.66 
 
 8.32 
 
 10. 
 
 11.66 
 
 13.33 
 
 The weights in the foregoing tables are those of 
 English iron. American iron is a seventieth heavier; 
 and therefore, in making calculations of its weight, one 
 pound should be added to every seventy pounds as com- 
 puted by the tables. 
 
 To ascertain the weight of any piece of cast iron, we 
 have but to determine the contents in cubic inches, and 
 10 
 
146 IRON. 
 
 multiply it by the decimal .260 ; or in feet, and multiply 
 by 450.5. If it be of a shape or form that will readily 
 admit of measurement in superficial feet as plates, we 
 select the multiplier for the particular thickness as given 
 in the table, and the product is the weight in pounds. 
 
 To determine the weight of a piece of wrought iron, 
 we ascertain its contents in cubic inches, and multiply it 
 by the decimal .281 ; 'or in feet, and multiply by 486.8; 
 or, if it admits of measurement as a plate, multiply the 
 amount of superficial feet by the figures set against the par- 
 ticular thickness in the table. To determine the weight 
 of any piece of round, square, or flat iron, we select the 
 amount given in the table, and multiply it by the number 
 of feet in length of the piece whose weight we wish 
 to obtain. 
 
147 
 
 TABLES OF TIMBER-MEASURE. 
 
 THE accompanying tables exhibit the scantling, or dimensions, 
 of building-timber reduced to board-measure. The figures 
 in the left-hand column of each section represent the length of 
 the piece in feet; those of the right-hand column, the contained 
 quantity in feet and inches ; and those over the head of each 
 section, the thickness and depth of the piece in inches. The 
 decimals denote twelfths of a foot. Thus, a stick, seven by 
 nine inches square and nine feet long, contains forty-seven 
 feet and three-twelfths of a foot. 
 
 If it is desired to know the quantity contained in sticks of 
 greater length than those given in the tables, this may be 
 ascertained by adding the amount of two or more requisite 
 lengths together. 
 
 2X2 
 
 2X3 
 
 2X4 
 
 ! 
 
 2X5 
 
 2X6 
 
 
 
 
 1 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 0.4 
 
 li 0.6 
 
 li 0.8 
 
 1 
 
 0.10 
 
 1 
 
 1. 
 
 2 
 
 0.8 
 
 2 1. -1 
 
 1.4 i 
 
 2 
 
 1.8 
 
 2 
 
 2. 
 
 3 
 
 1. 
 
 3i 1.6 
 
 ! 3 
 
 2. 
 
 3 
 
 2.6 
 
 3 
 
 3. 
 
 4 
 
 1.4 
 
 4 2. 
 
 j 4 
 
 2.8 | 
 
 4 
 
 3.4 
 
 4 
 
 4. 
 
 5 
 
 1.8 
 
 5 
 
 2.6 
 
 i 5 
 
 3.4 
 
 5 
 
 4.2 
 
 5 
 
 5. 
 
 6 
 
 2. 
 
 6 
 
 3. 
 
 ! 6 
 
 4. 
 
 6 
 
 5. 
 
 6 
 
 6. 
 
 7 
 
 2.4 
 
 7 
 
 3.6 
 
 7 
 
 4.8 
 
 7 
 
 5.10 
 
 7 
 
 7. 
 
 8 
 
 2.8 
 
 * 
 
 4. 
 
 8 
 
 5.4 
 
 8 
 
 6.8 
 
 8 8. 
 
 9 
 
 3. 
 
 9 
 
 4.6 
 
 9 
 
 6. 
 
 9 
 
 7.6 
 
 9 9. 
 
 10 
 
 3.4 
 
 10 
 
 5. 
 
 10 
 
 6.8 
 
 10 
 
 8.4 
 
 10 
 
 10. 
 
 11 
 
 3.8 
 
 11 
 
 5.6 
 
 11 
 
 7.4 
 
 11 
 
 9.2 
 
 11 
 
 11. 
 
 12 
 
 4. 
 
 12 
 
 6. 
 
 12 
 
 8. 
 
 12 
 
 10. 
 
 12 
 
 12. 
 
 13 
 
 4.4 
 
 i:; 
 
 6.6 
 
 !13 
 
 8.8 
 
 13 
 
 10.10 
 
 13 
 
 13. 
 
 14 
 
 4.8 
 
 14 
 
 7. 
 
 14 
 
 9.4 
 
 14 11.8 
 
 14 
 
 14. 
 
 15 
 
 5. 
 
 15 
 
 7.6 
 
 15 10. 
 
 15 
 
 12.6 
 
 15 
 
 15. 
 
 16 
 
 5.4 
 
 16 8. 
 
 16 10.8 
 
 16 
 
 13.4 
 
 16 
 
 16. 
 
 17 
 
 5.8 
 
 17 
 
 8.6 
 
 17 
 
 11.4 
 
 17 
 
 14.2 i 
 
 17 
 
 17. 
 
 18 
 
 6. 
 
 18 
 
 9. 
 
 18 
 
 12. 
 
 18 
 
 15. 
 
 18 
 
 18. 
 
 19 i 6.4 
 
 19 
 
 9.6 
 
 19 
 
 12.8 
 
 19 
 
 15.10 
 
 19 19- 
 
 20 i 6.8 i 
 
 20 
 
 10. 
 
 20 13.4 
 
 20 16.8 | 
 
 20 i 20- 
 
148 
 
 TABLES OF TIMBER-MEASURE. 
 
 2X7 
 
 2X8 
 
 2X9 
 
 2X10 
 
 2X11 
 
 1 
 
 1.2 
 
 1 
 
 1.4 
 
 1 
 
 1.6 
 
 1 
 
 1.8 
 
 1 
 
 1.10 
 
 2 
 
 2.4 
 
 2 
 
 2.8 
 
 2 
 
 3. 
 
 2 
 
 3.4 
 
 2 
 
 3.8 
 
 3 
 
 3.6 
 
 3 
 
 4. 
 
 3 
 
 4.6 
 
 3 
 
 5. 
 
 3 
 
 5.6 
 
 4 
 
 4.8 
 
 4 5.4 
 
 4 
 
 6. 
 
 4 
 
 6.8 
 
 4 
 
 7.4 
 
 5 
 
 5.10 
 
 5 
 
 6.8 
 
 5 
 
 7.6 
 
 5 
 
 8.4 
 
 5 
 
 9.2 
 
 6 
 
 7. 
 
 6 
 
 8. 
 
 6 
 
 9. 
 
 6 
 
 10. 
 
 6 
 
 11. 
 
 7 
 
 8.2 
 
 7 9.4 
 
 7 
 
 10.6 
 
 7 
 
 11.8 
 
 7 
 
 12.10 
 
 8 
 
 9.4 
 
 8 10.8 
 
 8 
 
 12. 
 
 8 
 
 13.4 
 
 8 
 
 14.8 
 
 9 
 
 10.6 
 
 1 9i 12. 
 
 9 
 
 13.6 
 
 9 
 
 15. 
 
 9 
 
 16.6 
 
 10 
 
 11.8 
 
 10 13.4 
 
 10 
 
 15. 
 
 10 
 
 16.8 
 
 10 
 
 18.4 
 
 11 
 
 12.10 
 
 11 14.8 
 
 11 
 
 16.6 
 
 11 
 
 18.4 
 
 11 
 
 20.2 
 
 12 
 
 14. 
 
 12 16. 
 
 12 
 
 18. 
 
 112 
 
 20. 
 
 12 
 
 22. 
 
 13 
 
 15.2 
 
 13 17.4 
 
 13 
 
 19.6 1 13 
 
 21.8 i 13 
 
 23.10 
 
 14 
 
 16.4 
 
 14 18.8 
 
 14 
 
 21. 
 
 14 
 
 23.4 14 
 
 25.8 
 
 15 
 
 17.6 
 
 < 15 20. 
 
 15 
 
 22.6 
 
 15 
 
 25. I 15 
 
 27.6 
 
 16 
 
 18.8 
 
 16 21.4 
 
 16 
 
 24. 
 
 16 
 
 26.8 ! 16 
 
 29.4 
 
 17 
 
 19.10 
 
 17 22.8 
 
 17 
 
 25.6 
 
 17 
 
 28.4 
 
 17 
 
 31.2 
 
 18 
 
 21. 
 
 18 24. 
 
 18 
 
 27. 
 
 18 
 
 30. 
 
 18 
 
 33. 
 
 19 
 
 22.2 
 
 j 19 25.4 
 
 19 
 
 28.6 
 
 19 
 
 31.8 
 
 19 
 
 34.10 
 
 20 
 
 23.4 
 
 20 
 
 26.8 
 
 20 
 
 30. 
 
 20 
 
 33.4 
 
 20 
 
 36.8 
 
 2X12 
 
 2X13 
 
 2X14 
 
 3X3 
 
 3X4 
 
 1 
 
 2. 
 
 1 
 
 2.2 
 
 1 
 
 2.4 
 
 1 
 
 0.9 
 
 1 
 
 1. 
 
 2 
 
 4. 
 
 2 
 
 4.4 
 
 2 
 
 4.8 
 
 2 
 
 1.6 
 
 2 
 
 2. 
 
 3 
 
 6. 
 
 3 
 
 6.6 
 
 3 
 
 7. 
 
 3 
 
 2.3 
 
 3 
 
 3. 
 
 4 
 
 8. 
 
 4 
 
 8.8 
 
 4 
 
 9.4 
 
 4 
 
 3. 
 
 4 
 
 4. 
 
 5 
 
 10: 
 
 5 
 
 10.10 
 
 5 
 
 11.8 
 
 5 
 
 3.9 
 
 5 
 
 5. 
 
 6 
 
 12. 
 
 6 
 
 13. 
 
 6 
 
 14. 
 
 6 
 
 4.6 
 
 6 
 
 6. 
 
 7 
 
 14. 
 
 7 
 
 15.2 
 
 7 
 
 16.4 
 
 7 
 
 5.3 
 
 r 
 
 7. 
 
 8 
 
 16. 
 
 8 
 
 17.4 
 
 8 
 
 - 18.8 
 
 8 
 
 6. 
 
 8 
 
 8. 
 
 9 
 
 18. 
 
 9 
 
 19.6 
 
 9 
 
 21. 
 
 9 
 
 6.9 
 
 9 
 
 9. 
 
 10 
 
 20. 
 
 10 
 
 21.8 
 
 10 
 
 23.4 
 
 10 
 
 7.6 : 
 
 10 
 
 10. 
 
 11 
 
 22. 
 
 11 
 
 23.10 
 
 11 
 
 25.8 
 
 11 
 
 8.3 j 
 
 11 
 
 11. 
 
 12 
 
 24. 
 
 12 
 
 26. 
 
 12 
 
 28. 
 
 12 
 
 9. 
 
 12 
 
 12. 
 
 13 
 
 26. 
 
 13 
 
 28.2 
 
 13 
 
 30.4 
 
 13 
 
 9.9 
 
 13 13. 
 
 14 
 
 28. 
 
 14 
 
 30.4 
 
 14 
 
 32.8 
 
 14 
 
 10.6 
 
 14 14. 
 
 15 
 
 30. 
 
 15 
 
 32.6 
 
 15 
 
 35. 
 
 15 
 
 11.3 
 
 15 
 
 15. 
 
 16 
 
 32. 
 
 16 
 
 34.8 
 
 16 
 
 37.4 
 
 16 
 
 12. 
 
 16 
 
 16. 
 
 17 
 
 34. 
 
 17 
 
 36.10 
 
 17 
 
 39.8 
 
 17 
 
 12.9 
 
 17 
 
 17. 
 
 18 36. 
 
 18 
 
 39. 
 
 18 
 
 42. 
 
 18 
 
 13.6 
 
 18 
 
 18. 
 
 19 
 
 38. 
 
 19 
 
 41.2 
 
 19 
 
 44.4 
 
 19 
 
 14.3 
 
 19 
 
 19. 
 
 20 
 
 40. 
 
 20 
 
 43.4 
 
 20 
 
 46.8 
 
 20 
 
 15. 
 
 20 
 
 20. 
 
TABLES OF TIMBER-MEASURE. 
 
 149 
 
 3X5 
 
 3X6 
 
 3X7 
 
 3X8 
 
 3X9 
 
 1 
 
 1.3 
 
 1 1.6 
 
 1 1.9 
 
 1 
 
 2. 
 
 1 
 
 2.3 
 
 2 
 
 2.6 
 
 2 3. 
 
 2! 3.6 
 
 2 
 
 4. 
 
 1 2 
 
 4.6 
 
 3 
 
 3.9 
 
 3! 4.6 
 
 3 5.3 
 
 3 
 
 6. 
 
 ' 3 
 
 6.9 
 
 4 
 
 5. 
 
 4| 6. 
 
 4 7. 
 
 4 
 
 8. 
 
 4 
 
 9. 
 
 5 
 
 6.3 
 
 5 7.6 
 
 5 8.9 
 
 5 
 
 10. 
 
 5 
 
 11.3 
 
 6 
 
 7.6 
 
 6 9. 
 
 6 10.6 
 
 6 
 
 12. 
 
 6 
 
 13.6 
 
 7 
 
 8.9 
 
 7 
 
 10.6 
 
 7 12.3 
 
 7 
 
 14. 
 
 7 
 
 15.9 
 
 8 
 
 10. 
 
 - 
 
 12. 
 
 8 14. 
 
 8 
 
 16. 
 
 ! 8 
 
 18. 
 
 9 
 
 11.3 
 
 9 
 
 13.6 
 
 9 15.9 
 
 9 
 
 18. 
 
 ; 9 
 
 20.3 
 
 10 
 
 12.6 
 
 10 
 
 15. 
 
 ;10 17.6 10 
 
 20. 
 
 10 
 
 22.6 
 
 11 
 
 13.9 
 
 11 
 
 16.6 
 
 11 ! 19.3 
 
 11 
 
 22. 
 
 11 
 
 24.9 
 
 12 
 
 15. 
 
 12 
 
 18. 
 
 ' 12 ! 21. 
 
 12 
 
 24. 
 
 12 
 
 27. 
 
 13 
 
 16.3 
 
 13 
 
 19.6 
 
 13 22.9 13 
 
 26. 
 
 13 
 
 29.3 
 
 14 
 
 17.6 
 
 14 
 
 21. 
 
 14 24.6 
 
 14 
 
 28. 
 
 14 
 
 31.6 
 
 15 
 
 18.9 
 
 15 
 
 22.6 
 
 15 26.3 
 
 15 
 
 30. 
 
 15 
 
 33.9 
 
 16 
 
 20. 
 
 16 
 
 24. 
 
 i!6i 28. l; 
 
 32. 
 
 16 
 
 36. 
 
 17 
 
 21.3 
 
 17 
 
 25.6 
 
 17 
 
 29.9 
 
 17 
 
 34. 
 
 17 
 
 38.3 
 
 18 
 
 22.6 
 
 18 
 
 27. 
 
 ! 18 
 
 31.6 
 
 18 
 
 36. 
 
 18 
 
 40.6 
 
 19 
 
 23.9 
 
 19 
 
 28.6 
 
 19 
 
 33.3 
 
 19 
 
 38. 
 
 19 
 
 42.9 
 
 20 | 25. 
 
 20 
 
 30. 
 
 20 
 
 35. 
 
 20 
 
 40. 
 
 20 
 
 45. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3X10 
 
 3X11 
 
 3X12 
 
 3X13 3X14 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 1 
 
 2.6 
 
 1 
 
 2/9 
 
 1 
 
 3. 
 
 1 ! 3.3 
 
 i 1 
 
 3.6 
 
 2 
 
 5. 
 
 2 
 
 5.6 
 
 2 
 
 6. 
 
 2 6.6 
 
 ; 2 
 
 7. 
 
 3 7.6 
 
 3 
 
 8.3 
 
 I 3 
 
 9. 
 
 3 9.9 
 
 3 
 
 10.6 
 
 4 
 
 10. 
 
 4 
 
 11. 
 
 4 
 
 12. 
 
 4 13. 
 
 4 
 
 14. 
 
 5 
 
 12.6 
 
 5 
 
 13.9 
 
 5 
 
 15. 
 
 5 16.3 
 
 5 
 
 17.6 
 
 6 
 
 15. 
 
 6 
 
 16.6 
 
 6 
 
 18. 
 
 6 19.6 
 
 i 6 
 
 21. 
 
 7 
 
 17.6 
 
 7 
 
 19.3 
 
 7 
 
 21. 
 
 7; 22.9 
 
 j 7 
 
 24.6 
 
 8 
 
 20. 
 
 8 
 
 22. 
 
 8 
 
 24. 
 
 1 8 26. 
 
 i 8 
 
 28. 
 
 9 
 
 22.6 
 
 9 
 
 24.9 
 
 9 
 
 27. 
 
 , 9 29.3 
 
 9 
 
 31.6 
 
 10 
 
 25. 
 
 10 
 
 27.6 
 
 ilO 
 
 30. 
 
 10 32.6 
 
 10 
 
 35. 
 
 11 
 
 27.6 
 
 11 
 
 30.3 
 
 111 
 
 33. 
 
 11 35.9 
 
 11 
 
 38.6 
 
 12 
 
 30. 
 
 12 
 
 33. 
 
 12 
 
 36. 
 
 12 39. 
 
 '12 
 
 42. 
 
 13 
 
 32.6 
 
 .13 
 
 35.9 
 
 13 
 
 39. 
 
 13 42.3 
 
 13 
 
 45.6 
 
 14 
 
 35. 
 
 14 
 
 38.6 
 
 14 
 
 42. 
 
 14 
 
 45.6 
 
 14 
 
 49. 
 
 15 
 
 37.6 
 
 15 
 
 41.3 
 
 15 
 
 45. 
 
 15 
 
 48.9 
 
 115 
 
 52.6 
 
 16 
 
 40. 
 
 16 
 
 44. 
 
 16 
 
 48. 
 
 16 
 
 52. 
 
 16 
 
 56. 
 
 17 
 
 42.6 
 
 17 
 
 46.9 
 
 ! 17 
 
 51. 
 
 17 
 
 55.3 
 
 17 
 
 59.6 
 
 18 
 
 45. 
 
 18 
 
 49.6 
 
 !l8 
 
 54. 
 
 118 
 
 58.6 
 
 18 
 
 63. 
 
 19 
 
 47.6 
 
 19 
 
 52.3 
 
 19 
 
 57. 
 
 |19 61.9 
 
 19 
 
 66.6 
 
 20 
 
 60. 
 
 20 
 
 55. 
 
 j 20 60. 
 
 20 65. 
 
 20 
 
 70. 
 
150 
 
 TABLES OF TIMBER-MEASURE. 
 
 4X4 
 
 4X5 
 
 4X6 
 
 4X7 
 
 4X8 
 
 1 
 
 1.4 
 
 1 
 
 1.8 
 
 1 
 
 2. 
 
 1 
 
 2.4 
 
 1 
 
 2.8 
 
 2 
 
 2.8 
 
 2 
 
 3.4 
 
 -2 
 
 4. 
 
 2 
 
 4.8 
 
 2 
 
 5.4 
 
 3 
 
 4. 
 
 3 
 
 5. 
 
 3 
 
 6. 
 
 3 
 
 7. 
 
 3 
 
 8. 
 
 4 
 
 5.4 
 
 4 
 
 6.8 
 
 4 
 
 8. 
 
 4 
 
 9.4 
 
 4 
 
 10.8 
 
 5 
 
 6.8 
 
 5 
 
 8.4 
 
 5 
 
 10. 
 
 5 
 
 11.8 
 
 5 
 
 13.4 
 
 6 
 
 8. 
 
 6 
 
 10. 
 
 6 
 
 12. 
 
 6 
 
 14. 
 
 6 
 
 16. 
 
 7 
 
 9.4 
 
 K 
 
 11.8 
 
 7 
 
 14. 
 
 7 
 
 16.4 
 
 7 
 
 18.8 
 
 8 
 
 10.8 
 
 8 
 
 13.4 
 
 8 
 
 16. 
 
 8 
 
 18.8 
 
 8 
 
 21.4 
 
 9 
 
 12. 
 
 9 
 
 15. 
 
 9 
 
 18. 
 
 9 
 
 21. 
 
 9 
 
 24. 
 
 10 
 
 13.4 
 
 10 
 
 16.8 
 
 10 
 
 20. 
 
 10 
 
 23.4 
 
 10 
 
 26.8 
 
 11 
 
 14.8 
 
 11 
 
 18.4 
 
 11 
 
 22. 
 
 11 
 
 25.8 
 
 11 
 
 29.4 
 
 12 
 
 16. 
 
 12 
 
 20. 
 
 12 
 
 24. 
 
 12 
 
 28. 
 
 12 
 
 32. 
 
 13 
 
 17.4 
 
 13 
 
 21.8 
 
 13 
 
 26. 
 
 13 
 
 30.4 
 
 13 
 
 34.8 
 
 14 
 
 18.8 
 
 [14 
 
 23.4 
 
 14 
 
 28. 
 
 14 
 
 32.8 
 
 14 
 
 37.4 
 
 15 
 
 20. 
 
 15 
 
 25. 
 
 15 
 
 30. 
 
 15 
 
 35. 
 
 15 
 
 40. 
 
 16 
 
 21.4 
 
 lie 
 
 26.8 
 
 16 
 
 32. 
 
 16 
 
 37.4 
 
 16 
 
 42.8 
 
 17 
 
 22.8 
 
 17 
 
 28.4 
 
 17 
 
 34. 
 
 17 
 
 39.8 
 
 17 
 
 45.4 
 
 18 
 
 24. 
 
 18 
 
 30. 
 
 18 
 
 36. 
 
 18 
 
 42. 
 
 18 
 
 48. 
 
 19 
 
 25.4 
 
 19 
 
 31.8 
 
 19 
 
 38. 
 
 19 
 
 44.4 
 
 19 
 
 50.8 
 
 20 
 
 26.8 
 
 20 
 
 33.4 
 
 20 
 
 40. 
 
 20 
 
 46.8 
 
 20 
 
 63.4 
 
 4X9 
 
 4X10 
 
 4X11 
 
 4X12 
 
 4X13 
 
 1 
 
 3. 
 
 1 
 
 3.4 
 
 1 
 
 3.8 
 
 1 
 
 4. 
 
 1 
 
 4.4 
 
 2 
 
 6. 
 
 2 
 
 6.8 
 
 2 
 
 7.4 
 
 2 
 
 8. 
 
 2 
 
 8.8 
 
 3 
 
 9. 
 
 3 
 
 10. 
 
 3 
 
 11. 
 
 3 
 
 12. 
 
 3 
 
 13. 
 
 4 
 
 12. 
 
 4 
 
 134 
 
 4 
 
 14.8 
 
 4 
 
 16. 
 
 4 
 
 17.4 
 
 6 
 
 15. 
 
 5 
 
 16-8 
 
 5 
 
 18.4 
 
 5 
 
 20. 
 
 5 
 
 21.8 
 
 6 
 
 18. 
 
 6 
 
 20. 
 
 6 
 
 22. 
 
 6 
 
 24. 
 
 6 
 
 26. 
 
 7 
 
 21. 
 
 7 
 
 23-4 
 
 7 
 
 25.8 
 
 7 
 
 28. 
 
 7 
 
 30.4 
 
 8 
 
 24. 
 
 8 
 
 26-8 
 
 8 
 
 29.4 
 
 8 
 
 32. 
 
 8 
 
 34.8 
 
 9 
 
 27. 
 
 9 
 
 30. 
 
 9 
 
 33. 
 
 9 
 
 36. 
 
 9 
 
 39. 
 
 10 
 
 30. 
 
 10 
 
 33.4 
 
 10 
 
 36.8 
 
 10 
 
 40. 
 
 10 
 
 43.4 
 
 11 
 
 33. 
 
 11 
 
 36-8 
 
 11 
 
 40.4 
 
 11 
 
 44. 
 
 11 
 
 47.8 
 
 12 
 
 36. 
 
 12 
 
 40. 
 
 12 
 
 44. 
 
 12 
 
 48. 
 
 12 
 
 52. 
 
 13 
 
 39. 
 
 13 
 
 43.4 
 
 13 47.8 | 
 
 13 
 
 52. 
 
 13 
 
 56.4 
 
 14 
 
 42. 
 
 14 
 
 46.8 
 
 14 
 
 51.4 
 
 14 
 
 56. 
 
 14 
 
 60.8 
 
 15 
 
 45. 
 
 15 
 
 50. 
 
 15 
 
 55. 
 
 15 
 
 60. 
 
 15 
 
 65. 
 
 16 
 
 48. 
 
 16 
 
 53.4 
 
 16 58.8 
 
 16 
 
 64. 
 
 16 
 
 69.4 
 
 17 
 
 51. 
 
 17 
 
 56.8 
 
 17 62.4 
 
 17 
 
 68. 
 
 17 
 
 73.8 
 
 18 
 
 54. 
 
 18 
 
 60. 
 
 18 66. . 
 
 18 
 
 72. 
 
 18 
 
 78. 
 
 19 
 
 57. 1 19 
 
 63.4 
 
 19 69.8 
 
 19 
 
 76. 
 
 19 
 
 82.4 
 
 20 
 
 60. 20 
 
 66.8 | 
 
 20 73.4 i 
 
 20 
 
 80. 
 
 20 
 
 86.8 
 
 
 [I 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
TABLES OF TIMBER-MEASURE. 
 
 151 
 
 4X14 
 
 5X5 
 
 5X6 5X7 
 
 5X8 
 
 1 
 
 4.8 
 
 1 2.1 
 
 1 
 
 2.6 
 
 1 
 
 2.11 ! 1 i 3.4 
 
 2 
 
 9.4 
 
 ! 2 4.2 
 
 2 
 
 5. 
 
 2 
 
 5.10 i 2 i 6.8 
 
 3 
 
 14. 
 
 ! 3 6.3 
 
 3 
 
 7.6 
 
 3 
 
 8.9 3 10. 
 
 4 
 
 18.8 
 
 4 
 
 8.4 
 
 4| 10. 
 
 4 
 
 11.8 
 
 4 13.4 
 
 5 
 
 23.4 
 
 5 10.5 
 
 5 
 
 12.6 
 
 5 
 
 14.7 
 
 5 
 
 16.8 
 
 6 
 
 28. 
 
 6 12.6 
 
 6 
 
 15. 
 
 6 
 
 17.6 
 
 6 
 
 20. 
 
 7 
 
 32.8 
 
 71 14.7 
 
 7 
 
 17.6 ! 7 
 
 20.5 
 
 7 
 
 23.4 
 
 8 
 
 37.4 
 
 8 
 
 16.8 
 
 8 
 
 20. 
 
 8 
 
 23.4 
 
 i 8 
 
 26.8 
 
 9 42. 
 
 9 
 
 18.9 
 
 9 
 
 22.6 
 
 9 
 
 26.3 
 
 ! 9 
 
 30. 
 
 10 ' 46.8 
 
 10 
 
 20.10 10 
 
 25. 
 
 10 
 
 29.2 
 
 10 
 
 33.4 
 
 11 
 
 51.4 
 
 11 22.11 
 
 11 
 
 27.6 11 
 
 32.1 
 
 11 
 
 36.8 
 
 12 
 
 56. 
 
 12 25. 
 
 12 30. 12 
 
 35. 
 
 12 
 
 40. 
 
 13 
 
 60.8 
 
 13 
 
 27.1 
 
 13 32.6 
 
 13 
 
 37.11 
 
 !l3 
 
 43.4 
 
 14 
 
 65.4 
 
 14 
 
 29.2 
 
 14 
 
 35. 
 
 14 
 
 40.10 
 
 14 
 
 46.8 
 
 15 
 
 70. 
 
 15 31.3 
 
 15 
 
 37.6 
 
 'is 
 
 43.9 
 
 ;15 
 
 50. 
 
 16 
 
 74.8 
 
 16 
 
 33.4 
 
 16 
 
 40. 
 
 16 
 
 46.8 
 
 16 
 
 53.4 
 
 17 
 
 79.4 
 
 17 
 
 35.5 
 
 17 
 
 42.6 
 
 !17 
 
 49.7 
 
 17 
 
 56.8 
 
 18 
 
 84. 
 
 18 
 
 37.6 
 
 18 
 
 45. 
 
 18 
 
 52.6 
 
 i!8 
 
 60. 
 
 19 
 
 88.8 
 
 19 
 
 39.7 
 
 19 47.6 
 
 19 
 
 55.5 
 
 19 
 
 63.4 
 
 20 
 
 93.4 
 
 20 
 
 41.8 
 
 20 
 
 50. 
 
 ?20 
 
 58.4 
 
 ;20 
 
 66.8 
 
 SX9 
 
 5X10 
 
 5X11 
 
 i 
 
 5X12 
 
 5X13 
 
 1 
 
 3.9 
 
 1 
 
 4.2 
 
 1 
 
 4.7 
 
 1 5. 
 
 1 1 
 
 5.5 
 
 2 
 
 7.6 
 
 2 
 
 8.4 
 
 2 
 
 9.2 
 
 2 10. 
 
 ^ 2 
 
 10.10 
 
 3 
 
 11.3 
 
 3 
 
 12.6 
 
 3 
 
 13.9 
 
 3 15. 
 
 3 
 
 16.3 
 
 15. 
 
 4 
 
 16.8 
 
 4 
 
 18.4 
 
 4 20. 
 
 4 
 
 21.8 
 
 5 18.9 
 
 5 
 
 20.10 
 
 5 
 
 22.11 
 
 5 25. 
 
 ; 5 
 
 27.1 
 
 6 22.6 
 
 6 
 
 25. l! 6 
 
 27.6 
 
 6 L 30. 
 
 i 6 
 
 32.6 
 
 7 26.3 
 
 7 29.2 
 
 7 32.1 
 
 7 35. 
 
 7 
 
 37.11 
 
 8 30. 
 
 8 33.4 
 
 8 36.8 
 
 8 40. 
 
 8 43.4 
 
 9 33.9 
 
 9 37.6 9 41.3 
 
 9 45. 
 
 1 9 48.9 
 
 10 37.6 
 
 10 
 
 41.8 ! 10 45.10 10 50. 
 
 1 10 54.2 
 
 11 > 41.3 11 
 
 45.10 11 
 
 50.5 ' 11 55. 
 
 ; 11 59.7 
 
 12| 45. 
 
 12 
 
 50. 12 
 
 55. i 12 60. 
 
 1 12 65. 
 
 13 i 48.9 
 
 13 54.2 
 
 13 59.7 113, 65. 
 
 1 13 70.5 
 
 14 52.6 14 58.4 
 
 14! 64.2 14 70. 14 75.10 
 
 15 
 
 56.3 15 62.6 15 68.9 15 75. 15 81.3 
 
 16 
 
 60. 16 66.8 16 73.4 i 16 80. 16 86.8 
 
 17 
 
 63.9 
 
 17 ; 70.10 17 
 
 77.11 ;17 
 
 85. 
 
 17 92.1 
 
 18 
 
 67.6 
 
 18 75. ! 18 
 
 82.6 |!18 
 
 90. 
 
 18 97.6 
 
 19 
 
 71.3 
 
 19 | 79.2 ; 19 
 
 87.1 ''19 
 
 95. 
 
 19 102.11 
 
 20 
 
 75. 
 
 20 I 83.4 20 
 
 1 II 
 
 91.8 j 20 
 
 100. 
 
 20 
 
 108.4 
 
152 
 
 TABLES OF TIMBER-MEASURE. 
 
 5X14 
 
 6X6 
 
 6X7 
 
 6X8 
 
 6X9 
 
 1 5.10 
 
 1 
 
 3. 
 
 1 
 
 3.6 
 
 1 
 
 4. 
 
 1 
 
 4.6 
 
 2 i 11.8 
 
 2| 6. 
 
 2 
 
 7. 
 
 2 
 
 8. 
 
 2 
 
 9. 
 
 3 
 
 17.6 
 
 3 
 
 9. 
 
 3 
 
 10.6 
 
 3 
 
 12. 
 
 3 
 
 13.6 
 
 4 
 
 23.4 
 
 ! 4 
 
 12. 
 
 4 
 
 14. 
 
 4 
 
 16. 
 
 4 
 
 18. 
 
 5 
 
 29.2 
 
 5 
 
 15. 
 
 6 
 
 17.6 
 
 5 
 
 20. 
 
 5 
 
 22.6 
 
 6 
 
 35. 
 
 6 
 
 18. 
 
 6 
 
 21. 
 
 6 
 
 24. 
 
 6 
 
 27. 
 
 7 
 
 40.10 
 
 7 
 
 21. 
 
 7 
 
 24.6 
 
 7 
 
 28. 
 
 7 
 
 31.6 
 
 8 
 
 46.8 
 
 8 
 
 24. 
 
 8 
 
 28. 
 
 8 
 
 32. 
 
 8 
 
 36. 
 
 9 
 
 52.6 
 
 9 
 
 27. 
 
 9 
 
 31.6 
 
 9 
 
 36. 
 
 9 
 
 40.6 
 
 10 
 
 58.4 
 
 10 
 
 30. 
 
 10 
 
 35. 
 
 10 
 
 40. 
 
 10 
 
 45. 
 
 11 
 
 64.2 
 
 11 
 
 33. 
 
 11 
 
 38.6 
 
 11 
 
 44. 
 
 11 
 
 49.6 
 
 12 
 
 70. 
 
 12 
 
 3*6. 
 
 12 
 
 42. 
 
 12 
 
 48. 
 
 12 
 
 54. 
 
 13 
 
 75.10 
 
 13 
 
 39. 
 
 13 
 
 45.6 
 
 113 
 
 52. 
 
 13 
 
 68.6 
 
 14 
 
 81.8 
 
 14 
 
 42. 
 
 14 
 
 49. 14 
 
 56. 
 
 14 
 
 63. 
 
 15 
 
 87.6 
 
 15 
 
 45. 
 
 15 
 
 52.6 
 
 15 
 
 60. 
 
 15 
 
 67.6 
 
 16 
 
 93.4 
 
 16 
 
 48. 
 
 16 
 
 56. 
 
 16 
 
 64. 
 
 16 
 
 72. 
 
 17 
 
 99.2 
 
 17 
 
 51. 
 
 17 
 
 59.6 
 
 17 
 
 68. 
 
 17 
 
 76.6 
 
 18 
 
 105. 
 
 '18 
 
 54. 
 
 18 
 
 63. 
 
 18 
 
 72. 
 
 18 
 
 81. 
 
 19 
 
 110.10 
 
 19 
 
 57. 
 
 19 66.6 
 
 19 
 
 76. 
 
 19 
 
 85.6 
 
 20 
 
 116.8 
 
 20 
 
 60. 
 
 20| 70. 20 
 
 80. 
 
 20 
 
 90. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 6X10 
 
 6X11 
 
 6X12 
 
 6X13 
 
 6X14 
 
 1 
 
 5. 
 
 1 
 
 5.6 
 
 1 
 
 6. 
 
 1 
 
 6.6 
 
 1 
 
 7. 
 
 2 
 
 10. 
 
 2 
 
 11. 
 
 2 
 
 12. 
 
 2 
 
 13. 
 
 2 
 
 14. 
 
 3 
 
 15. 
 
 3 
 
 16.6 
 
 3 
 
 18. 
 
 3 
 
 1 19.6 
 
 3 
 
 21. 
 
 4 
 
 20. 
 
 4 
 
 22. 
 
 4 
 
 24. 
 
 4 
 
 26. 
 
 4 
 
 28. 
 
 5 
 
 25. 
 
 5 
 
 27.6 
 
 5 
 
 30. 
 
 5 
 
 32.6 
 
 5 
 
 35. 
 
 6 
 
 30. 
 
 6 
 
 33. 
 
 6 
 
 36. 
 
 6 
 
 39. 
 
 6 
 
 42. 
 
 7 
 
 35. 
 
 7 
 
 38.6 
 
 7 
 
 42. 
 
 7 
 
 45.6 
 
 7 
 
 49. 
 
 8 
 
 40. 
 
 8 
 
 44. 
 
 8 
 
 48. 
 
 8 
 
 52. 
 
 8 
 
 56. 
 
 9 
 
 45. 
 
 9 
 
 49.6 
 
 9 
 
 54. 
 
 9 
 
 58.6 
 
 9 
 
 63. 
 
 10 
 
 50. 
 
 10 
 
 55. 
 
 10 
 
 60. 
 
 10 
 
 65. 
 
 10 
 
 70. 
 
 11 
 
 55. 
 
 11 
 
 60.6 
 
 11 
 
 66. 
 
 11 
 
 71.6 
 
 11 
 
 77. 
 
 12 
 
 60. 
 
 12 
 
 66. 
 
 12 
 
 72. 
 
 12 
 
 78. 
 
 12 
 
 84. 
 
 13 
 
 65. 
 
 13 
 
 71.6 
 
 13 
 
 78. 
 
 13 
 
 84.6 
 
 13 
 
 91. 
 
 14 
 
 70. 
 
 14 
 
 77. 
 
 14 
 
 84. 
 
 14 
 
 91. 
 
 14 
 
 98. 
 
 15 
 
 75. 
 
 15 
 
 82.6 
 
 15 
 
 90. 
 
 15 
 
 97.6 
 
 15 
 
 105. 
 
 16 
 
 80. 
 
 16 
 
 88. 
 
 16 
 
 96. 
 
 16 
 
 104. 
 
 16 
 
 112. 
 
 17 
 
 85. 
 
 17 
 
 93.6 
 
 17 
 
 102. 
 
 17 
 
 110.6 
 
 17 
 
 119. 
 
 18 
 
 90. 
 
 18 
 
 99. 
 
 18 
 
 108. 
 
 18 
 
 117. 
 
 18 
 
 126. 
 
 19 
 
 95. 
 
 19 
 
 104.6 
 
 19 
 
 114. 19 
 
 123.6 
 
 19 
 
 133. 
 
 20 
 
 100. 
 
 20 
 
 110. 
 
 20 
 
 120. 
 
 20 
 
 130. 
 
 20 
 
 140. 
 
 i ' ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 ; 
 
 I 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
TABLES OF TIMBER-MEASURE. 
 
 153 
 
 
 
 ' i ' '! 
 
 7x7 
 
 
 7X8 
 
 7X9 
 
 7X10 7X11 
 
 1 
 
 4.1 
 
 ! i 
 
 4.8 1 
 
 5.3 1 ; 5.10 1 6.5 
 
 2 
 
 8.2 
 
 2 
 
 9.4 
 
 2 
 
 10.6 
 
 2 11.8 
 
 i 2 12.10 
 
 3 
 
 12.3 
 
 3 
 
 14. 
 
 3 
 
 15.9 
 
 ! 3 
 
 17.6 
 
 3 19.3 
 
 4 
 
 16.4 
 
 4 
 
 18.8 4 
 
 21. 4 23.4 4 25.8 
 
 5 I 20.5 
 
 5 
 
 23.4 5 
 
 26.3 5 29.2 i 5 32.1 
 
 6 
 
 24.6 
 
 6 
 
 28. 
 
 ! 6 
 
 31.6 6 : 35. 6 38.6 
 
 7 
 
 28.7 
 
 7 i 32.8 
 
 7 
 
 36.9 
 
 7 
 
 40.10 7 44.11 
 
 8 
 
 32.8 
 
 8 
 
 37.4 ' 8 
 
 42. 
 
 8 
 
 46.8 8 51.4 
 
 9 
 
 36.9 
 
 9 
 
 42. i 9 
 
 47.3 
 
 9 
 
 52.6 
 
 ; 9 
 
 57.9 
 
 10 
 
 40.10 
 
 !10 
 
 46.8 10 
 
 52.6 
 
 10 
 
 58.4 10 
 
 64.2 
 
 11 
 
 44.11 
 
 111 
 
 51.4 11 
 
 57.9 
 
 11 
 
 64.2 11 
 
 70.7 
 
 12 
 
 49. 
 
 1 12 
 
 56. ' 12 
 
 63. 
 
 12 
 
 70. 
 
 12 
 
 77. 
 
 13 
 
 53.1 
 
 113 
 
 60.8 13 
 
 68.3 13 
 
 75.10 13 
 
 83.5 
 
 14 
 
 57.2 
 
 14 
 
 65.4 I 14 
 
 73.6 
 
 14 
 
 81.8 14 
 
 89.10 
 
 15 
 
 61.3 
 
 15 
 
 70. i 15 
 
 78.9 l.j 
 
 87.6 15 
 
 96.3 
 
 16 
 
 65.4 
 
 16 
 
 74.8 ! 16 
 
 84. i 16 
 
 93.4 
 
 16 
 
 102.8 
 
 17 
 
 69.5 
 
 17 
 
 79.4 ! 17 
 
 89.3 17 
 
 99.2 
 
 ; 1 f 
 
 109.1 
 
 18 
 
 73.6 
 
 18 
 
 84. i 18 
 
 94.6 
 
 18 105. 18 
 
 115.6 
 
 19 
 
 77.7 
 
 '19 
 
 88.8 i 19 
 
 99.9 
 
 19 110.10 i 19 
 
 121.11 
 
 20 
 
 81.8 
 
 20 
 
 93.4 20 
 
 105. 20 
 
 116.8 
 
 j 20 
 
 128.4 
 
 7 X12 
 
 7X13 
 
 7x14 
 
 8X8 
 
 8X9 
 
 1 
 
 7. 
 
 1 
 
 7.7 
 
 r 8.2 
 
 1 
 
 5.4 
 
 1 
 
 6. 
 
 2 
 
 14. 
 
 2 
 
 15.2 
 
 2 16.4 
 
 2 
 
 10.8 
 
 2 
 
 12. 
 
 3 
 
 21. 
 
 3 
 
 22.9 
 
 3 24.6 
 
 3 
 
 16. 
 
 3 
 
 18. 
 
 4 
 
 28. 
 
 4 
 
 30.4 
 
 4 32.8 
 
 4 
 
 21.4 
 
 4 
 
 24. 
 
 5 
 
 35. 
 
 5 
 
 37.11 
 
 1 5 40.10 
 
 5 26.8 
 
 5 
 
 30. 
 
 6 
 
 42. 
 
 6 
 
 45.6 
 
 6 49. 
 
 6 32. 
 
 i 6 
 
 -36. 
 
 7 
 
 49. 
 
 7 
 
 53.1 
 
 1 7 57.2 
 
 7 
 
 37.4 
 
 1 1 
 
 42. 
 
 8 
 
 56. 
 
 8 
 
 60.8 
 
 8i 65.4 
 
 8 
 
 42.8 
 
 8 
 
 48. 
 
 9 
 
 63. 
 
 9 
 
 68.3 9 73.6 
 
 9 48. 
 
 ! 9 
 
 54. 
 
 10 
 
 70. 
 
 '10 
 
 75.10 10 81.8 
 
 10 53.4 
 
 10 
 
 60. 
 
 11 
 
 77. 
 
 111 
 
 83.5 i 11 89.10 11 
 
 58.8 
 
 11 
 
 66. 
 
 12 
 
 84. 
 
 ; 12 
 
 91. 12 98. jj 12 
 
 64. 
 
 12 
 
 72. 
 
 13 
 
 91. 
 
 ;13 
 
 98.7 13 106.2 ! 13 69.4 i 13 
 
 78. 
 
 14 
 
 98. 
 
 14 
 
 106.2 14 114.4 
 
 14' 74.8 1,14 84. 
 
 15 
 
 105. 
 
 !lo 
 
 113.9 i 15 122.6 
 
 15 i 80. 
 
 15 90. 
 
 16 
 
 112. 
 
 16 
 
 121.4 i 16 130.8 
 
 164 85.4 
 
 16 96. 
 
 17 
 
 119. 
 
 17 
 
 128.11: 17 138.101117 90.8 
 
 17 i 102. 
 
 18 
 
 126. 
 
 18 
 
 136.6 |j 181 147. 18 
 
 96. 
 
 18 108. 
 
 19 
 
 133. 
 
 119 
 
 144.1 1 19 I 155.2 19 j 101.4 
 
 i 19 1 114. 
 
 20 
 
 140. 
 
 20 
 
 151.8 : 20 163.4 20 i 106.8 
 
 i 20 ! 120. 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
154 
 
 TABLES OF TIMBER-MEASURE. 
 
 8X10 
 
 8X11 
 
 8X12 8X13 
 
 8X14 
 
 1 
 
 6.8 
 
 1 
 
 7.4 
 
 1 
 
 8. 
 
 1 
 
 8.8 
 
 1 
 
 9.4 
 
 2 
 
 13.4 
 
 2 
 
 14.8 
 
 2 
 
 16. 
 
 2 
 
 17.4 
 
 2 
 
 18.8 
 
 3 
 
 20. 
 
 3 
 
 22. 
 
 3 
 
 24. 
 
 3 
 
 26. 
 
 3 
 
 28. 
 
 4 
 
 26.8 
 
 4 
 
 29.4 
 
 4 
 
 32. 
 
 4 
 
 34.8 
 
 4 
 
 37.4 
 
 5 
 
 33.4 
 
 5 
 
 36.8 
 
 6 
 
 40. 
 
 5 
 
 43.4 
 
 5 
 
 46.8 
 
 6 
 
 40. 
 
 6 
 
 44. 
 
 6 
 
 48. 
 
 6 
 
 52. 
 
 6 
 
 56. 
 
 7 
 
 46.8 
 
 7 
 
 51.4 
 
 7 
 
 56. 
 
 7 
 
 60.8 
 
 7 
 
 65.4 
 
 8 
 
 53.4 
 
 8 
 
 58.8 
 
 8 
 
 64. 
 
 8 
 
 69.4 
 
 8 
 
 74.8 
 
 9 
 
 60. 
 
 9 
 
 66. 
 
 9 
 
 72. 
 
 9 
 
 78. 
 
 9 
 
 84. 
 
 10 
 
 66.8 
 
 10 
 
 73.4 
 
 10 
 
 80. 
 
 10 
 
 86.8 
 
 10 
 
 93.4 
 
 11 
 
 73.4 
 
 11 
 
 80.8 
 
 11 
 
 88. 
 
 11 
 
 95.4 
 
 111 
 
 102.8 
 
 12 
 
 80. 
 
 12 
 
 88. 
 
 12 
 
 96. 
 
 12 
 
 104. 
 
 12 
 
 112. 
 
 13 
 
 86.8 
 
 13 
 
 95.4 
 
 13 
 
 104. 
 
 13 
 
 112.8 
 
 13 
 
 121.4 
 
 14 
 
 93.4 
 
 1 14 
 
 102.8 
 
 14 
 
 112. 
 
 14 
 
 121.4 
 
 14 
 
 130.8 
 
 15 
 
 100. 
 
 15 
 
 110. 
 
 15 
 
 120. 
 
 15 
 
 130. 
 
 15 
 
 140. 
 
 16 
 
 106.8 
 
 16 
 
 117.4 
 
 16 
 
 128. 
 
 16 
 
 138.8 
 
 16 
 
 149.4 
 
 17 
 
 113.4 
 
 '17 
 
 124.8 
 
 17 
 
 136. 
 
 17 
 
 147.4 
 
 17 
 
 158.8. 
 
 18 
 
 120. 
 
 18 
 
 132. 
 
 18 
 
 144. i 
 
 18 
 
 156. 
 
 18 
 
 168. 
 
 19 
 
 126.8 
 
 !l9 
 
 139.4 
 
 19 
 
 152. 
 
 19 
 
 164.8 
 
 19 
 
 177.4 
 
 20 
 
 133.4 
 
 20 
 
 146.8 
 
 20 
 
 160. 
 
 20 
 
 173.4 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 186.8 
 
 9X9 
 
 9X10 
 
 9X11 
 
 9X12 
 
 9X13 
 
 1 
 
 6.9 
 
 1 
 
 7.6 
 
 1 
 
 8.3 
 
 1 
 
 9. 
 
 1 
 
 9.9 
 
 2 
 
 13.6 
 
 2 
 
 15. 
 
 2 
 
 16.6 
 
 2 
 
 18. 
 
 2 
 
 19.6 
 
 3 
 
 20.3 
 
 3 
 
 22.6 
 
 3 
 
 24.9 
 
 3 
 
 27. 
 
 3 
 
 29.3 
 
 4 
 
 27. 
 
 4 
 
 30. 
 
 4 
 
 33. 
 
 4 
 
 36. 
 
 4 
 
 39. 
 
 5 
 
 33.9 
 
 1 5 
 
 37.6 
 
 5 
 
 41.3 
 
 5 
 
 45. 
 
 5 
 
 48.9 
 
 6 
 
 40.6 
 
 6 
 
 45. 
 
 6 
 
 49.6 
 
 6 
 
 54. 
 
 6 
 
 58.6 
 
 7 
 
 47.3 
 
 7 
 
 52.6 
 
 7 
 
 57.9 
 
 7 
 
 63. 
 
 7 
 
 68.3 
 
 8 
 
 54. 
 
 8 
 
 60. 
 
 8 
 
 66. 
 
 8 
 
 72. 
 
 8 
 
 78. 
 
 9 
 
 60.9 
 
 9 
 
 67.6 
 
 9 
 
 74.3 
 
 9 
 
 81. 
 
 9 
 
 87.9 
 
 10 
 
 67.6 
 
 10 
 
 75. 
 
 10 
 
 82.6 
 
 10 
 
 90. 
 
 10 
 
 97.6 
 
 11 
 
 74.3 
 
 11 
 
 82.6 
 
 11 
 
 90.9 
 
 11 
 
 99. 
 
 11 
 
 107.3 
 
 12 
 
 81. 
 
 12 
 
 90. 
 
 12 
 
 99. 
 
 12 
 
 108. 
 
 12 1 117. 
 
 13 87.9 
 
 :13 
 
 97.6 
 
 13 
 
 107.3 
 
 13 
 
 117. 
 
 13 126.9 
 
 14 | 94.6 
 
 114 
 
 105. 
 
 14 115.6 
 
 14 
 
 126. 
 
 14 i 136.6 
 
 15 101.3 
 
 115 
 
 112.6 
 
 15 
 
 123.9 
 
 15 
 
 135. 
 
 15 I 146.3 
 
 16 1 108. 
 
 |16. 
 
 120. 
 
 16 
 
 132. 
 
 16 
 
 144. 
 
 16 ! 156. 
 
 17 114.9 
 
 17 
 
 127.6 
 
 17 
 
 140.3 
 
 17 
 
 153. 
 
 17 165.9 
 
 181121.6 '18 
 
 135. 
 
 18 
 
 148.6 
 
 18 
 
 162. 
 
 18 175.6 
 
 19 ! 128.3 19 
 
 142.6 
 
 19 
 
 156.9 
 
 19 
 
 171. 
 
 19 185.3 
 
 20 135. 20 
 
 150. 
 
 20 
 
 165. 
 
 20 
 
 180. 
 
 20 
 
 195. 
 
TABLES OF TIMBER-MEASURE. 
 
 155 
 
 9X14 
 
 10X10 
 
 10X11 
 
 10X12 
 
 10X13 
 
 1 
 
 10.6 1 
 
 8.4 
 
 1 
 
 9.2 
 
 1 
 
 10. 
 
 1 
 
 10.10 
 
 2 
 
 21. 
 
 i 2 
 
 16.8 
 
 2 
 
 18.4 
 
 2 
 
 20. 
 
 2 
 
 21.8 
 
 3 
 
 31.6 3 
 
 25. 
 
 3 
 
 27.6 
 
 3 
 
 30. 
 
 3 
 
 32.6 
 
 4 
 
 42. 
 
 1 4 
 
 33.4 
 
 4 
 
 36.8 
 
 4 
 
 40. 
 
 4 
 
 43.4 
 
 5 
 
 62.6 5 
 
 41.8 
 
 5 
 
 45.10 
 
 6 
 
 50. 
 
 5 
 
 54.2 
 
 6 
 
 63. ! 6 
 
 50. 
 
 6 
 
 55. 
 
 
 60. 
 
 6 
 
 65. 
 
 7 
 
 73.6 7 
 
 58.4 
 
 7 
 
 64.2 
 
 7 
 
 70. 
 
 7 
 
 75.10 
 
 8 
 
 84. 8 
 
 66.8 
 
 8 
 
 73.4 
 
 8 80. 
 
 8 
 
 86.8 
 
 9 
 
 94.6 9 
 
 75. 
 
 9 
 
 82.6 
 
 9 90. 
 
 9 
 
 97.6 
 
 10 
 
 105. ! 10 
 
 83.4 
 
 10 
 
 91.8 
 
 10 ! 100. 
 
 10 
 
 108.4 
 
 11 
 
 115.6 11 
 
 91.8 
 
 11 
 
 100.10 
 
 11 110. 
 
 11 
 
 119.2 
 
 12 
 
 126. 
 
 12 
 
 100. 
 
 12 
 
 110. 
 
 12 120. 
 
 12 
 
 130. 
 
 13 
 
 136.6 
 
 13 
 
 108.4 
 
 13 
 
 119.2 
 
 13 130. 
 
 13 
 
 140.10 
 
 14 
 
 147. 14 
 
 116.8 
 
 14 
 
 128.4 
 
 14 140. 
 
 14 
 
 151.8 
 
 15 
 
 157.6 15 
 
 125. 
 
 15 
 
 137.6 
 
 15 150. 
 
 15 
 
 162.6 
 
 16 
 
 168. 
 
 16 
 
 133.4 
 
 16 146.8 
 
 16 160. 
 
 16 
 
 173.4 
 
 17 
 
 178.6 
 
 17 
 
 141.8 
 
 17 
 
 155.10 
 
 17 170. 
 
 17 
 
 184.2 
 
 18 
 
 189. 
 
 18 
 
 150. 
 
 18 
 
 165. 18 180. 
 
 IS 
 
 195. 
 
 19 
 
 199.6 
 
 19 
 
 158.4 
 
 19 174.2 19 190. 
 
 19 
 
 205.10 
 
 20 
 
 210. 
 
 20 
 
 166.8 
 
 20 183.4 | 
 
 20 
 
 200. 
 
 1 > 
 
 216.8 
 
 10X14 
 
 11X11 
 
 11X12 
 
 11X13 
 
 11X14 
 
 1 
 
 11.8 1 
 
 10.1 
 
 1 11. 
 
 1 
 
 11.11 
 
 1 
 
 12.10 
 
 2 
 
 23.4 
 
 ; 2 
 
 20.2 
 
 2 22. 
 
 2 
 
 23.10 
 
 2 
 
 25.8 
 
 3 
 
 35. 
 
 3 
 
 30.3 
 
 3: 33. 
 
 3 
 
 35.9 
 
 3 
 
 38.6 
 
 4 
 
 46.8 
 
 ! 4 
 
 40.4 
 
 4 44. 
 
 4 
 
 47.8 
 
 4 
 
 51.4 
 
 5 
 
 58.4 
 
 5 
 
 50.5 
 
 5i 55. 
 
 5 
 
 59.7 
 
 5 
 
 64.2 
 
 6 
 
 70. 
 
 6 
 
 60.6 
 
 6 66. 
 
 6 
 
 71.6 
 
 6 
 
 77. 
 
 7 81.8 
 
 7 
 
 70.7 
 
 7 
 
 77. 
 
 7 
 
 83.5 
 
 7 
 
 89.10 
 
 8 
 
 93.4 
 
 8 
 
 80.8 
 
 8 
 
 88. 
 
 8 
 
 95.4 
 
 8 102.8 
 
 9 
 
 105. 
 
 9 
 
 90.9 
 
 9 99. 
 
 9 107.3 
 
 9 j 115.6 
 
 10 
 
 116.8 
 
 10 
 
 100.10 
 
 10 110. 
 
 10 ! 119.2 
 
 10 128.4 
 
 11 
 
 128.4 11 
 
 110.11 
 
 11 121. 
 
 11 i 131.1 
 
 11 141.2 
 
 12 
 
 140. 
 
 12 
 
 121. 
 
 12 132. 
 
 12 143. 
 
 12 154. 
 
 13 
 
 151.8 13 
 
 131.1 
 
 13 143. 13 154.11 
 
 13 , 166.10 
 
 14 
 
 163.4 JIM 
 
 141.2 
 
 14 154. 1141166.10 
 
 14 179.8 
 
 15 
 
 175. ! 15 
 
 151.3 
 
 15 165. 
 
 15 I 178.9 
 
 15 192.6 
 
 16 
 
 186.8 16 
 
 161.4 
 
 16 176. 
 
 16 1 190.8 
 
 16 205.4 
 
 17 | 198.4 
 
 17 
 
 171.5 
 
 17 187. 
 
 17 I 202.7 
 
 17 218.2 
 
 18 
 
 210. 
 
 ; 18 
 
 181.6 
 
 18 198. 
 
 18 214.6 
 
 18 231. 
 
 19 
 
 221.8 19 
 
 191.7 
 
 19 209. 
 
 19 226.5 
 
 19 243.10 
 
 20 
 
 233.4 j 20 
 
 201.8 
 
 20 220. 
 
 20 ; 238.4 
 
 20 256.8 
 
 i 
 
156 
 
 TABLES OF TIMBER-MEASURE. 
 
 12X12 
 
 12X13 
 
 12X14 
 
 12X15 
 
 13X13 
 
 1 
 
 12. 
 
 1 
 
 13. 
 
 1 
 
 14. 
 
 1 
 
 15. 
 
 1 
 
 14.1 
 
 2 
 
 24. 
 
 2 26. 
 
 2 
 
 28. 
 
 2 
 
 30. 
 
 2 
 
 28.2 
 
 3 
 
 36. 
 
 3 39. 
 
 3 
 
 42. 
 
 3 
 
 45. 
 
 3 
 
 42.3 
 
 4 
 
 48. 
 
 4| 52. 
 
 4 
 
 56. 
 
 4 
 
 60. 
 
 4 
 
 56.4 
 
 5 
 
 60. 
 
 5 65. 
 
 5 
 
 70. 
 
 5 
 
 75. 
 
 5 
 
 70.5 
 
 6 
 
 72. 
 
 6 78. 
 
 6 
 
 84. 
 
 6 
 
 90. 
 
 6 
 
 84.6 
 
 7 
 
 84. 
 
 7 91. 
 
 7 
 
 98. 
 
 7 
 
 105. 
 
 7 
 
 98.7 
 
 8 
 
 96. 
 
 8 104. 
 
 8 
 
 112. 
 
 8 
 
 120. 
 
 8 
 
 112.8 
 
 9 108. 
 
 9 117. 
 
 ii 
 
 126. 
 
 9 
 
 135. 
 
 9 
 
 126.9 
 
 10 : 120. 
 
 10 130. 
 
 10 
 
 140. 
 
 10 
 
 150. 
 
 10 
 
 140.10 
 
 11 132. 
 
 11 143. 
 
 11 
 
 154. 
 
 11 
 
 165. 
 
 11 
 
 154.11 
 
 12 144. 
 
 12 156. 
 
 12 
 
 168. 
 
 12 
 
 180. 
 
 12 169. 
 
 13 \ 156. 
 
 13 169. 
 
 13 
 
 182. 
 
 13 
 
 195. 
 
 13 183.1 
 
 14 168. 
 
 14 182. 
 
 14 
 
 196. 
 
 14 
 
 210. 
 
 14 
 
 197.2 
 
 15 ! 180. 
 
 15 195. 
 
 15 
 
 210. 
 
 15 
 
 225. 
 
 15 211.3 
 
 16 192. 
 
 16 208. 
 
 16 
 
 224. 
 
 16 
 
 240. 
 
 16 
 
 225.4 
 
 17 | 204. 
 
 17 221. 
 
 17 
 
 238. 
 
 17 
 
 255. 
 
 17 
 
 239.5 
 
 18 i 216. 
 
 18 234. 
 
 18 
 
 252. 
 
 18 
 
 270. 
 
 18 
 
 253.6 
 
 19 228. 
 
 19 247. 
 
 19 
 
 266. 
 
 19 
 
 285. 
 
 19 
 
 267.7 
 
 20 
 
 240. 
 
 20 260. 
 
 20 
 
 280. 
 
 20 
 
 300. 
 
 20 
 
 281.8 
 
 13X14 
 
 13X15 
 
 14X14 
 
 14X15 
 
 14X16 
 
 1 
 
 15.2 
 
 1 
 
 16.3 
 
 1 
 
 16.4 
 
 1 
 
 17.6 
 
 1 
 
 18.8 
 
 2 
 
 30.4 
 
 2 
 
 32.6 
 
 2 
 
 32.8 
 
 2 
 
 35. 
 
 2 
 
 37.4 
 
 3 
 
 45.6 
 
 3 
 
 48.9 
 
 3 
 
 49. 
 
 3 
 
 52.6 
 
 3 
 
 56. 
 
 4 
 
 60.8 
 
 4 
 
 65. 
 
 4 
 
 65.4 
 
 4 
 
 70. 
 
 4 
 
 74.8 
 
 5 
 
 75.10 
 
 ' 5 
 
 81.3 
 
 5 
 
 81.8 
 
 5 
 
 87.6 
 
 5 
 
 93.4 
 
 6 
 
 91. 
 
 i 6 
 
 97.6 
 
 6 
 
 98. 
 
 6 
 
 105. 
 
 6 
 
 112. 
 
 7 
 
 106.2 
 
 I 7 113.9 
 
 7 
 
 114.4 
 
 7 
 
 122.6 
 
 7 
 
 130.8 
 
 8 
 
 121.4 
 
 ! 8 130. 
 
 8 
 
 130.8 
 
 8 
 
 140. 
 
 8 
 
 149.4 
 
 9 
 
 136.6 
 
 i 9 146.3 
 
 9 
 
 147. 
 
 9 
 
 157.6 
 
 9 
 
 168. 
 
 10 
 
 151.8 
 
 10 1 162.6 
 
 10 
 
 163.4 
 
 10 
 
 175. 
 
 10 
 
 186.8 
 
 11 
 
 166.10 
 
 ill 
 
 178.9 
 
 11 
 
 179.8 
 
 11 
 
 192.6 
 
 11 
 
 205.4 
 
 12 
 
 182. 
 
 12 
 
 195. 
 
 12 
 
 196. 
 
 12 
 
 210. 
 
 12 
 
 224. 
 
 13 
 
 197.2 
 
 !13 
 
 211.3 
 
 13 
 
 212.4 
 
 13 
 
 227.6 
 
 13 
 
 .242.8 
 
 14 
 
 212.4 
 
 14 
 
 227.6 
 
 14 
 
 228.8 
 
 14 
 
 245. 
 
 14 !' 261.4 
 
 15 
 
 227.6 
 
 15 
 
 243.9 
 
 15 
 
 245. 
 
 15 
 
 262.6 
 
 15 ; 280. 
 
 16 
 
 242.8 
 
 16 
 
 260. 
 
 16 
 
 261.4 
 
 16 
 
 280. 
 
 16 \ 298.8 
 
 17 
 
 257.10 
 
 17 
 
 276.3 
 
 17 
 
 277.8 
 
 17 
 
 297.6 
 
 17 317.4 
 
 18 I 273. 
 
 18 
 
 292.6 
 
 18 
 
 294. 
 
 18 
 
 315. 
 
 18 336. 
 
 19 I 288.2 
 
 19 
 
 308.9 
 
 19 
 
 310.4 
 
 19 
 
 332.6 
 
 19 354.8 
 
 20 303.4 
 
 20 
 
 325. 
 
 20 
 
 326.8 
 
 20 
 
 350. 
 
 20 373.4 
 
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 
 
 IN COMMON USE AMONG CAKPENTERS. 
 
159 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 A. 
 
 ADHESION. A physical term, 
 denoting the force with which a 
 body remains attached to another 
 when brought in contact. Cohe- 
 sion is the force that unites the 
 particles of a homogeneous body. 
 The insertion of a nail into wood 
 is accomplished by separating the 
 particles, and thereby destroying 
 the cohesion; and its extraction, 
 by overcoming the adhesion and 
 friction. Adhesion, as related to 
 woods, may be considered as fol- 
 lows : 3^. nails, 18 of which weigh 
 1 pound, 1 in. long, when driven 
 in. into spruce, across the fibres 
 of the wood, require a force of 73 
 pounds to extract them. A Qd. 
 nail, driven 1 in. into dry oak, 
 resists a strain of 507 pounds ; and 
 when into dry elm, 378 pounds. I 
 If the same nail be driven into ; 
 elm endwise, or parallel with the 
 grain, it may be drawn out by a 
 strain of 2of pounds. The adhe- 
 sion, therefore, when driven into 
 the wood named, across the grain, 
 or at right angles to the fibres, is 
 greater than when driven parallel 
 with them, as 4 to 3. In dry 
 spruce, it is nearlv as 2 to 1. A 
 common screw, a fifth of an inch in 
 diameter, has an adhesion about 
 three times as great as a common 
 Gd. nail. If the nail last named 
 be driven 2 in. into dry oak, it will ! 
 resist a direct strain of nearly half 
 a ton. 
 
 ADZE. An edged tool used by 
 carpenters to chip surfaces lying 
 in a horizontal position, or in 
 situations where they cannot easi- 
 ly be cut with an axe. 
 
 ANGLE. A term in geometry 
 signifying a corner, or the point 
 where two converging lines meet. 
 Angles are of three kinds; viz., 
 riV/it, obtuse, and acute. A right 
 angle is formed by a line joining 
 another perpendicularly, or at an 
 inclination of 90, which is one 
 quarter of a circle. In an obtuse 
 angle, the inclination of the lines 
 is greater or more open than 90. 
 In acute angles, their inclination 
 is less than a right angle. A solid 
 angle is the meeting of three or 
 more plain angles at a point. 
 
 ANGLE-BRACE. A piece framed 
 across the angle of a piece of fram- 
 ing. It is also termed an ang-le- 
 tie, or diagonal tie, and is nearly 
 synonymous with brace. 
 
 ANGLE-RAFTER. A piece in 
 a hip-roof at the line where the 
 two adjacent inclined sides unite. 
 It is continued from the eaves to 
 the ridge, and serves to support the 
 jack-rafters. 
 
 APERTURE. An opening 
 through a wall or partition. 
 u Apertures," says Sir Henry 
 Wotton, "are inlets for air and 
 light: they should be as few in 
 number, and as moderate in di- 
 mensions, as may possibly consist 
 with other due respects ; for. in a 
 word, all openings are weakenings. 
 
160 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 They should not approach too 
 near the angles of the walls ; for 
 it were, indeed, a most essential 
 solecism to weaken that part which 
 must strengthen all the rest." 
 
 APRON. The horizontal piece 
 in wooden stairs supporting the 
 carriages at their landings. 
 
 ARC. A term in geometry sig- 
 nifying any portion of a circle, or 
 curve. 
 
 ARRIS. The intersecting line 
 where two surfaces of a body 
 meet. 
 
 ARRIS-FILLET. A piece of 
 wood, triangular in section, used 
 to raise the slates or shingles 
 which are against any portion of 
 the work projecting from the roof; 
 as a party-wall, sky -light, chim- 
 ney, battlement. &c. 
 
 ARTIFICER. ' One skilled in 
 any mechanical art ; an inventor, 
 or contriver. 
 
 ARTISAN . A mechanic trained 
 to manual dexterity in any art or 
 trade. 
 
 ASHLERING. The short studs 
 of a building between the plate 
 and girt of the attic-floor. Build- 
 ings are framed in this manner 
 where the attic is designed for oc- 
 cupation ; the short studs cutting 
 off the acute angle which the 
 rafters would make, were they 
 permitted to come to the floor. 
 
 AUGER. A tool used by car- 
 penters for boring holes. 
 
 AUXILIARY RAFTERS. Pieces 
 of timber framed in the same ver- 
 tical plane with principal rafters, 
 placed under and parallel to them I 
 to give additional strength to the I 
 truss. (See Plate XI.) 
 
 AXE. An instrument for hew- ' 
 ing timber or chopping wood. The 
 axe is of two kinds ; the broad axe 
 for hewing (the handle of which j 
 is usually so bent as to adapt it j 
 for hewing either right or left), 
 and the narrow axe for cutting, 
 &c. 
 
 AXIS OF A DOME. A right 
 line passing through its centre, 
 and perpendicular to its base. 
 
 B. 
 
 BACK. The side opposite the 
 face of any piece of work. When 
 a timber is in a horizontal or in- 
 clined position, the upper side is 
 called the back; and the under 
 side, the breast. The top side or 
 surface of rafters, and the curved 
 ribs of ceilings or of hand-rails, 
 are called backs. 
 
 BACKING A HIP-RAFTER, 
 OR RIB. The act of forming the 
 upper surface of either in such a 
 manner as to make it range with 
 the backs of the rafters, or ribs, 
 on each side. 
 
 BALKS, or BAULKS. Small 
 sticks of roughly hewn timber, 
 being the trunks of small trees 
 partially squared. The term usu- 
 ally denotes sticks less than 10 
 in. square at the but, and taper- 
 ing a good deal as they approach 
 the other end. 
 
 BAR-POSTS. Posts fixed in 
 the ground at the sides of a field- 
 gate. They are mortised to re- 
 ceive the movable, horizontal bars. 
 
 BASIL. The slope or angle of 
 an edge tool, as that on a chisel 
 or plane-iron. The angle is usu- 
 ally 12 for soft and 18 P for hard 
 wood. 
 
 BATTER. A term applied to a 
 wall which is not plumb or per- 
 pendicular on its face, but which 
 slopes from an observer standing 
 in front. 
 
 BAULK-ROOFING. A term in 
 use when timbers were generally 
 hewn, instead of sawn as at pre- 
 sent. It formerly designated a 
 roof framed of baulk-timber, 
 which, being hewn from small 
 trees, could not be formed into 
 square timbers, having an arris 
 full and square. 
 
 BAY. The space intervening 
 between two given portions of the 
 wall or floors of a building. 
 
 BAY OF JOISTS. The joist- 
 ing of a particular portion of a 
 building, as between the posts 
 of a side-wall or the girders of a 
 floor. 
 
 BEAM. A large and long piece 
 of squared timber, used in hori- 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 161 
 
 zontal positions for supporting a 
 superincumbent weight, or for 
 counteracting two opposite forces, 
 tending either to stretch or to 
 compress it in the direction of its 
 length. Employed as a lintel, or 
 for the support of the ends of 
 joists in a floor, it simply sustains 
 a weight ; if employed as a tie- 
 beam to the truss of a roof, it re- 
 sists the strain or thrust exerted 
 by the truss-rafters; or, if as a 
 collar-beam between the heads of 
 truss-rafters, it resists the strain 
 they exert, and is compressed. 
 
 BEAM-COMPASS. An instru- 
 ment for describing circles of a 
 larger diameter than may be prac- 
 ticable with ordinary compasses. 
 It consists of a rod, or beam, on 
 which are two sliding sockets, one 
 provided with a sharp steel needle 
 for fixing the centre of the cir- 
 cle to be described, and the other 
 with a pencil for describing the 
 circle itself. A very common 
 method among carpenters for 
 marking large circles, such as 
 plans of domes, &c., is to de- 
 termine the centre, and then affix 
 to it the end of a slip or lath of 
 wood, at the other extremity of 
 which is the instrument for tra- 
 cing the circle required. 
 
 BEAM-FILLING. The brick- 
 work about the rafters at the 
 eaves of a brick building. 
 
 BEAKER. Any timber or wall 
 that supports another timber, and 
 retains it in its proper place. 
 
 BEARING. The distance or 
 length which the ends of a timber 
 or joist rest on another, or are 
 inserted in a wall. A beam in- 
 serted 12 in. in a pier or wall is 
 said to have a 12 in. bearing. 
 
 BEETLE. A large and heavy 
 wooden mallet or hammer for 
 driving stakes, piles, wedges, &c. 
 It has one, two, or three handles, 
 as may be required. 
 
 BELFRY. The part or section 
 of a steeple in which the bell is 
 suspended. The term was for- 
 merly used to denote more parti- 
 cularly the framing to which the 
 bell was hung. 
 
 BELL-ROOF. A roof the ver- 
 
 tical section of which is concave 
 at the bottom, and convex at the 
 top. It is often called an ogee 
 roof. 
 
 BELVIDERE. A turret or lan- 
 tern used for an observatory ; also 
 an arbor or artificial eminence in 
 a garden. 
 
 BEVEL. An instrument of the 
 nature of a try-square, one leg 
 being movable on a centre, so 
 that it may be set at any angle. 
 The term also denotes an angle 
 which is more or less than a right 
 angle. 
 
 BINDING-JOISTS. In old me- 
 thods of framing, binding-joists 
 were large joists or timbers framed 
 between the girders, in a trans- 
 verse direction, for the support 
 of the floor-joists above, and the 
 ceiling-joists below. Thus method 
 of framing is now but seldom 
 used in this country. 
 
 BOARD. In America, a board 
 is a piece of timber of any length 
 or width, and from in. to 2 in. 
 in thickness. Pieces of 2 or more 
 in. up to 6 in. in thickness are 
 called planks. In England, a 
 board is a piece of timber more 
 than 4 in. in width, and may be 
 2J in. thick ; and all boards wider 
 than 9 in. are called planks. 
 
 BOARDING-JOISTS. The same 
 as floor- joists. 
 
 BOLT. A square or round iron 
 pin, with a head or flange at one 
 end, and a thread and nut at the 
 other. 
 
 BOND. Any thing that con- 
 nects and retains two or more 
 bodies in a particular position. 
 
 BOND-TIMBERS. The tim- 
 bers or pieces of wood which are 
 built into the walls of a brick 
 or stone building to secure the 
 internal finishing. 
 
 BONING. The act of judging 
 and forming a plain surface or 
 straight line by the eye. The art 
 is usually termed sighting. Car- 
 penters and joiners use for this 
 purpose two straight edges, by 
 which they determine whether the 
 surface is true or twisted 
 
 BORING. The act of perforat- 
 ing any substance. In joinery, 
 
 11 
 
162 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 this is done with a hrad-awl, gim- 
 let, or bit ; and in carpentry, by an 
 auger. 
 
 BOW. Any part of a building 
 that projects from a straight wall. 
 It may be either circular or po- 
 lygonal in plan: the last-named 
 are termed canted bows. 
 
 BRACE. A piece of timber 
 fixed across the internal angle of 
 the larger timbers of a frame ; by 
 which arrangement the whole of 
 the work is stiffened, and the 
 building prevented from swerving 
 either way. 
 
 BREAK IN. An old expression 
 in use among carpenters, signify- 
 ing the act of cutting or breaking 
 a hole into a brick or stone wall 
 to admit the ends of joists, beams, 
 &c. 
 
 BREAST-SUMMER. A piece of 
 timber used for sustaining a su- 
 perincumbent weight, and per- 
 forming the office of a lintel over 
 any large opening ; as large win- 
 dows, or doors in a store, or an 
 open passage-way under the se- 
 cond story of a building. 
 
 BBIDGE. A term denoting that 
 one timber lies across and im- 
 mediately upon another, or is 
 notched into it. Thus, in framed 
 roofing, the common rafters bridge 
 over the purlins, and the purlins 
 over the principal rafters. 
 
 BRIDGING. Pieces placed be- 
 tween timbers to prevent their 
 nearer approach. In floors, the 
 joists are often stayed in this 
 manner by pieces of the same 
 kind of joist cut and nailed in 
 between them at right angles, or 
 by narrow pieces of board placed 
 in a similar position, and diago- 
 nally crossing each other. 
 
 BRIDGING-FLOORS. Those 
 in whose construction bridging- 
 joists are used. 
 
 BRIDGING-JOISTS. Those sus- 
 tained by a beam beneath them. 
 
 BUILDING. A fabric or edifice 
 of any kind, constructed for occu- 
 pancy ; as a house, barn, church, 
 &c. 
 
 BULKER. A term in use in 
 some parts of England to denote 
 a beam or rafter. 
 
 BUTMENT-CHEEKS. The two 
 sides of a mortise in any piece of 
 framing. 
 
 BUT- END. The end nearest 
 the root of a tree. 
 
 BUTTRESS. A pier or external 
 support, designed to resist any 
 pressure from within which may af- 
 fect the wall or thing so supported. 
 
 o. 
 
 CALIBER. The greatest dia- 
 meter of any round body ; as of a 
 log or ball, or the bore of a gun. 
 
 CAMBER. An arch or curve 
 on the top of an aperture or of a 
 beam. A beam is said to be cam- 
 bered when it is hewn or bent so 
 as to form a slight curve. 
 
 CAMBER-BEAMS. Beams 
 which are cambered. 
 
 CAMBERATED. Archedor 
 vaulted. 
 
 CAMPANILE. Atovrerfor 
 bells. In Italy they are usually 
 separate from the church, and are, 
 in general, highly ornamented and 
 costly edifices. The celebrated 
 one at Cremona is 395 ft. high. 
 That at Florence, built from a de- 
 sign by Giotto, is 267 ft. high, 
 and 45 ft. square. The most re- 
 markable campanile in the world 
 is doubtless that at Pisa : it was 
 built about the year 1174, and is 
 commonly known as the " Leaning 
 Tower." It is cylindric in plan; 
 is 50 ft. in diameter, and 150 ft. 
 to the platform, on which are the 
 bells. From this platform a 
 plumb-line falls, on the leaning 
 side, nearly 13 ft. from its base. 
 Its entire height is 180 feet. 
 
 CAMPSHOT. The sill or cap 
 of a wharf or wall. 
 
 CANT. An external corner or 
 angle of a building. Among car- 
 penters, the term is also used to 
 denote the act of turning a piece 
 of timber. 
 
 CANTHERS. In ancient car- 
 pentry, the ends of the jack- 
 rafters of a roof. They are con- 
 sidered by some to have given 
 rise to the mutules of the 
 order. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 163 
 
 CAPSTAN. A strong and massy 
 column or cylinder of iron or 
 wood, at the top of which is a cir- 
 cular cap, with horizontal mortise? 
 or holes around it at equal dis- 
 tances to receive bars or levers, for 
 the purpose of turning it, and 
 thus winding up a rope, the other i 
 end of which is attached to the 
 weight to be raised, or to apply 
 the power of the machine to any 
 thing requiring removal. 
 
 CARCASS. The unfinished 
 state of a building before it is par- j 
 titioned off into rooms, the floors 
 laid, &c. 
 
 CARPENTER. In America this 
 word is often used indiscrimi- 
 nately to signify an artificer who 
 begins and completes the entire 
 wood-work of an edifice. The | 
 term properly denotes one who 
 does the framing, raising, board- 
 ing, and partitioning off the 
 rooms of a wooden building. The 
 finishing of its several parts is 
 done by the joiner. In ship- 
 building the carpenter hews out 
 the timbers, sets up the frame, 
 and planks it; while the ship- 
 joiner completes the work. 
 
 CARPENTER'S RULE. An in- 
 strument by the use of which 
 carpenters take dimensions, &c. 
 It is figured in inches, and parts 
 of inches ; and to some kinds is 
 affixed a slide, the figures upon 
 which enable the artificer to make 
 calculations in multiplication and 
 division, besides many others 
 which constantly occur in his 
 practice. 
 
 CARPENTER'S SQUARE. An 
 instrument made of steel, one leg 
 of which is 24 in. long and 2 in. 
 wide, and the other 16 in. long 
 and H in. wide; the legs being ; 
 figured in inches, and parts of i 
 inches. This instrument is used | 
 not only as a square and measur- ] 
 ing-rule, but, with a plummet and j 
 line, to determine levels. The 
 joiner's square has one leg of | 
 wood, and the other of steel with- ] 
 out figures. 
 
 CARPENTRY. The work per- 
 formed by carpenters, or the art 
 of hewing, framing, and joining ' 
 
 the timbers, and ah 1 the heavier 
 parts of a building. Also a struc- 
 ture of framed timbers ; as a 
 roof, a floor, or an arch-center- 
 ing. 
 
 CARRIAGE. The diagonally 
 notched plank which is placed in 
 an oblique position for the sup- 
 port of the treads and risers of a 
 flight of stairs. 
 
 CASSION. A large and strong 
 chest, made water-tight, and used 
 in the construction of the piers 
 of a bridge, where the rapidity 
 and depth of the river present a, 
 difficulty in building the founda- 
 tion. The floor of a cassion is so 
 constructed that the sides may be 
 detached from it when desired. 
 The bed of the river is levelled at 
 the site of the proposed pier; the 
 cassion is launched, and floated 
 to the location, and sunk. The 
 pier is then built therein as high 
 as the level of the water; the 
 sides of the cassion are then re- 
 moved, the pier resting on the 
 foundation prepared for it. The 
 tonnage of each of the cassions 
 used in the construction of West- 
 minster Bridge, over the Thames, 
 was equal to that of a forty -gun 
 ship. 
 
 CASTING. A term denoting 
 the bending or twisting of a board 
 or any piece of wood from its ori- 
 ginal state. It is synonymous 
 with warping: 
 
 CATENARY CURVE. The 
 curve formed by a chain or rope, 
 of uniform density, hanging freely 
 between two points of suspension. 
 Galileo is supposed to have been 
 its discoverer: and it is certain 
 that he proposed it as the proper 
 figure for an arch of equilibrium ; 
 supposing it, however, to be iden- 
 tical with the parabola. James 
 Bernonilli, an eminent mathe- 
 matician, born at Basil in 1654, 
 investigated its nature ; but its pe- 
 culiar properties were afterwards 
 demonstrated by John Bernouilli, 
 his brother. Their opinion was 
 adopted and advocated by Iluy- 
 gens and Leibnitz. 
 
 CEILING. The surface of a 
 room opposite the floor. 
 
164 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 CENTRE. A point which is 
 equally distant from the extre- 
 mities of a line, figure, or body : 
 the middle point or place of any 
 thing. 
 
 CENTERING. The temporary 
 frame or woodwork whereon any 
 arched work is constructed. 
 
 CHALK. A variety of carbon- 
 ate of lime. Red chalk is an 
 indurated or hardened ochre, and 
 takes its name from its color. 
 French chalk, used by tailors, is 
 a soft magnesian mineral, of the 
 nature of steatite, or soapstone. 
 
 CHAMFER. A furrow, slope, 
 or bevel. A beam or joist is said 
 to be chamfered when the arris 
 is so cut as to convert its original 
 right angle into an obtuse angle, 
 at the lines where the slope inter- 
 sects with the plane of the other 
 sides. 
 
 CHEEKS. Two upright, simi- 
 lar, and corresponding parts of 
 any timber-work ; such as the 
 studs at the sides of a door, win- 
 dow. &c. 
 
 CHIP. A piece of wood, or 
 other substance, separated from a 
 body by any cutting instrument. 
 As a verb, it signifies to separate 
 into small pieces or chips by gra- 
 dually hewing or cutting. 
 
 CHISEL. A well-known instru- 
 ment, made of iron, faced at the 
 bevel, or cutting end, with steel. 
 Those used for paring, being thin, 
 are called paring-chisels : those 
 used for framing are heavier and 
 thicker, being called firmer or 
 framing chisels. 
 
 CHIT. An instrument formerly 
 used for cleaving laths. 
 
 CHORD. The right line which 
 joins the two extremities of an 
 arc. It is so called from its re- 
 semblance to a bow and string, 
 the chord representing the string. 
 
 CIRCLE. A figure bounded by 
 one continued curved line, called 
 the circumference, all parts of 
 which are equidistant from a 
 point called the centre. It is the 
 most capacious of all plain figures. 
 The circumference of any circle, 
 divided by 3.1416, will give the 
 diameter; or the diameter, multi- 
 
 plied by the same number, will 
 give the circumference. In com- 
 mon practice, where great exact- 
 ness is not required, it is usual to 
 consider the diameter to the cir- 
 cumference as 22 to 7. 
 
 To find the area of any circle, 
 multiply half the diameter by 
 half the circumference ; or, for a 
 more accurate calculation, inul- 
 ti ply the square of the diameter 
 by .7854, or the square of the 
 circumference by .07958. Squar- 
 ing the circle, as it is termed, is 
 the attempt to ascertain the exact 
 contents of a circle in square 
 measure, a problem as yet un- 
 solved. 
 
 CLAMP. A piece of wood so 
 fixed to another that the fibres 
 or grain of one may cross those 
 of the other, and thus prevent its- 
 warping or twisting. 
 
 CLEAR. The clear or unmo- 
 lested distance between any two 
 surfaces or points. The net dis- 
 tance between a floor and ceiling 
 is said to be the height of the 
 story in the clear. 
 
 CLERE-STORY. A con- 
 tinuation of the nave, choir, and 
 transepts of a church, above the 
 roof of the aisles. 
 
 CLEAVING. The act of sepa- 
 rating, by force, one part of a 
 piece of wood or other substance 
 from another, in the direction of 
 its fibres. 
 
 CLEFTS. Those cracks or fis- 
 sures produced in wood when 
 wrought too green ; or when, in 
 an unseasoned state, it is exposed 
 to sudden heat. In thin stuff, as 
 boards, &c., the clefts, being some- 
 what different from those in fram- 
 ing lumber, are usually termed 
 sh akes. 
 
 COCKING. A method of con- 
 fining the tie-beams of a roof to 
 the top of the wall-plates, or the 
 joists of a floor to the girders and 
 girts, by dove-tailing the parts 
 together. Its design is to prevent 
 the walls from spreading. 
 
 COLLAR-BEAM. A beam used 
 to prevent the bending or sagging 
 of the rafters in a common roof, 
 or the nearer approach of the tops 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 165 
 
 of the rafters in one that is 
 trussed. 
 
 COMPASSES. A mathematical 
 instrument for describing circles 
 and measuring distances. Com- 
 mon compasses need no descrip- 
 tion. Triangular compasses have, 
 in addition to the two legs of com- 
 mon ones, another, made with a 
 joint, and movable in any direc- 
 tion. > Beam compasses are de- 
 signed for describing large circles. 
 (See description.) Proportional i 
 compasses have two pairs of legs, j 
 connected by a shifting centre 
 sliding in a groove, and thereby 
 regulating the proportion which 
 the opening or distance between 
 the joints at one end bears to that 
 at the other. They are used to 
 enlarge or diminish drawings to 
 any given scale. 
 
 COMPRESSIBILITY. The qua- 
 lity of being compressible, or the 
 capacity of being reduced to 
 smaller dimensions. A post sus- 
 taining a heavy superincumbent 
 weight, or the collar-beam or 
 strut of a truss-roof, when in use, 
 are said to be in a state of com- 
 pression. 
 
 CONCU3. This term is doubtless 
 derived from the Latin concutio, 
 to shake or shatter. In carpen- 
 try, it properly denotes wood so 
 rotten or decayed in some of its 
 parts as to be shaky. Of late 
 years, it is generally used to signify 
 rotten or decayed knots; and 
 boards or sticks of timber having 
 such knots are termed concussed. 
 
 COXE. A solid body having a 
 circle for its base, and terminating 
 at its top in a point, or vertex. 
 
 CONICAL ROOF. A roof whose 
 exterior surface is formed like a 
 cone. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION. The act of 
 building, or of devising and form- 
 ing. Among architects, the term 
 more generally denotes the ar- 
 ranging and distributing of the 
 parts of a building in such, a man- 
 ner as will insure durability to 
 the structure, and economy in the 
 use of its materials. 
 
 CONSTRUCTITE CARPENTRY. 
 Practical or operative carpentry. 
 
 CONTACT. A touching or 
 juncture of two bodies. Tnings 
 are said to be in contact when 
 parts of them are so near together 
 that there is no sensible interven- 
 ing space. The places where they 
 touch are called the points of con- 
 tact. 
 
 CONTOUR. The outline bound- 
 ing any figure. 
 
 CONTRACTION. The act of 
 drawing together or shortening, 
 by causing the parts of a body to 
 approach each other. Thus, in an 
 iron rod, heat, by insinuating it- 
 self between the particles of the 
 metal, causes the rod to become 
 longer ; and it is then said to be 
 expanded. Cold, which is simply 
 the absence of heat, causes or per- 
 mits the particles to come nearer 
 each other ; and the rod in this 
 state is said to be contracted. 
 
 CONVERGENT LINES. Lines 
 tending te one point, and which, 
 if continued, would meet. 
 
 COUNTER-SINK. To sink a 
 recess or cavity in any material, 
 for the reception of a projection on 
 the piece to be connected with it; 
 as the head of a screw or bolt, or 
 the plate of iron against which 
 the nut or head of a bolt is fixed. 
 
 CRADLING. The timber-ribs 
 to which are nailed the laths or 
 furrings of a vaulted ceiling. 
 
 CRAMP. An iron instrument 
 used by carpenters to draw or 
 force mortises and tenons toge- 
 ther. It is made of iron, with a 
 movable shoulder at one end, and 
 a screw at the other. 
 
 The term also denotes a piece 
 of iron bent at the ends towards 
 one side, and used to confine the 
 larger timbers of a frame toge- 
 ther. 
 
 CRANE. A machine for raising 
 great weights. It consists of a 
 stout upright shaft or post, termed 
 a puncheon, from which projects a 
 strong arm, or piece of timber, 
 furnished at the extremity with a 
 tackle and pulley. 
 
 CROSS-BEAM. A large beam 
 extending from wall to wall of a 
 building, or the girder holding 
 the sides of an edifice together. 
 
166 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 CROSS-GRAINED. A twisted 
 or irregular disposition of the 
 fibres of wood, as in that part of 
 a tree where the branches shoot 
 from the trunk*. 
 
 CROSS-SPRINGERS. Ina 
 groined ceiling, the ribs springing 
 from the diagonals of the piers or 
 pillars on which an arch rests. 
 
 CROWN OF AN ARCH. Its 
 highest point of elevation. 
 
 CUBIT. A lineal measure, of 
 different length in different na- 
 tions. In ancient architecture, it 
 was equal to the length of the 
 arm from the elbow to the extre- 
 mity of the middle finger, or about 
 18 in. According to Dr. Arbuth- 
 not, the Roman cubit was 17 4-10 
 in. ; and the Scripture cubit, a 
 little less than 22 in. The geo- 
 metrical cubit of Vitruvius was 6 
 ordinary cubits, or 9 ft. 
 
 CURB-ROOF. A roof having 
 two different slopes on each side. 
 It is identical with the gambrel- 
 roof. 
 
 CURB-PLATE. A circular 
 plate or curb, formed by scarfing 
 two or more curved pieces toge- 
 ther at their ends, or by uniting 
 together pieces of plank in layers, 
 breaking the joints as in brick- 
 work. Curb-plates are used at the 
 eye of domes, &c. 
 
 CURLING-STUFF. Wood in 
 which the fibres, instead of being 
 straight, are winding, as where 
 the branches of trees shoot from 
 the trunk ; the spiral character 
 of the formation causing the wood 
 to wind or curl. 
 
 CURSOR. The sliding part of 
 beam-compasses, or that part of 
 proportional compasses by which 
 the points are set at a given ratio. 
 
 CURVE. A line that is neither 
 straight nor composed of straight 
 lines, but which bends continually 
 without angles. 
 
 CURVILINEAR. Bounded by 
 a curved line. Thus a roof is 
 curvilinear when its plan is either 
 circular or elliptical. 
 
 CUT-ROOF. One that is trun- 
 cated, having a flat on the top. 
 
 D. 
 
 DAM. A mole, bank, or wall 
 of earth, or a frame of wood, built 
 to obstruct a current of water, 
 and raise its level for driving ma- 
 chinery, &c. 
 
 DEAL. A term more commonly 
 used in England than in America. 
 It denotes the wood of the fir- 
 tree, when made into pla&ks or 
 boards. They are imported into 
 England from Christiana and 
 Dantzic, taking the names of Chris- 
 tiana deals and Dantzic deals. The 
 usual thickness of the former is 3 
 in., and their width 9 in. Those 
 of 1$ in. thickness are called 
 whole deals; and those of half 
 that thickness, slit deals. 
 
 DENSITY. A term in physics, 
 denoting the closeness or compact- 
 ness of the constituent parts of a 
 body. In philosophy, the density 
 of a body is the quantity of mat- 
 ter contained in a given bulk. 
 Thus, if a body of equal bulk or 
 size with another is of double 
 the density, it contains double the 
 quantity of matter. For example: 
 A cubic foot of oak is more dense, 
 and therefore contains more mat- 
 ter, than the same amount of pine ; 
 and a cubic foot of iron, being 
 more dense, contains more matter 
 than either. The weight required 
 to crush a piece of wood is rela- 
 tively as the density of the wood. 
 A block of pine, being less dense 
 than one of oak, is therefore more 
 easily crushed. 
 
 DERRICK. A machine used by 
 carpenters for raising any heavy 
 body ; as the larger timbers of a 
 frame, or sections of the frame 
 itself. 
 
 DESIGN. In architecture, a 
 term denoting a plan or represen- 
 tation of any building. The term 
 signifies either the general ar- 
 rangement of floors, or the ar- 
 rangement and disposition of the 
 windows, doors, &c., of a build- 
 ing. 
 
 DETAILS. Drawings made on a 
 larger scale than those which sim- 
 ply exhibit the design of a build- 
 ing. They are usually of the full 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 167 
 
 size of the work to be executed, : 
 and are often termed working- i 
 drawings. 
 
 DIAGONAL. A right line so 
 drawn through a figure as to join 
 the two opposite angles. Euclid 
 used the term diameter in the | 
 same sense. In modern practice, 
 diameter applies more properly to i 
 circular, and diagonal to angular ' 
 figures. 
 
 DIAGONAL SCALE. A mea- 
 suring scale fornted by horizontal 
 lines, with diagonals drawn across 
 them. It is designed for particu- 
 larly accurate measurements. 
 
 DIAMETER. A right line pass- 
 ing through the centre of a figure, 
 and dividing it into equal parts. 
 
 DIMENSION. The extent or 
 size of a body ; or length, breadth, i 
 and thickness or depth. A point ; 
 has no dimensions ; a line has one 
 dimension, namely, length ; a 
 superfiee (as the side of a squared 
 stick of timber) has two dimen- 
 sions, length and breadth ; and a 
 solid (as the whole stick) has three 
 dimensions, length, breadth, and 
 thickness. The word is generally 
 used in the plural, and denotes 
 the whole extent of, or space 
 occupied by, a body ; as the 
 dimensions of a room, house, or 
 
 DISCHARGE. To unload or 
 relieve ; as the removal of weight 
 from a beam, or other timber, 
 when too heavily loaded. 
 
 DISPOSITION. The manner 
 in which the several parts of a 
 body are placed or arranged. 
 
 DOME. The spherical or other 
 shaped convex roof over a circular 
 or polygonal building. A seg- \ 
 mental dome is one whose rise or 
 elevation is less than one-half its ! 
 diameter. A stilted or surmounted I 
 dome is higher than the radius of '< 
 its plan or base. The oldest dome 
 of which we are informed is that 
 of the Pantheon at Rome, which 
 was erected under Augustus, and 
 is still quite perfect. In the fol- ] 
 lowing table will be found the di- 
 mensions of several of the princi- i 
 pal domes of Europe. The heights 
 are given from the ground. 
 
 ft.d. ft.h. 
 
 Pantheon at Rome ... 142 143 
 
 Sta. Maria del Fiore at 
 
 Florence 139 310 
 
 St. Peter's at Rome ... 139 330 
 
 St. Sophia at Constanti- 
 nople 115 201 
 
 Baths of Caracalla (an- 
 cient) 112 116 
 
 St. Paul's, London ... 112 215 
 
 Mosque of Achmet ... 92 210 
 
 Chapel of Medici .... 91 199 
 
 Baptistery at Florence . 86 110 
 
 Church of Invalids at 
 
 Paris 80 173 
 
 DORMANT TREE. A word of 
 bad etymology, and nearly out of 
 use. It is synonymous with the 
 terms lintel and summer. 
 
 DOUBLE FLOOR. A floor con- 
 structed with binding and bridg- 
 ing joists. 
 
 DOVE-TAIL. A joint formed 
 like a dove's tail : hence its name. 
 It is made by so shaping the parts 
 of the wood to be joined, that, 
 when one is let into the other, it 
 cannot be drawn out by a direct 
 strain while its wedge-like form is 
 retained. 
 
 DO \VELS. Pins of wood or iron 
 which unite two boards or timbers 
 in such a manner as to disguise 
 the fastenings. 
 
 DRAFT. A drawing represent- 
 ing the plans, elevations, and sec- 
 tions of a building, drawn to a 
 scale, thus exhibiting all its parts 
 in the same relative proportion to 
 each other as they are intended 
 to be in the building itself. The 
 term " draught " signifies the same 
 thing. 
 
 DRAGON-BEAM. A piece ly- 
 ing in a horizontal position, and 
 framed diagonally from each of 
 the angles of a hip-roof to a piece 
 at right angles with it, and which 
 is framed across the corner from 
 one plate to the other. The tim- 
 ber into which the dragon-beam is 
 framed is called the anglr-tie. 
 
 DRAWB011E. To confine a te- 
 non to a mortise by means of a 
 pin through the parts, the hole in 
 the tenon being nearer the shoul- 
 der than the holes in the cheeks 
 
168 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 of the mortise are to the abut- 
 ment against which the shoulder 
 is to come. 
 
 DRIFT. The horizontal power 
 exerted by an arch when it tends 
 to overset, or spread apart, the pier 
 from which it springs. As a verb, 
 it denotes the act of driving out a 
 pin or wedge by a power exerted 
 against the smaller end. 
 
 DRUXEY. Timber in a state 
 of decay, having white, spongy 
 veins, is said to be druzey. 
 
 DRY-ROT. A disease in timber 
 which destroys the cohesion of its 
 parts, and reduces its substance 
 to a dry powder. 
 
 D \VANGS (Scotch). The short 
 pieces of board or joist used in 
 bridging the joists of a floor. 
 
 EAVES . The edge or lower bor- 
 der of a roof which so projects 
 from the face of a wall as to throw 
 off the water that falls on the 
 roof 
 
 EDGE. The space between the 
 lines of intersection of two sur- 
 faces or sides of a solid; being 
 that part or superfice of a rectan- 
 gular body which contains the 
 length and thickness ; and is either 
 straight or curved, according to 
 the contour of the. surfaces or 
 sides. The edge of a tool is the 
 part where the two surfaces meet 
 when ground to an acute angle. 
 
 EDIFICE. A word nearly sy- 
 nonymous with building, struc- 
 ture, or fabric. The term edifice 
 cannot, however, be applied with 
 propriety to ordinary buildings, 
 but rather denotes architectu- 
 ral structures of importance; as 
 large mansion-houses, theatres, 
 churches, &c 
 
 EFFECT. That quality in an 
 architectural composition which 
 is calculated to attract the atten- 
 tion of the beholder, and excite in 
 him the sensation intended by the 
 designer. 
 
 ELASTIC CURVE. The curve 
 or figure assumed by an elastic 
 body, as a lath, or thin strip of 
 
 wood or whalebone, when one 
 end is fixed horizontally in a ver- 
 tical wall, and the other loaded 
 with a weight, by which the lath 
 is curved or bended. 
 
 ELASTICITY. The inherent 
 property or quality in a body by 
 which it recovers its former figure 
 or state after being relieved from 
 any pressure, tension, or distor- 
 tion. Elasticity is perfect only 
 where a body recovers its exact 
 original form ahd shape, and in 
 the time which was required to 
 produce the flexure or bending. 
 The quality of perfect elasticity ia 
 rarely, if ever, found. A steel rod 
 is said to be more elastic than one 
 of iron ; and a string of India-rub- 
 ber is more so than one of hemp 
 or cotton. Brittle is the opposite 
 of elastic ; and therefore a piece 
 of wood is more elastic than a 
 piece of glass. 
 
 ELEVATION. A drawing or 
 geometrical representation of a 
 side or end of any building. In 
 an elevation, every part of the 
 structure represented is supposed 
 to be directly opposite to, and on 
 a level with, the eye. 
 
 ELLIPSE. A figure produced 
 by a plane passing obliquely 
 through a cylinder ; being what is 
 commonly called an oval. 
 
 ENTER. The act of inserting 
 the end of a tenon into a mortise, 
 previous to its being driven in up 
 to the shoulder. 
 
 EXT R ADOS. The interior 
 curve, or back, of the stones or 
 voussoirs of an arch. 
 
 EYE OF A DOME. The open- 
 ing at its top inside the curb. 
 
 FABRIC. Any large or impor- 
 tant building. 
 
 FACADE (French). A term 
 denoting the principal or most 
 important front of a building; as 
 that which faces on a public 
 street, lawn, or garden. 
 
 FATHOM. A measure of length 
 comprising six feet. It is used 
 chiefly among seamen for mea- 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 169 
 
 suring ropes and chains, and for 
 sounding the depth of water. 
 
 FELLING TIMBER. The act 
 of cutting down trees. 
 
 FiLLING-IN PIECES. The 
 short studs which are cut in 
 against the braces of a frame, or 
 the short pieces of rafters cut in 
 against the hips of a roof or 
 groin. The term is synonymous 
 with jack-timber. 
 
 FIRMER-CHISEL. A thick 
 and heavy chisel for framing. 
 (See CHISEL.) 
 
 FLANK. The part of a build- 
 ing that joins the front. The side 
 of a building is called the flank ; 
 and a geometrical elevation of the 
 same, a flank elecaUun. 
 
 FLEXIBILITY. The quality 
 in a body which admits its bend- 
 ing, or flexure. 
 
 FLEXURE. A winding, or 
 bending. The sag of a stick of 
 timber is called its flexure. 
 
 FLOOR. The lower horizontal 
 surface of a room. Carpenters 
 generally include in the term the 
 timbers and joists on which the 
 floor-boards are laid, as well as 
 the boards themselves. There are 
 as many respective floors to a 
 building as the building is stories 
 in height. The first is usually 
 called the entrance story ; and the 
 floor on which the principal draw- 
 ing-rooms are. the principal story. 
 
 FLOOR-JOISTS. Those joists 
 in modern carpentry supporting 
 the boards of the floor of which 
 thev are a part. 
 
 FLUSH. A term which signi- 
 fies that surfaces are on the same 
 plane or line. The studs of a 
 wooden building are said to be 
 flu.tfi with the posts and girts. 
 
 FOOT. A measure of length, 
 containing 12 English in., 
 supposed to have taken its name 
 from the length of the human 
 foot. The term is also used to de- 
 note surface, or solidity; as a 
 square fnot, and a solid or cubic 
 font. The length of the lineal 
 foot varies in different countries. 
 The accompanying table contains 
 its dimensions, in English in., in 
 the principal cities of Europe : 
 
 London 12 in. 
 
 Amsterdam ...... 11 2-10 
 
 Antwerp 11 3-10 
 
 Bologna 14 4-10 
 
 Bremen 11 6-10 
 
 Cologne 11 4-10 
 
 Copenhagen 11 6-10 
 
 Dantzic 11 3-10 
 
 Frankfort on the M. . 11 4-10 
 
 Madrid 12 
 
 Paris 12 1-12 
 
 FORE or JACK PLANE. The 
 plane used by carpenters to take 
 off the rough surface of boards 
 and timbers, preparatory to fi- 
 nishing them with the jointer and 
 smoothing-plane. 
 
 FOX-TAIL WEDGING. A me- 
 thod of securing a tenon in a 
 mortise. It is done by first split- 
 ting the end of the tenon, and 
 then introducing a wedge, a por- 
 tion of which is permitted to pro- 
 ject from the cleft. The tenon is 
 then put into the mortise, the back 
 or bottom of which, opposite the 
 end of the tenon, resisting the 
 head of the wedge, it is forced 
 into the split in the tenon, driving 
 its parts asunder ; and it is thus 
 compressed and held fast by the 
 cheeks of the mortise. 
 
 FRAME AND FRAMING. The 
 rough timber-work of any build- 
 ing, including roofs, partitions, 
 floors, &c. * 
 
 FURRING. Thin pieces of 
 wood nailed to beams or any tim- 
 bers falling back of the surface or 
 line they are intended to form, 
 either in consequence of sagging, 
 or from any original deficiency in 
 size. The term may be appropri- 
 ately applied to any pieces of wood 
 employed in bringing crooked or 
 uneven work to a regular surface. 
 
 FUST. A term used in some 
 parts of England to denote the 
 apex or ridge of a roof. 
 
 G. 
 
 GAUGE. An instrument for 
 drawing lines on any surface of a 
 piece of wood parallel to one of the 
 arrises of that surface. 
 
170 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 GABLE The vertical triangu- 
 lar piece of wall at the end of a 
 building, bounded by a horizon- 
 tal line level with the eaves, toge- 
 ther with the two inclined lines 
 of the roof. 
 
 GAIN. The term is probably 
 derived from the Welsh word 
 u ," a mortise, and "'^a/iM," to 
 contain: hence any piece of tim- 
 ber, having one or more mortises, 
 may be said to be gamed. Tn 
 England, the term more properly 
 applies to the bevelled shoulders 
 of a floor-joist, for the purpose of 
 giving additional resistance to the 
 tenon below it. In America, the 
 term is generally understood to 
 mean a notch or mortise cut into 
 the arris of a beam or timber to 
 admit the end of another. In 
 framing ordinary house and barn 
 floors, the joists are gained into 
 the sills and girders instead of 
 being mortised. 
 
 GAMBREL-1100F. (See CURB- 
 ROOF.) 
 
 GIMLET. A well-known instru- 
 ment used by carpenters and join- 
 ers for boring small holes. 
 
 GIRDER. The principal beams 
 or timbers in a floor into which 
 the joists are framed. Their chief 
 use is to lessen the bearing or 
 length of the joists. 
 
 GIRT. The term , when used to 
 denote the size of timber, signifies 
 the circumference, or distance 
 around the outside of the stick, 
 and applies to all timber, whether 
 round or square. Among Ameri- 
 can carpenters, the term is used to 
 designate those horizontal timbers 
 in the outside walls of a wooden 
 building which are framed in be- 
 tween the posts at the floors of 
 the several stories ; the timber 
 beneath the post being the sill, 
 and that immediately on its top 
 the plate. Into the top and bot- 
 tom edges of the girt the studs 
 are framed; and into its side, or 
 bridging it at the top, the ends of 
 the joists of the floor 
 
 GRAIN. The direction of the 
 lines or fibres of wood. Thus, 
 when those lines are straight and 
 parallel, the wood is said to be 
 
 straight- grained ; but, when they 
 are twisted or crossed, it is said to 
 be cross- grained, 
 
 GROIN. The curved line of in- 
 tersection where two arches cross 
 each other. 
 
 GROOVE. A sunken channel. 
 
 GROUND-PLAN. The horizon- 
 tal section of that part of a build- 
 ing lying next above the surface 
 of the ground. A story, of which 
 the floor is below the surface of 
 the ground, is called abasement. 
 
 H. 
 
 HALVING. A method of join- 
 ing timbers by cutting away a 
 portion of each, so that they may 
 lock into each other. 
 
 H A M M E R-B E A M. A short 
 timber often used in ancient tim- 
 ber-roofs at the foot of the princi- 
 pal rafters. They extend a short 
 distance out from the wall on the 
 inside of the building, and are 
 supported by a brace from the un- 
 derside. 
 
 HANDSPIKE. A lever of wood 
 for turning a windlass or capstan. 
 
 HEADWAY OF STAIRS. The 
 clear distance or vertical height 
 from the top of a given stair to the 
 ceiling above. 
 
 HEW. To cut with an axe or 
 hatchet so as to make an uneven 
 and rough surface straight and 
 true. The practice of hewing 
 timber for frames is nearly out 
 of use; most of that used at the 
 present day being sawed at a mill. 
 The modern carpenter is seldom 
 familiar with this process: still, 
 a competent knowledge thereof, 
 although not often needed, is 
 essential to a thorough under- 
 standing of his profession, and 
 should by no means be neglected. 
 
 HI P-RAFTER. A piece of tim- 
 ber placed between the two adja- 
 cent inclined sides of a hip-roof 
 to support the jack-rafters. 
 
 HIP-ROOF. A roof of which 
 the end of the sides is not termi- 
 nated by lines on the same plane 
 as the ends of the building, but 
 by hips formed by the other sides 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 171 
 
 or ends inclining from 'the end- 
 plates to the ridge. 
 
 I. 
 
 INCH. A lineal measure. In 
 England and America, it is the 
 sum of the lengths of three barley- 
 corns, or the twelfth part of a foot. 
 
 INTER-JOIST. The space or 
 interval between two joists. 
 
 INTER-TIES. Short pieces of 
 joist or timber used in floors and 
 partitions to bind the work toge- 
 ther. The word is synonymous 
 with bridging. 
 
 IN THE CLEAR. A phrase 
 denoting the clear or unobstructed 
 distance between any two given 
 points. A room, the ceiling of 
 which is ten feet above the floor, 
 is said to be ten feet high ui the 
 cltar. 
 
 J. 
 
 JACK-PLANE. A plane used 
 to take off the rough surface of 
 wood previous to its being fin- 
 ished by the jointers and smooth- 
 ing-plane. 
 
 .) AC K-R AFTER. The shorter 
 rafters, which, in a hip-roof, are 
 cut in against the hip-rafters. 
 
 JACK-RIBS. The shorter ribs 
 of a groin, which are cut in against 
 the angle-rib of a groined ceiling. 
 
 JACK-STCDS. The shorter 
 studs in the side of a building, 
 which are cut in under or upon 
 the braces. &c. 
 
 JACK-TIMBER. Any piece of 
 timber in the frame of a building, 
 if cut short of its usual length, 
 receives the epithet jack 
 
 JAMB. The side of any open- 
 ing in a wall. 
 
 JAMB-POSTS. The posts at 
 the sides of a door to which the 
 jamb-linings are affixed. 
 
 JERKIN-HEAD. A roof the 
 end of which is constructed in 
 a shape intermediate between a 
 gable and a hip : the gable being 
 continued, as usual, up to the line 
 of the top of the collar-beam: 
 
 and, from this level, the roof is 
 hipped, or inclined backwards. 
 This form is rarely adopted, except 
 in some cottages, or in decorative 
 architecture. 
 
 JOGGLLJ. A joint so formed, 
 that, when its parts are joined, a 
 force applied perpendicular to that 
 which holds them together will 
 not cause them to slide past each 
 other. A strut of a truss-roof, or 
 a brace, when tenoned or let into 
 the wood against it at its end. in 
 any part of a building, may be 
 said to be joggled. 
 
 JOINER. A mechanic who fin- 
 ishes a building after it has been 
 framed, raised, and boarded by 
 the carpenter. The work per- 
 formed by the joiner is called 
 joinery. 
 
 JOINT. The place where two 
 surfaces meet. 
 
 JOINTER. The name of the 
 two larger planes used by joiners. 
 They are of two lengths; thus 
 taking, respectively, the names of 
 lung and short jointer. 
 
 JOISTS. Those smaller timbers 
 of a building, framed into the 
 girders and girts, to which the 
 floor-boards are nailed, or into 
 the plates and girts upon which is 
 nailed the outside boarding. The 
 term, in this country, generally 
 denotes any piece of timber more 
 than 2 and less than 6 in. square. 
 It is synonymous with the old 
 term juffers. 
 
 X. 
 
 KERF. The channel, or slit, 
 made in wood by the teeth of a 
 saw. The term is also used to 
 denote the notches usually made 
 in a stick of timber by the hewer, 
 before he takes off the larger 
 pieces between the kerfs. 
 
 KEY. A piece of wood ( usually 
 of oak) let into another to prevent 
 warping. It also denotes the 
 wedge-formed pieces sometimes 
 put into a mortise at the side of a 
 tenon to prevent its being drawn 
 back out of the mortise. Also 
 those square or round pieces usu- 
 
172 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 ally put through a scarfing to 
 prevent its parts sliding past each 
 other. 
 
 KING-POST. In old methods 
 of carpentry, the centre-posts in 
 a trussed roof. This post is also 
 known as curb-post and prick- 
 post. 
 
 LANDING. That part of a 
 floor at the termination of a flight 
 of stairs, either at the bottom or 
 top. 
 
 LANTERN. An erection on the 
 top of a roof or dome, having an 
 aperture for the admission of 
 light. Its plan may be either 
 circular, elliptical, square, or po- 
 lygonal. 
 
 LATH. Literally, a thin slip 
 of wood. In America, the word 
 is used almost exclusively to de- 
 note strips of Avood 4 ft. long, 1| 
 in. wide, and f of an in. thick, 
 used for covering the partition- 
 studs and furring, preparatory to 
 plastering. Laths of this kind 
 are cut from the refuse pieces of 
 timber called slabs, which are the 
 segmental pieces first cut from a 
 log previous to sawing it into 
 boards, &c. They are put up in 
 bundles of a hundred each. In 
 England, the term latli generally 
 denotes narrow strips of wood 
 nailed to the rafters to support 
 the slating or tiling of a roof; also 
 those which support plastering. 
 
 LEDGMENT. The development 
 of a body as stretched out or 
 drawn on a plane, so that the 
 arrangement of its parts, and the 
 dimensions of its different sides, 
 may be readily seen and ascer- 
 tained. The drawing of a roof, 
 as seen from a point over it. is 
 said to be a view of the same in 
 ledg-ment. 
 
 LEDGERS are, in scaffolding, 
 the horizontal pieces parallel to 
 the walls of the building. They 
 are nailed to the outside of the 
 poles, and opposite the end of 
 the brackets upon which the 
 floors of the scaffolding are laid. 
 
 LEVEL. A horizontal line, or 
 plane parallel with the horizon. 
 The term also denotes an instru- 
 ment used by artisans to decide 
 when lines or planes are of equal 
 elevation at both ends. 
 
 LINE. In geometry, a term 
 denoting a magnitude of but one 
 dimension, which Euclid defines 
 to be length without breadth or 
 thickness. The term also denotes 
 the twelfth part of a French in. 
 A right line is the shortest straight 
 line that can be drawn between 
 two given points A horizontal 
 line is one level or parallel with 
 the horizon. A line which is 
 plumb leans neither way, but is at 
 right angles with, or perpendicu- 
 lar to, a level line. 
 
 LINTEL. A horizontal piece 
 of timber or stone, over a door, 
 window, or other opening, to sup- 
 port a superincumbent weight. 
 
 LUMBER. The term in this 
 country is usually understood to 
 mean logs or timbers after they 
 are cut and sawed or split for 
 use, and applies to all descriptions 
 and dimensions; such as beams, 
 boards, joists, planks, shingles, 
 &c. 
 
 M. 
 
 M ROOF. A roof formed of 
 two common roofs by placing their 
 eaves against and parallel to each 
 other, like the letter W inverted 
 (M). The design of the M roof is 
 that a larger space or span may 
 be roofed over with light timber 
 than could safely be done were 
 the span covered with a single 
 pitched roof. By the use of the 
 M roof, a saving is also made in 
 the gable-end ; the sum of the 
 surface of the two gables of the M 
 roof being less than in one large 
 gable. 
 
 MALLET. A large wooden 
 hammer used by carpenters for 
 driving the chisel in mortising, 
 &c. 
 
 MANSARD ROOF. Identical 
 with the gambrel or curb roof. 
 The Mansard roof was so named 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 173 
 
 from its inventor, Francis Man- 
 sard, who was born at Paris in 
 1645. His true name was Har- 
 douin Julius Mansart. He was 
 an eminent architect, and was em- 
 ployed by Louis XIV. to build the 
 Palace of Versailles and the Hos- 
 pital of the Invalids. He died in 
 1708, at the age of sixty-three. 
 
 MENSURATION. The science 
 which teaches the methods of 
 calculating the magnitude of bo- 
 dies, lines, and superfices. 
 
 MODEL. A miniature pattern 
 of the whole or some part of a 
 building, showing how the work 
 is to be arranged and constructed. 
 
 MORTISE. A sinkage, or recess, 
 in a piece of timber to receive the 
 tenon, or end, of another stick. 
 
 N. 
 
 NAKED FLOORING. A term 
 denoting the timbers of a floor, 
 such as beams, girders, joists, &c., 
 before the boards are laid upon 
 them, or the furrings affixed be- 
 neath. 
 
 o. 
 
 OUT TO OUT. An expression 
 denoting the magnitude of any 
 body measured to the extreme 
 outside. 
 
 OUT OF WIND. An expression 
 used by artificers to signify that 
 the surface of a thing is a true 
 and perfect plane. A squared 
 piece of timber, which by any 
 means has become twisted, is said 
 to be winding. 
 
 P. 
 
 PALE. A sharp-pointed stake 
 of wood used for landmarks, &c. 
 
 PALISADE. A fence or fortifi- 
 cation made of stakes, sharpened, 
 and driven firmly into the ground. 
 
 PARALLEL. In geometry, a 
 tenn applied to lines or surfaces 
 which run in the same direction, 
 being at every point equidistant 
 from each other. 
 
 PARALLELOGRAM. Any four- 
 sided rectilinear figure whose op- 
 posite sides are parallel. The term 
 usually denotes a figure greater in 
 length than in width. 
 
 PARTITION. A wall dividing 
 one room from another. When a 
 partition is of great length, and 
 is unsupported from beneath, it 
 should be trussed : it is then called 
 a trussed partition. 
 
 PEDIMENT. The triangular 
 part of a portico, or roof, which 
 is terminated by the sloping lines 
 of the roof. Pediments may be 
 either triangular or segmental in 
 contour. The term gable is nearly 
 identical with pediment; but the 
 latter term more properly applies 
 to a gable when finished with 
 an entablature, taking-mouldings, 
 &c. 
 
 PENDENTIVE CRADLING. 
 The timber-work which supports 
 the laths and plaster of vaulted 
 ceilings. 
 
 PERPENDICULAR. A line, or 
 surface, falling on another at right 
 angles. The term also denotes a 
 line at right angles with the hori- 
 zon ; although, in the latter case, 
 the proper term is vertical. 
 
 PILES. Large unhewn timbers 
 driven into the earth, upon the 
 heads of which are laid the foun- 
 dation-stones of large buildings, 
 the piers of bridges, &c. Piles 
 are used where the soil is too loose 
 and spongy to insure the founda- 
 tion against settlement without 
 them. They are usually of oak 
 or spruce, and are from 7 to 15 
 in. in diameter. They are sharp- 
 ened at one end, and, if need be, 
 shod with iron, and hooped at the 
 top. They are then driven into 
 the ground, as far as possible, by a 
 machine, which lets a heavy weight 
 fall upon their heads from a 
 height of about 30 ft. Piles, when 
 driven so far below the surface of 
 the ground that water always re- 
 mains over them, are quite im- 
 pervious to decay. Nearly the 
 entire city of Amsterdam is built 
 on piles. The foundation-stones 
 of the new Custom House in Bos- 
 ton rest on more than three thou- 
 
174 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 sand. They are driven at dis- 
 tances of 2 ft. from centres. 
 
 PIN. A piece of wood, com- 
 monly of chestnut or oak, sharp- 
 ened at one end, and used to 
 confine timbers together. Pins 
 made by hand, and therefore left 
 somewhat rough, are preferable 
 to those made by a machine, as 
 the latter, being nearly smooth 
 and round, easily turn or work, 
 when the wood about them has 
 shrunk in drying; whereas those 
 made by hand are polygonal, and, 
 when driven into holes, their 
 angles cut into the wood, and 
 they are thereby effectually pre- 
 vented from turning. Small pins 
 are called pegs. The pins used 
 in ship-building are made by ma- 
 chinery, and are called treenails. 
 
 PITCH. In carpentry, the 
 term denotes the angle formed by 
 the inclined sides of a roof. In a 
 building where the extreme height 
 from the top of the rafters at the 
 ridge is one-third of the width of 
 the building at the eaves, from 
 u out to out," the roof is said to 
 be one-third pitch ; if one-quarter 
 the width, nnr-quartcr pilch. If 
 it be 10 ft. from the top of the 
 rafters to a line level with the 
 eaves, it is 10-ft. pitch. 
 
 PLAN. The representation of 
 the horizontal section of a build- 
 ing, showing the disposition of 
 the rooms by the arrangement 
 of the partitions, &c. The word 
 plan is quite extensive in its sig- 
 nification, and, as commonly used, 
 denotes the general idea; hence, 
 the design of the several parts of 
 a building, whether as regards 
 finish, arrangement of rooms, or 
 the composition as a whole, may 
 with propriety be termed its plan ; 
 but, among architects, the term 
 more properly denotes a drawing 
 exhibiting the form, arrangement, 
 and size of the rooms on the se- 
 veral floors. A representation of 
 a front or side is called an eleva- 
 tion. 
 
 PLANK. A piece of timber of 
 any length, having a width of 
 more than 6 in., and from 2 to 6 
 in. thick. If less in thickness 
 
 than 2 in., it is usually called a 
 bnard. If the piece be less in 
 width than 6 in., and not thin 
 enough to be called a board, it is 
 
 ed a ji 
 ., it is 
 
 commonly called a* 
 
 termed a joist. If thicker than 
 
 6 in 
 
 timbf 
 
 PLATE. The horizontal piece 
 of timber that lies immediately 
 on the top of the posts of a frame, 
 or on the top of the walls of a 
 brick or stone building. Oatter- 
 platKs are pieces of timber framed 
 out from the side-walls for the 
 support of the gutter. 
 
 PLATFORM. An assemblage 
 of timbers laid in a horizontal 
 position, and covered with planks 
 or boards, like a floor. 
 
 PLUMB. A line perpendicular 
 to, or at right angles with, the 
 horizon. A level line and a plumb- 
 line form a right angle when they 
 are brought in contact. Hence, 
 if one of the blades of a carpen- 
 ter's framing-square be placed on 
 the edge, in a level position, the 
 other blade, being at right angles 
 with it, will be a plumb-line. 
 
 PLUMB-RULE. An instrument 
 for determining plumb-lines. 
 
 POST. Any piece of timber 
 used in a vertical position to sup- 
 port a superincumbent weight, or 
 to support the horizontal timbers 
 in the frame of a building 
 
 PROTRACTOR. Aninstru- 
 ment for laying down angles. 
 They are usually made of brass 
 or German silver. 
 
 PUNCHEON. Nearly synony- 
 mous with post. It also denotes 
 the short studs in a partition over 
 a door. The word puncheon pro- 
 perly designates an upright post 
 or arbor in any machine which 
 turns vertically; as a crane, for 
 instance. 
 
 PURLINS. The horizontal 
 pieces of timber which lie on the 
 trusses of a roof, and support 
 the common rafters. 
 
 Q. 
 
 QUEEN-POST. A suspension- 
 post in a trussed roof where two 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 175 
 
 posts are employed in the truss 
 instead of one, as is the case with 
 a truss framed with a king-post. 
 
 E. 
 
 RABBET. A recess, or channel, 
 cut into the arris of a piece of 
 wood. A channel cut into a plane 
 surface is called a groove. 
 
 RADIUS. The semidiameter of 
 a circle, or the length of a right 
 line drawn from the centre to the 
 circumference. 
 
 RAFTEKS. The inclined tim- 
 bers of a roof, which support the 
 covering. Those forming part of 
 a truss, and which support the 
 purlins, are called truss-rafters. 
 The smaller rafters to which the 
 boards are nailed are called com- 
 mon rafters. 
 
 RAIL. A term in architecture 
 of many meanings, but .denoting 
 more particularly any timbers or 
 pieces of wood, in the rougher 
 kinds of work, lying in a horizon- 
 tal position, as in fences, &c. 
 
 RELISH. A term denoting the 
 piece cut out between two tenons 
 existing on the same piece of 
 wood; also a piece cut from the 
 edge of a tenon when it would be 
 too wide if its whole width were 
 left. 
 
 RESISTANCE. The power or 
 quality in a body which enables 
 it to avoid yielding to force or ex- 
 ternal pressure of any kind, and 
 which lessens the effect of the op- 
 posing power; as the resistance 
 of water to the motion of a ship, 
 or that of wood to the operation 
 of a cutting instrument. The fol- 
 lowing table exhibits the degree 
 of resistance to pressure in the 
 more common kinds of woods, 
 taking common New-Jersey free- 
 stone as the unite 
 
 Freestone 1 
 
 Alder, Birch, or Willow ... 6 
 
 Beech, Cherry, Hazel 6| 
 
 Holly, Elder, Pear, and Apple 7 
 
 Walnut, Thorn 74 
 
 Elm, Ash 8* 
 
 Box, Plum, Oak 11 
 
 The resistance of lead by the same 
 unit is 6^; brass, 50; iron, 107. 
 
 RIB. A curved piece of wood 
 I used for supporting the lathing 
 I and plastering of a vaulted ceil- 
 I ing, or the boarding of a dome. 
 
 RIDGE. The highest line of a 
 roof at the angle made by the 
 meeting of the top of the rafters. 
 The piece of wood against which 
 the top ends of the rafters bear is 
 called the ridge-piece, or ridge- 
 
 P< RIGHT LINE. The shortest 
 line that can be drawn between 
 two given points. 
 
 ROD. The term literally signi- 
 fies any thing which is long and 
 slender, and may be used to de- 
 note either a piece of wood or me- 
 tal. It denotes also a measure of 
 i length, being 16i ft. 
 
 ROLLS or ROLLERS. Plain 
 ; cylinders of wood used in moving 
 ! large timbers or other heavy ma- 
 ! terials. They are usually from 3 
 ! to 10 in. in diameter, and from 
 ! 1 to 6 ft. long. To move one end 
 ; is called cutting the roller. 
 
 ROOF. The exterior horizontal 
 covering of a building. 
 
 ROOFING. The general assem- 
 blage of timber and other mate- 
 rials which compose 'the roof of a 
 building. 
 
 ROTUNDA. A building round 
 
 on its exterior and interior, as the 
 
 Pantheon at Rome. The term is 
 
 often used, however, to denote 
 
 any large circular room the ceil- 
 
 i ing of which is arched like a 
 
 \ dome. The large room beneath 
 
 the great centre dome of the Ca- 
 
 i pitol, at Washington, is commonly 
 
 called the RutunUa. 
 
 SAG or SAGGING. The bend- 
 ing or yielding of a stick of tim- 
 ; her between the points of support 
 when the timber lies either in a 
 horizontal or an inclined position. 
 SALLY. A projection of any 
 kind. In carpentry, the term de- 
 ! notes the end of a piece of timber 
 ! when cut to an acute angle, ob- 
 
176 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 liquely to the fibres of the wood. 
 For example, the lower end, or 
 foot, of common rafters, where 
 they are connected with the plate ; 
 the end of a stair-carriage, &c. 
 The outer point is called the toe ; 
 and the inner point, the heel. 
 
 SAW-PIT. The pit, or excava- 
 tion, over which timber is sawed. 
 Formerly the labor was done by 
 two persons, one standing in the 
 pit, and the other on the top of 
 the log. The men who performed 
 the work were called sawyers. 
 This work is now done by ma- 
 chinery ; and, fortunately for the 
 carpenter, he is now seldom called 
 upon to render so laborious a ser- 
 vice as that of sawing logs by the 
 severe and slow process of hand- 
 labor. 
 
 SCAFFOLDING. An assem- 
 blage or structure of joists and 
 boards, or planks, used in erect- 
 ing or decorating the walls of a 
 building. Scaffoldings are usually 
 built by first erecting joists in a 
 perpendicular position, at suita- 
 ble distances apart, and nailing 
 boards to the outside of them at 
 distances of every 6 ft. in height, 
 in a horizontal position, and pa- 
 rallel to the walls of the building. 
 The joists are called stage-poles; 
 and the horizontal boards, ledgers. 
 At every pole, and at right angles 
 with the ledgers, are other boards, 
 continued in from them to the 
 walls. The last-named pieces are 
 called brackets. These are covered 
 with a floor of boards, simply laid 
 on the brackets without nailing. 
 The word stagin g is often, though 
 improperly, used among workmen 
 for scaffolding. A kind of scaf- 
 folding is sometimes used in the 
 erection of wooden buildings, 
 which consists of what are termed 
 wooden jacks ; they being confined 
 to the walls by means of a bolt, 
 with a nut on the inside. The 
 jacks support boards, forming a 
 floor as in a scaffolding, with 
 brackets and poles. 
 
 SCALE. An implement for 
 measurement. Scales are usually 
 made on wood or metal, and are 
 of three kinds; viz., the plain 
 
 scale, the Gunter^s scale, and the 
 diagonal scale. The plain scale 
 contains simple divisions of any 
 required dimension. The Gunter's 
 scale is marked by various lines 
 and numbers, by which, with the 
 aid of a pair of dividers, many 
 questions in arithmetic and prac- 
 tical geometry are readily solved: 
 it is usually 2 ft. long and 2 in. 
 wide. The diagonal scale is formed 
 by dividing its width into a cer- 
 tain number of parts, and then 
 drawing diagonal lines across 
 them. By this implement, mea- 
 surements may be made with 
 great exactness. The word scale 
 also refers to the magnitude of a 
 drawing, map, or other object, as 
 compared with its original. 
 
 SCANTLINGS. A term some- 
 times used to denote small tim- 
 bers; as joists, &c. 
 
 SCARFING. The joining, or 
 splicing, two pieces of wood, so 
 that the whole may appear as but 
 one piece. 
 
 SCRIBING. Fitting the edge 
 of a piece of wood to the surface 
 of another. 
 
 SECTION. A geometrical rep- 
 resentation of a part of the inte- 
 rior of a building as cut by a 
 vertical or horizontal plane. A 
 section not only exhibits the lines 
 where the separation is made, but 
 also the elevation of those parts 
 of the building exposed to view, 
 if the nearer sectional part was 
 actually removed. A longitudinal 
 section is one on a line with the 
 length of the building; a trans- 
 verse section is one on a line with 
 its width, or across it; and a ho- 
 rizontal section shows the floors, 
 being usually called the plan. 
 The term section also denotes a 
 part, or portion, considered as 
 separate from the rest. 
 
 SEGMENT. A part or piece 
 cut from any thing, particularly 
 the portion contained between the 
 chord and arc of a circle. 
 
 SEVERY. A compartment or 
 division of scaffolding. 
 
 SHAKE. A crack, or fissure, 
 in wood, caused by its being dried 
 too rapidly. A piece having many 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 177 
 
 slits, or clefts, is said to be 
 shaky. 
 
 SHORE. A prop, or brace, 
 standing in an oblique position 
 against a wall to retain it in its 
 proper place. To " shore up a 
 wall " is to put shores against it. 
 
 SHOULDER. The plane at the 
 tenoned end of a stick of timber, 
 which is transverse to its length, 
 and at right angles with the tenon 
 projecting from it. 
 
 SILL. The lowest principal 
 piece of timber in the frame of 
 a structure which lies in a hori- 
 zontal position. 
 
 SITE. The situation or lot of 
 land on which a structure stands. 
 
 SLEEPERS. Pieces of timber 
 which lie horizontally on the 
 ground, under the principal tim- 
 bers of a ground-floor. 
 
 SLIDING-RULE. One haying a 
 figured slide, which, being moved 
 against logarithmic lines, deter- 
 mines various arithmetical calcu- 
 lations. 
 
 SOCKET-CHISEL. Same as 
 firmer-chisel. 
 
 SPAN. The distance, or spread, 
 between the eaves of a roof, the 
 abutments or piers of a bridge, 
 &c. 
 
 SPAN-ROOF. A roof consist- 
 ing of two simple inclined sides 
 in contradistinction to shed-roof. 
 
 SPIRE. That part of a steeple 
 which diminishes as it ascends. 
 Any tapering body. 
 
 S'PLAYED. A term denoting a 
 side which makes an oblique angle 
 with that adjoining. The jambs 
 of a window are often splayed; 
 thus, by making the aperture 
 larger in the room, admitting 
 more light. 
 
 SQUARE. A figure of four 
 equal sides, and as many right 
 angles. Also an instrument used 
 by carpenters and joiners for lay- 
 ing out and squaring their work. 
 (?ee CARPENTER'S SQUARE.) A 
 thing is said to be square when 
 its angles are right angles. 
 
 STAGE. A floor on which 
 actors perform in a play-room. 
 In ancient theatres, the stage was 
 culled the proscenium. This term 
 
 in modern times denotes more 
 particularly the front of the stage 
 at the line where the curtain fells. 
 
 STANCHION. A prop, or sup- 
 port. The term is nearly synony- 
 mous with post. 
 
 STARLINGS. An English term 
 denoting piles driven about the 
 piers of a bridge, or the sides of a 
 timber- wharf, to give them sup- 
 port. 
 
 STAY. Any thing performing 
 the office of either a tie or a brace, 
 which prevents the swaying of 
 the work to which it is affixed. 
 
 STEEPLE. The lofty erection, 
 ! ending in a point, which sur- 
 | mounts a church. It is composed 
 of a tower and spire. The tower 
 extends from the ground to the 
 line where the steeple begins to 
 diminish. From this point, the 
 remainder is called the spire. 
 Where the edifice has a porch or 
 projection in front, the steeple is 
 considered to begin at the top of 
 the porch named. 
 
 STORY. That vertical division 
 of a building occupying the space 
 from the top of one floor to the 
 under side of that immediately 
 over it. A building is said to be 
 as many stories high as there are 
 alternate spaces of this description 
 from the top of the sills to the 
 top of the plates at the eaves. 
 In America, the principal story is 
 usually on the first floor : in Eng- 
 land, it is on the second. In this 
 country, we usually denominate 
 the first story above the ground 
 the principal or entrance story ; 
 that above this, the chamber-story ; 
 and those above them, the third, 
 fourth, fifth stories, &c. 
 
 STORY-POST. A post between 
 two adjoining stories of a building, 
 for supporting a superincumbent 
 weight. 
 
 STRAIN. The force exerted on 
 any material which tends to de- 
 stroy the cohesion of its parts. 
 
 STRAINING-PIECE. A piece 
 placed between two opposite pieces 
 of timber to prevent their nearer 
 approach. It is always in a state 
 of compression. 
 
 STRAP. An iron plate, bar, or 
 
 12 
 
178 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 band for confining together two 
 or more pieces of timber. 
 
 STRIATED. Marked with 
 small furrows, or channels, as 
 those in a piece of wood sawed by 
 a large saw in the direction of its 
 length. When, in sawing lumber, 
 the saw is not firmly fixed in the 
 frame, the sides of the timber are 
 made rough or ridgy, and are then 
 said to be striated. 
 
 STRIKING. This term denotes 
 the act of lining out, or marking 
 off the surface of any piece of 
 timber, for making mortises, te- 
 nous, &c. ; also removing the cen- 
 tering on which a vault or arch 
 has been built. 
 
 STRUT. This term is nearly 
 synonymous with brace; and, if 
 it may be more properly used in 
 any case, it is when it denotes a 
 timber designed to keep extended 
 those parts of the work against 
 which its ends come. The term 
 brace may be used as a substitute 
 for strut, but not strut for brace. 
 A strut, therefore, is always in a 
 state of compression, while a brace 
 may be either compressed or ex- 
 tended. 
 
 STUBSHOD. A term in com- 
 mon use among carpenters and 
 joiners to denote the roughly split 
 wood at the end of a piece of tim- 
 ber, not sawn through, but split 
 or cleft apart, after the log was 
 removed from the track over the 
 saw-pit. 
 
 STUDS. Those short timbers, 
 or joists, framed into the sides 
 and ends of wooden buildings to 
 complete the framing of the wall. 
 Those at the sides of windows are 
 generally made somewhat larger 
 than the rest, and are called win- 
 dow-studs : those cut in, under, or 
 over the braces are called jack- 
 studs. Of late years, the term is 
 used to denote also those timbers, 
 or joists, called partition-studs, to 
 which the lathes are nailed in par- 
 titions. In England, partition- 
 studs are usually called quarters. 
 
 STUFF. This word is used by 
 carpenters and joiners to denote 
 indiscriminately lumber of any 
 kind. Lumber, sawed to any par- 
 
 ticular size or dimension, is called 
 dimension-stuff. It is to the car- 
 penter and joiner what the gene- 
 ral term stuck is to other me- 
 chanics. 
 
 SUMMER. Any large beam 
 designed to cover a wide opening. 
 A small summer is called a lintel. 
 
 SUPER.VI'RUCTURE. That part 
 of an edifice erected above the 
 
 T. 
 
 TAIL-TRIMMER. A piece of 
 timber, into which the ends of 
 joists are framed, where chimney- 
 flues, or any thing of like nature, 
 prevent the insertion of the ends 
 of the joists as may be done where 
 the wall is solid. 
 
 TAPERING. A term denoting 
 that the sides of a body gradually 
 approach each other in the di- 
 rection of their length; so that, 
 if continued, they would meet at 
 a point. 
 
 TEMPLET. A short piece of 
 timber laid under the end of a 
 beam or girder in the walls of 
 a brick or stone building. 
 
 TENON. The end of any piece 
 of wood so reduced as to fill and 
 fit into a mortise. The tenon pro- 
 jects from the rest of the wood; 
 and the place where it commences 
 is so cut as to form a surface at 
 right angles with it called the 
 shoulder. 
 
 TENSION. The stretching or 
 degree of extension to which a 
 thing may be strained in the di- 
 rection of its length. 
 
 THRUST. The force exerted 
 by one body against another; as 
 that of a segmental arch against 
 its abutments, or the rafters of a 
 common roof against the plates. 
 
 TIE. A timber, chain, or rope 
 so fixed as to retain two bodies in 
 a particular position when a ten- 
 dency exists to diverge or spread 
 apart. 
 
 TIE-BEAM. The beam at the 
 foot of a pair of large rafters, 
 serving to tie the walls of the 
 building together by counteract- 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 179 
 
 ing the thrust exerted by the 
 rafters named. 
 
 TIMBER. This term is used so 
 indefinitely, that it is a matter of 
 some nicety to lay down any defi- 
 nition which will not clash with so- 
 called " well-established usage." 
 The true meaning of the word 
 seems to be wood fit for buildings. 
 And, as used at present, it denotes, 
 1st, The trunks and larger limbs 
 of trees either standing or cut 
 down ; 2d, All large sticks, after 
 they are sawed or hewn out, and 
 squared for use. 
 
 TOE OF A RAFTER. The ex- 
 treme point of a rafter, after it is 
 so cut at the end that it may fit 
 on the plate. The inner point is 
 called the keel of the rafter. 
 
 TOEING. An expression de- 
 noting a nail, or other article, 
 driven diagonally through one 
 piece of wood to confine it to 
 another. Nails are driven toeing 
 into wood, when, from the pecu- 
 liar form of the piece and the dis- 
 position of the parts to be con- 
 fined together, it is difficult to use 
 the nail at right angles. 
 
 TORSION. The strain on any 
 material which tends to cause the 
 same to twist or wind. 
 
 TRANSVERSE. A cross direc- 
 tion. The transverse strain on a 
 piece of timber is when the force 
 is so applied as to break it down 
 when it lies in a horizontal posi- 
 tion. 
 
 TRAMMEL. An instrument 
 for describing an ellipse, or oval. 
 
 TRIM. To fit or prepare any 
 piece of wood so as to make it 
 suit another. To make a tenon 
 smaller, that it may fit into a 
 mortise, is to trim it up. 
 
 TRIMMER. A small beam into 
 which is framed the ends of floor- 
 joists at an opening in a floor. 
 The joists into which the ends of 
 trimmers are framed are called 
 trimming-joists. Trimmers are 
 used at the sides of well-rooms, of 
 stairs, against chimneys, &c. The 
 last are usually called tail-trim- 
 mers. 
 
 TRUNCATED. A term denot- 
 ing that the top or apex of any 
 
 thing Is cut off. The part that 
 remains is called the frustum. A 
 hip-roof, the rafters of which do 
 not continue up to a point, but 
 end against a framed platform, is 
 said to be truncated. 
 
 TRUSS. A peculiar combina- 
 tion and arrangement of timbers 
 hi framing, whereby they are 
 made to mutually support each 
 I other. 
 
 TRUSSED PARTITION. A 
 partition having a truss within it. 
 i Partitions are trussed when, from 
 j the arrangement of the rooms 
 I under it, a support cannot be 
 ! given from below without inter- 
 fering with the clear space of the 
 i room. 
 
 TRUSSED BEAM. One con- 
 i taining the principles of a truss. 
 
 TRY. To plane out a piece of 
 
 ; wood true and square. The act 
 
 of squaring wood by the plane, 
 
 preparatory to putting the work 
 
 together, is called trying it out. 
 
 TUSK. A bevelled shoulder 
 made on the end of a piece of 
 framing-timber above the tenon. 
 j The tusk is framed into the beam 
 or girder, and is designed to give 
 additional strength to the tenon. 
 
 TJ. 
 
 UPHERS. An old term denot- 
 ing small poles or sticks of tim- 
 [ her partially squared. They were 
 used for scaffolding, common roofis, 
 &c. 
 
 V. 
 
 VALLEY. The line at the in- 
 ternal meeting of the two inclined 
 sides of a roof. The rafter under 
 i the valley is called the vaUey- 
 I rafter. 
 
 VAULT. An arched roof or 
 ! ceiling over an apartment. 
 
 VAULTED. Arched like a vault 
 I or the interior of a dome. 
 
 VERTEX. The point of termi- 
 nation of any thing, the sides of 
 which are inclined and continued 
 till they meet; as a cone or a 
 common roof. 
 
180 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 w. 
 
 WALL. The sides or ends of 
 any building or apartment. 
 
 WALL-PLATE. A piece of 
 timber placed horizontally on the 
 top of a wall. The term plate de- 
 notes the same thing. 
 
 WEDGE. One of the five me- 
 chanical powers. It has five sur- 
 feces; is thick at one end, and 
 slopes to a thin edge at the other. 
 
 WELL-HOLE. The open hole, 
 in a flight of stairs, at the end of 
 the steps. 
 
 WICKET. A small door made 
 through a larger door or gate. 
 
 WINDLASS. A machine for 
 raising weights. It consists of a 
 strong cylinder of wood or iron, 
 which moves on an axis, and is 
 turned by a crank, or by means 
 of levers inserted in mortises cut 
 into the outside of the cylinder 
 near the ends. Around the cy- 
 linder is wound, by its revolu- 
 tions, a rope or chain, the other 
 end of which is attached to the 
 weight to be raised. The wind- 
 lass is used in a horizontal posi- 
 tion. The capstan, an instrument 
 of the same nature, is used up- 
 right. (See CAPSTAN.) 
 
 THE END. 
 

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