rHE volumes of the Hu7nanistic Series are published by authority of the Board of Regents of the University of Michigan, The contributors are chiefly, but not exclusively, members of the faculties or graduates of the University. The expense is borne in part by gifts, in part by appropria- tions of the Board of Regents. A list of the volumes thus far published or arranged is given at the end of this volume. QXrxivttQxt^ of QYlic^tgan ^txxbicQ HUMANISTIC SEBIES VOLUME II WORD-FORMATION IN PROVENCAL THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW VORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO WORD-FORMATION IN PROVENCAL BY EDWARD L. ADAMS UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN & COMPANY, LIMITED I9I3 All Rights Reserved Copyright 191 3 By The Macmillan Company Printed June, 191 3 Composed and Printere are subdivisions, or chapters, according to the part of speech formed by the process under considera- tion. Thus there are the Formation of Nouns, the Formation of Adjectives, of Verbs, etc.; and, furthermore, in each chapter of the first three parts, each individual suffix or prefix is studied separately. Each one is taken up in its alphabetical order, and traced from its Latin origin to Provengal, all the words formed by means of it in Prn the meanings they give the simple word are greatly varied. Such, at any rate, is the plan generally followed in making the word-lists. In a few cases, ho\*v'- ever, whole lists have been treated in great detail, as, for example, the words in which the suffix -ADOR is Preface vii apparently added to nouns. ^ The suffix most subdivided in its treatment to illustrate its different meanings is -ON.^ A few other lists consisting of words whose formation is uncertain are treated in detail.^ Although the words formed in Provengal are placed in word-lists under the proper suffix or prefix, there is another kind of word having suffix or prefix that it would be improper to list in this way. These words, are, of course, the Provengal developments of words already existing in Latin: yet as such words are identical in form with the true Provengal formations, it seemed unwise to neglect them altogether. These words, therefore, with their Latin sources indicated, are brought together in a note at the end of each word-list. Such notes are placed below the ones on individual words, and are indi- cated by a dagger, a corresponding one being placed by the last word in the list. Obscure words also are treated in these notes, and their probable formation suggested. Thus all the words not clearly formed by the suffix, or the prefix, or the method under consideration, will be treated in i^otes of this kind. Complete indices of all the words treated onlj' in the notes, as well as indices both of the Provengal suffixes and prefixes and of the Latin ones are given; but as it should be a very simple matter to find anj^ word in the lists, or, in other words, any Provengal formation, by looking under the proper sufiix or prefix, it has not been thought necessary to make a general index of all these words. The only possible cases of difficulty are found among the words 1 Beginning on p. 45. Tliis list is so treated in order to illustrate from the very first how suffixes often came to be added to other parts of speech than those with which they are originally found. 2 P. 243. 3 Pp. 19, 73, 76, S3, 111, 127, 143, 179, 277, etc. viii Preface havin is used in giving the Romance developments of Latin words PART I SUFFIX-FORMATION INTRODUCTORY SUFFIX-FORMATION IN GENERAL By suffix-formation in Provengal is meant the addition of suffixes of any origin, whether Latin, Greek, or Ger- manic, to Provengal words. In order to be studied here, the cases found in Provengal of words ending with given suffixes must be not merely Provengal forms of words already existing in Latin, but actual Provengal formations. The suffix as well as the simple word itself may be of Latin origin, but the joining of the two must have been made in Romance times if the word is to be considered here. Yet this does not preclude a description of the Latin origin and use of each individual suffix. Provengal, like the other Romance languages, generally continued to make use of processes begun in Latin, but developed very extensively certain ones, while allowing other processes, and even certain suffixes, to drop out of use. It is difficult to name positively any one process as being of Provengal, or even Romance, origin: but as the developments of processes begun in Latin times are so very great, it may be worth while to study their aspects in Provengal. Suffixes of non-Latin origin, as the Greek and Germanic ones, have been mentioned above, but the Germanic forms are exceedingly few, and, even when existing, are found in relatively few words; and the Greek suffixes passed first, of course, through Latin, where they under- went some modifications. It is, therefore, to Latin that the forms and uses of almost all of the suffixes treated here will be traced. Since the joining together of the simple word and the suffix must have been accomplished in Romance times, 3 4 Word-Formation in Provencal or after the Latin periotl, in order to be treated liere, it is proper to mention the methods of determining this important and often difficult point. Frequently the form itself of the word gives sufficient indication of Latin origin to exclude it from our lists. Yet caution must be used in thus excluding words, for often the addition of the suffix, especially when it had Ijecome popular in forming words of any given type, occurred late. Gener- ally, the process is one of elimination: if the source for any word is not to be found in any of the dictionaries of Latin, Mcdiae\'al Latin, or books on word-formation in Vulgar Latin and in the inscriptions, or in works on the latinity of late writers such as Gregory of Tours and St. Jerome, and is not found in so many of the Romance languages as to indicate a common source in Latin, it is assumed to be a Provengal formation. Before leaving the general subject of suffix-formation to study the formation of the different parts of speech, it is necessarj^ to describe the forms and the order under which the suffixes are listed. In treating Provencal, it has seemed appropriate as well as convenient to deal with Proven9al forms instead of the Latin suffixes from which they are derived. The difference in treatment thus necessitated may be made clear by an example: the Latin -MENTUM added to stems of verbs of the different conjugations gave in Provengal the three suffixes -AMEN, -EMEN, and -IMEN, or, in other words, -MEN plus the stem-vowel of each conjugation. In the same way the Latin -TIONE gave -AZON, -EZON and -IZON, and -TURA gave -ADURA, -EDURA and -IDURA.i Each of these groups, however, will be treated as a single ' These throe forms are naturally found only when the suffix was added to verbs, but both nouns and adjectives are sometimes so formed. Suffix-Formation in General 5 suffix and listed under the form of the first conjugation, the one beginning with a. The first four chapters of this part will treat the formation of the different parts of speech by the addition of a single suffix, whereas the fifth chapter will deal with all the words formed by the addition of two or more suffixes. CHAPTER I FORIMATION OF NOUNS Tlie suffixes that form nouns constitute by far the largest and most important kind of suffix-formations. The study of them may be begun by classifying them according to the meanings they give the nouns that they form. Thus there are abstract suffixes, suffixes denoting the agent of an action or the instrument with which it is performed, collectives, augmentatives and diminutives, and a few suffixes that sometimes give no force to the words to which they are attached. Yet it is possible to give a general rule concerning the part of speech to which each kind of suffix was attached in order to form nouns. Thus the abstract suffixes — with the exception of -lA, detached from such words of Greek origin as philosophia, and later added to nouns to form abstracts — were added either to stems of verbs or to adjectives, the ones denoting an action being attached to verbs, as -AMEN, -ANSA, -ADA, -ADURA, -AZON, etc., and those denoting quality, as -EZA, -TAT, -OR, and -URA to adjectives. Of the suffixes denoting the agent of an action, onh' -ADOR, the commonest one, is attached to verbs as would be expected; but the other suffixes with this force, such as -AN, -ES, and -lER, originally formed adjectives, and their use as nouns came from the use of these adjectives without the modified noun, which was understood. The suffixes denoting the instrument with which an action was performed were usuallj' attached to verb-stems. The augmentatives and diminutives are naturally added to nouns, as are the collectives and the suffixes denoting place. 6 Formation of Nouns 7 Before going farther, it may be well to describe the confusion that occasionally arises from the fact that the same Provengal form is sometimes developed from suffixes of entirely different origins, and having, consequently, different meanings. It should not be assumed, there- fore, that because the same form may appear in Pro- vencal words of very different meaning, the same suffix is necessarily represented. Several illustrations of this possible confusion may be given. Besides -lER, for ex- ample, denoting persons, from the masculine form of the adjective ending -ARIUS, and -lER denoting things, from the neuter form -ARIUM, there is, in addition, another -lER with abstract force added to verb-stems. This suffix can hardly be derived from -ARIUS, however, or we should have an almost incredible extension of meaning and use in a single suffix. This last -lER seems to come from -ERIUM, which ending is found in Latin in improperium. Properly, it is not a Latin suffix at all, however, and represents only the suffix -IUjNI added to the stems of verbs that end in erare, as seen in imperium, which is formed on imperare; yet it is the source of a number of Provencal words. Another ex- ample of this same kind of confusion may be seen in the Provengal -ALHA, derived from -ACULA, which was added to verb-stems, and -ALHA, from -ALIA, which was added to nouns, with collective force. One more example of this confusion is seen in the Provencal suffix -ENC, which seems to be derived both from a Ger- manic suffix -ING and the Latin -ENCUM. It is usually easy to distinguish in the Provencal word the origin of the suffix, both by its meaning and by the word to which the suffix is attached, although some words are real puzzles.^ ' For example, curalha, p. 80, and some names of coins in -ENC, as aigonenc, arnaudenc, etc., p. 180. 8 Word-Formation in Provencal Leaving out of consideration, however, the cases in which one Provengal form represents different suffixes, it may be affirmed that suffixes actually did contract new meanings, a single suffix often having several of the kinds of meaning mentioned above. This acquiring of new meanings bj^ a suffix is a process which had its origin in Latin, but which is, perhaps, especially noticeable in Provengal. That adjectives were often used sub- stantively has been stated, and the various meanings which some of these new nouns contract may be shown by again making use of the convenient -ARIUS. All three forms of this adjectival suffix were used substantively, the masculine and neuter forms giving -lER, and the feminine, -lERA. The word made by the addition of the masculine form denotes the agent of an action, and that formed by the neuter meant originally a place for something, a specialized form of this meaning being found in some names of trees. From the meaning of a place for a thing to that of an instrument for using it is but a step, often a barel}' perceptible transition.^ This extension of meaning may be carried still further, from the place containing many things to the number of things itself, or pure collectives.^ The developments of meaning found in -lER, from -ARIUAI, make but a typical example of the extensions of meaning found in certain suffixes. -ATGE, from -ATICUM, will illustrate this process still further. This ending, originally an adjectival suffix attached to nouns with the meaning of a tax to pay, then, apparently, that of a feudal right, finally acquiring collective force, also ' As in such words as brazier, gotier, etc., which might be put in either list; see p. 223. 2 For example, rainier, thicket, from ram, branch. Formation of Nouns 9 forms abstracts denoting action, although in these last cases, in accordance with the rules stated above, it seems to be added to verb-stems. In these cases, however, it is difficult to determine with any certainty the base of the words, since in many cases both verbs and nouns are found as possible bases. An example of this may be seen in the existence of both the noun aiga, water, and the verb aigar, to water, beside the derived word aigatge. It is worth noting, however, that in cases of this kind, a verb alone is often found beside the derived word, where- as a noun without a corresponding verb is never found. The question, then, is how this nominal suffix came to be attached regularly to verb-stems. It seems possible that some such word as drechuratge, derived from dre- chura, right, and meaning ''rent" or "duty" — that is, a kind of tax to be paid — may, from the nature of its mean- ing, gradually have acquired abstract force, and then was supposed, like other abstracts, to have been formed on a verb, particularly as the verb drechurar, manage or direct rightly, existed. Thus a possible starting-point may be fomid for the cases in which abstracts in -ATGE were added to verb-stems. At any rate, this is the ordi- nary use of the descendants of -ATICUM in the Romance languages of today. Just the reverse of this process may be seen in the suffix -ADURA, which was originally added with abstract force to verb-stems, but acquired collective force, ^ probably through some such word as folhadura — leafing, foliage. Here the suffix was probabh' attached to the verb folhar — put forth leaves, but as the noun folk existed also, it may have been supposed to be the base-word. ' For a modern example of the way in which a word regularly abstract (though sometimes used concretely) may acquire collective force, cf. the Fr. jeunesse or the Engl, "youth." 10 Word-Formation in Provencal The above examples illustrate how in many cases other parts of speech than those which might be expected are sometimes found as bases for Provcngal formations. There are two important ]>rinciple.s that serve to explain these variations: false analogy and suffix-change. There are very few of these peculiarly formed words that cannot be explained either by one or the other of these two prin- ciples. Often, however, the assumption of the existence of some base-word, either verb or noun, when the evi- dence seems to make this probable, is possible. Thus, for example, out of the 230 Provengal words ending in -ADOR and denoting the agent of an action, there are only 19 — a comparatively large number — beside which no verb can be found. Now, in many of these cases in which a verb is not found, all the evidence tends to show that it must have existed, as might easily be true without the word's being found in any of our dictionaries or texts. ^ In some cases of this kind the assumed word is found in Modern Provengal, though not in the language of our period. Bilhador, for example, meaning a pack-servant, is found, but no corresponding verb appears to exist: yet in Modern Provengal we find the phrase biha Vase, put [a saddle] on a donkey. In other cases, it is the existence in Old French or some other Romance language of a verb-form on which the noun with the suffix denoting the agent might have been formed that makes probable the existence of such a verb in Provengal also. So much, then, for the assumption of Provengal words not found in • Thus it is not perhaps necessary to explain everything by the principle which Darmesteter expounds : that a suffix, being always used with one part of speech, came to contain the idea of that part of speech in itself. According to this principle, therefore, if a suffix was regularly added to verbs, it gradually acquired verbal force, and could then be as well added directly to the nouns from which the verbs sprang as to the verb itself. See Mots Nouv., 71. Formation of Nouns 11 the dictionaries. Of the two principles mentioned above, that of false analogy will be treated first. This principle may best be described by an example. Thus there is in Provengal a word huzatador, meaning a buzzard-hunter, apparently formed on huzat, buzzard. Here it is unneces- sary to assume the existence of a verb buzatar, which is not found in any form in any of the Romance languages. There is, however, a noun auzelador, bird-hunter, formed on the verb auzelar, meaning "to hunt birds," and not on auzel, bird, which also existed. But auzelador was prob- ably supposed to have been formed on the common form auzel instead of on the much less usual word, auzelar, and by analogy huzatador was formed on huzat. The other principle explaining the addition of suffixes to other parts of speech than might be expected, that of suffix-change, will now be treated. Cohn,i in his work on suffix-change in Vulgar Latin and pre-literary French, mentions some common types of this phenomenon in Latin, and under the general heading of "change of a less usual suffix for a more usual one," he enumerates several principles which distinguish this process. Thus, as an example of one of these principles, namely, that the suffix substituted " depends on some word or words similar in form to the old one and related in idea," he mentions the change of herhex to herhix on account of the existence of perdix. Another change of suffix that must have taken place in Vulgar Latin is the one affect- ing the Classical Latin abstract suffix -ITIA. A vast amount has been written in order to explain the forms found in Old French, namely -EISE, -ISE, -ECE, and -ICE, but the question cannot be regarded as settled. 1 Suffixwandlungen. For a classification of the different types of suffix-change, see the Table of Contents of his book. 12 WOKD-FORMATION IN PROVENgAL The Provencal forms are simpler — only -EZA, the phonetic tlevelopment of -iTIA, and -ESA (spelled also -ESSA, to indicate more clearly the voiceless sound of "s"), which -ITIA could not have given phonetically. This form could, however, be explained by the change of the suffix -ITIA to -ICIA, which substitution has been suggested for French also. The Proven9al descendants of the Latin pigi-itia, for example, are pigreza and pigresa, but also pigricia in Raynouard, which seems to represent a Latin pigricia unchanged. Now, examples of suflfix-change just like this one are found in Proven9al as well as in Latin. An interesting example of this may be seen in the Provencal word for spice-seller or grocer, especiador. In Italian, the word for grocer is speziale, and there is likewise a Provengal form, especial, both of which probably come from speciale, the neuter form of the adjective specialis. In the other Romance languages, however, as in French and Spanish, and again in Provencal, forms are found which must come from -ARIUS (epicier, especiero, especier), this suffix, whose usual force was to denote a person carrying on some trade, being substituted for -ALIS, with its variant -ARIS. This change may well have taken place in Latin: but besides the change to -ARIUS, we find also -TOREM, represented in especi- ador mentioned above. Here we see added to a noun a suffix that was generally added to verb-stems. -ARIUS and -TOREM, both describing persons, however, are more or less related in meaning, and the change was probably brought about by some analogy. Other examples of this kind of change may be seen in the substitution of -ANSA for -TAT in amistansa, enemistansa, and piatansa} Another change of this kind whiQh may have taken place in Lat. would be in *cenatorium for cenaculum. Thus in Prov. beside the learned cenacle, we find cenador, which exists also in Sp. The adjective cena- torius exists in Lat. Formation of Nouns 13 In words of the kind just mentioned we find examples of a principle whose importance was great in Provengal, namely, the addition of suffixes originally verbal to nouns. The participial endings -ATUS, -ITUS, and -UTUS^ (Provengal -AT, -IT, and -UT) are used particularly commonly in this way and may have given a starting- point for other formations of the kind. Already in Latin we find such words as barbatus, bearded (formed on barba, beard) later used substantively to mean ''the bearded man." In Provengal, also, we find these endings attached directly to nouns and forming nouns in such words as iranjat, orange-colored cloth, and gabelat, goods on which the gabela, a tax, is paid. Both of these words were probably originally adjectives used with a noun, but later used alone, substantively. Thus adjec- tives in -AT, the verbal ending, were built on nouns, and were exactly like the real past participles of verbs when used as adjectives, in both form and meaning. This addition of the participial ending to nouns was probably due to the vast number of cases in which simple nouns and verbs in -AR existed side by side: the noun may easily have been taken for the base-word.- Yet it is in the feminine forms that we must look for the greatest developments in meaning. Thus the forms -ADA, -IDA, and -UDA, from the verbal ending -TA plus the stem- vowel of the verb, give, in the first place, the meaning of the past participle used substantively, as in espozada,^ bride, and then contract abstract force, as in apelada, calling, departida, departure, and atenduda, waiting. 1 For the same process in Engl, see Murray, under the suffix -ED(-), where the function of the suffix is stated to be identical with that of the Lat. -TUS. Examples are "booted," "wooded," etc. - Or possibly to Darmesteter's principle, stated in the note on p. 10. 3 The masculine forms also have this first meaning, as in donat, lay brother; hastit, building, and contengut, contents. 14 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL But when attached directly to nouns, just as in the case of the mascuHne forms given above, the feminine forms have their widest extension of meaning, and again it was the ending for the first conjugation, namely, -ADA, that was used in all cases. Its numerous meanings, as, some- thing contained by the simple noun, then as much as it could contain (brasada), and as far as it could reach in space (balestrada) , or in time {inatinada), a tax to pay [bladada), and a blow (coltelhada) , are all described under the suffix -ADA.i Another principle of word-formation found in Pro- vencal, one which can be traced back at least as far as Vulgar Latin, is that of the addition of a suffix which gives no change of meaning to the simple word. This is especially true of diminutive suffixes, and is men- tioned concerning them by Bonnet in his work on the Latin of Gregory of Tours.^ By the addition of these suffixes, objects in common use were designated, no dimin- utive force often being intended, and it is only in the form with the suffix that these words appear in the Romance languages. But besides the words which are found only with the suffix attached, Provengal has other examples showing forms both with and without the suffix existing side by side with no difference in meaning. This simultaneous existence of two forms without difference of meaning appears to be due to a continuation into Provengal of the Latin process rather than to the addi- tion of the suffix in Latin, in which case the simple word would probably have disappeared, as in the cases men- tioned above. Examples of these pairs of words identical in meaning found in Provengal may be seen in ram and ramel, and laur and laurel, whereas in Modern French it 'See p. 30. . 2 P. 459. Formation of Nouns 15 is only the derived words rameau and laurelle that are in use. The presence of the suffix in Modern French appears to indicate a repetition of the process that Provengal was undergoing at the period here studied — the addition of a suffix bringing no change of meaning, and the later dis- appearance of one of tne words. In Modern French it is the simple word that has disappeared, as shown above; in Modern Provengal and in Spanish it is the simple word that is found today, as in ramo. It seems, therefore, that two words with no difference in meaning between them could not both persist long. When the suffix was added as early as in Latin times, hardly a trace of the simple word is to be found in Romance. For example, the word for "lamb" in the different languages is agneau, anhel, and agnello, but no trace of agnus is found, except in the Italian poetic form agno. The addition of the suffix that brings no change to the simple word may be seen in other examples besides diminutives. This principle, which has been called the addition of a suffix for the greater length it gives a word, is verj' conmion in the formation of adjectives,^ and in the case of nouns is found as one of the uses of the suffix -lER.- In dealing with the suffix -ARIUS, the source of -lER, Olcott^ mentions the Enghsh word "fruiterer" as an illustration of the same principle. The second -er does, indeed, appear to be an example of the "un- meaning extension" of a word. Thus the word "fruiter" (compare the French fruitier and the Provencal fruchier) , formed on a noun, was extended by analogy with such words as "caterer" and "upholsterer," m which the 1 For its use in these formations, see p. 270. 2 As in broc and broquier, companh and companhier. See p. 225, below. 3 P. 139, n. 4. 16 AVORD-FORMATION IN PROVENCAL suffix was added to verbs already ending in -er, hut had the appearance of being a suffix -ERER.^ Exactly the same extension takes place in some Provencal words, such as bandairier and carrairier. The same suffix here appears under two forms, -AIR and -lER, -AIR representing its phonetic development, which it always has when not bearing the accent, and -lER the usual but non-phonetic development, which -ARIUS underwent when clearly felt as an individual suffix, and probabh' due to outside influences.- Whether -AIRIER was ever added as one suffix or always as two distinct ones is a matter concerning double suffixes. This last question, the combination of two suffixes in Provencal, closely connected as it is with the principle of the forceless suffix, is another whose origin must be sought in Vulgar Latin. As an example of the way that the two suffixes were originally added, Thomas cites the Classical Latin natalicius,^ and as examples of two suffixes combined and joined as one to the simple word, he men- tions (]entilicius and sigillaricius, the latter formed directly, as its meaning shows, on sigillum. Words like this ■ III connection with forms like this, Murray gives several examples, but "fruiterer" is the only real example of the "unmeaning extension." Here is his statement as it appears: "In several instances -ER has the appearance of being an unmeaning extension of earlier words denot- ing trades or offices. Most of these words are of foreign origin, as 'caterer,' 'fruiterer,' and 'poulterer.' An analogous case in a native word is 'upholsterer.' The real formation of these words is obscure: some are probably formed from verbs, while in other cases formations on words in -ERY may be conjectured." This -ERY, however, is nothing but the Fr. suffix -ERIE (Prov. -ARIA) which is, in itself, a compound of -ARIUS plus the suffix -lA. According to this idea, therefore, we should here have a triple suffix, which it is entirely unnecessary to assume. 2 Thomas suggests as responsible for the change of -ARIUS into -ERIUS the suffix found in Gothic as -AREIS. See Nouv. Ess., 123. ' For a fuller description of these forms, see below, double suffixes, p. 389, or Nouv. Ess., 62. Formation of Nouns 17 served as a starting-point for the compound suffixes^ -ALICIUS and -ARICIUS, found in many words in French and in some Provengal examples.^ This welding together of two originally distinct suffixes may be further illustrated by one of the commonest of all Romance suffixes, the one which is found in Provencal as -ARIA, in French as -ERIE, and in Spanish and Italian as -ERIA. This is formed of the abstract suffix -lA added to the agent -suffix -ARIUS, -and was used at first to designate a place in which the object denoted by the simple noun could be found in abundance, although later it acquired other new meanings. Here, it cannot be supposed that the two parts of the new suffix were added separatelj^ or even that the word with the single suffix necessarih- ever existed. All the Romance languages give evidence against this view, as they have words in -ARIA or its other forms beside which no word with the single suffix is found or probably ever existed. We therefore have here a single suffix attached to a simple noun, whatever this single suffix may have come from. This is the theory for the compound suffixes^ in Provengal, in which language, if we exclude diminutives, formations of this type are especially common. -ARIUS alone is found as the first part of the compound forms in a number of suffixes, as in -AIRADA, -AIRAL, -AIRET, -AIRIER, -AIROL, and -AIRON, in all of which -ARIUS has its phonetic development, and there are numerous other examples of compound suffixes. The individual suffixes forming nouns will now be studied in alphabetic order. 1 That is, two originallj' distinct suffixes added as one suffix to the simple word. 2 This does not, however, preclude the formation of words by two suffixes added separately. There are many examples of words of this kind. See p. 381. 3 For full treatment, see p. 389. 18 Word-Formation in Proven ^al -AC, -EC, -ic, -oc, -uc The Provengal endings -AC, -EC, -IC, -OC, and -UC will be treated together here as a group of suffixes similar in form and identical in meaning^ and development. As a source for the forms found in the Romance languages, it seems necessary to assume the suffixes -ACCUS, -ECCUS, -ICCUS, -OCCUS, and -UCCUS— that is, suffixes with a double c, instead of the forms with a single c found in Latin.- In Provengal, the suffixes are of relatively little importance, the endings being found in very few words as certain suffixes, and in the masculine forms, the endings -AC, -EC, -IC, etc., do not necessitate the hypothesis of original suffixes with a double c. It is rather the feminine forms -ACHA, -ECHA, etc., but more especially the words found in the other Romance languages, that make any such supposition necessary.' Just how this change from a single to a double c took place is not thoroughly clear. Meyer-Ltibke claims that the suffix -ICCUS, which he admits as existing in the Iberian peninsula and in Roumania, was not Latin, although he says that both -ICUS and -ICCUS are found as early as the Roman period.^ It would appear from this, rather that the suffixes found all represented the Latin -ICUS, and that the forms with the double c showed simply a doubling of the consonant, which occurred later, also, for the suffixes -ACUS, -ECUS, -OCUS, and -UCUS, and produced the forms found in the Romance languages. If -AC, -EC, -ACHA, -ECHA, etc., do really 1 Except some of the words in -EC. 2 These will not do phonetically, neither will the forms -ACEUS, etc., treated below. 3 For lists of words, see Horning in Zeilschrifi, XX, 335. * II, 590. Formation of Nouns 19 represent, then, the suffixes -ACCUS, -ECCUS, etc., the question arises of how and why the doubhng of the consonant took place. Now the suffixes -AC, -EC, etc., seem generally to be diminutive in force, sometimes en- dearing, sometimes depreciative; and Horning, who has treated the question,^ finds the reason for the doubling of the consonant in the idea that the suffixes pronounced with great energy or emotion caused an involuntary strengthening, and therefore doubling, of the consonant, a process to be seen today in French pronunciation.^ Another suggestion that he makes also is that -ICCA and -UCCA may represent -ICULA, -UCULA, the doubling of the c taking place as compensation for the loss of the last syllables, a process which he finds occurring in some short forms of Greek endearing diminutives, which he gives. This last hypothesis would do very well were it possible to find any trace of -ICULUM or -UCULUM's ever having been in any of the words.which have in Provengal -IC or -UC, but as they seem not to have had this suffix in Latin, and as no form which could represent a development of it^ exists in the words which have -IC and -UC, it seems more reasonable to adopt the first and simpler hypothesis. -AC, -EC, -IC, -OC, -UC will be treated again under adjective formations. As nouns with the suffix -AC, we find: creac, sturgeon: The word is also written creat, -AC probably bemg confused with -AT< ATTUS, the suffix used to designate the young of animals. This latter suffix was also added to the full form of the word, giving 1 Zeitschrift, XX, 335. ^ Ibid., 351. In Mod. Fr., however, it is the initial consonant that is strengthened. The example cited by Horning (350, n. 6) is the p of polisson. = Such as -ILH or -OLH, 20 Word-Formation in Provencal us th(^ word creagat, a young sturgeon.^ Mistral derives a'eac from a late Latin creams. hiizac, buzzard: Like creac, it is found also with the form in -at, buzat. -AC and -AT, then, both seem to denote the young of animals. The French word for "buzzard" is huse< butia,^ which probably gave also some Provencal word to which the suffix -AC was added, the derived buzac originally meaning a young buzzard, but later losing its diminutive force. See also -OC. pataCjj a coin: This also is found with -AT in the form patat, and is found in Du Cange as pata, patagus, pataciis, patarus, and patatius. In the feminine, the suffix -AGCA should give -ACHA in Provengal, as indeed it does in most words. One word, however, has -ACCA. This is boacca, a female ox, as given by Raynouard, and not given in Levy. The word is peculiar as showing the double c instead of ch or c.^ J -AT was probably added after -AC had lost its original diminutive force. See buzac, in the same list. = For the Classic Lat. buteo. Buse (for buise) is irregular, and is probably due to the influence of btisard. For buteo, see Diez, 536; Korting, No. 1,667; and Meyer-Ltibke, Etym. Worterb., No. 1,423, with references there given. 3 The word is probably, however, an artificial formation, made to resemble vaca, if we may judge by Raynouard's example: "vaca es dita quays boacca" (II, 244). The meaning given by Raynouard seems absurd enough, but yet it is a feminine formed on bou, ox, and absurdity seems intended, judging from the context. t Other words ending in -AC, but not representing any suffix, are : andrac, carbuncle (from the Gr. &vdpa^, coal) ; eisac, sluice (possibly a post-verbal formation on eisegar, dry up, its form being due to a con- fusion with agar, to water, and eisec, equal division, probably a post- verbal from eisegar [ See p. 30. 2 This word, though placed here because it is formed on a verb, is different from most of the others. It is merely the feminine form of avocat (from avocar), a past participle used as a noun. If, as seems prob- able, the -ADA in ail the words goes back originally to the feminine past participle, words of this kind clearly belong here. 26 Word-Formation in Provencal dernorada, delay destinada, destiny devalada, descent, slope devizada, division dinada, dinner' durada, duration eisartada, arable bit of land eniboscada, ambuscade enconlrada, meeting endestinada, destiny errada, error esluciada, flash espozada,- bride estancada, halt estivada,^ lease of live-stock for summer fdada,^ bed, laj^er flagelada,* flail of war (kind of weapon) fiorada, a coin forcada, fork of road fretada, sound thrashing fumada, smoke gelada, ice girada, revolution; a kind of cake gitada,^ coping, drip gostada, luncheon intrada,^ entry demorar, delay destinnr, destine devalar, descend devizar, divide dinar, dine durar, last eisartar, clear (land) etnboscar, ambush enconlrar, meet endestinar, destine error, err esluchar, flash espozar, marry estancar, stop, stanch eslivar, harvest filar, spin, let out flagelar, thrash florar, give splendor forcar, fork fretar, strike, rub fumar, smoke gelar, freeze girar, turn gitar, throw gostar, have light meal intrar, enter ' Dinada and estivada show meanings which -ADA was much more likely to give when attached to nouns. Dinada, nevertheless, was formed on dinar. Estivada may have been formed on estiu, summer (though estivar exists) , and certainly shows the influence of the noun. ' Espozada is admitted to the list for the same reason as avocada. It is simply a past participle in the feminine form used as a noun. ' Filada maj- be formed on the noun fila, row. Jurada, also, has a meaning similar to some of those found among the formations on nouns, and might be formed on jur, oath, although jurar seems its probable source. * A very peculiar meaning unless the word is formed on the noun flagel, flail, which would be an example of the forceless use of the suffix. ' Intrada seems to be the usual spelling, though phonetically we might expect e instead of i. The change of e to i in the initial syllable is exceedingly common, however. See Grandgent, art. 44, sec. 3. All words derived from intrar and gitar (or entrar and getar) will therefore be spelled with i. Formation of Nouns 27 jonc{h)ada, double handful joncar, heap up, strew jurada,^ ward for choosing alder- jurar, swear man laisada,^ widow levada, raising, as of taxes liada, a measure Hurada, delivery martelada, hammering mesclada, combat, melee mezurada, a measure molinada, grinding; ground corn montada, mounting; hill murada, wall pa /iflda,' theft; stolen object pasada, passage pecada, sin, fault pensada, thought pescada, right of fishing phintada, planting plombada, sounding-lead; leaded club; leaden ball pojada, ascent randonada, rapidity, impetuosity recobrada, recovery renomnada,* renowTi retornada, return secada, drjmess soldada, pay, salary sopada, supper talhada, cutting tirada, reach, cast tornada, refrain trencada, cutting, crossing trepelhada,^ another form of tro- pelhada 1 tropelhada,^ coming together, union laisar, leave levar, raise liar, bind liurar, deliver martelar, hammer mesclar, mix mezurar, measure moUnar, grind moniar, mount murar, wall up panar, steal pasar, pass pecar, sin pensar, think pescar, fish plantar, plant plombar, fill with lead pojar, ascend randonar, run swiftly recobrar, recover renomnar, name again retornar, return secar, dry soldar, pay sopar, sup talhar, cut tirar, draw, pull tornar, turn trencar, cut tropelhar ( ?) 'Cf. n. 3, p. 26. - Same kind of formation as avocada and espozada. 3 For panada from pan, see p. 33. * Found also as renomada, which probably shows Fr. influence (renom and renommee). 6 These two words are given in Appel's Vocabulary. They both occur, however, only in a variant reading. 28 \\'()KI)-F()RMAT10N IN PrOVEN(\\L iustada, shook ventada, siuUlcii wind virada, turning volada, flight -IDA is found in: aizida, enjoyment hastida, fortified place, city cobeida,- covetousness colhida, harvest complida, comphne' consentida, consent definida, assignment, appointment demezida, lot, share departida, departure dcsconfida, defeat dormida, sleep eisida, issue, exit envaida, attack, invasion esbrugida, making notorious escarnida, insult, outrage escofida, overthrow, defeat, escorrida, expedition escremida, covering ?* esjauzida, rejoicing establida, dwelling esiampida, noise, resounding Jalhida, fault, failing fenida, end, conclusion fugida, removal, deviation (janchida, deception gandida, guaranty garenlida, protection tustar, shock venlar, blow virar, turn volar, fly aizir,^ welcome baslir, buikl collar, gather complir, fulfil, accomplish consenlir, consent definir, determine, describe demezir, divide departir, de])art desconfir, discomfit dormir, sleep eisir, go out envair, invade, attack esbrugir, make known escarnir, insult, mock at bscofir, kill, murder escorre{se), run, flow escremir, fight, defend esjauzir, rejoice esiablir, establish estampir, n>sound falhir, fail fenir, finish fugir, fly ganchir, prevent gandir, guarantee garerttir, guarantee 1 Thomas {Essais, 233-34) gives examples of this verb. - Coheir is not found, but probably existed, being formed on cohe, covetous, a usual kind of formation. ' The complines (originally compline) was the last service of com- mon prayer for the day. Its connection with th(' past participle of complir is therefore clear. * This seems a peculiar meaning to be derived from the verb escremir, hut the original meaning of the verb seems to have been "to defend" or protect, hence cover, whereas the meaning "to fight" also comes from the idea of "to defend." For source, see Kdrting, No. 8,788. See also Horn. Forsch., XXII, 214. Formation of Nouns 29 garida, refuge; help, saving grazida, thanks mentida, he partida, departure retentida, resounding semonida, admonition sortida,'\ issue -UDA is found in: attnduda, waiting caeguda,^ fall conoguda,^ acquaintance creguda,^ increase in price descenduda, sinking away (of melody) estenduda, extent jaguda,^ night-quarters, resting- place moguda,^ change paruda, appearance retenguda, reserve, care saubuda, acquaintance veguda,^ sight garii-, cure grazir, thank mentir, tell a lie partir, depart retentir, resound semonir, admonish sortir, go out atendre, wait ca{z)er, fall conoiser, know creiser, grow descendre, descend estendre, extend jazer, lie mover, move parer, appear retener, retain saber, know vezer, see 1 These forms, however much they may differ from the correspond- ing infinitive forms, have the forms of the feminine of the past participles. Thus the past participle of c(h)a(z)er is c(h)a(z)egut; of conoiser is conogut; of creiser, cregut; mover, mogut, etc. t Some obscure words ending in -IDA also should be mentioned. In these, the ending does not appear to represent a past participle. Such words are : brocida, whose meaning as well as origin are obscure. See Levy, 1, 167. casida, obscure: Of the same origin as the Fr. chassie. causida, thistle: Obscure. consolida, a kind of plant (see Romania, XII, 101): From the Lat. consolida. There are also some words in -lA which seem to belong here. These are: bruia (found also as bruyda), public noise; carpia, lint; departia and partia, departure; and repentia, repentance. In these words the d of -IDA seems to have disappeared, owing to Fr. influence. They should be compared with the Fr. charpie and partie and the O.Fr. depar- tie and repentie. The meanings are such as -IDA could give, whereas, on the other hand, -lA would not be likely to be added to verb-stems. Partida and deparlida, the regular Prov. forms, exist beside partia and departia. 30 Word-Formation in Provencal Wo como next to the use of -ADA, or the suffix -TA plus the stem-vowel of the first conjugation, as a suffix to be attaehed to nouns and wholly unconnected with verbs. This use has been mentioned above. ^ Its mean- ings in this case are rather varied, but are found in most of the Romance languages. The primary idea of the suffix seems to be that of something contained (by the noun to which it is attached). With this meaning are found hrasada, Jornada, golada, olada, and many others, to be seen in the list below. From this idea of as much as a thing can contain, or as far as it can reach, may ]:)erhaps be drawn such words as balestrada, reach of a crossbow, and this idea extended to time as well as to place gives such words as Jornada and matinada, corre- sponding in meaning to the French journee and matinee. Other uses are those of a tax to pay {hladada, vmada, this meaning not being very common, however), and the addition without force {ronhonada, rosada). Another meaning that the suffix has is that of a blow, as coltelhada, knife-thrust, though in this particular case the suffix was probably added to a verb, coUelar, which, however, is not found.'- The other words of this kind, as hastonada, espazada, and morrada, may have been formed by the analogy of coltelhada beside coltelh. The use of -ADA here may be compared with the use of -ADA in Spanish (as in cuchillada) , which has almost the same meaning as -AZO,-^ a real verbal suffix. balestrada, reach of crossbow balestra, crossbow hastonada, blows with cane baslon, cane bladada, fine in corn blat, corn ■ P. 25. - It probably e.\isted, nevertheless. Cf. the O.Fr. couteler and the Prov. verbal derivative coltelador. 2 The Prov. corresponding form -AZON has not this meaning of a blow. For this suffix, see p. 165. Formation of Nouns 31 boada. conveyance by means of oxen bocinada,^ mouthful boisada,- bushes boisonada, bushes borgada, small borough brasada, armful biidelada, bowels carnada, excrescence caronhada, carcass carrada, carload carretada, carload cartairada,^ sort of grain-measure caupolada, shipload causada, footpath causinada.^ slack-lime cenrada, alkaline ashes clergada,'^ tonsure colada, blow coltelhada, knife-cut cominada, drink with caraway- seed concada, amount of land which can be sown with a conca copdada, arm's length, elbow- room corada, bowels correjada, whip, lash costada, blow on the ribs crampada, roomful, company denairada,^ penny'5 worth drapada, cloth bou, ox bocina, mouth bois, box-tree boison, bush bore, borough bratz, arm budela, bowels earn, flesh caronha, bodj'' ear, car carreta, car earlier, quarter eaupol, ship eausa, shoe eaus, lime cenre, ashes elerc, clerk, scholar eol, neck coltelh, knife comin, caraway conca, grain-measure code, co{p)de, elbow eor, heart eorreja, strap cosia, side erampa, eramba, eambra, room denier, penny drap, cloth 1 See double suffixes, p. 382. - This ending here would appear to give a kind of collective force to the simple word, as in boisonada below, and in several other words. The meaning of boisada appears to have been influenced by that of boisonada. 3 Causina is not found, but undoubtedly existed. See Mistral under caussino. Causina probably went back to a Lat. calcina formed on calx. * Clergada has a rather unusual meaning contributed by the suffix. This seems here to denote "the sign of. " 5 See -AIRADA under double suffixes, p. 398. 32 AVORD-FORMATION IN PROVENCAL erbada, medicated pillow escamhada,^ stride escudelada, a bowlful espazada, sword-cut faldada, lapful figairada,- fig-tree formatjoda, dish of cheese and eggs Jornada, ovenful; also tax on ovens fromentada, tax for cultivation of cornfields fronlada, street in front of house gaiada, joke, teasing golada, mouthful grunada,^ a kind of sour wine joncada, bunch of flowers and branches Jornada, day; day's work, etc. laiada, length of "lata" legada, space of a league lensolada,* a sheetful; a plant linhada, lineage luminada, hunting-torch manada, handful malinada, day's length mezalhada, what is worth a mezal- ha; agrarian measure mojada, amount of land that can be sown with a hogshead of grain inolada, dust formed on a grind- stone by its friction against iron moltonada, tax on sheep morrada, blow with the snout erha, herb camha, leg escudel, bowl espaza, sword falda, skirt figuier, fig-tree formatje, cheese forn, oven froment, grain front, front gai, joy gola, throat grun, grain jonc, reed jorn, day lata, lath lega, league lensol, sheet, shroud linha, line Inm,^ light fnan, hand matin, morning mezalha, a coin 7uoi, hogshead inola, grindstone molton, sheep morre, snout ' See also parasyntheta, p. 526. 2 See -AIRADA under double suffixes, p. 398. ' Not in Raynouard or Levy. See Romania, XXXIV, 204, where grun is explained as coming from a Vulg. Lat. *grumis, due to a con- fusion between granum and grumus. < For this word, see Romania, XXXVIII, 555, where a Med. Lat. lanceolata is given as source. ' Luminada can, however, hardly be formed directly on this word. It apparently goes back to a Lat. luminata formed on lumen. Lumina- tus is given in Du Cange, although of late date. Formation of Nouns 33 navada, shipload olada, potful olmada, place grown with elms ostalada, household, family ovelhada, tax on sheep padelada, stoveful padenada, panful pairolada, kettleful palada, shovelful palmada, slap panada, tart, pie pastada, flattened or pressed wax ( ?) pastelada, remainder of the woad pebrada, pepper-sauce peirada, reach of catapult; side- walk peiregada, hail or hailstorm pelada, skin, wool plaisada, inclosure formed of hedges ( ?) planada, side plumada, feather ball (used in curing falcons) pogezada, article worth a "poges" polgada, thumb's length; a tax pomada, cider ponhada, handful porcada, drove of pigs poscada, sour wine resdauzada, lock (on canals) ronhonada, kidney rozada, dew saumada, load of a beast of burden sestairada,^ a measure of length trascambada,^ stride valhada, valley ventrada, belly-full nau, ship ola, pot olm, elm oslal, house, dwelling ovelha, sheep padela, stove padena, pan patrol, kettle pal, shovel palma, palm of the hand pan, bread pasta, paste, glue pastel, woad pebre, pepper peira, stone peirega,^ hail pel, skin plais, hedge plana, side pluma, feather poges, a penny of Puy polga (?), thumb pom, apple ponh, fist pore, pig *posca, from Latin posca, a kind of drink resclauza, mill-dam ronhon, kidney ros, dew sauma, beast of burden sestier, a measure camba, leg valh, valley ventre, belly, stomach 1 The little Levy dictionary lists this word beside peiregada; it does not appear, however, in the larger work or in Raynouard. 2 See double suffixes, p. 398. 'See parasyntheta, p. 526. 34 Word-Formation in Proven(;al vesprada, evening's length vesjpre, evening vinada,\ vintage; tax on ^'incs vin, wine Besides -ADA, however, -UDA is found in a very few words attached to nouns. As will be seen later, -UT was added to nouns to form adjectives, Avith a special meaning in a few cases, being sometimes substituted for -ATUS of the Latin word. The words in which -UDA appears to be attached to nouns are prol)ably femi- nine forms of the adjective in -UT used substantivel3\ Such are barbuda, kind of helmet borbu, beard cornuda,^ large pitcher or jar corn,^ horn Another Provencal suffix which may be given here ' Referring to the handles on the pitcher. An obscure word ending in -UDA is cociida, a kind of plant. Menuda, rough draft (also detailed account [ ?]), and in the plural, meaning "entrails," is the feminine form of the adjective menut used substantively. t There is also a list of words ending in -ADA beside which no simple Prov. word is found, and which are more or less obscure. Such arc: bugada, wash: Du Cange gives bitgata as vox hispanica. camilhada, henbane: For this word, see Rotnania, XXXIV, 200. Here Thomas suggests that camilhada is a bad spelling for canilhada < caniculata for calyculata. corogada, service, drudgery: Probably goes back to a Lat. *corrogata, from corrogarc. csguilhada, a kind of pear: Is very obscure. faisenada, burden : Apparently connected with fais, burden, but it is spelled in several ways, and is somewhat doubtful. See Levy, III, 390. fegalada, mixture of drugs: Is obscure. ferlada, place planted with southern wood: Probably from /cr/a, for ferula. ferrada, entrails: Is obscure. flasada, woolen covering: Du Cange gives flaciata, flausada, flasciata, and flassada. gamada, a bowl: From the adjective gattunalus, from Gr. gamma (v). garavasada, dry land: Very obscure. The first part is possibly con- nected with vervactum, but the s is difficult to account for. ostada, woolen cloth: From Engl, "worsted." See Nouv. Ess., 311. pinganada, lamb's pluck: Obscure. Formation of Nouns 35 is -EIA, coming, as it apparently does, from the same source as -ADA, -TA added to nouns. The form seems to be due to French influence in such words as fumee, livree, etc. The Provengal examples^ are: fumeia, smoke Jum, smoke liureia, delivery liurar, deliver mareia, tide mar, sea nuiteia, night nuit, night -ADITZ, -EDITZ The suffixes -A-DITZ, -A-DIS, -E-DITZ, -E-DIS, seem to represent the Latin suffix -TICIUS with the stem- vowel of the verbs to which they were joined. The usual process was to form adjectives, as, for example, plegadis; but in a few words we find the suffix used in forming nouns, which nouns may be only adjectives used substantively. In Latin, a suffix -TICIUS is formed by adding -ICIUS to the supine or past participle of verbs, as in adventicius, ascripticius, collaticius,^ dediticius, thus giving -A-DITZ and -E-DITZ in Provengal. With the spelhng -ADIS, we see -DIS (representing -TICIUS) joined to verbs of the first conjugation in: capladis, carnage caplar, slaughter filadis, tow filar, spin rayadis, ray rayar, shine and with a feminine ending, there is lauradisa, plowing (?) laurar, plow There is also a regularly formed adjective from labor are: lahoraditz, plowable. Lauradisa looks like a substantive use of the feminine form. 1 These words all have corresponding forms in Fr. Words besides which no simple form is found are macleia, stains, and pureia, "puree." The latter is probably an imitation of the Fr. puree, and macleia seems to come from the Lat. maculata. - Goelzer, 143. 3(3 Word-Formation in Provencal With the spelhng -ADITZ is fountl cridaditz, uproar cridar, cry panaditz, theft panar, steal plaisaditz, hedge plaisar, surround with a hedge podestaditz, mighty lord podestat, power and under -EDITZ, we find aveneditz, stranger avenir, come escroicheditz, breaking escroichir, break Both of these words may be regarded also as forms of adjectives used substantively; but in both of them, according to the rule, we should expect from the infinitive in -ir forms in -IDITZ rather than -EDITZ. Thomas explains the e in escroicheditz, the only word he mentions, by the dissimilating influence of the accented vowel i on a preceding vowel. ^ This principle might also apply to aveneditz. The other derived words here have i, as avenimen, avenidor, although besides avenimen, Ray- nouard gives avenement. Could there perhaps have been in Provencal a second infinitive in -er (vener) under the influence of tener — as in Gascon, where the infinitive is biei'- — and such as is seen in cosir beside coser, with their derivatives cosidura as well as cosedura f -ADOR, -EDOR, -IDOR The Provengal suffixes coming from the Latin -TOR will be treated here together as a group, although there are two distinct forms for each conjugation; and as three suffixes already' have been distinguished according to the stem-vowel to which they were attached, as in the case of the suffix -TA, there are here six forms in all. Thus for the first conjugation we find -AIRE and -ADOR; ' Essais, 16. Levy spells the words escroisir and escroisediiz. = Ibid., 17. Formation of Nouns 37 for the verbs in -er and -re, -EIRE and -EDOR; and for the verbs in -ir, -IRE, and -IDOR.^ The first form in each of these pairs represents the development of the nominative singular; the second, that of the other cases. Consequently, each word could be found in both forms originally, and if found only once, it might almost as well have one form as the other. Later, however, the two cases became confused and lost their grammatical value. As the forms in -DOR, being used for more cases, are far commoner, the Provengal form of the Latin -TOR is given under the heading -ADOR, or the form in -DOR for the first conjugation. Each word is likewise given with the ending in -DOR, but where Raynouard gives only the endings -AIRE, -EIRE, -IRE, this is indicated.^ As for the meaning of the group of suffixes, there is no great difficulty. It denotes the agent of the action ex- pressed by the verb-stem to which the suffixes are attached. All cases where this meaning is not clearly expressed will be treated in the notes, and all cases in which the suffix is not added to a verb-stem will be given in a separate list. 1 The forms -AIRE, -ADOR, and -IRE, -IDOR go back phonetically to -ATOR, -ATOREM, and -ITOR, -ITOREM, which were added to verbs of the Lat. first and fourth conjugations. -EDOR might be de- rived from -ITOREM (except that an unaccented vowel just before the primary accent should disappear), but -EIRE cannot possibly be derived from -ITOR. Instead, it must come from -ETOR, an ending formed by analogy with -ATOR and -ITOR. See Essais, 25. = Many of these words formed a complete four-form declension in -ADOR, and some others had it with the ending -AIRE, whereas many still kept both fornas. Levy always gives each word under the heading in -DOR, though the word quoted may often appear in his examples with the ending in -AIRE (as in conquistador). Raynouard often cites a form as ending in -AIRE, but generally gives both forms in the vocabulary in the sixth volume of his dictionary. For these reasons words with both endings will be listed under headings in -DOR, and cases where forms in -AIRE exist will be pointed out in the notes. In the second and third conjugations, the nominative forms in -EIRE and -IRE are very rare. 38 W()Kl)-F\)RMATION IN PrOVEN(,'AL abtiador,* clieat, swiiuUcr acomunalhador, sharer adobador,^ arbiter, redresser adoUrador, adulterer adordenador, * administrator ajachndor, preparer afa nador, workman afiiindor, refiner agachador, spy aglaziador, kidnapper, soul-s(!ller ajudador* helper ajustador* conciliator albcrgador, innkeeper albirador, judge, critic amador, lover (usual word is aman) amaeslrador, teacher amasador,* treasurer amortador, destroyer amparador, protector, invader anador* traveler, one who goes anonciador, announcer apelador, appellant (law) apropchador, one who approaches auzelador, fowler, bird-catcher avantador, boaster; also man of advance-guard avoutrador, adulterer azemprador, solicitor baisador, carder bescantador, slanderer blasmador* one who blames bolador,* (1) one who marks boundaries; (2) limitor (a friar licensed to beg alms within a certain limit;- (3) also seller of indulgences 1 This word may not exist. It occurs in the text, but Levy, follow- ing its editor, Stickney, corrects to adobat, which he says the rhj-me, the sense, and syllable-count ail require. 'Compare the Middle Engl, "liniitour" in the Prologue to Chau- cer's Canterbury Tales, 1. 209. abctar, cheat acomunalhar, share adobar, equip, arm adoUrar, commit adultery adordenar, arrange afachar, prepare afanar{ne}, work afinar, refine agachar, watch aglaziar, kill ajudar, help ajustar, adjust albergar, lodge albirar, imagine, estimate amar, love amaestrar, arrange amasar, heap up aniortar, deaden amparar, protect anar, go anonciar, announce apelar, call apropchar, approach auzelar, hunt birds avantar, advance avoutrar, commit adultery azemprar, solicit baisar, card bescantar, murmur words blasmar, blame bolar, limit * In Raynouard with the ending -AIRE. Formation of Nouns 39 cambiador, * money-changer caminador, guide cantador, singer capdelador, leader cardador, carder casador, hunter castiador, teacher cavador, sapper, digger cercador, seeker, investigator citador* one who quotes cobezejador, one who covets coltivador, cultivator compilador, compiler confesador, confessor conjurador* enchanter conquistador, conqueror conrezador, preparer of leather conselhador* counselor consirador,* dreamer conspirador, conspirator contador* narrator contrariador, * contradictor contrastador,* slanderer; enemy (L) cordador, ropemaker cordalador, official who measures with a "corda" cortejador* courtier creador,* creator criador,* crier cujador,* cuidador, thinker curador, one who cures damnatjador, damager dechador, one who composes defensador, defender demandador,* one who asks demorador, dweller demostrador, demonstrator, teacher descausador, one who lays roots bare desliwador, deliverer, liberator cambiar, change candnar, journey cantar, sing capdelar, lead cardar, card casar, hunt castiar, correct, reprove cavar, dig cercar, seek citar, quote cobezejar, covet coltivar, cultivate compilar, compile confesar, confess conjurar, conjure conquistar, conquer conrezar, equip cotiselhar, advise consirar, consider conspirar, conspire contar, narrate conirariar, oppose, contradict contrastar, resist cordar, make rope cordalar, measure with a ''corda" cortejar, court crear, create criar, cry cujar, cuidar, think curar, cure damnatjar, damage dechar, compose defensor, defend demandar, ask demorar, dwell demostrar, demonstrate descausar, lay bare desliurar, deliver * In Raynouard with the ending -AIRE. 40 Word-Formation in Provencal desmador,^ tax-collector despauzador, depositor dcsperador, one who despairs destermenador, exteririinator destinador, administrator ( ?) destrador, measurer desvergenador,* ra\4sher determinador, arbitrator, umpire detriador, judge devinador,* spy, explorer; slan- derer, soothsayer (R) dezencuzndor, excuser dezerelador, spoiler of inheritances dictador,^ * author doctrinador, teacher domnejador, gallant empachador, one who prev'ents, disturber empenhador, pawnbroker empetrador, grantee, patentee enansador* extoller, preacher encantador, enchanter encausador, pursuer encolpador, accuser endresador,^ * redresser ( ?) enganador, * deceiver engenhador, engineer engenrador,* creator, generator enjuriador, insulter enquistador,^ * inquirer, solicitor desmar, tithe despauzar, deposit desperar, despair destermenar, put beyond limits deslinar, destine destrar, measure desvergenar, ravish determinar, determine delriar,- distinguish, take ac- count of devinar, guess, divine dezencuzar, excuse dezeretar, disinherit dictar, write, compose doctrinar, teach domnejar, pay court to empachar, prevent empenhar, pledge empetrar, obtain enansar, advance, raise encaidar, enchant encausar, pursue encolpar, accuse endresar, set right enganar, deceive engenhar, devise engenrar, engender enjuriar, insult 1 In this word Levy finds only the ending -AIRE and the stem deim-. See II, 146. = This should not be confused with detriar meaning "to stop." The detriar given above is found also as destriar, i.e., with the prefix des- instead of de-. 3 Of the same origin as dechador, above. * This word is doubtful according to Levy, who does not understand it. » Enquistnr is not found except with a special meaning; enquistador is apparently formed on enquest, the past participle of enquerre. * In Raynouard with the ending -AIRE. Formation of Nouns 41 ensegador, follower, disciple (in this word there is apparently a borrowing of -ADOR from the first conjugation) ensenhador,* teacher, master cnterro(ior,* grave-digger envejador, emulator, rival ; an en- vious person (R) envidador, one who invites esajador, assayer, one who tests esbaralhador, fighter, brawler escandalhador, one who gauges escoltivador, cultivator' escrimador, fighter escurador, one who scours esforsador, strengthener esgardador, onlooker espaventador, that which terrifies esperador, * one who hopes esperonador, one who spurs esplanador, one who explains esproador,* one who tests or verifies estimador, appraiser estivador, harvester examinador, examiner exoniador, excuser fermador, witness ferrador, farrier, blacksmith filador, spinner flatador,* flatterer flautador, flute-player forsador,* seizer, violator fofjador, digger fraudador, defrauder, smuggler frondejador, sling-man gabador, boaster gachador, sentinel galiador, deceiver, seducer gardador, keeper ensegre, pursue ensenhar, teach enterrar, bury envejar, envy envidar, invite esajar, assay, test esbaralhar, fight escandalhar, gauge escrimar, fight escurar, scour esforsar, strengthen ( ?) esgardar, look on espaventar, terrify esperar, hope esperonar, spur on esplanar, explain, smooth esproar, test esiimar, appraise estivar, harvest examinar, examine exoniar, excuse fermar, witness ferrar, bind with iron filar, spin fiatar, flatter flaiitar, play the flute forsar, force fotjar, dig fraudar, defraud frondejar, use a sling gabar, boast gachar, watch galiar, deceive gardar, keep 1 See nominal parasyntheta, p. 526. * In Raynouard with the ending -AIRE, 42 Word-Formation in Provencal gardejador {or gardlador), protector gastador, * devastator gatjador, one who makes a soizuro gaujador, weigher, measurer gazanhador, piUager gazardonador, * remunerator glozador, commentator governador,^ governor grondilhador, telltale, backbiter guerrejador, warrior guidador* guide (spelled also guizador, guiador) guilador, deceiver ichilhador, * destroyer imaginador, one who carves im- ages, sculptor intrador,- one who enters janglador* chatterer, mocker jogador, actor joglador, "jongleur" jostador, jouster, opponent justesiador, dispenser of justice jiUjador, judge laisador, testator laurador, plowman lauzenjador, liar levador, tax-collector liador, packer logador, lodger, hired workman mandador,^ messenger, baker's boy manejador, dealer, receiver masador, murderer meisonador, harvester menador* conductor menasador, * one who threatens menuzador, joiner 1 A feminine form in -ORA also exists. ' This same word is also found with another meaning. See p. 55. 5 For mandador with another meaning see p. 55. * The verb as well as the noun probably had also a more specialized meaning, though this is not found. Cf. the Fr. menuiser. gardejar, hold watch gastar, lay waste galjar, make a seizure gaujar, weigh gazanhar, gain gazardonar, reward glozar, gloss, explain governar, govern grondilhar, murmur guerrejar, make war guidar, guide guilar, deceive ichUhar, destroy imaginar, decorate with sculp- ture intrar, enter. janglar, chatter jogar, play joglar, do tricks jostar, joust justesiar, give justice jutjar, judge laisar, leave laurar, plow lauzenjar, lie levar, raise liar, bind logar, let, hire mandar, send manejar, wield, handle rnasar, strike meisonar, harvest vienar, lead menasar, threaten menuzar,* diminish * In Raynouard with the ending -AIRE. Formation of Nouns 43 meravelhador,* admirer mercejador, * suppliant niercenejador, sympathetic person mesprezador, * scoffer jnestivador, reaper, harvester mezurador, measurer minador, miner ministrador, administrator mirador,^ * contemplator Diondador, cleaner, winnower montador, climber mostrador, indicator murador, mason m u rm urador, murmurer muzador, idler navejador, sailor negociador, merchant nonciador, herald oltracujador, bold person ostejador, one who takes part in a military expedition pagador, payer, payee panador, thief parador, * preparer pariador,* companion, partner parlador,^ * chatterer, go-between pazimentador , paver peatjador, toll-collector pechador, collector of fines penador, * expiator penhoradoi-, one who makes a seizure pensador, thinker perforsador, supporter, aid pergador, one who measures with a pole pervalador, grave-digger^ meravelhar, marvel mercejar, ask mercy mercenejar, be sympathetic mesprezar, scoff, scorn mestivar, reap mezurar, measure minar, mine ministrar, administer mirar, look at mondar, clean montar, mount mostrar, show murar, wall up murmurar, murmur muzar, waste time navejar, sail negociar, trade nonciar, announce oltracujar, be presumptuous ostejar, make war pagar, pay panar, steal parar, prepare pariar, share parlar, speak pazimentar, pave peatjar, submit to toll; peatjar- (se) pay toll pechQT, fine penar, punish, expiate penhorar, make a seizure pensar, think perforsar{se), strive pergar, measure with a pole 1 For mirador and pariador with other meanings, and of different origin, see p. 55. 2 See nominal parasyntheta, p. 526. * In Raynouard with the ending -AIRE. 44 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL pilhador, plunderer pititador, painter plaidejador, * litigant ; also attorney plantador, planter, gardener plasejador* itinerant peddler plasmador, creator poblador,- settler, colonist ponchador* an ecclesiastical office (Fr. chanoine pointeur) porgador, sifter potzador, drawer prejador, * suppliant ; lover prestador,* lender prezador, appraise* prezentador, one who offers proador* examiner probajador, layerer of vines profetizador, projjhet prononciador, judge, arbiter questador, collector of the "questa" questionador, person to be put on the rack rapador* ravishcr raubador,* robber razonador,* reasoner regardador, * onlooker remendador, one who revives resemblador, * imitator scairador, one who cuts animals into quarters ^egador, harvester sermonador,* preacher sonador, crier, preacher pilhar, plunder pinlar, paint plaidejar, go to law plantar, plant plasejar, seek public squares^ plasniar, form, create poblar, settle ponchar, point porgar, sift potzar, draw, fetch prejar, pray prestar, lend prezar, appraise prezentar, offer proar, test probajar, layer (vines) profetizar, prophesy prononciar, pronounce questa, a tax questionar, put on the rack rapar, snatch away raubar, steal razonar, reason regardar, look at remendar, revive resemblar, resemble scairar, quarter scgar, harvest sermonar, preach sonar, sound, ring ' With the purpose of selling goods. The verb is formed on plasa, public square, and the plasejador probably indicates one who seeks these places, although from another meaning of plasa given by Levy, namely, a "court of justice," plasejador might possibly indicate a member of the court. Raynouard's translation of "man out of work" hardlj' fits the example. 2 A Lat. populator exists, but with another meaning. * In Raynouard with the ending -AIRE. Formation of Nouns 45 ermenador, one who sets bound- termenar, limit aries testimoniador , witness testimoniar , testify tombador, tumbler, dancer tombar, fall tornejador, j ouster tornejar, joust trafegador, merchant, trafficker trafegar, traffic trasgitador,* juggler, trickster trasgitar, juggle traspasador,* transgressor traspasar, transgress, exceed trencador, cutter trencar, cut triador* a judge (one who appre- triar, sort, choose ciates) trichador, cheat, deceiver trichar, cheat trompador, trumpeter trompar, play trumpet trufador,* joker trufar, joke vairador,^ * furrier vairar, change vanador, * boaster vanar, boast venjador,* avenger venjar, avenge ventozador* cupper ventozar, let blood violador, *t one who plays the viola violar, play the viola Besides the words in the Hst just given, which have an obvious verb-source, there is a smaller list of words end- ing in -ADOR with no apparent verb at their base. Some of these must have been formed on verbs, as is often clear by a comparison with other languages {dolador, violentador) , whereas others seem to have been formed on nouns (compesador, especiador), and some have no appar- ent source in Provengal. In many of the noun-formations, it is easy to find a starting-point among the regular verb-formations. The list follows: hilhador: The word is listed in Levy, where the follow- ing translations are given: skittle-player or bowler, pack- 1 Vairador, furrier, has not apparently much connection with the verb vairar, to change, and was undoubtedly constructed from the noun vair, a fur of different colors. * In Raynouard with the ending -AIRE. t Words of Lat. origin are oblador, contiihutor - (Icvclopmout of the Latin -TRIX that it seems possible to find. -EIRITZ seems to be joined to all stems except to those of verbs in -ar, which take -AIRITZ. Tims to verbs in -ir, as well as to those in -er and -re, the suffix -EIRITZ is added. Before leaving the Provcngal suffixes -ADOR, -EDOR, -I DOR, there is to be considered another class of words whicli do not denote the agent at all, but generally the place in which an action is performed, and sometimes the instrument used in its performance. These words will be treated here because of having the same ending in the mas- cuhne as the words denoting the agent (-ADOR, -EDOR, -IDOR) although their source is probably different. This seems to be the Latin suffix -TORIUS,^ which was used in forming adjectives^ and joined to a verb-stem, as seen in amatoi'ius, formed on amare. The next step seems to have been the substantive use of the neuter form to indicate a place, as in dormitorium, for example. Then, also in Latin, is found the use of the feminine form in -TORIA as a noun, as in natatoria, also denoting a place. Now, as -A-TORE]\I certainly becomes -ADOR in Provengal, and as these words denoting the scene of an action appar- > See also hybrids, p. 578. ! This would give -DOR regularly in Prov., its feminine form giving -DOIRA. See Grandgent, art. 73 (p. G7). > See p. 280. The suffix was probably originally formed by adding the suffix -lUS to words ending in -TOR (Cooper, 157). Prov., however, regards (A)-TORIUS as a single suffix. Formation of Nouns ently go back to -A-TORIUS, we find these two suffixes giving the same form in Provengal. In most of the cases in which words in -DOR denote place or instrument, we may declare the source of the suffix -ADOR to be the Latin -A-TORIUM joined to the verb-stem, although a few words in the following list, for various reasons, will call for special treatment. bufador, hiss, whistle calfador, kettle dinador, dining-room dreisador, dresser eisagador, outflow eisegador, bail, guaranty escorjador, place for skinning animals escrasador, skimmer, slieing- machine esgotador, waste-pipe fizansador, surety, bail intrador, entry legador, smelting-pot mandador, surety, bail mirador, mirror nozador,^ joining obrador,'^ workshop parlador, parlor pasador, passage pestador, pestle plegador, instrument for bending hoops pojador, flight of steps pozador, place (in river) from which water may be drawn bufar, blow calfar, heat dinar, dine dreisar, set up eisegar (for eisagar), flow out ( ?) eisegar, arrange, divide ( ?) escorjar, flay here the only possible verb appears to be escarrasar, to comb wool esgoiar, empty out only fizansa, the noun, is found intrar, enter legar, smelt mandar, summon mirar, look at nozar, knot obrar, work parlar, speak pasar, pass peslar, crush, stamp plegar, bend pojador, ascend pozar, draw ^ Nozador del col means "nape of the neck." 2 Meyer-Liibke, II, 579, lists this word under -TOR instead of under -TORIUM, which certainly appears incorrect. oG Word-Formation in Proven(;al rihador, shore, bank ribar, approach lermdor,^ t terrace (probably from *lerratorium for terrilorium.^ There is also a verb terror) Under the suffix -EDOR, also, a word: escorredor, gutter escorre, flow Under -IDOR there are several words to be added: auzidor, acoustic duct ouzir, hoar bolidor, boiler bo hir, boil csclafidor,- esdatidor, canal for carrj'ing away superfluous waters folpidor,^ place where things are destroyed or corrupted pestridor, bakery (kneading-place) peslrir, knead Under the feminine endings -ADOIRA, -EDOIRA, are found the following words, coming from the Latin feminine suffix -TORIA: doladoira, broadax dolar^ is not found in Proven^-al falcadoira, mowing instrument falcar^ is not found in Provengal 1 Sec Essais, 14. The difficulty consists in the fact that there is also a form ierraire. This seems, however, to be a nominative form coined by analogy with the nominative of words in -ADOR coming from -TOR. - No verb is found. ' Also felpidor. No verb found. * The Sp. dolar, however, means "to cut wood." 5 But the Fr. faucher means "to mow." fAn interesting word of Lat. origin is cenador, upper story. The usual Lat. word is cenaculum, meaning, first a dining-room, and then, as these were generally in the upper stories, the word itself came to mean an upper story. (See Smith, Did. of Anliqu., I, 665.) But cenatorium, the neuter form of the adjective cenatorius, derived from cenare, also exists, and underwent the same change of meaning that cenaculum did. Sp. has two interesting words, ce7tador No verb is found. The word is obscure, however. 2 A kind of concrete force is here, denoting the thing coming as the result of the action expressed by the verb. The other words with this sufRx are pure abstracts. 3 See also hybrids, p. 578, below. < Apparently formed on a noun ^^^thout change of meaning. Formation of Nouns 109 prautimen, act of trampling under foot provenimen, revenue ( ?) poirimen, rottenness polimen, polishing prezumimen, presumption pruzimen, itching raubimen, ravishment rugimen, flatulence seguimen, accompaniment servimen, servitude sofrimen, suffering, privation somsimen, absorption iarimen, drying up tradimen, treachery valimen, price, merit venimen, arrival vilzim€n,'\ degradation prautir, trample underfoot provenir, originate, proceed poirir, rot polir, polish prezimir, presume pruzer,^ itch raubir, ra\'ish rugir, roar seguir, accompany servir, serve sofrir, suffer somsii', swallow up tarir, dry up tradir, betray valer,^ be worth venir, come vilzir, degrade The collectives in -MENTA from the Latin plural -MENTA, mentioned above,- will now be given. Under -AMENTA, joined to the stems of verbs in -ar, we find: causamenta, shoes ferramenta, ironwork causar, to shoe ferrar, to iron and, on a noun, osamenta, bones os, bone Under -EMENTA joined to stems of verbs in -er, is: franhementa, fragments franhcr, break 1 The infinitive is found only with the ending -er. 2 P. 87. t An interesting word is pazimen, pavement, not given above because of its Lat. origin. Its source is clearly patimentum, which should give pavimen. The z for v is difficult to explain. Grandgent (48, sec. 5) explains it by the analogy of aizimen, but the connection between the two words does not seem clear. His remark that pazimen = pavamen hardly seems exact (see p. 100, n. 3). Another form of pavimentum is paymen. A word of Lat. origin is munimen; an obscure one is engarzi- men. 110 Word-Formation in Provencal -AN, -ANA -AN and -ANA in Provencal are derived from the Latin -ANUS and -ANA, used in Latin in forming both adjec- tives and nouns. In forming nouns, -AN regularly gives the idea of the inhabitant of a place (as castellanus > Provengal castelan, inhabitant of a castle, lord of a manor) and also that of a person addicted to a subject (as negro- mancian on negromancia, necromancy). Besides these uses, we find -AN has one or two others, that will be fully described below. As for the feminine form, -ANA, the meaning of "the inhabitant of a place" seems to be generally absent, although such a feminization as castelana is found in Levy.^ There are only a few words with this ending, however, and most of these appear to be substantive uses of words originally adjectives. Lender -AN with the meaning of (1) "inhabitant of a place" or (2) "person addicted to a thing" attached to nouns, are found the following words: arman, armed man, one addicted nrma, arm to arms astronomian, astronomer aslronomia, astronomy estatjan, lodger, dweller estatge, dwelling forestall, stranger forest, forest gazalhan,- one who raises live gazalha, (1) community; (2) stock on shares lease of live stock geomancian, geomant geomancia, geomancy .gramairian, grammarian gramaire, grammar letran, master ( ?) , one addicted letra, letter to letters marquezan,^ inhabitant of La Marche 1 I, 226. - There is also a feminine form, gazalhana. For gazalha, see above, p. 79. n. f. 'Apparently u douhlf; suffix here. Formation of Nouns 111 mercadan, merchant mercat, market mesatjan, messenger mesatge, message negromancian, necromancer negromancia, necromancy omicidan, murderer omicidi, murder parofian, parishioner parofia, parish ])asatjan,'\ passenger pasatge, passage Besides the use of -AN just treated, the ending is found with other meanings. In a good many nouns with this ending, -AN represents nothing but the present participle of verbs of the first conjugation used substantive- ly; in a few examples the suffix appears not to change the meaning of the simple word, whereas in one or two cases, the meaning it gives is hard to classify; and other words are obscure in form. 1. In such words as auzulan, demoran, levari, nianan, marejan, montan, parlan, pezan, and poblan^ the ending -AN is the sign of the present participle of verbs in -ar. 2. In planetan, piifan, and vergan the suffix appears to give no change of meaning to the simple nouns planeta, planet, puta, prostitute, and verga, branch. In putan, however, -AN seems to represent simply a different case-ending. See putana, below. In planetan and vergan, the -AN may have been added to form adjectives on puta and verga, these adjectives later being used substantively. 3. In albaran and bausan the force of the suffix is less easy to classify. albaran, however, was probably originally an adjec- tive. It means scrap of paper or ticket, and was prob- ably derived from albar, sapwood, or alburnum (Latin 1 For the meaning of these words, see nouns formed from verbs, pp. 548-49. fAlso, of Lat. origin: castelan Of course these abstracts from -EMIA can have nothing to do with -ENGA, the feminine form of the words in -ENC, treated on p. 178. t Found also in estamenha, sieve, from a Lat. staminia, having nothing to do with the ending -EMIA, and in the somewhat obscure word espardenha, shoe of feather-grass, formed on spartum according to Kor- ting (No. 8,913), who does not say, however, what the -ENHA represents. 116 Word-Formation in Proven(,\\l The last suffix of the group -ANHA, -ENHA, -ONHA is -ONHA, from -ONEA, probably the neuter plural of the adjective ending -ONEUS used substantively. The only example of the suffix in a Provengal word seems to be mensonga, mensonja, but this was probably not a Provengal formation. Escalonha, shallot, has the ending -ONHA, but does not represent the suffix -ONIA. It probably comes from the proper name Ascalonia. Mer- cimonia, merchandise, is only the Latin mercimonia, showing the suffix -MONIUM, which appears not to have been used as a Romance suffix. -ANSA, -ENSA There are but two forms for the verbal suffix of the next group, -ANSA and -ENSA, instead of the usual three, beginning with a, e, and i, according to the conjugation of the verb, as in -AMEN, -ADOR, -ADURA, etc. The reason for this reduction in the number of forms is very simple, however. -ANSA and -ENSA are derived from -ANTI A and -ENTIA, which are equal to the ending of the present participle (-ANTEM or -ENTEM) plus the suffix -lA. Thus in Latin there were really but two end- ings for the participle, and there had been no reduction in forms in Provengal. -ANSA and -ENSA being, therefore, formed somewhat differently from the other Provengal verbal suffixes, have, naturally, different forms. As for meaning, however, this group differs little from that of any other verbal suffix, its force being regularly abstract. In this word are included two kinds of ideas: not only the idea of the action expressed in the verb to which the suffix is added, but also state or condition, or even a thing itself resulting from some action. -AMEN has both of these meanings also, but in a very large Formation of Nouns 117 proportion of the words ending in that suffix the meaning is that of action , whereas in the case of -ANSA the result of an action is relatively in much greater use.^ Such words as acostumansa, devinansa, donansa, estansa, falhansa, finansa, fizansa, gravansa, membransa, mes- clansa, orrejansa, pensansa, prestansa, regazerdonansa, remembransa, and sonansa show this kind of use, some of the words becoming almost concrete in force. Some words, as asemblansa, comportansa, and comunalhansa, seem to have collective force, but in none of these cases is this contributed by the suffix. In the first two words, we have -ANSA with its meaning of the thing resulting from the action described by the verb, and the collective force, as far as it exists, is contained in the verb. Comu- nalhansa is probably also formed in this way on comu- nalar. There is a noun comunalha, and if added to this word, we should have an example of the use of -ANSA without force — the only example of this use of -ANSA — and also of its addition to a noun. Two words onlj' show real concrete force— garansa, madder (a plant), and animansa, animal. Of these, the second shows a substi- tution of -ANSA for -AL. One of the most striking peculiarities, indeed, of the use of -ANSA is its substitution for other suffixes, although in all cases except animansa the displaced suffix was -TAT. The relations of the two must have been very close. . Thus we find substitutions of -ANSA for -TAT in amistansa,^ enemistansa,'^ piatansa, and majoransa. The next most 1 There is about an equal number of words with this meaning among both suffixes; but -AMEN contains a vastly larger number of pure abstracts. 2 This is a pair of words with opposite meanings, and one would have suggested the other. The starting-point for these formations appears to have been piatansa (found also in Fr., and through it, Engl, as "pittance," in which the meaning has become changed and specialized). 118 Word-Formation in Provencal remarkable use is that of being joined to compound words formed of two short distinct words, of which the first was generally ben or mal, as henestansa, hefazensa, malan- ansa, and malesta7isa} But in real parasynthetic forma- tions, or words whose first part was a real prefix, it is absent. -ANSA and -ENSA seem to remain true to their original use as verbal suffixes, and to show no probable examples of formations on nouns or on other words. Sometimes the verb is not found in Provengal, as in bo- bansa and curiansa, but its existence is always probable in cases that may not be explained either by a substitu- tion of one suffix for another or by a loss of prefix, as in ebriansa. Comunalhansa has already been treated. Du- rensa seems to be formed on durir and not on dur. The only really puzzling word is certansa, certainty, which appears to be formed on the adjective cert, certain, certar not existing with this sense. It seems probable, however, either that a verb certar did exist or that we have here another substitution of -ANSA for -TAT found in cer- taneiat. This would mean the disappearance of a syllable, as in constrensa for constrenhensa. -ANSA is found in the following words -.^ acabansa, end acabar, end, complete acoindansa, acquaintance acoindar, get acquainted acordansa, agreement acordar, agree acostumansa, custom acostuniar, accustom adordenansa, arrangement, see azordenansa » For these words, see the hybrid formations, p. 579. 2 As an illustration of the similarity in use of the two abstract suffixes -AMEN and -ANSA it may be interesting to point out the verb-stems that are found with both suffixes and the few cases where the meaning differs: acoind-, acord-, afiz-, ajost-, along-, amas-, amerm,- amonest-, ampar-, atrob-, azorden-, comens-, compar-, comport-, confort-, consol-, demon-, desconord-, desmembr-, destempr-, destri-, devin-, dezesper-, don-. Formation of Nouns 119 aesmansa, see azesmansa afizansa, agreement, accord agradansa, pleasure ajostansa, relation, company ajudansa, aid alegransa, joy aliansa, alliance, union alienansa, alienation alongansa, delay, lengthening amansa, love amasansa, piling up, amassing amblansa, amble, ambling pace amermansa, dying away amezuransa, moderation amistansa,^ friendship amonestansa, warning amparansa, protection animansa,^ animal apagansa, satisfaction asemblansa, assembly atrobansa, discovery autrejansa, concession azesmansa, estimation azordenansa, arrangement afizar, assure agradar, please ajostar, arrange ajudar, aid alegrar, rejoice aliar, ally alienar, alienate alongar, lengthen amar, love amasar, amass amblar, amble amermar, diminish amezurar, measure amonestar, warn amparar, protect animar, animate apagar, appease asemblar, assemble atrobar, find autrejar, grant azesmar, estimate azordenar, arrange dopt-, egal-, endenh-, engan-, enlumen-, ensenh-, espavent-, esper-, esquiv-, est-, fin-, gazanh-, govern-, grav-, greuj-, guiz-, li-, liur-, lonh-, melhor-, inembT-, mescl-, mont-, moslr-, oblid-, our-, orden-, pejor-, perdon-, prezic-, razon-, remembr-, son-, tarz-, trabuc-, uz-, van-, venj-. There are few differences to be seen in any of the pairs. The most noteworthy are: and comportansa, yield, produce and egalansa, equality and esquivansa, aversion and est ansa, fortune and (re)menibransa, memory and mesclansa, quarrel, brawl and sonansa, assonance -ANSA for -TAT. comportamen, conduct egalamen, equal taxation esquivamen, obstacle estatnen, state; stopping-place (re)membramen, remembrance mesclamen, mixture sonamen, sounding 1 This word seems to show a substitution of Cf. also its opposite enemistansa, and piatansa. • This is a very peculiar meaning for -ANSA to have, but the example leaves no doubt about it. There is evddently a substitution of -ANSA for -AL, but it is difficult to account for. The plural of animal — animalia — became used as a singular, and -ANSA maj- have been substituted for -ALHA, which resembles it somewhat. 120 Word-Formation in Provencal halhansa, gift baptizansn, baptism he.nestansa,'^ excellence, perfection bobansa,^ pomp, display bonauransa,'^ happiness caste jansa, warning certansa,^ certainty cobransa, recovery of health coindansa,* conduct comensansa, beginning comjiaransa, comparison comporlansa, yield, proceeds comunalhansa, community concordansa, contract, agreement confortansa, consolation consolansa, consolation consonansa, rhyme costumansa, custom cujansa, belief, opinion curiansa,^ carefulness deliuransa, freeing, deliverance delonhansa, postponement, delay demandansa, request demoransa, delay desconordansa, discouragement desmembransa, forgetting desmezuransa, impropriety dessebransa, departure dessemblansa, dissemblance destempransa, disorder destriansa, choosing balhar, deliver baptizar, baptize castejar, warn, correct cobrar, recover comensar, begin comparar, compare comportar, bear comunal{h)ar, share concordar, agree conforlar, comfort consolar, console consonar, harmonize, rhyme costumar, be accustomed cujnr, believe deliurar, deliver delonhar, remove demandar, request demorar, stay, delay desconordar, discourage desmembrar, forget dezmezurar, go to excess dessebrar, separate dessemblar, conceal destemprar, disorder, derange destriar. distinguish » Two words plus suffix. See hybrids, p. 579. 2 No verb. Korting, No. 1,496, derives bobansa from bomba, pomp. Cf. O.Fr. bober and bobance. Probably the Prov. word is a borrowing. 3 Cevtansa, if it does not go back to a Lat. *certantia, may have been formed on the adjective cert, certain. See, however, p. 118 above. « The verb coindar is struck out by Levy. Coindansa may have been formed on the adjective coinde, but is more probably only acoindansa, with loss of prefix due to confusion with the vowel of the article. s No verb curiar is found in Prov. Cf., however, Sp. curiar, prob- ably of the same origin as curar. See Korting, No. 2,702. Formation of Nouns 121 devinansa,^ calumny, noise, uproar dezagradansa, displeasure dezamparansa, abandonment dezegansa,'^ disturbance, disorder dezesperansa, despair deziransa, desire dezonransa, dishonor donansa, gift doptansa, danger ebriansa,^ drtmkenness, orgy egalansa, equality egansa, equalization, recompense emendansa, amends, compensa- tion endenhansa, indignation enemistansa,'^ enmity engansa, deception (for nansa?) enlumenansa, brilliancy ensenhansa, teaching envejansa, striving, zeal escuzansa, excuse esmansa, assessment, valuation espaventansa, fear esperansa, hope esquivansa, aversion esquivadansa,^ lie, falsehood estansa, fortune estimansa, estimation falhansa, fault, mistake fermansa, security, assurance finansa, arrangement; payment; money devinar, guess, divine dezagradar, displease dezamparar, abandon dezesperar, despair dezirar, desire dezonrar, dishonor donar, give doptar, doubt, fear egalar, equal egar, equalize emendar, amend endenhar, be angry enga- enganar, deceive enlumenar, illvuninate ensenhar, teach envejar, envy escuzar, excuse esmar, estimate espaventar, fear esperar, hope esquivar, avoid, shun estar, stand, delay; persist estimar, estimate falhar, fail fermar, strengthen finar, end; settle or close an account ' The meaning of "calumny" is seen also in the other derivatives of devinar — devinalha, and devijiamen. ^ Dezegansa =1)^8-+ egansa. See, therefore, the nominal prefix DES- on p. 469. 3 Ebriar is not found. Ebriansa is probably enebriansa with loss of prefix. * Enemistansa shows substitution of -ANSA for -TAT. See amis- iansa. 5 Given in Levy with an interrogation point. The word with the ad interpolated is obscure. See double suffixes, p. 384. 122 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL fizansa, oath, security, bail galiansa, deception garansa, madder (a kind of plant) gardansa, rule, observation gazanhansa, gain, acquisition gloriejansa, boasting glorifiansa, glorification governansa, government, rule gravansa, difficulty greujansa, sternness, severity guizansa, act of guiding illuminansa, splendor, brilliancy, also given under en- importansa, importance jactansa, boasting lauransa, plowing of field liansa, alliance liuransa, delivery; also doctrines or traditions longansa, delay lonhansa, postponement, defer- ment majoransa, majority^ malanansa, misfortune- malestansa, discomfort^ manifestansa, manifestation maridansa, marriage melhoransa, improvement membransa, memory mendigansa, beggary meravelhansa, marveling mercenejansa, pity mermansa, diminution mesclansa, dispute moderansa, moderation molheransa, marriage montansa, elevation 1 Majoransa seems to show -TAT. See amistansa. 2 Malanansa and malestansaappesiTtohcmal + anar+ansa and 7nal + estar +a7isa. Eslansa exists alone but with a different kind of meaning; see hybrid formations, p. 579. In words of this kind, ben and mal are treated as words rather than as mere prefixes. fizar, trust galiar, deceive gardar, keep gazanhar, gain gloriejar (se), glorify (oneself) glorifiar, glorify governar, govern gravar, be burdensome, injure greujar, be hard on guizar, guide importar, matter jactar, boast laurar, plow liar, bind liurar, deliver longar, remove lonhar, remove manifestar, manifest maridar, marry • melhorar, improve membrar, remember mendigar, beg meravelhar, marvel mercenejar, have pity for mermar, diminish mesclar, mix, confuse moderar, moderate molherar, marry montar, mount another substitution of ANSA for Formation of Nouns 123 moslransa, demonstration muzansa, folly, thoughtlessness nafransa, wound, damage noviansa, reputation nomenativansa, rumor, report oblidansa, forgetfulness obransa, work ondansa,^ profit, advantage (?) onransa, honor ordenansa, command, arrange- ment orrejansa, impurity, soiling parcenejansa, participation pejoransa, dechne pensansa, thought, care perdonansa, pardoning; indul- gence perlongansa, prolongation perparansa, offer, presentation piatansa,^ pity, consideration ; alms plendansa,^ fulness poderansa,- power pojansa, ascendancy portansa, bearing prestansa, loan prezansa, appreciation, esteem prezentansa, presentation prezicansa, preaching procreansa, procreation publiansa, pubUcation pujansa, see pojansa quitansa, discharge, quittance razonansa, remonstrance, observa- tion recordansa, commemoration regazerdonansa, recompense remembransa, memory mostrar, show muzar, wait in vain, lose time nafrar, wound noniar, name nomenativar, name oblidar, forget obrar, work onrar, honor ordenar, order orrejar, soil parcenejar, participate pejorar, decline, deteriorate pensar, think perdonar, pardon perlongar, prolong perparar, offer, present pojar, rise portar, bear prestar, lend prezar, prize prezentar, present prezicar, preach procrear, procreate publiar, publish guitar, leave razonar, reason recordar, record regazerdonar, recompense remembrar, remember 1 Ondansa is probably aondansa with the loss of the prefix a-. 2 Piatansa probably shows a substitution of -ANSA for -TAT ; see amisiansa, above. In the same way, plendansa appears to show a substitution for -TAT in plendat. Poderar as a simple verb is not found, though it exists in apoderar. 124 Word-Formation in Provenqal renomansa,^ renown seguransa, security, assurance semblansa, resemblance sobre{a)oiidansa, superabundance sonansa, assonance, imperfect rhyme tarzansa, delay tormentansa, torment, suffering trabucansa, overturning, upset- ting triansa, choice, distinction uzansa, custom, usage vanansa, boasting venjansa, vengeance versemhlansa,- probability vojansa,^ emptying renomuar, re-name segurar, assure semblar, seem sobrondar, superabound sonar, sound iarzar, delay tormentar, torment irabucar, upset triar, choose uzar, use vanar, boast venjar, avenge vojar, empty Under -ENSA, the following words are found : apartenensa, appurtenance atendensa, waiting, delay avinensa,^ attraction, charm befazensa,^ charity cabensa, room, space calensa, care cazensa, fall complanhensa, complaint concrezensa, concession, admission constrensa,* constraint (legal term) convinensa, see cov-^ aparlener, belong atendre, wait avenir, please caber, be contained in caler, care cazer, fall complanher, complain from concrezer, for grant, concede concreire, 1 Renomansa is surely formed on the verb rather thau the noun, although the n of renomnar has disappeared. Cf. renomada and the Fr. renommee. The loss of the n may be due to Fr. influence. ^Ver semblansa and be/azensa =t'er+sem6Zar+-ENSA and he + /a2er +-ENSA. See hybrid formations, p. 579. ' For the vowel in the stem of avinensa and covinensa, see Grand- gent, art. 46, sec. 1. * A shortened form of costrenhcnsa from coslrenher ? t Also of Lat. origin, aondansa, abundance See p. 137. ' Two words plus suffix. See hybrid formations, p. 579. Formation of Nouns 135 gazanharia, arable (?) land juraria, office of "jurat" jutjaria, office of judge lauzenjaria, flattery lecaria, dainties masonaria, masonry meitadaria, rent amounting to half of the produce mejaria, rent consisting of half the produce of a farm mercandaria, merchandise molinaria, right of grinding monedaria, coin; mint notaria, notaryship parelharia, association ; see -AIRIA, below peatjaria, toll penedensaria,^ penitent pescaria, fishing poncharia, pointing pregaria, prayer sobransaria, boasting tencharia, dyeshop gazanh, land under cultivation, and gazanhar, plow jur, oath, and jurar, swear jutge, judge, and jutjar, to judge lauzenja, flattery, and lauzenjar, flatter lee, dainty, and lecar, lick mason, mason, and masonar, wall up vieitat, half, and meitadar, halve meg, half viercan, merchant, and mercan- dar, do business molin, mill, and molinar, grind moneda, coin, and monedar, to coin nota, mark, and notar, note peatge, toll, and peatjar, collect toll penedensa, penance, and petie- densar, do penance pesca and pescar, fish ponch{a) and ponchar, point prec, prayer, and pregar, pray sobransa, domination, and so- bransar, subjugate ( ?) (R) tencha and tenchar, dye Then come the words which must have been built on verb-stems, if the idea of the addition of -ARIA and not -lA be granted, as there is no noun on wiiich they could be formed. Flataria, for example, must have been formed by adding the suffix -ARIA to the stem flat- ' An unusual meaning for this sufRx — that of a person, the agent of an action. Levy lists the word as feminine. It looks as though the Lat. -ARIA had come down to Prov. unchanged, the word being learned. 136 Word-Formation in Provencal of tlie vorl) flatar. The list is as follows and contains mostly abstracts:^ escorjaria, place for flaying escorjar, flay flatarla, flattery ■ flatar, flatter fretaria, rubbing J'retar, rub leujaria, levity, frivolity lenjar, lighten manjaria, victuals, food manjar, eat mejansaria, partition mejansar, mediate menuzaria,- carpentry menuzar, diminish pagaria, payment pagar, pay pararia, f ulling-room ; fulling parar, prepare parlaria, chattering; foolish calls parlar, speak (also -AIRIA) pilharia, pillage pilhar, plunder plaidaria, lawsuit, quarrel plaidar, go to law plaidejaria, lawsuit, quarrel plaidejar, go to law raubaria, robbery raubar, rob tuaria, slaughter tuar, kill In giving the second list,^ several words (as enfermaria, fermaria, lecaria) were mentioned which might have either adjectives or verbs at their base. In such a word as fermaria, fortress, for example, we find two possible sources, the adjective /en/i, strong, and the stem oifermar, to shut in. If an}' starting-point is necessary for the adding of -ARIA to a verb-stem, it seems possible to find it in this word fermaria. Probably with the original meaning of a strong place, from ferm, it could have been later associated with the verb fermar, to shut in. Then, like so 1 It seems likely that the abstract words in the preceding list — barataria, encantaria, fachilharia, fustaria, lauzenjaria, etc. — were formed on verb-stems, the fact of the noun's existence beside the verb being only accidental. With only a few exceptions, such as escorjaria, where no noun is found, a rule might be given that abstracts were formed on verb- stems, and nouns denoting place, office, and collectives on nouns. In the few cases where the nouns apparently formed on nouns have abstract meaning, may there not have existed a verb which is not found in our texts ? 2 Probably not derived directly from this verb, but from menuzier, as escudaria from escudier. See p. 131, n. 2, above. 3 P. 134. Formation of Nouns 137 many of the suffixes added to verb-stems (-AMEN, -ANSA, etc), it was used almost entirely in forming abstracts. The hst of words with adjectives at their base follows: enfermaria, hospital enferm, ill fermaria, fortress ferm, strong Iccaria, dainties lee, dainty malaudaria, hospital malaut, ill melchantaria, badness meichan{i), bad menudarias, trifles menut, small Most of these words have been mentioned in a previous list.i One word seems to be formed by adding -ARIA to a preposition :^ contraria, opposition, obstacle contra, against Besides all of the words just given under -ARIA, there are several other words ending instead in -AIRIA, which appears to be only another development of the compound suffix -ARIU plus -lA, and, indeed, a rather more regular one.3 Though -ARIUS generally became -lER in Pro- 1 Pp. 134-35. ■ This formation, however, probably is only apparent. The word is probably connected with contrarius or contraria, the feminine form. The accentiiation of the word is difficult to determine from the examples. Cf. the O.Fr. contraire. 3 The tvnn forms -ARIA and -AIRIA are rather difficult to explain. The combination of -ARIU- plus -lA is found in most of the Romance languages and seems therefore to have been formed early and to have been of frequent use, although not mentioned by either Cooper or Olcott, both of whom seem to ignore double suffixes. The development should properly be -AIRIA (cf. -AIRADA, etc.), but for some reason not perfectly clear we generally find -ARIA instead. The change in form may have been due to the analogy of the large number of suffixes added to verb-stems — -ARIA often has this appearance also— having a as the stem-vowel, on account of which -ARIA instead of -lA was prob- ably taken for the suffix. This theory would Hkewise account for the Sp. -ARIA, which is also peculiar in form, -ARIUS giving -ERO. The whole subject seems uncertain, however. -ARIA cannot, however, have come about hke the Fr. -ERIE (-IE attached to -ER, the unaccented form of -lER) , as -AIR is itself the form in use when unaccented. -AIRIA is sporadically found, possibly helped by the persistence of corresponding forms ending in -lER. See above list, corratier, etc. 138 Word-Formation in Provencal vengal, -lER is not its phonetic development; this should rather be -AIR, which is found, indeed, in a few words, as doairefogasa, buttered roll (French, fouasse; Italian, /omcda; Spanish, hogaza), being the only word given by Meyer-Liibke^ as Latin, although perhaps *cannabaceum > canaba.s (Italian, canavaccio; Spanisii. canamazo) may be assumed. The suffix gave an idea of quantity to the simple word, or greatness in size, and then depreciative force. ' Petar probably exists, although Levj- cannot find Raynouard's example. Cf. the Fr. peter. 2 In pilhart, the connection with pi7/iar is probably due to the thievish propensities of troopers and servants. 3 II, 503. t Other words in -ART are biroart, a kind of cloth; estibart, steward; Lombart, Lombard, and minhart, affected person. Biroart is obscure, estibart is entirely of Germanic origin, and in Lombart the suffix is only apparent. In minhart the stem is uncertain, but we have -ART, possibly substituted for -OT. See minhot. Formation of Nouns 141 The words in -AS representing -ACEUS with this aug- mentative (or depreciative) force are as follows: canabas, hempen cloth canebe, hemp cartas, large dog can, dog diablas, large hateful devil diable, devil ermas, unplowed land erm, desert fedas, herd feda, sheep galatas,^ garret, attic Galata, Galata (a tower in Con- stantinople) gorjas, large throat gorja, throat gravas, sandbank grava, shore mausiinas, large mastiff maustin, mastiff merdas, blackguard merda, dung nertas, place where myrtles iitrta, myrtle abound palhas, sweepings palha, straw sacas, large sack sac, sack sedas,- f sieve seda, silk There are also two words that are apparently formed on verbs : crebas, crevice; see also crebasa crebar, crack, pierce juzaigas, ghetto (see Essais, 114) juzaigar, be a Jew; judaize 1 Probably a borrowing from Fr., as it is found in the works of Eustache Deschamps, and as the one Prov. example is in an inventory of the end of the fifteenth century. 2 Cf. the Fr. sas. Possibly both words are from a Lat. setaciutn. . t There is also a word of Lat. origin, pedas, trifle, from pitaceinn, the late Lat. form of pittaceurn. Cf. the Sp. pedazo. There are also several words ending in -as in which these letters do not represent -ACEUS at all, and have not its augmentative or depre- ciative force. Such words are cabas, femoras, ferias, ferrias, ipocras, matalas, and matras. They will be treated individually: cabas, basket, has probably not the suffix -ACEUS. The word appears to be due to a substantive use of the adjective capax, capacem, becoming cabas, just as pacem became pas as well as pats and patz. femoras, manure-pile, is a complete puzzle as regards its ending. The word is also written femeras and fomeras, and is evidently formed on the simple word fern. The s would at first sight appear to be the plural s added to fern plus the suffix -ERA; but Raynouard's example (111,301) 142 Word-Formation in PRovENgAL The words in -ASA from -ACEA seem generally to have had the same augmentative force as the words in -AS, although sometimes this idea is not quite so obvious. The list follows: bonasa,^ calm at sea bon, good carnasa, much flesh or dead cam, flesh flesh carrasa, pile (of wood) carre (?), car coasa, plait of hair, pigtail coa, tail coirasa, breastplate cuer, cor, leather conha&a, ax conh, wedge espinasa, bramble-bush (?), i.e., espwa, thorn place grown with thorns ferrasa, fire-shovel ferra, iron trimming filasa, flax ready for spinning fila, thread golam, large mouth gola, throat golam, gout gota, drop grimasa, grimace grima, sadness jornadasa,- long day's journey Jornada, day's journey 1 Formed on an adjective and found in the other Romance languages (Latin?). 2 See doulDle suffixes, p. 383. has 1 femoras, and Levy's examples (III, 433) also clearly prove it to be singular. The -AS appears to be the suffix -ACEUS added to femor, a form built on fimus through its having changed its inflection because of the analogy of stercus, stercoris? Femor is not found, although femore- jar is. Femoras might be a bad spelling for femeras, of course (-ERAS = -ARIUM+ACEUS), but that would be unlike the usual development of -ARIL^S in combinations (capairon, denairal, figairada, mercadairet, etc.). ferias, holidays, seems to be the only Lat. word feriae (ace. ferias) borrowed in Prov. ferrias, bars for hanging pothooks, appears to be the Prov. form of the Lat. adjective ferreus, of iron, used in the accusative plural. The noun (meaning bars) with which it must have been regularly used has disappeared, and the adjective now has the meaning of the lost noun. ipocras, a sweetened drink made of roots, is due to a mediaeval deformation of the name of Hippocrates, to whom the drink was attrib- uted. See Die. Gen. under hypocras. matalas, mattress, and matras, javelin, have not the suffix -ACEUS. Matras is of uncertain origin. Formation of Nouns 143 palhasa, litter, stubble palha, straw pigasa, boar-spear pic, pickax pinasa,'\ pinnace pin, pine One word appears to be formed on a verb : liasa, bundle (cf. French liasse) liar, bind although it may be liazon(< ligationem) with a change of suffix that is represented. -IS, -ISA With the suffixes -AS and -ASA from -ACEUS, -ACEA may be given -IS and -ISA as coming from -ICIUS, -ICIA. The mascuhne form -IS is rarely found in Provencal, brodis, border, edge, mestis, half-breed, pastis, paste, and patis, fine shoe, seeming to be the only examples of it. All of these words, however, may have been origi- nally adjectives, in which use the suffix is not uncommon. For example, mestis probably represents mixticius,^ of mixed breed, and is merely a substantive use of it; pastis is probably derived from pasticius, an adjective derived from pasta, paste; brodis, border, edge, may come from borda, shore, though the word is not perfectly clear; and patis is obscure. The feminine form -ISA<-ICIA is not so unusual, and is found in : calmisa, hedge calm,^ heath, uncultivated land frachisa, joint fracha, fracture palisa, palisade, paUng pal, stake 1 Lat. (see Goelzer, 14.3), and formed on a verb. 2 See Essais, 13, note; also Levy, I, 189. t Crebasa, crevice, escasa, crutch, and limasa, slug, also are found, but are probably not Prov. formations. For crebasa, cf. the Fr. creoasse. For escasa, see Du Cange's eschassa. Limasa is probably from Himacea. For corresponding words in other languages, see Korting, No. 5,598, and Diez, 197. 144 Word-Formation in Provenq-al pelisa, pelisse pel, skin planisa, esplanade plan, plain sebisa,^ hedge sep, hedge As is the case with -ITZ/ also from -ICIUS, -IS anS. -ISA have no very well-defined force, although in some words diminutive force may be seen. The forms -IS and -ITZ appear to be really the same suffix, both repre- senting the Latin -ICIUS. When this suffix comes at the end of words, as in the masculine forms, -ITZ is rather more usual than -IS ; within words, -ISA, or s instead of tz, is always found. The forms -ATZ and -ITZ, being of the same origin as -AS and -IS, will, therefore, now be studied. -ATZ, -ETZ, -ITZ, -UTZ The suffixes -ATZ, -ETZ, -ITZ, -UTZ will be treated together here as a group. Of these, -ATZ is fairly com- mon; -ITZ also is found in several words; -ETZ is verj^ rare; -UTZ, although found in several words, does not appear to be a true suffix. As with the suffixes -AS and -IS, the source of -ATZ and -ITZ appears to be -ACEUS, -ICTUS. In force, the suifix -ATZ appears to be both 1 Sec the lists immediately following. t A number of other words in -ISA, mostly of Lat. origin, but at any rate not Prov. formations, should also be mentioned : corisa, snuffling, probably through some lost Lat. form, from the Gr. x^P'^t'"- (^f- It- corizza) ; genisa, young heifer, from junicia for junix, showing the adjec- tive force that the suffix had originally; laironisa, theft, is from latronicia, for latrocinium, showing a metathesis and a change of gender; matrisa ( ?), midwife, from matricia, an adjective derived from matrix ( ?) ; orredisa, filth, excrements, from *horridicia (?), derived from horridus; panisa (also panitz), panic — grass, from panicia for panica; podisa, receipt, from apodissa, apodixa, (see these words in Du Cange). Most of these words, as genisa, matrisa, orredisa, and panisa, seem to have been origi- nally adjectives. Profetisa, prophetess, has probably not -ICIUS at all, but -ISSA, which regularly became -ESA. Formation of Nouns 145 augmentative and depreciative. It is found in the fol- lowing words joined to nouns: asclatz, splinter ascla, splinter astelatz,^ log, stump astela, splint from asta cabasatz, large basket cabas, basket corsegatz, large, hateful body cors, body estopatz, linen, tow estopa, tow evescatz, bad bishop evesc, bishop ferratz, pail fer, iron glevatz, bad clod gleva, glebe pegatz, pitch-cake pega, pitch plojatz, heavy rain ploja, rain polatz,'\ young chicken pol, chicken -ETZ seems to exist only in cabetz, collar, throat, from cap, head, but -ETZ here may possibly represent -ITIUS, instead of -ICIUS, and it is probably not a Provengal formation. -ITZ^ representing -ICIUS is found added to nouns in a few words, with perhaps no very well-defined force, though probably augmentative: esportitz, kind of basket esporia, wallet gotitz (?), drain (?) gota, drop pelitz, kind of poor wool pel, skin postitz, tt door posta, plank -UTZ is found in three words of more or less doubt- ful origin, so that the existence of -UCEUS here is not sure in any case. avenutz, ebony-tree: This appears to be derived from the Latin ebenus, coming through the Old French form 1 See double suffixes, p. 382. 2 For -ITZ in the combinations -ADITZ, -EDITZ, see these suffixes. t Of Lat. origin there is olfatz, sense of smell, from olfacius (?). tt Of Lat. origin there is celitz, hair shirt, from ciliciujn; naritz, nose, from naricius, derived from narix; and noiritz, young of an animal, from nutricius, derived from nutrix. Pastitz has already been treated as pastis under -IS, and panitz under the feminine form panisa, the two forms making tolerably clear the original use as adjective. 146 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL henus. This is the way in which Meyer-Liibke explains the Spanish abenuz} estruz seems to represent struthio. glandiitz, acorn, from glan(t), acorn, in Avhich the suffix makes no change in the meaning of the word. The true Provencal suffixes in the al)ove groups are -AS, -ASA, and -ATZ; -IS, -ISA, and -ITZ, which are all derived from -ACEUS, -ACEA and -ICIUS, -ICIA. -ICIUS and -UCEUS are by no means certain in Provencal. -ASTRE There are several words in Provengal with the ending -ASTRE, most of which seem to be derived from the Latin -ASTER, as seen in patraster. Provengal has the de- scendant of this word in pairastre, and also the following words : falcastre, sickle-shaped knife. The simple word here is fals, fans. This looks, then, like an- other Latin formation. Com- pare the Italian falcastro. filhastre, stepdaughter fdha, daughter folnstre, fool (from fol, fool [?]). Originally used as an adjective, however (of. French foldtre), meaning "foolish," and prob- ably formed on the adjective fol. The word appears to be a substantive use of the adjective. mairaslre,^ stepmother maire, mother The suffix when added to nouns is thus depreciative. There is also one other word with the ending -ASTRE wliich is somewhat puzzling. This is ecleziastre, an 1 II, 508. t Words of Lat. origin are mentastre, wild mint, from mentastrum, and pilastre, pilaster, from pUastrum. Formation of Nouns 147 ecclesiastic. The difficulty fiere is in the meaning. If the word represents ecclesia plus -ASTER, it should mean "bad church," or something similar. If the word, on the other hand, comes from ecclesiasticus, how account for the form? Gleizastgue, churchly, which we should expect, exists, and Levy also gives gleizastgle^ with an in- terrogation point. The I of this word might become r by dissimilation, but the disappearance of the g would still have to be accounted for. It appears possible that we have here gleiza plus -ASTRE, and that becoming confused with gleizastgle from ecclesiasticus, it took its meaning. -AT The Provengal suffix -AT requires a somewhat detailed treatment, as several different Latin suffixes are repre- sented in it: there is (1) the suffix -ATTUS, denoting the young of animals; (2) a Latin -ATUS, denoting rank; more important than either of these, however, is the (3) substantive use of the past participle. This gives -AT in the first conjugation; but the endings for the others (-IT and -UT) will be given here, as the three endings together form a distinct group and special kind of forma- tion; (4, 5) words apparently formed by using the suffix -AT attached directly to nouns, with no verb at their base, and in a few cases with a prefix also attached, this being inseparable from the word; finally (6), the Latin neuter suffix -ATUM appearing in -AT in a few cases with exactly the same force as described under the words in -ADA from -ATA, the feminine form of the past participle. I IV, 136. 148 Word-Formation in Provencal 1. -AT from -ATTUS is found in tlu^ following words denoting the young of animals: aigronat, young heron aigron, heron aiicat, young goose auca, goose balenat, young whale balena, whale cerviat, young deer cervia, deer colombat, young dove colomba, dove creagat, young sturgeon creac, sturgeon dragonnt, young dragon, thread- dragon, dragon worm galinal, Uttle hen galina, hen irondat, young swallow ironda, swallow leonat, young lion leon, lion lebrat, young hare lebre, hare lobat, young wolf loba, wolf mulat,^ mule mul, mule paserat,'\ young sparrow pasera, sparrow Also probably added to an adjective, it is seen in: vairat, mackerel vair,^ variegated 2. Besides -AT coming from -ATTUS,^ there is a suffix -AT coming from a Latin -ATUS, which was attached to nouns to denote rank, office, or position, as in considatus, etc. A number of words in -AT with this meaning are found in Provengal, but most of them can be traced Ijack to words found in Latin. The probable Provencal formations follow for -AT denoting rank or position: 1 The only translation given for mulat is mule, not young mule, but -AT must represent -ATTUS here. The suffix seems to have lost its force, perhaps through being influenced by mulct, in which the suffix -ET had lost its original diminutive force. 2 There is also a noun voir, denoting a kind of variegated fur. 3 For -IT<-ITTUS, denoting the young of animals, see the suffix -IT, p. 239, below. t There are also several words in -AT beside which no simple forms are found. Such are buzat and creat (found also as buzac and creac, as given under -AC above) . That -AT could be added to -AC maj- be seen in creayat above, but here it seems to be substituted for it. Formation of Nouns 149 arquidiquenat, archdeaconate. Di- aconatus is found in Latin (see Goelzer, 99), but there seems to be no trace of -AT added to the compound word. doctoral, doctorate. The same word is found in other Romance languages, but is it Latin ? ducat, duchy due, duke notariat, notaryship notari, notary oficialat, official court oficial, official personat, benefice in a cathedral; from persona, personage (?). Personatus as an adjective is found in Latin, but personat does not appear to be a sub- stantive use of the word. prebostat, office of provost; court- prebost, provost house renhat,'\ kingdom renh, reign 3. Another source of the Provengal suffix -AT is the past participle of verbs in -ar.^ This was very often used substantively, and gives another class of words with the ending -at. Substantive use of the past participles of verbs in -ar: apariat, customer argentat, a stuff connected with the restoration of paint blasmat, blame coUivat, cultivated bit of land apariar, join, unite, couple argentar, to plate blasmar, blame coUivar, cultivate I These words, together with the past participles in -IT and -UT given below, belong properlj^ to the nouns formed from verbs by a simple change of meaning, but they are placed here on account of being closely connected with other words in -AT that are not formed on verbs at all, the development of which they help to make clear. t Words omitted above because found in Latin are: apostolat, apostleship (Goelzer, 98 ra- curation, "cathedriiticum"< procurationem, a payment to be delivered by priests on the bishop's visit. ft Words ending in -EDA of Lat. origin are oliveda (olive grove) -ColivetM, and pineda (pine grove) . 195. Formation of Nouns 185 -ESA One of the commonest of the feminine suffixes in Romance is that which comes from the Greek -laaa, which gives in Provengal -ESA regularly. Its meanings here are exactly the same as in the other Romance languages: it turned into feminines the masculine nouns to which it was added. Two kinds of words seem to take the suffix regularly — those denoting rank of some kind and the names of animals — which is very different from the use of the other common feminine suffix, -TRIX, always used, as might be expected from its addition to a verb- stem, to designate a woman who does the particular thing denoted by the verb to which it was joined, whether a corresponding masculine form existed or not, and never, therefore, like -ESA, merely a feminization of some masculine form. Most of the words denoting rank are found in all of the Romance languages, and seem to indicate a Latin origin. Such words as comtesa, countess; duquesa, duchess, and princesa, princess, can hardly be treated, therefore, as Provengal formations. Other words denot- ing persons are: deuesa, goddess deu, god fauresa, smith's wife faure, smith laironesa, female robber lairon, robber maestresa, mistress, lord's wife maestre, master majoresa, female ruler major, chief metgesa, female physician metge, physician ostesa, hostess oste, host vestoresa, baker's wife pestor, baker preveiresa, priest's concubine preveire, priest senhoresa, lady senhor, lord the purely passive meaning being seen in fauresa, the wife of a man who does certain things, rather than a woman 186 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL doing those things herself. Laironesa and pestoresa imply more action, but are still only feminine forms of nouns originally masculine. -ESA can have both of these kinds of meaning. Names of animals are seen in : elephantesa, female elephant elephant, elephant leonesa, lioness leon, lion -ESC The Provengal suffix -ESC is one that is somewhat difficult to explain. It appears to arise from a confusion of the Latin -ISCUS, from the Greek suffix -io-xotegue, monk )notet^bonesa. This confusion and substitution of -ICIA for -ITIA probably occurred rather early, as the Provengal descendants of pigritia seem to indicate. Here Raynouard gives, besides the " See p. 145, above. t Of Lat. origin is dureza. See Olcott, 79. Both diiritia and durities are found. Ladesa, breadth, is also Lat. See Olcott, 79, lalitia, from latus. 200 Word-Formation in Provencal regular pigreza and pigresa, which should come from pigri- cia, also pigrida, which seems to represent unchanged a Latin pigrida. The Provencal abstracts in -ES probably are derived from -ICIUM, which seems itself to have taken the abstract meaning which the corresponding feminine form had received through a confusion with -ITIA. The Provcn^'al words with -ESA instead of -EZA are as follows: alegresa, happiness alegre, happy, joyful bonesa, goodness bon, good domesteguesa, familiarity domestic, domestic, familiar joinesa, youth joine, young liesa, joy. This cannot represent directly either laetitia or Haeti- cia. It seems to be a borrow- ing from the French liesse. nedesa, neatness net, neat pigresa (Latin), laziness. See pigre above primesa, primacy prim, first tortesa, crookedness tort, crooked In a few cases -EZA (and -ESA) are added to nouns : aureza, folly aura, air boiseza,^ box, case bois, box enfanteza, infancy enjan{i), infant frontereza,- limit fronteira, limit, boundary laironesa, robbery lairon, robber The last word represents latronicia for latrodnia, and bears out the idea of an abstract meaning for- ICIUS. The metathesis may have taken place under the influence ' Probably, however, not a Prov. formation. Thomas (.Melanges, 34) derives the word from pyxida, a Latinization of the Gr. wv^ts. 2 For -AREZA<-ARICIUS, see double suffixes. The base-word for frontereza is not front but fronteira, to which -AREZA was joined. Syllabic superposition takes place here, however, giving frontereza. See Nouv. Ess., 69. Formation of Nouns 201 of other abstracts in -ICIUS. Raj^nouard has only the purely learned form laironici. ligeza, right of vassal lige, vassal nienteza, nullity nient, nothing ortaleza,^ t vegetable -lA The Provencal suffix -lA, coming from a Latin -I A, which had been detached from Greek abstract nouns with this ending, gives little difficulty as to meaning, for it seems to have formed little but abstract nouns, although to form them the suffix was joined both to nouns and to adjectives, and also, in a few cases, to verb-stems. In words like baronia and borgezia, the suffix appears to have collective force, but this was probably a later develop- ment of meaning, and baronia may have meant "nobility" (abstract) before meaning the nobility or nobles. The chief difficulty in dealing with the suffix is found in the fact that it was very frequently joined to the suffix -ARIUS to form a new compouncl suffix of varied meanings, -AIRIA, or more usually spelled -ARIA, also joined to nouns, ad- jectives, and verb-stems. In this suffix, then, originallj^ added to the stem of words ending in -lER, all idea of a compound was lost very early, and it could be added in- dependently of any previous ending. -AIRIA (or -ARIA-) 1 For this word, containing a double suffix, see double suffixes. 2 See -ARIA, in its regular alphabetic position, p. 130, above. t Another word apparently having the suffix -EZA added to a noun is asteza, which Raynouard, translating as "little pike," derives from asta, pike. The word, nevertheless, is obscure in meaning. Still another is pageza, farmer's wife, but this is simply pages, peasant, plus the feminine ending a. Also a word with an apparent suffix -EZA, lamj)eza See double suffixes, p. 383. double abstract suffix. Observe in cridoria and drechuria the 2 Clerquia instead of clercia might be expected. ' For comandia and gardia, see also formations on verbs. * For folia, see also formations on adjectives. Formation of Nouns 203 glezia, clergy joglaria,^ trade of "jongleur" laironia, theft lestia ( ?), right to raise taxes ( ?) ma(j)estria, skill; trick; power mercantia, merchandise metgia, art of medicine; remedy mezelia, leprosy pagezia, coarseness paironia, fatherhood paponia, inheritance from a grand- father payania, paganism peolhia, disease of lice plaidezia, pleading, legal pro- cedure preveiria, priesthood ribaudia, shamelessness sancnia, bleeding senescalchia, seneschalship senhoria, lordship serventia, service vigoria, vigor vilania,- j coarseness There are four words also little change in meaning: cairia, corner caire, corner corsia, passageway (in a ship) corsa, course ordia, order orde, order veiria, pane of glass veire, glass 1 Here, indeed, we find the ending -ARIA, but the " AR" represents -ARIS and not -ARIUS, for which reason it is not given with the other words in -ARIA. - See double suffixes, p. 385. gleiza, church joglar, "jongleur" lairon, thief lesda, leuda, a tax ma{j)estre, master mercan{t), merchant metge, physician viezel, leper pages, peasant patron, father papon, grandfather payan, pagan peolh, louse plaides, wrangler, lawyer preveire, priest ribaut, ribald sane, blood senescalc, seneschal senhor, lord serven{t), servant vigor, \'igor vilan, peasant in which the suffix makes t There are several additional words ending in -lA that are not Prov. formations, and many of them have not the suffi.x -lA at all. Such are: auria, bolia, brefania, colonia, crozeia, esquilansia, fadia, gavia, rnostazia, palaudia, and pezonia. auria, lightness, may be derived from aura, air, but the word is not at all certain. bolia, strong broth, should probably be written bolha, or bulha, and 204 Word-Formation in Provencal For the last word, in French, Spanish, and Portuguese, on the other hand, the double suffix -ARIA is found (verrerie, vidrieria, vidraria) but with the meanings of glass- works and things made of glass. The simple suffix -lA appears to be found only in Provengal — another example of syllabic superposition. A few words have the meaning of place, but such cases are rare. The only words appear to be: fauria, smithy faure, smith mongia, monastery monge, monk prioria,'\ priory pnor, prior These are meanings which we should expect to find under the ending -ARIA, as, indeed, we do, finding fahra- ria meaning a smithy. There may perhaps have been a change of meaning from the occupation to the place for the occupation in these two words. Then come the formation on adjectives, of which there is also a number with the same abstract force : has nothing to do, therefore, with the suSix -lA; it is even possible that -IDA {holia for bolhida) is the suffix represented here (see Levy, I, 153). brefania, epiphany, is from the Lat. epiphania. colonia, fine, is from the Lat. calumnia. crozeia, window-frame, is in Du Cange. Here we have not -lA but -EIA, which indicates Fr. influence. See -EIA, above, under -ADA. esquilansia is a mediaeval deformation of the Gr. Kvvdyxv with the V pronounced asi. See Die. Gen., introduction, sec. 504. There seems to be also a prefix ES- in this word. fadia, weariness (also written /adtj7a), is a post-verbal forniation on the verb fadiar or fadigar. gavia, cage, is from the Lat. *gavea (Fr. cage). In mostazia, mustard, -AZIA represents another suffix. pnlaudia, article of clothing, is obscure, and pezonia, peony, is the Lat. paeonia, with a z inserted instead of the V which Fr. inserts (pivoine). t To these might be added abadia (see p. 202), if it has the meaning of "abbey," suggested there. Cf. mongia and prioria, above. Formation of Nouns 205 aurania, folly auran, light azautia, graciousness azaut, gracious carestia, (1) highness of price; (2) love The last-named word is somewhat puzzling, but the examples seem to make clear the second meaning, which is given by Levy.^ The first meaning is given by Korting,- who suggests it instead of "lack," mentioned by Ray- nouard. Korting therefore draws the word from *caristus, a superlative of car us plus the ending -lA, rather than derive it from *carestus, a past participle of the verb carere, to lack. He is probably right in saying that -lA would not be added to a past participle stem, the regular stem to which it is added being that of the infinitive. Moreover, the second meaning, "love," seems to connect the word with the adjective cams, whether we believe in the superlative *caristus or not. It seems possible enough that both the meanings of dearness — highness in price, and love = fondness or dearness — could be derived from the adjective cams, dear, just as caro means "dear" in both senses in Spanish and Italian, and cher in French likewise has both meanings. As for the derived word, carestia, it is found also in Spanish, Italian, and Portu- guese, and there, as in Provengal, serves as base for an adjective formed with the suffix -OSUS. coindia, graciousness coinde, gracious corlezia, courtesy cortes, courteous culvertia, perfidy culvert, perfidious envezadia, witchcraft, spell ( ?) envezat, merry, happy falsia, deceit fals, false fatonia,^ cowardice *faton, from fat, foppish ( ?) folia, folly fol, foolish galhardia, cheerfulness galhart, gay, cheerful gelozia, jealoiLsy gelos, jealous I I, 213. 2 See carestus, No. 1,935. 3 See double suffixes, p. 385, n. t- 206 Word-Formation in Provencal gensozia,^ gentleness glotonia,^ gluttony guiacozid, craft, deceit janglozia,^ slander Icconia,^ gluttony (gent, gentle) gloton, gluttonous guiscos, tricky janglos, slanderous *lecon, from lee, greedy; leccone exists in Italian, meaning "a glutton" major, superior malaut, ill malvais, bad manen{t), powerful melhor, better membrat, prudent mesquin, miserable moisart, deceitful moison, deceitful muzart, loitering par, similar punain, stinking ricaut, pretentious ricos, proud truan{t), vagrant majoria, superiority malautia, illness mnlvaizia, badness manentia, power melhor ia,- advantage membradia, prudence mesquinia, misery moisardia,^ deception moisonia,^ trick, deceit muzardia, folly paria, resemblance punaizia, stench ricaudia,^ ostentation ricozia,^ pride, insolence truandia, vagrancy On verb stems, we find the following formation : bauzia, deception bauzar, deceive This seems to be the only certain one, but several words given in the list of nouns could equally well be treated as formations on verb-stems. Such are comandia and gardia.'^ 1 This word is pecuhar. It is an abstract and has the force of genseza, which one of the manuscripts gives in its stead (Raynouard, III, 462). It wouki seem to be built on an adjective *gensos, from gen(t), which is nt)t found, however, and may not have existed. Probably gensos, if it existed, was due to a confusion between the comparative forms of gen — genseis and gensor. 2 Or possibly formed on the verb melhorar ( ?). For another probable formation on the comparative of an adjective, see gensozia, above. 3 See double suffixes, pp. 384, 385, and 385, n. f. ^ In a few cases, also, -IA is apparently added to the stems of verbs in -ir. For such words, however — carpia. departia, partia, and repentia — see p. 29, n. f. above. Formation of Nouns 207 -lA is also found attached as a suffix to several com- pound nouns to form abstracts,^ as in: bonomia, kindness honome, good man prodomia, nobility prodome, valiant man profemnia, womanly virtue profemna, good woman -lER The Provencal suffix -lER (also -ER, -EIR; femi- nine -lERA, -EIRA, -ERA, and -lEIRA) is one of the most difficult and complicated suffixes in the language, both on accomit of the variety of meanings which it has in Provengal and also on account of its numerous forms, none of which can be a regular phonetic development of the Latin suffix -ARIUS — its obvious source — according to the laws of sound-change in Provengal. Much- has been written on the form of the suffix in the Romance languages, but the question cannot even yet be regarded as definitely settled. The Provengal forms -ER, -lER, -EIRA, as also the other forms, through an influence of each gender on the other, might be regularh' derived from a form -ERIUS,^ especially as the Latin words with this ending have just the same forms'* as those whose apparent Latin etymon is in -ARIUS. But how did ' See hybrid formations, p. 580. 2 The two longest works are: E. Zimmermann, Die Geschichte des lateinischen Suffixes -ARIUS in den romanischen Sprachen (reviewed in Romania, XXV, 638), and E. Staaf, Le Suffixe -ARIUS dans les langues romanes 1896; (reviewed in Zeitschrift, XXI, 296, and in Zeitschrift fiir romanische Sprache, XXI, 55). There are also articles by Marchot in Zeitschrift, XVII, 288, and XIX, 61, and two very important articles by Thomas in the Nouv. Ess., p. 110 (also in Romania, XXXI, 481), and p. 119. See also the Bausteine zur romanischen Philologie, 1905 (Mussafia Festschrift) , 641-60. ' Cf., for example, such words as mostier-Cmonasteriutn, or the abstract words given on p. 228. * In Provencal, cavaleiral is almost the only exception. For this word, see double suffixes, p. 380, n. 2. 208 Word-Formation in Proven(;al -ARIUS happen to change to -ERIUS ? There seems to be no good reason for supposing a substitution pure and simple of -ERIUM, as the two endings are not closely enough allied in meaning to have caused any confusion, and as this neuter -ERIUM would have to be substi- tuted for the three forms -ARIUS, -ARIA, -ARIUM. A stronger reason, however, against supposing this sub- stitution of sufRx is that in all the words originally end- ing in -ARIUS, to which another suffix (-ET, -ADA, -AL, etc.) was added, -AIR or -AR is found represent- ing -ARIUS and practically never -EIR (< -ERIUS), although it seems utterly improbable that if such words as mercadarius and denarius, for example, had changed to mercaderius and denerius by a substitution of suffix, we should regularly find -AIR or -AR in their compounds. A still better example of this, perhaps, is found in the two words bandairier and carrairier, representing banda + -ARI+-ARIUS and carra +-ARI+-ARIUS, in which the first -ARIUS has developed regularly and the second irregularly, or as if from -ERIUS. Of all the double suffixes to be treated later,^ we shall find -ARIUS by far the most frequent as the first part, to which the second suffix was attached, and these forms are -AIRADA, -AIRAL, -AIRET, -AIRIA or -AIROL, -AIRON, etc. -ARIUS, therefore, could change its form only when bear- ing the accent. If the form -ERIUS does not arise through a simple substitution of suffix, its evident presence in words origi- nally having -ARIUS in Latin must be explained in some other way, and this Thomas,- who is one of the most recent to write on the subject, explains as due to the influence of the Germanic suffix -AREIS, in conformity 1 Pp. 380-40.3. = Xoiiv. Ess., 123. Formation of Nouns 209 with which it has undergone the law of the umlaut and -ARI has become -ER. First undergoing a change in in the mouths of the Franks in Gaul, it was finally taken up by the Gauls themselves; and -ARIUS having once become -ERIUS, it would have the same treatment as the Latin e. The earliest forms seem to be found in the masculine -ER and -EIR, with -EIRA regularly in the feminine. -EIR may have been the original masculine form, which later lost the i, whereas the feminine re- tained it, or, according to a suggestion which Thomas credits to Vising,^ -ARIU did not become -ERIU but -ER — that is, the umlauting took place at the expense of the i of the following syllable. The first rule, however, would explain all the forms just mentioned, and as for the forms -lER and -I EIRA, they are accounted for by a later breaking of the e under the influence of a follow- ing palatal element.- The only form remaining to be explained is -lERA, which might certainly be due to the analogy of the masculine form -lER. Coming now to the uses of the suffix -lER in Proven- gal, we find it, when representing the Latin -ARIUS, used to denote the agent who performs an action, and joined regularly to nouns; -lER representing the neuter -ARIUM, denoting place or instrument, or used collectively; -I ERA, the feminine form, not differing greatly from the uses of the neuter; and still another -lER, with none of these meanings, but abstract force, not representing -ARIUS, however, but -ERIUM. Although the suffix has many forms, as it has been necessary to choose one under which to arrange the words containing it, the form -lER, as being beyond comparison the most common, has been taken. In the 1 Nouv. Ess., 145. - Grandgent, art. 30. 210 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL feminine forms there is greater diversity of spelling than in the mascuhne, but the words will all be found under the analogical form -lERA, as resembling the masculine form most, though -EIRA is more usual in the texts. Under -lER with the meaning of the agent, from an original -ARIUS, we find: afanier,^ workman agulhier, needle-maker alberguier,^ innkeeper almonier, almoner aludier, tanner arbalestier, crossbowman argurier, soothsayer aventurier, strolling merchant, peddler bagasier, whoremonger bailier, manager, director bandairier,^ flag-bearer bandier, country constable; ser- geant baratier, bargainer, trafficker, cheat barbier, barber barralier,^ cooper bolter, keeper of seals boquier,* butcher bordier, farmer, tenant bordonier,^ pilgrim, crusader ( ?) borsier, purse-maker, treasurer brasier, workman budelier, tripe-seller burelier, borlier, saddler ' Or possibly formed on a verb. afan, labor agulha, needle alberc, inn almona, alms aluda, a kind of leather arbalesta, crossbow argur,^ augur, augury aventura, luck, fortune bagasa, prostitute baile, intendant bandiera, banner banda, ban barat, deception barba, beard barral, barrel bola, papal bull hoc, he-goat borda, small farm bordon, staff borsa, purse bratz, arm budel, bowels burel, drugget, fustian Seep. 221. 2 Assimilation to the following r may be seen here. ' See carrairier and the note on it, p. 211 ; also double suffixes, p. 399. * See Stud. Rom., IX, 150, for an interesting account of the develop- ment of this word. According to Marchot, the boquier was originally one who dealt in the delicate flesh of young he-goats; and the words came into fashion with the meaning of "butcher" through the kind of snobbishness that has changed the Fr. barbiers into perruquiers and coiffeurs. Formation of Nouns 211 cabalier, capitalist cabasier,^ basket-maker cabrier, goatherd cambrier, chamberlain caminier, carrier campanier, bell-ringer canabasier,^ weaver candelier{a), candle-maker capdalier, capdelier, leader capelier," hatter capitolier, member of municipal council car eerier, jailer caritadier, chief of corporation carnificier,^ butcher carrairier,* carter ( ?) carretier, carter codrasier,^ hoop-maker cofier{a), cap-maker coiratier,- trainer coladier,- porter, carrier of bur- dens colier, porter coltelier, cutler concalongier,^ disputant cordalier,^ rope-maker cordoanier, dealer in (Cordovan) leather cordier, rope-maker corregier, strap-maker corturier, courtier costurier, dressmaker cabal, capital cabas, basket cabra, goat cambra, room camin, road campana, bell canabas, hemp candela, candle capdal, capdel, capital capel, hat Capitol, municipal council career, prison caritat, corporation carra, car carreta, cart codra, hoop cofa, cap {* coir at, from coir, leather) col(ada), (blow on) neck col, neck coltela, knife calonja, slander corda, cord cordoan, (Cordovan) leather corda, cord correja, strap (*cortura, from cart, court) costura, sewing 1 See under double suffixes, the compound suffix -ASIER, p. 401. 2 See double suffixes, pp. 382, 395, 393, 400. 3 No simple word found in Prov. Carnificier seems to go back to a Lat. *carnificiarius, from carnifex. ' Levy give no translation for the word. "Carter" seems to be its meaning, and the formation is car +-ARI +-ARIUS. Olcott, 139, speaks of this kind of formation in the inscriptions, citing calcariarius, and comparing these words with the Engl, "fruiterer," and describing them as formations for greater length. See also double suffixes, p. 399. 5 See parasyntheta, p. 528. 212 Word-Formation in Provencal cozinier, cook dardier, man armed with javelin dardasier,^ man armed with darts dauradier,^ goldsmith daurelier,^ goldsmith defensier,- defender deguier, guardian of land desenier, tithing-man desmier, tax-collector despesier,^ spendthrift domengier, possessor of property drapier, draper ensenairier,^ standard-bearer ermenier, dealer in ermine skins escarnier,"^ mocker escarselier, pocket-maker esclopier, maker of wooden shoes escicdelier,^ maker (finisher) of shields (2d meaning) esperonier, maker of spurs espesier, grocer espondier,^ executor of will esportalier, basket-maker esquelier, bell-maker or dealer estanhier, tinsmith estanquier, overseer of pond estestier* butcher who sells heads estivandier,^ harvest-worker estradier, robber evangelistier, priest (2d meaning) fachier, farmer who gives half produce as rent fachilhier,^ sorcerer fachurier(a),^ sorceress faisier, porter faisilhier, porter cozina, kitchen dart, javelin {dart, dart) {*daurada, from daurar) defensa, defense dec, land, property, boundary desen, tithe desma, tax, tithe despes, expenditure dotnenge, property drap, cloth ensenhiera, standard ermeni, ermine escarn, mockery escarsela, pocket esclop, wooden shoe escut, shield esperon, spur espeda, spice esponda, edge of bed csportela, small basket esquelha, bell estanh, tin estanc, pond testa, head (estivanda ( ?) Provengal aversier. Provengal for- mations in -lER are: blanquier, tanner blanc, white caninier, dog-fancier canin, canine cartanier, tetrarch cartan, quartan, quadrennial enjermier, nurse enferm, ill viejanier,\ mediator mejan, intermediate Still denoting the agent, the suffix -lER, from -ARIUS, is found added to verb-stems in a few words, a list of which will be given below. Some of these words, how- ever, appear to have -ATIER instead of -lER added to the verb-stem, and these will be treated first. An example of this kind of formation is clamatier, one who complains; also creditor or dun, possibly a Latin formation. Clama- tarius, indeed, is given in Du Cange. Levy notes another form omitted by Raynouard — clamadier — which would resemble dauradier, frontadier, and other words in the 1 Olcott, 138. See the adjective suffix -lER for a more thorough treatment of the origin of these words. arius =fustuarius; (see Olcott, 153) ; lanier, wool-dealer < lanarius (Olcott, 155); lansier, lance-heaieT <.lanccarius (Olcott, 155); lanternier, lantern-Tnaker See double sufRxes, p. 384. 2 Yot aplevina, see parasj'ntheta, p. 528. t There are several words ending in -INA, and having no correspond- ing simple form, which may be explained in various ways. These words are: aigleniina, arvina, bergantina, hozina, cardairina, floisina, gevelina, jaina, masmudina, and plovina. arvina, grease<.arvina, and bozina, inouth.n'. This also might help bring about the usual development of -lOLUS to -OL in Provencal. There are only two words found retaining the ^/-element — bestiola and camhriola, the former of which is of Latin origin and the latter learned. As a popular diminutive of cambra, we should expect cambrola. The suffix, however, appears never to have been much in use in popular formations, there being a number of other equally useful diminutive forms to take its place. It is no longer used in forming new words in French. 1 Die. Gen., I, 53, sec. 86. 242 Word-Formation in Provencal The suffix -OL is found in the following Provencal formations : albola, white baptismal clothes aisola,^ small ax bandola, company, party barbola,^ barbed hook bresol, cradle catnbriola, small room crucol,'^ pitcher estanhol, small pond flaujol, small flute; also deception flautol, small flute fogasol,^ small buttered roll lasol, cord masola, club mosola, winter wheat nuchola, screech-owl orfanol, orphan palhol, childbed ; woman in childbed pesol, wool remaining after the re- moval of the web pezol, pea plumasol,^ feather-broom quill puojol, hill ierso/,'t male falcon alba,^ alb aisa, ax banda, band barba, beard bretz, cradle cambra, room cruga, pitcher estanh, pond flauja, flute flauta, flute fogasa, buttered roll latz, string masa, club mos, moss ( ?) nuch, night orfe(n), orphan palha,^ straw pes, weight peze, pea pluftna, feather puoi, hill tertz, third For words in -AIROL, see double suffixes, p. 399. 1 Alba in Du Cange has, however, the special meaning that albola has here. 2 For a probable Lat. source, see Nouv. Ess., 162. ' See Die. Gen., introduction, sec. 86. * The c is pecuHar in this word. Another derivative of cruga is crugon (Hkewise cruol). Mod. Prov. has both cruco and crugo, and it would appear as though there might have been a form cruca as well as cruga, from the Germanic k in kruka. C would be the regular develop- ment of this letter. 6 See double suffixes, p. 383. « Palha, straw, is here apparently used with the meaning of bed. ' Possibly a Lat. formation. See Korting (No. 9,488), tertiolus. t There is also a large list of words ending in -OL(A) not formed in Prov. Many of them are simply the Prov. forms of Lat. words. The list is as follows: auriol{a), oriole; arestol, rest for a lance; hestiola, small animal; bredola, footstool; bretol, vain hope(?); brufol, buffalo; Formation of Nouns 243 -ON The Provencal suffix -ON is one that must be divided and subdivided a good deal in order to show all of its meanings and changes of meaning. The Latin suffix -ONE, from which it is derived, seems to have been rather vague in meaning and use, for not only do we find -ON added indiscriminately to nouns and to verbs, but its meanings are different in the various languages in which it is used, its principal use in most of them being augmen- camola, boreworm; capsola, small box: caupOl, a kind of ship; dragol, dragon; espol, spool; faisola, belt, band; fongol, fungus; framola, jaw; grifol, fountain; malhol, vine, cutting; mezol, marrow, pith; mojol, beaker; naujol, tedium; niola, uvula; nozol, kind of bird; orsol, pitcher; pairol, kettle; pampol, vine-branch; parvol, child; pegola, pitch; pibol, poplar, poplar wood. Of these words, in auriol, bestiola, capsola, faisola, fongol, malhol, mezol, mojol, orsol, pairol, parvol, and pegola, the Lat. originals aureolus, bestiola, capsula, fasciola, fungulus, malleolus, medulla, modiolus, urceolus, *pariolum (Korting, No. 6,872), parvulus, and picula are sufficiently obvious, though it must be noted that simple words capse, fais, fonge, malh, orsa, parv, and pega exist in Prov. beside the ones with the suffix, and that parvol is an adjective used substantively. Other words of Lat. origin, whose source is not quite so obvious, are bredola, iootstooK j)redella (see Diez, 391) , brufol, buffalo, from *bufalus (Class. Lat. bubalus) , in which the penultimate syllable appears to have been dropped and incorrectly replaced (cf. Fr. bouffle); caupol, a kind of shipK caupulus (see Du Cange) ; camola, hoveworTn. See fricon in the preceding list. 2 Here the suffix seems to change a mascuHne noun to feminine as well as to add diminutive force. t The words ending in -ON denoting animals, not formed in Prov. are: corgozon, furon, gorgolhon, grifon, and garanhon. The first four seem to be of Lat. origin: corgozon, a kind of insect< *corcociMS (derived from corcus) -|-suffix. furon, ferret See double suffixes, p. 384. 2 Cf. the O.Fr. randon, which the Die. Gen. derives from randir. In Prov., however, the noun randa, of Germ, origin, is found, and is the probable base- word. t Other words ending in -ON, but not having the Pi'ov. suffix, are as follows: aranhon, wild plum. See Mistral, aragnoun. aviron, tiller =prefix A--{-viron. See prefix-formation, p. 464, below. bodoison, rascal; stopper; excrement. These meanings are given in Mistral, under boudissoun. The word is very obscure. It seems to have some connection with the Fr. bouchon, but just what is not clear. bordon, sta,fi See p. 2.38. = Cooper, 25. Formation of Nouns 253 ricor, nobility, power ric, noble, powerful rosor, redness ros, red santor, sanctity sant, saintly tendror, tenderness tendre, tender tristor, sadness triste, sad velhor, old age velh, old verdor, greenness vert, green The formations on verbs are as follows : afeor, height a/sar, raise. Cf. Sp. alzar<*al- tiare, Fr. hausser blasmor, blame blasmar, blame cremor, burning cremar, burn cridor, uproar cridar, crj' doptor, doubt doptar, doubt fonsor, depth fonsar, bury, dig iror, fury, rage , {irar [ ?],i rage, rave) lauzor, praise lauzar, praise leujor, wantonness; lightening, leujar, lighten relief lezor,- leisure lezer, be at leisure (infinitive is found only as noun) luzor,^ light of the eyes luzir, shine pendor, incUnation pendre, hang pezor, weight pezar, weigh pruzor, itching pruzer, itch ratihor, pillage raubar, rob, plunder sobror, superiority sobrar, subjugate sostror, depreciation sostrar, lower, depreciate trigor,^\ delay trigar, delay Many of the words in the above list could, from their appearance, be formed as well on a simple noun as on a 1 There is a past participle iVa«Lat. iralus, and there is a compound azirar. These things make a simple verb *irar seem possible. "- Beside lezor and luzor exist two other interesting forms, legor and lugor. These words would seem to indicate that the suffix -OR was added to the Lat. stems lee and luc. The other words, on the other hand, lezer and luzor, seem to point to a later addition of the suffix. Still, formations on lezer and luzir in Prov. beside the rarely used legor and lugor would not be im*possible. t Also of Lat. origin, frior -ADURA continued to be added to verb-stems and formed abstracts denoting the action indicated by the verb. -URA, detached from a past participle which had come to be used as an adjec- tive, and then added to other adjectives, also had abstract force, but denoted a condition — that of the quality described by the adjective. These are the two kinds of abstract meanings that are found, and the development this suffix has taken illustrates th(^ principle that abstracts formed on verbs denoted action,^ whereas those formed on adjectives denoted condition. Another less usual kind of formation, that on nouns, is due to the use of past participles as nouns. The suffix -URA seemed to give little change to nouns of this kind, and this may explain why it is found in a few new forma- tions joined to nouns whose meaning it changes but little. Before turning to the Provencal formations on both adjectives and nouns, it might be well to enumerate the possible Provencal formations on past participles. These wo find to be: apostura, addition. The past participle of aponre is nposl, but there is also a noun aposta, meaning "addition." cobertura, covering. The past participle of cobrir is coberl, but there are also the nouns cobert, covered place, and coberta, covering. descobertura, discovery. The past participle of descobrir is descobert. desconfitura, discomfiture. The past participle of desconfir is desconfit, but there is also the noun desconfida, discomfiture. ofertura, sacrifice. The past participle of ofrir is ofert, but the noun oferta, offering, also exists. ' For formations of this kind, see the suffixes -ADURA, -EDURA, and -IDURA, pp. 57 S., above. Formation of Nouns 263 pertrachura, picture. The past participle of pertraire is pertrach, but the noun pertrach also exists. repostura, response ( ?) (Raynouard translates "retreat ")• The past participle of respondre is repotst, but the nouns respost and resposta both exist, meaning response.! It seems probable that the Provengal examples may have been formed on past participles in imitation of Latin models, but the existence of the noun in every case would give a starting-point for formations on nouns. Such formations are seen in : aurura, gold-colored trout aitr, gold graisura, grease graisa, grease penchura, head of hair {penche, comb) One other word is somewhat puzzling. This is cor- rompura, which apparently adds -URA to an infinitive stem instead of adding -TURA, which here would have given -EDURA. Levy, however, suggests that the word should be corrected to corrompedura.^ Unless the sug- gestion is adopted, the formation of the word is entirely exceptional and contrary to all principles of word-forma- tion in the language. The origin of the formations on adjectives has already been stated, as well as their meaning, which is abstract, and denotes a condition: altura, height alt, high haisura, lowness, low position has, low (The i, as in baiseza, may be due to the influence of baisar.) »I, 381. tThe forms of certain Lat. origin should also be mentioned: arsura, burning As in canones, for example, or leones, given under -ES, p. 309. - All parts of speech formed by means of double suffixes will be treated together in chap. v. As examples of real double suffixes, lin- hatjal and novelet may be mentioned, and as examples of compound ones, coladier and hastarez. 5 See pp. 272 and 274 for treatment of the word. Formation of Adjectives 267 in their use, is the scarcity of examples of stems showing two or more of these endings. ^ Examples of the inter- change of -ABLE and -ADOR are seen in ensenhable and ensenhador, which are, however, different in meaning,'' and in espaventable and espaventador, of which the latter, however, appears to be used only as a noun. -lU is found in agradiu beside agradahle, both meaning "pleas- ing." It does not, however, appear ever to have the idea of passive possibility seen in -ABLE and -ADOR, and, rather than the idea of possibility, it seems often to mean "performing" the action expressed by the verb, as in ado7miiu, domineering, asolasiu, entertaining, cargiu, burdensome, etc., which is almost precisely the force seen in -ABLE and -ADOR^ when attached to intransi- tive verbs. The suffix that is attached to nouns as well as to verbs, -AT, denotes possession of a quality, as has been stated. It was originally a participial ending and not a suffix at all, but past participles were often used as adjectives, and an adjective suffix -AT was thus created. Later on, it became attached to nouns as well, owing to the coexistence of nouns similar in form to the verbs to which it was added.^ Here it may be well also to mention -UT, detached 1 The examples given here are almost the only ones, whereas under nouns, for example the abstracts, compare the number of examples of the same stem having -AMEN, -ANSA, and -AZON added to it, and giving the same meaning. • Ensenhable = teachable, and ensenhador apparently means "about to teach." 3 The difference in idea between "performing" and "capable of performing" being a rather slight one and often hard to define. * As, for example, molher beside molherar. Molherat, married, the past participle of molherar, was used as an adjective in such a phrase otne molherat, married man, and then, through confusion with molher, woman, wife, the suffix became attached to nouns as well as to verbs. See Meyer-Llibke, II, 565, where coronatus is given as an example of this process. For suffix -AT, see p. 298 below. 268 AVORD-FORMATION IN PROVENgAL from the past participles of verbs ending in -er and -re. It is found added only to nouns, with a specialized de- velopment of the idea of possession.' The onl}' other suffixes ever attached to verbs are -lER and -OS, the former meaning "pertaining to" or "bear- ing," and the latter generally meaning "full of." Both of these suffixes, however, were originally attached to nouns. The extension of their use to verbs may have been due to some such confusion as that found in the case of -AT. 2. Next, turning to the suffixes added to nouns, we find them forming the adjectives expressing resemblance or having the idea of "belonging" or "pertaining to" men- tioned above. No very strict classification can be made of their meanings, as these shade into each other much more than meanings of the nouns, which could be classified as abstracts, collectives, etc. The adjectival suffixes added to nouns, on the other hand, all give the same kind of force to these words — that of "pertaining to," "like" or "of" the noun to which they are attached, although these may be described as ideas of belonging, resemblance, and material. The suffixes of this kind are -AL, -AN, -AR, -ENC, -ES, -ESC, and -IN. Examples may be given to shoAV how nearly alike the ideas just mentioned really are. Almost every word can be translated in ways showing more than one of these ideas. Thus we find fogal, of fire or fiery; rozan, of rose, pink; lachenc, of milk, milky, milk-giving, and uvenc, of grapes, grape-colored; espanes, of Spain, Spanish, and leones, of a lion, lion-like; mulin, of mules, mulish, etc. As there is so little differ- ence between the different ideas which the suffixes added to nouns express that many words had more than one > See p. 330, below. Formation of Adjectives 269 of them, it is natural to find these suffixes sub- stituted freely for one another. They appear, indeed, to be almost interchangeable. Thus we find with the same meaning, fogal and foguenc; rozan and rozenc; lachin and lachenc; espanes and espanesc. It may be seen from this list that the suffix -ENC is added to the same words that take also -AL, -AN, and -IN, and with the same meaning: the only perceptible difference is in the kind of noun to which each suffix was most frequently added. -AL, for example, retains enough traces of its original use to be found added to some nouns denoting rank, as comtal, consolal,^ etc. -ENC, originally denoting material, was added to many names of things of decided color, as lack, milk, nieu, snow, sane, blood, which may have been the cause of a later addition of the suffix to many adjectives of color." -ES is the commonest suffix denoting nationality, retaining thus its Latin usage of being attached to nouns of place, though this usage has been extended. -ESC, generally meaning simply "per- taining to," shows its twofold origin in a few adjectives of nationality formed on nouns of place; and -IN express- ing the idea of "pertaining to" and "like" is very fre- quently added to names of animals and metals, again following Latin usage. 3. Finally, we come to the suffixes attached to adjec- tives. These are, for the most part, the same as the ones just studied as being attached to nouns, -AL, -AN, -AR and -ESC, as well as -lER and -OS, which, in addition to verbs, were attached to both nouns and adjectives. Aside from the suffixes -ET and -EN, -EL is the only one attached 1 From the Lat. cansularis. 2 In these words it modifies to some extent the force of the adjective. Thus rogenc, reddish, from rog, red, etc. See p. 308 below. 270 Word-Formation in Provencal oxclusivply to adjectives, and this and all the others just named, when attached to adjectives, change in no way these words, and are, therefore, examples of the forceless suffix mentioned above. It is thus possible to deduce from these examples the rule that adjectival suffixes, wlum attached to adjectives, have no force whatever. The only excep- tions would be -ET and -EN. -ET, as has been seen in the first chapter, is a true diminutive suffix, and turns into diminutive forms the words to which it is attached, whether nouns or adjectives. -EN is attached to numeral adjectives, and changes cardinals into ordinals. The individual suffixes forming adjectives will now be studied in alphabetic order. -ABLE, -IBLE -ABLE and -IBLE are the forms which we find in Provencal derived from the Latin adjective suffix -BILIS. In Latin, the suffix was regularly attached to verbs, generally to the present stem, and the Romance languages have continued that process; they have, however, failed to form many new words on the stem of the past participle, one of the processes of formation in Latin. The forma- tions in Provengal are made on the infinitive stem, as might be expected from the other verbal suffixes that we have studied. Yet instead of finding the forms -ABLE, -EBLE, and -IBLE which we might expect from joining -BLE<-B(I)LIS to the stem-vowel of the three con- jugations, we find practically nothing but -ABLE and -IBLE, -EBLE being found in only one word (of Latin origin). Yet on examining the lists more closely, there are found very few words in -IBLE, and these are all evidently learned formations in Provencal. The reason Formation of Adjectives 271 is that in Latin there was no -IBILIS, the suffix being added only to a, e, i, and u. -UBLE is not found at all in Provencal, -EBLE only in iraisehle (found also as iraisable), and -IBLE only in the few learned formations mentioned, one of which — fluxible — is evidently formed on a past participle, fluxum, from the verb fluo. This leaves, then, only -ABLE, which has not only persisted in adjectives derived from verbs of the first conjugation, but has also extended its use so as to be joined to verbs of other conjugations and to take the place of -EBLE and -UBLE. Thus the development of the suffix -BILIS is entirely different from that of -MENTUM, -TIONE, -TOR, and -TURA, all of which have taken three forms in Provencal — one beginning with a for verbs in -ar, one with e for verbs in -er or -re, and one with i for verbs in -ir, the whole ending being added as a single suffix — for instance, -ATOREM, -ATURAM, -ETOREM, -ETU- RAM, to the steam am-, cred-, etc. -BILIS, though frequent in Vulgar Latin, does not appear to have formed many new words in Provencal, or ever to have been felt sufficiently as a suffix to have been influenced by the verb to which it was joined. It had come clown in a great many words from very early Latin,^ and as the forms in -ABLE were much more numerous than all the others, -ABLE came to be used in many words which had originally ended in -IBILIS or -UBILIS, and all of the new popular formations took this ending. The process for this suffix seems to have been, then, the reduction of -BILIS to one form used in all new popu- lar words — the form added rightly to stems of verbs of the first conjugation, -ABLE. -IBLE was used in new words, but only in learned ones modeled on Latin words 1 Cooper, p. 96. 272 Word-Formation in Provencal such as audibilis, which, however, had a short i} Formations on nouns are very few. The meaning of the suffix is to denote possibihty or capabihty, but a possibihty of two kinds. Thus amonest- able means "persuasive" or "capable of persuading," but it means also "capable of being persuaded" or "per- suadable," the first being the active, and the second the passive use. Words with both of these meanings are, however, rare, the rule being that -ABLE added to an active verb like amonestar should give the passive meaning; whereas an intransitive verb could have of course only the active meaning in the derived adjective. In Latin, the usual meaning was passive, although the active meaning is not uncommon. The Provengal formations- with passive meaning are as follows: atnonestable,^ persuadable amoneatar, persuade azirable, detestable azirar, hate comprehendable, comprehensible comprehender, understand (The Latin word is in -IBILIS and formed on the perfect stem) conlribuable, assessable contribuir, contribute corronipable, corruptible. This word is changed from a Latin word in -IBLE, which is formed on a perfect stem. damnatjable, damageable damnaljar, damage domesjable, tameable domesjar, tame engardable, noticeable engardar, look at ensenhable, teachable ensenhar, teach ' Not in Harper's Dictionary, but White and Riddle give a reference to Boethius. Murray derives the Eng. "audible" from a Mediaeval Lat. audibilis with a long i. - Words of Lat. origin arc inchided in those lists when they show a change of -IBLE to -ABLE, making the words as we find them really Prov. formations. 3 See also the list on p. 274. Formation of Adjectives 273 entendable, intelligible escomunegable, excommunicable esgardable, visible figurable, capable of receiving a figure fizable, trustworthy flairable, smellable gazanhable, ploughable incom portable, unendurable =co»i- portable with negative prefix increzable, incredible: Latin in- credibilis invensable, invincible: Latin in- vindbilis justiciable, judgeable leudable, taxable tnalhable, malleable penhorable, pledgeable pezable, weighable piatable, pitiable plegable, pliable prendable, acceptable reprendable, reprehensible: Latin reprehensibilis (ending -IBILIS and on perfect stem). sobremontahle, f surmountable entender, understand escomunegar, excommunicate esgardar, look at figurar, give figure to fizar, trust flairar, smell gazanhar, plough justiciar, do justice leudar, tax malhar, hammer penhorar, pledge pezar, weigh piatar, pity plegar, bend prendre, take, accept reprendre, blame, accuse sobremontar, surmount Most of the adjectives in -ABLE that are active in meaning are formed on intransitive verbs: agradable, pleasing, agreeable bezonhable, necessary consonable, unanimous continuable, continuous corrable, able to go agradar, please bezonhar, be necessary (also ac- tive) consonar, be of one accord continuar, continue correr, run t Also, of Lat. origin, we find: amable, colpahle, conservable, corbable, curable, dezirable, endeclinable, gostable, gravable, importable, inter pretable, multiplicable, proable, and termenable. Another word in -ABLE is esplechable. This is, however, a substantive, the only one with this end- ing. Its original adjectival force is of course clear. It means a man whose property may be seized judicially. Its substantive use undoubt- edly comes from the disappearance of ome in the phrase ome esplechable. From esplechar, levy, a legal term. 274 Word-Formation in PRovENgAL costumable, customary convenable, suitable dezagradnblc, unpleasing desguizable, changeable endurable, everlasting escolorjahle, slippery evaporable, volatile grevable, burdensome meravelhable, marvelous nozable, weighty penable, painful perdurable, lasting profetizable, prophetic sert'iable- (instead of servible), ser viceable vergonhahlc, f shameful costumar, be customary convenir, suit dezagradar, be unpleasing desguizar, change endurar, endure escolorjar, slip evaporar, evaporate grevar, weigh down meravelhar, marvel nozer, injure penar, torture (perdurar,^ last) profetizar, prophecy servir, serve vergonhnr, be ashamed A few, however, of these adjectives with active meaning are formed on transitive verbs, and these, therefore, but for the beginnings of the opposite process in Latin, we should expect to find with passive force. Thus amonestahle, from amonestar, means persuasive as well as persuadable: decevahle, deceitful defensable, defensive. defensibilis degastable, wasteful espaventable, frightful traucable, incisive For Latin decebre, deceive defendre, defend degaiitar, waste espaventar, frighten traucar, cut Many verbs, however, such as penar and degastar, are used both transitively and intransitively, which makes it hard to classify the derived adjectives.^ 1 Not found in Prov., but existed in Lat. 2 Possibly through influence of amiable ( ?) , according to the Die. Gen. See under serviable. ' Another similar word is naludable, healthful. The verb on which it is apparently formed is saludar, to greet, having no connection with it in meaning. If formed on saludar, it was doubtless because it had originally a meaning of "give health to," hence greet. t A word of Lat. origin belonging to this list is mirableKmirabilis. Formation of Adjectives 275 One word in -EBLE has already been mentioned — iraiseble. This, however, is Latin, from irascibilis. Raynouard has iraisable. The Provengal words in -IBLE, all learned formations, are as follows: envazible, invadable envazir, invade franhible, fragile franker, break marcezible, perishable marcezir, wither, fade percorrible, having currency percorre, run through polible, polishable polir, polish tazible, silent tazer, be silent unible, f fit to be joined iinir, join The same rule of formations with passive force on transitive verbs, and formations with active force on intransitive verbs, may be seen here also. -ABLE and -IBLE are also found added to nouns in a few words. -ABLE is seen in: metable, fit, suitable meta, limit pasionable, capable of passion^ pasion, passion questable, subject to the "questa" questa, a tax -IBLE is seen in: patzible, peaceable patz, peace Such formations might easily be due to the influence of such forms as vergonhable, beside which the noun vergonha as well as the verb vergonhar existed. Before leaving the Provencal forms of the Latin -BILIS, it is necessary to mention another set of forms found in a few words, namely, -A VOL (found in two words), -EVOL (found in three), and -IVOL (in all other cases). These forms clearly represent the same Latin suffix as is seen in -ABLE, -EBLE, and -IBLE, and are different develop- 1 Another word with the same meaning is pasihle, coming from a Lat. jMSsibilis, derived from passus, the past participle of potior. t Of Lat. origin there is nozible. See nozable above for a correspond- ng Prov. formation. 276 Word-Formation in Provencal merits of it. A large number of these words are found in a Waldensian text, and probably were influenced by the Italian form -EVOLE (<-BILIS) as well as by -OL <-ULUS. The other words are limited to a few other texts, apparently showing the dialect of the same region. The frequency with which -IVOL is found may be due to the fact that these words are learned formations made by using -IBILIS. In the words in -EVOL, two of which are found in the Waldensian text mentioned above, the influence of the Italian -EVOLE appears to have been even stronger. The list of the formations on verbs follows : cagivol, perishable eager (for cazerf), fall deleehivol, delijihtful deleehar, delight enereisivol, disgusting encreiser, be displeasing espautevol, frightful espautar, frighten espaventivol, frightful espaventar, frighten estimivol, calculable estimar, calculate fructifiavol, fruitful fruciifiar, bear fruit mensurivol, measurable mensurar, measure movevol, moveable mover, move noizivol, injurious nozer, injure odorivol, odoriferous odorar, smell onorivol, rich, magnificent onorar, honor, celebrate, adorn perdonavol (in phrase an p. = perdonar, pafdon jubilee) profechivol, f profitable profechar, profit A formation on a noun is : baronivol, manly, virile baron, man -AC, -EC, -IC, -DC, -UC For the adjectives in Provengal ending in -AC, -EC, -IC, -OC, and -UC, as well as for the nouns with these endings,^ it is necessary to as.sume as a source for the ' P. 18. t The ending -IVOL is also seen in the adverb enseguivolmen, in consequence. Formation of Adjectives 277 suffix a Latin -ACCUS, -ECCUS, -OCCUS, and -UCCUS, instead of the forms with a single c. There are no real examples of -ACCUS in Provencal, ebriac being nothing but the Latin word ebriacus. For words in -AIC, see -IC, just below. -EC, however, is found in three words in which it appears to represent a suffix -ECCUS: bavec, talkative, connected with bavar, to chatter, both of which are apparently derived from *bava, drivel, not found in Provencal, but coming from a Latin *baba, found in other languages as bava, bave, from which many other words are derived, as in French, bavei', bavard, bavarder, etc.; canec, gray, can being found in Provencal, translated by Raynouard as ardent, though the meaning is not quite clear ;^ and manec, fixed, stopping, evidently connected with the verb maner, to remain. -IC is found in several words in Provengal, but in most of them, it is evidently not a Provengal suffix that is to be dealt with, but instead, a remodeling of learned words existing in Latin.- The complete list of the words in -IC is as follows: algaravic, deific, ebraic, forsaic, jiizaic, laic, niozaic, nizaic. In this list, the number of words in which the -IC is preceded by a, making probable a suffix -AIC instead of -IC, is at once obvious. The words in which -IC is not preceded by a, and the suffix -IC is clear, will be treated first: 1 Can, given in Levy I, 195, is probably corrupt. Levy here refers to a commentary of his own in Litbl., XI, 344, on the text of the Auzels Casadors. In U. 2725 and 2726 we find blancs and cans rhyming. Yet it is quite possible that, although not found, can, gray, from canus, may have existed and have been the base of canec. 2 As there are peculiarities in the formation of all of these words, however, each one will be treated individually, as though it were an ordinary Pro v. formation. 278 Word-Formation in Provencal Deific, godliko, devout, comes from the Latin deificus, and shows, therefore, a shifting of the accent. It is a word modeled in Provencal times on the Latin source.^ Another word showing a shifting of the accent, making possible the ending -IC, is algaravic, arabic. Raynouard gives arabi and arahit, and Mistral arabi and arabic. Arabic certainly must have existed also in Old Provengal and have been formed, like the above words, with a shifting of the accent, on arabicus. Algaravic seems to point to a transfer of the suffix from arabic to the word found in Spanish as algarabia (from an Arabic algarabia), and probably borrowed in Provencal from Spanish. Three of the other words in the above list^ are simply regular developments of the Latin unaccented suffix -ICUS, preceded by a, and giving therefore -AIC and not -IC in Provencal, and another is likewise a Latin forma- tion.^ The only word still remaining to be treated is therefore farsaic, strong, powerful. This is beyond doubt a Pro- vengal formation, and its meaning, which there are man}' 1 And to this word should also be added, though -IC is preceded by a, juzaic, Jewish, which shows a similar shifting of the accent. (Observe the rhyme-words given in Levy.) The word is from the Lat. judaicus, from Juda. It is interesting to compare it with ebraic, given below, in which apparently the accent did not shift (compare its rhyming with laic, which is often written Zee), though we find the shifting in the re- modeled Fr. form hebraique. 2 These are, of course, ebraic {Hehrew) Levy gives one example of the form lecai in the accusative case, singular. All the other examples, however, have lecais. 2 This seems to be a real example of a Prov. suffix -AIS, used, for some reason or other, instead of the usual suffixes of nationality, -ES and -ESC. Most of the other words with this ending -AIS have contempt- uous force, and a depreciative suffix -AIS may have been supposed to exist and have been here substituted for -ESC. There is a Lat. word morax, which would give morais, but it is formed on morior and means Formation of Adjectives 287 -AL, IL The Provengal suffix -AL has already been treated under the nouns/ where it was seen that most of the formations were nothing but adjectives used substantively in Provengal itself. -AL represents the Latin -ALIS, a suffix used to form adjectives on nouns, and exceedingly common in the popular language. Its use was very broad and varied: perhaps most commonly it served to indicate a similarity or resemblance to the noun to which it was attached, as ahisal (formed on a6is)= like an abyss, or deep. It also meant "belonging" or "pertaining to," and denoted beside, suitability and relationship. In short, it became one of the principal adjectival suffixes, in Romance as well as in Latin. Olcott- notes also its use in the official terminology, particularly in the inscriptions, to denote rank, which use is also found represented to a certain extent in Provencal. -AL is added to nouns in Provengal in: abisal, deep abis, abyss aceiral, of steel acier, steel agraral, cultivated.' alodial, allodial alodi, allode aventural, enterprising, bold aventura, adventure basional, pertaining to a line baston, line boaral,^ belonging to oxen; rough bou, ox "delaying." Still, if it did persist until Prov. times, it may have helped in the development of morais, Moorish. The other words ending in -AIS are all of Lat. origin, and are as follows: biais, slope, slant, shift (a noun), possibly from bifax; punais, stinking, probably from putmasius or putinaceus ; malvais, probably from malevatius, though its origin is somewhat uncertain; and verais, true, probably from verax, -acem, though the forms of the accusative masculine, verai, and the feminine veraia are difficult to explain. 1 P. 63. 2 See Olcott, 227. 3 See double suffixes, p. 398, n. 1 ; agraral used as a noun is also given on p. 64, above. The formations in -ARAL are treated in the note to this word given there as well as under double suffixes. 288 Word-Formation in Provencal cabal, capital, cxcollent calendal, calendal campal, "in the open" (found only in the phrase balalha campal, pitched battle) canorgal, belonging to yearly tax cantonal, pertaining to a corner caral,^ square caresmal, of Lent, lenten cartaironal,^ pertaining to a quar- ter-pound cavaleiral,^ belonging to knights colpal, guilty comhnl, lying in a valley comtal, pertaining to a count consolal,* consular coral, heartrending costumal, customary diablal, diabolical diaral,^ daily dictional, concerning words domergal, of the domain; of Sun- day'. Dotnergue is found mean- ing Sunday, but not with the meaning of domain. Domergal looks like *dominicalis. cap, head calenda, calends camp, field canorga, canonicate; canonry, prebend (having a yearly tax ?) canton, corner caire, square caresma. Lent cartairon, quarter-pound cavalier, knight colpa, guilt comba, valley comte, count consol, consul cor, heart costuma, custom diable, devil diction, diction ' The form carat instead of cairal is worthy of note. Whether com- ing direct from the Lat. qiiadralis, or derived from caire, cairat would be the regular form. Quadrate, wine-measure, is found in Du Cange. In late learned words, d did not change to i, and quadrate may have had some influence on the form of carol. 2 See also double suffixes, p. 386, n. 1. 3 One of the verj^ few words having -eir- as the first part of a double suffix instead of -air-. See double suffixes, p. 386, n. 2, for explanation. * This word seems to contain an assimilation of r to I, and represent consotarK consularis. 5 See double suffixes, p. 398, n. 1. Dialis is found in Oicott, 230, and as diarius is also Lat., the conditions that formed agraral are reproduced. See also agrarat under nouns, p. 64. Formation of Adjectives 289 eclezial, ecclesiastic. Eclezia is not found in Provencal, but only a more popular development of ecclesia, church. Eclezial is cer- tainly a learned formation in ProvenQal on the Latin ecclesia. -AL could therefore be used in learned as well as in popular words. esciental, sensible esporlal, belonging to the esporla estorial, historical ferial, ferial figural, figurative (Olcott gives figuraliter, filal, spinnable fogal, fiery fondal, deep fonsal, bottom fontal, of a spring frairal, brotherly fumal, smoky gregorial, Gregorian linhatjal,- ancestral lobal, greedy mairal, principal inanal, of the hand martirial, bloodthirsty mercadal, mercantile me{z)alhal, worth a "me(z)alha" molinal, of a mill muzical,^ musical novenal, pertaining to a "no vena" novial, nuptial nuechal, nocturnal oblial, subject to the "oblia" onsal, weighing an ounce organal (found in the phrase vena o., meaning jugular vein) escien{t), knowledge esporla, a tax estoria, history feri, weekday figura, figure though not figuralis) fil, thread foe, fire fon{d), depth fans, bottom, depth fon(t), spring fraire, brother fum, smoke Gregori, Gregory linhatje, Uneage loba, wolf maire, mother man, hand martiri, torture mercat, market me{z)alha, a coin molin, mill muzica, music novena, a religious exercise novia, bride nuech, night oblia, a tax onsa, ounce 1 P. 23. 2 See double suflBxes, p. 387. ' Muzical is found in many of the Romance languages, but inusicalis is not found in Lat. 290 Word-Formation in Provencal palntal, a span long paludal, swampj' paponal, belonging to a grand- father parofianal, parochial patacal, worth a "patac" patrial, belonging to one's native land poblal, public pogezal, worth a "poges" polgal (found in phrase anguila p. meaning "swamp-eel") ponhal, large as the fist porcariaal- (found in phrase dart p., a kind of spear) procesio7uil,^ of a procession profechal, useful provizional,^ provisional questal, subject to the "questa" terral, of earth venal, veinous vergonhal, shameful vilanal, f rustic pnbna, span paint, swamp papon, grandfather parofian, parishioner patac, a coin patria, native land poble, people poges, a coin ipolga), polgar,^ thumb pouh, fist pore, pig procesion, procession profech, use, profit provizion, provision questa, a tax terra, earth vena, vein vergonha, shame vilan, villein 1 The anguila polgal was a short, thick eel, probably shaped some- what like the thumb. If polga ever meant thumb, which is not certain (see Levy, VI, 430) but probable, (compare other formations, as polgada), polgal was an adjective meaning "like the thumb," formed on it. Other- wise polgal and polgada are difficult to explain. 2 This is a most puzzling word. Thomas {Nouv. Ess., 92) suggests that porcarisal may be an elongated form of porcariz representing por- caricius, thus supposing a triple suffix added to pore. But in all the adjectives ending in -ARICIUS this suffix has become -AREZ, as in *bastarez, cesarez, crocarez, etc. We should expect, therefore, porcarez instead of porcariz, and, with -AL added, a form *porcarezal. It seems possible that porcarisal is derived from porcaritz +-AL, the porcaritz being formed of jiorc, pig, and aritz, hedgehog, just as porcespin, porcu- pine, was formed. Porcarisal is always used with dart and the dart porcarisal may have been the spear pertaining to (or used in hunting) the *porcaritz ( =wild boar?). ' These words are found in late Lat., though a Prov. simple word also exists. t Also, of Lat. origin, canaK.canalis; cervigaKcervicalis; cruaK. crudelis (with change of suffix) ; feminal < feminalis, festal < festalis, Formation of Adjectives 291 Besides, however, the formations on nouns just given, there are a number of words also that are formed on adjec- tives, and in most of these, as might be expected, the suffix brings Kttle perceptible change of meaning to the simple word. It is merely a case of the addition of a suffix for a greater length, of the kind that has been met mth so often: a{d)versal, adverse cincal,^ fifth detzal,^ tenth diversal, diverse divinal, di\'ine francal, free frejal, hard. If the Provencal /re^, Uke the Latin frigidiis, ever meant "stiff," there is no diffi- culty in the meaning of frejal. frescal, fresh inumanal, inhuman, majorat, principal, superior maritimal, maritime ochal,^ eighth perfondal, deep poblical,'^ public prosmal, next quintal, one-fifth of the produce of which is to be paid as a tax quinzal,^ fifteenth a{d)vers, averse cine, five deiz, ten divers, diverse divin, divine franc, free freg, cold fresc, fresh inuman, inhuman major, larger, principal maritim, maritime och, eight perfon(d), deep poblic, pubhc prosme, next quint, fifth quinze, fifteen 1 In cincal, detzal, ochal, and quinzal the adjective of number changes from cardinal to ordinal. 2 There is also a form poblejal. This may have been formed on the verb poblejar, because of confusion in the formation of poblical, beside which the verb poblicar as well as the adjective poblic existed. lacrimaKilacrimalis; mairenal, maternaK maierna/is; monacal, monkish Olcott, 245. Formation of Adjectives 299 suffix than as a past participle used here as an adjective.^ The meaning of the suffix was generally to denote posses- sion — a possession of some quality or thing denoted by the simple word, verb or noun. It was added, then, to verbs and to nouns, and it was also used, in some cases, only when a prefix was used at the same time with the word. The suffix will be treated and classified according to the various kinds of formations which it made, as: the cases where it was (1) added to verb-stems; (2) added to verb-stems, but only in connection with a prefix used at the same time ; (3) added to nouns ; (4) added to nouns together with a prefix. 1. -AT is added to verb-stems in the following list. Many of the derived words had prefixes, yet these were not used in the formation of the adjective, but existed in the verb on which it was formed. abandonat, generous abandonar, allow, grant, give up abdurat, hard, terrible abdurar, undergo, endure acabat, perfect, complete acabar, complete acoratjat, ready, determined acoratjar, encourage acorsat, swift acorsar, urge, incite^ afazendat, busy afazendar, occupy aizinat, fitting, suitable aizinar, arrange ajostat, adjacent ajostar,^ arrange 1 Since all real participial forms are omitted, no attempt can be made here to give a complete list of the words ending in -AT and -IT. Ray- nouard does not list past participle forms. The words selected are taken almost entirely from Levy. 2 The Donatz Provensals (p. 28, col. a, 40) gives as a translation for dcorsar, " ad ciirsum provocai'e." The word is listed in both Raynouard and Levy, but examples are given of only the past participle acorsal. This seems to come to mean "swift" from the original idea of "hastened, spurred on." 5 The verb, however, has the different sense of "arrange." Ajostat is probably formed on josta, near. Others among these words are also probably parasynthetic formations, as apoderat, empensat, descorat, and encolpat, although in all of these cases, a corresponding verb in -ar does exist. See also p. 531, n. t- 300 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL apoderat, mighty arendat, rich arrat, arranged asedat, greedy asenai, sensible avenhat, suitable coslumat, customary descorat, heartless descrinat, with disheveled hair desfaisonat, unusual despoderat, powerless eiservigat, with dislocated neck empensat, thoughtful enclinat, inclined, ready, humble encolpat, guilty encorat, willing, ready encoratjat, inclined, willing enflamat, angry (inflamed with anger) enforcal, forked enrahiat, raging ensenhat, informed, well bred entestat, obstinate envezat,^ happy esajat, trusty escarpiat (instead of escarpit), boned escobai, naked escollivat ,- tilled escotat,^ cut out escurat, dark escursat,* shortened esglaziat, murderous eslaisat, impetuous esmerat, pure npodcrar, surpass arendar, rent arrar (se), provide oneself with asedar, be thirsty asenar, make intelligible avenhar, happen (?) costumar, be accustomed descorar, dissatisfy descrinar, loose the hair desfaisonar, distort despoderar, rob of power eiservigar, sprain the neck(?) empensar, contrive, invent enclinar, incline encolpar, accuse encorar, touch the heart encoratjar, encourage enflamar, inflame eyiforcar, fork enrabiar, rage ensenhar, teach entestar, persist esajar, try, test escarpir, cut, slash escobar, sweep, clean escurar, darken esglaziar, kill eslaisar (se), hurry esmerar, purify ■ Not envezar, but only envezat is foviiul in the examples. Cf., how- ever, the O. Fr. envoisier Kinvitiare. 2 Escoltivar is not found, but must have existed, to give escoUivamen and escoUivador, as well as escoltivat. So many independently formed parasyntheta would be extremely unlikely. ' Escotar is not found, but cf . the Sp. and It. escotar. < Escursar is not found, but see escursa in Mistral. Formation of Adjectives 301 estirat, in distress estonat, confused estrunat,^ wild, savage esvarrat,- confused esventat, floating in the wind faisonat, fine, well formed figurat,^ allegorical for cat, ^ forked frequentat, frequent gotat, speckled greujat, suffering jurat, under oath lavat, empty-handed listat, striped lizat, smooth maestrat,* well wrought, artistic maestrejat, clever* molherat,^ married mortificat, exhausted ■perilhat, perilous prezat, able, capable senat,^ intelligent estirar, stretch, lengthen estonar, stun, deafen esventar, blow faisonar, fashion figurar, form, picture forcar, fork frequentar, frequent gotar, drop greujar, injure jurar, swear lavar, wash listar, stripe; marble lizar, smooth maestrejar, repress, subdue niolherar, marry mortificar, mortify perilhar, imperil prezar, prize senar, give sense to All of the words in the above list are apparently formed on verbs, and in some of the words, the participial force rather than that of the adjective may stand out. The distinction, however, is a fine one, and the line between the two classes of words is hard to draw, as almost any past participle may be used as an adjective. Words with any passive force, as, for example, amat, loved, 1 Seems to be found only in this form, though estrunar probably existed. It is listed in both Raynouard and Levy. Estrunat, formed on the adjective estrun, would not be a likely formation, though not impossible. 2 Esvarrar, though given in Stichel (p. 57), probably doesn't exist, and esvarrat itself seems to be the same as esyarat (Fr. egare). Es- garar in Prov., however, means to look at. 3 Words like figurat, forcat, molherat, senat, etc., might, like coronatus be formed either on nouns or verbs. * Maestrar is not found. 5 Must come from some other meaning of the verb. 302 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL which might, nevertheless, be used as an adjective, have very generally been omitted. Words of the same kind as those in the preceding list, but ending in -IT, from being formed on verbs in -ir, follow : ademplit, sated adolit,^ afflicted afortit, obstinate agrazit? pleasing, agreeable cauzit, kind, friendly desgelozit, free from jealousy desgrazit,^ unrewarded dezapedit, abandoned embait, troubled encobit, covetous encoratgit, courageous enfrevolit, weak engelozit, jealous engolit, greedy engrenit, angry enrabgit, raging ensenhit, distinguished entendrit, soft, fresh-baked envermezit, full of worms esbalauzit, stunned esbarrit, confused escabit, escafit, slender, formed^ ademplu, fill adoler (se), be afflicted afortir, fortify agrazir is apparently not to be found meaning "to please." Levy suggests correction of agrazit to grazit. cauzir, distinguish, choose desgelozir, to free from jealousy desgrazir, curse, grumble, be ungrateful embair (se), be full of care encobir, covet enfrevolir, become weak engelozir, become jealous engolir, swallow esbalauzir, stun well 1 Here -IT is added to a verb in -er. -UT is comparatively rare. 2 In spite of the existence of desgrazir, this word, from its naeaniug, would appear to be a parasynthetic formation on grazir. ' Escabir or escafir is not found, but eschevir, execute, perform, is found in O. Fr., and escafit means (well) formed, or carried out. See Diez, 573. Another word of this kind is estordit, confused. Estordir is not found, but compare estordre in O. Fr., and estordir in O. Sp. Compare likewise stordire in It., etourdir in Mod. Fr., and aturdir in Mod. Sp. Formation of Adjectives 303 escarit, separated, alone escarir, have divided escursit, robbed of sense escursir, darken espandit, disheveled (of hair) espandir, strew about estordit,^ confused faidit, wretched, unhappy faidir, banish falhil, short of goal falhir, fail forbit, t smooth, polished forbir. equip -UT is found with adjectival force in the following past participles of verbs in -er and -re: decazut, weak decazer, fall entendut, attentive, eager entendre, attend escomogut, anxious, uneasy escomover, agitate esmogut, excited esmover, move esperdut, silly, crazy esperdre, distract 2. Here might be mentioned another kind of formation of which a complete list of examples will be given under parasyntheta.^ In this kind of formation, the prefix is joined as well as the suffix — the type of word which decazut, for example, would be, if only cazer, and not decazer existed. These adjectival parasyntheta formed on verbs probably made the next step in the use of the suffix -AT. It should be observed that nouns of corresponding form exist beside most of the simple verbs. ■ See note 3, p. 302. 2 See p. 529, below. t In the cases of dezapedit, engrenit, entendrit, envermezit, and esharrit, no verbs are found of which these adjectives in -IT could be the past participles, but the verb can generally be assumed. Compare, however, for dezapedit, entendrit and esharrit, the Sp. despedir, the Catalan en- tendrir, and the Bearnese esbarri. Dezapedir is, however, peculiar in having a possible double prefix. Engrenit seems to show a change of pre- fix, from A- of agrenir to the common -EN. See Stichel, pp. 11 and 44. Envermezit seems to indicate a verb envermezir, built on verm, worm. -IT is found in encoratgit, enrabgit, and ensenhit instead of -AT. In all of these cases, however, the form in -AT exists also. Why this second form in -IT should exist too, is not quite clear, but it shows that the suffixes had lost their participial force, hence their close connec- tion with their respective verbs and conjugations. Enrabgit is a rather puzzling form, but the rhyme-words in the examples given show the irregular accentuation of the verb from which it is derived. 304 Word-Formation in Provencal 3. Next come the formations on nouns by the addition of -AT, -IT, and -UT. Under -AT are found: anat, old an, year anctat, dishonored ancta, shame armaudat, enameled armaut, enamel aural, foolish aura, air bracat, breeches-wearing braca, breeches ca udat, flat ; in pairs (used of rhymes) cauda, tail cisclntonat, made of "cisclaton" cisclaion, a kind of silk colrat, angry col{e)ra, anger coratjat, resolute coratjc, courage cordoanat, of (Cordovan) leather cordoan, Cordovan crozat, latticed (of windows) crotz, cross dechat, possessed of bad qualities decha, fault desmoniat, bedeviled desmoni, devil escacat, torn, cut escac, spot estanat, tinned esianh, tin fazendat, afflicted, instead of fazenda, affair, need "made," "formed," the past participle of an assumed verb fazendar fiocat, tasseled floc,^ tassel ^afteZa^, examined by customs-officer gnbela, Si ta.\ gemat, studded with gems gema, gem granat, full of grain gran, grain lanat, woolly lana, wool letrat, ornamented with letters, letra, letter written; learned paonatjt feathered like a peacock paon, peacock -IT is found added to nouns in the following words: aceril, like steel acier, steel aibit, perfect aip, good quality maestrit, artificial maestre, master fraidit, rascally (Germanic /raitZi, rascal?) poestadit, powerful poestat, power vollit, vaulted volta, vault For -UT added to nouns, see p. 330, below. 1 Flocar exists, but with a different meaning. t Also the following words of Lat. origin are found: colegiat, col- legiate, dental, toothed, and estelat, starry. For words like aurpelal, formed on aurpel, see hybrid formations, p. 581. Formation of Adjectives 305 4, Finally come the cases in which the suffix is added to nouns, with a prefix joined at the same time, true parasyntheta, which will therefore be treated under that head.^ -EL The suffix -EL has been treated too fully under nouns to require any detailed treatment here, especially as there are very few words containing it. Those found are words which have added the suffix to adjectives, and, as is invariably the case in such formations, the derived word shows no change of meaning. Novus, novellus, is an example of this same thing in Latin. The Provengal formations are : crespel, curled cresp, curled falbel, pale falb, pale maurel, dark-brown, black maur, black mejanel, middle, half mejan, middle, half mesquinel, poor mesquin, poor -AREL is found in several words and will be treated under this form among the double suffixes.^ -EN The Provengal suffix -EN, not a present participle of verbs,' is derived from a Latin -ENLTS, and its most important use is in forming the ordinal numerals on the cardinals, just as, in the case of nouns, it formed nouns of number: dezen, 10th detz, 10 milen, 1,000th viil, 1,000 noven, 9th nou, 9 ochen, 8th och, oit, 8 seten, 7th set, 7 1 P. 530 below. 2 See p. 402, below. 3 Such adjectives as manen, rich, poden, powerful, and ponhen, sharp, are merely present participles of verbs in -er, just as dezacordan, etc. (p. 295, note ft), are present participles of verbs in -ar. 306 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL and probably many otlier forms. Otherwise -ENUS was hardly in use as an adjective. Terren is found coming however from the Latin terrenus. The other words are: nioren, dark mor, Moor (cf. Spanish moreno) vermeil, wormy verm, worm -ENC The source of the suffix -ENC has already been dis- cussed under nouns/ in which place it was stated that most of the words ending in the suffix were adjectives, and many of the nouns themselves only adjectives used sub- stantively. There is, indeed, a fairly large list of adjec- tives in -ENC, to be given below. In most cases, the sufRx is added to nouns to form adjectives denoting material. It also denotes belonging and resemblance. Still another meaning that the suffix has — that of nation- ality or place of origin — is clearly to be derived from the Germanic suffix -ING, as opposed to the pre-Germanic -INC0.2 aerenc, of the air, aerial aer, air albenc, white alba, dawn caorsenc, of Cahors Caors, Cahors causerenc,^ of or for Hme caus, lime cazarenc,^ pertaining to (dried in) a cheese-basket? » P. 178. • For a discussion of the two suffixes, see pp. 178-79. ' Double suffixes ? The formation of these words is peculiar. For causerenc the simple word caus appears to be the base-word, and there is, therefore, a double suffix -ERENC, instead of simply -ENC. Probably *causier or *causer, meaning a lime-kiln, existed (cf. chauchiere in Gode- froy), and to it was added -ENC, making an adjective. In the same kind of way, cazarenc was probably formed on an O. Prov. form of chaseiro, a word which Mistral gives, meaning a cheese-basket. No such O. Prov. word is found, however, so its form is unknown. The ar syllable is interesting. Cf. fumaral, etc., p. 398, n. 1. Formation of Adjectives 307 cornenc, of horn diablenc, devilish doblenc, doubled estivenc, of summer ferrienc,^ ferrenc, of iron foguenc, foguienc, fiery joanenc, (grass) to be cut in June lachenc, milk-giving; milky, milk- white viagenc, of May meitadenc, divided into equal halves moladenc, stained with grind- stone-dust montanhenc, mountainous nevenc, snowy, of snow novenc,^ ninth (for noven ?) ortenc, of a garden pinenc, of pine plumbenc,^ leaden ramenc, wandering (moving from branch to branch) rozenc, rose, pink rozenc, dewy, wet with dew sulfur enc,^ sulphurous unenc,^ joined, united uvenc, grape-colored verginenc,^ virginal veirienc,^ of glass vinenc, winy, wine-colored corn, horn diable, devil doble, double estiu, summer fcr, iron foe, fire Joan, June lack, milk Mag, May meitat, half niolada, grindstone-dust montanh, mountain neu, snow nou, nine ort, garden pin, pine plom{b), lead rcmi, branch roza, rose j ros, dew solfre, sulphur un, one uva, grape verge{n), virgin veire, glass vin, wine In a few cases, adjectives of nationality appear to be formed on other adjectives with no change of meaning : > Forms like ferrienc, sulfurenc, pliwibenc, verginenc, and veirienc would seem to indicate a Lat. formation. 2 Novenc and unenc are formed on (numeral) adjectives. Novenc, at any rate, appears to be due to a confusion of -ENC with -EN, the suffix regularly forming ordinal numerals. 308 Word-Formation in Provenqal arabienc, Arabian arabi, Arabian germanenc, Germanic german (though not found in Provencal with the meaning of German) Loarenc, of Lorraine (a word of Germanic origin) In these words -ENC appears to be derived from the Germanic -ING. There is also another small list of words formed on adjectives, namely those describing color. Here the function of the suffix seems to be that of modifying very slightly the meaning of the original adjective — about the meaning which -dtre gives in French. Even this, however, is more of a change than is usual in a suffix added to an adjective to form an adjective. The suffix in the list just given, however, is already added to a number of nouns denoting things of decided color, as in lachenc, foguenc, nevenc, and uvenc; and thus -ENC, giving the meaning of likeness to the nouns to which it is added, has already in this list the idea of color. Then added to adjectives already denoting color, and keeping its idea of similarity, it necessarily has the meaning of the French -dtre. Just why the suffix when used with adjectives should be limited to those denoting color is not thoroughly clear, however. The list follows: nlbnginenc, whitish albugine, white^ blavenc, bluish blau, blue falbenc,"^ slightly pale falb, pale negrenc, black negre, black purpurenc, purple purpra, purple rogenc, reddish rog, red ' Albugo, -inis, is a noun in Lat. This seems to be the only trace of the Lat. suffix -UGINE in Prov., though Meyer-Liibke, II, 517, derives some words in -UZI from this suffix. ' For the form with a prefix — subfalbenc — see also the parasyntheta. Formation of Adjectives 309 sanguinenc,^ blood-colored sanguin, bloody, sanguine subalbenc,^ whitening slightly alb, white subfalbenc,^ slightly pale subfalb, slightly pale -ES As stated under the nouns, the Provencal -ES is derived from the Latin -ENSIS, used in forming adjectives, par- ticularly those of nationality, on nouns, the cases given under nouns being, for the most part, only adjectives used substantively. The list of words found in Provengal as adjectives of nationality follows: arables, Arabian arabi, Arabian campanes, of Champagne Campana, Champagne cortves, Cordovan Cordova, Cordova espanes, Spanish Espana, Spain frances, French Fransa, France pabies, of Pa via Pahia{1), Pa via With a wider meaning, several other words are found, in which the suffix appears to have the force of ''pertain- ing to," a meaning seen in the more specialized develop- ments in which the suffix was attached to the name of a country. Such words are: canones, of reeds canon, reed leones,^ lion-like leon, lion 1 This word, however, is probably the Lat. sanguilentus disguised by an assimilation of I to n and by a substitution of -ENC for -ENT, which suffixes were often confused. Here should be mentioned also this apparent suffix -ENT, which cannot be treated as a real suffix. It is found in manent, etc., which forms represent, however, only a dialect difference from the forms in -EN, which are nothing but the present participles of verbs in -er, used as adjectives. -ENT is found also in peirient and corporent. Peirient (in Raynouard peyrient) should probably be corrected to peirienc which would be a regular formation (cf . veirienc) . Corporent, ol course, represents corpulenlus. Famolen given also under -AN (p. 295, n. tt) represents *famulentus (see the suffix -OLEN, pp. 323 f). 2 See also adjectival parasyntheta (p. 529, n. l),and prefix-formations. t Two other words in which -ES is joined to nouns are cortes and mares. Cortes, courteous, being represented in ninnj- of the Romance 310 Word-Formation in Provencal In still other words -ES is seen to be added to adjec- tives. Here there is, as usual, no change of meaning to be found in the derived word : enteres, perfect, entire entier, perfect, entire felones, bad, vindictive felon, treacherous, vindictive glotones, gluttonous gloton, gluttonous ■majores, principal major, principal manjadores, edible manjador, edible mores, black mor (mmir), black mortales, mortal mortal, mortal proensales,^ Provengal proensal, Provencal -ESC The Provencal suffix -ESC, as stated under the nouns, is derived both from the Greek iaxo Here we have the double suffix -ADIER, already treated under nouns (see p. 219). See also double suffixes, p. 393. ' Or is sobrier possibly formed on the verb sohrar f Formation of Adjectives 319 to exist in Provengal. Joined to adjectives, the s changes the meaning of the word as little as usual. -IN is added to nouns in the following list of words aceirin, of steel, steely acier, steel anetin, of dill anet, dill armalin (in phrase bestia arma- lina, horned beast), appears to be derived on animal, the word being used to denote some spe- cial animal as the cow or the ox aurin, of gold, golden (Lat. au- aur, gold reiis) ufHx boquin, of a buck hreguin, quarrelsome corin, hearty, heartfelt cornalin,^ carnehan » foletin, silly jumentin, for burdens lachin, milk-giving marbrin, of marble moltonin, of sheep, sheepish montadinj- of the mountains mulatin, of mules, mulish polprin, of purple cloth saborin, savory veirin, f of glass boc, buck brega, quarrel cor, heart corn, horn fold, goblin jumen{t), beast of burden lach, milk marbre, marble molton, sheep montada, hill, mount mulat, mule polpra, purple cloth sabor, savor veire, glass 1 The example in which this word is found is peira cornalina. It was therefore, at this time, an adjective. Cornalin would appear at first sight to be formed of corn and the compound suffix -ALIN, but probably *cornela existed in Prov. (cf. the O. Fr. cornelle on which the corneline, referred to in the Die. Gen., though not given in Godefroy, was formed). The change of -ELIN to -ALIN is not quite clear. For Prov., armalin, horned, which is almost what cornalin must have meant originally, may have had some influence. - Found also as montazin, montagin and montarin. t Several words of Lat. origin are found, most of them being formed on names of animals. Such are canin, canine at. origin, jauzion, joyful, from the Lat. gaudibundus, cited in Cooper, 95. Formation of Adjectives 321 frachis, flexible' frach, horn franker, break mestis, of mixed breed mest, from mescer, mix tortis, twisted tort, from torser, twist -ITZ also is found in a few words: apostitz, made-up, artificial apost, from aponre, add, join escostitz, secret escost, from escondre, hide malautitz, sickly malaut, ill, from male hahitum natitz,^ native nat, from naiser, be born -IS or -ITZ is apparently added also to simple verb- stems^ in: braidis,^ neighing braidir, neigh, cry doblitz, double doblar, double The formations in Provencal in -ADITZ (or -ITZ added to the past participles of regular instead of irregular verbs) are: escorjaditz, to be flayed escorjar, flay esposaditz, {anele. = wedding-ring) ssposar, marry estaditz, spoiled entar, stand, stay fermaditz{anelf.=hetvoth.a\-T'nig) fermar, close, betroth gitaditz, poured out, spilled gitar, throw, pour out laboraditz, ploughable laborar, plough pozaditz, that may be drawn pozar, draw and under -IDITZ: fugiditz, fugitive, fleeing fugir, flee this last and possibly some of the others showing a substi- tution of -ICIUS for -IVUS iljoXm. fugitivus) . The meanings of the suffix in the above lists are rather difficult to classify. In a few words -IS is added to nouns : lachis (also lachin), milk-giving lack, milk lanis, woolen lana, wool 1 Found in Appel, but not in Raynouard or Levy. It is found as natiz. ' This new kind of formation is probably due to a substitution of -ITZ for -lU from -IVUS (cf. remark on fugiditz). ' Braidiu also exists (see under -lU). This sufBx, originally attached to past participles, was joined also to verb-stems in Lat. times. 322 Word-Formation in Provencal masis, massive, full rnmis, branched -ITZ also is found in: mairitz, of a mother, nursing podestaditz, having in one's power masa, mass ram, branch maire, mother podestat, power -lU -lU, from the Latin -IVUS, is found as a suffix in Provengal, but it is used much more freely than -IVUS, which was added in Latin usually to the stem of the past participle.^ Provengal has a great many words of this kind, but they are mostly descendants of Latin words, or else learned formations on the Latin model, corresponding to many of the words in -IF in French.- New words were, however, formed on the stem of the verb^ in many cases, and these words will be given here: '' adomniu, dominating, excellent, dominar (not domnar), dominate predominant adoniu, generous agradiu, agreeable, pleasing aiziu, near, ready asolasiu, entertaining hraidiu, eager cargiu, onerous celiii, hidden, secret cridiu, tearful envaziu, serving for invasion esforsiu, zealous, energetic faidiu, banished forsiu, strong jauziu, rejoicing penhoriu, pledgeable ndonar, give, intrust agradar, please aizir, receive asolasar, entertain hraidir, cry out cargar, load celar, hide cridar, cry envazir, invade esforsar, strive faidir, banish forsar, force jauzir, rejoice penhorar, pledge • Later, however, added also to adjectives and nouns, as in vaciv^ls and aestivum. 2 As significatif, adfiesif, etc. ' This kind of formation may have been aided by the number of cases in which the verb-stem was similar in form to nouns, as in the case of forsar beside forsa or cridar beside crit. Formation of Adjectives 323 plegiu, weak, capricious plegar, bend preziu, precious prezar, prize regardiu, waiting, disposed regardar, look at, wait for remembriu, mindful rememhrar, remember Besides the above words, pretty certainly formed on verb-stems, there are a few words formed in other ways. Thus there are some words formed on Provencal past participles : ajostatiu, uniting ajostat, joined confortatiu, comforting confortat, comforted descobertiu, uncovered, open descobert, uncovered ententiu, attentive enten{t), attentive lamentatiu, lamenting, complaining lamentat, lamented mostratiu, demonstrative mostrat, shown portatiu, f portable portat, carried A word formed on an adjective is umiliu, humble umil, humble Here, as always in this kind of formation, the suffix is without force. For the ending -I VOL, see under -ABLE, -IBLE, p. 276. -O-LEN The Provencal ending -LEN, or more properly -OLEN, occurs in very few words, but as it is derived from the Vulgar Latin suffix -LENTUS,^ and as it is found in at > -LENTUS is also represented in the Prov. corporen(t), showing an assimilation from the form corpolen See also the formations on past nioneda, money, coin inonja, nun morina, mortality moscn, fly Ditizn, muse nebln, fog, mist nervi, nerve ni, nest niel, enamel nosca, beam nozel, knot all, oil oUratge, insult, outrage opresa, oppression ordilha, tool *organ, organ. Only orgue< organum is foimd orgulh, pride ortiga, nettle osca, dent, breach ostal, lodging, inn oslatge, lodging padoensa, common wood; right of cutting or gathering wood paisel, stake pala, spade palha, straw pasion, passion pasta, paste pastura, pasture pati, agreement patron, standard, model paves, shield peatge, toll pecha, fine pecolh, leg (of table) pedas, trifle pelha, skin pena, punishment participles. FOKMATION OF VeRBS 341 penchenar, comb penedensar, do penance; absolve penhorar, pledge pensionar, pay, give salary to perezar, be lazy pernar, sharpen personatjar, represent, act the part of pesar, break to pieces pestelar, lock in, confine pilar, pound, crush plaisar, supply with trees plancar, cover with boards platonar, provide with plates of metal plechar, bind with hoops plevinar (se) , pledge oneself plovinar, rain frequently poizonar, give potion to, intoxi- cate pomar, put forth fruit ( ?) pomelar,^ throw apples into the air pontelar,^ support popar, give suck to porcelar, bring forth pigs pozar, draw (water) preizonar, make prisoner premiar, reward prendar,^ receive pledge from prezar, value, prize prezurar, press, compress principar, surpass, excel profechar, profit proverbiar, rebuke puoiar, raise, excel querelhar (se) , complain penche(n), comb penedensa, penance penhora, pledge pension, salary, wage pereza, laziness perna, thin board ( ?) personatge, character, part pesa, piece pestel, pestle pila, mortar plaisa, hedge planca, board platon, plate of metal plecha, hoop ; plevina, guaranty plovina, frequent rain poizon, potion poma, apple pomel, small apple pontel, support popa, pap parcel, pig potz, well preizon, prison premi, reward pretz, value prezura, pressure princep, prince profech, profit proverbi, proverb, parable puoi, hill querelha, complaint 1 Pomelar might be formed on the simple word poma, and pontelar on pont, etc., giving a compound suffix -ELAR, but this does not seem probable. - Undoubtedly formed on a Prov. prenda, not in the dictionaries, but of the same origin as the Sp. prenda. 342 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL rainar, be angn-, dispute ramar, be covered with leaves rancurar, reproach randar, cover with lace randonar, run, hurry razinar, produce grapes rengar, arrange rimar, rhyme romansar, translate into Romance sahatar, beat, strike^ sazonar, ripen in season senar, give sense to sentensar, judge, sentence sermonar, discourse sinaUnfar, elide sincopar, syncopate sobransar, dominate sofismar, subtilize solar, establish solasar, rejoice, divert soldadar, pay solelhar, shine, be in sun somar, sum up tahornar,'^ strike tacar, spot 'Mlentar, be eager for, desire taidar, sit at table tempestar, ruin, destroy testimoniar, testify tetar, suck tonsurar, tonsure trabar, attach, bind trelhar, spread like trellis trevar, have truce trosar, pack up; break to pieces valadar, surround with drains verbar, talk raina, quarrel ram, branch rnnctira, bitterness randa, end, edge randon, start, effort razin, grape renc, line, row rim, rhyme roinana, Romance sabat, shoe sazon, season sen, sense sentensa, sentence sermon, speech sinalinfa, elision sincopa, syncope sobransa, domination sofisma, sophism sol, ground solatz, diversion soldada, pay solelh, sun som, sum, top tabor, drum taca, spot talen{t), desire taula, table tempest, storm ■ testimoni, testimony tela, nipple tonsura, tonsure trau, beam trelha, vine treva, truce trosa, bundle; piece valhat, drain, ditch verba, word ' Only in one example, in which it seems to mean strike (with a shoe) . Cf . the Fr. neologism sabotage. 2 This word appears to be formed on the diminutive taborin. Formation of yERBS 343 vernisar, varnish vernitz, varnish vezar, accustom vetz, time, custom vigorar, give vigor, fortify vigor, vigor violar, f play the viohn viola, violin The total list of formations on all other kinds of words is relatively very small indeed. There are some formations on adjectives, but -IR seemed to be a much more usual suffix for these words to take. There are also some formations on the past participles of simple verbs, which became new infinitives by adding -AR, but most of these past participles had become used as nouns, which makes this kind of formation very much like the first and most usual one. The adjectival formations are as follows: aizinar,^ arrange aizin, comfortable aizivar, approach aiziu, near, ready azautar, charm azaut, charming caninar, become angry caniri, doggish, bad dezazautar, dishke, be displeasing dezazaut, displeasing desleialar, disgrace desleial, faithless, inadequate egalar, equal egal, equal enfrunar (se), stuff oneself enfrun, greedy escamusar, take off prominent escarmis, rough, scaly parts, scale^ estancar, stanch estanc, stagnant falsar, falsify, counterfeit fals, false I See also formations on nouns, p. 333. - The meaning is doubtful, but judging from the translations given in Mistral of escamusa, this is the meaning which also belongs to the O. Prov. escamusar. Escamus appears to come from a Lat. squamosus, and not to be connected with camus (or gamus), silly, which in turn appears to be different from the Fr. camus, flat-nosed. fThe Prov. words of Lat. origin will not be given here, as the -ar was not a suffix but only a conjugation endhig. More or less doubtful words are gorgolhonar on gorgolhon, corn-worm, and a somewhat obscure word gravaironar, apparently formed on gravairon, which, from its formation, would seem to mean a sandy place, but leaves the derived verb obscure. For malcorar and manohrar, see hybrids, p. 582. 344 Word-Formation in Provencal felenar,^ bo angry frevolar, weaken frevol, weak gentilar, please gentil, gentle \ largar, let loose hire, free lasar, tire las, tired mancar, lack mane, crippled nualhar, be idle nualh, lazy mdhar, annul nulh, null orrezar,^ soil orre (fem. orreza) planar, make smooth piari, smooth, level primar, excel, lead prim, first redonhar, round off redon, round safranar, grow yellow safran, saffron sanglenlar, make bloody sanglen{t), bloody segurar, assure segur, sure sordejar, decline, degenerate sordei, sordid trefanar, betray trefan, deceitful truandar, ramble, beg truan{t) rascally, poor vojar, empty voi, empty volatjar,\ flit about volaije, flitting The new verbs built on past participles derived directly from those of Latin verbs are as follows: clucar, cobertar, conduchar, conversar, farsar, musar (f), ointar, profechar, and sofertar. They will be treated individually. Clucar, close (the eyes), blink, is derived from the past participle clue, shut, closed, of a verb chare. The past participle clue, which is used only in reference to the eyes, is given in Levy as well as in Raynouard. i Felen with the meaning of "angry" or "cruel" is not found. Felenar is probably a corruption of felonar, formed on felon, angry. In many words the o had disappeared, as in felnes beside felones, and the e may be due to an incorrect restoration of the vowels, possibly assisted by a confusion with felen, grandchild. 2 The precise formation of this verb is not clear. There is confusion in several of the words derived from orre < horridus. Orrezar might come from horridare. t Other words apparently formed on Prov. adjectives, but of Lat. formation, are: escurar, darken; fermar, fix, attach; and pejorar, become worse. Piadar, make pious, is pecuHarly formed, the adjective "pious" being in Prov. pios and not piat, which would give the form we find. Piadar appears to be due to a confusion between pios and pta/os, pitying. Formation of Verbs 345 Cobertar, to cover, built on the past participle cobert of the verb cobrir, cover. Conduchar, lead; also entertain guests, built on co7i- duch, the past participle of the verb conduire, to lead. There are also nouns conduch and conducha. Conversar, turn around; built on convers, turned around, coming from the Latin conversus. A noun conversa also exists. Farsar, to stuff, cram, from a past participle fars, coming from the Latin farsus of the verb farcire, which gave far sir in Provencal. Thus there is in Provengal farsir, from the Latin verb direct, and farsar, formed on the derivative of its past participle.^ Musar, to gape at or muse, has already been given under formations on nouns, where it probably belongs. Korting, however, gives it also under morsus,^ the past participle of mordere. Onchar (ointar), anoint, from onch (oint), the past participle of the verb onher, anoint. Profechar, profit. The word is formed on yrofieg, from profedus, the past participle of proficere. There is no word, however, in Provengal from the infinitive proficere. Profieg is used, not as a past participle, but as a noun meaning "profit." Sofertar,\ to suffer. From sofert, the past participle of the verb sofrir, suffer. There are also a very few words formed on other parts of speech : avantar, extol, glorify avanit), before, forward vironar, go around viron, around 1 This word is, therefore, an example of the extension of the suflSx -AR in place of -IR. Farsar might represent nothing but a simple sub- stitution of -AR for -IR. 2 No. 6,307. t Opresar, given among the formations on nouns may belong here. The past participle of opremer appears to be oprcmut, however. 346 Word-Formation in Provencal -IR The formation of verbs in -IR differs in several respects from that of the verbs in -AR. There is not a very large total of the verbs in -IR formed in Provencal on other words without any prefix, and of these a very large pro- portion is formed on adjectives instead of on nouns. ^ There is, however, a very much larger list of verbs formed by the addition of a prefix such as A-, EN-, or ES- at the same time that the termination is added ;2 and of these, too, the great majority of the simple words on which the verb is built consists of adjectives. Thus, there is a great difference in the two conjugations as to the word at the base of the formation; but there is a much greater differ- ence in the number of formations by the addition of both })refix and infinitive termination. In the verbs in -AR, this process barely exists, and is seen in a few verbs formed on nouns; for the verbs in -IR, it is the commonest of all formations. There are also a few words having both the endings -AR and -IR, belonging largely to the class which adds a prefix together with the suffix. This appears to be an extension of the use of the termination -AR, by all odds the commonest verbal termination, into the field where -IR was originally alone. The cases of this kind will all be pointed out below, and treated individually. ' Another difference worthy of notice lies in the fact that most of the formations in -IR are intransitive in force, whereas those in -AR are reguhirly transitive, as may be seen from the list of meanings that these have, given above. -IR, on the other hand, generally gives the meaning of "to become" to the adjective to which it is added. When it became necessary to give transitive force to an adjective, this was usuallj^ done by adding -AR to it, but at the same time using one of the verbal pre- fixes. Thus wo find alargar, alongar, etc. 2 For words of this kind see the parasyntheta, pp. 517-21, below. Formation of Verbs 347 The termination -IR is used to form verbs on adjec- tives in the following cases: blavir(f) (no example given), grow pale blau, blue brunir, brown, darken brun, brown durir, harden dur, hard eretgir, become heretical eretge, heretical escurir, grow dark escur, dark fermir, fasten ferm, firm, fast folir, become foolish fol, foolish folatir,^ be wanton. The word is of doubtful existence. Folat is not found. franquir, free franc, free frevolir, weaken; become weak frevol, weak jovenir, rejuvenate joven, young laidir, insult laid, ugly magrir, grow thin magre, thin orgolhozir, make proud orgolhos, proud riquir, enrich, increase ric, rich rogir, f redden rog, red It will be seen from the above list that there are two meanings for formations of this kind: (1) active and (2) passive. In the case of the first, the meaning is, to make a thing acquire a certain quality, as in jovenir, make young; according to the second, the meaning is, to acquire that quality, as in folir, magrir, etc. The latter seems to be the more usual kind of formation. The few formations on nouns by means of -IR are as follows : aizir,^ approach, bring near aize, proximity bailir,^ govern, steer baile, baiUff 1 The word occurs only once. Possibly it should be foletir and the a be attributed to a confusion with folastre. 2 The formation of both of these words is more or less doubtful. Although aizir does really appear to be a formation on aize (see Essain, .232), bailir is probably not formed on baile, but baile on bailir, Bailir appears to be another form of bailar Kbajulare. t Another possible formation is esquivir, to avoid, shun, existing beside esquiu, but the adjective was probablj'^ derived from the verb, which is of Germ, origin. 348 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL bordir,^ tourney, joust bort, tourney, joust colorir,^ become colored color, color confrairir, unite closely; fraternize confraire, part^aer garentir, guarantee, pledge garen{t), guaranty golir, swallow up gola, throat maestrir, teach maeslre, master nientir (se), be destroyed nien{t), nothingness plomir, fall plo7n, lead polverir,^ pulverize polvera, powder Formations on other parts of speech are seen in: avaniir, advance avan{t), forward enantir,] advance, celebrate enan{t), forward COMPOUND SUFFIXES Besides the simple suffixes -AR and -IR with their different meanings and methods in forming words, there are several other suffixes of a compound nature, formed generally by adding -ARE to some noun already ending in a suffix. Thus -ACULARE (>-ALHAR) was formed originally by adding -ARE to nouns ending in -AC(U)LUS ; but as there were a good many of these, the verbal suffix was taken to be -ACULARE instead of merely -ARE, and was thenceforth added to simple nouns to form new verbs. -ALHAR< -ACULARE is a typical example of the whole class of compound suffixes. Each of these compound suffixes will be treated individually. Most of them, how- ever, give no very well-defined or classifiable meaning to the words to which they are joined other than that of turning them into verbs. 1 This word is not entirely clear, however. Beordar exists also and seems to be formed on heort. In O. Fr., also, there are many forms of the word. 2 Probably the formation is due to the analogy of the words in which -IR was added to adjectives of color, as brunir. Colorar is also found. ' Found also as polverar and polverejar. t As was the case with -AR, and for the same reason, words in -IR of Lat. origin will not be given here. Formation of Verbs 349 -alhar, -elhar, -ilhar, -olhar The suffixes -ALHAR, -ELHAR, -ILHAR, and -OLHAR will be treated together, as were the nominal forms -ALH, -ELH, -ILH, and -OLH, from -ACLUM, ICLUM, and -UCLUM. Generally speaking, however, the verbs were not formed on the nouns ending in these suffixes. Had they been so formed, there would be no need of con- sidering -ALHAR, etc., as compound verbal suffixes: the formation would be brought about by adding -AR, not -ALHAR, to the noun. The actual formation seems, on the other hand, to be quite different. Badalhar, for example, was not formed on badalh, which exists,^ but on badar, gape, open, by the addition of -ALHAR (<-ACULARE) to the stem. Yet this does not exclude all influence of the noun in -ALH on the verb, and indeed -ACULARE must have been originally formed by the combination of -AC(U)LUM +-ARE ; but being very early regarded in its complete form as a new verbal suffix, it came to be substituted for the ordinary infinitive endings,- with a slight modification in meaning. -ALHAR, as in badalhar and crizalhar, seems to express the idea of frequent repetition. -ELHAR and -ILHAR, express- ing this idea also, have often diminutive force, which could have originated through the usual meanings of -ELH and -ILH, and then spread to verbs in -ALHAR. Sometimes, again, this group of suffixes adds little change to a verb, 1 This word is, on the contrary, a postverbal formation on badalhar. - -ALHAR was added to verb-stems, such successive derivations as batre, batalh, then batalhar, finally leading to such direct formations as badalhar on badar. -ELHAR was apparently added also to verb- stems. There seems, however, to have been a good deal of confusion between the suffixes of this group. They have to some extent inter- changed their meanings, and the processes used in the formation of the verbs of this group have likewise become somewhat confused. 350 Word-Formation in Provencal showing, as in the ease of nominal suffixes originally diminutive, how eommon the suffix had become in the vulgar language.^ A circumstance that adds some confusion to the verbs of this group is that there was another Latin suffix which might give the same results in certain cases. This is -ILLARE (found in a few words in Latin), ^ which became very common in French, where it is found at present under the form -ELER, and forms verbs on nouns as well as on verb-stems. Now this suffix would become -ELAR or -ELHAR in Provengal, having therefore the same form as might be derived from -IC(U)LARE. Its traces are, however, few in Provengal, though some apparently exist. -ALHAR is added to verb-stems in : badalhar, yawn badar, open, gape crizalhar, keep crying, bawl cridar, cry tornalhar, f whirl around tornar, turn -ELHAR is added to verb-stems in : destorbelhar,^ trouble, torment desiorbar, disturb gabelhar,* boast, brag gabar, boast pendelhar, hang lightly pendre, hang plevelhar,'\'\ assure, guarantee (?) plevir, guaranty' 1 Cooper, 243, and reference there to Funck, ALL., IV, 68. * Such words as cantillare, vacillare, etc. ' Cf. also estorbelhar (representing a prefix-change?). * Some confusion exists between -ELHAR and -EJAR, studied farther on. Thus we find gabelhar and gahejar with the same meaning, and Levy gives esbaudelhar =esbaudejar. Cf. also sordelhar mentioned in note f, p. 351. t For such words as batalhar, fight, escalhar, scale off, and gazalhar, assemble, see the suffix -AR, as these words are formed on the noun batalha, escalh, and gazalha by means of this sufBx and not by -ALHAR. Another word, coralhar, is obscure in meaning, and maj' not exist. See Levy, I, 363. ft A word obscure in form and meaning is mercelhar. Formation of Verbs 351 It is apparently added to nouns in : dentelhar, take by the teeth dent, tooth tore{i)lhar, barricade, bolt tor, tower and to an adjective in: rauguelhar ,] choke rave, hoarse -ILHAR is added to verb-stems in: esiendilhar, stretch out estendre, extend fendilhar, crack, chap fendre, spUt fozilhar, dig fozer, iov foire, dig grondilJiar, murmur grondir, murmur trauqinlhar, pierce traucar, pierce It is apparently added to nouns in: crozilhar, weave into a cross crotz, cross grezilhar,^ hail greza, hail maestrilhar, teach maestre, master ranquilhar,'^]^, grieve, lament ranc, rancid -OLHAR is found in: janglolhar,]]] slander, rail at janglar, slander 1 Like this -woYdishrezilhar , to break (like wood), from hrezilh, brazil- wood, the suffix being -AR, therefore, instead of -ILHAR. Grezilhar itself is probably formed in the same way, on *ffre2iZ/(, which, though not found, probably existed. Cf. the Fr. gresil. 2 For a discussion of this word see ranquejar, given under -EJAR, p. 361 below, and the note on it. t Another word apparently formed in the same way is sordelhar, decline, but it is probably the same as sordejar, from sordei < sordidus. tt Other words ending in -ILHAR but not formed by means of this suffix are cavilhar, estrilhar, and ponsilhar. Cavilhar may have been formed by attaching -AR to cavilha (see -AR above), but it more probably came direct from the hat. cavillari. Estrilhar, meaning "stretch oneself "(?) (or setriller, curry oneself, as Meyer translates it in the vocabulary to Flamenca), has evidently the same source seen in s'etriUer, namely strigulare, formed on strigula. The e in the Mod. Prov. esterilha, like- wise in the Flamenca passage, must have come through some analogy. Ponsilhar, support, appears to have come from pimctillare, perhaps influenced by ponsel, small bridge. ttJA somewhat obscure word is tantolhar, soil, cover with dirt. It is found in O. Fr. as tantouiller and in Mod. Prov. as tantoulha. 352 Word-Formation in Provencal -ASAR In the "Traite de la formation de la langue frangaise," or Introduction to the dictionary of Hatzfeld and Darmes- teter/ -ASSER is given under the heading of "French suffix." This classification is correct in the sense that -ERIE, -ERON, etc., are French suffixes — they are not simple Latin suffixes — but such a suffix as -ERIE, corre- sponding forms of which are found in Spanish, Italian, and Provencal, cannot be treated as belonging peculiarly to any one Romance language. This is the case with many of these double suffixes, and is certainly true of -ASAR (or -ASSER). It is derived from a Latin *-ACEARE in much the same way that -ALHAR was derived from -ACULARE— by adding -ARE to nouns in -ACEU(M) originally — and then was regarded in its complete form as a new verbal suffix to be added to verb-stems, the intermediate step having been forgotten. Thus we have crehasar, for example. Crebasa exists in Provencal, and crevasse in French, coming from *crepacea;^ but as crehasar is found in Provencal, crevasser in French, and crepacciare^ in Italian, it seems natural to suppose that -ACEARE was formed in Latin, rather than that exactly the same process should be followed independently in each of these languages. Now *crepaceare must have existed I Vol. I, p. 71 of Introduction. = That is, the stem of crepare +-ACEA. As a matter of fact, crepacea is not found, and crebasa may have been formed by adding the Prov. suSix -ASA (<-ACEA) to the Prov. verb crebar. See crebas under the suffix -AS, p. 141 above. 3 Meyer-Liibke (II, 659) gives this word as the only example in which -ACEUS gives cc in It., all the other words giving zz. These words giving zz may, however, represent -ATIARE ( =-ATIO-|— ARE), or, if -ACEUS ever gave -AZZO, as Meyer-Liibke states, they would be regularly descended from -ACEARE, and crepacciare would still be irregular. -ACCIO and not -AZZO appears, nevertheless, to be the usual phonetic development of -ACEUS in It. Formation of Verbs 353 beside crepare, or crebasar beside crebar, and -ASAR had therefore the appearance of being in itself a verbal suffix added to stems of verbs in -ar. Hence the new Pro- vencal formations on verb-stems: espinasar,^ crown or cover with espinar, cover with thorns, prick thorns tirasar,^ twitch, draw tirar, draw A word formed on a noun is: reumasar,^\ catch cold reuma, cold This kind of formation has already been seen in -ALHAR. It may have been aided by the frequent existence of simple nouns to which the compound suffix could be added, beside the verb-stems. Thus, for example, espina and espinar. From the few examples, -ASAR seems to have contributed little individual meaning, and has just about the force of -AR. Had -AR been added separately, how^ever, to nouns in -AS, some more distinct trace of the augmentative meaning of -ACEUM Avould probably be observable. -AISER, -EISER, -OISER Several verbs are found in Provengal with the ending -EISER, also a few in -AISER and -OISER, but it is doubtful whether any of these forms was used as a suffix 1 Possibly formed on the noun espina, thorn. Espinasa, place grown with thorns, also exists, but its meaning makes it improbable as a base- word for espinasar. 2 Cf . the corresponding Fr. word tirailler, formed bj' means of -ACULARE. t Another word which at first sight seems to belong here is pedasar, patch, mend. It is formed, however, on pedas, trifle, by means of the simple verbal ending -AR. Still another word in -ASAR is estrasar, for which see the parasyntheta, p. 51.3. 354 Word-Formation in Provencal to form new words. These forms are not at all common in Provencal, and the few words found appear to have lost all of the original force of the suffix, or at least that which it had in many Latin verbs — of beginning an action. They have exactly the same meaning as the corresponding verbs in -ii\ this weakening of the force of the suffix appearing to go back to Late Latin times. Thus in French the -iss- of the verbs in -ir has come to be nothing but an inflectional ending. Iraiser appears to be the only form in -AISER in Provengal, from irascere for irasci. In -EISER we find langueiser from languescere; par- eiser and despareiser from *parescere and *disparescere, which are not found, but to whose existence the forms in all the Romance languages point; espereiser, awake, which Stichel derives from *expergiscere for expergisci; and perhaps a verb escarneiser, existing beside escarnir. In -OISER is found conoiser from cogrioscere. Thus there seem to be no Provengal formations with these suffixes. -IGAR, -EGAR The Provengal suffix -IGAR or -EGAR is derived from a Latin -ICARE, probably formed originally by adding -ARE to adjectives ending in -ICUS or to nouns whose stems ended in -IC, as nutrix (nutricis), for example. But like -ALHAR, -ASAR, and the other compound suffixes, -ICARE was soon regarded as a whole — a new simple verbal suffix to be added to verb-stems, nutricare possibly being supposed to be formed on nutrire. Yet -ICARE in such words as nutricare did not ordinarily give either -EGAR or -IGAR, as the intertonic vowel regularly disappeared in all popular words very early. This is Formation of Verbs 355 seen in most of the words derived from -ICARE, in which a number of forms are found, depending on the time of the disappearance of the vowel, or, in other words, on whether it remained long enough to allow the consonant to voice. ^ Thus we find so many different results from this suffix that the idea of a common origin, or even of the existence of a suffix at all in these words, must have soon become totally effaced. Yet long before this, the idea of the existence of a suffix must have given way to a great extent, for had the suffix been clearly felt as such, the inter- tonic vowel would have remained as it remains in the suffixes -ADOR, -AMEN, -ADURA; -EMEN, -EDOR, -EDURA, etc. The words ending in -ICARE were exceedingly common in popular Latin, as the Romance languages show, and the suffix had no clearly defined force, nutrire and nutricare meaning the same thing. Though the -ICARE may have had its starting-point in adjectives in -ICUS, or in noun-stems in -IC, when it came to be regarded as a suffix -ICARE to be added to verb-stems, it seems frequently to have been substituted for -IRE or -ARE, simply on account of the popular tendency toward greater length in words. There having been no real difference in meaning from -ARE, finally only a vague idea of the suffix -ICARE may have been retained, which would account for the disappearance of the intertonic vowel. As words of this kind have no one Provengal form, and as they were beyond doubt Latin formations, they need not be given here. There are, however, several words in Provencal with the endings -EGAR and -IGAR, thus showing the reten- tion of the intertonic vowel, and they may be explained in two ways. They may have been learned words of Latin ' Thus, for example cargarKcarricare, cavalgarKcahallicare, etc. 356 Word-Formation in Provencal formation, or they may have been Provon^-al imitations of sucli words. Nutricare existed in Latin beside nutrire; and it seems to have given rise to the analogical forma- tion *putricare beside putrire. This form is made more probable by the existence of a form poiregos,^ rotten, in Provengal, apparently derived from *putricosus. Putri- care may have given rise to *petricare, no derivative of which is found in Old Provengal, Ijut whose existence is made probable by the Modern Provengal word peirega,^ to stone, and the Spanish word pedregoso from *petricosus. Peiregar seems not to be found in Provencal, but this word is found joined to the prefix A- in apeiregar,^ stone. Two words of somewhat similar formation, appar- ently, are: afamegar, famish amolegar, soften Afamegar^ is probably formed on famejar, hunger, with the substitution of -EGAR for -EJAR, which is not un- usual. This is also found in enmalegar for enmalejar,^ and possibly in espezegar^ from expeditare with a substi- tution of -ICARE for -ITARE. Amolegar'^ seems to represent a *moUicare formed on tnollis or on moUire -|-the prefix A-, due to the analogy of amolir, a real para- syntheton therefore. Then are found other words of this kind having suffix and prefix: dementegar, forget nien{t), mind espesegar, break to pieces pesa, piece 1 See p. 329, n. t above. - See Mistral's dictionary. 3 Probably peiregar and poiregar both existed, though only poiregar is found. -EGAR has been consistently used in these words, though -IGAR is found also. Nutricare formed on nutrix has a long i and we should expect -IGAR from this starting-point. -EGAR, nevertheless, seems rather commoner. * See parasyntheta, p. 523. ^ Parasyntheta, p. 522. « This should be distinguished from espesegar, given in the list. Formation of Verbs 357 There appear to be only three formations without prefixes, one of these words (lenegar) being formed on an adjective: leisegar (?), give judgment leis, law lenegar, slip, slide len, smooth rosegar,^'\ thrash rosa, nag -EJAR The Provencal suffix -EJAR is derived from the Greek verbal ending -t^etv through the popular Latin form -IDIARE. These verbs in -EJAR differ little in meaning from the corresponding ones in -AR, and it appears prob- able that during the Christian period, when this suffix was introduced into Latin, it was often substituted for the regular -ARE in verbs already formed, and took its place in many new formations in which -ARE might be expected. The force of the suffix seems to be exactly the same as that of -AR, and, like -AR, it is added both to nouns and to adjectives, but very much more frequently to nouns. 1 This word may be compared with the Fr. rosser, which has the same meaning. According to the Darmesteter-Hatzfeld dictionary, rosser is derived from rosse, nag. The force of the verbal suffix here is apparently that of "treat like," the verb meaning "to treat like a horse," i.e., to beat. This meaning is occasionally found among the verbs in the Fr. -ER and the Prov. -AR. Korting (No. 8,215) and Dicz, (p. 672) derive rosser from ruptiare, but this would not account for the Prov. word. The Fr. and Prov. words seem to be based on the same word (rosse, rosa), but the Prov. word has -ICARE instead of -ARE. Appel, in the vocabulary to his Chrestomathy, translates rosegar by " schleifen," " ziehen," but the meaning of the word appears to be "to beat." Confusion is due to the fact that there is another word rosegar (or rozegar), meaning to gnaw, nibble, found in It. as rosicare, and probably derived from a Lat. *rosicare (Korting, No. 8,149). t Another word of Lat. origin ending in -EGAR is eisigar, become dry, from exsiccare. An obscure word, both in form and in meaning, is garlegar. 358 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL The words formed on nouns follow airejar, to air, ventilate amorejar [se), fall in love with arquejar, bend oneself like a bow bailejar, govern bandejar, wave barrejar, rob, plunder beluguejar, flash, sparkle bordejar, joust bretonejar, stammer cambrejar, go to stool carpentejar,^ do carpentry carrasejar, float, cause to float causejar, trample on, destroy^ clasejar, ring a bell clerguejar, harangue coladejar, strike colbejar, strike cordejar,'^ pull at cord, strike with cord ( ?) cortejar, visit court, pay court domnejar, pay court espondejar, embroider fadejar, act foolishly famejar, to hunger fanguejar, remove mud fatonejar, joke ( ?), speak foolishly faulejar, tell stories favorejar, favor febrejar, have a fever; rave air, air amor, love arc, bow baile, bailiff, steward banda, band, strip barra, toll beluga, flash bort, joust Breton, native of Brittany cambra, privy carras,- pile of wood causa, stocking clas, ringing, peal clerc, clerk colada, blow colbe, blow corda, cord cort, court dornna, lady esponda, edge fat, fool /a?n, hunger fa7ic, mud /a^oM, (?) faula, tale, fable /az)or, favor febre, fever » No simple word is found in Prov., but corresponding forms are seen elsewhere, as in the O. Fr. charpent, wagon (not the modern char- pente, which is probably a postverbal formation). Charpent, etc., come from the Lat. carpentum, coach, from which was derived car- pentarius (Prov. carpentier). Carpen{t) probably existed in Prov. and gave rise to carpentejar. 2 Mistral has carras, raft. Probably the O. Prov. form had such meaning also, hence the meaning found in the verb. 3 Apparently by stepping on a thing. * The precise meaning is somewhat obscure. For a discussion of the word, see Levy, I, 367. Formation of Verbs 359 felnejar,^ commit a felony femejar,'^ go to stool festejar, celebrate flamejar, sparkle fondejar, use a sling formiguejar, swarm, itch forrejar, forage, pillage frachurejar, suffer want frenejar, chain, link, be linked frontejar, border on, adjoin fumejar, smoke fustejar, cut wood gabejar,- chatter, rail at, ridicule gardejar, look at gardiejar, protect fields garentejar, guarantee gerbejar, cut grass girbaudonejar, debauch glanejar, collect acorns gloriejar, boast glotonejar, be a glutton golejar, long for, desire gotejar, distil grailejar, blow trumpet guerrejar, make war joglarejar, be a minstrel lagreviejar, weep maestrejar, repress manejar, touch with the hand, wield marejar, navigate, sail rnatrasejar, slaughter mercejar, implore mercy mosquejar, clear of flies mulejar, ride a mule naulejar, charter a boat nertejar, gather myrtles felnia, felony f€7n, manure festa, feast flania, flame fonda, shng formiga, ant forre, forage frachura, want fren, rein fron{t), front fum, smoke fuM, wood gab, boast garda, guard gardia, watchman garen{t), guaranty gerba, grass girbaudon, rascal glan, acorn gloria, glory, fame gloton, glutton gola, gluttony^ gota, drop graile, trumpet guerra, war joglar, minstrel lagrema, tear maestre, master man, hand mar, sea matras, projectile merce, mercy mosca, fly mul, mule naxde, chartering of a boat nerta, myrtle 1 This word is not perfectly clear in form. Felniar is also found, and looks like felnia +-AR. 2 Femorejar is also found. For the form femora, see the discussion of fetnoras, under the suffix -AS, p. 141, n. t above. 'Primitive meaning is "throat." 360 Word-Formation in Provencal public nosejar, marry obrejar(?), be at work oclejar, wink (for olhejar ?) ombrejar, give shade ondejar, rise in waves onsejar, draw in the toes ostejar, make war pairejar, act as or resemble father panejar, wave paraigejar, be of value parcenejar,^ participate, share personejar, associate with pesejar, break to bits petejar, crackle plaidejar, dispute, contest plasejar, wander about places polverejar, pulverize putanejar, fornicate sagramentejar, blaspheme salmejar, sing psalms senhorejar, command setejar, be thirsty sobresenhorejar, rule over ta{m)borejar, play the drum taulejar, play castanets tornejar, tourney valadejar, make a ditch The verbs in -EJAR which are built on adjectives are as follows: amarejar, be bitter; also make amar, bitter bitter ( ?) balbejar, stammer blanquejar, be or become white blavejar, become blue cabalejar, be excellent clarejar, shine clopejar, limp nosas, wedding obra, work olh, eye ombra, shade onda, wave onsa, finger- (or toe-?) joint osia, army paire, father pnn, flap paratge, birth, rank parcela, share persona, person pesa, bit pet, fart plaid, lawsuit plasa, public square polvera, powder putana, prostitute sagramen{l), oath salme, psalm senhor, lord set, thirst sobresenhor, overlord taini)bor, drum taula{-eta), castanet torn, turn valat, ditch balb, stammering blanc, white blau, blue cabal, excellent clar, clear clop, lame 1 The n instead of / occurs in other words also, as parcenier beside parcelier, parcenaria, etc. Formation of Verbs 361 cohejar,^ covet, long for contrariejar , be opposed to egalejar, equalize endignejar, scorn fadejar, act foolishlj' falsejar, be false, deceive falbejar, grow pale fere jar ( /), become frightened flaquejar, become weak folejar, do foolish things foralejar, treat unlawfully laidejar, insult, offend ( ?) largiiejar, make largesses malaudejar, be or become ill malejar, be angry, rage menudejar, cut into small pieces nesciejar, be silly nedejar,'^ clean, purify noblejar, shine, be resplendent orrejar,^ soil peguejar, be silly, wander plazentejar, be agreeable ranquejar, limp* rogejar, redden vanejar, trifle, joke cobe, greedy, covetous contrnri, opposite egal, equal endigne, unworthj- fat, foolish, absurd fals, false falb, pale fer, wild, untamed fine, weak fol, foolish foral, outer, external laid, ugly hire, liberal malaut, ill mal, angry menitt, small nesci, silly, ignorant net, clean noble, noble orre, dirty pec, silly plazen{t), agreeable ranc, crippled rog, red van, vain 1 There is also another word, cobezejar, which appears to be formed on the feminine of cobe — cobeza (<.cupida), rather than on cobes, which is found in the nominative form, or on the noun cobezeza, on which is formed the adjective cobezezos. Cobezeza would not give the proper form or meaning to the verb, however. - For another form of this verb (denejar) , see parasyntheta, p. 522, n. f. 3 There is also a form ordejar, which appears to come from a Lat. *horr{i) didiare. The adjective horridus had a difTerent development from this verb derived from it. In the adjective the i persisted, and the word became orre, with a feminine orreza. * There is also a verb ranquejar, meaning "to mutter, to be angry" (also "to ruminate"?), whose base seems different. The word given in the Hst above is based on an adjective of Germ, origin, but there is another adjective having the same form (ranc), and yet apparently of the same origin as the Fr. ranee, rancid (<.rancidus). This second ranquejar, like ranquilhar, listed under -ALHAR, p. 351, seems to be derived from this adjective ranc. 362 Word-Formation in Proven(;al verdejar, become green vert, green vermelhejar, become pink vennelh, pink vilanejar, become coarse vilan, coarse On another part of speech — an adverb — is; sovendejar, mention often novenit), often There are also a few words that are not formed on any one simple word, but which seem rather to be due to a substitution of the suffix -EJAR for some other endings. Such words are: dnmnejar, damage, instead of damnar fremejar, tremble, instead oifremir mantenejar, keep, maintain, in- stead of mantener oprimejar, press down, instead of oprimir trepejar^, stamp, instead of trepar vaguejar, f wander, instead of vagar 1 There is also a verb estrepejar, to tear out, in appearance the pre- fix 'ES-+trepejar, but probably of different origin. It seems to come from exstirpare. If so, the ending -EJAR may be due to the influence of trepejar, stamp. t Other words in -EJAR of more or less obscure formation are : avoquejar, femorejar, mercenejar, palotejar, papiejar, pelejar, poblejar, and ponsejar. Avoquejar, act as lawyer, appears to be a shortened form of *avoca- dejar, formed on avocat, lawyer. The shortening may have been helped by association with avocar, invoke. Femorejar, clear away manure, seems to have been formed on *femor. For this word see femoras under the suffix -AS, p. 141, n. t- Mercenejar, have pity on, is formed on the stem seen in mercenier< mercenarius. Palotejar, skirmish along the palisades protecting a town, is un- doubtedly formed on *palol, a diminutive of pal, stake. Cf. the Fr. palot. Papiejar, wander back and forth, is doubtful in form. One com- mentator suggests a correction to patejar. Mistral, however, has a form pepieja, meaning "act foolishly," which meaning would fit the passage in which papiejar is found. The origin of the verb seems obscure. Pelejar, dishonor a woman, seems to be of the same origin as the Sp. pelear, fight. Korting (No. 6789) and Diez, p. 475, suggest a Gr. Formation of Verbs 363 -EziR, (-zir) The Provengal suffix -EZIR, -ZIR, is somewhat difficult to treat, as its source itself, is not perfectly clear. The earliest theory, that of Die?,^ who derived it from -ESCERE, is clearly impossible on account of the devel- opment of the sc into z, which it would be necessary to assume only for words of this class, and which elsewhere becomes s, as in the regular development of -ESCERE into -EISER.2 A more plausible theory is the one advoc- ated by Meyer-Liibke in his Grammar,'^ which accounts for -EZIR by a few verbs ending in -IDIRE, of which tepidire is a type. Tepidire, says Meyer-Liibke, would give in Provengal tebezir: which, existing beside tebe from tepidus, gave rise to a belief in a suffix -EZIR added to adjectives to form new verbs. Yet there are several' difficulties with this hypothesis. In the first place, it accounts for the French words in -CIR by a different process from the one employed for Provengal. But a more serious objection is that, as Thomas shows, d became z only in certain dialects, whereas the ending -EZIR is com- mon all over the Provengal territory.^ Thomas also shows that in a text filled with verbs ending in -EZIR (Girart ■ Grammaire des langues romanes, II, 374. - The inceptive meaning found in a number of these words gave a very good basis for this supposition. 3 II, 666. 1 Essais, 284. jraAaieii- as source, and Caix suggests peKpilus, hair. PclKpeliis, skin, has also been suggested as the base-word (Stud. Rom., VIII, 377). Pel, besides skin, means scrotum, and the envelope containing the embryo. This, therefore, is surely the source of the Sp. and Prov. words. Pelejarse has the meaning of "to fight," which the Sp. word possesses. Poblejar, proclaim, seems to come from publicare, which would regularly give poblegar. Pohligar is, indeed, found. It may have become poblejar through being supposed to have been formed on poble, people. Ponsejar, quarrel over trifles, is obscure. 364 Word-Formation in Provencal de Rossilhon) we find a verb encobeir from mcupidire showing the other development of Prov. negrezir) may have served as a model for formations on Germ, adjectives of color, such as blanc and brun. 366 Word-Formation in Provenqal palezir, grow pale pale, pale paubrezir, make poor paubre, poor velhezir, f grow old relh, old One word appears to be formed on a noun: vergonhezir,^ make ashamed vergonha, shame Vergonhar, showing one of the usual types of formations, also exists. The addition of this suffix to a noun appears unusual. Several words add -ZIR^ instead of -EZIR. Such are : amarzir, make bitter amar, bitter carzir, make dear car, dear clarzir, make clear clar, clear durzir, become hard dur, hard vilzir, make vile vil, vile -lAR The Latin suffix -lARE was very commonly used in forming verbs on adjectives, as is made clear by the forms in the Romance languages, as well as by the words found ' Although this word may really exist, it appears to be nothing but a corruption of vergonhozir, formed on vergonhos, ashamed, just as we find orgolhozir, make proud, formed on orgolhos, proud. 2 These words are quite possibly Lat. formations, in which case the i of -ICIRE — the intertonic vowel — would naturally disappear. It is to be noted that amaricare, claricare, and vilicare are actually found, and the forms in -ICIRE are analogical formations. In the case of durzir, durescere is the Lat. word found, and the Sp. words corresponding to -CIR and -EZIR having -ECER (<-ESCERE) may have helped to bring about the confusion with -ESCERE, from which the Fr. and Prov. words cannot phonetically be derived. t Other words ending in an -EZIR that cannot possibly come from -ICIRE are estobezir, flechezir, fremezir, marcezir, tebezir, and (ortezir. Estobezir, be astonished, and tebezir, become warm, may possibly come from *stupidire and tepidire, formed on stupidus and tepidus (see p. 363) . Yet this process could not have spread much farther. Flechezir, bend, and fremezir, tremble, may show substitutions of -EZIR for -IR. Marce- zir, wither, fade, appears to represent marcescere, though not a perfectly phonetic development of it. In tortezir, twist, -EZIR seems to be added to the past participle tort (probablj' used as an adjective) of the verb torser. Formation of Verbs 367 in Latin itself. But it is never found as a suffix in Romance for the reason that its unaccented i or y element combined regularly according to phonetic laws with the preceding consonant, giving a different result in each case according to the consonant. The force of the suffix was about the same as that of -AR, and there was nothing to make it strongly enough felt as a suffix to prevent the accomplish- ment of phonetic laws. It appears not to have been used in learned words, and could not be used as a suffix to form new words. Several words in Provengal end in -lAR but these may all be explained in other ways. The list is as follows: contrariar, oppose; erbiar, weed out; espesiar, break to pieces; estresiar, compress, confine; magriar, become thin; martiriar, torture; meitiar, divide in half; negociar, trade; principiar, begin; and rauquiar, cry hoarsely. Contrariar and martiriar appear to be formed by means of the suffix -AR, not -lAR, on the learned words contrari, opposite, and martiri, torture. Erbiar and rauquiar probably should be erbejar and rauquejar. The latter is found in Old Provengal, and the former in the modern language. Espesiar shows a change from -EGAR to -LAR, or else a dropping of the g. Espesegar has been treated under -EGAR. Estresiar is probably only a learned development of strictiare, tighten, the popular form being estreisar. The form of the word is doubtful, however. Levy points out that Rochegude has estreciar, which would be the regular learned development of strictiare. Magriar and principiar are undoubtedly the Latin *7nacriare and *principiare (the latter giving the Spanish principiar) . Negociar is from negotiari. Meitiar is a peculiar formation. We should expect meitadiar from meitat. It appears to represent a medietare. -IFICAR There is a good-sized list of words in -IFICAR in Provencal, but they cause little difficulty, as such a suffix is obviously learned, and the words which end in it are 368 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL either developments of Latin words in -IFICARE, practically unchanged, or else are Provengal imitations of these words/ similar to some of the verbs in -IFIER in French. The suffix was formed both on adjectives in -IFICUS, as magnificus, by adding -ARE, and also by adding -FICARE (for /acere) to nouns and adjectives and even to verb-stems.^ In Provencal, -IFICAR is always found in all of these uses. The list follows: albeficar, whiten (alb); damnificar, injure (damnar); deificar,^ deify; dignificar,^ dignify (digne); esamplificar,^ exemplify (eisample) ; latificar, broaden (lat); lenificar, soften {len); maleficar, bewitch (mal); mondificar,^ purify (monde); mordcficar,^ prick; ramificar,^ ramify (ram) ; ratificar,* ratify {rata f) ; rubificar,^ redden (rubeus) ; sanctificar,^ sanctify {sand); sensificar,^ make sensitive (sens); vilificar,'' vihfy {vil). -INAR, -ONAR The suffixes -INAR and -ONAR, which are of about equal frequency in Provengal, will be treated together here. -INARE, from which the Provengal -INAR is derived, is found as a suffix in Latin, but -ONAR seems to be of more recent and probably analogical formation. -INARE is, for example, given by Cooper in his list of Latin verbal suffixes, but it is mentioned as a suffix par- ticularly common in Vulgar Latin, though found occasion- ally in Cicero. It is found in Classical Latin in such words 1 That is, the suffix is never found in any really popular Prov. formations. 2 To nouns in such words as aedificare; to adjectives in such words as sanctificare, and to verb-stems in horrificare, etc. It has the meanings of "to make," "to bring to a certain state," and "to cause." 3 Found in Class. Lat. < Of Low Lat. origin. ' Found in scholastic Lat. s Clearly a Lat. formation. ' Given by Goelzer, 90, together with many of the other words listed above. Formation of Verbs 369 as destinare and obstinare, the latter of which, through its existence beside obstare, would give the appearance of a suffix -INARE added to the stem of the verb. This suffix was then added to verb-stems. The Romance languages in general show how common -INARE must have been, but in most of them the fall of the intertonic vowel prevents it from appearing clearly as a suffix. It nevertheless was frequent enough in Vulgar Latin to be substituted for other suffixes, as -ITARE, for example. The Spanish word voznar clearly shows this substitution, and Spanish graznar and Italian gracidare show -INARE and -ITARE existing side by side in their modern developments.^ The Spanish maznar (for macer- aref) also shows a substitution of -INAR for another ending. The words which show -INAR in Provengal, how- ever, cannot, of course, be formed in this way, in which case the vowel would have disappeared as in the other words. Some of them are really only verbs formed by adding the verbal ending -AR to nouns ending in -IN; others seem to have continued the Latin process of sub- stituting -INAR for other verbal suffixes; and one word apparently shows the suffix added to a noun within Romance times. Thus the suffix continued to be felt, although in the popular words formed in Latin, it gradually lost the appearance of a suffix. The Provengal words in -INAR (which will be treated individually below) are as follows : bozinar, englutinar, girbaudinar, grafinar, and languinar. Bozinar and grafinar appear to be formed by adding -AR, and not -INAR, to the nouns bozina and grafi. Bozinar is found with the meaning of "to make a noise," 1 For these suffixes in Lat., see Meyer-Liibke, II, 663, sec. 587; Cooper, 242. 370 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL "rumble," etc., similar to the meaning which Mistral gives for bousina, and could be formed on bozina,^ trumpet, although it has another meaning of "to act foolishly," according to Levy,- which may represent a word of entirely different origin. Grafinar, to scratch, may have been formed on grafi, stylus. Languinar, to languish, yearn after, shows -INAR added to a verb-stem, that of languir, and substituted for -IR with little or no change of meaning. Englutinar is only the Latin glutinare with a prefix. Words like this, reaching the Romance languages practically unchanged, together with such common words as the derivatives of obstinare, give rise to the use of -INAR as a suffix added to verb-stems.^ One other Provencal word with this suffix is gir- baudinar,^ to outrage, insult. This appears to be formed on girbaiit, vulgar fellow. Girbaudar is not found. -ONARE does not appear to have been used as a suffix in Latin, but the forms derived from it, -ONAR and -ONNER, are found used as suffixes in Provengal and French. Li Provengal, -ONAR occurs in several words, but in most of them, as was sometimes the case with -INAR, it is not a compound verbal suffix that is repre- sented, but only the simple suffix -AR attached to a noun in -ON. As these words were fairly common, and because of the influence of the suffix -INAR, there may have come about the use of -ONAR as a real suffix.'' > From buccina. 2 1, ieo. ' Cf. the Fr. words ending in -INER, as trottiner, pietiner, etc., in which -INER is substituted for -ER. * Or possibly enguirbaudinar. See Levy, III, 2. ' If such use exists. Tastonar seems to be the only probable example of it. In Fr., however, -ONNER is much commoner than -INER. Formation of Verbs 371 The words in which -ONAR is found, the verbal suffix being, however, only -AR, are: agachonar, provide witnesses agachon, witness amolonar, pile up The word may be a parasynthe- ton formed on molon, a mass, or it may possibly be a real example of the use of the verbal suffix -ONAR, being formed on the verb amolar, pile up. mencionar,^ mention mencion, mention The only word that is a certain example of a suffix -ONAR is: tastonar,^ grope tastar, touch -IZAR The Provengal words ending in -IZAR give little difficulty. They are few in number and are regularly formed by adding the suffix to nouns. The source of the suffix is the same as for -EJAR, the Greek -i^eiv, which became -IZARE in Latin. This form was first added to words of Greek origin, and then to Latin words. On the one hand, both the form of the suffix and the kind of word formed remained very nearly the same as at the beginning, as in -IZAR; on the other, in popular words, the suffix must have changed into -IDIARE, whence the Provencal -EJAR, already treated. -IZAR from -IZARE was not, then, a popular suffix, as indeed our Provencal words show. These are either words formed in Latin, or Provengal imitations of such learned words. Some of them, as escandalizar, scandalize, evangelizar, evangelize, organizar, organize, and sincopizar, faint, have Greek 1 Cf. the Fr. tdtonner, beside idler. t Also escaironar, from escairon, but the word is doubtful. 372 Word-Formation in Provencal words at their base, and appear to have been formed in Latin. Polverizar also may be derived from a word already formed in Latin. ^ A few words seem to be formed in Provencal in imitation of the Latin learned formation: colizar,- pay a tax cota, price, share favorizar,^ favor favor, favor inventarizar, make inventory inventari, inventory marlirizar,^ massacre martiri, torture mercandizar ,] carry on business mercan{t), merchant The later history of the suffix may be seen in French — in which new verbs in -IZAR, often taking the place of those in -ER, are formed on modern French words, both nouns and adjectives — and in English where it exists as -IZE. lA corresponding form exists also iu Fr., in which language the simple word developed into poudre. The Fr. verb might, of course, be a late imitation of a Lat. word, but similar forms exist in too many languages for this to be probable. 2 Found also in Fr. From Late Lat. words ? t Other words not formed in Prov. are pactizar, make an agreement (found also in Fr.), and preconizar, make known, from a Late Lat. praeconizare. CHAPTER IV FORMATION OF ADVERBS The last of the great divisions containing words formed by the addition of suffixes consists of adverbs. Here, however, though one other ending will be mentioned, there is only one suffix requiring detailed treatment, hav- ing become in all Romance practically the only one used in the formation of adverbs. This is, of course, the Latin suffix -MENTE and the Provengal -MEN, which, on account of being added to the feminine form of the adjective^ — generally ending in a — may be given as -AMEN. (-a) MEN The numerous adverbs in -AMEN and -MEN formed on adjectives present little interest, being always regularly formed.^ Adverbs formed by means of this suffix on words other than adjectives and past participles are very rare and hard to explain. For example, there are a few words formed on nouns: 1 The reason being that -MENTE represented the Lat. feminine noun mens, mentis. 2 There are several words with these endings beside which no corre- sponding adjectives are found, examples of such words being onorifi- cablamen, to the full value; plaziblamen, in a pleasing manner; plori- volm,en, lamentably; presencialmen, as being present; and prodomialmen, honorably. Probably the adjectives onorificable, plorivol, etc., existed, but it seems unnecessary to assume their existence. Since -ABLE and -AL are two of the commonest endings for adjectives, and -MEN is very often attached to words with these endings to form adverbs, -ABLEMEN and -ALMEN were found very frequently, and may have come to be added as single suffixes to the proper base-words when need for such formations arose. Thus presencialmen may have been formed directly on presencia, etc. They would in this case be double suffixes. 373 374 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL domenjamen, in particular, pri- domenge, property vately ligemen,^ like a vassal lige, liege mercandamen, in a businesslike mercan{t) merchant way There are also words apparently formed on verb-stems : de{s)liuramen; Levy translates by "free, unhindered," thus mak- ing the word an adjective; it also has the meaning "immedi- ately"; from de{s)liurar, deliver enrevironamen, roundabout enrevironar, surround -MEN is added to other words m : eisemsmen,^ together eisems, together Here the suffix has no force. -ADA MEN, -ID AMEN, -UDAMEN This brings us to the words formed on past participles. These are numerous enough to have given rise in the regu- lar past participles to apparent suffixes -ADAMEN, -IDAMEN, and -UDAMEN, which are, however, only the feminine form of past participles in -AT, -IT, and -UT+the adverbial suffix. Past participles being often used precisely as adjectives, it was natural to form adverbs • Lige, on which this adverb is formed, is used in the examples both as adjective and noun, and would be a proper starting-point for the formation of the other words, if they need any such starting-point. When a need for this particular kind of formation arose, however, the ordinary adverbial ending was used, its original use apparently being forgotten. Another adverb possibly formed on a noun is fachamen, found in the phrase: com fachamen, just as. Possibly formed on fach, deed? 2 Esmamen, likewise, may also be mentioned here. The word is obscure, but appears to be a deformation of eisamen mortal, deadly mortaher ) mulatin, of a mule pezansos,^ sad pigasat, spotted porcelier, pig-breeding sobransier,^ proud frejura, cold (noun) guinhon, whiskers linhatge, lineage mortal, mortal mulat, mule pezansa, care pigasa, axe parcel, pig sobransa, pride freg, cold {guinhar, wink ?) linha, line mort, death mul, mule pezar, weigh, think pic, pickaxe pore, pig sobrar, conquer, overcome 2. The word to which the last suffix is added being an adjective. — Next come the suffixes added to adjectives. Here we probably have to deal agaui with real double suffixes rather than with compound ones, but it is hard to say with any certainty that such endings as -ELET, -ELOS, and -ONET were, never added as one suffix. It is possible, much more so, indeed, than was the case with the nouns of the same kind, that they are compound suffixes, but there are few examples of any one of them, and the word with the single suffix persists; whereas if -ELET, in particular, had been understood as a single suffix, the word in -EL would have been likely to dis- appear. ^ The adjectives formed on adjectives will therefore be given here under the real double suffixes: amorozet, (somewhat) loving cortezet, courtly falbelet, slightly pale falbelos, pale fortalet,' somewhat strong amoros, loving cortes, courtly ■falbel, pale, fallow amor, love cort, court falb, pale, fallow fort, strong 1 Here the noun oia which the adjective is finally formed is based on a verb. 2 Especially true, however, of the cases in which -EL was added to nouns. In most of the cases given, the base-word as well as the one with a single suffix is an adjective. ' A peculiar form. Fortalet appears to be made up of -ET added to *fortal, which may have been supposed to exist in for taleza, i.e., fortal + -EZA instead ol fort -\-aleza. Fresquenet (p. 388) may possibly be a cor- ruption of frescalet, frescal being found. 388 Word-Formation in Proven(;al fresquenel,^ (beside fresquet). fresc, fresh fresh ginhozet, fine, slender (?) ginhos, fine ( ?) ginh, artifice grizonet (beside grizet), some- grizon, gray gris, gray what gray novelet, rather new novel, new nou, new primairal,^-f principal primier, first prim, first ///. Verbs. — The verbal double suffixes give little difficulty. The second or verbal suffix simply changes the noun or adjective already having a single suffix into a verb. The verbal suffix itself, however, may be simple or compound. The only simple ones are -AR and -IR, the conjugation endings; the compound ones — ^ALHAR, -ASAR, -EJAR, -EZIR, etc.— have already been fully treated in the chapter on ordinary verbal suffixes. So important a part of the formation of verbs have they become that it would have been impossible to reserve their treatment to the chapter on double suffixes. All that remains to be given, therefore, is the list of words ending in a suffix, which add -AR and -IR in order to become verbs. -AR is found added to nouns and -IR to adjectives. -AR is found in: aposturar, damnatjar, drechurar, flautelar, fornatjar, fornilhar, frachurar, frontadar, furetar, furonar, laidenjar, lauzenjar, medalhonar, ostalar, ostatjar, peatjar, pedasar, personatjar, pomelar, pontelar, porcelar, romansar, sobransar, soldadar, and valadar. -IR is found in orgolhozir. B. COMPOUND SUFFIXES We now reach the second class into which the double suffixes have been divided— the compound suffixes. The origin and development of suffixes of this kind have been explained by Thomas in his article on the suffix » See note 3, p. 387. ' Found also as primairan under compound suffixes, p. 402. t Fatonier, crazy, is similar in formation to glotonia and leconia treated above. Double Suffixes 389 -ARICIUS.^ As an illustration of the birth of suffixes of this class, Thomas takes the word natalicius. First, derived from the past participle natus, we find the adjec- tive natalis, natal, and from this word, used substantively in the sense of "birthday," is derived the adjective natalicius, pertaining to one's birthday. Then the con- nection of this word with natus and its resemblance to it brings about the supposition that it was formed on it by means of the suffix -ALICIUS rather than on the less usual natalis. This, then, is an example of the growth of compound suffixes in Latin: the whole development is complete. Yet also in Latin, we may find the compound suffix in full bloom, without any intermediate stage in view, as in gentilicius for example, formed — as its meaning proves — on gens and not on gentilis, and in sigiUaricium, clearly formed, in one example, on sigillum. -ARICIUS, or -ALICIUS, was, therefore, added as a simple suffix, just as -ICIUS, for example, to the simple word. Now, there are several types of compound suffixes in Provengal. -AREZA, found in a few words, is from -ARICIUS, -A, mentioned above. -ARIA (-ARIUS+ -lA) is, of course, likwise really a compound suffix, but as it was formed so very early as to be practically a simple suffix in Latin, it has been treated as a simple suffix and given with these. Yet -ARIUS, the first part of this suffix, seems to have been peculiarly suited to the super- position of other suffixes.- It sometimes merely changed a noun into an adjective, and often was added to both nouns and adjectives without changing their meaning. This may account for the list of compound suffixes formed on -ARIUS — AIRADA, -AIRAL, -AIRET, -AIRIA, -AIROL, -AIRON, and, strangest of all, -AIRIER, in 1 i\^ouv. Ess., 62. 2 See p. 381, note, above. 390 Word-Formation in PRovENgAL which -ARIUS, -UM is twice represented. It will at once be observed, of course, that in all these words, -ARIUS has the form -AIR, its phonetic development, instead of -lER, the form it has when used alone. The difference seems to be one of accent. When used alone, -ARIUS bore the accent and seems to have undergone foreign influences by which it became -lER,^ but with other suffixes attached, it did not bear the accent, and simply developed phonetically. These suffix-combinations were probably first formed, therefore, after the y element of -ARIUS had begun to influence the preceding vowel, but before the foreign influences were exerted. In some cases, the word in -lER exists beside the word ending in -AIR+suffix, but the connection between the two was probably forgotten. Sestier exists beside sestairada and sestairal, and these two last words may have been formed on it, but the existence of sest probably caused that more usual word to be taken as their base. Thus may have come about such words as capairon and golairon. The case is the same as that of natalicius. The same thing is true of the double suffixes beginning with -ADA or -AT attached to verb-stems. In these cases, -ADA and -AT often had no very clear force, and as -lER w^as often added to them, possibly because of an earlier use with the words formed on nouns by these suffixes, there arose the compound suffix -ADIER or -ATIER, of very frequent occurrence. The verbal suffix -ANDA also combined with -lER in the same way. A nominal suffix that combined with -lER very fre- quently is -AS, which sometimes had no very clear force, though generally augmentative. The combination is perhaps common enough to be treated as a compound suffix (-ASIER), particularly as the intermediate word in » See p. 208, above. Double Suffixes 391 -AS is often not to be found. -AS sometimes combines with other final suffixes also. -EL is another suffix which was very frequently com- bined with other suffixes, particularly -ET, the ending -ELET being of common occurrence in Provengal. Yet in spite of its frequency, it is doubtful whether this was a real compound suffix added at once to the simple word. -EL has already been treated as a single suffix,^ and it has been shown that when added in Latin, it gave very little force of any kind to words to which it was attached, which simple words, being so nearly like the derived ones, tended to disappear in favor of the word with the suffix. We find, therefore, few groups of words containing the simple word as well as the one endmg in -EL and the one in -ELET. If, therefore, the simple word disappeared very early, so shortly after a word ending m -EL had been formed on it, there was nothing left to which a compound suffix -ELET could be added. The words ending in -EL were thought of as simple words, and a new suffix -ET w^as added. The persistence of the simple word, in a number of cases, rather than that of the word with the single suffix, would seem to be a necessary requirement to bring about the addition of compound suffixes. As illustrative of this point, a word containing -ARIUS may be compared and contrasted with the words in -EL. Beside cartairada, for example, cart, as well as earlier (quartarius) still per- sists, and gives a good starting-point for words having the compound suffix -AIRADA. It is only in a few cases that the simple word to which -ARIUS was added has dis- appeared.- 1 See p. 171, above. 2 One of these words is denier ( Noui\ Ess., 62. 2 Also many other cases, as vinhares, spelled this way in Thomas' example, but placed by him under the heading vinharez. t A word of different form in Prov., but representing -ALICIUS, is mortalici, funeral service ( ?). Double Suffixes 397 Practically all of the words in Thomas' lists indicate place, and none of them are abstract. -ITIA cannot, therefore, be their source, but confusion with it may account for the z in such words as have it. Most of the words, doubtless, are only adjectives used substantively, and all but a very few are proper names. The few common nouns ending in -ARES, -AREZA, but spelled as Thomas gives them, are: (1) Masculine Nouns: bocarez, a variety of black grape hoc. buck (source according to Thomas) cahrarez, a bird that sucks milk from goats cabra, goat vinharez, vineyard vinha, vine and on a verb-stem we find: partarez, fan instrument for cutting partir, divide (2) Feminine Nouns: bovareza, ox path bou, ox fortareza (as well as fortaleza) fort, strong fortress porcareza, piggery pore, pig secareza,^ dry place sec, dry and also, spelled with e instead of a, we find: /ronieresa, 1 1 boundary (frontiera, front, front boundary, is also found) ' Cf. the Mod. Fr. secheresse, which has come to have abstract force. t In all of these cases, the original adjectival force is clear. The proper names are as follows: bezarez, place where there are birches (?) figarez, place where there are fig trees; lobarez, place where there are wolves ( ?) vacarez, place for cows. tt Nouv. Ess. , 69. The proper names ending in -AREZA are as follows : bezareza, place having birches (cf . bezarez) ; boscareza, place covered with bushes; cabrareza, place where goats are; calmareza, place with untilled land; ivernareza, place having hard winters; lohareza, place where wolves are; rodareza, place where wheels are made; and vacareza, place for cows. (These words, and also the ones given in the note on the preceding list, being given with their original meanings as common nouns, are not spelled with capitals.) 398 Word-Formation in Provencal The e may be accounted for by the hypothesis that this was formed on frontera and not on front by the addition of -AREZA, making really a triplex suffix. The -AR might hav^e disappeared by a syllabic superposition. -AIRADA, -AIRAL, -AIRATGE, -AIRET, -AIRIA, -AIRIER, -AIROL, -AIRON The next group of words, in alphabetic order, is that in which the first suffix, from the Latin -ARIUS, is repre- sented in Provengal by -AIR-. Here we find that -AIRADA is found in: cartairada, a grain measure {earlier, quarter) cart, quarter denairada, pennyworth denier, penny figairada, flg tree (figuier, fig tree) figa, flg porcairada, herd of swine {porgziier, swineherd) pore, pig sestairada, a measure of {sestier, a measure) sest, sixth length -AIRAL^ is found in denairal, pennyworth denier, penny menestairal, workman (menestier, service) menistre, servant sestairal, a measiu-e of ca- {sestier, a measure) sest, sixth pacity -AIRATGE is found [in: bandairatge,^ right of pastur- {handier, country con- banda, ban ing stable) -AIRETisfoundin: carraireta, alley {carriera, way) car, cart culhairet, small spoonful culhier, spoon denairet, small penny denier, penny gorgaireta, gorget {gorgiera, gorget) gorga, throat mercadairet, small merchant {mercadier, merchant) mercat, market The words ending in -AIRIA have been given under -ARIA, which, on account of its very early formation, ' For two nouns in -ARAL (agraral and fumaral) see the simple nominal suffix -AL (pp. 64-66), and for three adjectives with this end- ing (agraral, boaral, and diaral), see the simple adjectival suffix -AL (pp. 287-88) and the compound adjectival suffix -ARAL (p. 402). • Also found as bandeiratge. Double Suffixes 399 has been treated as a single suffix. -AIRIA, as has been remarked, is only a variation of -ARIA, and the words with this ending have, therefore, no place here. -AIRIER is found in: bandairier, standard bearer carrairier, city officer in charge of the streets ensenhairier, standard bearer fumeriera,t dunghill -AIROL is found in: blavairol, bruise carnairol, gamebag carrairola, little street, alley milhairola, measure for liquids poslairol, hinder part Tatairol,-\] small falcon -AIRON is found in : capairon, little hat cartairon, quadroon fogairon, hearth; small fire garhairon, heap of sheaves golairon, throat gravairon, sandy place lebrairon, small greyhoimd mercadairon, small merchant molnairon, miller's boy salsairon,]\\ sauce-dish (bandiera, banner) {carriera, road) {ensenhiera, banner) {carnier, charnel-house) {carriera, street) (milkier, thousand) (raiier, rat-trap) (earlier, quarter) (foguier, hearth) (garbier, cart for sheaves) (gravier, beach) (lebrier, greyhound) (mercadier, merchant) (molinier, miller) banda, flag car, cart ensenha, ensign fern, manure blau, bhie cam, flesh car, cart mil, thousand post, behind rat, rat cap, head cart, quarter foe, fire garba, sheaf gola, throat grava, sand lebra, hare mereat, market molin, mill salsa, sauce -ALIER, -ALATGE The suffix -AL is found sometimes with -lER and w^th -ATGE attached to it, forming finally the probable t A word obscure in formation is pechairier, tinsmith. Pechairier may be from *pechier, pitcher (of metal) See double prefixes, p. 491. 2 This is the same kind of formation seen in ucreire and acreiser (Ft. accroire and accrottre) of Lat. origin, and may be compared also with the Fr. assavoir. Asaber, likewise, probably dates back to Vulgar Lat. All of these words generally depended on faire. 3 Thus aconoiser, recognize, acreiser, increase, apaiser, feed, and apareiser, appear, probably going back to a Vulgar Lat.* apparescere. t Of Lat. origin is adamar, love A list of the words of this kind would contain transfigar, trans- figurar, transform- (found also with TRAS-), transformar, transglotir, translatar (formed on translatum) , transmudar (also with TRAS-), transnomnar , transplantar (also with TRAS-), and transportar. - Also trascolar and trasluzer and the words having TRAS- as well as TRANS- given in note 1. 3 As tragitarappn. 512 Word-Formation in Provenqal enserpelhar,^ pack in sackcloth ensotzierranhar,^ put in the cellar entaiar,^ cover with dirt entapisar, decorate entavernar, put in a tavern enterrar, bury, inter entestar, affect the head, infatuate entorrar, lock up in a tower entrcguar, make peace entrenar, interlace enverinar, poison enviscar, catch with bird-lime envolcar,*\ wrap up Under ENTRE- may perhaps be placed ; entrepachar{se), occupy oneself Under ES- and EIS-: tapis, carpet, hanging taverna tavern terra, land, earth testa, head torre, tower tregua, truce trena, tress, braid verin, poison vise, bird-lime aura, air aurelha, ear bast, a dwarf reed bras, arm budel, bowels buerna, mist busca, straw, reed eisaurar, rise, soar eisaurelhar, cut the ears off eiservigar,^ sprain the neck esbastar ( ?), take away the " bast " esbrasar, raise the arms esbudelar, disembowel esbuernar, to obscure esbuscar, to clear (a ditcla) of plants 1 The only noun found is serpelhiera, sackcloth (Fr. serpillikre), whose origin seems doubtful. A form without the suffix -lERA may possibly have existed. - Sotzterranh is not found in Prov., nor is even terranh. *Sotzterranh (an imitation of the Lat. subterraneus with SOTZ- from SUBTUS substituted for SUB) probably existed, meaning "cellar" (cf. the Fr. souterrain) , and ensotzterranhar may be a parasyntheton formed on it. 5 Again no simple noun is found. Entaiar is, however, apparently, only a variation of entacar (see p. 435) from taca, spot. * Confusion with envolopar ? The simple word vole means "volcano.', 5 Cervigal, nape of the neck, is found, but not cervic. t A word somewhat obscure in form is entauscar, put on a bier. This should apparently be corrected to entaucar, which would be formed on tanc, bier. Entalugar is obscure both in form and meaning. Encoholar, prevent, also is obscure in form. A word of Lat. origin is encarnar, incarnate The verbs restar and arestar both are found, and orestol might he a formation on the latter except for the fact that the suffix -OL seems always to have been added to nouns. For a description of the arestol. see Schultz, Hofischc Leben, II, 24. CHAPTER III FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES The formation of adjectives of this kind is similar to that of the nouns, but it is even more hmited in extent. Indeed, the only certain adjective parasyntheta are formed by means of the participial suffixes -AT, -IT, and -UT.^ The way these formations were evolved has been men- tioned in dealing with the adjective suffix -AT. I. FORMATIONS ON VERB-STEMS The list of parasyntheta probably formed on verb- stems follows. Under -AT, there are: de (or des)fortunat,^ unfortunate fortunar (fortuna), make happy derazonat, unreasonable razonar {razon), reason dezafiblat, uncloaked afiblar, clasp, wrap up emparlat, eloquent parlar, speak enfastigat, satiated fastigar (fastic), feel disgust for enfazendat, busy, occupied fazendar, make enmeravilhat, astonished meravilhar {meravilha), marvel ensagelat, sealed sagelar (sagel), seal prenomnat, previously mentioned nomnar, name sobr(e)amezurat ) . , , amezurar, measure , , y immoderate , , , sobredesmezurat ) desmezurar, go beyond measure 1 There are, however, a few words ending in other suffixes that should be mentioned here. Benastruc and malastruc, for example, are listed by Meyer-Liibke under the parasyntheta. They are, indeed, formed on astre, star, but as astruc (and its derivative astrugueza) is also found, they cannot well be placed here. They may be compared with the Fr. bienheureux and malheureux, which are certainly not parasyntheta. Both Fr. and Prov. forms are compound words, under which head the Prov. words will be given. Other apparent parasyntheta are subalbenc and subfalbenc. These might be taken to be formed on alb and falb, yet both falbenc and subfalb are found. Subfalbenc might, therefore, be taken either as prefix- or suffix-formation. Subalbenc is probably formed on the analogy of subfalbenc. See pp. 309 and 488 above. 2 Fortunat is not found in Prov., although similar forms are in most of the other languages. 529 530 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL Under -IT, there is found: dezapedit, abandoned apedir, long for, desire. (See adjective suflfix -IT) oltrasalhit, overweening salhir, dart out And under -UT, there is: dezaperceubut, unprepared ( ?) apercebre, perceive II. FORMATIONS ON NOUNS Next, parasynthetic adjectives formed directly on nouns are seen. The nouns that existed beside nearly all the simple verbs given in the list above may be the starting-point for this. Such adjectives in -AT are: denofezat,^ unbelieving /e, faith desbrasat, without arms bras, arm embagat, wearing rings empaginat,- dull, surly pagina, page empebrat, peppery pebre, pepper enaibat,^ deformed aip, good quality enarnescat, equipped arnesc, equipment encanonat, reed-shaped canon, reed encarat (preceded by mal) = with cara, face dark face encopenat or entopinal .?,'' plumed ( ?) • A peculiar formation, as nofezat, which also exists, expresses this idea sufficiently well, in addition to its meaning of "disloyal." The DE- of denofezat appears to have no force, therefore. The word may have been formed, however, by the addition of -AT to the phrase de no fe, and the z due to the analogy of nofezat. 2 A queer development of meaning. The form seems to indicate the mood of one always poring over the pages of a book. 3 EN- here would appear to be the negative particle sometimes pre- fixed to adjectives. Aibat, however, does not appear to exist, though aibit is found. See note on endechat (p. 531, below). * If the word in question is entopinal, it would seem to be formed on topina, saucepan, and, indeed, entoupina, put in the pot, wrap up, etc., is found in Mistral. But even if the word should be corrected to entopi- nat, there is no clear connection in meaning with topina, saucepan, as the meaning "plumed" seems to fit the passage in which the word is found. Could not the root be, rather, that found in the Fr. toupet (and toupie ?) ? Possibly there may have existed a Prov. *topin with the meaning of toupet, or "tuft." The word is very obscure, however. Formation of Adjectives 531 endechat,^ full of good qualities decha, fault endemoniat, demoniacal demoni, demon enlatinat, learned, versed in Ian- latin, Latin guages ensolfrat, sulphured solfre, sulphur ensucat, wounded in the head sue, head eniemorat, god-fearing iemor, fear escuichat, hipped, hipshot cuicha, hip esdentat, toothless den{t), tooth esfosat, dug(?), or containing fosa, grave graves ( ?) esfrontat, bold, daring fron{t), forehead espeitrinat, with bared breast peitriyia, breast nofezat, faithless fe, faith sobrestoriat, f overadorned, over- estoria, history labored An adjective of this kind ending in -IT is: aterrit, worn out, infirm terra, earth III. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVAL PARASYNTHETA A few words appear to be of even more complicated formation, however. These appear to have, besides the prefix and suffix such as are seen in the preceding list joined to the simple noun, another syllable interpolated between this noun and the suffix. Such words are esmentegat, espezotat, and engratonat. Esmentegat, crazy, appears to be the past participle of a verb *esmentegar. This is derived by SticheP from 1 Endechat is formed in the same way as enaibat, in which the EN- has negative force. There is a verb dechar which seems to mean "to sin," and endechat may be formed of EN- and dechat, the past participle of dechar. Even in such a case, however, the existence of the noun decha would give a starting-point for the formation of enaibat on a noun. 2 P. 52. t Ajostat probablj- formed on josta, near; apoderat probably formed on poder, power; descorat probably formed on cor, heart; and encolpat probably formed on colpa, sin, guilt, should be mentioned here with the parasyntheta, although, as the verb with the prefix exists, they have already been given as suffix-formations. 532 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL EX-+menie+-ICARE and compared with the Spanish mentecato. This etymology seems to be correct, making the word a parasyntheton with the suffix -ICARE. *Esmentegar may be compared with dementegar, forget, which is found. Espezotat, with broken foot, appears to be the same kind of formation, although the source of the -ot- is not entirely clear. Mistral lists a word espezouta. Engratonat, wrinkled, appears to be formed on a noun *graton derived from the verb gratar, scratch. Mistral has a verb gratouna, scratch slightly. PART IV OTHER METHODS OF WORD-FORMATION INTRODUCTORY WORDS FORMED WITHOUT THE USE OF SUFFIX OR PREFIX As a convenient as well as logical system for the classi- fication of the different kinds of word-formation found, the addition of suffix or prefix has been adopted and foUoAved hitherto. Words have been regarded as formed by the addition of either one of these, or of both of them at the same time, and classified accordingl3^ It is, more- over, possible to continue on the same basis by styling all the other ordinary methods of word-formation "Words formed without the use of either suffix or prefix." This classification, or grouping-together of all the words formed by other methods than the addition of suffix or prefix contains two very distinct kinds of formations. There are the words formed by composition, or the union of two individual words, to be treated later, and there is also another type of word, peculiar to the Romance languages and particularly common in French and Pro- vencal, in which there is an apparent dropping of a suffix. These are the words which have been generally known as postverhal nouns. Here, however, they will be given the broader title of "nouns formed from verbs." They will be treated first. 535 CHAPTER I NOUNS FORMED FROM VERBS These words, generally known as postverbal nouns, as stated above, are, in appearance, never anything but the stem itself of the verb from which they are formed. There has been some discussion of this class of words and of the name that should be given them, Egger, who was one of the first to treat this kind of nouns, called them nouns formed by the apocopation of the infinitive,^ and Lene, who has treated the formation of these words in French more recently,- while giving the words their usual name of postverbal nouns,^ has adopted Egger's view of their formation. However w^ords of this kind may have come to be formed in French or in Provengal, their origin is described by Lene in what he calls a "proportional formation." To illustrate: From the past participle cantiis of the ancient verb canere, to sing, was formed the frequentative verb cantare. Now cantus, like many other past parti- ciples, was used substantively, meaning "song," and when canere later disappeared and cantare persisted,^ the appearance is that of a noun formed on a verb by dropping some ending. Such, at least, is the appearance of the words in French and Provengal, where we find the nouns ' " Les substantifs verbaux formes par apocope de Vinfinitif" Rev. I lang. rom., VI, 333-60. 2 Les substantifs postverbaux dans la langue frangaise, Upsala, 1899. 5 This name is criticized in a review of Lene's work by Paris in Romania, XXIX, 440. The name substantifs deverbaux is there sug- gested. ■• This disappearance of the simpler form is in harmony with the principles of word-formation in Vulgar Lat. and in Romance. 536 Nouns Formed from Verbs 537 chant and ca7i{t) existing beside the verbs chanter and cantar. The proportion is between cantus, denoting the action of the verb — and cantare, the verb itself. When this proportion happened to become frequent, as it did in later Latin, new nouns on this model were formed, and as the original method of formation had been forgotten, they were formed according to appearances, by using nothing but the stem of the verb. The question whether it is the stem of the infinitive or that of the present which appears in these words has been much discussed. For Provengal, it is the infinitive stem that is seen in every word, so that from all appear- ances these words might easily be called "substantives formed by apocopation of the infinitive." But it is doubtful whether any ending of any particular form was ever really dropped.^ A. POSTVERBAL NOUNS There are, in Provengal, three classes of postverbal nouns: (1) those showing only the stem of the verb; (2) those ending in -e; (3) those ending in -a. The second class is really only a subdivision of the first one, as the -e is probably never anything but the supporting vowel after a difficult combination of consonants. The case is simpler, therefore, than in French, where -e appears as a feminine ending as well as a supporting vowel. Aside from the forms in -e, there are, then, only two classes of words: the mascuhne, or verb-stem forms, and the feminine forms in -a.- A very large proportion of the words in both the lists is abstract, and it is impossible 1 Romania, XXIX, 443. 2 Names of male persons in -a, however (as gida and gacha), are masculine. 538 Word-Formation in Provencal to find any rule for their choice of gender, as Lene declares.^ In the Provencal of our period, there was apparently a good deal of hesitation as to the gender of these words, since for the same word there is frequently a form in -a and a form without it.- The masculines are more numer- ous, however, and seem to have been the original form. VERB-STEM FORMS First will be given the masculine or verb-stem forms. Of these the list is rather large. abric, shelter, refuge aclap, piling up, pile acort, peace, union acus, ground for complaint adop, arrangement afan, labor afic, attachment, effort agach,^ ambush, trap agart, waiting, expectation agrat, will, wish air,* anger ajost, collection, assembly amas, pile, heap apel, appeal aprest, preparation abricar, shelter aclapar, pile up acordar, agree acuzar, accuse adobar, equip afanar, work a^cor(se), support, attach oneself agachar, watch agardar, guard, watch agradar, please alrar, irritate ajostar, adjust amasar, amass apelar, call, appeal aprestar, prepare 1 P. 43. 2 Cf. the following pairs of words: coman and comanda consult and consulta deman and dernanda demor and demora destric and destriga empach and empacha endres and endresa enquest and enquesta enten and ententa esclat and esclata esper and espera estors and estorsa jur and jura soan and soana In Fr., in almost all of the cases in which one of these words or of any other pair has persisted to the present, it is under the feminine form. These probably became popular later than the period studied here through their closer resemblance to the verb-stem. ' The word has also personal force, meaning "a watchman." ercellum. 566 Word-Formation in Provencal e) There is one more class of nouns formed of a verb and a noun differing slightly from the preceding words, but represented by very few examples. Here the noun precedes, and the form of the verb is clearly the present participle. In henstenen and logatenen, the formation is a simple juxtaposition, and the combination forms the adjectives meaning property-holding and place-holding. The nouns of this class are simply, adjectives used substantively : henstenen, heir logatenen, deputy mantenen, balustrade viandan, wayfarer B. ADJECTIVES I. FORMED OF A NOUN AND AN ADJECTIVE (OR PARTICIPLE) There are some words composed of a noun and an adjective that are difficult to classify. Most of these words are translated by Levy as adjectives, but in the examples that he gives of them, they are apparently nouns with a specialized meaning. These nouns, however, always designating certain kinds of verse, could hardly have been formed as nouns for this purpose, particularly as adjectives of precisely the same formation and con- taining the noun cap, which occurs in most of the nouns, exist beside them.^ These words seem, on the contrary, to have been used before this as adjectives with certain words indicating verse, as vers, cohla,^ etc. Then, as was 1 It would be possible to assume that certain of these names of verse-forms were used originally as nouns, as, for example, captrencat, in describing a kind of verse with a part lacking, but this seems improbable. In capenclin we see the same kind of formation appearing only as adjective, and most of the other words beginning with cap- appear both as noun and adjective. See the list below. 2 The phrases coblas capcaudadas and coblas capfinidas are actually found beside the noun capcaudat and form the best argument for the pre- vious use as adjectives of all the nouns beginning with cap. Compound Words 567 so often the case, the adjective was used alone, the noun first being understood, and later became a noun, pure and simple. These words, found as adjectives, therefore, at once suggest a comparison with the other words formed of a noun and an adjective — namely the nouns formed by juxtaposition. In accordance with that class of words, hocafort, for example, should mean "strong mouth" instead of ''strong-mouthed," which it actually does mean. Possibly ''strong mouth" was its original meaning, and a bodily characteristic being described, an attempt would naturally follow to apply it to some particular person, thus making it an adjective.^ Possibly, on the other hand, the first step may be omitted, and the adjective bocafort have been created spontaneously to satisfy a linguistic need.^ At any rate, there Is a number of adjec- tives of similar formation, whereas the words containing cap have gone one step farther, and are once more nouns, though with the speciahzed sense above described. The nouns in these compounds of noun and adjective call for no comment. In the case of the adjectives, how- ever, it is worthy of note that with the exception of auran, fort, and van in capauran, bocafort, and capvan, all of the 1 This is equivalent to saying that we have here an ellipsis, and that bocafort means "(the one with the) strong mouth." 2 It is to be observed that there exists in Prov. no way of forming adjectives by means of an adjective and a noun with a participial suffix attached to it, as in the Engl, "strong-mouthed," "blue-eyed," etc. Nor is there much trace either of the kind of formation consisting of a noun modified in form and an adjective, so common in Sp., in barbiespeso, boquiduro, etc., which seem to be only imitations of Lat. forms {ig7ii- comus, etc.). The only Prov. examples appear to be colilonc, long- necked — which may be compared with the Sp. cuellilargo — and nazitort, garden-cress, a noun, but certainly originally an adjective similar in formation to the ones just mentioned, and probably meaning "hook- nosed." 568 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL adjectives are participles of verbs. Alapens^ is the only- example of a possible present participle ; all the other words show past participles either of actual Provengal verbs, as in capcuhert and capdescubert, or are descendants of Latin past participles,- understood now only as adjectives. All may, however, be treated together as adjectives. The complete list follows : alapens, with hanging wings bocafort, hard-mouthed bocatort, wry-mouthed capauran, with head in the air( ?) ; also a verse-form capcaudat {coblas capcaudas), a verse-form capclin, with bent head; also a verse-form capcorp, with bowed head ; also a verse-form capcubert, with covered head capdescubert, with uncovered head; also a verse-form capdrech, with head erect; also a verse-form capenclin, with head inclined capfinit (coblas capfinidas), a verse-form capras, with shorn head captondut, with shorn head; also a verse-form captrencat, with head struck off capvan, a verse-form fementit, disloyal, unfaithful fervestii,^ iron-clad golabadat, open-mouthed lengaforbit, smooth-tongued niafach, hand-made 1 It seems to be connected with pendre, hang, whose present parti- ciple should be, however, penden{s). 2 As din, enclin, and drech in the formations with cap. 3 The verb fervestir is found in O. Fr. For reference, see Mots Composes, 162. Compound Words 569 ii. formed of an adverb (or adjective) and an adjective (or participle) It will be at once observed that the second part of each word of this list is the same as that of the words of the preceding one. Most of the words in List I contained participial adjectives, and it was there pointed out that some of those in which a Provengal past participle was not to be found contained words derived from Latin ones. The same thing is true of the words belonging to the following list. Either a present or a past participle is clear in all of the words except maladrech, in which adrech comes from a Latin instead of a Proven9al past participle, and means "skilled." It is in the first part of each word that this list differs from the preceding one. Whereas, in I^ist I we have a noun which the following adjective modifies, in the pres- ent list the first part is always an adverb, or adjective used as such, modifying the following adjective. The words of the first list, being modified nouns, might be expected to form nouns, '^ but those of the present one, which are regularly modified adjectives, can become only adjectives. There are, however, very few words of this kind. The list follows:- benastruc, fortunate, blessed cautpres,^ caught in the act (warmly taken) 1 Possibly their original use, as explained above. 2 The words beginning with ben, mal, and non will be given here rather than under prefixes, as in Darmesteter, since these forms are still individual words, being common adverbs. 3 Caut in this example seems to be the adjective meaning "warm" used as an adverb. A somewhat similar expression in Engl., in which, however, the whole phrase is used adverbially, is "hot-foot." There is also a noun caut, meaning "heat," and corresponding to the Fr. chaude. This i.s apparently the part of speech that Levy sees in the caut of caut- pres, as he cites from Mistral a phrase pres sus la caudo, which, however, is not to be found under caudo there. 570 Word-Formation in PROVENgAL maladobal, stupid, awkward maladrech ,^ awkward malapert,^ impertinent 7nalapres,^ ill-bred malastruc, unfortunate malazaut, displeasing, impolite malsabe, disagreeable malsan,^ unhealthy megmort, half-dead megviu, half-alive nonapropinble, inaccessible nonauzidor,- unheard of nonbatejat, unbaptized, heathen noncomprendable, incomprehensible nonconvenivol, improper noncrezable, incredulous noncrezedor, incredible noncrezen, incredulous noncrezevol,- incredulous noncurai, indifferent nondefinit,- undetermined nondepartible, indivasible nondesienhable,^ inextinguishable nonesclavable, impenetrable nonmortal,^ immortal nonnocejat, unmarried nonnombral,- innumerable nonnozen,^ innocent nonpar,"^ uneven nonpoderos, impossible nonprofechos, useless nonrecomtable, unspeakable nonsanable, incurable nonvezen, sightless, blind nonvezible,'^ invisible 1 In the case of rnal, corresponding forms in Fr. should be noted ; as maladroit, malappris, malsain, and also one form in Engl., "malapert." 2 For many of the forms beginning with non there are similar forms in Lat., but having, instead, the prefix IN-, which are the forms that have come down into the other Romance languages. The Prov. words show a recomposition, and sometimes other changes, as in nonauzidor (Lat. inauditus) and nondestenhable (Lat. inextinguibilis) . Possibly nonauzidor should be corrected to nonauzit. Compound Words 571 plenisonan,^ full-sounding poisnat,- younger utnsonan,^'\ with two sounds C. VERBS I. FORMED OF AN ADVERB AND A VERB This kind of formation presents little difficulty. The only adverbs found are ben and mal and non, which, as has been explained, are treated here rather than under prefixes. There are also two adjectives — car and vil — which will be treated with the adverbs, on account of their use as adverbs in the compounds. The list is, therefore, as follows: bendir, bless carvendre, sell dear maldire, curse malmenar, abuse malmerir, be undeserving mahnesdar, compromise, slander malmetre, disturb, displease maltrachar ,, . , maltreat maltraire noncaler, not to care m7-pes of states as they appear. 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