PL 6445 A5 E9 UC-NRLF 111111 I B3> $B 3fll Qbfi IN MEMOUIAJA Chester Harvey Rowell A SHORT SYNOPSIS OF THE ' MOST ESSENTIAL POINTS IN HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR By W. D. Alexander HONOLULU Thomas G. Thrum, Publishei 1920 U-^- -U- ) ^ /^~ PA444 3 PREFACE. As all former grammars of the Hawaiian language are out of print, at the solicitation of friends, I have revised and enlarged a brief synopsis of Hawaiian grammar, which was originally written for my pupils, and published in 1864. This little work does not pretend to be a philo- sophical treatise, or to be a complete account of the structure and peculiarities of the Hawaiian branch of the Polynesian language. But it is hoped that it may be of service to those who wish to study the genuine, uncorrupted idiom as spoken by the older Hawai- ians, as well as to students of comparative philology. The terms and divisions of European grammars have been retained for the convenience of students, although they are only partially applicable to lan- guages of a radically different type. I have to acknowledge my obligations to Rev. L. Andrews' Hawaiian Grammar, to Dr. Maunsell's New Zealand Grammar, and to M. Gaussin's able work on the Polynesian language. W. D. ALEXANDER. May, 1908. M5I37655 A Short Synopsis of Hawaiian Grammar. PART I. The following synopsis is intended to contain only general principles. For details, see Judge Andrews' Hawaiian Grammar. ORTHOEPY. i. All purely Hawaiian sounds can be represented by twelve letters, of which: five are vowels and seven consonants, viz : a, e, i, o, u, h, k, 1, m, n, p, w. A is sounded as in father, c as in thry, /' as in marine, o as in note, u as in rule, and not as in mule. In a few words, as maka, make, mana, &c, the sound of a approaches that of a short u in tub. In the com- pounds of zvaho and in Oahu, it has a broad sound like that of a in fall. 2. No distinction was formerly made between the sounds of k and / or between those of / and r. The sound of t pre- vailed on Kauai, that of k on Hawaii. In the words "Hilo," "lilo" and "hilahila," the / was often sounded like d. It is on -Mine accounts unfortunate that k was chosen rather than / to represent the sound which is represented by t throughout the rest of Polynesia, while the Polynesian "k" corresponds to the guttural of the Hawaiian dialect. The sound of w is really be- tween that of ; and ze, in English, and in the middle of words it approaches more closely to that of v, as in hewa, lawn. Sec, 3. Every word and syllable must end in a vowel, and no two consonants are ever heard without a vowel sound between them. To this rule there is no exception. 4. Resides the sounds mentioned above, there is in many words a guttural break or catching of the breath, sometime^ at the beginning, but more often in the middle of a word. This guttural is properly a consonant, and forms an essential part of the words in which it is found. It almost invariably takes the 6 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. place of the Polynesian k. Thus the Polynesian ika, fish, be- comes i'a in Hawaiian. This guttural consonant is represented by an apostrophe, in a few common words, to distinguish their meaning, as ko'u, my, kou, thy. 5. A list of a few of the more important words distin- guished by the guttural break: ae, to assent. ai, food. ao, light, a cloud. au, a current, time, &c. au, thine. akoakoa, to assemble. ea, to rise up. ia, he, she or it. ie, climbing plant. II. mouldy. oa, to split. 6i, to excel. 66, a digger. ou, thine. ill, question. hai, to tell. hao, iron. hiu, shy. hua, fruit. huaka'i, procession. hui, to mix, unite. kai, seawater. koa, a soldier, brave. koe, remaining. koi, to urge, compel. kou, thine. km, to stitch, a needle. liuliu, to get ready. mai, hither. makau, fish-hook. moa, a chicken, fowl. nau, to chew. nan, for thee. pau, done, finished. poi, taro paste. pue, to crouch. wan, I. a'e. to pass over, embark. a-i, neck, Polynesian kaki. a'o, to teach. a'u, a sword-fish. a'u, mine. ako'ako'a, the horned coral. e'a, a cloud of dust. i'a, a fish. i'e, a kapa beater. i'e, quarrelsome in liquor. i'i, to be crowded. 6'a, a rafter. 6'i, to limp. o'o, ripe. o'u, mine. u'i, young, vigorous. ha'i, to be broken. ha'o, to discredit. hi'u, a fish's tail. hu'a, foam. hu'akai, sea foam, sponge. hu'i, rheumatism. ka'i, to carry, lead. ko'a, a coral reef. ko'e, an angle worm. ko'i, an axe. ko'u, mine. ku'i, to pound. li'uli'u, a long time. ma'i, sick. maka'u, afraid. mo'a, cooked, well done. na'u, for me. pa'u, soot. po'i, a cover, lid. pu'e, to seduce, to hill potatoes. wa'u, to scratch. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 7 6. It is important to observe the distinction between long and short vowels. Thus awa means a harbor, but aiva, a plant from which an intoxicating drink is made. Again, kana means war, while kaua means we two, or I and thou. Maui is the name of an island, Maui of a famous demigod, and kaula means a rope, while kaula means a prophet. 7. The accent generally falls on the penult. This is true of about five-sixths of the words in the language. 8. The accent is frequently drawn forward by the enclitic la, which is generally pronounced as if it formed part of the preceding word. Thus, aku la> is pronounced akula, ua moku la as ua moktila. 9. A List of Similar words distinguished by the Accent. aia, there. aka, shadow. ala, to rise. ano, likeness, character. eha, pain. i'o, meat. ina, if. o'o, ripe. o'o, a bird. ue, to wrench, turn. kaka, to rinse clothes. kala, to proclaim, to pardon. kela, to excel. kena, to be satiated, of thirst. kanaka, man. malu, a shadow. mama, to chew. malama, month. nana, for him. poho, chalk. pua, a flower. wahi, a place. aia, ungodly, impious. aka, but. ala, a pebble. an<5, now, immediately. eha, four. i-6, yonder. ina, come on ! be quick ! oo, a digger. ue, to cry. kaka, to split wood. kala, a dollar, silver. kela, that. kena, to order, send on duty. kanaka, men, people. malu, secret. mama, active, light. malama, to take care. nana, to look, to see. poho, to sink. pua, a bundle, a flock. wahi, to wrap up. ETYMOLOGY. 10. The Hawaiian language has no inflections whatever. All grammatical relations such as number, case, tense, &c, are expressed by separate particles 11. Most words in this language can be used either as nouns, adjectives, verbs or adverbs, their meaning being indi- cated by their position in the sentence, and by the accompany- ing particles. 8 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. NOUNS. 12. The Gender of nouns is distinguished, first, by the use of entirely different words, as elemakule, old man, and InaJiinc, old woman. Second, by the use of the adjectives, kanc, male, an&.ivahine, female, as moa kwie, a cock, and moa wahine, a hen. 13. The Plural Number is distinguished. First, by the use of the plural definite article na before the noun, as na hale, the houses. Second, by the use of the plural sign man, which is used chiefly of small numbers from two to ten inclusive. It does not admit the definite article ka or ke before it, but is generally preceded by the^Qefinite article he, or by a possessive or demonstrative pronouns, as keia man mea, these things ; ku'u man maka, my eyes ; he mau lio, several horses. Third, by the use of the plural signs, poe, pae, and pu'u, which are properly collective nouns, and take the articles or other qualifying words before them. Poe, is used chiefly of living things, and means a company, collection. Pa'u, literally a heap, is used chiefly of lifeless things, and pae of lands, is- lands, &c. E. g., he poe haumana, a company of disciples ; he pu'u pohaku, a pile of stones; keia. pae moku, these islands. Fourth. A few words, besides the methods explained above, also distinguish the plural by prolonging and accenting the first syllable. Thus kanaka, man, plural kanaka, wahine, woman, plural zvahine, and a few others. Fifth. The syllable ma appended to the name of a person, denotes the company associated with him, as Hoapili ma, Hoapili and his company. PREPOSITIONS. 14. The distinctions of case are expressed by means of prepositions. The simple prepositions are as follows : {ifea^E,}^ 1 "*' " '-" E. g., "Ka piko o ka mauna," the summit of the mountain ; "Ko ke alii aina," the chief's land ; "ka liana a ke kauwa," the work of the servant ; "wahi a ke alii," the chief said so. Na and No, of, for, concerning, on account of. "No" also sometimes from, in which case the following noun takes the directive mai after it. E. g., "No na alii ka aina," the land belongs to the chiefs; "na mea a'u i lohe ai no Lono," the things which I heard concerning Lono ; "no Amerika mai ka moku," the ship is from America ; "no ia mau mea," concerning those matters. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 9 3. I, la and Io, to, at of time, and by with adjectives and neuter verbs. / is also used before what in other gram- mars is called a predicate accusative, after verbs signify- ing to change, to choose, render or constitute, to become, or to be changed into. / is also the sign of the objective case after transitive verbs. In certain common phrases a verb is understood before the objective sign, as "i wai," bring water; "i pahi," "get me a knife," &c. E. g., "E hai aku i keia poe kanaka," tell to these men ; "e hele i ke kuahiwi." go to the mountain ; "i ka po," in the night ; "piha i ka wai," full of water ; "ma'i i ke anu," ill from cold ; "e kukulu i ka hale," to build the house ; "ua lilo ia i kahuna," he became a priest ; "ua hanaia i makau," it was made into a hook, "ua koho au ia Keawe i elele," I have chosen Keawe as messenger. 4. Ma, at or in, of place, and by before pronouns and names of persons, in which case it takes after it, and the enclitic la or nei after the following noun or pronoun. E. g., "Ua noho oia ma Waimea," he lived at Waimea; "ma o Iesu la," by Jesus. 5. Mai, from. The following noun takes mat or aku after it, according as the direction is towards or away from the speaker. Mai takes o after it before pronouns, and a before names of persons in relation to time, sometimes written ia. E. g., "Mai ka waha mai," from the mouth; "mai Honolulu aku i Kailua," from Honolulu to Kailua ; "mai o'u aku nei," from me; "mai ka po mai," since the night; "mai a Wakea," from the time of Wakea. Me, with. E. g., "E hele pu me ia," go together with him. As an adverb, me means "as," "like." E. g., "Me he hipa la," like a sheep; "e like me keia," like this; "me ka ai ole," without food. E. by, only used after passive verbs, to denote the agent. E. g., "Ua kukuluia ka hale e ke alii," the house has been built by the chief. Remarks on the Prepositions. The Distinction between A and O 15. There is an important distinction between the three a prepositions, a, ka, and ua, and the three prepositions, ko, and no. "O" implies a passive or intransitive relation, "a" an active and transitive one. "A" can only be used before a word denoting a living person or agent, and implies that the thing 10 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. possessed is his to make or act upon, or is subject to his will, while "o" implies that it is his merely to possess or use, to re- ceive or be affected by. This distinction is common to all Poly- nesian languages, but is most clear and striking in that of New Zealand. Thus ."ka hale a Keawe" means "the house which Keawe built," but "ka hale o Keawe" means simply "the house which Keawe lives in." Again, "ka wahine a Keawe" means "the wife of Keawe," while "ka wahine o Keawe" would mean Keawe's maid-servant. "Ke keiki a Keawe" denotes Keawe's own child, while "ke keiki o Keawe" would denote his errand boy, &c. In New Zealand, "he hangi mau" is an oven for you to cook with, but "he hangi mou" is an oven in which you are to be cooked, and would be a most offensive curse. 16. It follows of course that such words as "hana," work, require a after them, and so does at, food, and all its deriva- tives. Words are conceived as of made, or fashioned by the mouth-, and hence "olelo" "pule" &c, require a. For a simi- lar reason "palapala" writing, takes a. The following names of relationship, keiki, child, mo'opuna, a descendant, kauzvd, a ser- vant, and haumana, a pupil, requires a after them. On the oth- er hand, our parents, brothers and sisters, our ancestors, rulers, and friends, take o, since they do not owe their existence to us, nor are subject to our will. O is used of clothing, canoes, and such things as are ours to wear or use, but not to produce. All of the parts of the body, and the faculties of the mind, as mana'o, makemake, &c, take o. All the more remote relations, including that of a part to a whole, are expressed by o. 17. The following list comprises the principal words that generally require the a prepositions after them. ai, food. kauoha, command. palapala, writing, oihana, office. kauwa, servant. pule, prayer, olelo, word. kane, husband. wanana, prophecy, haumana, disciple, keiki, child. wahine, wife, hana, work. mo'opuna, descendant, buke, book. On Ka and Ko. 18. The prepositions ka and ko are called prefix preposi- tions, because when they are used, the noun denoting the pos- sessor precedes the thing possessed. Thus, "ko ke alii hale," the chiefs house, is equivalent to "ka hale o ke alii." the house of the chief. These prefix prepositions are undoubtedly com- pounded of the definite article ka and the prepositions a and respectively. Thus, "ko ke alii hale" is for "ka-o ke alii hale." HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 11 On Na and No. 19. The fundamental idea in na and no seems to be right or possession. Thus, "no ke alii ka hale" means the house is for or belongs to the chief. When an active verb in the infinitive follows na is used and not no. As, "na Keawe e a'o aku i na kanaka," it belongs to Keawe, it is K.'s duty to teach men. "No Hilo mai," from Hilo, implies that one belongs to Hilo. No denotes Origin from, mai separation from. Both no and mai signifying from, require a directive, mm or aku, after the fol- lowing noun, according as the motion is towards or away from the speaker. On I, la and Io. 20. The preposition i, to, and i, the objective sign, are really distinct words. In the New Zealand, Tongan and Raro- tongan dialects, the former is ki, and the latter i. They take the form ia before pronouns and proper names. The form io, to, is used after verbs of motion, before pronouns or proper names, which are generally followed by net or la. E. g., "io makou nei," to us, "io Kristo la," to Christ. The in ia, and the in io are no doubt distinct elements, and in some dialects are written separately. Probably like the "O emphatic," they express personality or individuality. The use of i as a sign of the objective case may be illustrated by the use of the preposition d in Spanish before the direct object of a verb, when it denotes an animated being. In a simi- lar manner eth is used in Hebrew before a definite object. E. g., "Puhi lakou * ka hale," they burned the house. 21. What is called the vocative case, is expressed by the prefix c, as "E Keoni !" O John ! ARTICLES. 22. "He" is the Hawaiian indefinite article, corresponding to the English a or an. It is used only in the singular number and nominative case. After a verb or preposition the article "a" is often rendered by "kahi" or "kekahi." Its use before the plural signs mau, poe, &c, can be explained by the fact that these are properly collective nouns. 23. There are two definite articles, corresponding to the English "the," ka or ke for the singular, and iw for the plural. The form ke is used before all words beginning with k, a few beginning with />, and a large number beginning with a or o. The form te prevails throughout all Southern Polynesia. This article, ke, must not be confounded with the participle ke pre- fixed to verbs. 12 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 24. The best rule for the form of the definite article be- fore words commencing with a is the following. Use ke before a short, and ka before a long. Thus ke awa, the harbor, and ka awa, the plant azva. L. Gaussin says that ka is used before those words at the beginning of which a consonant (the Poly- nesian k guttural) has been dropped, and ke before the simple vowels a and 0. These two rules generally coincide. 25. The following are the most common words commenc- ing with a, o and p that require the article ke before them. ke a, the jaw ke a'a, root, vein ke ao, light ke aupuni, kingdom ke ahi, fire. ke ahiahi, evening ke aho, breath ke aka, shadow ke akaakai, rushes ke akua, God ke ala, road ke ali'i, the chief ke alo, front ke aloha, love ke ama, outrigger ke ami, hinge ke aniani, glass ke ana, cave ke anaina, assembly ke ano, likeness ke anu, cold ke apo, ring, hoop ke awa, harbor ke awakea, noon ke ea, breath ke o, fork ke o'a, rafter ke oho, hair ke ola, life ke ola'i, earthquake ke olo, saw ke one, sand ke ope, bundle ke mele, song ke pa, plate ke pio, prisoner ke pihi. button ke po'i, cover ke po'o, head The 'O Emphatic. 26. The " 'O emphatic," as it is generally called, ko in New Zealand, seems to be a kind of article. It serves to point out the subject emphatically. It is used only with the nomina- tive case, and chiefly before proper names and pronouns. It is the regular prefix to a proper name in the nominative case. 27. It occurs with common nouns only when they are defined or particularized by the definite article, by an ad- jective pronoun or a noun in the possessive case, and when at the same time they begin the clause. It may be added that it occurs with such nouns only when in English they would be the subject of the verb "to be," in a clause affirming the identity of two terms, or when they stand in the nominative absolute. Examples of 'O Emphatic. "Holo aku la o Lono," Lono sailed away. "O oe no ke kana- ka," thou art the man. "O ko'u lio keia," this is my horse. "O Hawaii ka mokupuni nui," Hawaii is the large island. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 13 ADJECTIVES. 28. Adjectives have no distinction of Gender, Number or Case. They are compared by subjoining adverbs to them. The ad- verbs a'e, and aku are used to form the comparative degree, and loa, "very," to form the superlative. The preposition i is sometimes used like "than" in English, and then means "in comparison with." Comparison is also often expressed by using the verb oi, to surpass. E. g., "Na mea nui aku i keia," things greater than this. "Oi aku keia mamua o kela," this surpasses, goes before that. "E oi aku ko oukou maikai i ko lakou," your beauty will surpass theirs. NUMERALS. 29. The Cardinal numbers are as follows : 11 umikumamakahi 12 umikumamalua 20 iwakalua 21 iwakaluakumamakahi 30 kanakolu 40 kanaha 400 lau 4,000 mano 40,000 kini 400,000 lehu [The following have been introduced by the American mis- sionaries] : 50 kanalima 90 kanaiwa 60 kanaono 100 haneri 70 kanahiku 1,000 tausani 80 kanawalu 1,000,000 miliona, &c. Formerly 100 would have been expressed thus, "elua kanaha me ka iwakalua." Remarks. 30. Instead of counting by pairs as in most of the south- ern groups, the Hawaiians counted by fours. A four taken collectively is called a kauna and formed the basis of their sys- tem. This probably arose from the custom of counting fish, coconuts, taro, &c, by taking a couple in each hand, or by tying them in bundles of four. The word kumi or 'tMftt is used in the other ^ialects only in counting fathoms. On the other hand anahulu, which is used I kahi 2 lua 3 kolu 4 ha 5 lima 6 ono 7 hiku 8 walu 9 iwa to umi 14 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. in Hawaiian only for a period of ten days, is the word for ten in all the other Malayo-Polynesian languages. Besides, they have for forty the specific numerals, iako, used in counting tapas, and canoes, and ka'au, used in counting fish, the South- ern tekau. 31. In counting a is generally prefixed to the numerals, as akahi, alua, &c. At other times e is generally prefixed. But the Hawaiian dialect generally uses ho'o before kahi, as ho'okahi pua'a, one hog, &c. As Gaussin says, a contains the idea of succession, and of change, e, of completion, or of per- manent state. The higher numbers are used like collective nouns, and like them take the articles before them, as he umi, he kictnaha, &c. Compare the expressions a hundred, a score, &c, in English. The units are connected to the tens by the connective kumama, as has been seen above. But the higher numbers are connected by me followed by the article, as "ho'okahi haneri me ka iwakaluakumamahiku," =127. ORDINAL AND DISTRIBUTIVE NUMBERS. 32. The ordinals are formed by prefixing the article ka or ke to the cardinal numbers, except "the first," which is''mua." "The third day" is "ke kolu o ka la," "The seventh year," "ka hiku o ka makahiki." Distributives are formed by prefixing pa, as pakahi, one by one, or one apiece, palua, two by two, or two apiece, &c. Sometimes koko'o is prefixed, to denote com- pany, or partnership, as koko'olima, five in company, koko'o- lua, a second, a partner or assistant. FRACTIONS. 33. No Polynesian language had originally any word to express the idea of definite fraction, though they had an abun- dance of words to express the idea of a part. To supply this defect, the English missionaries introduced into Tahitian the words afa (half) and tuata (quarter). In a similar way the word hapa (half) has been introduced into the Hawaiian lan- guage, but has acquired the general specification of a part. By prefixing this hapa to the several numerals, names have been formed for all possible fractions, as "hapalua," a half, "hapaha," a fourth, &c. PRONOUNS. 34. The personal pronouns are as follows : ist Person 2d Person 3D Person Singular Au or Owau Oe la or Oia Dual Maua, Kaua Oukou Laua Plural * Makou, Kakou Olua Lakou HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 15 Remarks. 35. Ozvau is simply a more emphatic form for au, as oia is for ia. The dual was formed by compounding the root of the pronoun with "lua," two, and the plural in like manner by adding "kolu," three, to the root. Hence these plurals were originally trinals, as they are still in Vitian or Feejee, which has four numbers. The I's have been dropped in all cases ex- cept in "oho," but are still retained in the plural by the Tongan dialect, as mautolu, &c. None of the pronouns have any dis- tinction of gender. 36. The forms maua and makou exclude while kaua and kakou include the person spoken to. This remarkable distinc- tion is found in all Polynesian languages, as well as in those of Micronesia, and even extends to the East Indian Archipelago. In the second person the Hawaiian has dropped initial k, using oe for koe, &c. 37. In the singular number the Personal pronouns have a second, shorter set of forms, or pronominal affixes, used only after certain prepositions, (a, o, ka, ko, na, no, ia, and io), with which they unite to form part of the same word. These forms are in the first person 'u, in the second, u, in the third, na. This 'u in the first person is ku in the S. W. dialects of Poly- nesia. 38. The Declension of these pronouns in the singular is as follows : Nominative with the Prepositi* 1 1st Person. 2d Person. 3d Person. Au Oe Ia an ( A a'u au ana Less Common. a ia 0/ i [0 I Ka o'u ka'u ou kau ona kana "(Hi 1 IKo ko'u kou kona *>{!?* (Na For&c.^o na'u no'u nau nou nana nona -Mil (la ia'u -"life, ia oe fa ia i ona la By or Through Ma. mao-ufkj maou{|f ei ma ona la Fromh With- 1 By-l lai *e mai o'u f aku me a'u * mai e au -{SB me oe e oe mai ona me ia e ia { aku mai The form ia ia, him, is pronounced as one word, with the accent on the first syllable, like yaya. 39. The duals of the personal pronouns often serve to connect words denoting persons. Thus, "Hoapili laua o Kala- 16 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. nimoku." The dual laua includes them both. In such sen- tences, "0" follows the dual when both nouns are subjects of the same verb, as laua o in the preceding example. "E olelo pu maua me Manono" means, I will talk with Manono, "maua" by an apparent confusion of ideas, including the speaker and Manono. 40. The Hawaiians generally avoid applying laua or lakou to inanimate objects. The same remark applies to ia ia. They use "ia mca" or some such phrase instead of aTTersonal pro- noun. 41. "Self" and "ozvn" are expressed by iho placed after the pronoun. Himself is "ia ia iho," and his own "kona iho." Examples of Pronouns. "Ka hana a'u," my work. "Aole o'u Ho," I have no horse. "Heaha kou manao no'u," what is your opinion of me. "Ua hoopunipuni mai olua ia'u." you two have lied to me. "Ma o'u la ua maluhia keia aina," through me this land was in peace. "Ua pepehi ia oia e au," he was killed by me. "He hale ko kaua,"you and I have a house. "Ua malama mai oe ia maua." you have taken care of us two. "Aloha oe a me na hanai au." love to thee and thy foster children. "He manao ko'u ia oe," I have a thought to you. "Ma 011 la e lanakila ai makou." through you we shall conquer. "Ua lawe ia ia mea mai ou aku la," that thing was taken away from you. "Malaila no ia," there he is. "E kokua oe ia ia," help thou him. "Hele mai la lakou io na la," they came to him. "Mai hoohiki ma ona la." do not swear by him. "Haliu aku ia mai ona aku," he turned away from him. "Uwe pu laua," they two wept together. "Ao aku la ia ia lakou," he taught them. "Ma o lakou la e hoouna ai oe," by them do thou send. "Mai o lakou aku ka leo kaua," from them was the voice of war. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 42. The Possessive pronouns are simply jhe personal pro- nouns preceded by the prepositions, a, o, ka, and ko, i. e., the first four forms in section 38. Besides these we find the pos- sessive, ku'u, my, which is used for both ka'u and ko'u; and ko, a contraction of kou, thy, which is used for either kau or kou with certain common words. Ku'u and ko seem more familiar, and less formal than the regular forms. The distinction, be- tween the a and the o forms must be observed. Examples of Possessives. "Kau mau keiki," thy children. "Ko makou hale," our house. "Ka oukou hana," your work. "Kana kauoha," his command. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 17 "Kona makua," his parent. "Ka'u palapala," my writing. "Kuu hoa," my comrade. "Ko'u lio," my horse. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 43. The Demonstrative pronouns are as follows : la, that, the most general of the demonstratives. It never ad- mits the preposition i before it, i. e., "i ia" is contracted into "ia." f These two are used in contrast or opposition. Kela Keia, this) generally precedes keia, as in the phrase "kela Kela, that^\ me keia," this and that, "kela mea keia mea," I everything. Neia. this, the present. It is often used of time, as "i neia la," today. Ua-nei, "I With these demonstratives the noun is inserted be- Ua-la, i tween the two parts of the pronoun, as "ua moku la," that ship. Compare the French, "ce livre ci," this book (here). They generally refer back to something just men- tioned. They are also used with proper names, in which case the emphatic is often expressed after ua, as "ka olelo ana a. ua Maui nei." Examples of Demonstrative Pronouns. E. g. "Ka wahahee o ia olelo," the falsehood of that speech. "E haalele ia hana." leave that work. "Heaha kela mea nui?" what is that great thing? "Ma keia pae aina," at these islands. "O Keawe ka inoa o ua kanaka la," Keawe is that man's name. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 44. The Interrogative pronouns are as follows : Wai. who? which? In the nominative case, Owai, it is used of individual things as well as persons, but after prepositions, only of persons. It is never used adjectively, i. e., to qualify a noun. Aha, what? It takes "he" before it in the nominative, as "heaha?" but ke after prepositions, as "no keaha?" for what. It always refers to inanimate things, not persons, and is never used adjectively with a noun. Ilea, which/ It is strictly an interrogative adjective, and always follows its noun, as "he kumu hea ia," what sort of a teacher is he? The compounds of 'hea" serve as inter- rogative adverbs. 18 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. Examples of Interrogative Pronouns. "Owai kona inoa?" what is his name? "Nowai ka lio?" whose is the horse? "Me wai oe i hele ai?" with whom did you go? "Heaha i hana ai?" what hast thou done? "Ma ka hale hea?" in which house? INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 45. Among Indefinite Pronouns may be reckoned : Hai, another, which is used only after prepositions, and never occurs in the nominative case. E. g., "ko hai waiwai," an- other's property. "Haawi oia ia hai," he gave to another. Wahi, some, a little. It was originally a noun, but is now used adjectively, as "wahi ai," some food, "wahi laau," some . timber, "ua wahi kanaka nei," this fellow, "kela wahi kanaka," that fellow. Here it has a depreciatory or dimi- nutive force. It never takes the article ka before it, but very often is preceded by he, and rarely by na. Kauwahi, some part, some. It is a compound of the preced- ing, and is always used in a partitive sense. It is some- times preceded by the definite article ke, as "ke kau-wahi o ka olelo a ke Akua," a little of the word of God. Kahi, one, a, a certain. It is the same as the numeral one, but has acquired a degree of indefiniteness, like the English a or an, which originally was the same as the numeral one. E. g., "Eia kahi hewa hou," here is a new sin. "Eia na inoa o kahi mau mea," here are the names of certain persons. Kekahi, a certain, some. The article ke, prefixed to kahi gives it greater individuality. E. g., "i kekahi wa," upon a certain time. When repeated it means "some others." Thus, "ua nui no kekahi bele, a ua uuku loa ho'i kekahi," i. e. some bells are large and others quite small. The phrase "kekahi i kekahi" is used in a reciprocal sense, and means "each other," "one another." E. g.,"E aloha aku oukou i kekahi i kekahi," love one another. "Kekahi placed after the sub- ject of a sentence means "also." "also another," as "owau kekahi," I also. "O oukou anei kekahi i makemake e hele aku?" do you too wish to go away? E, other, different. This is properly an adjective, but it may be well to mention it in this connection. Its original Poly- nesian form seems to have been kese, of which we find the variations kehe, ese, ke and e. By itself, it means" strange," "foreign," but when followed by the directives a'e or aku, it means "other." E. g., "he mea e," a strange thing. "Na mea e a'e." the other things. "All" is expressed by "a pau" following the noun or pronoun which it modifies. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 19 VERBS. 46. All the distinctions of tense, mode and voice are ex- pressed by separate particles, while number and person are re- garded as accidents of the subject and not of the verb. The tenses are not nearly as definite as in English. In fact the dis- tinctions of time, which in other languages are considered of so much importance, are but little regarded in Hawaiian, while the chief attention is paid to the accidents of place. The fol- lowing is A Synopsis of the Verb Hana in the Active Voice. Present, Past 1st form, " 2nd form, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future, Imperative, Infinitive, ke hana nei au hana au i hana au ua hana au ua hana e au e hana au e hana oe e hana I work I worked I worked I have worked I had worked I shall work work thou to work FrnpeTfect 1 " I Partici P le > e hana ana working Imperfect Past Participle i hana / having worked or I who had worked. 47. The following is the order in which the verb and its adjuncts are placed: 1st. The tense signs, as i, ua, e, &c. 2d. The verb itself. 3rd. The qualifying adverb, as man, wale, ole, pu, &c. 4th. The passive sign, ia. 5th. The verbal directives, as aku, max, &c. 6th. The locatives, nei or la, or the particles ana or ai. 7th. The strengthening particle, no. 8th. The subject. 9th. The object or predicate noun. Of course the above mentioned elements are never all found together at once. Of the particles in the sixth place, nei. fo* ana and ai, if one is used, the others are excluded, except in a few cases where la is used after ana. E. g., "E hana mua ia aku ana no ke alanui." Remarks on the Tenses. 48. The verb without any prefix has generally a past meaning. This is the regular form for the leading verb in past time, especially at the beginning of a sentence. In this case it is generally followed by la, e. g., "i mai la," he said ; "hoi mai la 20 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. lakou," they returned ; "noho no oia ma Oahu," he lived at Oahu ; "alaila, knka iho la lakou," then they took counsel ; "ke hai aku nei au ia oe," I inform you ; "ke noi aku nei makou ia ia," we entreat him ; aole au e liana hou pela," I will not do so again. /. The prefix i is used in negative sentences after aole, and in all relative sentences in past time. It never begins an unquali- fied sentence. When it begins a statement, a qualifying clause follows, expressing a reason, purpose, time, &c. E. g., "I hele mai nei au e hai aku ia oe," I have come here to inform you ; "aole oia i ae mai," he did not consent; "i ka wa i noho ai o Kamehameha," at the time when Kamehameha lived. Ua. The prefix ua is never used in a negative clause beginning with aole, nor in what would be a relative clause in English. It has been questioned whether it is properly a tense sign. We think that it affirms the completion of an action or the resulting state, and hence corresponds most nearly to the English perfect with "have." It also differs from i in this, and it affirms abso- lutely, and without limitation, while i is limited or qualified in construction. The adverbs mai nei, "just now," after a verb preceded by ua, express most truly the distinction of the per- fect tense in English. The adverb e after the verb means "before," and so helps to form a sort of pluperfect. But "e hana e au" does not mean "I shall have worked," but "I shall previously work." E. g., "Ua hele mai na kanaka," the men have come ; "ua ike au i kou ano." I have known your character ; "ua hina iho nei ka hale," the house has just fallen; "ua lilo c ke aupuni ia ia." the kingdom has been transferred to him. IMPERATIVE PARTICLES. Instead of "e," the regular prefix of the imperative "o" or "ou" is sometimes used, as a mild command. The particle "ua" seems to be used as an imperative sign before "oki," to cut off, as "ua oki pela," stop there. A prohibition is expressed by placing "mai" before the verb. E. g. "Ou hoi oukou," return ye ; "o hele oe," go thou. "Ua oki oe i ka olelo," stop your talk. "Mai hana hou oe pela," don't do so again. This must not be confounded' with the adverb, "mai," which means nearly, almost, E. g., "Mai make au," I was near dying; "mai haule ia," he came near falling. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 21 On the Particles Ana and No. 49. The affix ana, which corresponds to the ending "ing," in English, denotes continuance, and may be present, past or future. Thus "e hana ana au," may mean "I am working," or "I was working," or "I will be working," according to the connection. Ana is affixed to the passive as well as to the active. Like "ing" in English, ana often forms a participial noun. But in this case ana always precedes the directives aku or mai. Compare "E holo mai ana," he is sailing hither, and "kona holo ana mai," his sailing hither. It may be separated from the verb by an adverb. The infinitive after hiki, and sometimes after pono, takes ke before it. instead of e. The particle no is intensive, and serves to emphasize an assertion. It is often found also with adjectives and nouns, where it helps to express the idea of the verb "to be." E. g., "I ko'u hele ana 'ku," in my going, i. e., while I am going. "E kukulu hale ana ia," he is house building . "E mahi ia ana ka ai," the food is being cultivated. "Oia ke kolu o kona holo ana mai," that was the third (time) of his sailing hither. Aole ona manao e hele," he had no intention to go. "He pono ia oe ke kokua mai." it is right for you to help. The Passive Voice. 50. The Passive sign is ia affixed to the verb. The tenses of the passive voice are formed in the same way as those of the active. As, "hanaia iho la na mea a pau e ia," all things were made by him. Sometimes another letter is inserted between the verb and ia, as kaulia, the passive of kau, and auhulihia, from ouhuli, loohia, &c. A few words omit the i, as ikea, passive of ike, to know, and lohca. the passive of lohe, to hear. In the New Zealand dialect the common mode of expressing the imperative of a transitive verb is by its passive. Traces of this occur in Hawaiian. E. g.. "imiia ka oukou pono," seek your own advantage. Laieik-.rwai. p. 62. "Kahcaia ko kupuna- wahine," call your grandmother, id. p. 64. So olcloia, nohoia, in the same work. The Causative Form. 51. By prefixing ho'o, sometimes ho, before a vowel, and sometimes ha'a to the verb, a causative verb is formed. (This ha'a is the older form, as we see from the forms whaka, faka, fa'a and ha'a of the other dialects.) Thus from a, to burn, we get hoa, to kindle, and from komo, to enter, ho'okomo. to cause to enter. &c. Any verb in the language may take this prefix. From like is formed hoolialike, to cause to be like, and from MS, to drink, hoohainu. to cause to drink, to give drink to. 22 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. Verbal Directives, &.c. 52. That which is denoted by a verb in Hawaiian, is gen- erally conceived of as having a motion or tendency in some direction, which is expressed by one of the following particles : Mm, hither, this way, towards the speaker. Aku, away, onwards, from the speaker. A'e, upwards, or sideways. Iho, down. In narration, iho means "thereupon," "immediately after," and generally "as a consequence." Aku and ae are also used of time, as "kela la aku," and "ia la ae," the next day, "ma keia hope aku," hereafter, &c. The particles nei or la were originally used to indicate local- ity, like "here" and "there," and are opposed to each other in meaning. Nei means present in place and time, here and now, while la denotes distance in place, but not necessarily in time. La unites with the "directives" so as to form one word with them in pronunciation, and after aku, iho and a'e, it shifts the accent to the last syllable, as ihola, akula, a'eh*. The Relative Particle Ai. 53. Ai is a relative particle, and often supplies the want of a relative pronoun. It follows the verb, and refers back to a preceding noun, or to an adverb or adverbial phrase expressing time, place, cause or manner. The initial a, is often dropped after a verb ending with a, and after the passive sign ia, as hana'i, loaa'i, hunaia'i, &c. It is sometimes omitted when nei, ana or la takes its place. It must be used: First, in relative clauses in which the relative would be the object of the verb in English, as "the things which he saw," na mea ana i ike ai. Second, in relative clauses in which the relative refers to a thing, which is the means, cause or instrument by which any thing is or is done, as "Eia ka mea i make ai na kanaka," here is the cause from which the people died. Third, in relative clauses, where in English the relative adverbs when or where would be used, referring to a time or place in which any thing is or is done, as "I ka la a makou i hiki mai ai," on the day when we arrived. Fourth, when an adverb or adverbial phrase expressing time, place, cause or manner, stands for emphasis at the beginning of the sentence. E. g., "Malaila oia i ike ai," there (is the place) in which he saw. For further explanations see Part II. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 23 ADVERBS. 54. It does not enter into our plan to give a complete account of the adverbs in the language. Any adjective or noun may be used as an adverb by being placed immediately after the verb. The interrogative adverbs are all compounds of hea, as auhca and mahca, where? pehea, how? nohea, whence? ihea, whither? ahca and inah-ea, when? &c. Ahea refers to future and inahea to past time. Questions which require "yes" or "no" for an answer, are asked by placing anei after the leading word in the sentence. The Hawaiian has two negative adverbs, aole and ole. The former begins a sentence and is the general negative ; the latter is a suffix, and may be added to almost any noun, adjective or verb in the language, like un and less in English. E. g., "hila- hila ole," shameless; "me ka kapa ole," without clothes; "me ke noi ole mamua," without asking beforehand. The following are the most common simple adverbs, which have not been mentioned already: Ae, yes. Paha, perhaps. Aneane, almost. Ho'i, also, certainly. Mai, nearly. Loa, very. Pinepine, often. Iki, a little. Man, continually, ever. Pe. as. Oiai, and Oi, while. Peia, thus. Hou, again. Penei, in this way. Ano, now. Pela, in that way. Apopo, tomorrow. Wale, merely, just so. Inehinei, yesterday. Wale no, only. Aia, there. Pu, together. Eia, here. Kainoa. I supposed, expressing surprise, as "Kainoa he oiaio, aole ka !" I thought it was true, but it is not. COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS OR ADVERBS. 55. A large class of words, expressing the relations of place, and which are really nouns with the article omitted, when preceded by either of the simple prepositions, serve as adverbs of place or time. When at the same time they are followed by a preposition, generally 0, they serve as "com- pound prepositions." 24 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. E. g., "Ma (ka) loko," within, inside. "Ma loko o ka hale," inside of the house. "Ma waho," outside. "Mawaho o ka hale," outside of the house. The following is a list of the principal words of this class : 'O, yonder, from which are formed ma'o, i'o, &c. Uka, inland. Mua, before. Hope, after, behind. Muli, behind, after. Kai, sea. Kahi. where. Lalo, below. Waena, between. Loko, inside. Waho, outside. Luna, above. Laila, there. Nei, here, which is anei after i, ma, or mai, as ia nei, maanci. E. g., Mamua holo aku kekahi poe ilaila, formerly certain people sailed thither. Nolaila, ua maopopo, therefore it is evident. Noloko mai o ka moana, out of the ocean. Haule ia iloko o ka lua, he fell into the pit. Mamua aku nei, before this time. Mahope o kona make ana, after his death. Aole paha aina maanei, there was perhaps no land here. Pii aku la lakou iluna, they ascended upward. Mailalo mai, from below. Mawaena o na mauna, among the mountains. Aole au e hele iuka, I will not go inland. Ma'o aku o ka hale, beyond the house. E iho i kai, descend to the sea. Ma kahi e ku ai na moku, at the place where ships anchor. CONJUNCTIONS. 56. These are few and simple. The principal conjunctions are as follows : A, and. When it connects nouns, it always takes the preposi- tion me after it, as a me. A, long, also means until, as far as, when, and when, before verbs. Aka, but, a strong adversative. I, that, in order that, denoting purpose. Ina, if, sometimes repeated again in the conclusion of a con- ditional sentence, like "then." I, if, a shorter form of ina. I ole e, if not, or in order that not. O, lest. Ho'i, also. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 25 Ke, provided that, used with a present or future meaning. Nae, however, yet. No ka mea, because. For Examples See Part II. INTERJECTIONS. 57. Under this head may be mentioned the following: E! O, used as a vocative sign, and in calling. Ea ! to call attention, as Hear ! Auwe ! Alas ! especially used in wailing. Ka ! and Kahaha used to express surprise or disappointment. Kahuhu ! expressing strong disapproval. Ina ! O that, would that, and also Go to ! Come on ! Hele pela! Begone! FORMATION OF WORDS. 58. Most of the roots in Hawaiian as well as in the other Malayo-Polynesian languages are dissyllabic. A great many words are formed from others by doubling either the first or second or both syllables of the root. This reduplication, which is common to nouns, adjectives and verbs, expresses the idea of plurality, intensity or repetition. Other derivative words are formed by prefixing some forma- tive syllable, as pa, ka, ha, na, ma, and ki, po, pu, &c. For the meaning of these formative syllables see Andrews' Dictionary. The verbal noun in ana has been mentioned above in section 49. It expresses the action signified by the verb. Other verbal nouns are formed by suffixing na, which more often refers to the result or the means of the action, than to the action itself. E. g., hakina, a broken piece, a fraction, from haki, to break; mokuna, a dividing line, from moku, to be broken or cut; haaivina, a gift, from haawi, to give,; huina, an angle, a junc- tion, from hui, to unite, &c. Some of these forms are peculiar, as komohana, the west, from komo, to enter, or sink into, i. e. the goin? down of ihe sun ; and kulana, a place where many things stand together, as a village, &c, from ku, to stand. PART II An Outline of Hawaiian Syntax. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. i. Syntax, is defined to be that branch of grammar which treats of the construction of sentences. The Syntax, then, of a language like the Hawaiian, which has no inflections whatever, must chiefly relate to the arrangement of its words. It will not follow the methods of European grammars, nor will it have any use for the terms "agreement" or "government." In such a language the structure of sentences must neces- sarily be loose rather than compact. In a highly cultivated lan- guage, such as the Greek, each period forms a symmetrical whole, with its beginning, middle and end, in which the rela- tions of all the subordinate parts to the whole, and to each other, are clearly indicated, so that the words form a compact whole as well as the thought they express. But a language which has not until lately been reduced to writing, or employed in carrying on consecutive trains of thought, must necessarily be wanting in means to express the connection and mutual dependence of its ideas. It will delight in short sentences, and will prefer to make its clauses coordi- nate rather than subordinate, and to keep them distinct rather than to incorporate them into the sentence as essential parts of it. Hence our principal task will be the analysis of simple sentences. 2. Two ideas which pervade the language, and have great influence on its syntax, are (i) the distinction between living and inanimate things, and (2) that between transitive verbs on the one hand ; and intransitive or passive ones on the other. Add to this the extensive use of the Possessive construction, so characteristic of all the Polynesian languages. 3. In this as well as its cognate languages, most words may he used either as nouns, adjectives, verbs or adverbs, their meaning being indicated by their position in the sentence, and by the accompanying particles. 28 - HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 4. The Hawaiian language has remarkable flexibility. Any one of its sentences may be cast in quite a variety of forms, all conveying different shades of meaning. The general principle of arrangement is that the emphatic word is to be placed at or near the beginning of the sentence. E. g., Ke haawi aku nei au i keia ia oe I give this to you. Owau ke haawi aku nei i keia ia oe / give this to you. O keia ka'u e haawi aku nei ia oe I give this to you. O oe ka mea a'u e haawi aku nei i keia I give this to you. Na'u keia e haawi aku nei ia oe / give this to you. SIMPLE SENTENCES. 5. The following general principles are taken for granted : Every proposition consists of two essential elements, the sub- ject and the predicate. There are three subordinate elements, the object, the adjective element, and the adverbial element. Each of these five elements may consist of a single word, a phrase or a clause. THE SUBJECT. 6. The Subject must follozv its Predicate. This is the general rule. Exceptions to it, whether real or apparent; will be noticed below. Examples. 1. Ua hele mai nei au I have come here. 2. Ke uwe nei ke keiki The child cries. 3. He aihue ia He is a thief. 7. The name of a Person, when in the nominative case, is regularly preceded by the "O emphatic." Examples. 1. He alii mana o Kamehameha Kamehameha was a pow- erful chief. 2. Make o Kahekili ma Oahu Kahekili died on Oahu. 3. Holo aku la o Lono Captain Cook sailed aWay. NEGATIVE SENTENCES. 8. In negative sentences, when the subject is a Pronoun, and somethimes when it is a proper name, it stands immediate- ly after "aole," and before the predicate. If this latter is a verb or adjective, it generally takes the prefix "i" before it, or "e" if the time is future. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 29 Examples. i. Aole au e hana hou i kau hana I will not do your work again. 2. Aole au i pupule I am not crazy. 3. Aole ia he mea e hilahila ai That is not a thing to be ashamed of. EMPHATIC ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 9. Whenever an adverb or adverbial phrase, expressing time, place, cause or manner, stands for emphasis at the be- ginning of the sentence, the subject, if it be a Pronoun, pre- cedes the verb. In sentences of this kind the verb is generally followed by the relative particle ai, of which more hereafter. Examples. 1. Majaila kaua e noho ai It is there that we will dwell. 2. Pela no wau e hiki aku ai That is the way that I will come. Compare "Mahea oe e hele ai?" Where are you going? and "E hele ana oe mahea?" Note : We have received the following acute suggestions from an accomplished Hawaiian scholar. "I imagine," says he, "that sections 8th and 9th are not exceptions to sections 6th. The 'aole,' and the adverb or adverbial phrase are the true predicates, and the verb following with its adjuncts, is an inh~- nitive used adverbially, i. e., showing how far or in tvhat respect the negation, or the circumstances of time, cause, &c., are predicated of the subject." NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 10. The construction called nominative absolute in Euro- pean grammars, is very common in Hawaiian. The subject in this construction is always preceded by the "O emphatic," and is represented by a pronoun after the predicate. This pronoun, "ia," is sometimes omitted, leaving the sentence incomplete. The construction just described is to be used whenever a sen- tence would begin with "as to" or "in respect to," &c. ; in English; or when the subject is to be rendered prominent or emphatic; or when the subject is a phrase of some length. Examples. 1. O ka honua nei, he mea poepoe no ia The earth here, it is a round thing. 30 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 2. O kona ma'i ana, o kona make no ia Her sickness, that was (the cause of) her death. 3. O ka pono no ia, o ka noho na'auao That is the right (thing), the living wisely. ATTRIBUTE OR ADJECTIVE ELEMENT. APPOSITION. 11. Nouns in apposition follow the nouns which they limit. (1) If the leading noun is preceded by a preposition, this preposition is generally repeated before the noun in appo- sition. (2) If, however, the noun in apposition be a Proper Name, it may have either the "O emphatic" or the repeated preposition before it. Examples. 1. I ke kau ia Kalaniopuu i ke alii nui In the time of Kalaniopuu, the great chief. 2. Kena ae la oia i kona kaikaina, o Haiao He sent his younger brother, Haiao. ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES. 12. An Attributive Adjective follows its Noun. An ad- jective is called an attributive, when the quality, which it ex- presses, is assumed or taken for granted, and not predicated of the subject. It is then a mere accessory* or modifier of the noun to which it belongs. One noun may have two or more adjectives qualifying it. Examples. 1. Ka palapala hemolele The Holy Scriptures. 2. He poe liilii, nawaliwali, naaupo makou We are a small, weak, ignorant company. 13. Certain limiting adjectives, including the articles, pos- sessive, demonstrative and indefinite pronouns, and the plural signs, precede their nouns. The plural signs are or were origi- nally nouns qualified by the following word, as Ka poe bipi the herd (of) cattle. Keia mau hale these houses. Ko'u lio my horse. NUMERALS. .14. Numerals generally precede their nouns. This is ex- plained by the fact that they are really collective nouns like "a HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 31 myriad,'' "a decade," &c. But if they are defined by an article, or adjective pronoun, or noun preceded by the possessive ko or ka, then the numeral follows. Examples. Compare "Elua kumu," two teachers and "Na haole elua," the two foreigners, "Ehiku hale kula," seven school houses, and "He mau hale kula eha," four school houses. Remark. Ordinal numbers are generally followed by the preposition o between them and the nouns they qualify. E. g. I. I ke kolu o ka makahiki In the third year; lit., in the third of the year. 2. Ka mua o ka hale the first house. 3. Ka umi o ka hora the tenth hour. 15. The first nine numbers take the prefix a or e, while the round numbers from ten upwards, inclusive, take the article "he" or a numeral before them. See Part I, Section 31. Examples. "He umi," "he kanaha," "elua haneri." Remark. "Nui," when it means "many" takes "he" before it, as if it were a collective noun, like the higher numerals. Examples. 1. Hele mai na kanaka, he nui wale there came a great many men. 2. But, "hele mai na kanaka nui loa" would mean "there came very forge men. ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS AND VICE VERSA. 16. Any adjective may be used as an abstract noun by prefixing the definite article. On the other hand, any noun immediately following another has the force of an adjective. Examples. 1. "Pono" means right, just, "ka pono," justice, &c. 2. He hana kamalii no ia, that is childish work. Remark. In this way we explain the use of "mea" with a following noun to denote ozvner or possessor. Thus '"mea aina" means owner of land. Here "aina" is an adjective qualifying "mea," person. 32 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. USE OF THE ARTICLES. INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 17. This subject properly belongs to another branch of grammar. The indefinite article "he" is used chiefly with the predicate of a sentence. It is never used with the object of a preposition. When a noun used in an indefinite sense is the object of a verb, the article is commonly omitted. This is especially the case after Mo and other verbs signifying to change, appoint, constitute, &c, and before "mea" in the sense of "cause" or "means" after "i" denoting purpose. Often, when "some" or "a certain" might be substituted for "a," "kekahi" takes its place. Examples. 1. Nonoi aku la ia i la'au He asked for medicine. 2. Haawi o Kamehameha i a'ahu hulu manu Kamehameha gave a robe of birds' feathers. 3. E lilo i koa to become a soldier. 4. Hoonoho oia i kekahi keiki i mea e hooino mai ia makou 'He appointed a boy as a person to revile us. DEFINITE ARTICLES. 18. The definite articles are generally used in the same manner as in English. They are also used in address, as "E ka Lani e" May it please your Majesty! "Ka" is also used before abstract and verbal nouns, where "the" would not be used in English as "ka maika'i," goodness, &c. It is often used with a noun understood, which is generally "mea," "poe" or "olelo." Examples. 1. Owau ka (mea) i olelo aku ia Boki I am the (person who) said to Boki. 2. O lakou ka (poe) i ike They were the (persons who) knew. OMISSION OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. .19. The definite article is omitted before the words kinohi and kahakai; as well as before luna, lalo, and other words of that class, which are combined with simple prepositions to form compound prepositions and adverbs. In the following example the word kahi, is undoubtedly a contraction of ka wahi. This supposition will account for its use as an adverb of place. The singular article ka is often used in a collective sense when the plural would be employed in English. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 33 Examines. i. I kinohi In the beginning. 2. Ma kahakai On the sea shore. 3. Ma luna o ka hale Upon the house. 4. Ma kahi a makou i hele ai In the place where we went. 5. Haawi mai ka haole ia lakou i ka hao The foreigners gave them iron. THE PREDICATE. THE MODE OF EXPRESSING THE VERB "TO BE." 20. In European languages, when the predicate is a noun or adjective, it is connected to the subject by the copula or verb "to be." In Hawaiian this verb is expressed by the arrangement of the words, aided in some cases by certain affirmative particles which, are also used with other verbs. 21. In order to explain the structure of Hawaiian sen- tences we must borrow from the science of Logic the distinc- tion between common or general terms, and singular or in- dividual terms. "The former can be affirmed of each of an indefinite number of things, the latter only of a single thing or collection of things." John Stuart Mill. A common noun may be a singular term, when defined or particularized by the accompanying words. Thus "the present king of England" and "this riyer" are individual or singular terms. 22. Case i. The simplest form of a preposition is that which affirms the existence of something. Here the substantive verb in European languages is both copula and predicate. In English the expletive "there" is prefixed to the verb, when as is generally the case, it is followed by a "general term." In common with most other languages Hawaiian has no word to express the abstract idea of existence. Sometimes the words "to live" or "to dwell' are substituted for it. When the sub- ject is a common noun, and "there would be prefixed in English, the indefinite article "he," or a numeral precedes the in ain in Hawaiian. Often the affirmative particle "no" is added. which is also subjoined to verbs to strengthen an assertion. Examples. 1. He wai no There is water. 2. He lua wai ma ua wahi la There was a well in that place. 3. Elua wahi e noho ai ke alii There are two places for the king to dwell in. 23, Case 2. When the predicate is indefinite, i. e., a "gen- 34 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. eral term," or when the subject is affirmed to belong to a class, then the predicate precedes with he before it, according to Section 6. Examples. i. He kaula o Mose Moses was a prophet. 2. He aihue ke kanaka The man is a thief. 3. He ali'i mana o Kamehameha Kamehameha was a pow- erful chief. 4. He poe anaana lakou nei They are sorcerers. 24. Case 3. Another kind of preposition is that which affirms the identity of two objects or collections of objects. From the nature of the case, the subject and predicate must both be individual or "singular terms," i. e., they must either be pronouns, proper names, or common nouns defined by some limiting words. In all these cases the sentence begins with the "O emphatic." A. When the predicate is a common noun, thus rendered defi- nite, the subject generally precedes the predicate, with the "O emphatic" prefixd to it. Examples. 1. Owau no kou ali'i I am your chief. 2. O lakou ka poe i kohoia They are the persons elected. 3. Oia ka'u pule i ko'u wa pilikia That was my prayer in my season of distress. 4. O ka make ka mea e maka'u ai Death is the thing to be afraid of. 5. O Hawaii ka mokupuni nui Hawaii is the largest island. 6. O oe no ka'u i kii mai nei You are the person I have 1 come here for. 7. O olua ke hele, a wau ke noho You two are to go, I am to stay. Exception. In certain cases when the predicate is emphatic and especially when the subject is a pronoun of the third per : son, the predicate precedes with the "O emphatic" before it. Examples. Compare 1. Oia no ka hewa This (particular thing) was wrong, and 2. O ka hewa no ia That was the wrong (of it). 3. O ke kaua iho la no ia War was the immediate result. 4. O ka pau aku la ia o ko lakou kamailio ana That was the end of their conversation. 5. O ka mana'o o ke ali'i This was the thought of the chief. 6. O ka'u make kamalii no keia This is my dying in youth, i. e., I am about to die in my youth. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 35 7. O ka hele keia o kakou? Is this our going, i. e., Shall we go now B. 'The simplest affirmation of identity is in answering the question, "Who is it?" as "it is I," "it is John," &c. In Ha- waiian the "O emphatic" is always prefixed to the predicate in such sentences, and "no" often follows it. Examples. 1. Owau no It is I. 2. O Ioane no It is John. C. When the predicate is a Proper Name it generally pre- cedes the subject, with the "O emphatic" before it. Examples. 1. O Umi oe thou art Umi. 2. O Mala kona inoa His name is Mala. 3. O I ka inoa o keia kanaka This man's name is I. 25. Case 4. Sometimes that which forms the predicate in Hawaiian is an adverb or adverbial phrase, which specifies the mode or place of existence. In such propositions the subject is (1) in most cases a definite or "singular term," and follows the adverbial expression. When on the other hand, (2) the subject is indefinite, the expletive "there" is prefixed in Eng- lish, and in Hawaiian the subject generally precedes the adver- bial expression, as in case I. Examples. 1. Pela ma Nu'uhiwa So it is at Nukuhiwa. 2. Eia ka mea maika'i Here is the good thing; i. e., the best thing. 3. Aia no Amerika, ma ka hikina Yonder is America on the east. 4. Malaila no ia There he is. 5. He lunakanawai ma kekahi kulanakauhale There was a judge in a certain city. 6. He moku koonei There is a ship here. 7. He aihue maloko o ka hale There is a thief in the house. PREDICATE ADJECTIVE. 26. Case 5. When the predicate is an Adjective, it is known to be a predicate and not an attributive, by its position before the noun, according to Section 5. (1.) It often takes he before it, in which case it seems to be construed as a noun, or "mea" may be supplied after he. 36 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR, (2.) In many cases it takes "ua" before it, in which case it seems to be construed as a verb. (3.) Sometimes, again, it stands abruptly at the beginning of the sentence without any prefix. Examples. He poepoe ka honua The earth is round. He mea poepoe ka honua The earth is a round thing; i. e., a globe. Ua nui na moku i ili Many were the ships stranded. He nui ka kanaka i make Many were the people who died. See section 15, Remark. Nani ka naaupo ! What folly ! Ua huhu ia He is angry. VERBS. 27. When the predicate is a verb, it precedes its subject according to the general rule, except in the two cases men- tioned in sections 7 and 8. The following is the order in which the verb and its adjuncts are placed. The tense signs, as /, ua, e, &c. The verb itself. The qualifying adverb, as mua, wale, ole, &c. The passive sign ia. The directives, as aku, mai, &c. The locatives, nei, or la, or the particles ana or ax. The strengthening particle no. The subject. The object or predicate-noun. Of course the above mentioned elements are never all found together at once. Of the four particles in the 6th place, viz., nei, la, ana and ai, if one is used, the others are excluded, except in a few cases where la is expressed after ana. The subject is sometimes omitted in rapid or excited speaking. Examples. 1. E hana mua ia aku ana no ke alanui. 2. Malaila i malama malu ia aku ai o Laei-eikawai. VERBAL NOUNS. 28. Any verb may be used as a noun by simply prefixing to it the article or other definitive. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 37 Examples. i. Kaumaha oia i ka lawe ukana He was tired of carrying baggage. 2. Me ka noi ole mamua Without asking beforehand. 3. E'e iho la oia me kona hoouna ole ia She went on board without having been sent. 4. Loaa ia Noa ke alohaia mai imua o Iehova Noah found grace before Jehovah. 29. More frequently the verb, when used as a noun, takes after it the particle ana, which denotes continuance. This form is equivalent to the participial noun in ing in English, but is used much more extensively. Observe that in this case ana precedes the directives, instead of following them as it does with the verb or participle. Examples. Compare 1. "E holo mai ana ia" "He is sailing hither," and "Kona holo ana mai" His sailing hither. 2. Pela ko ka makai hai ana mai ia'u Thus was the con- stable's telling me, i. e., "So the constable told me." THE VERB AS AN ADJECTIVE. 30. Any verb may be used as an adjective, according to the principle stated in section 3. E. g., "Aloha," as a verb, means "to love," as a noun "love," as an adjective "loving," or "affectionate." When the idea of time is superadded, the ver- bal adjective may be called a Participle. The two forms gen- erally used as participles, are: 1. The form with i prefixed to it, called the past participle, and 2. The form with e prefixed and ana or sometimes nei or la affixed, which we call the present or more properly the imper- fect participle. The form with ua prefixed, and that with ke prefixed and nei or la affixed, are occasionally used as participles. Like other adjectives, they always jollow their nouns. As will be seen hereafter, they very often supply the place of a relative clause. Examples. 1. O kekahi kanaka c noho ana ma Olualu A certain man living at Olualu. 2. Ma ka aina hhaawUa nona On the land given to him. 3. Ka poe i haule The persons fallen, or* who fell. 31. The nouns "mea," and "poe" are very often omitted after the definite article before the past participle. The words 38 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. ka i, like the Tahitian tei have often been mistaken for a rela- tive pronoun, and are often written together as one word. Examples. i. Owau ka (mea) i olelo aku ia Boki I am the (person) who said to Boki. 2. Oia ka i hoike mai ia ia He is the (person) who de- clared him. 3. O na kauwa ka (poe) i ike The servants were the (per- sons) who knew. Note. This construction resembles the definite participle in Greek, and the "relative participle" in Tamil. 32. Another class of sentences, instead of ka i, have ke before the verb, which might be considered a verbal noun denoting the agent or doer. This ke is perhaps a contraction of ka e. The difference between it and ka i seems to be that k& i is used in a past, and ke generally in a present or future sense. Examples. 1. O ka mea malama i ka oiaio, oia ke hele mai i ka mala- malama He who keeps the truth, he it is that comes to the light. 2. O olua ke hele, owau ke noho You two are the ones to go, I to stay. 3. O ko makou hale ke hiolo It is our house that falls. THE INFINITIVE. 33. The infinitive may be the Subject of a clause, especial- ly when the predicate is the verb hiki, in the sense of "can," "pono" or some other adjective, or a noun or pronoun, pre- ceded by the preposition na. After "hiki," and often after "pono," it takes ke and not e before it. It may well be ques- tioned, however, whether this form is a real infinitive. Examples. 1. He pono i na kamalii a pau e makaala It is right for all children to beware. 2. Aole pono ke haceim i ka nana ia hai It is not right to give the work to another. 3. Na Hoapili e kukulu i hale pule, &c. It is for Hoapili (i. e., Hoapili's duty) to build a meeting house. 4. Ua hiki i keia kamalii ke heluhelu This child can read, literally "It has come to this child to read." N. B. This is the regular way of expressing "can" in Ha- waiian. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 39 34. The infinitive is often the Object of a verb, especially of such as denote some action or state of mind, and those of asking, commanding or teaching. Examples. 1. Paipai na kumu ia lakou e ku paa The teachers urged them to stand fast. 2. Ao aku la kela ia lakou e pai palapala That person taught them to print books. 3. Makemake no wau e hele I wished to go. OBJECT. 35. The object of the verb is preceded by the preposition i or ia, which serves as an objective sign. In Hebrew we find "eth" used in a similar manner before a definite object, and so the preposition a in Spanish is used before the object, when it denotes an animated being. Some verbs govern two objects, one direct and the other in- direct, as 1. E haawi mai oe i ke kala ia'u Give thou the money to me. 2. E ao aku ia lakou i ka heluhelu Teach them to read. 36. The objective sign "i" is always omitted before "ia," "that," and sometimes before nouns, especially after mai or at or a verb ending in 1. Examples. 1. E holo e ike ia moku haole Go and see that foreign ship. 2. E lawe mai oe ia mau bipi He will bring those cattle. .37. Participles and participial nouns take the same con- struction after them as verbs. Examples. 1. I ko'u ike ana i ka lakou hana On my seeing their work. 2. Ka haawi ana mai ke kanawai The giving of the law. 3. Nui wale kou kokua ana ia makou Great was your assistance to us. PREDICATE NOUNS. 38. A proper name in the predicate after "kapa," to name or call, always takes the "O emphatic" before it. A common noun in the same situation is generally preceded by "he," even when it would have the definite article before it in English. Examples. 1. Ua kapaia kona inoa o Puhi His name was called Puhi. 40 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR 2. Kapa aku la oia i kona inoa o Umi He called his name Umi. 3. Aole an e kapa aku ia oukou he poe kauwa I will not call you servants. 39. After verbs signifying to become, to change, to choose, to appoint or constitute, the predicate-noun commonly takes the preposition i, "into," before it, and drops the article. This i, is the same word as the conjunction "i" used to express pur- pose, the hei or kei of the Southern groups. This is especially frequent in the phrase i mea, &c. Examples. 1. E lilo ia i alanui maikai, ke hanaia It will become a good road, if it be worked. 2. E hoolilo au ia oe i kaula I will make you a prophet. 3. Ua koho au ia Kahale i luna kanawai I have chosen Kahale as judge. ADVERBS. 40. As has been stated in section 27, the simple adverbs are placed immediately after the verb or other word which they qualify. Accordingly they always come between the verb itself and ana or the passive sign ia. Any adjective may thus be used as an adverb. The compound adverbs, mentioned in Part I, Section 55, generally stand at the beginning or end of the clause. They are really nouns preceded by a preposition, with the article omitted. Examples. 1. E uku maikai ia ka mea nana ka waiwai He shall be well rewarded who owns the property. 2. E kukulu hale ana ai He is house-building. 3. Ua 00 ke kurina i kanu lalani ia The corn planted in rows is ripe. 4. Ma mua holo aku kekahi poe ma laila Formerly certain persons sailed there. 5. Aole ia i hele aku iwaho He did not go out. PREPOSITIONS. 41. Prepositions precede the nouns to which they relate, as in English. When two nouns are in apposition, the preposition is generally repeated before the latter noun as was stated in Section II. When two nouns are connected by a me, "and," a preposition which relates to both nouns, it is expressed only be- fore the first. The preposition is sometimes repeated, however, after the conjunction a. Prepositions are frequently separated HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 41 from the following nouns by the article or other limiting adjec- tives mentioned in Section 3. What are called compound prep- ositions are really nouns, preceded by a preposition, with the article omitted, and followed generally by o, but sometimes by i. For the distinction between a and o, &c, see Part I, Section 15. Examples. 1. Me ka moi, me ka mea kiekie With the king, the ex- alted personage. 2. E kuai i ka waina a me ka waiu Buy wine and milk. 3. Kau a'e la maua ma luna o na lio We two mounted on the horses. 4. Pii a'e la oia iluna, i ka la'au He climbed up into the tree. Ellipsis. 42. After a noun preceded by ko or ka, the limited noun is often omitted. Thus ko before the name of a country denotes the inhabitants of that country, in which case "poe" is understood. Examples. 1. Ko ke ao nei The (people) of this world. 2. Ko Hawaii nei The (people) of Hawaii. 3. Ka ke Akua (olelo) God's word. 4. Ka Iseraela (mau keiki) The children of Israel. THE POSSESSIVE CONSTRUCTION. 43. The possessive construction is far more extensively used in Hawaiian, than in most other languages, and helps to supply the want of a relative pronoun. The thing possessed, in Hawaiian, is very often a verbal noun or infinitive. Examples. 1. Aole o'u lohe i kona ano I have not heard about his character. 2. Aole o'u ike i ka lawaia I don't know how to fish. 3. He huhu kona He is angry; lit., "An anger is his." THE VERB 'TO HAVE." 44. The verb "to have" is expressed by the prepositions a or 0, ka or ko, before the name of the possessor in the predi- cate. "I have a book" would be expressed thus: "A book is mine."' Case i. In affirmative sentences it is expressed by the prepositions ka <>r ko before the name of the possessor, fol- ng the thing possessed. 42 hawaiian grammar. Examples. i. He mana'o ko'u I have a thought. 2. He palapala kau You have a book. 3. He kunu anei kou Have you a cold? 4. He aina kona He has a land. Case 2. In negative prepositions it is expressed by the prepositions o or a Tand the word denoting the possessor, when a pronoun, precedes the thing possessed. Examples. 1. Aole ana buke He has no book. 2. Aole a'u palapala I have no book. 3. Aole anei ou wahi barena? Have you not a little bread? Note. To get, receive or find, is expressed by "loaa," used as a passive or neuter verb. E. g., "ua loaa mai ia'u ka pala- pala," I have received the letter. ON THE USE OF NA. 45. The preposition na is often placed before the noun denoting the agent, when an active verb or clause is the sub- ject, to express duty or agency emphatically. Thus, "Nanz no e hoakaka" It is for him to explain. It is often used thus at the beginning of a sentence to point out the subject more emphatically, than the other construction in which the subject is expressed after the verb. E. g., "Nana i hana ka lani." "He it was that made the heavens ;" literally. "It was his to have made the heavens." In this example Nana is the predi- cate, and the clause "i hana ka lani" is the subject. The pro- noun Nana may refer to a plural as well as to a singular antecedent. 46. When the object of the following clause is a pronoun, it generally precedes the verb, without the objective sign, i*. (In this case the pronoun seems to be construed as the subject, and the following verb to be subjoined adverbially to define the mode or extent.) E. g., 1. "Na ke aupuni oukou e uku mai" It is for the government to reward you literally, "you are for the government to reward. 2. Na'u o ia e hoouna mai I will send him literally, "He is for me to send." 3. O ke Akua nana makou e kiai nei God who watches over us, literally, "Whose we are to watch over." This last important use of nana as a relative pronoun will be explained more fully in Sec. 54. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 43 INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 47. These are of two kinds : 1. Direct interrogative sentences, which require yes or no for an answer. Such questions are asked in Hawaiian by put- ting anei after the leading word in the sentence. Affirmative questions which expect the answer "yes" begin with Aole anei. Examples. 1. He moku anei keia? Is this a ship? 2. Aole anei he Akua kou? Have you not a God? 3. Ua holo anei ia? Has he sailed? 4. Ua puhi anei oia i ka pu? Has he blown the horn? 48. 2. Indirect interrogative sentences, which require a sentence for their answer, and which are asked by interrogative words. These interrogative words are of three kinds : 1. Interrogative pronouns, as wai or aha. 2. Interrogative adjectives, as hea or ehia, and 3. Interrogative adverbs, as ahea, pehea, auhea, &c, which are compounds of hea. These interrogates generally stand at the beginning or end of a sentence, and very rarely in the middle. Examples. 1. Owai ka mea aina maanei? Who is the owner of land here? 2. Ua lilo ka palapala ia wai? The book has passed to whom ? 3. Ua hopuia ka aihue e wai ? By whom has the thief been taken? 4. Ehia ou mau makahiki? How old art thou? 49. Interrogative pronouns are seldom the subject of a verb. They are used in the nominative case, when there is a noun in the predicate, and the verb "to be" would be used in English, i. e., in Case 3, Section 24. With other verbs the form preceded by na is used, as has been explained in Section 45. The ansiver to a question must always closely correspond to it in construction. Examples. 1. Nawai oe i hana? Na ke Akua Who made you? God. 2. Mahea oe e hele ai? Where are you going? or E hele ana oe mahea? 3. No keaha oe i hana ai pela? Why (literally, for what) are you doing so? 4. Heaha ka inoa o keia aina ? O Kualoa. What is the name of this land? Ans. Kualoa. 44 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. COMPLEX AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 50. A compound sentence consists of two or more inde- pendent propositions connected together by conjunctions. A complex sentence consists of a principal and one or more subordinate clauses. From what has already been stated, it is evident that Hawaiian sentences are generally compound rather than complex, and their clauses are apt to be co-ordinate rather than subordinate. What would form a long sentence in Eng- lish, in Hawaiian is generally broken up into several inde- pendent propositions, but loosely connected with each other. We will next take up the various kinds of dependent clauses in English, and show how they are expressed in Hawaiian. THE DEPENDENT CLAUSE USED AS SUBJECT. 51. In European languages a substantive clause is fre- quently the subject of a sentence. Thus in the sentence, "It is evident that the earth is round," the word "it" is really an expletive, and the subject is the whole clause, "that the earth is round." In Hawaiian the dependent clause is often abridged, and ex- pressed by a substantive or by a participial noun, or again it is subjoined without any connective as an independent proposi- tion. Thus the sentence given above, might be rendered, "The roundness of the earth is evident" ua akaka ka poepoe ana o ka honua; or "It is evident; the earth is round" "Ua mao- popo, he poepoe no ka honua." RELATIVE OR ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 52. The use of a real relative pronoun is confined to the most perfect class of languages, viz., the inflected languages. A relative pronoun incorporates its clause into the sentence as a subordinate part, and as an adjective element, qualifying some noun or pronoun in it. This noun or pronoun to which it refers is called the antecedent. Such clauses are expressed in Hawaii- an, either in an abridged form by means of adjectives or parti- ples, or by the Possessive Construction, explained above, which last furnishes a clear and compact mode of rendering such clauses when they are short. When they are long or involved, they must be rendered in Hawaiian by independent propositions. 53. Remark. Observe that when the antecedent of the relative is a pronoun of the third person, as in the phrases, "he who," "those who," &c, it is expressed in Hawaiian by the nouns "ka mea" for the singular, and "ka poe" for the plural. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 45 54. Case i. When the Relative is Subject of its Clause. A. When the clause contains the copula "to be," the relative is wanting, and the clause is expressed by an adjective simply, or by a noun in apposition. Thus, "the man who is honest"= "the honest man." "Paul, who was an apostle"="Paul, an apostle." "He that is holy, he that is true'O ka mea hoano, ka mea oiaio. B. When the relative is the subject of a verb, the clause is often expressed by a participle. This is the regular construc- tion when the verb is intransitive or passive. Thus, "the thing which was given' the thing given ka mea i haawiia. E. g. 1. Ka poe i haule The people who fell. 2. Ka poe e noho ana maluna o ke kuahiwi They who dwell on the mountain. 3. He nui ka mea e ae i hanaia Many were the other things which were done. C. The relative is expressed by nana, by the construction in Section 45, when the following verb is active and transitive, and when the agent is a person. The tense signs are i in past time, and e in present or future time. E. g. 1. Ka mea nana au i hoouna mai He who sent me. 2. O Iuda nana ia i kumakaia Judas who betrayed him. 3. O oe ke kanaka nana i aihue ko'u lio You are the man who stole my horse. 4. O ke Akua nana e ike i na mea a pau God who sees all things. 5. Aole o'u mea nana e hai mai. &c. I had ho one to tell me, &c. 55. Case 2. When the Relative is Object of its Clause. What would be the subject of the clause in English, is put into the possessive form, i. e., preceded by the preposition a or ka, as if the antecedent were a thing possessed, and the verb is subjoined as with nana. The prefix preposition "ka" is used when the noun (generally mea) follows or is understood. The relative participle at always follows the verb, except when nei. la, or ana takes its place. E. g. 1. "What I tell you" "My thing to tell you" fca'u mea e hai aku nei ia oukou. 2. "The things which I saw the things of me to have seen" Na mea a'u i ike ai. 3. "This is what they saw here is theirs to have seen" Eia ka lakou i ike ai. 4. A tale which my mother told me He kaao a ko'u ma- kuahine i hai mai ai ia'u. 46 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 5. Ke kumu niu a maua i ae like ai The coconut tree which we two agreed about. 56. Case 3. When the relative is in the possessive case, or if governed by a preposition. A. When it relates to a person it is expressed in Hawaiian by a personal pronoun in the same construction. E. g. 1 O ka mea %ct ia ke ki He to whom the key belongs. 2. "E ke akua mana loa, me oe e noho la ka uhane o ka poe i haalele i keia ao" "Almighty God, with whom dwell the spirits of the departed." 3. "Ka mea ma ona la ia i hana ai i ka lani a me ka honua" "The person by whom he made the heaven and the earth." B. When the relative refers to a thing, which is the cause, means or instrument "by which" any thing is or is done, the relative is generally expressed only by the particle ai, which always follows the verb in such clauses. E. g. 1. Eia ka mea e make ai na kanaka "This is the cause from which the people decrease.". 2. Oia ke kumu i kaua ai lakou That was the cause for which they fought. 3. Heaha kau mea i hiki mai ai What is your reason for coming? 4. "Ka kaua mea i au mai net (for ai) i keia mau kai ewalu" "The reason for which we have sailed hither over these eight seas," or "Our reason for sailing hither, &c. C. When the relative refers to a noun denoting the time or place, "in which" or "at which" any thing is or is done, the possessive construction explained in Section 55 is preferred when a person is the agent, and an active verb follows. In this case the preposition a is generally used before the noun denot- ing the agent, but sometimes ko especially when wahi follows. The verb is always denoted by the relative particle ai, or nei, which sometimes takes its place. Often, however, and always when a passive verb follows, the construction given in the last paragraph (B) is preferred, the relative being expressed simply by ai after the verb. E. g. 1. "At the time in which Captain Cook arrived When Captain Cook arrived" "I ka wa i ku mai ai o Lono." 2. "At Kona, the place where he lived" Ma Kona kona wahi i noho ai. 3. "Ma ke alanui a makou i hele ai" In the road in which we went. 4. "Ma kahi i hunaia 'i o Kaahumanu" At the place where Kaahumanu was concealed. HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 47 5. I. Waiapuka kahi i malama ia ia o Liloa At Waiapuka where Liloa was kept. 6. Ka wa i make ai na 'Hi ma Beritania When the chiefs died in England. 7. Ma Laie kona wahi i hanau ai At Laie, her birth place. 8. Ka aina a'u e noho nei The land in which I dwell. Observe that kahi=ka wahi. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. Adverbial Clauses 6f Place. 57 Most adverbial clauses of place are expressed in the manner explained in the last section. Some noun denoting place must be expressed, and connection of the clauses indicated by ai. Thus, "where," "whither" and "whence" are generally ex- pressed by "kahi" or "wahi," &c,. with "ai" after the following verb. E. g. 1. The land where we journey O ka aina kahi a maua e hele ai. 2. Whence I came Ko'u wahi i hele mai ai. 3. Whither I go Ko'u wahi e hele aku ai. "Wherever" "ma na wahi a pau a ai." "As far as" is expressed by a circumlocution, as, e. g., "As far as the East is from the West" E like ma ka loihi mai ka hikina a i ke komohana. Adverbial Clauses of Time. t 58. These clauses generally assume the forms given in Section 56, C. They are generally connected to the leading proposition by "when" or "while" in English. In Hawaiian some noun denoting time must be expressed, and the connec- tion of the clauses indicated by the relative particle ai. E. g. 1. I ka wa i make ai na 'Hi When the chiefs died. 2. I kona wa e maalo ae ana While he passes by. "Whenever" or "As often as" is expressed by "i na wa a pau a ai." E. g. "I na wa a pau a oukou e ai ai" As often as ye eat." "As long as" is similarly expressed, as "i na la a pau a ai." 59. A looser mode of connecting such clauses, when less precision is required, is by the conjunction a or aia, which is equivalent to "when." "and when, "until." &c E. g. 1. A hiki mai ia When he arrives. 2. Aia ike aku oe i ka manu When you see the bird. 3. A ahiahi iho When it was evening. 4. A ao ka po When it was morning. . . 60. Another mode of rendering clauses connected by "while" or "when" is by prefixing the preposition 1 or ai to the 48 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. subject, when it is a person, and placing after it a form of the verb, which may be considered as a participle. When the pro- gressive form in ana follows, it is to be rendered by '"while" with a verb ; when the past participle, by "when" or "as soon as." In the latter case the verb is always followed by ai. This use of ai may possibly be explained by ellipsis as follows : E. g. i. "(I ka wa) ia ia i hiki ai iluna pono o Kalala" As soon as he reached the summit of Kalala. 2. "Ia ia e noho ana malaila" While he was sitting there. 3. "Ia lakou i ike aku ai ia ia" As soon as they saw him. 4. "Ia'u e noho ana me oukou," While I am with you. Some Hawaiian scholars make the following distinction : 5 Ia ia e hele ana aku While he was going. I Ia ia e hele aku ana When he was about to go. .61. A clause introduced by "while" in English, may also be rendered by a participial noun, preceded by a preposition, as "o ko'u hele ana 'ku" "While I was going." (Lit. "in my go- ing."' This is a very common construction. Oiai is often used for "while," especially when the clause, in English, has for its predicate the verb "to be," followed by a noun. Thus, Oiai ka la="While it is day." Oiai ka malama- lama me oukou'While the light is yet with you." A shorter form of the same is oi. E. g., "E hele i ka malamalama oi kau ke ea i ke kino." 62. Clauses intrduced by "before," "since," or "after," are expressed by the compound prepositions mamua o and mahope o, followed by a participial noun as "Before I went' Mamua o o'u hele ana aku ;" "mamua o ka wa e ko ai"=before it is accomplished. "Mahope iho o kona hiki ana mai" After he arrived. 63. The use of ai in the sentences beginning with an ad- verbial expression spoken of in Section 9, may be accounted for from the analogy of relative clauses, by supposing an ellipsis. E. g. Thus, "malaila oia i ike ai" That (is the place) in which he saw. "Pela no oia i malama aku ai ia lakou" That's the way in which he took care of them. As was before stated, the subject, if a pronoun, generally precedes the verb in such sentences, as "Pehea la oukou i ike ai ia mea?' How do you know that? FINAL CLAUSES. 64. Final clauses are those which denote a purpose or mo- tive. These are generally introduced by i, "that," "in order that," i ole e, "that not," or 0, "lest." Sometimes purpose is ex- HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 49 pressed by an infinitive followed by ai, which is equivalent to "in order to," with the infinitive in English. The particle ai sometimes occurs in final clauses introduced by i, to bring out the idea of the "means" or "cause." It can be rendered by "whereby" or "thereby," and explained by substituting i mea e for i. E. g. I. "E hooikaika oe i na keiki i loaa 'i ka pono" Ex- hort the children in order that they may receive good. 2. "Kua lakou i ka laau ala i pau ka aie" They cut down sandal-wood in order that the debt might be paid. 3. "Aole laua i ai pu o pepehiia laua" They two did not eat together lest they should be killed. 4. "Mai hele oe i ka lua Pele o make oe" Do not go to the Volcano, lest you die. ..65. CLAUSES WHICH EXPRESS CORRESPOND- ENCE OR COMPARISON. The Hawaiian is very poor in means of expressing compari- son. Such sentences must generally be broken up into inde- pendent propositions. Clauses introduced by "as," in English, are expressed in Hawaiian by like, followed by a relative clause of the kind explained in Section 55. E. g. 1. "E like me ka'u i olelo aku ai ia oukou" As I told you, (lit., "like what I told you," or "like mine to have told you.") 2. ''E like me ka'u i aloha ai ia oukou, pela oukou e aloha aku ai i kekahi i kekahi" As I have loved you, so love ye one another. Clauses introduced by "so that," expressing a consequence are stated as independent propositions in Hawaiian. "How," introducing a dependent clause, is expressed by a circumlocu- tion, as follows : "You have heard how Abraham used to burn lambs on altars" Ua ike oukou i ke ano o ka Aberahama ho'a ana i na hipa keiki maluna o na kuahu. 66. CLAUSES WHICH EXPRESS A CAUSE OR REASON. In English, such clauses are connected to the leading propo- sition by one of the conjunctions, "because," "since," "for," "as," &c. In Hawaiian they are either introduced by no ka mea, "because," or are expressed by the preposition no followed by a verbal noun. E. g. 1. "No ka mea ua ike no oia i na mea a pau" Because he knew all things. 2. "No ko lakou ike ana i na mea ana i liana 'i For they knew the things which he did. 50 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. 67. In these the condition is introduced by ina "if," either alone or followed by the tense signs i, e, or ua; by i, a shorter form of ina; or by ke, "provided that," which is used of present or future time. The clause beginning with ke, generally is sub- joined at the end of the sentence, while % or ina stand at the beginning. "If not'' is expressed by putting ole after the verb, and ina, &c, before it, or by the phrases i ole e or ke ole. In a long sentence the conclusion is often marked by a second ina, equivalent to "then" in English. E. g. 1. Ina i hele mai nei oe, ina ua ike If you had come here, then you would have seen. 2. Ina i makemake mai oe ia mea, ina ua kii mai oe If you had wanted this thing, then you would have come for it. 3. E maluhia lakou ke hiki mai They shall be at peace if they come. 4. A i hoi ole mai, kaua no And if he does not come, it is war. OBJECTIVE CLAUSES. 68. Objective clauses generally follow verbs which denote 1st, some act or state of the mind, or 2nd. a declaration or command. Such causes are introduced by "that" in English. In Hawaiian they are often expressed by the infinitive after the verbs mentioned in Section 34. Often, however, especially after verbs of saying, or declaring, they stand without any connecting particle between them. There is no distinction then in Hawaiian Grammar between direct and indirect quotation. SPECIMENS OF HAWAIIAN SENTENCES ANALYZED. 69. The first passage we have selected is from the account of the Temptation of Christ, (Matt. iv. 1.) 1 234. V. 1. Alaila alakaiia 'ku la o Iesu e ka Uhane i ka Then was led away Jesus by the Spirit to the 5 6.27 waonahele, e hoowalewaleia 'ku ai e ka Diabolo. wilderness to be tempted by the Devil. Then was Jesus led up of the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted by the Devil. Notes, i. Alakaiia is compounded of ala. way. the Javanese jialan, and ka'i to lead ; ia is the Passive sign. 2. The initial a of the verbal directive aku, is contracted with the final one of HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 51 the preceding word. 3. La here is the sign of past time, (See Part I, 48 and 52) 4. O here is the sign of the nominative with proper names. Part I, 26. 5. Waonahele is compounded of wao, an uninhabited place, and nahele, overgrown with bushes, &c. 6. Hootvalezvalcia is compounded of ho'o, the caus- ative prefix, (See Part I, 51), zvalezuale, to deceive, and ia the Passive ending. 7. Ai is the relative particle, and with the pre- ceding e serves to express the idea of purpose, "io order to," (See Part II, 64). 1 2 3.4. V. 2. Hookeai iho la ia i hookahi kanaha la, Fasted thereupon he for one 5 6 a me na po he kanaha, a mahope and the nights a forty and afterwards forty days 2 7 iho, pololi hungry .2 3 iho la ia. accordingly (was) he. And when he had fasted forty days and nights, he was afterwards a hungered. Notes, i. Hookeai is compounded of hooke, abstain, and ai, food. Hooke again is componded of ho'o, the causative prefix, and ke, to elbow, to push away. 2. Iho is a directive particle. (See Part I, 52.) It expresses here the idea of sequence, like "thereupon," "immediately after," "accordingly." 3. La denotes past time as in V. 1. 4. Ho'okahi is compounded of kahi, the numeral, one. and the prefix ho'o, and expresses with precision, "one," "only one." 5. A me, and, is used to connect nouns, a to connect verbs. 6. The plural definite arti- cle. 7. On the structure of this sentence, see Part II, 26. The position of the adjective shows that it is predicated of the subject. Or, "pololi" may be constructed as a verb, "he hungered," which view is confirmed by the use of the verbal particles iho and la after it. V. 3 - A And when 3 4 la i aku la ia, there said forth 8 e i mai speak hither hiki came 5 , Ina he if aku ka hoowalewale forth the tempter 6 7 ke Keiki oe a ke the son thou of the 1 i ona to him Akin. God oe i thou to 9 keia man pohaku i these stones that (they) 10 lilo i bercna. become to bread. 52 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. And when the tempter came to him and said, If thou be the Son of God, command that these stones be made bread. Notes, i. A long at the beginning of a clause often means "when," "and when," "until." 2. For the form i ona la, "to him," see Part I, 20 and 38. 3. / here is the verb, to say, in the past tense. 4. La signifies past time as usual. 5. O here is the article 0, used to render the following noun emphatic, in a clause affirming the identity of two things. See Part II, 24. 6. For the distinction between a and see Part I, 15. 7. For the use of the form ke rather than ka, see Part I, 24. 8. E is the sign of the imperative. 9. Mau is the sign of the plural. 10. On this use of i see Part II, 39. 12 3 V. 4. Olelo mai la o Iesu, i mai la, Ua Spake hither Jesus, said hither (It) has 5 6 palapalaia, Aole e ola ke kanaka i ka berena been written Not shall live the man by the bread 7 8 wale no, aka, ma na mea a pau mai ka waha alone but by the things all from the mouth 9 . mai o ke Akua. hither of the God. But he answered and said, It is written, Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of God. Notes, i. La is the sign of the past time. 2. O is the article o, used with proper names in the nominative, Part II, 7. 3. Ua is the sign of the perfect tense. 4. Palapala is the verb, to write, and ia is the passive sign. 5. E is the sign of the future. 6. / means "by" after an intransitive verb or adjective, but e is used after a passive verb. 7. No is a strengthening particle, Part I. 49, and generally accompanies zvale, which signifies "only," "alone." 8. A pau, "all," originally meant "until done," "completed." 9. On the repetition of mai, see Part I, 14. 70. The next passage is from the romance of Laieikawai. Page 13. 1 2 3 I. Iloko o ko Laieikawai mau la ma Waiapuka, ua During Laieikazvai's days at Waiapuka zcas 4 5 hoomauia ka pio ana o ke anuenue ma kela continued the arch- ing of the rainbozv at that 1 6 wahi iloko o ka manawa ua a me ka place in the time rainy and the HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 53 malie, i ka fair weather in the 7 nae i hoomaopopo yet understood po night me and ke the na the mea a persons pau all ao; day 8 i ke the aka, but ano nature aole not o of keia anuenue; aka, ua hoomauia keia mau hoailona this rainbow but were continued these signs 6 7 9 io ii 3 alii ma na wahi i malamaia 'i ua mau chief ii n < I in his no Kauai, a of Kauai and 9 UM niai la sun- hither then 5 ia i him character (as) prophet great 6 78 hiki ai iluna pono o Kalalea, arrived upon right Kalalea 10 oia i ka pio a keia anuenue i Oahu he the arch of this rainbow on Oahu "<' ; Mho iho la oia malaila he dwelt accordingly h< there a iwakalua la twenty day 54 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 12 13 15 14 kumu e ike maopopo ia 'i ke ano kana means to seen clearly be by ivhich the nature of Jiis mea e ike nei. thing to see here. On a certain time while Halaaniani was traveling around Kauai, in his character (as) great prophet of Kauai, when he arrived at the very summit of Kalalea, he saw the arch of this rainbow on Oahu here; he accordingly dwelt there twenty days, in order to discern more clearly the nature of what he saw. Notes : 1. I a here is a preposition, and e kaahele ana the present participle. On this mode of expressing ' ' while ' ' in English, see Part II, 60. 2. Kaahele ana, is compounded 01 Tcaa, to roll, hele, to go, and ana, which denotes continuance, and is equivalent to "-ing" in English. It means then "travel- ing around," "making the tour of." 3. Ia here is the sign of the objective case. 4. Ia ia, the first ia is the preposition, and the second the pronoun, Part I, 38. The construction is simi- lar to that explained in Note 1. See Part II, 60. 5. / is the sign of past time. 6. Ai is the relative particle. 7. / hina o. is a compound preposition, like "on top of" in English. Part I, 55. 8. Pono is an adverb, "right," "exactly," and qualifies i lima. 9 . La serves as sign of past time. 10. / is sign of the objective case, like ia, in Note 3. II. / here de- notes purpose. It means literally, "as a means, whereby might be discerned," &c. 12. Ia is the passive sign of ike separated from it by the adverb maopopo. 13. Ai has dropped its a. It may be rendered "whereby," and refers to lumu, Part II, 56 B. 14. See Part II, 55. Nei takes the place of ai after the verb. 15. The subject of "ike maopopo ia" is "ke ano," &c. In conclusion, the author would express his obligations to Judge Andrews' Hawaiian Grammar, for many of the examples quoted in this little work. CONTENTS. PART I. Section Orthoepy, . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9 General Remarks on Etymology, IO-II Gender of Nouns, 12 Number of Nouns, 13 List of Prepositions, 14 Distinction between A and 0, 15-17 On Ka and Ko, 18 On Na and No, 19 On I, la and [0, 20 The Vocative Case, 21 The Articlefi 22-27 1 ndefinite Article, 22 Definite Articles, 23-25 The Emphatic, 26, 27 Adjectives, how Compared, 28 Numerals, 29-33 < 'ardiiial Numerals, 29-31 Ordinal and Distributive Numbers, 32 Fractions, 33 Personal Pronouns, 34-41 Possessive Pronouns, 42 Demonstrative Pronouns, 43 Interrogative Pronouns, 44 Indefinite Pronouns, 45 Verbs, . . 46. 47 Tense Sign 8 :,n<1 Imperative Partielet 48 The Particles Ana and No 49 Passive Voice, 50 ( lausative form, 5 1 Verbal 1 directives, vVc. 52 Tiie Relative Particle Ai, 53 Adverbs, 54 Compound Preposition. && 55 < Conjunctions, 5* Interjections, 57 Formation of Words 53 56 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. PART II. Introductory Remarks, Elements of a Simple Sentence, The Subject, Position of the Subject, Names of Persons preceded by O, Position of Subject in Negative Sentences, Position of Subject after Emphatic Adverbial Nominative Absolute, Attributive or Adjective Element, Apposition, Attributive Adjectives, Numerals, : Adjective used as Nouns, &c. Use of the Articles, Indefinite Article, Definite Articles, Omission of Articles, The Predicate, Mode of expressing the Verb "To Be,' Verbs, Verbal Nouns, The Verb as an Adjective, The Infinite. The Verb "Can" Object, Predicate Nouns, Adverbs, Prepositions, "Ellipsis, The Possessive Construction, Mode of expressing the Verb "To Ha\ ! On the Use of Na, Interrogative Sentences, .... Complex and Compound Sentences, The dependent clause used as Subject Relative or Adjective Clauses, Adverbial Clauses, Final Clauses, Clauses which express Comparison, Clauses which express Cause or Reason Conditional Clauses, Objective Clauses, , Specimens of Hawaiian Sentences Analyzed, c. Phrases, INDEX. PAGE A and O, . . .. 9, 10 Accent, 7 Adjectives, attributive, 30 predicated, 35,36 used as nouns, 31 how compared, 13 Adverbs, 23 " position of, 40 Adverbial clauses of place, 47 of time, 47,48 Ae as a directive, 22 Ai as a relative particle, 22 Aku as a directive, 21,22 Ana and No, 21 Analysis of sentences, 50,54 Anei, in questions, 23 Aole and ole, 23 Apposition, 30 Articles "he." n,33,34 Articles "ka" and "ke," . .... . . 11, 12 As, how rendered, 49 Attributive adjectives, 30 "Be," how expressed. 33-35 "Can," how expressed, 38 Cardinal numbers, 13 Causative form, 21 Clauses expressing cause, 49 Clause used as subject, 44 Clause expressing compari 5011, 49 Comparison of Adjectives, 13 Compound prepositions, 23 Conditional clauses, 50 Conjunctions. 24 Definite article, II, 12 " omission o f 32, 33 Demonstrative pronouns, 17 Directives. 21,22 Dual number, 15 58 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. PAGE "E" as an adjective, iS "E" as adverb, "before," 20 Ellipsis of noun after "ka," 38 " " "ko" and "ka," 41 Emphatic adverbial sentences, . . . . 29 & 48 Etymology, 7 Final Clauses, 48, 49 Formation of words, 25 Fractions, 14 Gender, 8 Guttural break, 6 "Have," how expressed, 41, 42 I, la and Io, 11 I, as a tense sign, 19, 20 la, as an adjective pronoun, 17 Iho, as a directive, 22 Imperative particles, 20 Indefinite articles, 11 " pronouns, 18 Infinitive mood, 19, 20, 29, 38 Interjections, 25 Interrogative adverbs, . . 22 & 43 pronouns, 17 sentences, 43 Ka and Ko prepositions, 10 Kahi, adjective pronoun, 18 " adverb of place, 32, 47 Kauwahi, 18 Kekahi, i3 La, verbal particle. 7 & 22 "Loaa," to get, how construed, 42 Mai, as a directive, 21 " in prohibition, 20 Mea, ellipsis of, 38 " meaning "owner," 31 Na and No, 11 Na, Syntax of, 42 Nana as relative, 45 Negative sentences, 28, 29 Nei, how used, 22 Nominative absolute, 29 Numerals, 13, 14 position of, 31 0, emphatic. 12,34,35 Objective clauses, 50 HAWAIIAN GRAMMAR. 50 PAGE Objective sign, . . 1 1 & 39 Order of verbal particles, .. 19&36 Ordinal numbers, 14 Orthoepy, 5-7 "Own," how expressed, 16 Participles, .. 19,37,38 Passive sign, 21 Personal pronouns, 15 Plural number, 8 Possessive construction, .. 41 pronouns, 16 Predicate nouns, 39, 40 Prefix prepositions, 10 Prepositions, simple, . . . . 8, 9 syntax of, 40, 41 Pronominal affixes, 15 Purpose, how expressed, 48, 49 Quotation, direct and indirect, 50 Relative clauses, 44-46 Relative as object, 45 " " subject. 45 " expressing time or place, . . . . 46 " in possessive case, . . . . 46 ''Self," how expressed, 16 Subject, position of, 28, 29 Syntax, remarks on, . . . . 27 Tense signs, 19, 20 "To be," how expressed, 33-35 Ua, as tense sign 20 Ua, as adjective pronoun, .... 17 Verb, synopsis of, . . 19 Verbal adjectives, 37 " nouns, 25 Vocative sign, 11 Wahi, as an adjective. 18 GAYLAMOUN1 PAMPHLET UNDO Manufactured hit GAYLORD BROS. 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