UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES Graduate So^ni O f Business r - ^bi^ 24, ADVERTISING ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE 6395 ADVERTISING ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE HARRY TIPPER Manager of "Automotive Industries"; Instructor in Advertising, New York University; Ex-President of the Association of National Advertisers; Ex- President of the Advertising Club of New York. HARRY L. HOLLINGWORTH, PH.D. Associate Professor of Psychology, Columbia University GEORGE BURTON HOTCHKISS, M.A. Professor of Business English and Head of the Advertis- ing and Marketing Division in New York University; formerly with the George Batten Company, Advertising FRANK ALVAH PARSONS, B.S. President of New York School of Fine and Applied Art and Lecturer in Advertising Display in New York Uni- versity SECOND EDITION Third Printing THE RONALD PRESS CO. NEW YORK CITY, 1921 Copyright, 1915, by THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY Copyright, 1919, by THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY 208 Bus. Admin. Library PREFACE T49 This volume is the outgrowth of two years' experience by the authors in developing the work of the Advertising Division of New York University. During this period they found that the most serious hindrance to education in preparation for advertising was the lack of suitable text-books. Many valu- able books existed, it is true, but most of them seemed either too specialized or too narrow, or lacking in fundamentals. This condition led the four authors to collaborate in the writ- ing of this text-book. The distinctive feature of the book is its attempt to com- bine all the various arts and sciences that enter into the work of advertising and to give the fundamentals of each with ref- erence to all the others. It includes the economic, psycholog- ical, and physical factors, together with the essential principles of artistic arrangement and English composition as applied to the construction of advertisements. Finally, it sums up all these parts in the actual operation of an advertising campaign. Although the book is simple enough to be understood by the student of advertising who has had no experience, it should be almost equally valuable to the advanced practitioner who wishes a broader view of some phases of his profession. Prin- ciples have constantly been stressed, but practical aspects have not been neglected. The authors acknowledge their indebtedness to many special treatises on advertising. They acknowledge special indebted- ness to the Alexander Hamilton Institute for permission to use material from its Modern Business text on Advertising by Hotchkiss and Tipper. vi PREFACE More than all else, however, they are under obligation to the Educational Committee of the Advertising Men's League of New York for helpful suggestions. New York City, March 5, 1915. PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION The above preface, like that of many other first editions, was largely a statement of purposes and promises. That these have been fulfilled in a measurable degree is indicated, perhaps, by the fact that a second edition has become necessary. The authors find no little satisfaction in the knowledge that three years of actual test in the classroom and office have not led to any changes in the plan of the book or in the fundamental principles it presents. They find far greater satisfaction in the knowledge that their own experience and the valuable sugges- tions of others have resulted in many valuable additions and amplifications which should enable the book to fulfill even more completely its original purposes. Washington, D. C, January, 1919. Note : The advertisements throughout the book have been selected because of their illustration of specific principles, and their use should not be taken to indicate unqualified approval or condemnation of any advertisement as a whole. CONTENTS Part I The Economic Factors in Advertising CHAPTER PAGE I WHAT Is ADVERTISING? 3 Historical Recent Gro\\th Lack of Exact Definition General Limitations of Advertising Efficiency of Advertising Testing Efficiency Advertising Has Changed Marketing Ideas Advantage of Written Over Spoken Word Print Has Implied Accuracy II THE WAY IN WHICH ADVERTISING Is USED ... 14 General Functions of Advertising. Advertising as a Control Advertising as a Missionary Advertising as an Economic Distribution Factor Advertising as a Direct Selling Force The Economic Relation of Advertising to Marketing Cost Increase in Efficiency of Salesman Effect Upon the Distributor Value to the Manufacturer III THE FACTORS \VHICH DETERMINE THE KIND AND EXTENT OF ADVERTISING 24 Underlying Conditions Factory Organization and Output Consumption Competition Prices Price and Value Packages Size Packages Individuality Amount of Individual Purchase Number of Individual Purchases Per Year The Amount Per Unit Per 1,000 Allowable for Adver- tising The Possibility of Economic Use Greatest with Specialized Goods viii CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE Information Required Before Advertising Different Situation from Personal Selling First General Consideration Production Second Consideration Marketing Third Consideration Sales and Advertising Organ- ization Significant Points Useful Comparison Exceptional Case Abnormal Conditions Need for Study of Them Part II The Psychological Factors in Advertising IV THE PSYCHO-ECONOMIC ROLE OF ADVERTISING . . 49 Four Main Problems Knowledge of the Market Knowledge of the Commodity Establishing the Association Making the Association Dynamic V THE ORIGINAL NEEDS OF HUMAN BEINGS ... 60 Characteristic Animal Needs The Needs of Primitive Men The Civilized Human Being Appealing to the Three Tendencies VI THE CHIEF HUMAN INSTINCTS, NEEDS AND EMO- TIONS 70 Classification of Instincts Suggestive List of Instincts and Emotions The Relative Strength of Instincts and Interests VII ANALYSIS OF THE COMMODITY 80 Application of the Table of Persuasiveness The Forms and Varieties of Advertisements Use of the Rationalization Appeal VIII ESTABLISHING ASSOCIATIONS 93 The Importance of Association The Law of Contiguity The Law of Sequence The Law of Feeling Tone The Law of Fusion Literary and Artistic Aspects of Copy 1. Form and Arrangement 2. Color 3. Words 4. Typography 5. Illustrations CONTENTS ix CHAPTER PAGE IX MAKING ASSOCIATIONS DYNAMIC 105 Laws of Suggestion For Personal Articles, " Human-Nature " Copy For Impersonal Articles, " Reason-Why " Copy Sometimes Both Kinds Suggestion in Terms of Reader Suggestion Must Accord with Regular Habits and Instincts Positive, Not Negative Prestige of the Source Connect with Other Impulses Unity in Variety X SECURING VIVIDNESS OF IMPRESSION . . . .115 Attention and Memory Devices Size Position in the Medium Position on the Page Monopoly and White Space Other Mechanical Devices XI SECURING PERMANENCE OF IMPRESSION .... 122 Devices to Retain Interest Novelty Pictures and Illustrations Color The Comic Arrangement XII THE PSYCHOLOGY OF TRADE-MARKS AND TRADE- NAMES 126 The Functions of Trade-Marks Relative Values Trade-Names Variety and History Qualifications of a Good Trade-Name Merchandising Power Other Factors The Psychology of Infringement XIII How THE ADVERTISER CAN UTILIZE THE PSYCHO- LOGICAL LABORATORY 134 The Laws of Human Nature Scientific Study What the Laboratory Can Do The Pulling Power of Advertisements Experimental Analysis of a Successful Campaign Analyzing an Ineffective Campaign Practical Utilization of Psychological Technique x CONTENTS Part III Advertising Copy CHAPTER PAGE XIV THE DISTINCTIVE NATURE AND PURPOSE OF ADVER- TISING COPY 149 Its Relation to Other Parts of Advertising Distinction from Other Forms of Composition Expression and Impression Style in Advertising Copy Suitability to Occasion Relation to Personal Selling Qualities of Effective Copy Economy 1. Clearness 2. Correctness 3. Conciseness Effective Qualities Distinctiveness Sometimes Overemphasized XV STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES OF ADVERTISING COPY . .167 The Functions of an Advertisement 1. Attraction 2. Arousing Desire 3. Creating Confidence 4. Stimulating Action Principles I. Unity 2. Coherence 3. Emphasis XVI REASON-WHY COPY 187 The Nature of Reason-Why Copy Uses of Reason-Why Copy The Process of Deliberation Eliminating Alternatives Narrowng the Choice Evidence . Deductive Reasoning Inductive Appeal Point of View Style and Tone XVII HUMAN-INTEREST COPY 203 Its Purposes and Methods How Suggestion Works When Human-Interest Copy is Appropriate Direct Appeals to the Senses Tact Essential and Good Taste Imitation Direct Appeals to the Emotions Dramatic Form The Story Form Sentiment and Sentimentality Negative Appeals Atmosphere CONTENTS xi CHAPTER PAGE XVIII SMALLER UNITS OF ADVERTISING COPY . . . .223 Technique in Advertising Copy Good Use Adaptation to the Reader Exactness Suggestion Sound Tone-Color Atmosphere Coined Words Sentence Unity Sentence Coherence Sentence Emphasis Paragraphs XIX COPY AS AFFECTED BY MEDIUM 245 i/ Classification of Media Newspapers National Advertising Newspapers Department Store Advertising Newspapers Small Retail Stores Newspapers Classified Advertisements General Magazines and Weeklies Class Publications Street Cars and Bill-Boards Programs, Calendars, and Other Special Media XX COPY AS AFFECTED BY AUDIENCE 259 " Getting Across " Copy for Business Men Copy for Technical Men Copy for Trade Papers Copy for Farmers Copy That Appeals to Women " Reason-Why " Copy for Women Miscellaneous Copy Problems XXI COPY AS AFFECTED BY DISPLAY 276 Relative Importance of Display and Text The Factors That Attract Publicity Copy Inquiry Copy Type Display Headlines Headlines Brevity Headlines Specificness Headlines Aptness Headlines Originality Headlines Interesting Nature Tying Up Display Lines to Text Tying Uo Text with Illustrations Expansion and Condensation of Text Xll CONTENTS CHAPTER XXII PAGE 297 Part IV Advertising Display THE FUNCTIONS AND ELEMENTS OF DISPLAY What Is Display? Some Misconceptions of Art What Art Really Is The Elements of Advertising Display 1. Color 2. Illustration 3. Ornament 4- Type 5. Texture 6. The Importance of Form The Function of Display XXIII THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM 314 The Importance and Meaning of Form Consistent Structural Unity Consistent Shapes and Sizes The Greek Law of Areas Balance Movement Movement Structural or Rhythmic Emphasis XXIV \ XXV COLOR 341 Source and Nature Spectrum Colors and Their Meaning Color Terms Denned Tone Hue Value Intensity Harmony Qualities of Likeness Qualities of Contrast Law of Backgrounds ILLUSTRATION 354 The Place of Pictures in Advertising The Functions of Illustration Naturalistic Illustration Decorative Illustration Relation of Illustration to Other Elements Functions of Illustration Summarized XXVI ORNAMENT 366 Ornament Defined Decoration as Distinguished from Ornamentation Sources of Ornament Historic Ornament Ornament as Applied to Borders Initials and Other Applications of Ornament Head and Tail Pieces CONTENTS CHAPTER \^ XXVII TYPE PRINCIPLES Xlll PAGE . 380 Line Meanings Straight Lines Curved Lines Standard and Decorative Types Hand-Made Type Historic and Modern Type Relation of Initials to Other Type XXVIII UNITY, THE FINAL TEST OF ADVERTISING DISPLAY . 390 Unity of Ideas Psychological Reasons for Unity Selection of Elements The Economic Necessity of Form and Arrangement Part V The Physical Factors in Advertising XXIX ADVERTISING MANAGER AGENT PUBLISHER . . 401 Advertising Manager Literary Requirements Editorial Capacity Artistic Perception Analytical Work Executive Powers Response to Public Sentiment Duties Advertising Agencies Functions Service Advantages Weaknesses The Publisher Space and Service Circulation The Audit Bureau of Circulations XXX PERIODICAL MEDIA RATES, CIRCULATION, POLI- CIES, ETC 428 Historical Fundamental Values Free Advertising and Its Value Censorship of Advertising Pages General Division Contracts, Etc. Earlier Circulation Conditions Sworn Statements Territorial Analysis Other Details of Analysis Editorial Policy and Circulation Advertising Policy and Circulation Profitable Business an " Ethical Matter " xiv CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XXXI THE FIELD OF THE NEWSPAPER, SERVICE, LOCAL PRESTIGE, ETC 448 The Function of the Newspaper Types of Readers Advantages and Disadvantages Lack of Censorship of Advertising Lack of Standardization in Rates XXXII MAGAZINES, TECHNICAL AND TRADE JOURNALS . . 455 General Magazines Field and Functions Women's Publications Trade Journals Technical Journals Copy Service Special Service XXXIII OUTDOOR AND OTHER FORMS OF ADVERTISING . . 468 Historical Influence of Signs Values Bill-Posters' Association Posters Illuminated Bulletins and Posters Electric Signs XXXIV DIRECT MAIL AND HOUSE ORGANS 494 Introductory Functions of Direct Mail Advertising Form and Typography of Printed Matter House Organs House Organ for All Employees House Organ for Sales Force House Organ for the Dealers XXXV THE TRADE-MARK 503 Meaning of the Trade-Mark Necessity for Individuality From the Buj'er's Standpoint Trade-Marks and Quality Legal Requirements Foreign Requirements Certificate Countries XXXVI MANUFACTURER'S AIDS TO DEALERS 510 General Purpose Window Displays Store Cards Demonstrations and Samples Booklets and Other Printed Matter, for Distribution bv the Dealer CHAPTER XXXVII CONTENTS ORGANIZATION AND PRODUCT xv PAGE . 520 Character of Sales Organization Operating Policy Character of Product Technicality of Product Usage of Product Distribution of Product Distributors of Product Competitive Status of Product XXXVIII PURPOSE OF CAMPAIGN 528 Establishing Reputation Extending Organization Values Extending Uses Gaining Distribution Increasing Consumption Solidifying Sales Identifying Trade-Mark Familiarizing, Educating, Stimulating Part VI Planning the Campaign 537 XXXIX DETERMINING WHAT TO SPEND .... General Policy Preliminary Investigation Competitive Statistics Consumer and Dealer Choice of Media Circulation Analysis Dealers' Investigation XL WRITING THE COPY AND CONSIDERING THE RETURNS 549 Copy Material Psychological Investigation Copy Returns General Returns ADVERTISING, ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE PART I THE ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING CHAPTER I WHAT IS ADVERTISING? Historical While the fact has been dwelt upon in almost every book on the subject of advertising, there is always a tendency to overlook the part which advertising has played in the growth of business in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The later progress of this branch of marketing has overshadowed its earlier development to such an extent that it is accused of being new, experimental, and to a degree undetermined ; while the truth of the matter is that advertising has been asso- ciated with the selling of goods for more than two centuries. It is true that these earlier applications of publicity to busi- ness appear at this time entirely crude and of little moment; yet these announcements formed a fundamental part of the sale of goods, and were used to draw attention to wares of various kinds in all parts of the civilized world. As a matter of record, some form of public sign has been usual for thou- sands of years, but advertising in any way comparable with the work of today began with the extension of the art of printing and the spread of education in reading and writing. So clearly has advertising associated itself with business growth that a study of advertising from the beginning of the eighteenth century is almost a study of business prog- ress. This should be thoroughly appreciated, if the place of advertising in modern business is to be understood. The enormous increase in the possibilities of production available through the discovery of steam and electricity in- troduced into business the great problems of marketing, which 3 4 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING gave an added stimulus to the use of all the forces of selling, and particularly added to the importance of the advertising force. The cotton-trade growth in the eighteenth . and nineteenth centuries indicates that the first year of the introduction of steam in Great Britain saw a growth of 300 per cent in the manufacture of cotton goods. This sudden and voluminous increase in production required a corresponding increase in markets, and so the selling problem the problem of getting rid of the manufactured goods arose. The first railway built in England between Liverpool and Manchester showed another increase of 300 per cent in one year, introducing another marketing problem in disposing of the large surplus over the previous production. From that time continual improvement in the machinery of production, transportation, communication, etc., has in- creased the production of all classes of commodities by leaps and bounds, and added thousands of new commodities to those already in use. The problem of disposing of these goods be- came, consequently, more and more important. People had to be taught to use more material and many more varieties. This all meant, and means today, an increasing selling prob- lem. Coincident with this development, came the spread of education in reading and writing, and its natural consequence, the application of the force of publicity to business. The possibility of reaching thousands of people in the same time required for reaching one in personal selling, the small cost of this method, and the strength of its force, made ad- vertising a natural move in the requirements of marketing. This situation also gave an added value to the trade-mark and made its use vastly more important. Some sign or sym- bol by which the goods of a particular craftsman or merchant could be identified had been in use for centuries, and this iden- tification had become important enough before the develop- WHAT IS ADVERTISING? 5 ment of modern business to make the trade-mark laws a very essential part of the commercial structure. Recent Growth In the minds of the public, the articles bought had usually been associated with the merchant who sold them, and not with the manufacturer who made them. This condition changed, for the necessity of enormous investments in manu- facture brought with it the necessity of more definite touch with the consumer, and this led the manufacturer to use the more obvious means of reaching the consumer advertising. Some means of identification of the manufacturer's goods by the consumer became, in this case, vastly more important than it had been, and consequently the trade-mark, the appearance of the package, etc., were affected to an unusual degree. The_jeaoHetts-development of-niaiiufdLluimg units was-the pnmjvry_r;iiigg njjjip^regimt Jrnpetns given JQ_afjverti smg-JIL modern diversified lines of industry. This increase in the size and cost of manufacturing units demanded a correspond- ing 7n^r^a^e~ln~The~stabiliTy^c)f business, the investment jn the planTbeing jrnade jigainst the lufijre~~possit)ilities of returns upon the capital so invested. This future obligation de- manded a more definite control of business than the sale to a distributor 'or the marketing of an unidentified product would give. As a consequence, an appeal to the consumer, giving individuality and identity to the particular product, became a necessary part of the sales proceedings. Coupled with the in- creasing competition between manufacturing units and the cost of that competition, driving those concerns to take all available means to develop the market, the necessities of the case forced the manufacturer to give particular attention to advertising which provided a means of massing some of the selling operations under more definite control. The last twenty years have seen the greatest growth of ad- 6 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING vertising. Up to the beginning of that time the increasing cost of marketing had been more than balanced by the decreas- ing cost of manufacture, so that prices could be continually lowered. The necessity for further sales methods was less apparent. The tendencies have changed in the last twenty years ; the cost of marketing has increased far more rapidly than the economies of production, and the use of sales meth- ods designed to decrease or keep down the total cost of selling has become more important. During this time, therefore, the growth of advertising has been sufficiently great to surpass all its previous development. Furthermore, the requirements of competition in the adver- tising itself have made its operation a matter of special study involving, as it does today, detailed knowledge of the fields of art, copy writing, printing, merchandising, consumers' habits, media, economics, and a hundred other subjects. The very haphazard method of conducting advertising visible in the earlier records of its use is no longer possible, and the busi- ness now requires as much special training and study as older specialized branches. Lack of Exact Definition The word '' advertising " has been the subject of much sug- gested definition, and it is clear that up to the present it lacks any scientific limitations. Continuing discussions on the sub- ject show, by the very diversity of application, the lack of any limitation which can be quoted as accepted by the advertising fraternity, as to either the meaning or the operations. As a matter of fact, advertising is not a fundamental in itself, and consequently is not capable of the same definite limitations as a law or single operation. It is an application to business of the force of publicity, and its definitions may vary, therefore, with the extent and character of the applica- tion. WHAT IS ADVERTISING? 7 The force of publicity may be compared to the force of electricity, in itself undefined, but used for definite industrial objects. It is true that, even in its operations, the force of publicity is not so definitely controlled as the physical force; nevertheless, in the extent of possible scientific developments, new applications, and undiscovered efficiencies of use, there is some similarity between the force of publicity in its industrial application and the use of electricity in its earlier stages of development. It is evident that in the present operations of advertising we have done little more than determine the more obvious lines of its future development; the intensive value of the force is still to be harnessed. The force of publicity or the development of a public opin- ion is sufficiently strong to be little short of marvelous in its effects. All the rapid developments of our civilization and its equipment in the last one hundred years must pay tribute to the part played by this force. We have seen the crystalliza- tion of a public opinion in a comparatively short time upon a matter which had previously assumed no importance; opin- ions, knowledge, personality, etc., have been lifted by this force from the obscurity of the unknown to a world- wide recognition. To define such a force or its application to business is futile until the practical limitations of that application are more fully understood and more thoroughly worked out. Noth- ing can be done beyond saying that it is the organized applica- tion of the force of publicity to the sale of commodities or service, by increasing the public knowledge and desire for the items specified therein. General Limitations of Advertising It follows from this definition of advertising that there are limitations to its value and usefulness in connection with busi- 8 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING ness, just as there are limitations to the value of machine work in manufacturing. There are some things which, on account of the delicacy of treatment, the accuracy, etc., required, cannot be trusted to the most sensitive piece of machinery, but must be finished by the hand of a skilled craftsman. There are many things in the world of selling which are too delicate for the mass treatment accorded them by the advertising man, and which require the touch of the salesman to bring to the desired con- clusion. Advertising is limited by its own advantages to definite functions in certain fields. Its usefulness varies with the character of the product, the customer, or the purchase unit. It varies with distribution, the character of the buying habit, and the extent of the territory. Above all, it varies with the attitude of mind of the consumer toward the products' asso- ciations. No two cases will be exactly alike, but all will come under some one or two general classes which define the status of the advertising in relation to the personal selling. There are some cases where machine work is of so little value that it could be dispensed with almost without a ripple. There are similar cases in selling where the personal selling represents such an important factor in relation to the total operation that advertising can be dispensed with, and the difference hardly noted; there are other cases where adver- tising does all or most of the work, so that the personal selling effort is of minor importance in comparison with the whole merchandising requirement. Efficiency of Advertising From the statements just made it will be seen that adver- tising is not something definite that can be valued by certain measurements. Each of the factors which enter into it is WHAT IS ADVERTISING? 9 modified in value by some of the circumstances, so that the ultimate result involves the solution of a difficult problem. This is true in respect to the values of any particular business, and the difficulty of the case is by no means lessened by the fact that we have investigated to a very small extent the factors which enter into marketing success. Some consideration may be given, however, to the general efficiencies which govern and the need for further investiga- tions, so that these shall be properly and reasonably measured. Efficiency, as the word is understood by the engineer, is the ratio between the amount of work actually performed by a unit and the theoretical capacity of that unit. This implies the existence of a standard or theoretical capacity which can be applied to the proposition in measuring its value. Nothing of this kind has ever been applied to the sales end of business, and particularly to the advertising work. In some instances arbitrary quotas have been established for sales- men, but these are in no degree comparable with the efficiency values desired for true measurement. Testing Efficiency In one department (advertising) only has any attempt been made to consider the efficiency, and it must be stated that the result is very disappointing. The fact of the matter is that advertising is a very low-efficiency proposition, and succeeds not because of its efficiency, but because of the minute unit cost compared with any other method of sales work yet discovered. Consider the case of a publication with 100,000 readers producing 3,000 replies and 300 sales. Such a result is a remarkable one viewed from the general averages of practice, and yet it represents only three-tenths per cent efficiency of orders. The revenue efficiency might be less than the amount mentioned if the article in question was low priced and the orders represented small amounts. 10 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING Advertising, in common with all selling work, lacks effi- ciency. Its value is undoubted, because of its small cost, but it is as yet very low in actual amount of work accomplished in comparison with the potentiality. , There are excellent reasons for this low efficiency. Adver- tising has been the subject of much suspicion on account of its exponents, it has been used without regard to its applicabil- ity, and it has scarcely been analyzed. This means, of course, that the investigation of advertising, and indeed all measures looking to its analysis, are of the utmost importance, and will repay the investigator many times. Advertising Has Changed Marketing Ideas As a matter of fact, this analysis of advertising is being made at the present time, and, as a consequence of the mate- rial brought to light from its consideration, the whole idea of selling is undergoing a fundamental change. This was to be expected; it is impossible to introduce a new force into a business or a branch of business without a readjustment of all old methods, in order to take advantage of its value. Like all mass methods of work, advertising is bounded by greater limitations, is less flexible, and is subject to less change than personal selling. For this reason, factors which as- sumed little or no importance before the introduction of adver- tising became of great moment afterward. Policies must be fixed and defined, claims, agreements, and other items determined ; packages must be considered from an entirely new point of view. Where it was intended to sell the goods only by the slow and private process of personal sales- men, things could be muddled through and changed from time to time as they showed up to be wrong. When, however, it is determined publicly to state the claims, agreements, and policies, to exhibit the package in the public prints with all the WHAT IS ADVERTISING? II finality and vitality of the printed word, it becomes important that every possible factor should be considered and weighed, so that no adverse point may militate against the success of the public campaign. By wrong methods of publicity it is obviously just as pos- sible to educate the consumers of an article to dislike it as it is to impress them favorably, so that it becomes difficult to muddle along without complete analysis of the whole situation. Advantage of Written Over Spoken Word When the proper analysis has been made, however, adver- tising possesses qualities which are entirely different from those in the scope of personal selling, and those qualities so amplify and round out the selling plan as to add materially to its efficiency without regard to the commercial factors. Not the least of these qualities is the advantage of the writ- ten over the spoken word. The intonation, inflection, and em- phasis \vhich add so much to the meaning of the spoken word also take away from it the fixity which belongs to the cold type. Where business was done, where goods were sold, by oral methods entirely, a certain want of belief or reliability, and a certain amount of suspicion, naturally attached to the spoken words of the seller, because of the fact that they were not recorded, and consequently were without the proper limita- tions. On the other hand, the tendency of the mind in general is to credit the printed word with almost a full measure of belief. It is only after considerable reasoning that suspicion may enter in and change this condition ; but the first impression of any written or printed word is that it speaks truthfully. This is logical, of cor.rse, because the written or printed word has a definite meaning; this meaning is not altered or influenced by inflexions and intonations. In fact, it may be limited at 12 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING law because of this characteristic. Furthermore, it is a per- manent record, and can be brought up to confront the man who wrote it at any time. Print Has Implied Accuracy A peculiar measure of belief, moreover, attaches to the printed word because of the fact that it has been used largely, primarily, and in the majority of its work to convey accurate and concrete information, to convey news and to convey im- pressions, all of which had values of their own, were either an accurate representation of facts or were expressed with a full measure of sincerity. This work of the printed word, which even today remains most impnrtaTTr ha^nT^Tprt^i' \v1rh~a-4teliLi--an7rl^1iahiTity" which belongs to no other application of language. As a con- sequence of this, the advertiser is obliged to measure his busi- ness from an entirely different point of view when he wishes to take advantage of the potential force of the printed word. It can readily be seen that on account of its peculiar value advertising will perpetuate the errors of business just as read- ily as it will perpetuate its advantages. Furthermore, because of the fact that it is not influenced by personal idiosyncrasies and the fluctuating value which ac- crues from contact with an individual in a personal way, it is affected by mistakes which are apparently of little importance in the old method of oral selling. It may not be a very seri- ous matter to put your goods in a package which is not entirely convenient when you start to sell it, through a few salesmen, to a few people. Mistakes can be rectified in these cases at a later period without causing much trouble. Where, however, you wish to introduce this package to several million people at the same time, with the idea of rapidly acquainting them with it to the extent that it will become one of the familiar sights, it is of vast importance that the package should repre- WHAT IS ADVERTISING? 13 sent as nearly as possible the acme of convenience. It will be just as easy to familiarize those milJipnjLO_f. people with the mistake in your package as it is to acquaint them with the value of the goods, in which case, instead of making several million customers, you would have succeeded in eliminating them from your possible patronage. CHAPTER II THE WAY IN WHICH ADVERTISING IS USED General Functions of Advertising Advertising is in reality the machine, or bulk, method of selling. It takes a large portion of the public and, directing them to matters of fundamental interest, turns these matters to the advantage of the product and firm involved. It is the mass action of selling, selling to the group, handling the sales question wholesale. It is used, therefore, either to supplant the personal selling force, to supplement it, or act upon it. In some cases the printed method of selling in bulk is the only method used. This is the method employed by the mail- order house, which secures its business by advertising in peri- odicals and through catalogues. In this case the personal selling force is eliminated, and the whole proposition is put up to the customer, his approval secured and his order placed without the personal representative of the seller having been called in at all. Where the salesmen of the house call upon the distributors only, the advertising is used to supplement the work of the salesmen by directing the consumer to the product in question, and instituting a discrimination among the consumers in favor of the product being sold or their acceptance of its quality and reliability. Advertising as a Control That part of any business organization which comes in contact with the public is the one upon which the good-will 14 WAY IN WHICH ADVERTISING IS USED 15 of the business depends, and the one which can be controlled only with the greatest difficulty. The work of the agent or representative can be controlled only to a very minor degree, as his time is spent where there is no check upon his actual methods of doing business. He may exaggerate, change his arguments, guarantee and do other things not consistent with the house policy, and so long as these matters do not assume vital importance, may be allowed to continue. Theoretically the principal is responsible for all the acts of his subordinates in business, but there are a great many small- minded men, and the individual methods of each of these repre- sentatives cannot effectively be held to the policy which the principal desires. Advertising aids the central control upon the conditions of sale, and does this very definitely. It takes the claims, the advantages, and factors of service, puts them into the most carefully worded phrases, and, by printing them, gives them a definite character and record, which may be quoted against the concern in question at any time. The statement of the salesman is no longer the only state- ment of the house ; another statement is found in the printed messenger of the organization. This statement, moreover, is authoritative, because it is printed, definite, and limited. A measure of comparison is set up by this printed message, by which the statements of the representative and the character of the service can be equally measured. This measure of comparison acts as a control upon the condition of sale in all its phases by fixing the estimate placed by the principal upon the services of his product, and consequently obliging all other conditions to come to this. Advertising as a Missionary There is a certain amount of inertia on the part of the buying public toward any change in the buying habits, which 16 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING must be overcome before any business can be diverted from other channels or created. A certain amount of familiarity with the proposition is necessary; it must have survived a period of time, and be no longer an entire stranger to the prospective customer. The factor of time cannot, therefore, be eliminated in considering the cost of securing business, and a certain period must elapse before there is any general acceptance of the proposition. To do the work necessary in bringing the matter to the prospective purchaser's attention and familiarizing him with it, either salesmen or advertising must be used. Salesmen as missionaries are expensive ; they should rather be used as specialists to bring conviction to those already interested. Their efforts should be directed to the closing of business rather than the opening of negotiations. Advertising using all that part of selling which is of general interest can break the ground for the salesman by introducing the product, the service, and the house. This work can be done at a fraction of the cost of the same work by salesmen. Advertising is the natural and effective business missionary. Advertising as an Economic Distribution Factor Economic considerations have made it necessary for products to follow different lines in passing from the manufacturer to the consumer; consequently the efficiency of selling is con- cerned with the economics of distribution as well as with the cost of arranging the individual sale. The general methods of distributing products of manufac- ture are : i. From manufacturer direct to consumer. This is the commonly accepted method of distribution where products are bought in large quantities, where they involve considerable sums for the individual purchase, and where the number of consumers is relatively small. WAY IN WHICH ADVERTISING IS USED 17 2. From manufacturer through retailer to consumer. This is a method of distribution used where the individual purchases are small, but frequent; where the goods can remain in stock for considerable periods of time without deterioration, and where, consequently, the retailer can order in sufficient quantity to make this method possible. 3. From manufacturer through jobber and retailer to con- sumer. This is the method of distribution most widely used for all articles of general consumption by the individual, for all perishable goods, and for all goods where the retailer's requirements are small. In some cases, particularly with per- ishable goods, the commission house gathers from the pro- ducers and sells to the jobber or wholesaler. Advertising is used as an economic factor in the distribution because its influence is wielded through -a much more extended circle than the actual marketing and distributing organiza- tion. Its effect, therefore, arises from the general character of its influence and the small unit cost involved. Where the goods are sold direct from the manufacturer to the consumer, advertising has one or both of two definite functions : 1. To sell the product entirely, as in mail-order. 2. To introduce the product, follow up the salesman, and act as missionary. Where the goods are sold through dealer or jobber and dealer, advertising has the following functions : 1. To stabilize the business by getting the goods before the consumer. 2. To decrease the distribution cost by increasing the amount of the individual purchase, or increasing the number of purchases from each individual dealer. 3. To act as a missionary in preparing the ground for the general selling campaign, 18 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING 4. To increase the efficiency of the dealer by bringing him more directly in touch with the selling work. It will be seen at once that these are somewhat large matters which advertising has to accomplish, and, as a consequence, things which cannot be done in a few minutes. The advertis- ing and selling plans adopted must be based upon sufficient analysis to be stable and definite for a considerable period of time in order that these large affairs may be properly and entirely determined. Little or nothing can be accomplished if the policies of the organization change so as to force the dealer and consumer to new developments from time to time. The consumer, if he is to be taught a buying habit, must be able to fix the habit, and this argues some fixity in the sales policies which ger- minated it. Economic advantage can be obtained by the advertising only where careful analysis has determined the policy of its operation in conjunction with the sales department, so that there may be little necessity for substantial change once the policy is established. Advertising as a Direct Selling Force In some lines of business, and in connection with many articles of commerce, it has been found possible to induce the buying entirely by advertising, or, at any rate, to bring the buyer to the goods by the advertising. In these cases adver- tising acts as the principal and direct force of sell ; ng, and the other items of selling are either eliminated by or sub- ordinated to it. The examples of this method of using advertising are at present confined to the mail-order houses and the retailer. In the case of the mail-order house the whole selling is through the use of the advertising force. In the case of the retail store, the advertising is expected to bring the people to the WAY IN WHICH ADVERTISING IS USED 19 store, so that it forms the first and more direct employment of the force of selling. The use of advertising as a direct selling force has certain limitations, it is true, and these are clear-cut in their delinea- tions, mostly economic in their character, and almost universal in their application. The advertiser who is using advertising as a direct means of securing sales is interested in compara- tively quick-moving products in products that have already found a demand and in numerous products so related that virtually every want of the individual unit can be supplied. TJie advertiser who undertakes to do his business without the intervention of a sales force or by subordinating the sales force to the advertising force, must of necessity be performing a service that is required a sufficient number of times in the year to make possible an appeal in bulk rather than in individual items. He must as a rule be supplying a sufficient number of the wants of the individual buyer, so that he will not lose any of the buying possibilities of that customer, and he must confine his attention to those conveniences or necessities that have already established themselves and do not require intro- duction. The fact of the matter is that where advertising is used as a direct selling force it must partake of the character and limitations of the salesman. It must close the business and close it rapidly and continually. It cannot undertake the slow process of educating the people to a new convenience or a new want. It cannot undertake to overcome inertia toward any change in the buying habit. It must merely alter the time of buying or the direction of buying at the usual time. The Economic Relation of Advertising to Marketing Cost It is obvious that advertising has had a tremendous effect jjL_h__costanlly enlarging consumption, of manufactured products for all kinds of purposes. It was inevitable that it 20 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING would supersede some of the clumsy, inaccurate, and doubtful methods of the personal selling \vhich it has replaced. More- over it is obvious that the necessity for stable market control on the part of the manufacturers made the use of advertising to the consumer the only possible means of obtaining this end. As \ve have seen in the earlier part of this present chapter, advertising improves the selling or marketing condition be- cause of the relief or replacement of the more expensive per- sonal selling force otherwise necessary. These differences should be noted a little more exactly, as they form not only the justification for advertising, but the index of its possible value for any proposition, and consequently the amount which can be profitably engaged for its use. Advertising, because of its mass appeal, can reach an in- dividual at a sum which is from Moo to 7300 of the amount which would be required to bring the information to the cus- tomer in any other way. By using advertising for all selling work, and letting the customer take the delivery cost, the mail-order house can sell for approximately four per cent where the department store needs over twenty-five per cent for the same work. Where the advertising has been used to supplement the work of the salesman, the effect of the use of advertising has been, gen- erally speaking, to increase the sales without a proportional increase in all the marketing expenses, so that the marketing expense, while greater in total volume, was less in percentage cost on the individual unit. There are three economic effects of advertising which ought to be understood in order to determine its value under any given set of conditions and any given analysis. Increase in Efficiency of Salesman The first economic effect is the increase in efficiency of the salesman himself. The work of the salesman is of a very in- WAY IN WHICH ADVERTISING IS USED 21 definite character ; the customers with whom he comes in con- tact have a thousand different problems and scores of different questions to be taken up and gotten rid of to the satisfaction of the customer somehow. Conversation does little to remedy this trouble, and the time spent in all this, to some ex- tent, lost motion, is a considerable portion of the total time of the salesman. Furthermore, where the items of difficulty are constantly varying, the salesman becomes doubtful of his own information and the information which his firm may have upon the matter, particularly as there are no reference manuals on these conditions prepared for his benefit. Advertising, be- cause it has a tendency to crystallize, use, or forestall all arguments in connection with the service of the goods, gives the salesman, ready to his hands, text-books for the benefit of the customer, and relieves his time in so doing. In interviewing the hundreds of salesmen from whom the writer has bought, not only in connection with advertising, but previously in other lines, in almost all cases where specific in- formation is required, the advertising catalogue or other mat- ter is brought out by the salesman to reinforce his own state- ment and to save his own time. The benefit in actual dollars and cents of a moderate amount of advertising for the use of the salesmen is so obvious that virtually no concerns are without some of this kind of ad- vertising, however much they may be inclined to call them- selves disbelievers in advertising. Thus, in the case of one concern, the advertising department was created for the purpose of " eliminating a lot of cor- respondence with salesmen and dealers and defining the serv- ice," this being considered as the limit of its usefulness. Effect Upon the Distributor In some directions the economic effect of advertising upon the dealer and jobber otherwise the distributor arises 22 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING from the same cause. That advertising has a tremendous effect upon him, apart from the effect upon his customer, is exemplified by the fact that great increases of business have been secured many times without the advertising having had an opportunity to affect the consumer. Apart from this effect upon the dealer, which is somewhat like the action upon the salesman, there is the effect upon him due to the attitude of the consumer. Advertising makes goods known to the consumer, it makes more goods known to him, and it familiarizes him with the arguments in connection with the various commodities in such a way that he becomes a greater buyer, a more discriminating buyer, and a critic of the comparison between the goods and the advertised service of those goods. The consumer, therefore, requires of the dealer two or three things which he did not formerly demand. His knowledge makes it necessary for the dealer to carry the stock the con- sumer asks for instead of using his own judgment upon its value. The consumer, by asking for certain brands, makes less claim upon the dealer's time, because of the fact that he is already sold, and demands only the delivery of the package. Further, the consumer learning from the advertising of the many uses for the product, buys more of it, and therefore the individual purchases of the dealer are increased, and his stock turns over with greater speed. The profit from the increased speed of stock turnover is so much more than any other item in connection with an individual product from the dealer that this is naturally the controlling one in measuring the value of the advertising of a product to the dealer. Value to the Manufacturer The value of advertising to the manufacturer is simply the expression of its value to the consumer, dealer, jobber, and salesman. WAY IN WHICH ADVERTISING IS USED 23 The value to the consumer is in increased convenience and service ; the value to the retailer is in increased turnover and decreased selling expense. The jobber values are the same, although he recognizes them least of any distributor, and would like to hold in his hand the brands which control the market. The manufacturer's advantage comes in increased market, se- cured without a proportional increase in expense. Of course the possibility of securing all these benefits de- pends upon the proper use of advertising, and is by no means general or a necessary accompaniment to the use of the force without regard to the method of operation. Steam as such has within it the power to do all the things to which it has been harnessed, but without the engine and other equipment that power would remain useless, and the value of the power secured is in direct proportion to the effi- ciency of the equipment used in harnessing the steam. Advertising is a power the power of publicity and the value it will bring to any commercial organization depends entirely upon the way in which it is harnessed to do the work, and the value of the equipment to which it has been tied. The above economic advantages of the use of advertising in business represent simply what is possible, with the present equipment, to secure, if the equipment be properly used. There is little doubt that the future will/ see a vast improvement in advertising and tb^ amount of value to be secured out of it; but at present tlv ,e considerations represent the maximum ad- vantages which can be secured, and nothing further can be expected in present circumstances. CHAPTER III THE FACTORS WHICH DETERMINE THE KIND AND EXTENT OF ADVERTISING Underlying Conditions It is obvious that, as advertising is a force the value of which depends upon the conditions governing its application, the factors which effect such application must be assembled in order to determine its feasibility in any particular case. There are a number of physical conditions in business which affect every proposition looking to the use of advertising. These conditions can be determined and arranged in such a way as to give some indications of the method and amount of ad- vertising necessary in order to accomplish a certain definite result. They depend upon economic rules which can be con- sidered and from which the particular determinations can be made. They form the preliminary items, without which any decision upon an appropriation for advertising must rest on the combination of guess and personal experience no ade- quate basis for denning th^ place of advertising as a regular part of the sales operations. Factory Organization and Output In connection with products of a staple character distributed direct from the manufacturer to the consumer, the conditions are such that any excessive freight charges, any differentia- tion which will increase the selling price, will affect the possi- bility of sale quickly and in a large degree. In these circum- stances the output of the factory should be sold within the smallest possible territory immediately tributary thereto. 24 THE KIND AND EXTENT OF ADVERTISING 25 In a great many cases where the product is a specialty sold direct to consumer or through dealers, the possibilities of the consumption are such that the output could be absorbed in a much smaller radius from the factory than is usually covered by the sales organization, provided that proper intensive means were taken to develop the full possibilities of the ter- ritory. In the beginning of the work of marketing a product, the scheme of selling rarely involves the territory planned to be ultimately covered. As a rule there is a progressive extension of territory, and this extension should naturally be considered in relation to the factory location and output. Furthermore, it is not always wise that the advertising should follow- the sales organization ; in some cases it must be extended beyond the reach of the sales force in order to do the work of preparing the ground. As a consequence, it is necessary to consider the advertising not only from the point of view of sales organization, but independently from the point of view of the factory output and its location and the effect upon the sales developments. Where the output represents, as it frequently does, only a small percentage of the total consumption of the country, it is obvious that it is easy to make the advertising plans too exten- sive territorially for the necessities of the case. In order to avoid this danger it is necessary to consider thoroughly the factors mentioned. Furthermore, the output of the fac- tory as it is at present may not represent the capacity which can easily be depended upon if the circumstances warrant. The advertising arrangement must of course be made not only with respect to present capacity, but with respect to future possibilities. Rule. The ideal condition as to trade may be stated as that condition under which the output of the factory is sold through the smallest area of territory which can be allowed 26 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING under the prevailing conditions of consumption and competi- tion. Such an ideal state means the smallest unit sales and advertising cost, and consequently the least burden upon the goods. Consumption Having considered the factory location and output, it is necessary to determine the consumption of the product in question; examining the territory as a whole, and state by state; the consumption per capita or other buying unit, and the consumption per square mile or other area unit. In the case of some problems of specialized appeal to a par- ticular group of buyers, the consumption figures must of ne- cessity be arranged for the conditions of such a group or groups. For a technical product sold to a certain definite group of manufacturers, the consumption would have to be figured in zones from the important centers of their manufacturing activities, based upon the average output per factory within these zones. A similar calculation would have to be made in regard to the area consumption within each zone. The total consumption in the territory will show us the per- centage of the business which it will be necessary for us to get in order to take care of our present output. It will also indicate whether an extension of the business to the future capacity of the plant would mean an extension of the territory or whether it could be taken care of by an increase in the percentage in the same territory. It will enable us to consider the relative profit to be secured upon the individual in proportion to the cost of reaching him by advertising ; and furthermore, it will determine for us the cost proportionally with the consumption of the time and ex- penses of the sales force per unit in developing their per- centage of the business. THE KIND AND EXTENT OF ADVERTISING 27 For instance, if the total consumption of the business in the territory is 1,000,000 units, and the output is 100,000 units, it will be necessary for us to get 10 per cent of the business. If, then, the population of the territory is 10,- 000,000, the per capita consumption would be one-tenth of one unit. Suppose that in order to develop the one-tenth of one unit business it is necessary for us to reach each person five times in the course of the year by advertising; then the expense in proportion would be Price of one-tenth unit Cost of reaching person five times Or if it is impossible for us to determine the number of times we should need to reach the person, we could figure the price we should secure for the one-tenth of one unit, determine the gross profit, and from that consider an arbitrary percent- age for advertising, and consequently determine the amount we could spend on each person to get the business. In respect to the square-mile consumption, referring back to the same figures, suppose that the square-mile consumption is i oo units, the percentage which could be secured would be 10 units. The gross revenue from 10 units balanced against the time and expense of the salesmen to cover the square mile would give us the actual cost of the selling operation apart from the administration or the advertising; that is, Price of 10 units Time and expense salesman i square mile With factory location and output and these details of con- sumption, we could therefore make a preliminary estimate of the following factors : i. The percentage of the possible business which must be taken in order to agree with the output. 28 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING 2. The territorial extent of operations. 3. The possible advertising expense per buying unit. 4. The possible unit sales expense. Competition There are modifying factors, however, which will have a tendency to rearrange the above estimates, so that they will assume different values. These factors arise from the con- dition of the competition involved in the particular problem at issue. The extent, the character of the competition, the length of time through which the various competitors have been in business, the character of their sales and advertising policy, etc., will modify the conditions under which we can expect to do business. For instance, if the number of competitors is large, and the control which they exercise over the business strong, it may be possible for us to secure only 5 per cent of the business instead of 10 per cent; in which case the territorial limits would be very much extended. On the other hand, if the number of competitors was small, and their hold upon the business weak, it might be possible to secure 20 per cent of the business ; in which case, we could reduce our territorial limitations, and considerably reduce our other expenses. It is obvious that if \ve can secure only 5 per cent of the business, our square-mile selling expense and the per capita ad- vertising expense will be correspondingly increased, so that the operating charges in the sale of the product will be ma- terially altered ; and it is equally apparent that an increase in the percentage of the business to be secured territorially will decrease correspondingly these expenses. Suppose a square-mile consumption of 100 units, 10 per cent would mean 10 units, 5 per cent 5 units; but the cost of traveling a salesman over that square mile would be virtually the same, so that in the one case we should have : THE KIND AND EXTENT OF ADVERTISING 29 Value of 10 units fl? Value of 5 units Cost of time and expense against Cost of time and expense i square mile i square mile It is obvious that the conditions are largely determined by the character and extent of competition. The proper estimate of the competitive factors in connec- tion with the foregoing factors is of the utmost importance in order to give us a proper basis for considering the expense and possibilities involved in the advertising and selling plans. The strength of the individual competitor and the number of competitors, together with the consumption and output, will give : 1. The percentage of business per square mile which is the possible limit to be considered within a reasonable time. 2. The square-mile selling and the per-capita advertising expense in relation to the output. 3. The extent of territory to be covered. 4. The value of competitive sales plans. 5. The value of competitive advertising plans. 6. The extent of the discrimination in the consumer's buying habit and the value of the advertising in this connection. It is obvious that in many lines of business the economies resulting from an increase of production will outweigh the increase in marketing costs which may be caused by larger area of sales through less valuable territory. It is also obvious that the increased sale of a product, due to spreading over greater areas of less average yield per buying unit or area unit, though secured at a greater percentage of operating cost, may in some cases permit of larger returns on the capital invested in the concern, and therefore still be attractive to the stockholders. 30 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING Prices As a natural sequence to the consideration of competition and its general form, the question of price has a very con- siderable bearing not only upon the possibilities of the market, but upon the policy which will govern the marketing effort. While the market price at which an article is to be sold should be based upon the cost and the value of the service rendered by the manufacturer in making and selling it, the condition of the buying public, the extent of the supply, the fact that in most manufactured lines there is a surplus of product, determine the price at which the product can be sold in order to secure certain percentages of the business. In the marketing of the great staple commodities which are known by their generic term, and sold in bulk, the cost of handling to the individual producer or manufacturer is of no account in the consideration of the market, for the price which can be quoted is limited to a very small fraction over and above the general price which supply and demand have es- tablished at the time. In some cases, in fact, the market is so general a consideration that even the slightest fraction above the quoted price is enough to destroy the possibility of sale, and a very few quotations below the established price are enough to break it. In all cases where manufactured articles are bought with more or less discrimination between the particular manufac- turers, and which reach the user in such a way that their par- ticular origin can be identified, the range of prices is wider, and the possibility of securing a larger or a smaller price is dependent almost entirely upon the value of the individual service in proportion to the strength of the buying habit which it fills. This is true, however, only to a limited extent, because the conditions which govern the buying possibility of the con- sumer in general in any country show that the majority per- THE KIND AND EXTENT OF ADVERTISING 3 1 centage of such consumers are obliged to figure cost so closely that price will be almost a controlling influence upon the amount of business which can be secured in connection with a large percentage of the population. Price and Value If the contemplated condition in any particular instance is the control of 40, 50, or a larger per cent of the market, the price must be always a controlling factor, because of the fact that by far the larger proportion of the population are unable in their buying to lose sight of the cost factor. Wherever the percentages of business required are smaller, the price ques- tion is of little importance compared with the value question, which is a component of the price and the service. A certain proportion of the people who must always and eternally figure on every penny of expenditure, and all but a small percentage who are removed from that consideration, can be induced to pay very much higher prices than those represented by the majority market, even to the extent of two or three times the prices in some cases where the consumer has a habit of dis- criminating. It will be seen, therefore, that the percentage of business which must be taken to meet output will have a considerable bearing upon the price which can be secured. In its turn the price which can be secured will have a very great bearing upon the policy, arguments, and conditions of sale which will form the background in the sales work of the organization. Packages Size As a corollary to the price, the package is of very great importance in considering the fundamentals of the advertising investigation. It is possible to get along with a package which is not entirely the acme of convenience or attractiveness where the public is being won over by the slow process of individual 32 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING selling and no public opinion is being formed for or against the material; but where it is desirable to go out publicly, to turn the attention of all consumers to the goods and particu- larly to the package, which identities the goods, it is of the utmost importance that this package should carry an addi- tional argument in favor of the commodity rather than an argument against it. It would be just as easy by advertising with an incon- venient package in connection with a commodity to turn the consumer definitely against the use of that commodity as it is to turn the consumer definitely toward the commodity when the advertising is properly arranged. Furthermore, in most cases where packages of various sizes are made up for use upon the market, it will be found that there is a wide differ- ence in the capacity for sale of the different sizes of packages. In investigating the condition in regard to the packages used in a number of different lines, it has been found that only from one-third to one-sixth of the number of packages or- dinarily supplied by a manufacturer attain any large percent- age of sale, the remaining two-thirds or more being for the occasional purchaser. Under these circumstances it would seem that any manu- facturer going into such a field would investigate very care- fully the popularity of the different sizes of package; but a study of the history of the packages of different concerns will show that no such analysis has been made in the large ma- jority of cases. In one case, where the popular package was a certain size, a new manufacturer having unusual facilities for turning out the product very cheaply, determined to put upon the market a package of twice the size for the same price. On the face of it this would have been an excellent thing, as it would have meant an increased service and a corsequent saving. The amount of material used by the average con- sumer was so small, however, that there was virtually no ob- THE KIND AND EXTENT OF ADVERTISING 33 ject in saving it, and a larger package was so much more in- convenient to handle that it defeated its own object. Packages Individuality The most important item outside of the size of the package is of course the attractive character of the package and its in- dividuality. It is astonishing, however, to find that in many competing lines the packages are almost exactly alike, just as the trade-mark student will find that in competing lines many of the trade-marks are almost alike. Inasmuch as the object of identifying the product by placing it in a package which will reach the hands of consumers is to establish an indi- viduality for that product, it seems the height of absurdity to destroy the value of that impression by making the packages as nearly similar as they can be made without infringing the un- fair competition laws. A further consideration in connection with the package is the question of its attractiveness from the point of view of keeping pace with the requirements of the value and price of the commodity. Much more attention is being paid to this matter in the last few years since advertising began to take advantage of the package in its work. The package, where the article is of general consumption, forms the most continu- ous reminder of the existence of the product of all forms of advertising, and it should have more care than any other item connected with the sale of the article. It has always been a matter of considerable curiosity to the writer as to why the cost of the package should have been included as a part of the manufacturing expense, and so determined in so many cases from a manufacturing point of view, instead of from a sales point of view. It is capable of becoming such a large factor in the selling of the commodity that attention to its appear- ance, even to the extent of increasing its cost, is usually entirely justified by the increased sales value which results therefrom. 34 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING Amount of Individual Purchase The amount involved in the individual purchase of a com- modity, in terms both of quantity and value, is a direct indica- tion of the lines of distribution which must be followed in transmitting the goods from factory to consumer. It has, however, an additional value in illustrating the amount of effort which is required in the response of the purchaser to the buying necessity. It is further of value in its indication of the extent to which quantity has any influence upon the buying habit, and the degree with which a difference in cost would affect the purchase. For instance, where an article is used in small quantities so that even the smallest package of it will last a considerable time, the individual purchase is almost invariably made by the small package, although the quantity is proportionately less for the price in that case. It has been found also that in these cases a larger quantity for the same price will not appeal particularly, because the use is so limited that the necessity for a larger quantity is remote and the offer of it frequently brings a suspicion of reduced quality. This is particularly the case where the article in question in the quantity required by the purchaser can be bought for a few cents. If it is possible to buy a package of a particular commodity for 5 cents which will last the average person three months, there will be no point in selling an eight months' supply for 10 cents. The individual purchaser would rather buy the three months' sup- ply at 5 cents than the eight months' supply at 10 cents ; be- cause the quantity used is so insignificant, it is more convenient to handle the smaller package with the smaller outlay than it is to secure the ultimate saving by the larger package with the larger outlay. Even where a much larger supply can be given for a slightly increased price (as for instance, an increase from 10 cents to 15 cents, with a double amount of material) the inducement is not sufficient to balance the inconvenience of THE KIND AND EXTENT OF ADVERTISING 35 buying for storage so long ahead, of keeping a larger package and paying the additional amount. Number of Individual Purchases Per Year In connection with the amount of the individual purchase, the number of such purchases is very important, because of the indication which it gives of the proportionate amount which can be devoted to the publicity work to the individual. It is obvious that the 5 cent article which is bought 300 times a year w r ill permit of a much larger advertising ex- penditure per individual than the 15 cent article which is bought 25 times a year. It will also indicate in connection with the foregoing factor whether the buying habit is one of daily routine, or occasional requirement or of regular but spe- cial necessity. From this standpoint it will give some definite idea as to the value of the buying habit and as to its strength in discrimination. These indications will help determine the length of time to be consumed in arriving at a certain per- centage of business and consequently the amount of money which must be spent in order to secure the market. The Amount Per Unit Per 1,000 Allowable for Advertising Having the foregoing figures all worked out and thoroughly determined, it is possible reasonably to assume an allowable advertising cost per unit for material to the capacity of the factory. It is obvious, of course, that the amount to be spent each year in securing the market should not be in excess of the allowance based upon the total capacity of the plant. This means that at no point in the development of the market should the advertising expense be larger than must be allowed to maintain the market after it has developed sufficient business to run it to capacity. Having developed the percentage of the consumption which is involved in the factory output, the character and the extent of the competition and competitive 36 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING prices, the packages used, the amount and frequency of the individual purchase, and the market limitations, these factors will permit a reasonable estimate of the length of time required to obtain a market for the factory output. The manufacturing costs, the square-mile consumption in proportion to the square-mile selling expense, plus a reason- able charge for administration, will give the total cost in per- centage of the market value of the unit. Figuring the possible percentage of profit, the stability of the business, etc., it is possible to make a reasonable estimate as to the percentage of individual unit price which can profitably be turned into ad- vertising for the purpose of securing and maintaining the mar- ket for the output. The factors which are unknown are so few in the equation which must be made, that it is possible to determine within reasonable limits the value which must be given to them in the equation so that the whole matter may be reduced to a reasonable estimate as to the value or otherwise of the ad- vertising. The Possibility of Economic Use It is said by some students of advertising that it can be economically used in connection with all kinds of industry, and it may be that in the future this will be possible. Knowl- edge of its principles and requirements is undoubtedly in- creasing rapidly enough to permit the application of adver- tising to many things which formerly were without its range. It is still, however, of little or no value in connection with large departments of industry, and in connection with others its value is so limited that it becomes an insignificant part of the selling scheme. It may be stated that the economic value of advertising in connection with any business is in proportion to the extent and discrimination of the buying habit. Prac- tically all staple articles are bought without discrimination THE KIND AND EXTENT OF ADVERTISING 37 between individual producers; they have no identity other than a general one; they are, as a rule, carefully graded into qualities, standardized and settled, so that there will be no motive in attempting any individuality. For these things advertising is of no economic advantage. With such staples the buying habit cannot be materially affected by anything except a change in the economic status of the population or a change in the price of the staple itself. Its economic value is small although definite where the articles are not staples but dependent to some degree upon in- dividual skill and service, although they reach the user in un- identified condition and although they are bought largely upon the price considerations. Knowledge of this class of goods and of individual service in connection with them is important in the welfare of the business, and such knowledge can be transmitted by advertising. Greatest with Specialized Goods From this up to the point where advertising conducts the whole effort of selling, the economic status increases in im- portance. The general division of industry into which falls the particular proposition in question will govern the economic use of advertising apart from the factors previously considered in this chapter. In other words, if the other factors have been considered, the value of the advertising must be determined from its in- fluence upon the industry generally, and this will be in direct proportion to its economic value from its influence upon the buying habit. For instance, if it is possible in the case of a specialty, direct to the consumer, of considerable value such as large gen- erating units to determine the feasibility of advertising from the factors previously mentioned, it will then be necessary to consider the influence which can be exerted by advertising 38 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING upon the selling cost of the material. In this case the in- fluence will be entirely that of relieving the selling force of some of the tedious preliminary work and so increasing its efficiency. Presuming that in this case the advertising will increase the efficiency of the sales force 5 per cent, then the cost of ad- vertising must bear the same relation to that 5 per cent in- crease that the selling expense would to the original gross revenue. In other words, suppose that with the selling force it is possible to do $200,000 worth of business at an expense of $30,000, and, \vith the advertising, to increase that to $230,000, then the cost of the advertising to be within eco- nomic limits should be not more than $4,500. Information Required before Advertising Some attention has been given to the economic factors which enter into advertising, and to the relation which ad- vertising bears to the rest of the business, but this has not been stated in such form as to give an exact indication of all that must be understood before the advertising can be begun as an operation and even before the plan can be completed. Inasmuch as advertising is a part of the marketing operation and depends for its success upon the consideration of the same fundamentals which must be investigated in order to have an intelligent sales policy, much of the preliminary information which is required for the planning of advertising ought to be already at hand, except in the case of new organizations where there has been no opportunity to develop it. It is unfortunately the fact, however, that comparatively little analysis has been made of the marketing requirements of a business so that the necessity for certain information has not been thoroughly understood. It is quite likely that in a great many cases further investigation and accumulation of statistics are necessary in order to give the information upon THE KIND AND EXTENT OF ADVERTISING 39 which an intelligent advertising plan can be based one which can be followed with the assurance of lasting success. It is relatively more important that this information should be at hand when advertising is proposed, because of the limi- tation in the advertising operations and mass consideration. Any mistake or lack of information at such a time would be very serious. In this respect the sales work of a per- sonal selling department is more flexible than the advertis- ing and can be more readily accommodated to meet the changes brought about by further information. Change in advertising policy is an expensive and difficult matter and the information must, therefore, be at hand before the adver- tising is begun so that the necessity for change in policy will be less likely to arise. Different Situation from Personal Selling The personal selling department bears the same relation to advertising that hand operations bear to machine opera- tions. In hand work the artisan making a mistake in his operation may by unusual skill overcome the difficulty of that mistake, or even turn it to advantage. Some of the most beautiful hand work has been finished in a somewhat different form from that projected. When the machine is used, how- ever, the operation must be exact. If anything occurs to the machine to destroy the exactness of its operation, the results of operation are the destruction of the piece and the machine itself may be seriously damaged by such disturbance. The individual operation of selling is sufficiently flexible to make it possible to overcome some of the difficulties which present themselves as the selling organization develops. In fact the planning of selling in most organizations which have been working along those lines for some time is the result not of a definitely fixed policy, planned in the first place, but of a growth from the accumulation of individual experience. 40 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING Advertising, on the other hand, is sufficiently fixed and lim- ited in its operation to partake more of the machine character and to require consequently more exactitude in its develop- ment. It must be figured a long time in advance. The argu- ments, the packages, the conditions of sale, the question of guaranties or consumer service, must be worked out so that they will avoid all those difficulties which might ruin the capacity of the machine for its work as well as seriously affect the value of the work. In consequence of this the preliminary information to be used in considering an advertising plan must be thoroughly worked out so that the plan will be feasible and workable over the period of time required for its consumma- tion. First General Consideration Production There are three general divisions to be considered in ar- riving at the information which is necessary for the planning of the advertising. The first of these is the production and its relation to competition and consumption, the subsidiary factors of which are as follows : 1. The present factory output. 2. The maximum factory capacity. 3. The total consumption in the territory to be considered. 4. The factory output in percentage of this consumption. 5. The factory capacity in percentage of this consumption. 6. The consumption by states or other territorial divi- sions. 7. The consumption by population areas that is, whether the consumption depends upon a large com- munity, whether it is equally divided in proportion to the population of any community, or whether it is principally in the smaller community and country. 8. The number of principal competitors and if possible the total number of competitors. THE KIND AND EXTENT OF ADVERTISING 41 9. The percentage of business secured by each of the prin- cipal competitors. 10. The packages as to size and condition, the grades or divisions of the articles sold by competitors, and the relative proportion of the business secured by each size, grade, or other division. 1 1. Competitive prices to the consumer and distributors. Second Consideration Marketing The second general division is the marketing in relation to the consumption and competition, and the subsidiary factors in this case are : 1. The unit area consumption in the different territorial divisions. 2. The per capita consumption in these different territorial divisions. 3. The relative strength of the principal competitors in these territorial divisions. 4. Prices and their variation territorially. 5. The increase or decrease territorially in consumption over a period of years and the consequent illumina- tion of the tendencies of the market. Third Consideration Sales and Advertising Organization The third general division of this information is the sales and advertising organization and its relation to the consump- tion and competition, and the subsidiary factors in this case are : 1. The unit area consumption in the different territorial divisions and consequently the relative percentage selling expense. 2. The per capita consumption in these different divisions and consequently the relative percentage advertising expense. 42 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING 3. The increase or decrease of this consumption terri- torially and consequently the probable future tendency of such cost. 4. The character of the sales organization of competitors in relation to their strength. 5. The character of the sales organization of competitors in relation to their distributing area. 6. The relative strength of advertised and unadvertised brands. 7. The character of the advertising and its relation to the relative strength of the advertised brands. 8. The territorial distribution of advertising, its relation to the territorial consumption and the territorial strength of the advertising competitor. 9. The size of the individual purchase, the number of pur- chases per year, and the strength of the buying habit. Significant Points It will be seen that the factors which are arranged under the first general heading will show the percentage of the total consumption (as at present indicated) which must be secured to get rid of the present output and the percentage of total consumption which must be secured in the future to take care of the maximum capacity of the plant. The territorial consumption will show the strength of the different divisions of territory from a consumer standpoint, indicating the most productive and those which are of less value. The division of this consumption and its relation to large and small communities will show whether the sales effort must be concentrated in a comparatively small area or whether it must be wide-spread in order to secure the result. The number of competitors will indicate the diversity of appeal to the buyer, the ease with which the business can be THE KIND AND EXTENT OF ADVERTISING 43 entered, and the attractiveness from the standpoint of profit or requirements. The strength of the principal competitors, as noted under the second general heading above, will indicate this condition more closely by demonstrating the amount of total consumption which can be concentrated in the hands of a few concerns. The size of the largest competitors will indicate the prob- able limits in percentage of consumption which can reasonably be expected for the new organization. The square mile and per capita factors mentioned under this heading will illustrate the percentage of actual sales ex- pense and advertising expense which must be considered if the whole territory is covered, and also the possibility of reducing that territory by seizing only the most productive, and the effect which this would have upon the percentage of advertis- ing and selling expense. The figures on the amount of the individual purchase and the number of purchases per year will check up on the fore- going amount which each consumer takes. They will reveal the rapidity of the movement through the dealer's hands and the effect of package convenience and other items upon the individual purchases. The reduction of all the items under this heading to the territorial divisions will indicate the desirable territories from the standpoint of expense and output, and will make it pos- sible to concentrate upon the important territories so that the sales and advertising expense are kept at a minimum and the efficiency of trade condition correspondingly increased. Useful Comparison The factors under the third division illustrate very fully the success which has attended the use of certain sales meth- ods and organization policies and the value of these methods, prices and arguments in connection with the goods which the 44 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING competitors are distributing. The character of these sales organizations taken in conjunction with the relative strength of the competitive concerns will determine the relative im- portance of the different methods and policies employed. This same thing is true in connection with the advertising, except that the comparison in this case is much easier because of the public character of advertising and the fact that the methods can be determined more readily and the underlying policy more thoroughly secured. Comparison of advertising with the strength of the adver- tised and unadvertised brands will indicate the value of this advertising per se from the customer's standpoint and the value of the different methods in proportion. Furthermore, the strength of the advertised brands in com- parison with the strength of unadvertised brands will deter- mine the discrimination in the consumer's buying habit and the extent to which the advertising can express in valuable terms to the consumer the individuality of the services ren- dered by the advertised product. Exceptional Case There are some cases in which the information developed will not give these indications as they are expressed in this estimate. Where so large a proportion of the business is in the control of one organization, or one group of organizations, as virtually to amount to monopoly, the control of the pro- ductive capacity of manufacturing plants in these cases may be sufficient to outweigh a good many weaknesses and deficiencies in the marketing scheme so that the strength of the marketing organization may not be equal to that indicated by the amount of business secured. Some of the factors which are men- tioned in these cases are difficult to determine in any industry and in some industries the limitations of competition and con- sumption are so thoroughly defined and the character of the THE KIND AND EXTENT OF ADVERTISING 45 buyer so well known that no special compilation is necessary to determine these points. All the factors mentioned, how- ever, have a very close relation to the validity of any plan for marketing which may be adopted and will determine to a con- siderable extent the percentage of selling expense in toto with which the organization involved may be burdened. Where distributors are to be considered and where the lines of distribution are not firmly fixed it is important that the investigation should cover also the different classes of dealers who carry the product in stock and the relative strength of these dealers in respect to the amount of business which they do. Abnormal Conditions Need for Study of Them The foregoing rules and definitions are the fundamental factors which affect the economic condition of marketing in an organization, under the normal conditions of trade when the operations of production and demand are along normal lines. Under conditions which obtain when the lines of distribu- tion are inadequate for the purpose and the unusual demand upon production forces the attention upon materials and manu- facturing, the marketing requirements are necessarily altered. The problems before the advertiser are affected by these cir- cumstances so that his operations must be conducted with the object of protecting good-will, conserving distribution, and eliminating waste in his business operations. It is under such unusual circumstances, however, that the complete analysis of marketing conditions is perhaps most valuable on account of the illumination of each requirement and consequently the more accurate estimate of changes which can be made in the light of that knowledge. The operations under different con- ditions of marketing and distribution will vary over a wide range of necessities, governed by temporary individual or 46 ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ADVERTISING general conditions; but the factors affecting these variations must be studied in the light of a thorough understanding of marketing economics along the lines laid down in this chapter. It should be said, however, that the tendencies in diversifica- tion, consolidation, governmental control, and other changes brought about by a period of unusual demand and material shortage should be the subject of continual study and observa- tion, as some of these tendencies may become definite depar- tures and become permanently a part of the structure of in- dustrial operations. Many of the changes occurring during the present period may modify permanently the methods of distribution and sale, but the extent and character of such modifications cannot be determined until the changes have been defined by operation for a much longer period than at present. PART II THE PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING CHAPTER IV THE PSYCHO-ECONOMIC ROLE OF ADVERTISING Four Main Problems In this discussion the intention is to sketch the main lines of approach which the advertising man must have in mind, whether he be engaged in the preparation of copy, as writer or illustrator; or in the general mapping out of campaigns ; or in the buy- ing or selling of advertis- ing space ; or in the gen- eral supervision of the routes and stations of marketing; or in the an- alysis of results and costs ; or in the direct manage- ment of salesmen and so- licitors. It is obvious that in some of these processes the most important line of training and prepara- tion may not be strictly psychological in character, but rather artistic, tech- nical, commercial, or sta- tistical, as the case may be. The psychological Any good cigar is a comfort while you are smoking it; but the matter of its after-effect is also important The extraordinary virtue of is that they combine mildness and full flavor. This means that you get a satisfying "man's size" smoke and yet do not pay the heavy after-penalties of very strong cigars. The Girard is designed to make every- body smile. Girard cigars are made in 1 4 sizes, from 3 for a quarter to 20c. straight Antonio Roig & Langsdorf E,tM.ht!// you be? Home -Study Course In Higher Accountancy and Business Law Competition Tecla pearls, sapphires, emeralds and rubies are wonderful scientific reproduc tions, possessing the identical lustre, colour and weight of natural gems. They are mounted with real diamonds in platinum and gold settings f great beauty and individuality, 398 Fifth Avenue, New York MAXWELL eBERLET,1ne, Walnut Streetat 16th, Philadelphia BERRY &: WH1TMORECO.. F and 1 1 thStreeta.NW. Washington MAYNARDScCO. . , . 41 6 Boyl. ton Street, Bo. ton RADKE&CO. . .' . . 219 Pot Street, San Franciaco EVANS JEWELRY CO. . 351 Penn Street. Reading WHELAN-AEHLE-HUTCHINSON. Locuat St. .t 10th. St Louia LABORATORIES AND ATELIERS! CRETE1L. <$) FRANCE The universal instinct of ornamentation 66 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING each of them correspond new needs and cravings which must be satisfied. Indeed these new needs may even become more coercive than the cruder instinctive cravings, since they are supported and encouraged by the sentiment of the community, the sanction of the state, and the verdict of history. These reinforcements the instinctive needs seldom receive. Cleanli- ness, chivalry, piety, honesty, purity, patriotism, chastity, obedience, co-operation, and countless habits of daily life, needs of the moment, requirements of this and that occupa- tion, class, etc., illustrate these new needs which characterize civilized human beings. To all of them the advertising man can appeal. 3. In the struggle to achieve many of these desires, certain still more varied and distinctively social values arise, values which serve mainly to distinguish one individual from an- other, one group from other groups, in the eyes of the com- munity at large. Ideals of style, fashion, prestige, exclusive- ness, propriety, etiquette, all the vagaries and fancies of the leisure class and the dilettanti these no less than the more biological necessities of existence, constitute human needs. They form triggers of reaction, explosion points of response, which need but to be touched off to bring about vigorous behavior. These effective conceptions and habits and ideals, along with the social needs and values and sanctions, combined with the instinctive requirements and the fundamental organic necessities, all these are the original needs of the community which the advertiser must know intimately and in great detail. Appealing to the Three Tendencies All these demands are represented in conduct by tendencies to act. They take the form of impulses, cravings, desires, wants, standards, habits, values and customs, and represent from the point of view of distribution, what we call the needs of the community. Their special and varied modes of origin ELECTRIC Society's Town Car Distinction The most modern features of electric car construction, combined with the utmost elegance > in design and ap- pointments, make the 1914 Detroit Electric a quality car whose operation is a joy and whose possession is a con- tinued source of pride and pleasure. Your choice of worm gear axle or bevel gear axle; front or rear seat drive or Detroit Duplex Drive. Catalog on request. The Anderson Electric Car Company, Detroit, Mich Buildert of the Detroit Electric Largest manufacturers of electric pleasure vehicles Buy because others do ! 68 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING may be neglected as having only scientific interest. Prac- tically they may all be treated together as ways of behaving, tendencies to respond. Advertising may be conceived pri- Thank you, dear; this is real soap" For the man who Wants lo feel clean and fanou) that he is clean, provide a soap that will Jo more than cleanse a soap that Will soothe, purify and disinfect. That Soap is Lifebuoy. In addition to rich cocoanut and red palm oils, it contains an in- gredient recognized the world over as unequalled in healing, purifying, antiseptic power. The first clean whiff of Life- buoy will assure you of that but the odor soon disappears, leaving behind it only a faint, refreshing suggestion of whole- some, immaculate cleanliness. Lifebuoy does not slide greasily over the surface; its creamy, copious lather works down into the pores and cleans them out 5c rids the skin of the dirt, the grime, the stains, the odors of perspi- ration and leaves it pink-and- white, soft and moist. Use Lifebuoy for perfect cleanliness; for relief from chafe and skin irritations; for protection to the skin ; for the match- less clearness and "youthful delicacy of the "Lifebuoy complexion "; for the sen- sation of renewed vitality and buoyant energy which it adds to the bath. ~~ Lifebuoy is a pure, safe soap its purity is backed by a $5000 guarantee. Try it at the washstand and in the bath and you will always use it. Get it from your grocer or druggist the price is only 5 cents. If you do not find it readily send 5 cents (stamps or com) lor a Dig, generous cake to LEVER BROS. CO.. Department 8. Cambridge, Mass. > t=J HEALTH SDAP Be clean marily, then, as the art of effectively presenting a commodity in such a way that it will touch off, appeal to, or satisfy, one or more of these tendencies. ORIGINAL NEEDS OF HUMAN BEINGS 69 The advertising man must know as much as possible in detail about the range of human needs, their relative urgency when appealed to in advertisements, the ways in which in- dividuals and classes differ, so that in analyzing his commodity and preparing his copy he may get, with a minimum of effort and waste, a maximum of returns. The time is long past when advertising was a mere matter of vague and general an- nouncement. A quarter of a century ago advertising men seemed not to realize that human beings possess such things as specific needs or definite instinctive tendencies. Copy was vague, unspecialized, unconcentrated and scattering. This was well enough when printing was new, when industry was un- specialized and competition weak. In our own time only di- rect, specific, bull's eye appeal to definite interests, needs and desires is effective. Something more about the relative urgency and coerciveness of these human needs we shall see in due time. CHAPTER VI THE CHIEF HUMAN INSTINCTS, NEEDS AND EMOTIONS Classification of Instincts In the past experience of the race certain objects or situa- tions have stood out as fundamentally important in the strug- gle for survival, supremacy, and comfort. Definite modes of reaction have been found to be most appropriate in dealing with these particular objects or situations. Individuals who have reacted promptly and definitely in these appropriate ways have been successful, have flourished, and have left offspring who possessed the same inborn tendencies to reaction. Indi- viduals who failed to react in these appropriate ways perished and left no progeny. So there has been a long process of selection, in which only those individuals have survived with greatest advantage who displayed mechanical tendencies to react in the ways which race history has proved most expedi- ent. These reflex, mechanical tendencies are said to be in- stinctive. When many of them are considered together, be- cause of certain similarities in their character or result, or because of certain similarities in the objects or situations which provoke them, we speak of single instincts, such as curiosity, combativeness, constructiveness, etc. When we speak of special instincts it should be borne in mind that we do not mean perfectly definite and distinct sets of movements which will be carried out in the same way on all occasions. We mean rather a somewhat loosely classified set of special connections between stimulus and response, each HUMAN INSTINCTS, NEEDS AND EMOTIONS We built that Crane This fine working model of a rotating crane is one of a hundred models a boy can build with Meccano. He can start building at once. There is nothing to delay his enthusiasm. Simple but me- chanically correct that s Meccano. Your boy can build -working models of cranes, bridges, towers, railways, and machin- ery of various types. Think of the glorious fun and endless variety in Meccano for your boy It's the ideal gift to give him. connection being itself definite and specific, and the various tendencies being more or less related to each other on the basis of their consequences or the kind of object pro- voking them. Thus the in- stinct of curiosity does not lead us to do always some one particular sort of thing or series of things. But in general, to things which are new, or sudden, or unex- pected, or in motion, or in- tense, or in any other ways novel or unusual, we re- spond by varied movements, such as turning the head, craning the neck, pricking up the ears, extending the hand, prodding with the foot, etc., etc. The par- ticular movements and the obiects inducing them may be infinitely varied, but in general, the objects are novel and unfamiliar and the reactions are inquisitive, explorative, and investiga- tive. This is why we group the various specific connec- tions together under the name " Instinct of Curiosity." Much the same thing is true of all the other instincts. \Yhile it would be arbitrary to pretend to give a complete list of the instinctive tendencies of human beings, it is never- theless useful to have a tentative enumeration of the most consists of bright plated steel strips, angle brackets, sector plates, gear and pulley wheels, bolts and nuts in fact everything necessary for building, including tools. No extras to buy There are 13 Meccano outfits ranging from $1 to $36. For sale at Toy and Department Stores. Book No. 5 gives the ab- sorbing story of Meccano \Vrite for it today Meccano Company Inc. 71 W. 23rJ Street New York The building instinct WALLBOARQ Make the garret livable EASY! DO YOU know it's the simplest thing in the world tor you yourself \o make a nurseryroom as attractive as this ? It is. And it's just as easy to transform any unfinished attic or unused room into chamber-room, living-room, billiard- room, etc. Do as this man is doing. Get Neponset Wall Board, which comes in sheets (7 to iO feet long) already decorated in three beautiful finishes Plain Oak, Cream White and Burnt Leather. You can da the rest with hammer, nails and saw. In a few hours' time you can cover walls and ceiling. WALL BOARD NEPDNS Takes the place of lath and plaster. Just nail direct to studding or over plaster. Costs less than lath and plaster. No dirt. No delay for plaster to dry. NEPONSET is the wall board with water-proofed surfaces that requires no further decoration. SURELY SEND for samples, because nothing else can tell you so eloquently the wonderful possibilities opened to you by this material. BIRD & SON (Kit 1795). 941 Neponset St. East Walpol New York Chicago Washineton Sin Canadian Office and Plant: Hamilton, Ont Ala maiirtf/lhtfjmoui "ila-wlj modi" Ntfanut Rxfni iftt H'al The building instinct 72 HUMAN INSTINCTS, NEEDS AND EMOTIONS 73 important in mind. It is also well to remember that in general each instinct is the basis of a corresponding emotion. The in- stinct is a tendency to react, but each characteristic reaction is accompanied by an equally characteristic feeling or emotion. Does Your Figure Please You? Your dressmaker can never make a gown look well on you unless you have a good figure and unless you carry it well I want to make you. realize that your figure and health are almost entirely in your own hands, and that by following my simple, hygienic directions in the privacy of your own room You Can Be So Well that your whole being vibrates health. I have helped 65,000 of the most _ refined, intellectual women of America to regain health and good figures, f and have taught them how to keep well. Why not you? You are busy, but you g can devote a few minutes a day, in the privacy of your own room, to following j scientific, hygienic principles of health prescribed to your particular needs. = I have reduced the weight of over 32,000 women and increased the weight of as g many more. In my work for reduction or building flesh, 1 strengthen every vital ^ function so that you are full of life and energy My work has grown in favor because results are quick, natural and permanent. and because they are scientific and appeal to common sense. Fully one-third of my P pass, realize with me how many need better figures, better health. They could have g rith just a little daily effort which is easy not as hard as what they = The best physicians are my friends their wives and daughters are mv pupils the dical magazines advertise my work. Someone in your town knows me. Ask your friends = about my work. I am at my desk daily from 8 until 5. No Medicines ist as a physician studies it, the only difference being that H ; a good circulation of warm blood to them, which I purify JH h Ailmenti as Catarrh Headache* Weakness it my work. If you a ast you will help me jrlenca and I should like to tell you about perfectly well and ) your interest in this me NOW. Don'l w. Suffering in Pregnancy Rheumatism lay be able for net it. I have had a wonderful .' SUSANNA COCROFT, Dept.95 624 South Michigan Avenue, CHICAGO She personally supervises hcri An attempt to play on pride Sometimes the emotion and the instinct are designated by the same name. Thus " Fear " means either a way of behaving or a way of feeling, and hence, either an instinct or an emo- tion. Much the same thing is true of anger, hatred, etc. In general the human instincts, and their correlated emo- 74 tions, may be grouped under three headings, according to their function and their degree of coerciveness, as follows: (a) Individual Instincts. (b) Social Instincts. (c) Racial Instincts. All instincts of human nature make for the well being of the individual, but some are more social than others in their reference. Among the individual instincts we may place loco- motion, taking nourishment, making vague sounds and random movements, fear, pugnacity, self-assertiveness, collecting and storing up objects, emulation or rivalry, hunting, curiosity, and perhaps the abhorrence of filth. Under the social instincts we may place such tendencies as bash fulness, desire for com- panionship, certain fears, sympathy, self-sacrifice, and per- haps imitation and play. Among the racial instincts would come the sex reactions, homing, nesting, mating, the various sorts of affection and parental and filial devotion, and coquetry. It is of course not possible to draw sharp lines of demar- cation between these three groups of instincts, but the broader lines of distinction are, in theory at least, fairly clear. Suggestive List of Instincts and Emotions The following tabulation of the chief instincts that can be appealed to in advertising will be found useful in the analysis of the commodity, the planning of the campaign, and the preparation of copy. Along with a suggestive name for the instinct are given the emotions for which the instinct con- stitutes the basis. The characteristic acts which are designated by the instinct name are also given in each case. It should be understood that this list is offered only as a working basis, and does not pretend to give an exhaustive analysis of human nature. It gives, in the main, the chief instincts operative in connection with business transactions. HUMAN INSTINCTS, NEEDS AND EMOTIONS 75 The Instinct and Its Corresponding Emotions i. Ajfi'tTiTE (Hunger, Tastefulness, Sensual Enjoyment) 2. COMFORT (Calm, Rest- fulness, Relaxation, Ease) 3. SEX (Passion, Lust, Love, Coquetry) 4. DEVOTION (Faithful- ness, Loyalty, Affec- tion) 5. PLAV (Merriment, Play- fulness, Sport, Joy, Hu- mor, etc.) 6. FEAR (Timidity, Fear- fulness, Anguish, Cau- tion) 7. ACQUISITIVENESS (Pro- priety, Selfishness, Stin- giness, etc.) 8. HUNTING (Cruelty, Ea- gerness, etc.) The Sort of Behavior to Which It Prompts Us To gratify and exercise the senses and to continue the stimulation for a reasonable length of time or so long as the stimulation remains pleasant. ' (Illustrations, pages 49 and 50.) To avoid pain of any kind, by flight, by removal of the stimulus, or by various overt acts of evasion or ag- gression. (Illustration, page 51.) Definite responses toward the opposite sex in general or toward particular members of it. To protect and be loyal to our depend- ents or to those with whom we have long been pleasantly associated, as in family, school, or community life. (Illustrations, pages 52 and 53.) To work off superfluous energy, either alone or in combination with others, and to enjoy this process either in action or in contemplation. (Illus- trations, pages 54 and 55.) Retractile or inhibitory reactions be- fore definitely dangerous objects, as indicated by the experience of the race. (Illustrations, pages 56 and 57-) To accumulate and store up objects, either with or without particular value. To save, to bargain, etc. (Illustration, page 58.) To pursue and destroy various objects, especially if they are inferior in power and in motion. Related to Combativeness and Playfulness. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING The Instinct and Its Corresponding Emotions 9. SOCIABILITY (Lone- someness, Sociableness, Hospitality) IO. tion, Jealousy, Ambi- tion, etc.) ii. CURIOSITY (Inquisitive- ness, Longing to Know) 12. SHYNESS (Modesty, Bashfulness, Reserve) 13. ORNAMENTATION (Beauty, Display, Pride in Appearance) 14. IMITATION 15. REVENGE (Anger, Ha- tred, Resentment) 16. CIEANLINESS (Purity, Decency, Wholesome- ness) 17. WORSHIP (Piety, Rev- erence, Faith) The Sort of Behavior to Which It Prompts Us To be gregarious, to form groups, to have chums, and to react to the ad- justments of other members of our group. (Illustrations, pages 61 and 62.) Conquest, leadership, domination of in- feriors, rivalry with equals, and jealousy of superiors. (Illustra- tions, pages 63 and 64.) To examine novel objects for which ready made protective responses are felt to exist. Explorative and in- vestigative conduct. T,o avoid strange objects and situa- tions which are felt to be superior yet well disposed, and for which there is uncertainty of protective re- sponse. To decorate one's person or one's be- longings, and to exhibit them in a favorable light. (Illustration, page 65-) More or less general tendencies to act as others act, to behave with the crowd, etc. (Illustration, page 67.) To resent, by overt attack or other- wise, the aggression of others against ourselves or against those to whom we are devoted. To conceal or remove filth from one's person or from one's belongings. (Illustration, page 68.) To reverence, do obeisance to, and feel subordinated to the hopelessly su- perior. HUMAN INSTINCTS, NEEDS AND EMOTIONS 77 The Instinct and Its Corresponding Emotions l8. CONSTRUCTIVENESS 19. SYMPATHY (Sorrow, Pity, and their allies) 20. CUNNING (Secrecy, In- trigue, Slyness) 21. PRIDE (Haughtiness, Conceit, Proud ness, etc.) 22. GRATITUDE (Thankful- ness, Gratefulness, etc.) 23. THE COMIC (Laughter, Amusement, Hilarity) 24. HARMONY (Symmetry, Proportion, Balance, Stability, etc.) The Sort of Behavior to Which It Prompts Us To build, create, invent, and construct, for the sheer pleasure of manipula- tion and success. (Illustrations, pages 71 and 72.) To aid unfortunates, especially those who suffer in ways in which we have ourselves suffered. To plan in secret, to circumvent, to use strategy. To favor our own work, possessions, abilities, etc. (Illustration, page 73-) To feel and act well disposed toward the sources of our pleasure. This instinct shows itself chiefly in the tendency to tease or banter, or to en- joy seeing others teased or bantered by other people or by nature. The tendency to continue or to effect arrangements in time or space, which display such qualities as those indi- cated, including also Rhythm, Mel- ody, etc. The Relative Strength of Instincts and Interests It is not enough that the advertising man know the general features of these instinctive reaction tendencies. He must also know to what degree he can appeal to them in advertise- ments, to what degree this or that appeal is strong, not only in general life, but particularly as a basis of appeal in mer- chandising. This will depend somewhat on the general strength of the instincts, somewhat on the preceding tendencies of advertising copy, and partly on contemporary tendencies. Thus when patent medicine advertisements, with their lurid claims and false pretenses, have strenuously assaulted the instinct which makes us long for health and bodily comfort, 78 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING a breakfast food which claims to be health-giving may be made distasteful by the mere fact of its association in the same class as the patent medicines. Or when every commodity is claim- ing virtue because of the fact that it is imported, or in a fron- tier region where every commodity is imported, the prestige of " Importation " loses what value it might otherwise possess. Not only must the advertiser know human nature in general, but he must also keep his finger on the public pulse and know what motives and values are in circulation. In our own day, experiments have shown in quite definite ways the relative strength of various appeals which can be used as selling points in advertising copy. The experimental methods have been checked up by the analysis of actual ad- vertising campaigns and the detailed examination of the re- sults of particular pieces of copy. Time and again this has been done, especially in the laboratory. Of special interest is the following table of persuasiveness, which shows the relative strength of various sorts of selling points, for the educated classes of our present day, when the results for men and women are combined. THE TABLE OF PERSUASIVENESS Showing the relative strength of various appeals to in- stincts and interests as determined by experiments on the pulling power of advertisements. The highest possible value is 100, the lowest is o. Values range thus from o to 100, the appeal indicated by the highest number being the strongest in pulling power. The actual values range from 4 to 94, with either men or women, and from 10 to 92 when men and women are combined. Appeal Strength Health fulness 92 Cleanliness 92 Scientific Construction 88 Time Saved 84 Appetizing 82 HUMAN INSTINCTS, NEEDS AND EMOTIONS 79 Appeal Strength Efficiency 82 Safety 80 Durability 78 Quality 72 Modernity 72 Family Affection 70 Reputation of Firm 58 Guarantee 58 Sympathy 54 Medicinal 50 Imitation 50 Elegance 48 Courtesy 48 Economy 48 Affirmation 42 Sport 42 Hospitality 42 Avoid Substitutes 32 Clan Feeling 18 Nobby, etc 16 Recommendation 14 Social Superiority 12 Imported 10 Beautifying , 10 CHAPTER VII ANALYSIS OF THE COMMODITY Application of the Table of Persuasiveness The beginner in advertising will do well to spend some time in a careful study of the table of persuasiveness, in a com- parison of the various points there presented, and in a more detailed study of the methods used in securing the data. This method he will find many uses for in carrying out his own plans and campaigns or in selecting the copy to be run, the points to be stressed, the appeal to be made, etc. The table as given above is in a generalized form, and applies to all com- modities in general, or, more correctly, to such commodities as might actually be described by any or all of the points or qualities mentioned in the table. Obviously there is as a matter of fact no such ideal or universal commodity. Thus durability, time saved, and beauti- fying properties could hardly be applied as descriptive points in favor of food products; nor do appetizing and medicinal value seem quite appropriate as selling points for clothing or hardware. What the table really means is this ; in so far as health fulness can be reasonably applied as a descriptive term to any commodity, in just so far is healthfulness the most persuasive quality possessed by that commodity. If health- fulness or cleanliness do not apply in an intelligible or relevant way to the commodity in question, then the next quality in the table that can relevantly apply is the strongest selling point for that commodity. Given the commodity to be advertised, then, the first thing 80 ANALYSIS OF THE COMMODITY 8l to do is to determine what needs the commodity can satisfy, to what instincts it can relevantly be made to appeal in other words, the commodity must be analyzed into its qualities. The list of relevant qualities may then be compared with the table of persuasiveness, and the relative order of the various selling points for the commodity in question thus determined. There will thus be a separate table for each commodity, or at least various tables, which vary somewhat from commodity to commodity. Thus if the commodity to be distributed is nails, the first quality in the table that is relevant is perhaps " Scientific Con- struction." Then follow, in order of value, Safety, Durabil- ity, Quality, Reputation of the firm, Guarantee, Economy, and Recommendation by Others. Drawing up a special table for the commodity nails we thus derive the following: PULLING POWER OF NAIL ADVERTISEMENTS c ... D . . Relative Selling Point Value Scientific Construction 23 Efficiency or Safety So Durability 70 Quality 72 Reputation of the Finn 58 Guarantee 58 . Economy, Bargain, etc 48 Civic Pride 18 Recommendation by Others 14 If not nails but some such commodity as breakfast food is being advertised, then we would derive some such table as the following, covering such qualities as Health fulness, Cleanliness and Purity, Appetizing Qualities, etc. It has been clearly proved that the points would really have the relative values indicated in the table, when employed in advertisements. 82 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING PULLING POWER BREAKFAST FOOD ADVERTISEMENTS Relative Selling Point Value Healthfulness 92 Cleanliness and Purity 92 Appetizing Qualities 82 Appeal to Mother Love 70 Reputation and Guarantee 58 Medicinal Properties 50 Economy and Cheapness 48 Mere Assertion of Value 42 Hospitality and Sport Uses 42 Appeal to Civic Pride 18 Used by Social Superiors 12 Imported > 10 If the article to be advertised were a machine a typewriter, for example some such table as the following results. In the case of machines, the particular qualities selected will of course depend more or less on the specific purposes for \ hich they may be intended, and the urgency of the needs th . are thereby satisfied. Only analysis of the commodity can reveal the nature of the most appropriate appeal. < PULLING POWER OF TYPEWRITER ADVERTISEMENTS Relative Selling Point Val ^ e Scientific Construction 88 Time Saved 84 Efficiency 82 Durability /8 Modernity 72 Reputation and Guarantee 58 Economy 48 Civic Pride and Patriotism 18 Mere Recommendation ' 14 Used by Social Superiors, or Imported 10 83 Or if the commodity is of a decorative sort, as jewelry, diamonds, feathers, etc., some such table as the following re- sults : PULLING POWER OF JEWELRY ADVERTISEMENTS Relative Selling Point , r , Value Quality 72 Modernity 72 Reputation and Guarantee 58 Elegance 48 Nobby, etc 16 Imported 10 The Forms and Varieties of Advertisements From the psychological point of view advertisements may be classified according to their general purpose or intention and also according to the particular tasks which they set them- selves. Thus we may have the three following types, accord- ing to the task attempted : i. -Classified Advertisement. Takes initial attention, in- terest, and memory for granted, and merely seeks to direct the response. 2. Publicity Advertisement. Takes for granted the ele- ments of persuasion, decision, and response, and merely tries to accomplish the tasks which the Classified Advertisement explicitly ignores namely, to attract and hold attention, and to fix an impression in the reader's mind. 3. Complete Advertisement. Attempts to perform all the various tasks of an appeal. These are, in their logical order: to attract initial attention; to hold attention in an interesting way; to bring about an association or impression which will have permanence or memory value ; to convince, persuade, or induce ; and, finally, io suggest and lead to specific response. Still differently classified, according to the psychological Much painting should be done this spring, whether linseed oil be slightly lower or slightly higher ; for with the 1910 flax crop short it seems unreasonable to expect a return to the oil prices of a few years ago. The thing to remember is that, though high, paint materials are not nearly so expensive as the repairing of a neglected house. Even oil at $1.00 or $1.25 makes the paint- ing of the average house cost only 4 or $5 more than it used to cost. That isn't enough more to justify letting a $10,000 house, or even a $2,000 house, go to, ruin.- Paint it this spring. It will cost you less than later. And use "Dutch Boy Painter" white lead and genuine linseed oil. People are tempted sometimes, when standard materials are high, to employ something inferior. A great mistake, because not true economy. Moreover, the first cost of genuine Dutch Boy Painter" white lead paint is not so great as you may have been led to believe. It may surprise you if you do a little figuring for yourself. Get from your local dealer prices on the following ingredients. ThU 12'.: |b>. "Dutch Boy Fainter" white lead 'A gallon Pure linseed oil .... H gallon Turpentine ------ K pint Turpentine drier nake 1 gallon Genuine old-fashioned paint s National Lead Company rach of the foIh-Jiitis cit n Buffalo Cincinnati ;vcland St. Louis San Fr; John T. Lewis & Bros. Co., Philadelphia National Load & Oil Co.. Pittsburgh Compare this with the cost of any other paint you would think of using. You'll find- the best is also the cheapest. OUR FREE PAINTING HELPS We try to be of service to those about to paint. We will send color schemes, miscellaneous painting directions, and name of Painters in your community, men who use our "Dutch Boy Painte lead. Ask for "Helps No. 143" That will include everything. TO PAINTERS: If you are a skilled white-leader and "Dutch Boy Painter" white lead, send us your name for 0111 "Painters' Blue List." Write us for Blue List Circular No. 1 IS. It gives particulars. A complete advertisement 84 Don't Be a Ringer Own the Time Clock Why not own the time clock instead of "ringing up"? There is no reason why you can't do it if you have ambition. You begin by making up.your mind that you want to do better. Then you decide upon the work most congenial to you. It may be any occupation listed on the. coupon. You simply indicate your choice by marking the coupon and sending it to the Inter- national .Correspondence' Schools. In return you will receive without charge a wealth of information on the trade or profession in which you wish to perfect yourself. The I. C. S. will show you how to start at the beginning, or will enable you to advance from the point where you are today. There -is no lost time with I. C. S. instruction. It is designed to put money in a man's pocket right away. Box 1269 SCRANTON. PA. qualify for the position before which I mark X. i'l II nibinr. Strum Kiltil n 'c'orSf'ifc'o'r rfal Designing Show Card Writing Bookkeeper " Human-nature " copy 8s Making " Dreams" Come True Depends largely upon clear thinking. Coffee is one of the most subtle of all enemies of a clear mind. Not for everyone but for many. If you value comfort and the power to "do things," suppose you change from coffee to well-made POSTUM "There's a Reason" Postum Cereal Company, Limited, Battle Creek, Michigan, U. S. A. C.nadi.n Po.lum CtrcJ Co.. Lid.. WincUor, Onl. " Human-nature " advertisement 86 ANALYSIS OF THE COMMODITY mechanism they employ or invoke, advertisements may be classified as follows: 1. Reflex Appeals. Di- rected in a mechanical way toward the simple reflexes, such as bright flashing lights, moving objects, alternating signs, curious noises, etc. These do not attempt to sell goods, nor usually even to set up any kind of mental as- sociation. They are merely devices for getting the eye or ear of the passerby di- rected toward some other appeal, more strictly an ad- vertisement. 2. Short Circuit Appeals. Definite and concentrated appeals to one or more spe- cific instincts, feelings, emo- tions, or ideals of the reader. The attempt here is to in- fluence by simple suggestion ; argument and deliberation are avoided, no mention is made of rival commodities, but some strong feeling is played upon. This short circuit, " human-nature " ap- peal may be either through reading matter, picture, or arrangement. Superior in Every Way Over 1,500 Users Can Testify O THE only ele- ~~by actual use >ined. OPERATES ating trucking system proven efficient tith least effort and least number of Turns in shortest space. EQUIPPED with Gurney Chrome Vanadium harden- ed steel bearings and best steel balls. Gives 30% easier running than others. Has a bearing capacity of 5,400 Ibs. A LOADS locked in place automatically and positively with powerful levers, by simply pressing down handle. PRESSING on foot pedal opens release check and lowers the load to floor without shock or jar. Not necessary to push back on handle. CHEAPEST trucking device on the market because one Transveyor handles 100 platforms, and the Trans- and abuse. It takes a machine to do the work of 100 trucks. The Cowan Transveyor is the only elevating mtuhine. *J THE three-wheel suspension guarantees easy steering, * and positively prevents upsets from quick turns or running over obstructions. Four-wheeled trucks are lacking in this stability. g_THEC ** and DOS experience car Write for New Catalog "E" 30 DAYS i Transveyor is the pioneer in its field, > the essential points of merit which only h. TRIAL: COWAN TRUCK CO. RUken of the Cowu Tr.arrejor. Holyoke, Mats. CHECK I Agent* in all WORKS WITHOUT SHOCK OR JAR " Reason-why " copy TORRID AF OH. FRIGID ALAS J-MASB OOFH lands the Tes f Severe Weather The hottest weather can- iiot cause J - M Asbestos Roofing to dry out, melt or run the coldest weather cannot crack it gases, chemical fumes, or salt air cannot injure it. There is not a particle of perishable material in this roofing. J-M Asbestos Roofing is practically indestructible because it is mineral through and through. It is composed of Asbestos and Trini- dad Lake Asphalt. Asbestos is a rock and, of course, everlasting. And Trinidad Lake Asphalt is the same material that has withstood the severe duties of street paving for over forty years. There are buildings in all parts of the country where this roofing is still giving satisfactory service after more than a quarter-century of wear. Due to the non-conducting qualities of the Asbestos, this roofing keeps build- ings cooler in hot weather and warmer in cold weather. Being composed of Asbestos, it affords perfect fire protection. And, with all these advantages, it costs less per year of service than any other roofing because it lasts longer and never needs to be coated or graveled. J-M Asbestos Roofing is suitable for any type of building, anywhere. Comes i-eady to lay. Sold by hardware and lumber dealers or shipped direct from our nearest branch where we have no dealer. Write for sample of the' curious Asbestos rock from which this roofing is made, and our Book No. 1839 H. W. JOHNS-MANVILLE CO. s Alban Baltir Bosto ND MAGNESIA PRODUCTS Chicago Detrc ASBESTOS ROOFINGS, PACKINGS. ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES. ETC. Louisville New York polls Milwaukee Omaha Cleveland Kansas City Minneapolis Philadelphia Dallas Los Angeles New Orleans Pittsburgh For Canada: THE CANADIAN H. W. JOHNS-MANVILLE CO., LIMITED to Montreal Winnipeg Vanco " Reason-why " copy 88 HAVE Solved the Problem of Perfect Tire Protection My "Brictson" Guaranteed De able Tread Has Stood the Severest Tests In Actual Use by Thousands of Automobile O Under All Sorts of Road Conditions. I Know This to Bo a Fact. Because. (1) I Mai (2) Hundreds of Users of My Tread All Over the Country Have Assured Me To Brictson" Is the One and Only REAL Tire Protector. ' ' Th Enemy of Tire Expe d Is made: xtra pliable Chrome f conditions water, snow, sleet, of Chrome Leather are five layers didf dirt. etc. Next to-the outer thick you get that, "five layers?" of the very best quality tire fabric. I might use only three or four layers, and I might use a poorer quality of fabric, but my experience has proved tliat five layers are necessary to obtain perfect /strength and in preventing the tread from slipping Nc yers of tlr Pleas Cross Section of Briction Trod note this: through the outer layer of Chrome Leather, then through the five layers of tire fabric are driven the steel studs and steel rivets. These are clinched into the layer of leather which Immediately follows next to the tire fabric, and then there Is yet another layer of leather which covers these clinched ends of rivets and studs and with the rubber tire. Consider, too. the method of fastening the Brlctson Guaranteed Tread to the tire. The ends of the outer layer of Chrome Leather are skived or sliced thin where they are placed between the rubber tire and rim. This does away with any possibility of thick ends which miirht crumnle up, -and makes possible a snug fit of the Brictson Tread over the rubber tire. The Tread is slipped in place over the deflated tire and Is not held to the tire or the rim by an artificial fastener, such as a hook, or buckle, a. wire clasp, or anything of the sort. Air pressure between the tire and rim holds Tread to the tire after it is inflated. It is such construction as this that cuts Ask Your Dealer for Brictson Detachable Tire Treads A,k the Beit Dealer in Your Town to Show You the Famou, Briction Guaranteed Detachable Tread. If, for Any Reaton. He Cannot Supply You. Write Me Direct, Giving Dealer 'i Name, and Size of Tire, and I 4 Will Send You FREE. "The Enemy of Tirf Ex\>en*e. " Mail Coupon ! j* O. A. BRICTSON, President ^ BricUon M'f'g Co.. 1921 Briction Building, Brookinn, S. D. jf^ Name J^ ^^BjnHB^i^BI^^MHBHMHMHHBHMlVH^^,,*.' Address Pieai Tllwated 110' liobllt O Cut Out and Mail This Coupon Today A. Briction. Prri'l Bnrlion BuildiDf, rookinm, S. D. me your FREE ok. Pr< . Pri etc. Long circuit advertisement 90 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING *'=' 3. Long Circuit Appeal. So-called " reason-why " Aeopy, which argues, deliberately invites comparison and argumenta- tion, weighing of selling points and advantages. This will usually take the form of text, although other devices may also be frequently employed. 4. Rationalization Appeal. This fourth type has special psychological interest and : is based on a principle which is only recently showing itself in the field of advertising. One of the striking tendencies of human beings is to act, judge, believe, or vote on strictly instinctive, emotional grounds, and then, after the act is committed, to try to justify or defend it by in- tellectual and logical reasons. Thus we believe in immor- tality because we prefer it, want it, have an instinctive and emo- tional yearning for it. Then having formulated our belief on these purely non-rational grounds, we search and search for arguments which we can give to our neighbors in justifica- tion of our belief. We would like them to think that we our- selves believe on the grounds of the logical arguments. But in our heart of hearts we know that we first believed, and only when our belief was challenged did we search for logical proofs or reasons. Use of the Rationalization Appeal Men buy automobiles in the same way. I buy my car be- cause my neighbor has one, because it is the fashion to have one, because it will gratify my vanity or satisfy my pride. Then having bought the car, I look about for logical justifications which I can give for my conduct. It is at this point that I discover that " It saves time," " It entertains the family," " It gives us needed relaxation," " It saves car fare," etc. The advertising man is beginning to understand this human tendency, and frequently advertisements will be found which begin with a distinctly emotional, short-circuit appeal, thus persuading and seducing the reader. Then, at a later point, j.i There, Mother, Just As You Predicted" Missing the "frame-ball" right in front of the pocket is only one of the whimsfcal turns with which Home Billiards abounds. It's part of the frolic to twit the family sharp-shooter. So leave it to mother and the boys to hold their own. Your family deserves this daily sport and exercise that Brunswick Carom ;and Pocket Tables are providing for thousands of homes. Send today for our color-illustrated book of details. It 's free. Brunswick "Baby Grand" "Grand," "Convertible" and "Quick Demountable" Billiard Tables Now $27 Up Pay lOc a Day Brunswick Home Tables are scientifically built, with accurate ancles, fast ever-level bil- liard beds and quick-acting Monarch cushions the choice ol experts. Why buy a toy table when a real grown-up Brunswick costs so little? By paying while play- ing, you never will miss the amount. Any Home Has Room Now you can get a genuine Brunswick in any size your home requires, pur "Quick Demount- ,-ible" fits on top ol your library or dining table. or comes with folding or quick-detachable lees. "Grand" and "Baby Grand" lor homes with a spare room, attic, basement or den are the finest and fastest in the world. 30-Day Trial Outfit FREE Balls. Cues. Rack, Markers. Spirit Level. Ex- pert Book of 33 Games, etc.. all included Iree with every Brunswick. No extras to buy no heavy after-expense. , Our plan lets you try the table 30 days FREE. Then pay monthly, as little as JO cents a day! Send at once for our widely read book. "Bil- liardsThe Home Magnet." that shows these tables in realistic colors, discloses factory prices .and lull details. New edition now ready. Mail "p't?p upon f or * his valuable book today. It's "BABY GRAND" Carom and Pocket BillUrd St,le Mai! This For Billiard Book FREE ! The Brunswick-Balke-Collender Co., (3 Dept. 26A, 623433 S. Wabaih AY.. Chicago Send free, postpaid, your color-book "Billiards The Home Magnet" and tell about your home trial offe Name Addr, Rationalization appeal 91 92 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING the writer hastens to add a series of logical reasons, which probably exercise but little influence on the prospect's own decisions, but they fortify him against the objections of his mother-in-law, his employer, his banker, and his conscience. This represents a distinct type of appeal which is coming more and more into prominence. It takes advantage in a very clever way of the " rationalizing " tendency of all of us. The rationalization appeal is especially appropriate for com- modities which, although they make a strong personal appeal, encounter strong social or moral resistance, commodities which social expectation, custom, business obligations, or group habits tend to discourage. Thus in selling colored garments to a Quaker a definite social taboo would need to be overcome by a strong personal appeal, supported by a set of rational justifications. The personal appeal would be calculated to in- fluence the individual, the rational justifications would be cal- culated to afford him a defense against group expectation. In much the same way articles that are unduly expensive or luxurious, while they minister strongly to individual satis- factions, may violate the social or family expectations of economy, saving, and personal sacrifice, and for such articles the rationalization appeal is particularly effective. There are also articles in the case of which it may be desirable on the part of the purchaser not to have explicitly emphasized the actual motive of purchase, and in such cases also supporting rationalizations will be useful expedients. In the case of the Brunswick "Baby Grand" advertisement on page 91, the actual sale is made through appeal to parental instinct but the mother who tries to keep father and the boys at home nights does not want her motive explicitly emphasized, and the argumentative copy in the latter portion of the space suit- ably rationalizes the purchase. CHAPTER VIII The Importance of Association Given a knowledge of the individuals of the community with their original and acquired needs, and given the analysis of the commodity into specific qualities which may be presented as able to satisfy these needs the next step in the psycho- economic technique of advertising is that of establishing asso- ciations, in the thinking and acting of people, between the need and the commodity in question. A common blunder of advertisements consists in assuming that the mere repetition and constant reiteration of the name of a brand, a firm name, a trade-mark, will effect such a stamp- ing in that a sale will be effected by brute force. The theory is psychologically wrong. What is desired is not merely that the community shall be familiar with the name of a brand. Familiarity may breed contempt. Connection, association, rather than brute impression, is what will be effective con- nection of such a kind that, given the moment of need, the brand in question will come to mind rather than any other brand. Not the mere driving in of one idea, but the connect- ing of two ideas, is the task of advertising. In this process the following laws may be usefully borne in mind. The Law of Contiguity In general, the best way of establishing mental associations between two things is by presenting them together. Thus " Abraham " at once makes me think " Lincoln," because these two words have so frequently been seen together. No matter 93 94 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING how familiar I may be with the word " Lincoln," that word will not tend to come into my mind when I think " Abraham " unless this association by contiguity has been formed. Sim- ilarly, the mere repetition of " Yuban," " Yuban," " Yuban," does not lead me to think " Yuban " when I go to purchase coffee, unless, along with the word " Yuban " the idea " Cof- fee " has also been presented. In advertising, then, the law of contiguity means that whenever the name of the article is presented it should be accompanied by the idea of the need which the commodity is to satisfy. The Law of Sequence As a matter of fact two ideas are never present at precisely the same moment ; so that " contiguity " really means rapid succession. One idea being given, the other follows directly in its wake. So in reading advertisements one word of a headline is seen before another, one part of a paragraph fol- lows an earlier part, so that a " train of ideas " is set up. The law of sequence states that mental associations work more easily in one direction than in the other. " Forward associa- tions," that is, associations in the direction in which the ideas were originally presented, are stronger, more lively, and more easily recur than backward associations. This is especially true of such ideas as take the form of spoken words and other sorts of acts that involve motor proc- esses. Thus I have seen the letters in the word " advertis- ing " so often, one immediately after the other, that I can begin with " a," " d," " v," and go on quickly and easily to " e," " r," " t," and all the rest. That is, I can spell the word. But it is a very significant fact that I cannot spell the same word backward. The letter " a " calls up " d " and these two call up " v," etc. But if I begin with " g " and try to reverse the direction of the original sequence I can proceed only with difficulty. ESTABLISHING ASSOCIATIONS 95 In advertising this means that ideas should be presented in the order which they will later be desired to take. The first idea in the mind of the prospective purchaser will be the feel- ing of some particular need such as " hotel." Effective advertising means that when this need is felt it leads at once, by virtue of established associations, to an advertised article, such as the hotel known by the name " McAlpin." First the need, then the commodity, is the sequence in the mind of the buyer. This should be, therefore, the order in which the two ideas are presented in the advertisment, in the brand name, the trade-mark, etc. Such names as the following observe this psychological law of association : Hotel Astor Cafe Boulevard Parfumerie Pinaud Cocktail Bocardi Academy Riverview Encyclopaedia Britannica Sulphur Cream Ramsdell Magazin du Louvre Eau de Cologne Theatre Franqais Contrasting with these names are those such as the following, which fail to take advantage of the law and in so doing sacri- fice real association and memory value : Douglas Shoes Childs' Restaurant Mennen's Talcum Spey Royal Whiskey Ridgefield School Universal Encyclopedia Colgate's Dental Cream Bloomingdale's Store Ivory Soap Century Theater The same law holds of the arrangement of items in the ad- vertisement as a whole. The common practice of beginning the advertisement with the name of the firm or brand, the trade-mark, etc., and following it by a description of the need it satisfies may gratify the personal vanity of the firm, but it does not establish the most effective associations in the mind of the reader. In reading the advertisement the mind should be led in the direction in which it should go on the occasion of PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING need. Thus, of the two layouts given below, the one is in- effective, since it fails to establish the correct association habit in the mind of the reader. The other is effective, since every time it is read it reimpresses just the desired sequence of ideas. A Unique Kind of Gift Family Portraits in The Copley Prints Curtis and Cameron Boston Mass. This arrangement is correct, since the desired mental habit is set up by every reading. The need (gift) suggests the general commodity (portrait) ; this in turn leads to the specific brand (Copley) and the firm name and address follow at once. This is as natural a process as saying the alphabet forwards. Curtis and Cameron The Copley Prints Family Portraits Best of Gifts Boston Mass. This arrangement is incorrect, since no one of the desired asso- ciations is effected. When the need of gifts is felt there is no inclination to turn backwards to Copley Prints nothing comes to mind but " Boston, Mass." Knowing the alphabet in one direction does not imply the abil- ity to repeat it backwards. The Law of Feeling Tone It is generally true that associations accompanied by pleas- antness tend to be reinforced and made more permanent, certain, and strong. Associations accompanied by disagree- ableness tend on the other hand to be weakened and inhibited, and to disappear more quickly. Thus I teach a dog to beg by ESTABLISHING ASSOCIATIONS 97 saying, " Beg, Rover," repeatedly. Sometimes, by mere ac- cident, he will rise upon his hind legs at the moment in which I say these words. At once I reward him by giving him a piece of meat, an apple, or a caress. The agreeableness caused by the reward reinforces this association between hearing the words, " Beg, Rover," and the act of begging or standing on the hind legs. Connections not acting at that moment are not thus reinforced. So it comes about that in time this associa- tion is made stronger than all others, and the dog has then learned the trick the stimulus always calls out the response. In much the same way the advertiser proceeds. He puts his advertisement on a useful novelty, such as a calendar, a pencil, a soap dish, a memorandum book, and then presents the novelty to the prospective buyer, in the form of a gift. He trusts that the gift will be agreeable and that this pleasure or feeling- tone will reinforce the association of his name with some mo- ment of need. The success of this device will obviously depend on the amount of agreeableness really produced and on the relevance of the novelty to the need in question. But, in a still more conspicuous way, should the advertiser utilize the law of feeling-tone when he prepares his advertising copy. In this connection another law is also important, viz. : the law of fusion. The Law of Fusion According to this law an observer does not analyze his feelings of agreeableness and disagreeableness, strain and re- laxation, comfort and distress, so as to attribute them solely to their actual sources. No matter what the real source of discomfort, it colors all that we do or think at the moment. Thus when I have a bad toothache everything else in the world seems wrong too the weather was never quite so mean, my friends were never quite so insistent nor my enemies so an- noying. In other words, the discomfort caused by a tooth- 98 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING ache spreads over everything that happens while the ache lasts. Things otherwise pleasant become less interesting, otherwise indifferent things become decidedly annoying while the ordin- ary mildly annoying thing becomes a source of acute misery. Similarly in reading advertisements, the feeling aroused by each item of the copy and the arrangement tends to spread over the whole experience, including the association presented. The association will be more or less effective, vivid, and permanent, depending, in part, on the way in which it is dressed out, on the company in which it is found, and on the past experience which it revives. Literary and Artistic Aspects of Copy The literary and artistic aspects of copy and arrangement are therefore highly important, on strictly psychological grounds. These factors will be particularly developed in other sections of this text book. It will suffice here to point out what features of an advertisement may arouse definite feeling- tone and thus help determine the strength of the association. Chief among these features are the following. 1. Form and Arrangement The character, quality, and direction of lines; the shapes and ratios of masses, spaces, and areas; the relations of bal- ance, harmony, stability all these are items in an elaborate alphabet of feeling and expression. As much may often be said by the appropriate use of these various elements and prin- ciples of arrangement as by the text of the copy itself. The associations presented in the text may be either reinforced or confirmed or weakened and denied through the feeling-tone aroused by the formal arrangement of the material. 2. Color Hues, intensities, brightness, harmony, and balance. In the lives of civilized people colors and color combinations soon ESTABLISHING ASSOCIATIONS 99 come to possess the power of provoking strong and varied feelings of excitement and calm, and their related feelings. The appropriateness of colors to commodities, qualities, pur- poses, the physiological significance and the historical sug- gestiveness of color as a means of expression, the facts of color preference, the value of color in conveying definiteness and rich- ness of meaning and description, all these items are important in the general task of presenting and impressing an association. 3. Words Words are the very soul of thinking. Not only are the as- sociations between need and commodity usually represented in verbal terms but the very character of the verbal dress has much to do with the effectiveness of the association. In them- selves, as combinations of spoken and heard sounds, words provoke distinct feelings of attraction and repulsion. In com- bination with other words this element of euphony is given still greater prominence, especially when the influence of rhyme, rhythm, force, stress, and the factors of unity, coherence, and emphasis are added. In general it is well to remember that sounds which are easy to speak are usually agreeable to listen to, while sounds that are difficult of articulation are likely to be unpleasant to the ear. In selecting trade names, in devising slogans, headlines, memory verses, etc., it is frequently useful to supplement this general test of " Easy pronunciation means agreeable sound," by the following more definite rules of euphony : (a) Abrupt consonants are easiest in alternation with vowels as in such words as " cataleptic," " epileptic," " pit- ter-patter." (b) Mute sounds and vowels suggest lightness and rapidity as in the word " tintinabulation." (c) Liquids or sibilants and vowels suggest soft, slow mel- ody as "Carmen Sylva," "Mediterranean." 100 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING (d) Sharp mutes (p, t, k, f, th) and flat mutes (b, v, d, g) cannot easily be sounded together. Notice the difficulty in pronouncing " Lake Ktahden." (e) Cumulation of consonants makes difficult pronuncia- tion as in "adjudged," "pledged." ( f ) Long vowels out of accent are hard to pronounce. Note the " u " in " contribute " as compared with the same vowel in " contribution." (g) It is better to avoid too frequent repetition of the same or similar sounds Gilbey's Spey Royal runs swift as the Spey, The famous swift river of Scotland. (h) It is desirable to avoid clash of vowels in the middle of words and between words. It is not so bad if one is short and the other long. Thus compare " go over " and " go off." In addition to these purely phonetic factors there must be considered the literary associations which cluster about words, regardless of their origin or construction. Thus " horse " and " steed " denote the same animal, but the two words convey very different feeling-tone. " Lemon squash " may be as easy to pronounce as " lemon crush," but the latter sounds much more like an agreeable drink than does the former. For an interesting study of the make up of trade names, and for fertile suggestions as to the various principles followed in their construction, the student should consult an article by Prof. Louise Pound " Word-Coinage and Modern Trade Names," Dialect Notes, pages 29-41, 1914. 4. Typography Of special importance are feelings of strain and relaxation. In advertising, these feelings come chiefly as a result of the ease or difficulty of reading printed matter. Legibility makes for ESTABLISHING ASSOCIATIONS IOI PRICES JND TERMS (East oj the ftodiy Mountiins) I The Virtuolo in Hallel & Daols Piano, ma- hoganu. ( oloniol d sign, $700. The Virtuolo in Hallel & Dai is Piano, A rh-and -Crafts case, $775 lr> C' nuay / iano, mahogany or Walnut, $575. Lexington Player Piano, $450 lo$485. Terms: Tl ree years in wh ch lo pay if you desire. Simple inter-st on deferred payments, fiancs and ordinary player pianos taken in exchange at fair valuation* "THE INNKR BEAUTY" Send for Free Copy It tells how the. new Virtuolo is designed to call forth your own expressive Instinct and respond to it. Tells also how music is a language ty Tol'ich the composer tells j/cu of his feelings, thought*, imaginations. It is a book extraordi- nary. Richly illustra'ed u'ith the u or.d's moat famous paintings, inspired hj Music. If you send for a copy today you'll be glad you aidn'l forget to send for it. i. 75 inches. Too short for easy reading Instead of trying to force you to walk a figurative ftight- rope of fixed interpretation, the Virtuolo aims to lead you to express yourself in your own instinctive way to let your instinct for expression be stirred into flame. Four sensitive buttons to touch that is all! They respond to your musical desires like nerves in your own finger-tips ! How this is done is too much to try to tell in advertisements. The best way to explain it is to let your fingers rest dn the four expression buttons, and let the Virtuolo, itself, tell you the marvels of instinctive playing. If you do this at the store where Virtuolos are sold, you will sell the Virtuolo to yourself. 3.12 inches. About right for easy reading SEND FOR "THE INNER BEAUTY" BOOK It explains in simple language, and shows in beautiful pictures, how Music has been the medium 'through which great souls have sent down to us their feelings of jov, inspiration, pathos, sternness, tragedy, sympathy, love, told in music. It explains how these musical messages may be. interpreted, felt and expressed by anyone who desires no matter how unskilled technically in Music He may be. It explains how the invention of The VIRTUOLO THE NEW INSTINCTIVE PLAYER PIANO relaxation, relaxation leads to a receptive attitude, and such an attitude gives permanence to the association presented. It also gives more guarantee that the copy will actually be read, for in general we not only can but do read legible material. Among the chief factors in typography may be mentioned the 102 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING following points, drawn chiefly from the psychology of read- ing and from the physiology of eye movement and general optics : (a) The printed line, to be most comfortably legible, should be neither too long nor too short. In general a line from three to three and a half inches long is the most favorable for ordinary printing. The favorable length depends in part on the size, clearness, and other features of the type. (See page 101.) (b) Most of our reading is done by the perception of " word form " rather than by the puttinj together of the separate letters of the word. The general shape and appearance of the word enables us to recognize it when it is so far away that the separate letters cannot be seen at all. For this rea- son lower case letters are much more legible than capital let- ters. Capitals do not permit of reading by word form, since all words made of capitals have the same rectangular shape, differing only in length. But when the lower case letters are used each word has its own characteristic appearance. (c) Since the eye must readjust itself for each size and variety of type, frequent change of style or size is inadvisable. A good advertisement seldom contains more than four or five different sizes or varieties of type. (d) Reading is facilitated if the eye is enabled to make its movements back and forth along the printed lines in a purely mechanical and rhythmical way. Hence the lines should be of uniform length and beginning and end should be in uniform places. Variation in the length, beginning or ending of lines makes for strain and discomfort. Frequent indentation assists the eye in making these movements purely mechanically and hence easily and comfortably. (See page 103.) (e) Appropriate spacing of letters, words, lines, and sections facilitates the process of reading. The spacing should indicate the natural unity of the material. Thus letters should be closer ESTABLISHING ASSOCIATIONS 103 VIRTUOLO THE INSTINCTIVE PLAYER PIANO 10 rrspond to vrtrj mood and fincy. The you can bring Style 60 Coftway Vtrtuolo. Study iti handtome, chattel j detign'ed mahog- any cue. Look at id strong, durable action. LUtentoitiweet,Mtone. Thenhearinln- ir.ded chat An Style H Jlet & Dar Vinuolo. And you can bar it to play and enjoy ,// tit lime y&rt saving U f&f/tr it. Call at the wore of our rrprocnutire ia your locality we'll cod you ha addren and examine especially hich you w' if you're thinkingofbuyinga player piano now or liter. And the best way to be lure of getting this ioformauoa a to fill out the coupon now before you by aside thii weekly. HALLET & DAVIS PIANO CO. .York Nork This irregular arrangement of the reading matter interferes with the rhythm of the eye movements, and for this reason it should be - avoided. together than words, words than lines, and lines than paragraphs. In general the space between elements that belong together should be less than the width of the elements themselves, for otherwise the elements fall apart and do not seem to belong together. (f) Care should be used in the selection of the style and character of type used. Some styles of type now in use are at least twice as legible as other styles, when size is kept constant. With this large range there is plenty of room for selection of various degrees of legibility. (g) The background on which the printing occurs is also an important factor in determining its legibility. In general the lighter the background and the darker the type, the greater the legibility. A maximum lightness difference between type and background favors reading. Black on white is more legi- ble than is white on black because in nature backgrounds tend to be light and objects dark. When this situation is reversed our attention is directed toward the background rather than toward the object (printing) and the reading process is thus interfered with. 5. Illustrations Other definite sources of feeling-tone in advertisements are the illustrations, the surroundings, the images called up by the illustration or the reading matter. In so far as any of these items have attractive or repulsive qualities, their feeling- 104 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING tone characterizes the advertisement as a whole, and helps de- termine how the reader will react to the appeal. Thus the presence of loathsome features in adjacent advertisements, the character of the paper on which the advertisement is printed, the nature of the medium in which it appears, the character of the man who wrote it, the name of the illustrator, are all important items, which, however minute and detailed, have a positive influence in determining the way in which the appeal is to be received and the effectiveness of the suggested association. To say that the psychological subtleties are the only important items would be nonsense. Rut that they have their own part in the complex process is verified by the experi- ence of intelligent students of the successful and unsuccessful advertising campaigns of the past. CHAPTER IX MAKING ASSOCIATIONS DYNAMIC Laws of Suggestion In general the better the foregoing conditions have been con- formed to the more likely will the associations be to have dynamic force that is the greater will be the tendency to act on them. Nevertheless it is one thing to establish a mere asso- ciation and quite another thing actually to make that associa- tion count in a man's conduct. Thus I may repeat the words " precipice jump " until the sight of the one word always calls up the other, and still I may obstinately refuse actually to leap off the precipice when I come to stand by it. But if the association were " precipice shout " I would probably find the suggestion more or less effective. Here it is clear that the first association is not dynamic because it runs counter to cer- tain other strongly intrenched tendencies and impulses. The second is more dynamic because it falls in line with a general tendency which I already have. Much the same thing may be true of the advertiser's attempt to associate his commodity with a need. Not only must there be an association in my thinking but there must also be de- veloped some real tendency to act on the suggestion the associa- tion contains. A knowledge and observance of the laws of suggestion is no less important than knowledge of the laws of association and memory. Some of these laws, especially as they apply to the work of advertising, are given here. For Personal Articles, " Human-Nature " Copy If the article advertised is personal and intimate in characier, if it comes into direct contact with the body, or if it is con- 105 106 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING sumed for its own sake, the appeal should be directed specific- ally to some special instinct or feeling. In other words, " hu- man-nature " copy rather than " reason-why " copy should be used. Comparison, argument, deliberation should not be invited. Examples of such articles are breakfast food, can- dies, ornamental clothing, music, etc. (See illustration, page 86.) For Impersonal Articles, " Reason- Why " Copy If the article is impersonal, utilitarian, and thus not enjoyed in itself but used as a tool or instrument in the satisfaction of some more remote need, " reason why " copy is more appro- priate. Logical argument, deliberate comparison with rival commodities, may be effectively used here. Examples of such articles would be wheelbarrows, sewing machines, lead pencils, brooms, etc. (See illustrations, pages 87 and 88.) Sometimes Both Kinds The foregoing laws are not rigid and absolute, and it is often difficult to classify commodities on the basis suggested. Moreover both types of persuasion may often be used to ad- vantage. Thus if one has in mind all the commodities used in the preparation and consumption of a banquet, these com- modities may be arranged in a series such that the things at one end tend to be intimate and directly consumed, while those at the other are distinctly utilitarian. Thus Desserts Table Salads Chairs Vegetables Kettles Meats Pans Drinks Pots Napkins Stove Cutlery Fuel Dishes MAKING ASSOCIATIONS DYNAMIC 107 In the case of articles at or near the upper end of this series the direct appeal to feeling, emotion and instinct (appetizing, clean, pure, healthful, invigorating) will be most effective. At the lower end logical exposition of selling points and " rea- .sons why " will be more effective than sentimental appeal to the feelings. In the middle of the list the case is not so clear. One can say only that the farther up the list one goes the more effectively can the "human-nature" appeal be utilized; the Indirect suggestion .farther down the list one goes the more appropriate will be the argumentative appeal. In general this is because what we eat or do not eat is determined by our personal tastes, likes and dislikes, sentiments and feelings. What we burn, however, is more dependent on its own properties its cheapness, dur- ability, availability, convenience, etc. We cook in order to eat and because there is no simple way of avoiding it. We eat, in part in order to live, to be sure, but also in large part just because of the immediate pleasure the performance yields us. io8 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING It should, of course, be added that the cost of the commodity is also an important factor in determining the effective sort of appeal. In general the more the article costs us the less susceptible we are to purely short circuit appeals to our feel- ings and instincts. Thus toilet soap can be sold by a direct appeal to the feelings, but we think, compare and deliberate over an insurance policy, even though our motive for securing it be purely emotional. But even here the thinking usually consists only in the strenuous attempt to assure ourselves that the article will really satisfy our emotional need. Suggestion in Terms of Reader The strength of a suggestion depends in part on the degree to which it appears to be our own to be of spontaneous, in- ternal origin. Mr. Frohman, the theatrical manager and pro- ducer, it is said, is particularly successful in handling obstin- ate employees. It is said further that he is accustomed, on broaching a proposition to which he does not expect the other man to assent readily, to remark, " It seems to me it would be well to do as you suggested the other day and . . ." The method is peculiarly effective although the manipulated man does not remember ever having any such suggestion. It is enough that the plan seems to be his own or is stated by another to be so. So in advertising, arrogance, domination, should not be attempted. It is at once resented and resisted. The more indirect the suggestion, the more it can be made to be an original determination or plan or conclusion on the part of the reader, the more its dynamic power. (See illustration, page 107.) Suggestion Must Accord with Regular Habits and Instincts \Yithin the limits indicated by the above law. the dynamic power of a suggestion will be the greater the more forcefully and vigorously the association is presented. This law is MAKING ASSOCIATIONS DYNAMIC 109 especially true when the suggestion is in line with pre-estab- lished habits and tendencies. When the suggestion violates life-long habits and instincts, attempts to be forceful and vigor- ous usually lapse into arrogance and thereby defeat their own purpose. The following head-lines on the one hand conform to, and on the other hand violate, this law : A forceful suggestion I WANT YOU TO CHOOSE BETWEEN THESE TWO SHAPES A weak suggestion HERE ARE TWO FAVORITES. TAKE YOUR CHOICE Positive, Not Negative It is more effective to suggest the desired response directly than it is to argue against a response that is not desired. Thus it is more effective to say to Bridget, " Put the potato peelings in the garbage pail," than it is to say, " Do not put the peelings in the sink." The positive feature of the association is always the most effective. In the one case the positive association is " peelings " " pail." In the other case it is "peelings" " sink." The negative suggestion always tends to defeat its own purpose. The attempt to dissuade from the use of sub- stitutes is the classical illustration of the futile negative sug- gestion. The customer should be asked, " Does the shoe feel com- fortable? " not " Does the shoe pinch? " The cadet should be told, " Stand erect, with feet together," not " Don't slouch." Passengers should be told " Get off this way," rather than shown how not to get off. The convert should be told, " Seek to do good, " rather than, " Do not yield to temptation." The reader of advertisements should see the words, " Drink Pos- tum," rather than the words, " Do not drink coffee." no PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING Prestige of the Source The dynamic force of a suggestion varies directly with the prestige of its source. The more we revere a speaker for one reason or another, the more easily he can dictate to us on any topic whatso- ever and the more prone we are to accept his sug- gestions even when they are unsupported by suffi- cient reason. The mere weight of authority, the reputation for straight The Largest Selling Brand of Cover Paper in the World and Why dealing, the past success of the firm, etc., are often seen to be as effective as are reasons why. Among the forms of prestige which may be utilized in adver- tising the following are im- portant : i. Prestige of Space. Secured by lavish display and extravagant use of white space or magnitude of copy. This principle ac- tuated the Bank of England when, as it is reported, they regularly gave their clerks lunches of lobster and champagne, which were eaten in the street window, in full view of the passerby. Building the largest ship, the largest building in the world, is a form of this prestige whenever it is used for purposes of publicity. The biggest advertisers in the country the most successful, the most critical use Buckeye Covers. Thousands and thousands of small advertisers use Buckeye Covers. Makers of automobiles who get out their catalogs for beauty and effectiveness, regardless of expense use Buckeye Covers. Mail order concerns who demand serviceable, but low-cost covers use Buckeye Covers. Book on Direct Advertising FREE Through many years of service to thousands of larce and small concerns we hve accumulated a vast, intimate knowledge of the schemrs and mcih'odi that have built business. This knowledge has no* been r .thcred. d ,~-ilH-.i Jid |a into a book-'Tfe PriKifla ond Priulia of Oiricl Aiterli inf." Ho, .,( Samples and IWl-i, your, free of chargt mr business letterhead. Write today. The Beckett Paper Company MAKERS OF GOOD PAPER In Hamilton. Ohio, Since 1848 DtaUr, in Principal Cili.. of ,. Unil.J Slat.,. Canada, and EnflanJ your Printer Know. in. N.ar..t. Prestige of past success 2. Prestige of Past Success. The length of time the firm MAKING ASSOCIATIONS DYNAMIC III has been established, the amount of capital invested, the in- crease in this, the amount of goods handled during successive years, the rate of growth of the business, and similar points, when utilized in advertising, rely on this law of prestige. Endorsed by the U.S.Government Because of its broader adaptability, its accuracy and unequalled speed of computation, Uncle Sam has set his seal of approval on the Note this- 'a*nk'for~each"firure in the multiplier or quotient. With- out exception, nil other calcu- lators neceMitate a turn for tach unit of each figure. Thi-, these ma various United States Go' .._ Departments. In business h< where complex and extended putations are therule.and where saved means dollars earned, th hundred of a need for this machine. Its possi- operation by the bilities are practically unlimited and its great resistance to wear and tear mates it in the end the most eco- nomical calculator to buy..- Write bookle W. A. MORSCHH AUSER, Sole Agent. 1 Madiion Are.. New York Prestige of patronage 3. Prestige of Patronage. Recommendation by some popu- lar hero or notable person, " royal warrant," patronage by the Army and Navy service, and various other forms of the pres- tige of patronage will at once come to mind. (See illustra- tions, pages in, 112.) 4. Borrowed Prestige. Thus by using the name " Yale " jack knife, or " Yale " motor-boat, the dependability of Yale locks and the success of Yale's football team are utilized to shed luster over an unrelated article. " Made in Japan," " Im- ported," and similar phrases are again attempts to borrow prestige not directly possessed by the article itself. (See illustration, page 113.) Connect with Other Impulses The dynamic force of a suggestion is in part dependent on the amount of internal resistance it encounters. The attempt 112 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING A Few of the Users Who Have Added More Peerless U. S. Steel Corporation Canadian Government Standard Oil Company Corn Products Refining Co. American Smelting & Refin- ing Co. Marshall Field & Co. Pennsylvania R. R. Montgomery, Ward & Co. Aetna Life Insurance Co. J. G. White & Co. Utah Copper Co. Northern Trust Co., Chicago The G or ham Company Western Electric Co. United States Government First National Bank, New York H. B. Claflin \ P. Lorillard & Co. Peerless ^ Rock Island R. R. Check \ Lehigh Valley Coal Protecting V Co. Rochester, N. Y. \_ London & Lan- cashire Ins. Co. Check \ to displace habits, usages, and practices of long standing is often more difficult than to develop totally new needs and tendencies. That sugges- tion will be most effective which can call to its aid some other impulse which is already active. Thus a coffee drinker cannot easily be persuaded to give up his beverage completely nor even to substitute a new drink for it. But he can be persuaded with little difficulty to try the substitute at break- fast only and it is better to try for this opening than to under- take the heavier task and fail. Moreover it is easier to per- suade him to use a new bever- age than it is to induce him not to use any warm drink at all. In " honor system " exam- inations one can more easily get people to falsify by pro- viding them with slips on which are printed the words " I have not cheated in this ex- amination " than by compel- ling each student to write the words in his own hand. In testimony, a witness can more easily be led to perjure him- b self if a leading question is Prestige of patronage Dr. Eliot Will Train You He Tells How in This 32-Page Book Dr. Eliot, trainer of men, will train you for a bigger career by reading with you. He has already selected the very books selected them from all the books of the world. In a free 32-page book, he tells the great story of their selection. He tells how they broaden the oppcrtunities of ambitious men and women how they give a complete "picture of the progress of civilization as shown by the best literature of the ages. He has added to theirreading value. By introductions, footnotes, and complete reading courses he has made them rezlefficiency builders. Dr. Eliot's Five-Foot Shelf of Books The Harvard Classics This free book is wonderfully valuable. It shows how youy You nud this success library. It contains the essentials of a university training. It will better your place In life increase your Income. It brings you face to face with the greatest thinkers and doers ot ail times. Dr. Eliot himself reads with you, explains It all. 418 complete books are presented ta these 50 handy volume^ Volume Fifty Is a master-key to all literature 76,000 topics are Indexed foi your instant reference. For You The new Popular Edition places the Five-Foot Shelf, of Books within your reach at a cost of only a few cents a day. Printed from the same clear type used for the costlier edition. "Collier" workmanship through and through. Send the Coupon NOW! Get Dr. Eliot's free book without delay. Simply send the coupon. In this book Dr. Eliot Jells how he has selected from all the world's best books just the knowledge #ou need, most. This it the most valuable guide book to book* you ever read. Send the coupon today NOW! F: . F. COLLIER & SON, Inc. 421 W. nth St.. New York City, N. Y. Please send to me by mall, free of charge, the remarkable book describing The Harvard Classics. Dr. Eliot's Five-Foot Shelf of Books. ~1 r. r. CULLltK & SUN, Inc. 1 Occupation ... .. . "1 Publishers of Good Books 1 Address 1 as) NEW YORK Borrowed prestige 114 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING asked to which he is to reply " Yes " or " No " than by getting him to recount in detail the false evidence. In selling, de- livery can more easily be avoided by asking, " Will you take it with you?" than by insisting that the customer make the choice himself. It is easier to sell an article satisfying an old and well-established need than it is to create new needs - to utilize an old habit than to establish a new one. The coupon, in advertising, is best when it is most easily sent, when the sender has the least labor to go through with. The return post card is more likely to be utilized if it bears the stamp and address. Unity in Variety " Constant dripping wears away a stone," but only if the stone be really struck, and a different particle dislodged at each blow. A nail in my shoe soon ceases to annoy me if it prods me only gently and always at the same point. The rim of my spectacles soon ceases to be seen or felt so long as it keeps its accustomed position. But a nail prodding me now here, now there, a series of advertisements appealing now to this instinct, now to that, but always in the interest of the same commodity, jogs me into an alert appreciation of its presence. A single appeal would never have done it nor would the same unvaried appeal, if repeatedly presented. Unity in variety, then, a constant dripping but always a new drop, is a law of effective suggestion in advertising. " Buy it by the box," " The flavor lasts," " Look for the Spear," " Costs little by the package, less by the box," keep Spearmint persistently in the margin of my thought. " Buy it by the box." " Buy it by the box," " Buy it by the box." would soon cease to affect me. Mere mechanical repetition does not give associations dynamic strength, but repetition accompanied by sufficient va- riety to lend interest and sufficient uniformity to have a con- stant meaning, is always worth what it costs. CHAPTER X SECURING VIVIDNESS OF IMPRESSION Attention and Memory Devices No matter how carefully an association of need and com- modity is formulated, no matter how appropriately the dyna- mic laws have been observed an advertisement counts for nothing if it is not really noticed and read. Moreover it counts for but little if it is merely read, and the association straightway forgotten. Hence the study of attention and memory is important in advertising. A full discussion of these two aspects of copy, and the complete exposition and illustra- tion of the successful attention and memory devices, cannot be given here. All that can be given is a suggestive list of these various devices, with sufficient explanation to indicate their general character and meaning. The following factors are important attention devices in all varieties of advertising, whether outdoor publicity, window display, magazine and newspaper space, posters, signs, etc. Size The larger the space used, the greater the attention value, other things remaining equal. But the increase in value is not proportionate to the increase in cost. A law of diminish- ing returns holds, whereby the attention value increases more slowly than the amount of space employed approximately as the square root of that amount. It has been conclusively demonstrated that the square root law holds, whether inquiries, orders, cost per sale, or experimental attention value be con- "S Il6 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING sidered. Thus, the content of the space remained unchanged in general character If i/ 1 6 page space brings in 25 inquiries, Then 1/4 page, though four times the size brings in only twice the number of inquiries, or 50. And i full page, though 16 times as large, brings only four times the number of inquiries, or 100. As a result of this law it follows that the most favorable amount of space for a given proposition depends in part on the amount of profit made per sale, per inquiry, etc. In gen- eral, the smaller the profit the smaller the most favorable amount of space. This is especially true if one is interested mainly in immediate net profit, regardless of the amount of money invested at the moment. Position in the Medium Questions of preferred position on the page and in the medium apply especially to magazine and newspaper adver- tising. This does not mean that there are not preferred po- sitions in outdoor advertising, for example. It is obvious that there are such positions, but their character cannot be easily described except in the most general terms. In the case of magazines the following general principles have been verified time and again. In standard magazines the front advertising section has about 25 per cent stronger attention value than the back sec- tion. This is partly because there are usually fewer pages in the front section. The preferred pages are the covers, outside and inside, and the pages next to reading matter and index. In magazines of about 100 pages or thereabouts of advertising there is a decrease in value inward from the covers and from the reading matter section, for about 10 pages. SECURING VIVIDNESS OF IMPRESSION 117 These statements, it should be noted, apply only to period- icals of the standard form, in which the advertisements and reading matter are segregated, the advertisements being placed in sections in front and after the reading matter. In the case of flat publications (such as the Saturday Eve- ning Post) with advertisements distributed through the read- ing matter, tests on actual readers give results which differ from those secured in the case of standard publications. Pre- ferred positions tend to be fewer, the superior pages being as before outside and inside the covers, but all the inside pages have the same average value. Distributing the advertisements through the reading matter thus equalizes the attention value of the different pages. It has not yet been shown that this procedure either raises or lowers the average value of a page. The results show, however, that the added attention value in the case of the poorer pages comes only when the advertise- ment is placed next to reading matter which is actually read. Position on the Page The following diagrams summarize the results of studies of preferred positions on standard magazine pages. The dia- grams show the way in which 100 per cent attention value is distributed among the various sections, thus indicating their relative values. The figures show the values in the case of the right-hand page only. For the left-hand page the values in the case of the vertical divisions should change sides. In addition it is well to remember that vertical half pages are about 25 per cent more effective than are horizontal half pages. Perhaps the most important facts are that the top half of the page is better than the bottom half, the outside better than the inside, and the vertical division better than the horizontal division. In the case of flat publications in which the page Il8 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING 50% 16% 33% 47% 44% Preferred positions on the page contains four columns, it is sometimes customary to run a single column of reading matter in the second column from the inside. This practice shifts attention somewhat from the outside of the page toward the inside column, but even in this case tests show the outside columns to have something like 12 per cent greater attention value than the innermost column. Monopoly and White Space Added attention value and vividness may often be secured by leaving part of the space unoccupied, thus forming a white margin around the copy. The white space serves to attract SECURING VIVIDNESS OF IMPRESSION 119 Failure to use 10 per cent white space. Loss of attention value attention to the general direction, by its contrast with other parts of the page. Further, this device tends to eliminate compe- tition by rival advertise- ments on the same page. Experiment shows that it is as easy to use white space extravagantly as it is to fail to use it in sufficient amount. On the whole, white margin that is one-tenth as wide as the space occupied by the copy itself is the most favor- able, economical arrange- ment. With dull newspaper stock somewhat more white space is required. Illustra- tion on this page shows the effect of inadequate white space. Illustration on this page (lower cut) represents its extravagant use. Illus- tration on this page is a sample of the most effective use of monopoly and white space. Centering a vertical shape on the full page does not produce so great an increase as comes from centering a horizontal shape of the same area on the same full page. That is to say, the use of white space for the purpose TKEREissomefashion lor every man, but ill fashions are not for all men. The best-dressed man is he who knows hi limitations, and discreetly keeps within them, tempering each style to his type and adapting, rather than adopting. Hoever. there ire some boo* styles, which might he termed "bread-and-butter" styles, be- cau o ^0 t << 124 SECURING PERMANENCE OF IMPRESSION 125 The Comic Comic situations, whether presented pictorially or verbally, have high attention value. The comic elements are likely, however, to be irrelevant and incidental; hence the use of the comic in business appeals is precarious. When the comic is used in advertisements that are to be repeatedly seen by the same reader, the copy-writer should carefully avoid the " sub- jective " comic, which rapidly deteriorates in interest when repeated. All puns, plays on words, belong to this class all jokes in which the reader himself is tricked or played upon. Arrangement In addition to the foregoing devices for holding attention and fixing an impression, the matter of form and arrange- ment is also important. Borders, lines, perspective, direction, balance, unity, and similar structural factors hold attention, if properly prepared, and to the degree to which they satisfy the eye and offer it a pleasing field of exploration. The ma- terial offered should be complex enough to invite several fixations of attention, yet simple and unified enough to con- stitute a single field of interest. In this connection it should be noted that five or six discrete elements are as large a number as can easily be brought within a single act of apprehension. Five or six words constitute the limit for a successful headline; five or six phrase units, the limit for a comfortable sentence. In general, five or six elements of whatsoever sort are about all that can be grouped into a larger unit. Of course the nature and size of the ele- ment is determined in part by the familiarity of the material. This law of " attention span " applies not only to headlines and sentences, but to paragraphs, styles of type, arguments, items in a trade-mark, etc. It is the same law that limits the drama to five acts, the effective conversational scene to five characters, the letters of the blind alphabet to five points. This law determines various structural facts in poetry and music. CHAPTER XII THE PSYCHOLOGY OF TRADE-MARKS AND TRADE-NAMES The Functions of Trade-Marks The function of trade-marks and trade-names provides the most striking instances of the importance of making a vivid and permanent impression. The mark or name facilitates the memory of the article, aids in its recollection at the moment of need, and assists in its identification at the time of pur- chase. Recollection and recognition may be said to constitute the primary functions of trade-marks and trade-names. It follows that the more easily and correctly the mark or name is recalled and the more quickly and certainly it is recognized, the higher will be its value. In the main, trade-marks have come to be made up of one or more of the following materials : 1. Pictures (Old Dutch Cleanser, Scott's Emulsion, Gold Dust, etc.). 2. Words (Keen-Kutter, Uneeda, Sapolio, etc.). 3. Geometrical Forms (star, triangle, cross, circle, crown, etc.). 4. Syllables or disconnected groups of letters (B. V. D., A. B.C., etc.). Relative Values The common assumption seems to have been that all trade- marks are equally good, or at least that no general principles hold concerning their relative values. But experiment shows 126 TRADE-MARKS AND TRADE-NAMES 127 that pictures, words, forms and syllables differ markedly in at- tention and memory value. The following table, secured by Mulhall, indicates how large these differences are. The figures give the number of repetitions required correctly to recall and recognize series of 20 items of the four different kinds of material. Each figure is the average of the results of 25 people tested : Number of repetitions required : For Correct For Correct Material Recognition Recall Pictures i .04 3.36 Forms 1.80 3.96 Words 2.64 4.76 Syllables 5.80 7.12 Recognition is here seen to be about twice as easy as recall, requiring only about half as many repetitions of the material, with all four kinds of material. The four kinds of material differ greatly among themselves. Pictures require fewest repetitions and hence have highest memory value, both for recall and for recognition. Next, in order of difficulty, come Forms, then Words, and, most difficult of all, Syllables. These facts should be borne in mind when selecting trade- marks, for the differences are very large and likely to be im- portant in practical ways. Syllables are nearly six times as difficult to recognize as are Pictures, and over twice as hard to recall. Words are nearly three times as hard to recognize, and half again as hard to recall, as Pictures. The difference between Pictures and Forms is not so large, but still great enough to be measured. It is important to note that, what- ever function of the trade-mark be considered, whether its use for purposes of mere identification (recognition) or for pur- poses of description and inquiry (recall), the four materials bear the same relation to each other. 128 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING Trade-Names Variety and History The best discussion of trade-names known to the writer of this chapter is to be found in an article by Prof. Louise Pound, in Dialect Notes, January, 1914. Among other interesting things, Miss Pound says, " All the world seems to feel at liberty at the present time to coin words for use as trade- names, generally without regard for orthodox methods of word creation, or for the general linguistic acceptability of the- term thus brought into being. . . . The general desire of the pro- jectors of trade-names is to hit upon something that will im- press itself on the memory of prospective buyers of goods. . . . Beyond dispute, an apt or striking name for a newly invented article will go far to promote sales. ... A glance through the older files of magazines, those store-houses par excellence of advertisements in their variety and evanescence, makes clear the fact that for range and ingenuity of linguistic devices and utter freedom in the manipulation or distortion of word or phrase, the present period is peculiar to itself." Especially interesting is Miss Pound's classification of the various types of trade-names and the various methods of con- structing them. She enumerates ten general groups, each dis- tinguished from the others by the particular principle on which the name is built. In the list of these groups that follows only two or three well-known examples are given for each, by way of illustration: 1. Trade-names arising from proper names and place names. This type is relatively infrequent at present. Examples are Listerine, Tabasco, Sherry, Madeira, Burgundy, Davenport, Camembert. 2. Shortenings and extensions are very common Porto, Indestructo, Eterno, Hydrox, Calox, Shinola, Pianola, Stone-Tex, etc., may serve as examples of this class. 3. Diminutives seem now to be very much in favor as TRADE-MARKS AND TRADE-NAMES 129 Chiclet, Wheatlet, Leatherette, Crispette, Toasterette, Catarrlets, etc. 4. Compounds. New combinations of familiar elements as Palm-Olive, Waxit, Underfeed, Shawknit, Holeproof, Walkover, Spearmint, Fit-form, Meadow- gold, etc. 5. Simplified, fancy or disguised spellings Fits-U, Shure-On, E. Z. Seal, Noxall, Dalite, Phiteezi, Veri- best, Holsum, Uneeda, Keen-Kutter, etc. 6. Striking hyphenations (shortenings, hybrid forms, blends) Fab-Rik-O-Na, Jap-a-Lac, Chi-Namel, Ka- Tar-No, Pro-phy-lac-tic, Hyp-Tex, Malt-Nutrine, Lin-Co-Lac, Vel-Ve-Ta, Pneu-Vac, etc. 7. Blends of two names are recent favorites Electrolier, Cuticura, Colax, Polmet, Sani-Genic, Jap-a-Lac, Crudol, etc. 8. Blends built from proper names, firms' names, etc. Nabisco, Aplco, Balopticon, Clupeco, Iseeco, Wisco, Adlake, etc. 9. Names built from initials Reo, Sebco, Pebeco, Ree- co, etc. 10. Arbitrary new formations Gas, Kodak, Tiz, Kryptok, Karsi, Clysmic, Zu-Zu, Calox, Vivil, Crisco, Crex, etc. Miss Pound gives an interesting list of eighteenth century trade-names, and remarks, " There is approximately the same difference in the taste of the centuries for commercial terms that exist between the prose manners of writers like O. Henry and his followers and that of the authors of the ' De Coverley Papers.' ' The following samples of eighteenth century trade- names strikingly illustrate this contrast : " The Famous Italian Water for Dyeing Red and Gray Hairs." 130 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING " The Famous Spanish Blacking for Gentlemen's Shoes." " Doctor Coleburt's most famous Elixir, and Salt of Lemons." " Incomparable Perfuming Drops for Handkerchiefs." " The Delightful Chymical Liquor for the Breath, Teeth and Gums." Qualifications of a Good Trade-Name In recent years the growth of competition and the multipli- cation of brands has brought about many changes in trade symbol procedure, as well as in the laws governing the use of these devices. The natural tendency on the part of the purchaser to call for his favorite brand by its trade-name has made it necessary that trade-names be not only ornamental and printable, which seem to have been the only eighteenth century criteria, but also short, easily and correctly pro- nounced, unambiguous, and in all respects of such a character that the purchaser may use them expeditiously and without embarrassment or chagrin. Thus, " Barrington-Hall Baker- ized Steel-Cut Coffee " and " Mennen's Borated Talcum Pow- der " suffer because of their undue length and consequent awk- wardness. " Hyomei," " Telekathoras," and " Sieger's An- gostura Bitters " will probably be enunciated correctly if spoken at all, but their inherent clumsiness disqualifies them. " Bon Ami " and " Djer-Kiss " are unambiguous only to the linguist, while " Pebeco," " Bevo," and " Sanatogen " contain uncer- tainties which readily embarrass the new consumer with whose patronage the dealer and manufacturer cannot afford to dis- pense. " Kis-me," " I-O-U," " No-Smellee," and " Nu-fan- gel " would prejudice even the most hardened purchaser. Merchandising Power The merchandising power of the well-chosen trade-name or trade-mark calls for still further criteria of selection. If the TRADE-MARKS AND TRADE-NAMES 131 name or other symbol can itself suggest the qualities of the commodity, it thereby acquires enhanced value. Thus, " Old Dutch Cleanser," " Rough on Rats,'' and " His Master's Voice " serve this double purpose of identification and invita- tion, defense and attack. " Beech Nut," by its inherent pleas- ing suggestiveness, conveys a definite atmosphere of desirabil- ity on all products on which it is placed. The name that is distinctive and unique has obvious ad- vantages, both psychological and legal. Thus, such names as " Superior," " Excelsior," and " Premier " suffer psycholog- ically because they are neither characteristically relevant to any specific product nor sufficiently distinctive to be discriminated in the purchaser's memory. The use of familiar proper names such as " Smith's," " Brown's," " Baker's," and " Campbell's," is open to the same objection, which, however, " Huyler's," " Tiffany's," and " Wrigley's " avoid. Legally the general term and the proper name also involve difficulties because of the likelihood of either accidental or deliberate resemblance. Psychologically, then, the trade-name performs or should perform a variety of functions. It simplifies the act of pur- chasing ; facilitates identification, recognition, and recall ; pro- tects the consumer and the manufacturer against substitution ; crystallizes intangible but marketable qualities in the form of good-will and reputation ; through its suggestiveness acts as a direct sales force; and through its promissory character holds the manufacturer to the maintenance of stable quality, much to the mental and moral advantage of dealer and consumer. Other Factors In addition to the characteristics here cited there are, in any given instance numerous other factors to be considered in the selection of a trade symbol, such as the possibility of registration, the likelihood of infringement by or on other trade symbols, mechanical details connected with affixing the 132 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING symbol to the commodity or the container, and the possibility of a later desire to capitalize the symbol more definitely by building up a family of products under the same name or device. These are sufficiently diverse to suggest that the psychological factors are by no means the sole determinants of the selection of such symbols, although the consideration of these commercial, legal, and industrial factors is beyond the scope of the present chapter. The Psychology of Infringement There is nevertheless one aspect of the problem of infringe- ment that should be pointed out in this connection. This is the problem of determining the tendency of two similar trade symbols to "confuse the buying public" and hence to con- stitute a case of infringement. When such a case arises it is always necessary to determine the likelihood that the one sym- bol will actually be confused with the other. Obviously con- fusion is a state of mind, and the causes of confusion are factors which operate upon the purchaser's mental processes. In recent years the psychologist has been called upon to de- termine the probability of confusion between the members of such pairs of trade symbols. Measurements of this character have been made with the most striking results so striking indeed that one investigator remarked : " The fact that the average of differences between (adjudicated) infringements and (adjudicated) non-infringements is so small . . . shows the results of judicial decisions in this field to be quite un- reliable." Thus, under the conditions of the tests, " Non-X-Ell " in- stead of " Xox-all," a case of adjudicated infringement, con- fused only 28 per cent of the observers, whereas under the same conditions " Pinozyme " instead of " Peptenzyme," an adjudicated non-infringement, confused 43 per cent of the ob- servers. The per cent of confusion was the same for the TRADE-MARKS AND TRADE-NAMES 133 infringement " Nox-all Non-X-Ell " and for the non- infringement " Sozodont Kalodont." The infringement " Club Chancellor Club " was less confusing than the non- infringement " Mother's Grandma's." These and other similar results suggest that much more at- tention could profitably and equitably be paid to the actual measurement and analysis of trade-mark and trade-name con- fusion, and less to the accumulation of incidental testimony and bundles of depositions, gathered for forensic purposes from dealers, clerks, detectives, and bona fide purchasers. CHAPTER XIII HOW THE ADVERTISER CAN UTILIZE THE PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORATORY The Laws of Human Nature Scientific Study The value of the scientific study of human nature for the problems of advertising has in recent years been given gen- eral recognition. The study of the laws of attention, interest, association, memory, emotion, instinct, and thought yields principles which apply directly to the operation of the adver- tisement, the sales letter, the display window, the slogan, the trade-name, and the package. The la\vs of reading and visual perception relate with complete relevance to the detailed ques- tion of typography, the choice of type, the arrangement of printed matter, and the general lay-out of the advertisement, the poster, the letter, and the car card, as well as of the book- let and the catalogue. The principles of suggestion, choice, and action bear especially directly on the selection of selling points, headlines, illustrations, and the general theme and tone of advertising copy. Among the many indications that the psychological labora- tory is coming to be more and more useful in the practical affairs of commerce and industry may be cited the numerous investigations, experiments, and research undertakings spon- sored and supported by individual producers and agencies, local advertising clubs, and by national organizations of ad- vertising men. Several concerns now have a consulting psy- chologist on their staff, and many others resort to the psy- 134 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORATORY 135 chological laboratories for the purpose of having special re- searches and tests planned and conducted, either in the labora- tory or in the field. What the Laboratory Can Do This practical use of the laboratory results because the gen- eral laws of human reaction must often be particularly adapted and fitted to the special circumstances and problems of a marketing compaign. It also results from the fact that, even when no established principle is available for immediate ap- plication, the laboratory methods provide an expedient and accurate way of answering purely practical problems. The laboratory technique may eliminate in the very beginning the danger of errors of observation, statistical fallacies, and preju- diced judgment. Among the great number of practical prob- lems that have been investigated in particular cases the fol- lowing may be cited as typical and suggestive : measurement of the " pulling power " of advertisements; tests of the attention and memory value of trade-names, slogans, and packages; studies of the appropriateness and " atmosphere " of designs, containers, illustrations, and " characters " ; measures of the legibility and invitingness of different arrangements and amounts of printed matter ; tests of the effectiveness of various uses of white space; determination of the permanence of im- pression produced by size of space as compared with frequency of insertion ; tests of the actual confusion existing in the minds of consumers between alleged infringing trade-names, trade- marks, wrappers, etc. ; measurement of the relative interest and persuasiveness of different sales points and qualities of commodities; studies of the influence of different colors and textures of paper on the effectiveness and legibility of print- ing; analysis of the correctness and conclusiveness of statis- tical field investigations. The detailed character of problems that have been studied 136 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING in this way cannot be rehearsed here, partly for lack of space and partly because the results are as yet in many instances the exclusive property of the concerns responsible for their ac- cumulation. Three specific cases may, however, be given in order to illustrate the practical application of the laboratory technique in advertising. The Pulling Power of Advertisements Many studies have been made of the relative " pulling power "of advertisements that have been or are about to be used. The task of tracing returns from single advertisements by the traditional methods of keying is in many cases an im- possible one (as in general publicity advertising). In other cases it is laborious, full of sources of error, and the campaign must be carefully planned beforehand if the returns are to be reliable. In strict mail order business alone is the task rela- tively easy. Nevertheless it is universally realized that even slight dif- ferences in the content, appearance, arrangement, style, etc., of various pieces of copy may make enormous differences in their relative " pulling power." One of the most useful dis- coveries has been that, by proper study and analysis in the psychological laboratory, the relative " pulling power '' of ad- vertisements can be accurately measured beforehand. The validity of these measurements has been time and time again attested by their close agreement with actual returns from the various advertisements, in cases where reliable keying has been possible. The following table, for example, gives a series of adver- tisements (indicated by letters) with their relative values as measured in the laboratory and their relative results as in- dicated by the number of inquiries brought by each piece of copy when run in two magazines. The first column gives the 15 advertisements (all of the same article but differing from THE PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORATORY 137 each other in a great many ways). The second and third columns give the order of superiority of these advertisements for men and women. No. i is the best, No. 2 is next best, and so on, No. 15 meaning that the advertisement with that grade was the poorest of the series. The fourth column gives the relative order of merit when the men and women readers are considered together. The fifth column gives the actual number of inquiries produced by each advertisement, through its appearance in two standard magazines, once. MEASURING PULLING POWER BEFOREHAND Key to the Positions Positions Final Produced Advertise- for for Average Actual ment Men Women Positions Inquiries B 3 4 i 258 A 4 3 2 155 H i 7 3 41 R 7 2 4 60 K 6 6 5 93 Y 5 8 6 33 Z 2 ii 7 30 W 13 i 8 44 J 8 9 9 37 D 12 5 10 15 C 9 12 ii 9 G ii 13 12 i F 14 10 13 7 15 14 H 8 E 10 15 15 5 The following table presents the results of another experi- ment of this sort, in which the series contained only five ad- vertisements. The first column indicates the advertisement, the second gives the relative per cent values as determined by experiment, the third gives the number of replies from each advertisement in one magazine, the fourth column the number of inquiries from the same advertisement in another magazine, 138 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING and the last column gives the total number of replies from each advertisement. MEASURING PULLING POWER BEFOREHAND Relative Key to the Values by Replies Replies Advertise- Experiment, from One from 2nd Total ment Per Cent Medium Medium Replies A 27 68 16 84 B 29 68 20 88 C 31 80 25 105 D 32 83 S 2 "5 E 33 94 44 138 Examination of the tables shows that there is almost ab- solute agreement between the results of the experiments and the actual returns. If the experiment had been performed at an early enough time, it would have been possible to eliminate the less effective advertisements from the campaign, and to substitute for them more effective ones, based on the principles illustrated in the superior pieces of copy. For the laboratory study not only measures the relative value of the different appeals but also analyzes out the reasons for these differences. There are now on record a score of such studies, and in no case has the laboratory study failed to reveal, beforehand, and as the result of only two or three days of work, the actual facts as disclosed by the results of the campaign. Keying copy in the old-fashioned way is not only difficult but wasteful and usually useless. The results are not known until the campaign is over and the money spent (frequently at the rate of $5,000 or more a page, for a single appearance). The poor appeals cost as much as the good ones, in spite of the difference in the returns. Experimental Analysis of a Successful Campaign The advertising campaign of a particular commodity had extended over a period of two years, in national periodicals THE PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORATORY 139 only. The campaign as a whole had brought gratifying re- sults, but there were indications that among the various pieces of copy, with their varying form, content, and appeal, some pieces were superior to others. Copy-writer, typographer, illustrator, and lay-out man had in each instance made what seemed to each his best effort, although, since no general principle of appeal had been formulated, each was compelled to rely on his individual taste and personal bias on \vhat is sometimes dignified by the term, " inspiration." Through- out the campaign the space occupied and the media used re- mained constant, and the commodity was not one on the sale of which such variables as weather or time of year had any marked influence. Nevertheless it was felt that the " inspira- tions " were by no means equally effective, and in planning the further marketing of the commodity it was desired to make a more perfect campaign by discarding the ineffective types of appeal. Analysis by the printer, the illustrator, the lay-out man, the copy-writer and the field investigator proved of no avail. Although each was a specialist in his own field, no one of them was able to formulate a principle of effective appeal to be followed in the next campaign, and so the ma- terials were taken to the laboratory. Tests of " pulling power," in the manner suggested in the preceding section, made it possible to arrange representative specimens of the advertising in a graded series. At one ex- treme were the specimens with high pulling power, and the series then tapered off in effectiveness, through good, medium, and poor, down to the very poor appeals. With this experi- mental series in view it was then possible, by tracing single factors up or down the series, to deduce certain clear-cut prin- ciples of effective appeal. The Illustrations. Considering the illustrations first, the following observations were made. At the poor end of the series a single individual was portrayed, using the commodity 140 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING in a solitary and independent way. Proceeding up toward the good end of the series the number of people increased uni- formly, from the solitary individual at the lower end, to two, three, four, and, in the most effective appeals, to five or six people, engaged in some social situation, their social inter- course being facilitated by the use of the commodity in ques- tion. At the lower end of the series the cuts were sharp, clearly defined, with strong contrasts and hard, distinct out- lines. Going up the series the illustrations became softer and less distinct, the contrasts less sharp, the outlines less defined, until at the upper extreme the whole effect was sub- dued, the contours indefinite and vague, and the transitions subtle and gradual, giving a dreamlike, visionary, or twilight effect. The Text. Considering the text, at the lower end the copy dealt chiefly with the construction of the commodity, its his- tory, mechanism, and mode of operation. The appeal of the text was argumentative and logical. Going up the series the argumentative and structural or engineering contents were seen to be less and less prominent. The text at the upper end of the series described the effects, rather than the mode of producing them, appealed strongly and specifically to particular human instincts and emotions, three in number, without call- ing them by name or directing attention to them in any pedantic way. At the bottom of the series the strictly marketing part of the copy occupied considerable space, whereas the higher up the series one went the more the marketing details fell away, leaving more and more space for the human-nature appeal and the suggestive, wish-provoking account of effects produced. Conclusions Arrived At. Various other factors of definite importance were thus determined through analyzing the series, some of them increasing in prominence toward the good end and others toward the poor end. It was possible, as a result of the laboratory tests and the psychological analysis, to give THE PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORATORY 14! specific principles for the formulation of the new campaign. It was clear that the effective appeal for this commodity should have the following characteristics : 1. It should not stress the mechanical and structural char- acter of the commodity but should rather portray the desirable effects occasioned by its use. 2. It should not represent the commodity in the hands of a solitary individual, but should rather portray its use in some social situation, rendering more perfect and interesting the social activities of the group. 3. It should not proceed in terms of deliberate and didactic argument, but by presenting a specific appeal to one or other of three definite, common instincts or emo- tions, without calling them by name or directing con- scious attention to them. 4. It should be illustrated by relevant cuts, with character- istic tendencies, especially avoiding sharpness of con- trast, distinctness of outline, and clearness of com- position, tending always towards softness, vagueness, and dreamy indistinctness. 5. Considerably more space should be given to the human- nature appeal than to the more strictly marketing in- formation. Later investigation and the use of special methods of keying the returns indicated that the experimental laboratory order of effectiveness, on the basis of which this analysis was made, agreed almost perfectly with the actual returns. The correla- tion between the laboratory measurements and the business results was 92 per cent. The case here reported is but one of many illustrations of the practical value of the technical laboratory analysis of the elements making up the advertising campaign. 142 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING Analyzing an Ineffective Campaign In another case a prolonged campaign in which 82 different pieces of advertising copy had been used, had given very dis- couraging results. People had not been adequately impressed by the commodity or its name, and even when they had been im- pressed by the name or commodity they frequently were con- fused as to the use of the commodity, attributing to it the prop- erties of another article which is quite commonly associated with such a commodity. Hence we shall have occasion in this discussion to refer both to " the commodity " and also to " the associated article." Manufacturer and agency seemed unable to explain the curious and disappointing results of the campaign, and the material was sent to the laboratory for analysis. Four Classes of Copy Used in Campaign. Classification of the 82 advertisements resulted in the discovery of four prin- cipal classes, according to content and arrangement, which may be indicated as follows: A Advertisements in which the commodity alone was em- phasized either by way of illustration or by way of conspicuous words on the page or by special direc- tion of attention through being held in some one's hand, etc. B Advertisements in which both the commodity and the associated article were presented or suggested, the commodity being emphasized more prominently than the associated article, by being larger, more con- spicuously placed on the page, being in blacker ink, or being related to the most prominent words on the page. C Cases in which both commodity and associated article were shown, and, by the various devices suggested above, were both given about the same amount of prominence in the general lay-out. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORATORY 143 D Cases in which by far the most conspicuous object on the page, either because of its size, two representa- ^ives, or some special attention device, was the as- sociated article. Six specimens of each of these classes were now chosen, and by a convenient device each of tht six representing a given class was exposed for 20 seconds to each of 25 people. A new group was chosen for each of the four classes of adver- tisements, so that the effect of the different classes of ad- vertisements could be compared. After these presentations each person was asked the following questions. The reasons for these particular questions will in some cases be apparent; in other cases the question merely serves to check up other answers. 1. What article is described in the pages you examined? What is its particular name? 2. For what purpose is such an article used? 3. Give the names of other articles similar to this, or used for similar purposes. 4. Recall in your mind's eye the various pages you have seen. What feature or detail stands out most prom- inently in your memory of the pages? 5. What feature or detail stands out next most clearly? Checking Effects. The 25 tests for each of the four classes of advertisements were now collected as four separate groups, and the replies to these questions checked up. It will be seen that the first question when answered reveals the success with which the advertisement leaves in the mind of the reader the specific trade name of the article. False replies will suggest any difficulties in the name itself. The second question is designed to determine whether the reader has gotten the gen- eral impression of the commodity or the impression of the as- Per Cent Per Cent Class Getting Getting Per Cent of Correct Idea of Getting Adver- Idea of Associated Name tisement Commodity Article Correct A IOO O 93 B 88 12 77 C 93 7 62 D 77 23 65 144 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING sociated article, since their uses are different. The third ques- tion checks up the replies to questions I and 2. The last two questions show what is left in the reader's mind after the reading is over what he carried away as the result of having seen the various advertisements of the particular class. The results, tabulated in terms of per cent of readers seeing a given class of advertisements, were as follows: Per Cent Who Per Cent Who Carry Away Carry Away Image of Mental Image Associated of Commodity Article 93 53 6 38 J 3 35 47 It is apparent that as we begin with Class A and go clown the column, the Classes B, C, and D become regularly of less and less value. A smaller number of readers get the correct idea of the commodity and more of them get the idea of the associated article instead. Fewer and fewer remember the correct name of the commodity, fewer and fewer carry away a clear picture of the commodity, and more and more get a clear picture of the associated article instead an irrelevant picture. Clearly, of the four classes, Class A and Class B are much superior to Class C and Class D. The two latter classes convey a wrong impression, and they fail to impress the correct name, the function, and the memory of the com- modity. Wrong Emphasis in Copy. When the 82 advertisements making up the whole campaign were classified under these four heads it was found that 14 belonged to Class A, 18 to Class B, 25 to Class C, and 25 to Class D. That is to say, of the 82 advertisements making up the campaign, 50 were of the inferior classes, always conveying the \vrong impression. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORATORY 145 Numerous other points of importance always result from such an analysis, but for our present purpose it is sufficient to present this main feature. The analysis and tests of the ineffective campaign disclosed principles of effective appeal which, when followed in the succeeding campaign, produced results of the most gratifying nature. Practical Utilization of Psychological Technique In this chapter we have indicated that not only does a knowl- edge of the laws of human behavior constitute an important part of the equipment of the advertising man, but that the special technique of the laboratory may also be effectively utilized by the advertiser. The "psychology of advertising" of the future will consist of more than the body of general laws and principles of human nature and behavior. These will always be useful and suggestive, especially from the point of view of the beginner. But as time goes on there is being added to this body of general lore a series of concrete, specific investigations and studies of special technical problems, con- ducted with all the rigor and caution of laboratory technique, suggested and prompted by the practical interests of business. Just as the manufacturer is utilizing the expert services of the chemist, the electrician, the physicist, and the engineer, so the advertiser is utilizing the expert services of the psychologist. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING ON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING Advertising and Selling, by H. L. Hollingworth. The Psychology of Advertising, by W. D. Scott. The Theory of Advertising, by W. D. Scott. The Relative Merits of Advertisements, by E. K. Strong. Advertising, Its Mental Laws, by H. F. Adams. Advertising, by D. Starch. Applied Psychology, by Hollingworth and Poffenberger. CHAPTER XIV THE DISTINCTIVE NATURE AND PURPOSE OF ADVERTISING COPY Its Re^tion to Other Parts of Advertising Before we can intelligently discuss the matter of advertis- ing copy, it is necessary to review its relation to the other parts of advertising and also to know its difference from other forms of composition. From the layman's standpoint, copy is the most important part of advertising. It is the part he sees and the part by which the advertiser's message is conveyed to him. From the advertising man's standpoint, it is only a small part, subor- dinate in his mind to the finding of the right sales plan, the proper selection of media, and the determination of the best psychological appeal. The writer of advertising copy must give due weight to each of these views. He must know what the sales plan is, and what appeal the psychology of the situation demands. He must, however, recognize that knowledge of these things is useless unless the copy he writes performs its work of im- pressing the message upon those who may become buyers of the article. Copy is the crystallization of the science and the art of advertising. In the larger sense, advertising copy includes all the sym- bols by which the advertising message is given not merely words, but form, color, illustrations, type, ornament, and the like, all of which are parts of the language of advertising. Often these parts are more potent than words in making an impression. They may neutralize or reinforce the effect of 149 150 ADVERTISING COPY the message in words. The proper use of these elements is considered elsewhere in this volume under the head of Ad- vertising Display. In this section we are concerned only with the message in words, or the " text." Distinction from Other Forms of Composition The problem of writing advertising copy is more than a matter of grammar and rhetoric. It is true that most writers need instruction in these elementary matters. Every day we see advertisements that violate some simple rule of grammar. One car-card assures us that, " We have been friends for over 20 years and it don't seem a day too long." Another says, " Every woman should have a Tightfit Petticoat. They will use them once they have tried them." Grammar and rhetoric, necessary as they are, are only in- cidental to the main purpose, which is to write English that will influence people to buy. If disregard of grammar would help to accomplish this result, then it might safely be disre- garded. In the absence of evidence on this point, we must believe that the purpose of advertising copy can be best ac- complished by reasonable conformity to the requirements of good use in language. The writers of advertising copy, however, have more free- dom in the matter of language than the writers of other forms of English composition. Their work is not judged by any abstract critical standards of good and bad, but by the con- crete, tangible results of dollars and cents profit. In other words, their art is distinctly utilitarian. Other forms of composition exist mainly to instruct or to please: advertising copy is written to stimulate response. It may please or instruct incidentally, but unless it moves toward action in some degree, it is inefficient. The rhymes of Phoebe Snow and the Spotless Town jingles were good advertising, not because they were cleverly written verse or because they PURPOSE OF ADVERTISING COPY I5 1 amused us for the instant, but because they impressed upon us the distinctive merits of the Lackawanna Railroad and Sapolio so that we ultimately gave them our patronage. Ad- vertising copy must always influence action. This distinction between advertising English and literature has a deep significance. When people read for interest or in- struction they do so willingly. They give their time and energy. They may even make some sacrifice. This does not refer to a money sacrifice though people buy literature. It means a real mental sacrifice. The passage of ideas from one mind to another is difficult. We must have a glossary to read Chaucer or Shakespeare. We must study to catch the message of Browning. Enjoyment of the classics of even our own language does not come easily to any of us. In all reading there must be some adjustment between the writer and the reader, before the message can be grasped. And in the case of literature, the reader makes it. Expression and Impression That is why we so commonly speak of expressing ourselves. The writer in other fields thinks of expression. He has ideas and feelings to throw out and out he throws them. If any one wants them he must come and pick them up. Students of English composition are not always asked to convey ideas. They are asked to express them. And having no one to con- vey them to, they convey no ideas often express none. This is not a criticism of literature. It is well for a man to learn to catch the ideas of others. It gives power and the sense of power. But when we come to write advertising or any other business message w r e must write for the reader. If there is any adjustment to make we must make it. We must make reading as easy as possible for him. We must economize his time and energy. In a word, the writer of advertising English must be less 152 ADVERTISING COPY concerned with expression than with impression. The writer of literature should be less concerned with expression, but he is not obliged to be. Advertising men realize this important truth when they speak of copy that " gets across." Whoever praised a poem by saying that it " gets across " ? No, we talk about the imagery, the depth of feeling the writer had, and so on. Advertising is not generally read because of deliberate in- tention. The reader does not buy advertising. It is thrust upon him. If it is to succeed it must not only get his atten- tion away from the editorial matter placed next to it in the newspaper or magazine, but, having secured his attention, it must be so interesting that he will read it in preference to the material he has bought for interest or instruction. More- over, he will not strain his mind to catch ideas that lead to the expenditure of money. Style in Advertising Copy Right here \ve come to a point that is of prime importance. The belief that writing was a matter of expression has been responsible for an erroneous conception of the nature of style and an exaggerated idea of its importance. Style used to be considered the dress of thought. There was a notion that thought and language were separable. Later it came to be recognized that thought can only come in the symbols by which it is conveyed. The painter thinks in terms of form and color; the musician thinks in terms of sound; the writer thinks in terms of words. So the form of language is inseparable from the thought conveyed. The modern conception of style is that it is the individuality of the writer as mirrored in his expression. Buffon's famous definition, " Ic style est de I'hoiiniie mane " " Style is of the man himself" -is generally accepted now. It is even cor- rupted to " Style is the man himself." Arlo Bates, one of the PURPOSE OF ADVERTISING COPY 153 sanest rhetoricians of the present day, says, " Style is the in- dividuality of a work. Style is the personal impress a writer inevitably sets upon his production." Now, we do not need to cast aside these definitions of style as untrue, but we must recognize that they are inadequate for the writer of advertising English. The reason is that they take into account only one element of the three that affect every piece of composition the writer, the subject, and the reader. Here is a better definition for our purposes : Style is the man in the right relation to his subject and reader. Even writers of literature sometimes differ in " style " when writing on different subjects or to different groups of people. Take Browning. What similarity is there between " The Pied Piper of Hamelin " and " The Ring and the Book "? If both had been published anonymously, could any man have guessed that they came from the same mind? In one Browning was writing for children ; in the other, for men of high degree of intelligence and education, or perhaps for himself alone. Style was different because the class of read- ers was different. It is a curious commentary, and one that does not lack significance for us, that the poem for children. " The Pied Piper of Hamelin," is still the poem of his that is best known and best liked by the multitude. Suitability to Occasion The writer of advertising copy should forget style, forget self, think of those readers that he wants to reach, find the ideas that will appeal to them, the emotions that can be aroused in them, the language that they can understand, and the action they can be forced to take. Many instances could be cited of the failure to adapt the language to the reader. Look at the defense that was set up in advertising by the New York, New Haven & Hartford at the time when public sentiment against it was so strong. The THIS ADVERTISEMENT IS DEDICATED TO THE TOILERS OF THE WORLD, practitioners of the sciences; men of brain and brawn, an union of trained intelligences co-operating to evolve a perfect product The world tenders respect to the man who is a mas- ter of means and methods, for when he learns and knows his task thoroughly it teaches him to respect what he learns, because merit and true worth are im- parted to that which he produces. In the Hyatt workshops, the melting pot of science and skill, scholars of labor construct perfect automobile bearings, so quiet in operation that speeding motorists . disturb not silent vesper hours. HYATT ROLLER BEARING COMPANY Detroit Newark, N. J. Chicago ILLUSTRATIVE ^LITERATURE REQUEST Pretentious style, unsuited to the readers 154 PURPOSE OF ADVERTISING COPY 155 THE TRUTH NO.Z The only ieriout accident on (he main line of the New York. New Haven & Hartford Railroad, thus far this year between Boston and New York, was at Westport, October 3rd, when the engineer, with five year* of clear record behind him, from sojne forever unknown cause. patted oven signals and warnings and took a No. 10 crossover at 50 miles an hour where his speed regulation called for 15. He lost his life and the lives of six others. Had the crossover been a No. 20, the speed limit for which is 25 miles an hour the result would have been the same. But there may be some violation of rules and regulations in the future, when, with a somewhat less speed, a No. 20 crossover, which is 50% longer than a No. 10, may save a train from disaster; and No. 20 crossovers have been ordered installed for all express service as soon a* the w_eather will permit.,. Meanwhile the Public Utilities Commission of Connecticut has ordered that all express trains come to a full stop at crossovers before the switch is changed for the detour of the train. This order is being strictly complied with and lengthens the running time between New York and Boston by twelve minutes, some of which can be made up in clear sections of the track. But, as SAFETY MUST BE THE FIRST CONSIDERATION, the officials of the road are now figuring to what extent there should be a readjustment of the time schedule temporarily for the winter traffic. The New York and Chicago expresses have lengthened their time for the winter by two hours and a corresponding lengthening of our five hour trains would mean a winter time of five hours and a half for our pres- ent five hour trains. This is quite unnecessary in view of the fact that the New Haven roadbed and rails are unsurpassed for solidity of construction by any railroad in the United States; and if it is finally determined that with these stops at crossovers there must be a lengthening of time schedules it will not be more than fifteen minutes for the five hour expresses and in such proportion as may be found necessary for other trains. CHARLES S. MELLEN, President. Cold, formal language obscure and lacking in general appeal intellectual person could understand and appreciate its mes- sages, but how about the great mass of people, whose average education is only equivalent to the fifth grade! And these people are the ones that the railroad most needs to reach ; they are the ones from whom outcries against the railroads come. Did the railroad get down to their level and talk to them? No, its copy was dignified and cold, almost antagonistic. No wonder it failed to change the public sentiment. '56 ADVERTISING COPY ',<] A. Lackawanna Railroad Says Phoebe Snow: "These emblems show Your pride in letting People know That day or night Their safety's quite First rule on Road of Anthracite." Safety means efficiency. Personal efficiency minimizes accidents. Thats why Lackawanna employees are striving to put "Safety First" above every other consideration. The button which they have adopted is intended to fasten the gnp of safety on every mile of Lackawanna track. The Road of Anthracite Simple, concrete appeal that reaches the public Compare with this the popular advertising of the Lacka- wanna. Advertising English, therefore, must be suited to the reader - written for the reader. He must be made to read, to un- derstand, and to react. Tt should, in addition, be suited to the subject. Jewelry and tobacco do not admit the same style of copy, because the feelings associated with their use are quite different. The style may also be suited to the advertiser. The style of English that is suitable for the United Cigar Stores would not do for Tiffany. The style that is permissible for Wrigley would not help Huyler's. It should be remem- bered, however, that the writer personally that is to say, the man who actually gets up the copy does not come into the PURPOSE OF ADVERTISING COPY 157 question at all. The less style he has, the better. Certainly he should have no mannerisms. He should have sufficient versatility to suit his message to the reader, the subject, and the advertiser and forget himself. Relation to Personal Selling The personal salesman and the writer of sales material in the form of letters meet very much the same problem as the writer of advertising copy, but it has certain differences. The personal salesman can make a new adjustment to each pros- pect that he meets. He can find the language that the pros- pect uses, the arguments that are suited to his character, and the tone that harmonizes with his mood. If he is a good salesman he will do all this. The writer of sales letters like- wise, though to a less degree, makes a personal adjustment to his readers, whether they be one or a hundred thousand. The advertising writer, however, cannot do this. The at- tempt to make his adjustment personal, to make his sales talk a substitute for the personal conversation, is usually fore- doomed to failure. Compare the situation of the sales letter (sometimes called circular letter or form letter) with that of the general magazine advertisement. The form letter may be sent to thousands, even hundreds of thousands of people but they are selected in advance by some principle. They are people who have responded to a certain advertisement, or their names appear on a list because they are engaged in a certain business, be- cause they possess a certain amount of wealth, because they have bought by mail a certain class of commodities, or because they have some other feature of similarity that gives the writer a possible point of contact with them. He can adjust his message to the typical prospect. But the readers of the general magazine include nearly all classes of humanity, alike only in their ability to read. The 158 ADVERTISING COPY contents of magazines of large circulation are usually so varied as to appeal to the widest possible range of readers. The advertiser cannot adapt his message to the typical reader for there is no " typical reader." He must construct it so as to reach and appeal to the largest number of prospective buyers. In other words, the advertising writer must adjust to the mass. His readers are not picked out beforehand. His ad- vertisement must pick them out automatically. This means that he must find the appeals and language that are most suitable to the majority of possible buyers, and use them. The task would be quite hopeless if human beings the read- ers were not so much alike. As a matter of fact, as psychology has shown, they react in much the same w'ay to the same stimuli. Class distinctions there are ; individual dis- tinctions there are. These will be considered later in connec- tion with various class publications which demand special appeals. Our first task is to find the qualities that make copy efficient with the majority. Qualities of Effective Copy Economy These qualities can be grouped under two main heads: first, those that serve the purpose of economy: second, those that serve the purpose of distinctiveness. Of these the former class is the more important. No one has ever given a better definition of the qualities that should be found in advertising copy than has Herbert Spencer in his " Philosophy of Style." The whole task of the writer should be to make reading easy, to make the conveyance of thought and feeling certain. Ad- vertising copy should economize the reader's attention; that is to say, his time and mental effort. i. Clearness In securing economy, the most necessary quality is clear- ness. The meaning of a message should be plain at first Distinctiveness without paying anything extra for reputation Moline-Knight cars now in the hands of private owners have made good. Every claim made by us has been substantiated. Moline-Knight The Moline-Knight sleeve represents progress valve tyP 6 of engine repre- s^^^^ sents today the greatest real, substantial progress in motor construction. It is individually distinctive, a powerful, reliable, silent car engineered with surpassing skill built in small quantities with great care finished in a high class manner, matchless throughout and nothing added to the price for reputation. This is the motor that made the phenomenal 337 hour non-stop run in the laboratory of the Automo- bile Club of America, New York, averaging 38 horse- power under load and at the end of the test reach- ing 53.6 horsepower at 1682 revolutions per minute. The Moline-Knight is distinctive and is a car that is instantly recognized on the boulevard. It is sym- bolic of reliability, comfort and luxuriousness, and is as near perfection as human brains, energy and automatic machinery are possible to make it. All steels, wood, upholstering, leather and other mate- rials'used in the Moline-Knight cannot be better because the world's markets and craftsmanship have not yet produced anything superior. Get our Because of our limited production literature not ver 1200 cars during 1915 and = the increasing and insistent demand for Knight Motored cars at a fair price the Moline- Knight 50 H. P., Four-Cylinder at $2500 will be oversold early. So write at once foir descriptive booklets and get acquainted with this splendid car. Dealers ^ y u have t* n selling a high grade mation regarding Roadster, Sedan and Limousine to be added to the Moline-Knight line. We will require a limited number of high grade men to market our entire production. Moline Automobile Company East. Moline, Illinois Too many broad generalizations 159 On Ordinary Paper one letter costs +=K What Do You Buy with the Xo of a cent you save? One average letter on a fair -to-middling com- mercial stationery will cost you at the very least 5 cents. This includes stenographer's time, typewriter wear and tear, postage and the office boy's service. Your time in dictation is not counted The same letter on Old Hampshire Bond would cost 5 and 1/10 cents. For 1/10 of a cent more per letter 1/2 a cent on a series of five letters you can have the undeniable prestige and dignity afforded by What better advertising can you buy for a tenth of a cent per letter? For '/io of a cent per letter, your let- ter becomes the peer of any suitably expressing the standards of your business. Firms have been known to register letters to put special delivery stamps on them to announce their coming by telegrams to resort to any number of costly schemes to gel attention for their letters. Why all this when Old Hampshire Bond gets atten- tion by its character? It is the crisp, crackling bond paper used by the kind of men and firms whose mes- sages are important and who do not write for idle or unnecessary reasons. No man who is not proud of his business feels any incentive to use Old Hampshire Bond send fret ihe Old Hampshire book assembled and bound up t We will also send you. from ti will HAMPSHIRE PAPER COMPANY SOUTH HADLEY FALLS. MASS Simple, direct copy, easily read and understood 1 60 PURPOSE OF ADVERTISING COPY 161 Paint Fine-ness House paint, to be good, must be smooth as silk and opaque as ivory. Both qualities result largely from Dutch Boy White Lead sifts through finest silk 28,000 micro- scopic holes to the inch. With Dutch Boy Lin- seed Oil it makes the smoothest, most opaque paint. Dart* By Wkltt ItadwhlH im glance. Unusual words, long involved sentences, and strained, pretentious phrases all obscure the message. Vague generali- zations, such as " Finest Quality,'' " Best in the Market," and many others equally trite and familiar destroy the clearness, because if they convey any message at all, it is too in- exact to make an impres- sion. In general, the writer should take care that the reader be not distracted from the thought to the words that convey the thought. It has long been recognized that an illustra- tion is inefficient if it draws attention away from the copy and bears no neces- sary relation to the mes- sage. In just the same way every word in the copy should be a part of the message. It is nothing in itself. That is why it would not pay to use simplified spelling in advertising. Rec- ognition of the words would be slow and some mental power would be taken away from the understanding of the message itself to a recognition of the symbols. 2. Correctness This indicates why economy demands correctness of lan- guage. The language must be that to which the reader is accustomed, and the majority of people are accustomed to what is correct. Indeed, correctness is only the crystallized Dutch Boy White Leid in tleel kegt, 1 and 100 IE.I. Dutch Boy I "Painting Helju 11," full of point fact*. Include* catalof ol >u. Send ui description of home or roomi to be decorated. NATIONAL LEAD COMPANY Concise copy, well arranged 1 62 ADVERTISING COPY preference of the majority. Advertising copy is not bound by the rigid rules of the rhetorician. If the majority of pos- sible buyers accept a usage as correct, that is sufficient, but they must not be distracted by construction and words that appear to be incorrect. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, advertising copy should con- form strictly to the accepted principles of grammar and word use. What do you ^ to know about Paint/ 3. Conciseness The third and most obvi- ous quality in securing econ- omy of attention is concise- ness. \Yaste words put an unnecessary tax upon the reader. In view of the fact that, unless specially inter- ested, he will not give much time to the reading of any individual advertisement, the message must be put in as few words as can be used. Upon this point it is unnecessary to dwell at length because the high cost of space prompts the advertiser to boil down his message as much as possible. In this one quality his interests and those of the reader are identical. It may be stated, however, that conciseness must not be se- cured at the expense of clearness. Most ambiguities in ad- vertising come from the attempt to say too much in too few words. One case in point is the famous example of the Tur- kish bath proprietor who advertised " Ladies' Department Separate, except on Sundays and holidays." An advertise- ment of a real estate dealer read, " Two Houses, one $5,000, Verbose copy, badly arranged PURPOSE OF ADVERTISING COPY one $4,500. They won't last long." Again, conciseness is dangerous if it results merely in vague generalities about an article. However small the space, room must be found to say something specific anc 1 defi- nite. Effective Qualities Distinc- tiveness The other main effect to be produced by a piece of adver- tising copy is distinctiveness. This is the quality of original- ity that commands the reader's attention in spite of himself. Advertising men usually call it by the vague term " Punch." Sometimes Over-Emphasized There is a general tendency to over-emphasize the impor- tance of distinctiveness and frequently other things more valuable are sacrificed for it. Writers of advertising copy too often attempt to be differ- ent from somebody else or to imitate somebody else without considering whether the result is in itself good, bad, or indif- ferent. A young man set up a busi- Pebeco has the "Punch" It isn t one of chose "lick- and-a-promise" dentifrices that just clean the surface of the teeth and fool you into thinking everything is all right. Pebeco gets down to the cause of decay, which in 95% cd cases is "acid-mouth." "Acid-mouth" can't remain if Pebeco is on the job Pebeco Tooth Paste does all its work in the minute or two you take for brushing your teeth every morning and night Pebeco cleans the teeth It removes tobacco and other odors. It refreshes the mouth It strengthens the gums. // neutralizes the acids 'I m a smoker Pebeco Tooth Paste makes a hit with me he- cause it keeps my teeth free from ugly 'brown spots' and my mouth free from tobacco-breath ' Pebeco is the 100% denti- frice. In extra-large tubes, at all dealers. Ten days' supply and acid test papers to test your mouth for acid and prove the value of Pebeco Sent Free. LEHN & FINK 1 and 3 St. Helen Street Montreal Vigorous, colloquial copy in small newspaper space Christmas Grand Larceny DisHnctiveness has been sought at the expense of economy and good taste. The space is wastefully used 164 Made inLaSdlle, Illinois, byWestclax. YOU awake in the morning, snug and comfy, right where you are. He's standing by your bedside, waiting, friendly, eager to help: "The morning tub makes win- ning men, there's time to get it, says Big Ben." Distinctive copy that has also the quality of economy "A ckan-cut shave makes keen edged men, let's lather well, says Big Ben." "A short, brisk walk puts blood in men let's walk partways, says Big Ben." You try it once, you try it twice best thing you know good old Big Ben ! 165 166 ADVERTISING COPY ness of selling bonds in a conservative New England city of about one hundred thousand population and began to adver- tise his wares in the newspapers. He adopted a conversa- tional style of copy that aimed first of all to create comment. His announcements read somewhat as follows : " I am only 26 years old, but have been selling bonds for 33 years, etc." The copy caused plenty of comment but it did not create sales, for the obvious reason that he had sacrificed everything else for the sake of distinctiveness. People who had money to invest in bonds were not led to feel confidence in him. Another instance of the sacrifice of clearness for the sake of distinctiveness is found in the advertisement of a patent flooring. One sentence read : " Your judgment shall pre- vail, but we are inclined to believe that at least one room will multiply its egotism because of a handsome, wood mosaic floor this spring." Straining of this kind is always fatal to the more important purpose of economy. Distinctiveness is not synonymous with cheap cleverness. Any attempt to " show off " is likely to result fatally. Since distinctiveness is so closely synonymous with in- dividuality, no general principles can be laid down for securing this quality. Sometimes it is secured by some new method of illustration, as the use of shadow pictures by the Community Silver Company some years ago; sometimes by a different method of appeal, such as the dramatic or story form. It may be simply by vigorous, forceful sentence structure or by pic- turesque or slangy language, as in Prince Albert Tobacco. One of the best instances of distinctiveness is in the adver- tising copy of the " Big Ben " clock, where the article is per- sonified and surrounded with an atmosphere of cheerfulness and wide-a\vakeness. The quality of distinctiveness will be referred to again, but it must be emphasized here that economy is a much more important matter and that it mubt not be sacrificed in the attempt to gain distinctiveness. CHAPTER XV STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES OF ADVERTISING COPY The Functions of an Advertisement In securing the economy of attention which is so important a quality of advertising copy there are certain structural prin- ciples that need to be observed. Before these can be taken up intelligently, however, we must have a common understand- ing of the functions of an advertisement. These have been touched upon in the section on psychological factors but it is well to review them from the standpoint of the copy-writer. It is frequently said that an advertisement is to be seen, read, and believed. In view of the fact that its ultimate pur- pose is to influence the reader to buy, this definition of its functions seems inadequate. It is safer to consider it as a sales appeal more or less complete and to say that it should attract, arouse desire and confidence, and stimulate action. i. Attraction Attraction means first of all getting the reader's attention away from other messages the reading columns or other advertisements and directing it to our message. The dis- play of the advertisement often does this in part and in fact must usually be relied upon to do it in large part. In the chapters on psychology and display many mechanical means of getting attention are discussed. But it is not enough to attract the reader's attention to the advertisement. He must be attracted to the substance of the 167 l68 ADVERTISING COPY message to the article advertised. This is a task for the copy, either as a part of the display in the form of a head- line, or as a part of the text pure and simple. A point of con- tact must be made between the reader and the article advertised. An advertisement headed " Be a Wise Woman ; Guard Your Purse " might conceivably attract readers, but if the message had to do with corsets, the attraction could not easily be re- lated to it. It does not have so close a connection with the subject of corsets as with a dozen other subjects, such as wrist bags and savings banks. " The Ne\v Silhouette/' on the other hand, might easily be related to a message about corsets. Attraction must be to the article advertised. In most cases, a weak attraction that is relevant should be preferred to a strong attraction that is irrelevant. 2. Arousing Desire When we speak of desire we mean the desire to possess the article advertised. The motive may be purely intellectual, or it may be wholly or partly emotional. If the article is a cash register, it will be desired as an aid to the more efficient and economical handling of business; if a talking machine, it will be desired as an added enjoyment of life. The broad distinction between intellectual and emotional desires leads us to classify advertisements as reason- why and human interest, and as such they will later be discussed separately. For pres- ent purposes it is enough to say that the possible buyer should be made to u-ant the article. This usually involves the selection and presentation of " talk- ing-points," that is to say, the distinctive points of superiority of an article. These include low first cost, economy in use, greater beauty or style, greater safety or comfort, and an in- finite number of others. They can usually be determined only after a careful analysis of the market and comparison with competing products. One of the most essential factors in the PRINCIPLES OF ADVERTISING COPY 169 merchandizing plan is the choice of talking-points, as was pointed out in the earlier sections of this book. When these " talking-points " have been selected they must be so presented that the reader will recognize the distinctive superiority of the article and want it. 3. Creating Confidence Even this is not enough. The reader must feel not only that he wants the article, but that he should have it. He must have confidence that it is as represented and that its purchase would be wise. In the whole campaign this may sometimes be accomplished by the simple repetition of a claim. In the individual appeal it is largely a question of proof by means of evidence. 4. Stimulating Action The last function is to make the reader buy or at least to influence him toward buying so that the sale can be made later, when circumstances are favorable. The other three functions, it is true, lead in this direction, but some additional stimulus is usually necessary to crystallize desire and confidence into ac- tion. This stimulus may be in the form of a direct command : " Take home a box today," " Ask your grocer," " Look for the trade-mark," etc. Or it may simply be a way of making action easy, as by giving a list of dealers or attaching a coupon. A third form of stimulus is the use of an inducement, such as a booklet, a statement that the offer is for a limited time only, or the like. The three methods are often employed together. The advertisement on page 171 will illustrate all four func- tions of a sales appeal. Here our attention is attracted by the picture of a hand- some library table, and by the question, " Will you drive six screws to save $13.25?" The universal instinct for saving 170 ADVERTISING COPY prompts us to read further. Our desire is aroused by the picture and the description, and by the opportunity for sav- ing. Indeed, the very things that attract us make a beginning in arousing our desire. Confidence is created by explaining the reason for the saving and by offering money back to any \vho may be dissatisfied. Last we have a stimulus to action in the form of a free book and full directions for requesting it. Although the complete sales appeal performs all these func- tions, the individual advertisement does not always attempt them. The mail order or inquiry-getting advertisement does, but in most general advertising the task is distributed over a number of pieces of copy, each one of which has to do only that part of the work that it can do efficiently. Publicity campaigns often contain " teasers " - advertise- ments that arouse curiosity in an unnamed and undescribed article. Again, advertisements are often merely reminders, such as " Use Sapolio," " Drink White Rock," " Wilson's - that's all." In some campaigns whole series of advertisements are devoted to showing new uses or new recipes for an article, so as to increase desire for it. Other series simply pile proof upon proof to increase confidence. It may fairly be said, however, that considering the limita- tions of space and the demands on a reader's time, the nearer an advertisement can come to giving a complete sales appeal the more efficient it is. The following principles of construc- tion will therefore be applied mainly to advertisements which attempt to perform all four functions : attracting, arousing de- sire and confidence, and stimulating action. Their applica- tion to advertisements which perform only part of this work is a simple matter. Principles i. Unity The first principle of construction is Unity or concentration. It demands that nothing shall be placed in the advertisement Will You Drive Six Screws To Save $13.25? It takes six minutes to drive these six screws. Now, if your time is worth more than $2.21 a minute, don't read any further. This advertisement is for those who want high grade furniture at rock bottom prices, who lore beau- tiful things in the home, who appreciate choice designs, know solid worth, and approve of a selling plan that saves them fully one-half store prices. COME-PACET Sec- tional Furniture is such furniture. Take this table, for example. It is Quarter SawnWhite Oak, with rich, deep nat- ural markings, honestly made. Can be beauti- fully finished in your choice of eight finishes at actual costof finishing. Measure out its dimen- sions with a tape meas- ure compare it with an/ piece equally -good, at any dealer's. It saves _. . you more than one-half . Sold on a Year s Trial. Money Back Any Tune. How! By coming to you in five sections, packed in a compact crate, shipped at knock- down rates. Come-packt keeps no men on the road, has no stores, no dealers. You save all these big savings freight, traveling men's and Heicbt. 30 inches; lop, 44x28 inches; lets 2M inchc: Two drawers, choice of Old Briis or Wood Dnwei Shippinj weight. ISO Ibi. dealers' expenses and profits- total of one-half or more. With a screw driver and six minutes, you buy a J25 table for $11.75. Honest furniture and an honest selling plan, as thousands have proved. Our free catalog the most beautiful furniture book ever given away tells all the details, gives you a choice of more than 400 pieces, and color plates the exquisite finish and upholster- Write for thin beautiful big book to. day. Mailed free. COME-PACKT FURNITURE CO., 107 Fernwood Avenue, TOLEDO, O. You buy at factory prices. Come-packt Sectional Furnitu not handled by dealers. Complete sales appeal 171 172 ADVERTISING COPY that does not contribute to its one central message. This principle holds good for the display as well as the copy. In the text it means that one central idea shall be impressed. Others may be brought in but they should be few and should be subordinated to the important main idea. One of the commonest violations of this principle and one of the weakest forms of advertising is catalogue copy. This is not the kind of copy used in catalogues, but the kind that attempts to mention every good quality of the article and impress them upon the reader. The result is that none is im- pressed. " Bon Ton corsets are the most perfect-titling, hy- gienic, fashionable, and highest grade corsets in the world," claims the manufacturer. Which of these qualities is most important? That one should have been chosen and the copy concentrated on it. Even if they seem equally important, each piece of copy should have been built around one of them. A manufacturer of silk gloves devoted not merely one piece of copy but a whole season's copy to a single important talk- ing-point, the fact that his gloves had double-tips and there- fore the ends of the fingers would last as long as the rest of the gloves. The following season he concentrated upon the guarantee that was placed on each pair, and merely mentioned the double-tips. Another season he concentrated upon the stimulus : " Look for the trade-mark embroidered in the hem." This is an extreme instance of the application of the principle of unity, but its success goes far toward its justifi- cation. Further proof of the inferiority of " catalogue copy " may be found by comparison of the two following pieces of copy: The Dominant Six The greatest piece of machinery that ever \vent upon the highways and the most luxurious carriage. Fastest get away; smoothest starting and stop- ping; power without noise; best hill climber; easiest car to drive; safest investment. . . . PRINCIPLES OF ADVERTISING COPY 173 Why is your family safest in a Packard? Why is a Packard at its best after thousands of miles of hard usage on the road ? Why will a Packard run so long without mechanical culti- vation ?...., etc. Because Endurance far exceeding requirements is the stand- ard to which every Packard is built. The first of these pieces of copy makes no clear-cut impres- sion on the reader. It simply gives him a vague mass of claims that could just as well be made by any other automobile ad- vertiser. The second piece of copy impresses one distinctive message that may lead the reader to " Ask the man who owns one." Frequently the article has one distinctive point of superiority over its competitors. In this case the problem of unity is simply a matter of concentrating on this one point. Thus Pebeco tooth paste continually hammers in the fact that it " neutralizes acid-mouth " and merely mentions that it has other qualities a dentifrice should have. Valspar varnish con- centrates on the fact that water, even when boiling, won't make it turn white. In this connection it should be remembered that once an advertiser has sufficiently driven home his great distinctive talking-point, he can concentrate upon a point that was oriain- allv a minor point, and simply remind readers of the big one by putting it in the form of a slogan. Ivory Soap formerly impressed people with the fact that it floated and was pure. More recently each piece of copy has concentrated upon some one use for Ivory Soap, as in washing laces, washing furni- ture and woodwork, washing statuary, or the like. The original talking-points alternate as slogans: " Ivory Soap it floats "; " Ivory Soap 9Q 44 ^no% pure." Unity not only requires concentration on one talking-point. It requires approach to the reader from one angle at a time. 174 ADVERTISING COPY This demand is violated in the advertisement for Hygienic Kalsomine, which begins : Its sanitary feature kills every germ-like creature. It beau- tifies the home. The two appeals are incongruous, and do not help each other. One must be subordinated before the advertisement can be an effective unit. Again the point of contact with the reader must not be too far from the article or there can be no unity. When some great event, such as a war, occurs, it is a temptation to begin the advertisement with some reference to it on the ground that it will probably attract attention. But it usually proves a strain to relate this beginning to the real subject of the mes- sage if there is no natural relation between the war and the article advertised. The advertisement on page 175 illustrates lack of unity through the introduction of ideas that are only distantly related to the subject. There is another side to the principle of unity. It demands that everything be included that is essential to the impressing of the main idea. This means that vague, unsupported claims are not enough. They should be backed by concrete instances or tangible proofs. It means that if the main idea would arouse suspicion, that suspicion should be allayed. Thus when the Mark Cross razor was announced as a $5 razor at the in- troductory price of 25 cents, there had to be a guarantee of quality and a promise of " money back if dissatisfied/' before the appeal could be complete. The danger of saying too little is small. The writer's chief concern in observing the principle of unity is to have one main idea and concentrate upon it. Whether it is a single mail- order advertisement, or one of a long series of general adver- tisements ; whether it contains a complete sales appeal or only one of the functions, it should have one clear-cut message. Painted by C- H T.iffs. Copyright 1913, by The Kcpublic Rubber Co. pDOGDESS Our wonderful nation is an ever-growing, ever-progressing one. We have planned, we have dug. we have plowed, we have builded, we have mined, we have made and we have sold. We have neither inherited our wealth nor have we laid tribute upon weaker nations. But behold I We are the richest of them all. Such is progress the spirit that has made this nation tha leader of nations. Progress demanded something to replace "Old Dobbin," and American .genius replied with the first crude automobile. This evolved into the modern motor car, powerful and massive So Progress demanded a safe-guard. Game the often-inade'. quate metal studs, and the first far-from-satisfactory rubber fenobs. And Progress called once more. Then was invented the Republic Staggard Tread Tire, tho tire that gave a real protection against skidding, an-all-to-be- desired brake control, and a much-increased mileage truly The Tire Perfect. And Progress looked, and was pleased. THE REPUBLIC RUBBER CO. YOUNGSTOWN, OHIO Republic Staggrd Tread. Pat. Sept. 15-22. 1908. Violation of unity through use of ideas not closely related to the subject 175 176 ADVERTISING COPY The Come-Packt advertisement on page 171 is a good illus- tration of unity. The examples on pages 176 and 177 also illustrate the right application of this principle. That's the Which you will always find on the genuine Fownes gloves, except our white dress gloves, with pearl buttons, hich may be identified by the name Fownes in the wrist. r FbWNE\ GLOVES are always sold under their own name. Whether the words on the r U sr% o r( TOWNES FOWNES FOWNES .1 c;asp are MAKE, or LONDON, or OWN MAKE the famous "paring knife" trade-mark and the word Fownes in the wrist are assur- ance of glove value, the world over. of our heavy two dollar street sloves for Fall wear. If you an r With Fownes quality, you will be surprised at the endurano ny ol these gloves and pleajed with their fit, comfort and style If you have difficulty securing the genuine Fownes, write us. giving the names of the shops vmted, and we will see that you are supplied FOWNES BROTHERS & CO 119 West 4Uth St., New Unified in copy and unusual in display 2. Coherence The second great principle of construction is that of Co- herence. It demands that the material be so arranged and con- nected that the reader may progress logically from beginning to end without serious tax upon his attention. There must be no serious breaks or gaps in the message. Coherence involves three things : logical order, right construction, close connec- tion. Which Will You Keep? "Acid-Mouth" or Sound Teeth? Y OU can't have both " acid -mouth 1 ' and sound teeth. They don't go together. 4 * Acid-mouth" gradually but surely ^ats away the enamel and lets decay strike into the soft interior of the tooth. In time you won't have a sound tooth left unless you remove the cause of the trouble. The ure way to counteract "acid-mouth" is by the regular daily ue of PCBCCO TOOTH PASTE Pebeco is the scientific dentifrice designed to neu- tralize the mouth -acids formed by food -ferment. By doing this it removes what authorities claim is the chief cause of tooth- decay. Pebeco also cleans whitens the teeth, purifies the mouth, drives out bad odors and tastes,and leaves a feeling of clean freshness that noth- ing else can equal. The delightful tin- gle of its taste is a revelation. You are invited U.e '/3 of Bru.hful to find out whether you have "acid-mouth," as 9 out of 10 people are said to have. If you have 4 ' acid-mouth, ' f Pebeco is a necessity Send for Free Ten-Day Trial Tube of Pebeco and Acid Tctt Papers The Test Papers will show you whether you too have "acid-mouth" and how Pebeco counter- acts it Pebeco orteiOated in the hyjn- mic laboratories o( P Beiersdorf & Co . Hamburg. Germany, and is sold everywhere in extra lariat' si zr tubes As only one third of a brushful is used at a time Pebeco saves money as well as.te.eth. LEHN & FINK Manufacturing Chemists 120 William Street, New York frtduitr, ./ Ithn Sr fink*, Rivirii Talcum Well-unified copy containing a complete sales appeal 177 178 ADVERTISING COPY The order in a piece of copy is often that of the sales func- tions. The early part attracts ; the middle arouses desire and confidence; the ending stimulates. Sometimes, however, this order is changed for good reason. And in the advertisement that does not attempt to perform all the sales functions another order must be used. The commonest are the narrative, the descriptive and the climactic. The narrative order takes facts in the order of their happen- ing. An article may be shown to be good by giving the his- tory of inventions leading up to it, or the history of the com- pany itself. It may give in order the processes of making it or the steps taken in using it. It closely resembles the process of induction considered in the next chapter. The descriptive order gives the main point which sums up the distinctive qualities of the article and follows this with the details that support the main assertion. It corresponds closely with the deductive method explained in the next chapter. The climactic order simply takes the various ideas and ar- ranges them in order of their importance. Often we have a series of questions, to be answered by one main statement; or a series of reasons for a statement already made. The climactic order is useful here. Whatever the order chosen, it must be maintained through- out. There can be no haphazard drifting and shifting from one idea to another. In the advertisement " A Giant is Awak- ing " (page 180) we have a metaphorical statement that ap- peals to our imagination, followed by a collection of dry-as- dust figures and then another passage of inspiration. The mind cannot adjust to these changes readily. The order would be improved by putting the statistics down toward the end of the text. Coherence is further aided by keeping one point of view and one form of construction. The mind works according to habit and after it has moved once or twice in a certain groove, it The Winged Message Noah's messenger was a dove. In Solomon's time, pigeons were trained to carry messages. Brutus used them at the siege of Modena. They served the Turks in their fights against the Crusaders. In mediaeval wars they were more useful than ever before. France had a carrier-pigeon mail service, with messages reduced by photography and read through a microscope. Even today carrier pigeons are utilized as news-bearers in isolated parts of Europe. In America, the land of the tele- phone, the carrier pigeon is bred only for racing. The winged word has taken the place of the winged mes- senger. Pigeons may fly more than a mile a minute, but the telephone is as quick as speech itself. The dove is the emblem of peace.- The telephone is the instrument of peace. The telephone lines of the Bell System unite a hundred million people in one national family. AMERICAN TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH COMPANY AND ASSOCIATED COMPANIES One Policy One System Universal Service Publicity copy of distinctive kind illustrating the use of the narrative order 179 -^L y r MASSACHUSETTS tijjjj. MauachnaetU, 8266 square miles, population, 3.336.416. Estimated property value. $4.956.578.913 Montana, 146.080 square miles, population, 376,053. Estimated property value, $746.311.213. Why has Massachusetts this advantage? Because population makes land values From 1900 to 1910 the population of the United States increased 21 per cent. The population of ~the Great Northwest, including North and South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, Washington and Oregon, jumped 71 per cent v It is the fastest growing section of the entire United States. Why ? Because here is everything that makes for solid, substantial wealth timber, mineral*, water pooler,- irrigable land*, flock raiting, an*urpat*ej farming facilitie* and three tranicontinrntal railroad*. Settlers are now flowing into this Northwest country in thousands. Cities are springing upas by magic. With the opening of the Panama Canal, Northwest populations will increase in leaps and bounds. We have seen this time coming for several years. We have bought outright the choicest building lots in the most vigorous and logical of Northwest young cities. Here is the Northwest Townsite proposition to you : We are offering building lots in five of these cities, located in three different states, on the most practical real estate investment plan ever devised. Maybe all, possibly two or three, at if ait one, of the.se five cities is destined to develop into a Denver, a Seattle, a Portland, Ore. These are the five cities in this offer: Bend, Ore.; Roundup, Mont ; Redmond, Ore.; Vale, Ore.; Lemmon, on the border line between South and North Dakota. In *ach of th,,e cilitt we has* at prtient 170 baildiaf tot*. W* will mtll-firit com*, firit itrv*Jon* lot in each of th*t* fie* cititi in thtt* thr** mtatet for $5OO$SOO for the *ntir* five lot* parable in initallmenti and fr** from taxen unlit paid for. Should lie purchase! die before the whole cam is paid.'but-afl*i pjymt >250. we will deliver deed] to til 5 lots in 5 cities in 3 states, $500 la considering tbU opportunity, remember the histories of Denver, Spokane. Seattle. Portland. Omaha. Ther ofice were raw frontier town*, now the* stand for millions on millions of dollars. The fact* about thi land are abounding. You tthould read thm facts. Fill in the coupon below or write us a personal letter for full particulars. Tbu kind el opportunity comes bat once in a feaeratlon. Don't wait. Wfiie at once tor our book. The Northwest Townsite Co., 320 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. W* Print thii Coupon for Yoar Ct NORTHWEST TOWNSITE CO., Philadelphia. P> r>vr nccnicnc* Namf Kn Strvrt about the five towns mentioned In roar advert bodr'i loi April. III). >nd TOOT plan fo> inveit tood that this it-quest Inrolvei no obligation ol an nee lull pinictilan: letnent in Eer- y kind on my pan. Pnnnfy Sttl p r> Incoherent copy 180 PRINCIPLES OF ADVERTISING COPY 181 moves more easily in that groove than in some other. A question followed by another question is more coherent than a question followed by an assertion. It is for the sake of co- herence that we find so many advertisements that contain only a string of " Becauses." Too many sentences and paragraphs of the same construction become monotonous and therefore ineffective; three or four can be safely used. So great similarity of construction is not essential. It is advisable, however, to keep the same subject throughout. If " you " (the reader) is the subject at the start, " you " should remain the subject until the end. Similarly an advertisement that begins in the first person should keep the first person until there is some logical reason for a change. The final aid to coherence is the use of good connectives. Even when ideas are arranged in logical order and constructed similarly there is need of connectives to bridge the small gaps between them. These connectives are of four kinds: 1. Xttmerical ; as first, second, etc. This type is sometimes useful, but has a mechanical effect and deadens interest. 2. Conjunctives ; as and, but, however, nevertheless, etc. These are most commonly used. The looser conjunctions, and and but, should be avoided as far as possible and more exact connectives employed in their stead. 3. Demonstratives ; as this and that. 4. Repetitions of words. This last method should be more widely used. It is least mechanical and most emphatic. The following example illustrates its effectiveness : The story of every child is a story of growth and change A change too gradual and subtle for even the watchful eye of a mother to detect, or for memory to recall. Only in pictures can the story be told, and a record of the childish features and expressions kept for all time. A good photograph now and then, will mean everything to you and to your children, in after years. Can you afford it? you afford to spend time and energy on home-made soup when you can buy Campbell's? Can you afford to have the maid fuss and simmer and stew over it and nurse a chronic grouch? Can you afford delay or uncer- tainty at the dinner hour; when you might be sure of the right 'soup rightly made and right on the minute? If'you can afford to keep house without Campbell's Soups, you must be mighty rich in time and patience. Aiparagu* Beet Bouillon Celer, Chicken Clam Chowde CooMtnme Jul.enne Mock Tunic Mulligatawny Chicken-Gumoo Mutton Broth (Okra) Oi Tail Clam Bouillon Pt Pepper Pot Printiniei Tomato Tomato-Okra Vegetable Vermicelli-Tomato Look for the red-and-white label Coherence through the use of parallelism. Seriously weakened by border 182 PRINCIPLES OF ADVERTISING COPY 183 3. Emphasis The final constructive principle is that of emphasis. It demands that the most important ideas be given greatest prom- inence. In advertising, this commonly results in the use of display type or other mechanical means to make the important CLOSED CARS BROUGHAMS LIMOUSINES LANDAULETS Four or SU Cylinder. Forty or Fitly Horee;< YOUR CLOSED CAB is an intimate index to your char- acter it expresses to your friends and business associates your tastes and tendencies. IT IS IMPORTANT therefore that you make a wise selection far more important than is your choice of a touring car THE LATTER corresponds to your business dress you select it according to the work you have to do with it. THE DUTY THAT your closed car does is predetermined and it must be perfectly "groomed" Uses, color and finish harmonious. EACH GARFORD CAR is a de- light to the eye in line and color harmony. Its reputation is built on its service. Its comfort and elegance anyone who enters it will instantly appreciate. You can afford to own no other. Broad.y t 6rd St. Brooklyn: Newark: Fulton St. & Bedford Av. S; Bread Si. Boston: 915 Boyliton St. Unemphatic copy ideas stand out boldly. Even single words are put in bold face style or italics or are underlined to emphasize them. But the possibility of these methods of emphasis should not cause us to neglect the methods that are part of the work of con- struction. 184 ADVERTISING COPY Three elements at the most can be emphasized by display. Each paragraph of the text yes, each sentence has its im- portant idea. Emphasis requires that these shall be given most space and the most prominent position that is, the beginning or end. So in the copy as a whole, regardless of display, the important ideas should have most space (measured in terms of words, not merely inches or agate lines ) and the best posi- tions. In the advertisement for Gar ford closed cars (page 183) it will be noted that the first few words in each paragraph are capitalized for the sake of emphasis. They are not in all cases important words, however, and they suffer doubly from their position and display. " The Latter " is merely a connective, and connectives should rarely be emphasized. Wherever pos- sible they should be put within the sentence. The end of the copy is weak. It contains a negative warning, instead of a positive stimulus. It may safely be said that the beginning of an advertisement should contain an idea that is most important to the reader. That is one reason why the name or slogan of the advertiser should rarely appear there. The ending may contain the idea that is of the most importance to the advertiser which is usually the stimulus to action together with the advertiser's address. Proportion is largely a matter of judgment. The most frequent violation of it is in giving undue space to attacks on the advertiser's competitors or other ideas that are at best negative in value. To sum up then, the copy in an advertisement should per- form as much of the sales appeal as is consistent with the complete sales plan and the nature of the campaign. It should be unified; that is, concentrated upon one main idea, with all non-essentials omitted. It should be coherent ; that is, ar- ranged in logical order, and so constructed and connected that 4)1 I Both are Caruso The Victor Record of Caruso's voice is just as truly Caruso as Caruso him- self. It actually is Caruso his own mag- nificent voice, with all the wonderful power and beauty of tone that make him the greatest of all tenors. Everyone of the hundred and twenty Caruso records brings you not only his art, but his personality. When you hear Caruso on theVictrolain your own home, you hear him just as truly as if you were listening to him in the Metropolitan Opera House. The proof is in the hearing. Any Victor dealer in any city in the world will gladly play for you Victor Records by Caruso or any other of the world's greatest artists. There are Victors and Victrolasingreatvarietyof styles from $10 to $200. Always use Victor Machines with Victor Records and Victor Needles- Victor Talking Machine Co., Camden, N. J., U. S. A. Well-unified, coherent, and emphatic copy 186 ADVERTISING COPY the reader will read uninterruptedly from beginning to end. It should be emphatic; that is, the beginning and end should contain the most important ideas and all the ideas should be given space commensurate with their importance. CHAPTER XVI REASON-WHY COPY The Nature of Reason- Why Copy The type of copy called reason-why copy makes its main appeal to the reason, rather than to the senses or emotions. It lays its chief stress upon creating confidence, or convincing, and such desire as it arouses is largely intellectual. It cor- responds to the forms of literary composition called exposition and argument ; whereas human-interest copy corresponds more nearly to description and narration. Even though reason-why copy presents a logical argument it need not do so in a combative way. It may be quiet and persuasive. But it must always be logical. Sometimes it may include a great deal of the human-interest element. In the piece of copy on page 221 it is hard to tell where emotion leaves off and reason begins. The distinction between reason-why and human-interest is often one of convenience only. Uses of Reason-Why Copy Reason-why copy has a larger field of usefulness than hu- man-interest. It is almost always safe. Competitive condi- tions demand that the advertiser create a desire not merely for the type of product he sells, but for his individual product. The distinction between this and a similar product is usually one that can be seen by the mind only. The pleasures of rid- ing in an automobile are much the same, no matter what the car is, but no two makes of cars are precisely alike in their 187 188 ADVERTISING COPY talking-points. Price, quality, power, cost of tip-keep, and many other considerations lead to a man's choice of a par- ticular make. Even in the case of articles that are bought solely because of a sense or emotional desire, it is frequently necessary for reason to justify the choice before the purchase will be effected. Even beer has been advertised on the reason-why basis by at- tempting to show its food value. This is an extreme instance that simply proves the universal tendency to reinforce a desire by the intellect. (See " Use of the Rationalization Appeal,'' page 90.) Ordinarily such articles as candy, tobacco, facial creams, and the like are advertised by a human-interest appeal. The following classification of articles indicates those which are most appropriately advertised by reason-why copy. 1. Articles that are bought for business, agricultural or industrial purposes; such as machinery, office appli- ances, agricultural implements, tools, etc. 2. Articles for building purposes; such as roofing, wall board, lumber, etc. 3. Articles that are bought not for their own sake but as accessories; such as automobile tires, lubricants, rub- ber boots and shoes, etc. 4. Articles in fields where competition is keen; such as automobiles, safety razors, dentifrices, etc. 5. Articles bought for investment purposes; such as stocks and bonds, real estate, advertising space, etc. There are many other cases in which reason-why copy may be demanded by market conditions or by the particular class of buyers to be reached. The Process of Deliberation Psychologists call reason-why copy " long-circuit copy " because it involves deliberation and choice, which are functions REASON-WHY COPY 189 of the higher centers of the brain. Response to it is slower than to human-interest copy. Usually reason-why copy involves four processes which cor- respond closely to the functions of a sales appeal ; the only dif- ference, in fact, is that all of them are mental processes. They are as follows : 1. The mind must recognize a need. 2. It must see that the article advertised will supply it. 3. It must recognize its superiority over competing articles. 4. it must make a decision. The merchandising situation of the article has much to do with the emphasis laid upon the different processes. In the case of a new invention or one that is not yet in general use, such as a business phonograph or dictaphone, or a new book stress must be laid on the first and second processes. In the case of an article which is already needed and for which the need is recognized automobile tires and typewriters the third and fourth processes receive greatest emphasis. Most articles, in fact, pass through about the same advertis- ing history, consisting of certain broad phases. The first phase is the educational, in which the advertising copy tries to show people that this new type of article is one that they should have. The automobile, for example, had first to demonstrate its practicability. Advertising copy in the early days showed the automobile climbing Pike's Peak or descend- ing the Capitol steps at Washington. The second stage is the more strictly competitive stage. People have discovered their need of an article and have become convinced of its practi- cability. It is necessary for them to recognize the merits of the individual article rather than of the type. There is fre- quently a still later stage or publicity stage in which the great- est stress is laid upon suggesting action. One method of constructing a reason-why appeal that is 190 ADVERTISING COPY complete in its processes is called the " predicament " method or formula. As its name implies, it begins by placing the reader in a predicament, which he may or may not actually have experienced, and then proceeds to extricate him from the difficulty by means of the article advertised. He is made to see himself confronted with the necessity of getting out a large number of letters with his regular stenographer ill or away on a vacation, and the others all busy. He finds the business phonograph is the only thing that can enable him to get his mail out on time. Or, the housewife is made to see herself confronted by unexpected guests for whom her regular marketing has not made provision. Canned soup or baked beans or potted ham gets her out of the difficulty. This pre- dicament formula is applicable to many types of advertising. Often it involves the use of human interest in its appeal, but is, nevertheless, to be considered a type of reason-why copy. Eliminating Alternatives Since the important part of the work of reason-why copy is to make the reader choose the advertised article in prefer- ence to competitors, it might be thought that the end can be reached by the elimination of the alternatives. The danger in attacking competitors is that the purposes of the first two processes of deliberation may be defeated. Attacks on com- petitors often weaken confidence in the class as a whole. They make the reader think that he may be defrauded in his purchase and perhaps he had better get along without the article or any similar article. Moreover, copy attacking competitors is likely to violate the principle of emphasis, which demands that stress be laid upon the things that are important. A positive appeal is almost always more important than a negative warning. Attacks on competitors may sometimes be used in the case of a type of article that is well established and habitually bought. Even here it is bad unless the elimination of alterna- REASON-WHY COPY tives leads to acceptance of the article advertised. If there are only two roads a man may fol- low, it is just as useful to warn him away from the wrong one as to direct him to the right one. Yet, even in religion, the appeal to do the right thing because of the hope of future reward has taken the place of a warning away from the wrong thing be- cause of the fear of punish- ment. It is possible to attack the habit of drinking coffee if the avoidance of coffee leads to the substitute of " Postum." When several new coffee sub- stitutes have entered the field, this appeal may no longer be effective and any new coffee substitute would probably do well to lay most stress upon the positive benefits. Similar principles apply to so-called " substitute " copy w-here the advertiser warns the reader against imitations of his product. The buying habit must be strong before a warn- ing against substitutes can be effective. In the case of an article bought but seldom, it is more profitable to show the need and to show that the ar- Drops of Prevention Ward off disease by dropping a little Lysol in water used in washing, wher- ever there is the slightest danger of germs or. infection. Lysol should be used regularly in your household, as it is in practically every hospital in the country. Disease can scarcely enter a house guarded by the physician's favorite Antiseptic, Disinfectant and Germicide Lysol is the standard antiseptic in maternity .cases and is therefore safest for every, day use. Five times more powerful as an antiseptic than carbolic acid; better in every way than danger- ous bichloride of mercury tablets. It is the ideal disinfectant for house- hold and personal hygiene. A small bottle lasts for months and is practical insurance against heavy A medical bills, loss of health, and worse. A Three Size*, 25c. SOc, $1.00 J^L Sold by Draggittt Evtrywhtr* fjk IMPORTANT Be sure you get Lysol BB itself. It is put up in round bottles with Vv the signature of Lehn & Fink on the label. Lysol is safe and will safeguard you; the imitations may not. Helpful Booklet, "Home Hyfiene," Muled FREE Send your name and address 'for the Lysol book- let. It is full of practical helps for preserving health. Address Leka 4 Fink, M Th f .miSf Bt 120WilliSt., NewToik Subordination of the " substitute " appeal 192 ADVERTISING COPY tide fills the need, than to concentrate upon the warning against imitations. " Beware of Imitations " is a weak form of reason-why copy. Even where the merchandising situation indicates that the greatest loss suffered by the article is a loss through substitutes or imitations, it is still wise to use a com- plete, positive appeal and insert the warning at the close as a part of the stimulus to action. Narrowing the Choice Reason-why copy always leads to a choice. It is often help- ful to narrow the choice to several types of articles sold by the advertiser. The personal salesman of books frequently gets the prospect to show a preference for one of several bindings, before the prospect has indicated any decision as to whether he will buy the book at all. Indeed he has made no decision, but by fixing his mind on the choice between differ- ent bindings he leaps over the other decision. \Yithout know- ing it, he has decided to buy the article. In the same way, an advertiser of cigars by mail may invite the reader to decide between two shapes of the same cigar. This is a simple choice and in making it the reader is led to choose the brand itself. Instances might be multiplied where the reason-why copy apparently does not ask the reader to choose the type of article, but rather to choose between two or three forms of the same type between shaving soap in the form of stick, powder, or cream; between tires with plain, all-weather, or non-skidding treads. The principle involved is the same in the case of reason- why copy that shows the " deadly parallel." It is, in a sense, a warning against substitutes. The advertiser places his article beside the unnamed articles bought as substitutes and asks to have an intelligent comparison made. The choice is nar- rowed to the advertiser's article and something so inferior that there can be no question of the decision. TAKE YOUR CHOICE After Reading these Undeniable Facts It's mighty serious work to fight infection. A pin prick may lead to blood poison. The scratch of a rusty nail may bring into your system ihe germs of deadly lock -jaw A distinguished physician once said . "What medical men most desire in the remedies they use is effectiveness and reliability, m a word, confi- dence " The name D1OXOGEN spells confidence in Peroxide of Hydrogen, the uncertainty (a marked characteristic of ordinary Peroxide) has been eliminated. It you have a bottle of Dioxogen handy doubt and fear are replaced by confidence, confidence in the quality of the product and confidence in the work that it will do. Dioxogen is the one reliable Peroxide of Hydrogen. You may be told that Dioxogen costs more than ordinary Peroxide (the kind that s sotd because it s cheap), and that the substitute is "Just as good. ' Is it? Here are the facts take your choice. Compart "ordinary peroxide" with Dioxogen . a** lor it *** A conf'dftcr, 6> name THE OAKLAND CHEMICAL CO., 98 Front Street, New York - Strong reason-why copy using the " deadly parallel " 193 194 ADVERTISING COPY Evidence All reason-why copy should be based upon evidence, either stated or implied preferably stated. Evidence is of three main types : 1. Tests and guarantees 2. Testimony 3. Facts and figures The best kind of evidence is that which the reader himself supplies from his own experience and knowledge. Of almost equal value are tests that he can make himself, such as the litmus paper test for acid mouth in the case of Pebeco and the blow pipe test on white lead in the case of the National Lead Company. Even though the reader does not actually make the test, the advertiser's willingness gives him confidence in the article. The same thing is true of approval and money back offers or hard and fast guarantees played up in the copy. Testimony, the second class of evidence, consists of the statement of those who have used the article and are in a posi- tion to speak of its merits. This type of evidence has lost much of its force for thinking people because of the fact that it has been used in connection with medical advertising of doubtful character and because testimonials are frequently given by people who have not used the article and are only trying to gain a little notoriety. The intrinsic value of the testimony that purports to come from actresses, baseball players, and people prominent in the amusement world is al- most negligible. Such testimonials have weight, but it is frequently by their appeal to the emotion, rather than by their appeal to the reason. The only kind of testimony that is really valuable in a strictly reason-why appeal is that which comes from people of unquestioned reputation for integrity, who are qualified to speak with authority. The testimony of architects and The Significance of Performance When 1 16 cars of the same make run 100 miles all the way on low gear under all con- ditions of weather, including high tempera- tures, at lofty altitudes, over rough roads When 94 cars of the same make average 32.8 miles each on one gallon of gasoline, under all sorts of road and weather condi- When. owners of cars of this same make show an average life per set of tires of more than 8000 miles in ordinary, every-day use (Actual rec years show in outran mileage of S996 per set of tires.) When scientific tests show that of the power developed by the engine of this car 84.4% is transformed into motion and only 15.6 taken up by friction (This test was made oy mechanical engineers at the Worcester where friction reduces power. Most cars lose more than /J% in the friction of the tires on the road alone. The Franklin delivers all but l!.6of the power developed.) When the experience of owners of this, same car shows from 400 to 900 miles per gallon of lubricating oil ailions, the amage consumption for 100 miles by lit cars was equivalent la 336 miles at a speed of 42 miles per hour ) When five such feats any one of them remarkable in itself are all performed by the same car, the significance of the per- formance to you, as a car buyer, is this: The Franklin is an all-round car proved at every point power, efficiency, economy, etc. 1 he Franklin is presented to you on its performance not on And the whole record goes back to the fundamental principl which the Franklin organization has been at work for thirteen years tific light weight built around the direct- air-cooled engine. The basic advantages of direct-air-cooling are: (1) nothing to of more than 100 unnecessary parts, (4} sheer engine efficiency and power* Light Weight \Vith no water, pump, radiator, pip- ing, etc., weight is greatly reduced, not TI> f r a only in the engine but in the supporting S' There is only one Franklin chassis. But there are five styles of body including three enclosed types. Direct-air-cooling makes it practicable to run the Franklin, even in the coldest winter or the hottest summer weather, without the slightest cooling trouble. The enclosed Franklin are particularly adapted for all-year-round use. In every particular of power, economy and efficiency they are identical with the open cars. The ap- pointments are complete and designed for the Style and Comfort The style and comfort of the Franklin can be demonstrated by performance quite as well as the the dealer in your city to show you the car. Then Combined with this light weight is flexibil- your ncighboi hood. Then turn back on Reason-why copy based on the evidence of records 195 I ADVERTISING COPY builders as to a certain type of furnace may do much to create confidence. It is best, of course, when the author of the testi- monial is known personally or by reputation to a large per- centage of prospective buyers. The third kind of evidence is in the form of well authen- ticated records and statistics that may show the performance of the article under given conditions, the volume of sales for a given period, or the like. In advertising technical products, evidence of this form is particularly strong. Its lack of in- trinsic interest, however, makes it less useful in general ad- vertising and in advertising to women. Whenever used such evidence should be absolutely specific. It would not do to say that one large company has the roofs of its buildings covered by our roofing. It would be better to say " The Bush Terminal Company has 3,100,000 square feet (70 acres) of our roofing." Sometimes facts and figures can be given interest, not only by being concrete, but by being ex- pressed in terms of action. A cross-country endurance trip of an automobile might have something of more interest than miles covered, number of gallons of gasoline consumed and cost of repairs. It might show how the car plunged through mud up to the hubs, crossed wastes of desert sand and crept along the edge of towering cliffs until it reached its destina- tion. This method is to be used with some caution. If the ad- vertisement is simply trying to convince a few interested per- sons, it is usually better to stick to the conservative tabulation of figures. Deductive Reasoning Before the writer can actually begin the work of construct- ing a piece of reason-why copy, he should carefully analyze the proposition. He should pick out the talking-points and the facts that ought to be most effective with his prospective buyers. When he has sifted them down to the few that can be placed REASON-WHY COPY 197 in a single piece of copy he is ready for the presentation of the argument. The two main orders of presentation are the de- ductive and the inductive. The deductive order gives the main fact or assertion first and then backs it up with explanation, logical reasoning and evidence. " A Marvel of Simplicity," says the Fiat Car, and then gives the details of construction which prove its simplicity. " Insures Light in Emergency," " Cuts Tire Costs in Half," " Three Lamps for the Price of One." These are examples of headlines that indicate a deductive appeal. The headline, if one is used, however, does not always take the form of a general assertion. The number of elementary truths that attract attention are somewhat limited and if they were used often, advertisements would be so much alike as to be hackneyed and unattractive. Often the headline is a ques- tion : "In 1918 What?;" "How may I tell what car to buy?" Sometimes it is an indirect assertion, "Why You Should Investigate," or a direct command, " Get the Personal Touch." Sometimes the headline is largely a human-interest appeal and the deductive method appears only in the body of the copy. The deductive order is useful when the general appeal is one that is close to the reader's interests and capable of original phrasing. It has publicity value in that even the reader who gives it only a casual glance is likely to get the main idea and receive some impression that will be useful in future adver- tising, though the remainder of this particular advertisement is not read. The danger of the deductive order is the danger of indulging in generalities that fail to arouse interest. There is a further danger in that writers are likely to follow the general asser- tion with a mere list of be causes, disconnected and monoton- ous. A list of reasons to support a general assertion is usu- ally a weak method. If it is used the word because should 198 ADVERTISING COPY BARRETT SPECIFICATION ROOFS No Maintenance Cost An investigation into net roofing costs will promptly disclose the superiority of Barrett Specification Roofs. Their first cost is lower than that of any other permanent roof, and, as they require no painting or other care for upwards of twenty years, their maintenance cost is nil. The Bush Terminal Company, with a total roof area of more than 70 acres (3,100,000 square feet) on their 181 buildings in Brooklyn, N. Y., illustrated below, studied the subject of roofing costs, and adopted this type of roofs. The Vice-President of the Bush Terminal Company writes : We use this kind of roofing because our experi- ence has shown it to be the best and cheapest. Our analysis of first cost of application and cost of maintenance entitles us to speak with some measure of authority. The roofing contractor states that the expense for maintenance of this entire roof area has been less than $10 and estimates that if metal or ready-made roofings had been used it would have been impossible to keep the buildings free from leaks, and that the painting bills alone up to date would probably have amounted to at least $50,000. It is on such evidence as this that we base the state- ment that the maintenance cost of Barrett Specification Roofs is nothing per year and the $ro exception " proves the rule." A copy of The Barrett Specification free on request. Address our nearest office. Deductive reason-why copy REASON-WHY COPY 199 BARRETT SPECIFICATION ROOFS A $10 repair bill on 70 acres of roof over a 16 year period The Bush Terminal Buildings in Brooklyn, N. Y., ex- tend a mile along the shore. The net roof area of these buildings is 3,100,000 square feet or more than 70 acres. Every inch of this is roofed with Barrett materials and, since 1897, when the first roof was covered, the cost of maintenance has been less than $10.00. The Bush Terminal people write us: " We use this kind of roofing because our ex- perience has shown it to be the best and cheapest. Our analysis of first cost of application and cost of maintenance entitles us to speak with some measure of authority." The idea behind Barrett Specification Roofs is an old one. established by years of experience namely, that coal tar pitch, tarred felt, and gravel or slag, when prop- erly laid, make the best and most economical roof cov- ering. Architects, engineers and contractors know that, if The Barrett Specification is followed absolutely, the resulting roof will last longer and cost less than any other kind. Copy of The Barrett Specification with tracing ready for incorporation in your building plans sent free on request. Address our nearest office. BARRETT MANUFACTURING COMPANY Inductive reason-why copy 200 ADVERTISING COPY not be tacked on at the beginning of each reason, for the word is not deserving of this emphasis. The deductive appeal, however, is usually good for news- paper copy and for copy in other publications reaching a wide class of readers. Inductive Appeal The inductive appeal begins with a concrete fact or bit of evidence and from this proceeds to the general assertion or conclusion. The concrete fact may be a big one one that almost implies a conclusion. A good instance of this is the Reo advertisement which reads: "$200 Buried." It begins with this concrete statement and then shows how the buyer benefits by this extra $200 spent on details of construction that are not apparent to the eye. On the other hand, the concrete fact may be a small one as " There is no gear lever in the new Haynes Car," or, " Our average profit is $2.90 per tire." It may simply be a suggestion of the particular piece of evidence, as " Cambridge's Experience with Tarvia " or " A Million Dollars' Worth of Harley-Davidsons in the Government Serv- ice." It is obvious that in most cases inductive copy has little pub- licity value. It has to be read completely before the argument can have much weight. It is not to be recommended, there- fore, in most cases of newspaper advertising or in cases where the message is to be impressed upon a large number. It is advisable for advertisements in business and technical publica- tions where readers are picked and in advertisements where it is more important to convince a few people than it is to make a slight impression upon a much larger number. The example on page 199 represents a piece of inductive copy based upon the same material as the advertisement on page 198, which is a deductive appeal. In this case the in- ductive appeal is the more effective. The evidence has srf- REASON-WHY COPY 2OI ficient interest in itself to attract readers, because of the prominence of the concern and the exactness of the figures. The general claims, on the other hand, are such as might be made by almost any other roofing manufacturer and are not convincing until the evidence has been read. Point of View So far, we have considered the reason-why copy as if it were in the form of abstract argument. This is not always the case, though it is most typical. Reason-why copy may be presented in the first person where the advertiser himself tells his story. This first person method has the tone of realism and usually creates a good deal of confidence. Its only danger is that of appearing egotistical. Even though it is written in the first person the reader's interest must always be kept foremost. It should have the " you " attitude. A great deal of reason-why copy is written from the second person point of view. Examples of this are numerous in the preceding pages. The abstract third person method has already been dealt with. Occasionally an advertisement is written in which an article is personified. This is most frequently done when the evi- dence is one of records that the article has made. Style and Tone When we speak of reason-why copy as argumentative, it must not be taken to imply that it must be aggressive or dominating. As a matter of fact, in a large number of cases it is. The selling attitude leads to aggressiveness. Reason- why copy in the minds of many people is composed of short, snappy sentences like those of a Brisbane editorial. For the average person and the average article, this tone is useful. Some classes of people, however, cannot be successfully ap- 202 ADVERTISING COPY pealed to in that way. They do not wish to be bullied or ex- horted. In appealing to such classes it is better to use the insinuating or persuasive tone. The advertiser merely states the facts and allows the reader to draw his own conclusions. There are all varieties of tone from the cheap clap-trap to the ultra dignified and reserved. It is nearly always safe to adopt a tone that is somewhere between the two extremes simple, sincere, and forceful, without being noisy or over- emphatic. Successful reason-why copy has refuted the claim that a long advertisement will not be read. A long advertisement will be read provided it is made interesting to the reader and contains real selling arguments. If the purpose of the adver- tisement is to convince, it usually requires some length. De- liberation takes time and if the reader is to deliberate the writer may well go along with him and help him deliberate so as to be sure he will reach the right conclusion. In some business magazines multi-page advertisements in some cases reach- ing eight pages have been proved successful. A man who is genuinely interested will read them and he, of course, is the man who is the best prospect. But the copy must be sincere, must be vital, and must contain not merely words but facts. CHAPTER XVII HUMAN-INTEREST COPY Its Purposes and Methods Human-Interest copy, or " Short-Circuit " copy as psy- chologists call it, makes its chief appeal to the senses or emo- tions of the reader, with the object of arousing desire for the article advertised. Response to it is usually instinctive rather than reasoned, and consequently depends largely upon sug- gestion very little upon deliberation. In view of these facts it is natural that human-interest ad- vertisements depend more upon illustration and other elements of display than upon the copy itself. Frequently the copy plays but a small part. It is not in any case unimportant, for however brief it is, it should have some human-interest quality and harmonize with the display. It may be noted here that all copy has some human interest, whether intentional or unintentional, for all symbols words as well as colors and forms have their associations as well as their definite meaning. Even so simple a thing as the name of a person calls to the mind of the reader some individual of that name he has known in his experience and the word is unconsciously colored by his impression of the individual. Anna, Grace, Margaret, Helen, Charles, and Henry each brings up its associations from past experience, usually with a feeling of like or dislike. That is \vhy the writers of romance choose unusual names for their heroes and heroines in order that the reader may not be distracted by impressions of every day peo- ple he has known. This simple instance shows how important it is that the 203 204 ADVERTISING COPY writer of any advertising appeal should heed the suggestion or connotation of the symbols he uses even though he is writing an appeal to the intellect or reason. A reason-why advertise- ment for tailored clothing tried to enforce its argument that clothes should be individual by proving that each man is dif- ferent from all others. Its headline read " Down to Your Thumb Prints/' There was no intention of suggesting crim- inals, yet those who are familiar with the Bertillon system of thumb prints would associate criminals with the clothes and thus be drawn away from the real message of the advertise- ment. It was good reason-why spoiled by an unfortunate human-interest association. The writer must constantly be on his guard against elements in the display or copy that will distract the reader from the mes- sage to be conveyed, or associate some unpleasant idea with his impression. In the writing of reason-\\ hy copy, however, he has merely to guard against unintentional bad suggestion. In writing human-interest copy he is attempting to secure in- tentional good suggestion. He is trying to arouse desire for his article by associating with it pleasant and relevant ideas that will make people instinctively desire its possession. How Suggestion Works \Ve may conveniently look upon suggestion as a method of causing the reader to see a complete image by giving him a part of it. The remainder he constructs from his imagination, based on his past experience. It is as if we had a circle with a small segment omitted, or even segments. The eye would leap the gaps and would see the circle as a complete unbroken whole. This method of suggestion has been effectively used in ad- vertising illustrations by Coles Phillips and others. Their shadow drawings do not show complete figures. They merely give us some lines and from our knowledge of the human form HUMAN-INTEREST COPY 205 we have no difficulty in supplying the rest. In the same way we can take a common maxim and repeat the first part of it : li All's Well," " Never too Late." " A Stitch in Time," and so on. The mind supplies the rest. In a story it is not always necessary to give the ending. A slight turn in the direction of the solution is enough for the reader. There are many ways in which this method of associating ideas is used in advertising copy. Frequently an old adage or maxim is paraphrased, such as " A Tube in Time Saved Mine " or " A Miss is as Good as her Smile." These give no appeal to the reason. They do, however, have some emotional effect ; first by their appeal to the sense of humor, and second by the fact that they associate with the article things that are old and true, so that unconsciously the reader is led to believe in the truth of the advertiser and his message. Another method of using suggestion was shown by the ad- vertisers of Wilson Whiskey during President Wilson's Cam- paign of 1912. The copy was brief and contained such state- ments as the following: " Long Live Wilson and so will you if you drink Wilson from the bottle which won't refill." The value of this came first from associating the name of the whiskey with the name of a prominent and popular man and second from the fact that it suggested the value of Wilson Whiskey by showing that it had to be protected. It suggested that care had to be taken to protect it from substitution or adulteration. There was no proof, no reasoning, but instead of this long process there was a suggestion that made the mind leap the gap and reach the conclusion that Wilson Whiskey must be good. An even more powerful kind of suggestion is that given us by the words and acts of other persons. We see a person doing a thing and there is a natural tendency on our part to follow suit. One man in a street car yawns and soon every- body is yawning. One man stands in the street and gazes up 206 ADVERTISING COPY at the top of a high building. A crowd collects with each man craning his neck. The suggestion given by an action is, of course, stronger than that given by words. Consequently, this method lends itself to pictorial advertising better than to all- copy advertising. Articles such as Arrow Collars and Cluett Shirts depend largely on it. The suggestion, of course, is strongest when the person pictured is one whom we admire. For that reason the persons pictured as wearing advertised brands of ready-made clothes, shirts, etc., are usually engaged in the activities of the leisure classes, even though these brands might not actually be worn by such persons on such occasions. Sometimes a prominent person, such as Mrs. Castle or John McGraw, is shown using or wearing the article in question. This method, as has been said, is not so successful in the copy proper as it is in the illustrations. It is used, neverthe- less, by naming the article after some prominent individual, as " Mary Garden Perfume," " Lillian Russell Face Cream," and the " Castle Pump." It is also used by giving testimonials and indorsements from prominent persons, especially in the field of sport. These are onlv a few of the wavs in which sueffestion is ^ * oo used in human-interest copy to arouse a buying impulse. In all cases, however, the idea is to take advantage of some well- worn channel of thought and start the reader along, confident that he will reach the conclusion. When Human-Interest Copy is Appropriate It is necessary here to give some brief classification of the propositions for which human-interest copy is appropriate. The fact that suggestion depends upon experience indicates that it is not likely to be used in advertisements about new and unfamiliar articles. Some human interest may be necessary to arouse desire, but desire alone is not enough. All the sales functions need to be accomplished in such articles though part HUMAN-INTEREST COPY 207 of them may be accomplished by salesmen. Even in such cases, if the article will be bought finally because of deliberation, it is generally advisable to start deliberation by means of the copy. On the other hand, articles that are bought because of de- sire alone that is, luxuries and articles that appeal to the senses primarily may generally use human-interest copy. The following classification indicates articles for which human- interest copy is suitable. 1. Articles for personal use, especially for adornment or the improvement of one's appearance, such as toilet articles, jewelry, clothing accessories, etc. 2. Articles for family use that contribute to the enjoyment of life, such as musical instruments, toys, and the like. 3. Articles that contribute to the personal safety or longer life of the individual or members of his family, such as insurance, safety devices, revolvers, etc. 4. Most foods and drinks and smoking materials, especially those bought for enjoyment rather than for nourish- ment, such as candy, beer and liquors, ginger ale, grape juice, tobacco and cigarettes. 5. Articles bought frequently as gifts, such as silverware, books, and flowers. Price is frequently a factor in determining whether the ap- peal shall be to the reason or to the emotion. Articles of small price can be sold usually by human interest. The method, however, that is good for chewing gum, soap, and tobacco is not so good for automobiles, pianos, and furniture. A still further factor is the class of readers. All persons can be reached by an appeal to the emotions, but it is far easier in the case of women than of men and is difficult in the case of busi- ness men and farmers. Again, the article that is dominant in its field can better afford to use the human-interest appeal than 208 ADVERTISING COPY can the article that is a relatively small and unimportant com- petitor. Direct Appeals to the Senses The simplest, though by no means the easiest, of human interest appeals is the direct appeal to the senses. This almost always involves the use of illustration. It is difficult by means of words alone to suggest to the reader the taste or sound or smell of an article, and of course in making him imagine the appearance, the illustration is one hundred times as effective as words. The English vocabulary contains so few words that directly describe sensations that it is usually necessary to resort to more indirect methods. If a direct appeal to the senses is used, it must be absolutely direct and concrete. Vague, general words such as pleasant, delightful, delicious, and the like, have no human-interest value. They have been used so often they are worn out, and more- over they are too vague to convey a definite impression. The writer should try to pick out the distinguishing superiority of his article that will appeal to the senses, and suggest this by an exact and concrete description. He should also picture the article from the standpoint of the user. Only in this way can he bring the article to the reader's actual or imagined experi- ence. The following example will illustrate : WOULDN'T You LIKE A SOAP WITH THE REAL FRAGRANCE OF VIOLETS? The delicate perfume of the fresh, sweet violets, so real you can close your eyes and fairly believe you are smelling the fresh-cut flowers themselves this is the toilet delight awaiting you in Jergen's Violet Glycerine Soap ! And we have caught this real violet fragrance in a soap so clear you can see through it the color of the violet leaf, a beautiful translucent green. " Freshen-up " with it to-night ! HUMAN-INTEREST COPY 209 See what a sense of dainty cleanliness it brings you, what an exquisitely fresh fragrance it imparts to your skin and hair. Any water, anywhere, releases its delicate perfume and makes an instant lather soft, white and plentiful. The following examples will illustrate wrong methods of making a sense appeal : The New, Delicious and Really Nutritious Candy MELLAMALT CONFECTIONS The product of a new candy-making formula that provides health-giving qualities in addition to rare deliciousness. You can't eat too many of them because no harmful in- gredients are used. Nothing else in them but pure cream, sugar, nuts, pure fruit flavoring and delicious concentrated extract of malt acknowledged by physicians to possess highest nutritive value. Wiser Than Her Grandmother Grandmother believed heavy meats and pastries were nec- essary for active, vigorous girls. Granddaughter knows that her happy face her springing walk her gay spirits all are caused by wholesome, energy-building sugar. Each day granddaughter eats MORSE'S MILK CHOCOLATE CREAMS In the one case the copy emphasizes the fact that the candy contains malt. To the average mind malt is medicinal and therefore incongruous with the taste of candy. In fact, most people would not care to eat candy that contains malt. The other case gives an unfortunate suggestion to people who re- spect their grandparents and respect for the aged is a char- acteristic of the race. In general, a sense appeal must con- tain no ideas that are irrelevant or incongruous to the average person's conception of the article, nor should they awaken 210 ADVERTISING COPY emotions of a negative kind that would counteract the positive desire that is being created. Tact Essential and Good Taste Many grape juice advertisements have made the mistake of associating the unpleasant ideas of alcoholics with their product, as for example in the advertisement which begins as follows : " Take a Joy Ride with Me. No Gray Dawn of the Morning After for people who drink Armour's Grape Juice." Unless the appeal were made mainly to people who were in the habit of drinking wines and beer, which obviously is not the case, the suggestion of such a beginning would be unfortunate and would interfere with the taste appeal of the copy. Another danger to be avoided in sense appeals is that of making them so vivid that they are disgusting. The most conspicuous example of this in recent years was the chewing gum advertisement which read " Click go the teeth. Out trickles the delicious juice of Wrigley's Spearmint Gum." The appeal was constructed along the right lines but the image created would antagonize any normal person. It is also well to avoid associating an article to be used by refined persons with a person of the lower classes or with an animal. An advertisement that shows a hobo picking up a cigar butt, and saying " I find Prince Charley's Cigars ex- cellent " does not sell them to discriminating smokers. In similes, likewise, it is well to avoid comparisons with persons or conditions for which there can be no feeling of respect. " Make Your Breath as Sweet as a Cow's Breath " does not constitute an effective appeal for chewing gum. An image must be more than merely vivid and concrete. It must be pleasurable and reasonably close to the reader's experience. A direct sense appeal does not always mean a direct descrip- tion of the article. It may be a description of the process by HUMAN-INTEREST COPY 211 which the article is made or the conditions that surround it. We may get a desire for a certain brand of milk by learning that it comes from " contented cows grazing in green pastures." We may want a breakfast food more because we learn that " no human hands touch it " before our own. These appeals are incidentally reason appeals. Primarily, however, they stimulate desire through the senses. The following piece of copy is an interesting if somewhat exaggerated example of this type of appeal. WE PICK THEM AT SUNRISE Red-ripe solid Jersey tomatoes with the dew standing on them, and flashing out among the vines. The fruit at that hour is cold and firm. When you open it the juice glistens temptingly; and the delicious flavor is like nothing else in the world. That is what you get in We make these perfect tomatoes into soup the day they are picked. The Campbell process retains all their native qual- ity and freshness and their delightful aroma. All the other ingredients are equally choice and tempting. And our exclusive blending-formula produces a result so in- viting and so wholesome that experts agree in classing Camp- bell's as the standard perfect tomato soup. Wouldn't your family enjoy it today? Imitation A more indirect sense appeal, but frequently effective, is made by showing someone enjoying the article. Thus, we see a child licking the peanut butter from a slice of bread, a family gathered around a pianola or a talking ma- chine in attitudes of eager attention, a man smiling as he puffs at his cigar. We imagine their pleasure and want to share it. As has been remarked earlier, the person pictured jlL i agents (leading druggists everywhere) in United States and Canada. If there should be no sales agent near you. write to us. ^^ A^f 64 IRVING PLACE &&p&rf NEW YORK Frank DeK. Huyler, President efapAp Cocoa the greatest drink for young people Appeal by suggestion (used in chil- dren's magazine) 214 ADVERTISING COPY and absurdity, and a restrained appeal which suggests more than it says. It will be noticed that the second appeal shows a child as the subject. In taste appeals it is usually safest to feature children. Even though they are shown keenly enjoying their peanut butter, jam, grape juice or candy, their physical pleas- ure is not offensive, even to refined people. Few articles can be advertised entirely by a sense appeal. Usually the human-interest appeal is directed to the emotions. Curiosity, ambition, love, and pride are among the strongest emotions and those most commonly appealed to. Fear is even stronger, but is dangerous except in the case of articles bought for protection and the like. Emotional appeals frequently are made through the senses. In fact, it is difficult to distinguish sometimes between a sense appeal and an emotional appeal. The advertising of musical instruments usually blends the two and it is hard to say where the sound of the instrument leaves off and the joy or pathos of its effect begins. Direct Appeals to the Emotions The simplest type of direct appeal to the emotions is that known as the inspirational type and used for correspondence school courses and the like. The reader is addressed as " you " and is exhorted to get out of the rut and become a trained man. He is reminded of his duty to himself, his parents, or his family. He is reminded of his need of in- creased pay and shown the way to get it. By these and an infinite variety of other appeals to ambition, love, pride, or acquisitiveness he is made to desire the education, the set of books, or the article, whatever it may be. In such appeals it is necessary to put the reader in a fa- miliar situation or one which it is natural to imagine such situations as counting the contents of the pay envelope, figur- HUMAN-INTEREST COPY 21$ ing expenses, seeing another person promoted, or the like. In the case of the business man it is likely to be perplexity over some difficult problem; in the case of a woman, the discomfort and inconvenience of sweeping or washing clothes by old methods, etc. In any case the headline must be concrete and strike a responsive chord in those who are sought as buyers. This direct appeal is capable of many uses but it has to be carefully handled. One of the chief dangers is that it may easily have the suggestion of preaching and it is human nature to resent advice gratuitously offered. Dramatic Form Because of the general aversion to preaching, the dramatic form is sometimes a safer method than the direct appeal. Here the advertisement becomes a monologue by some pic- tured or otherwise visualized character. Exhortation or advice is given by him, not by the writer, and is therefore less likely to offend. Moreover, the use of this character has greater realism and a stronger personality. It gives a chance for colloquial language such as might be used in ordinary con- versation. The monologue should begin with a tense moment or a cru- cial situation in the life of the person addressed. It must be absolutely concrete. Such a beginning as " It is a great op- portunity " or " Here is your chance " is not strong enough. The best headline is usually in the form of a question or an- swer to an unspoken question of the reader. The advertise- ment on page 217 illustrates an effective method of writing monologue copy. The dialogue is only a minor variation of the monologue and the same general principles apply to it. It is hard to handle effectively, however, because it has greater tendency toward length. There is a temptation also to have opposing views 2l6 ADVERTISING COPY presented and although the interests of the advertiser ulti- mately triumph in the copy, there is a chance that the argu- ment of the other side may prevail with the reader. Dialogue heightens the reality by giving more of the flesh and blood quality to the characters. It is especially good in appeals to sentiment. The Story Form The story form is one of the safest and most widely useful of all human interest appeals. It is written in much the same way as the stories in the magazines but instead of beginning with the most important facts about the article it begins logically with the incident that set the story in motion. In- stead of saying, " Tins is the story of a man who got a higher position because of his correspondence school training," it begins, " ' You are wanted in the Board Room.' This is the message that Rert \Yilliams received, etc." It is not until later that the reader is told why Williams was called before the board of directors and made treasurer of the company. In rare cases it is effective to tell the purpose of the story first. In such a story as this the facts stated must be absolutely credible. If they are true, so much the better, but at least they must appear true, and as a rule this is impossible unless they are founded upon truth. Sentiment and Sentimentality In all human-interest appeals it is necessary to recognize the difference between sentiment and sentimentality. Senti- mentality means an attempt to arouse emotion without an ade- quate cause. It is easy to make human-interest copy slushy, mushy, and ineffective. Readers do not care to read an ad- vertisement that is full of extravagant praises of a product, even though they are represented as coming from the lips of some third person, nor do they feel sympathetic with the "Yes, I'll tell you what makes the difference "I'm going to be frank with you, Jim, as you have asked me to be. "You have as much natural ability as I have you know that. You have just as mnrn /-Tliirahrm n far a rrmnl "There's only one difference that makes my salary $5,000 and yours $2,000. You know your own work and that's all. I've been studying the whole field of business. "I know finance and accounting and organi- zation as well as selling and collecting. I know business as a whole. You don't. That's blunt, Jim, but that's the truth. "Of course, I didn't have experience in all these departments. But I got the experience of other men. I studied it every minute I could spare. I am doing it still, and intend to keep on. "You can do it, too. "The Alexander Hamilton Institute gives a Course and Service meant for just such fellows as us. "It was planned by progressive educators like Joseph French Johnson, the Dean of New York University School of Commerce, and Jeremiah W. Jenks, of New York University, and by business leaders like Frank A. Vander- lip, President of the National City Bank, Elijah W. Sells, of Haskins & Sells, public ac- countants, and Henry R. Towne, of Yale &, Towne. "They planned it right. Then they got the beat ex- perts they could men of national reputation to conduct the Course and the Service. "A lot of men are taking it Alfred I. duPont, Presi- dent of the DuPont Powder Company; Seth Thomas. Jr., of the Seth Thomas Clock Company; E. F. Hershey, of the Hershey Chocolate Co., and others of their stamp. "If it is good for these men, it is good for us. I know it has done wonders for me. I couldn't have gotten such a knowledge of business in a lifetime in any other way. "But I'm not going to try to tell you all about it. Write to them. They have a little book, 'The Ability to Handle Men,' that gives you the whole jtory. And it's mighty interesting. Send for a copy." Alexander Hamilton Institute Astor Place, New York City under any toft of oblis.lion lend me your new book, "The Ability to Handle Men." >nd full four Coune and Service. (Write your name, busmen addiew nd buiuieu poHlion below.) The monologue form gives human interest to a reason-why story 217. 218 ADVERTISING COPY monologue artist when he expresses himself in the following impassioned way : And Betty ! When the last note ends as softly as a fall- ing rose leaf, Betty sits there with her dear little head drooped, her face flushed and rosy, the most splendid dewy moisture in her eyes, and she just wants to put her head on my shoulder, and I know it and I'm King. I say it gently, " Betty, come here," and without a word she comes. She cuddles on my big awkward knees and her head slips into that place on my shoulder, and all I can say is, " Oh, my dear. My very, very, very dearest dear." There is a place for sentiment in copy. Every one knows that buying is most common before the Christmas holidays and that a large percentage of the purchases for the family throughout the year are made on sentiment. But there is no room for sentimentality. It may be added that the nature of suggestion itself indicates that in every appeal there is much that may be left unsaid. Negative Appeals Writers have been warned so generally against the use of a negative appeal that it is more necessary to give a defense of it here than to repeat the reasons why it should not be used. It is true that the buying impulse is not commonly associated with unpleasant feelings. Certainly no one would buy a cedar chest because he was reminded of Samuel Rogers 1 pathetic Ginevra story. On the other hand, many articles are bought only because they will protect, and protection implies that there is some danger to be guarded against. In selling sprinkler systems and other forms of fire pre- vention, the appeal to the sense of fear is often necessary. It may easily be overdone, but if handled with care should prove effective. The example on page 220 will illustrate the effective use of an appeal to the sense of fear. HERE is how a good thing will force its way to the front. For a long time there was only one "Bulldog" Gillette Razor in existence. Then there were two, then seven, and now everybody wants one The first "Bulldog" was de- signed for the Chief of the Company to smeet his desire for a stocky biilldog handle. He liked it at once. Said it shaved better new grip and balance gives more weight and swing to the stroke. Other members of the organization* adopted the "Bulldog" : it was evident that the extra weight and different bal- ance are fundamental. Then men everywhere were given a chance at the "Bulldog". They saw the point instantly. Result, the most widespread and immediate success of any new model ever put out by the Gillette Company. It is making thousands of new friends for the Gillette and regular users are finding it well worth while to buy the new "Bulldog." Contained in an oval case of Gray Antique Leather, with Blade Boxes to match, containing 12 double-edged Gillette Blades (24 shaving edges). With Triple Silver plated Razor, $5.00; with Gold plated Razor, $6.00. See the "Bulldog" at your Gillette dealer's anywhere. GILLETTE SAFETY RAZOR COMPANY, BOSTON The story is well told but would be helped by the use of a more interesting illustration 219 Save The Lives of Little Children from Holocausts like Binghamton Merchants, Manufacturers, Parents, Public Officials: Consider This One Absolute Fire Prevention WHENEVER your child goes into a school building, store or factory remember that water is the one absolute fire-proofing. Whenever you go into a theatre, "movie" show, or steamboat, or lie down in a hotel to sleep remember that water is the one absolute fire-proofing. And, merchants and manufacturers, whenever you send hundreds of human lives into great buildings to work remember that water is the one absolute fire-proofing. Then remember that rery fire with a drenching the Iroquois Theatre. Km 1" H lember that it watches ovc g, with sleepless eyes and 1 r every inch of a build. :ireless vigil-4hat it finds alarm of fire all at the Remember the Binghamton horror, where 31 girls were burned alive. N ew York Triangle Waisl Fire. ing and ready to drown the first little tongue of flame. Collinwood School Fir GRINNELL AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS Therefore Building Owners Actually Get Paid For Saving the Lives of Little Children From Holocausts Like Binghamton GENERAL FIRE EXTINGUISHER COMPANY 277 WEST EXCHANGE STREET, PROVIDENCE, R. I. Branches in 25 Leading Cities of U.S. and Canada FIND OUT YOUR PROFIT FROM GRINNELLS BY FILLING OUT THIS BLANK AND SENDING IT TO US- NO OBLIGATION ENTAILED WHAT THE GRINNELL AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER IS mechanisms.callcd sprinkler "heads," are placed at ^"""/a?""''"*' '" *"<*-. nt uniLall warm the head automaticall/a/,,"', / C JnBullJ nl R-t* 1 f \,' f releasing a powerful, drenching spraj or uatcr on SltnJ . thcfir Cl and sendsinafire alarm. Makcsthcfirem- m/'/juiVjW/beforeithastheslightcstchanceto spread. Justifiable use of an appeal to the sense of fear 220 The Ruler of a Kingdom Left drive, center control. Bosch Magneto. W-inch wheel base. The man who sits at the steering wheel of his new Chalmers "Six," rules an empire. Here within reach of his arm isa little world all his own. Power, speed, endurance the forces that make for change and enjoyment are under the sway of his scepter. Let's Take a Day Off Don't you feel like cutting .the traces and getting away to the hills ? Let's strike out what do you say ? Push the switch of the electric starter. There the engine is running with scarcely a sound. It's the silent Entz starter the best yet it never fails. Floating Away Like a Swan Close your eyes now as we let in the clutch and fx if you can tell when we start. This new clutch is a wonder. It grips so firmly, yet so gently, that we move away with the silent grace of the swan. Notice how flexible the power mounting quickly to 20, 30, 40 miles an hour. Now we throttle it down to a crawl, without shifting gears. This wondrous flexibility is in the motor itself. There's no need to resort to cumbersome double gearing. Easy Chair Comfort Have you noticed that you don't feel the vibra- tion you do in most cars? The six cylinders of this Master Motor give an unbroken stream of power. So there's a smoothness impossible 'in any "four"; a lack of vibration that adds years to the life of the car. The new "Six" costs but little more than a "four" at the start and a lot less in the end. A Little Friend In Need Try to stall this motor once. Throttle it down to a. snail's pace run it into, that deep sand ahead. It's no use this_motor is unstallable. Even should the gas be cut off accidentally, the electric starter always on duty keeps the motor mnnipg. It can never "go dead" in a crowd or on a crossing. Beauty That Has Utility Don't shrink as we run through this stretch of mud. Those graceful oval fenders sit so close not a drop of mud can reach you. The extra wide doors fit like a watch case. The long underslung springs cushion the bumps of the roughest road. Left hand drive and center control leaves room to enter on either side. Put This Car To The Test Let our dealer take you out on our Standard Test Ride. It is our way of proving to you that this car will do things no other car will do. But first write for our literature. Get all the facts. Ro.dster . . . $2175 Four Passenger . . 2175 Fire Passenger . . 2175 Wire wheels $80 extra (five) All bodies interchangeable Six Passtnjtr . . $2275 Coupe ..... 2850 Limousine .... 3600 Qialmers Motor Company, Detroit Human interest makes the reason-why Argument more effective 221 222 ADVERTISING COPY In this case we have the direct appeal to the emotions by exhortation; on page 52 we have the unusual example of copy in the form of a plea, or prayer. Atmosphere Most human-interest copy gains its force not from a direct appeal of any kind, but from the association of ideas and these so vague as to be difficult of analysis. In speaking of such copy we find it convenient sometimes to designate it as copy with atmosphere. Silverware, for example, is surrounded with an atmosphere of refinement, of antiquity, or even of definite periods of art. A great many of the articles sold to women, especially through the high priced publications, are made attractive because of the atmosphere in the display and copy. The chapters on display in this volume will consider the suggestion given by colors, shapes, historic ornament and the like. In the copy the suggestion is ordinarily that of the in- dividual words and will be considered in the chapter on words. It is human interest of this kind that most frequently appears in reason-why copy and the element of human interest is al- ways a force that strengthens the power of such copy. One of the most valuable opportunities for this combination of rea- son-why with human-interest is found in the advertising of automobiles. The example on page 221 will illustrate. CHAPTER XVIII SMALLER UNITS OF ADVERTISING COPY Technique in Advertising Copy Right thinking is the most essential thing in writing adver- tising copy. The choice of method and the organization and construction have more to do with the success of an advertise- ment than matters of technique. Numerous cases can be cited, nevertheless, where two pieces of copy alike in conception and general construction, and used under similar conditions, dif- fered fifty to one hundred per cent in resultfulness. The differences were mainly in sentence structure and diction. Ob- viously, technique is important. In the smallest unit of all, the word, often lies the difference between an insipid com- munication and a vital appeal. The smaller units of composition especially the word and sentence are best studied in revision. The writer should not give too much thought to them while in the throes of con- struction. If he does, he will hesitate and flounder and the result will be labored. He should have at his command a broad vocabulary and a thorough knowledge of the principles of effective sentence structure. When actually writing he should focus his attention upon his message and the person to whom he would transmit it. Afterwards, he can go over his work to see its errors and obscurities to see where transposition would add force, where the change of a word would brighten up a dull passage. He can then revise it for greater effective- ness and incidentally gain power for his next attempt. It is necessary here to give some principles of diction, sen- 223 224 ADVERTISING COPY tence structure and paragraphing. They are much the same for copy as for other fields of composition, but have certain differences. Matters of technique, moreover, need to be re- viewed constantly, even by experienced writers. The word is the smallest unit of composition and should therefore be considered first, even though the sentence is more logically the unit of thought. The word is a symbol. It represents an image or conception, just as a sign in a signal code does. It is valueless except there be a community of un- derstanding between the writer and reader. Unless a word represents the same thing to both of them, it cannot convey the message intended. Good Use The first requirement of words, therefore, is that they should be in good use. Good use is the acceptance of a word or ex- pression by the majority of authorities. In the case of literary composition these authorities are writers and speakers whose position and reputation are unquestionable. In advertising copy the standard is somewhat broader. It includes the ma- jority of the reading public. Good use is crystallized in the dictionary and in the textbooks on rhetoric. These, however, lag a little behind actual good use. The writer of literature is content to lag behind with them. The writer of advertise- ments, however, is entitled to more liberty and takes it. Some- times he is in advance of the standard of good use ; rarely is he behind it. If his words and phrases are understood and accepted as correct by the majority of readers they are good. The ordinary requirements of good use are that a word should be present, national, and reputable. Language con- tinually changes. \Yords that were commonly accepted yes- terday may be obsolete today; such as \clept. charcjer, and yore. The copy-writer must avoid these and even such words SMALLER UNITS OF ADVERTISING COPY 225 as smite, steed, and aver. His language must be up-to-date; it must contain only words that the average man understands and uses. On the other hand, he must generally avoid slang such words as cinch, con, dub, etc. Even though they are frequently used by the man of the street, they are limited to a temporary existence. Frequently the man who uses them holds them in contempt. In the same way the writer of advertising copy should avoid French or other foreign words that have not been Anglicized, words that are peculiar to certain localities only, and words that are vulgar corruptions of good English words, such as, alright, orate, and pants. Naturally he must see that the words he uses are in the accepted sense. He must not confuse affect with effect, suspect with expect, accept with except, etc. It may be felt that the advertisement writer has to work within narrow limits and that his ideas are likely to be cramped and confined. To a certain extent this is true. It should be remembered, however, that advertising is not primarily an educational pastime ; it is judged by results. The reader must receive the message if he is to respond, and receive it without having his attention distracted by the medium. The words and sentences should be transparent. Most ideas can be con- veyed by words that are neither too new nor too old English words of general acceptance throughout the country. It is almost an axiom that words in advertising copy should be simple. They should come within the comprehension of the least intelligent and poorest educated of possible buyers. The advertisements in a newspaper should contain no word that might not be found in the rending columns. The simplest words are those we ordinarily call Anglo-Saxon words the kind we have used since childhood. They should be given preference. Pretentiousness at any rate should be avoided. Emollient and detergent have little meaning to the average reader. 226 ADVERTISING COPY Adaptation to the Reader Although our language is more nearly national than that of almost any other country largely because of national ad- vertising still there are sectional and class differences. The standard of good use in Boston is slightly different from that of Seattle or Galveston. Advertisements addressed only to limited groups may use language that is peculiar to that group. In fact, they should use it because it establishes a community of sympathy between the writer and the reader. It indicates that they stand on a level. In writing advertisements that appeal to men only, such as advertisements for smoking tobacco, it is possible to use even slang that would be totally unsuitable for articles that appeal to both sexes. In advertisements to society v/omen French expressions may sometimes be used. More important still, advertisements to business men, medical men, lawyers, engi- neers, farmers and to many other groups of persons who have a peculiar class lingo may be written in this peculiar lingo. This point will be discussed more fully in Chapter XX, " Copy as Affected by Audience." It may be set down here, however, that one of the great ad- vances advertising is making today is in the adaptation of ad- vertising language to readers. It is no longer necessary to in- sist upon the strict correctness that savors of pedantry. Every principle of word-use and sentence-structure must be con- sidered in relation to this principle of adaptation. The writer of an advertisement can address his readers in almost the same language that he would use in talking to them in a convention. Exactness Words should not only be in good use and correctly used - considering adaptation to the readers they should also be exact. If the writer means to assert, he should not contend or declare or claim or state or advise. He should know the fine This is the sort of .feeling that you have after a bath or a wash with Pears a feeling of natural freshness the exhil- aration due to a sense of perfect cleanliness the glow and delight of a healthy stimulating influence. Pears is composed entirely of natural saponaceous in- gredients of the highest ^emollient and detergent properties. It is so daintily soothing and softening to the skin surface, and it promotes in a pre-eminent degree that natural beauty of complexion which is universally admired. Pears' Soap JBest aid to the Health and Beauty of the Skin Matchless for the Complexion Pears is the Most Economical of Toilet Soaps because of its Double-Lasting Qualities. I OF ALL SCSNTED SOAPS PEARS' OTTO OF ROSE IS THE BEST Weak arrangement of material, with blind headline and uninteresting copy, composed of pretentious generalities 227 Resi nol Soap improves complexions Try this easy way to clear your skin: Bathe your face, for several minutes with Resinol Soap and warm water, working the creamy lather into the skin gently with the finger-tips. Then wash off with more Resinol Soap and warm water, finishing with a dash of clear cold water to close the pores. Do this once or twice a day, and you will be astonished how quickly the healing, antiseptic Resinol bal- sams soothe and cleanse the pores, remove pimples and blackheads, and leave the complexion clear, fresh and velvety. When the skin is in very bad condition, apply a little Resinol Ointment and let it remain on ten minutes before the final wash- ing with Resinol Soap. Simple, strong layout with specific definite language 228 SMALLER UNITS OF ADVERTISING COPY 229 distinction between these words and be sure that he has chosen the one that conveys his exact shade of meaning. Generalities are to be avoided and specific words used in- stead. Words like best, highest grade, first class, and the like, have been used so extensively that they no longer have any definiteness of meaning. Words should show how the article is best. Nine times out of ten an advertisement that is weak and unconvincing would be greatly strengthened by substitut- ing specific words for the glittering generalities. Exactness is especially helped by concreteness of language. Concrete words carry a sense image. They hammer the idea into our minds by giving it to us in the same form our eyes or ears or fingers would perceive it. " Small boys are lugging off our wash suits in great spirits " is stronger than " Children are carrying off our wash suits." So, instead of writing " We have secured that pleasant smell which is peculiar to the violet," we write " We have captured that sweet, elusive odor that has made the violet universally beloved." Figurative language frequently makes for even greater ex- actness. We say " This furnace will not eat up your coal ; it will cut your bills in half.'' Advertising men habitually talk in figures of speech. They talk of a copy with punch, with smash, and of copy that gets across. Figurative language is due not so much to a desire for exactness as to a desire for picturesqueness. It has to be used carefully. Figures of speech must be pleasant and close to the reader's experience. They must be natural, and they must not be mixed. When a writer says, " Striking the keynote upon the first cost is> another essential and is hitting the nail on the head when reap- ing a saving in your savings account," we feel that he has not seen any image himself. Figures of speech should not be strained. When a writer speaks of the motion of an auto- mobile as like a caress, we feel that he has gone a little too far. It may help in summing up these requirements for exact THE MAMMOTH MODERN MUNSINGWEAR MILL ' s '" e mar k ' P er f ect ' n in underwear. It is made under E A R manufacturing conditions that are ideal. When' you put on a Munsing Union Suit, you do so with the assurance that it is clean and sanitary, fit to wear next the skin. In Munsmgwear, you get gar- ments that are guaranteed perfect in workmanship and material. Because of fine quality and unusual durability and washability and the perfect way in which it fits and covers the form, Munsingwear has received nation wide endorsement The magnitude of this endorsement is indicated by the magnitude of the Mun- smgwear mill and the number of Munsingwear garments produced daily. This year, a production of over 8,000,000 Munsingwear garments will be required to supply the demand from trade already established. Millions of the most discriminating men and women in America wear Munsingwear with complete satisfaction. The confidence of millions of people in Munsingwear quality, their faith in Munsingwear ideals, their satisfaction in Munsingwear itself, their continuous and repeated buying of Munsingwear, their daily proof of its superi- ority in actual use, these are the things that have made possible the mammoth, modem Munsingwear mill illustrated below. Copy weak because of lack of paragraphs, continual use of broad gener- alizations, and valueless alliteration 230 SMALLER UNITS OF ADVERTISING COPY 231 diction to see how a single idea is improved by being expressed in a specific rather than a general word, a concrete rather than an abstract one, a figurative rather than a literal one. Take the verb go. This is general. We make it specific by saying walk, run, or ride. It becomes concrete when we say stride, or shuffle, or stumble. It becomes figurative in the Big Ben advertisement, which says, " These men siving down to their work," and in the automobile advertisement, which says it " floats up the hill on high gear." The gain in power through these successive stages becomes apparent if you try to substi- tute the more general word go, in place of swing or float. Suggestion The distinction between words is not purely a matter of their exact meaning or denotation, but is largely a question of their suggestion or connotation. Every word has its mean- ing determined by the agreement of people. It also has its associations, which are peculiar to the individual and are de- termined largely by its sound, its degree of dignity, and the associations which have accompanied it in previous experience. Some words that mean literally what we intend them to mean should be avoided because of their unfortunate suggestion. Other words are strengthened by this element. Sound The sound itself has an important effect. Many words originated in imitative sound. The writer of advertising should not make too careful an attempt to suit the sound of the words to the sense. He should, however, avoid words that do not sound right. For our purposes there are two classes of sounds : liquid, free sounds; and harsh, closed sounds. The liquid sounds are those in which open vowels and such consonants as I, m, n, r predominate. They suggest speed and lightness. They en- 232 ADVERTISING COPY able the reader to pass quickly from one word to the next. They may be said to be oily. Harsh sounds are those in which close vowels and such con- sonants as k, g, h, x, etc., predominate. They give the im- pression of strength and slowness. They may be said to sup- ply friction, because they make a physical barrier to the reader's passage over the thought. They impress the words individu- ally upon the reader's mind. When we speak of " the most delicate chocolate that ever tickled a candy palate or watered a candy tongue " the phrase ripples along with the suggestion of daintiness that the thought requires. \Yhen we say, " the chords crash forth," we hear the thundering music of the piano. The writer need not take care to secure such harmonies of sound to sense, but he must be sure that he does not allow his liquid sounds to become too frequent when he is trying to drive home an important thought ; and that he does not use too many harsh words when he wants his writing to be read quickly and easily. Tone-Color Words should have the right degree of dignity or tone-color. The various degrees of dignity may be compared to the colors of the spectrum in their effect upon the mind. At one extreme is the vivid, figurative, emotional diction that corresponds with red. Such language we find in the following passage : When Vance wrote "The Brass Bowl," he drew aside the curtain of night and turned the flash-light of his story- telling power into a woman's heart. When the reading pub- lic opened " The Black Bag." they saw in its depths the source of cupidity. Those who took the lid off " The Band- box " found the story of vanity, love of finery, hunger of jewels, and the intrigues born of deceit. It was a best seller. It will be noted that the last sentence has a distinct change in tone to another level of language. SMALLER UNITS OF ADVERTISING COPY 233 The next level is the vulgar or slangy language that is both vivid and colloquial. We frequently rind it in tobacco adver- tising: FIRST OF ALL- you buy a jimmy pipe. Get one that chums-up with your spirit right oft' the bat, natural like. Then lay a dime against a tidy red tin of Prince Albert tobacco that's all pleasing and fragrant and fresh. A match ! and you're off ! Get jimmy pipe joy'us quick as you can beat it up the pike to any store that sells tobacco The third level is the cheerful or colloquial language, the conversation that is suitable to messages about some article of common use, such as an alarm clock or a razor. This cor- responds to yellow. Big Ben copy almost always has it, as in the following example : \Yonderful memory that fellow Big Ben has fact is for his age, the smartest thing alive. In that room with a hurry-up straight five-minute ring in that other room with ten short take-your-time gentle half minute hints. Green is the color that combines light and cheerfulness with restraint. The language of every-day use corresponds with it. It contains no words that are not generally known and in common use. It is always safe nearly always appropriate. Beyond this is the level of restrained, dignified language that may suitably be used in the advertising of expensive and ex- clusive articles, such as high-priced writing paper, solid silver- ware and period furniture. Such an expression as " bespeaks refinement " is an example. This level should not be used ex- cept by a concern that can afford to stand aloof from the reader, for the language has the suggestion of withdrawal and aloofness that corresponds with blue. Highest of all is the elevated and sonorous language of lit- 234 . ADVERTISING COPY erature, rarely useful, but occasionally of tremendous power in presenting a subject that calls for vividness together with restraint. We find it in such an advertisement as I am the printing-press, born of the mother earth. My heart is of steel, my limbs are of iron and my fingers are of brass. I sing the songs of the world, the oratories of history, the symphonies of all time. We find this level also in the Cadillac advertisement on page 235. It corresponds to the color purple. The important thing to be remembered in connection with these degrees of dignity is that when any one of them is adopted no words should creep in that violate it. The effect would be as bad as that of inharmonious colors. When the writer starts out with a vivid flash of red and then drops into the commonplaceness of " It was a best seller '' he spoils his ef- fect by the introduction of an inharmonious tone. The degree of dignity should also be in accord with that of the article ad- vertised. Atmosphere The last thing to be considered is the atmosphere of a word. This is a slightly different thing from its dignity and its sound. Its atmosphere is its suggestion of place, or mood, or point of view. Some words suggest the warmth and comfort of life, others the freedom and freshness of out-of-doors, others the quiet and peace of the family fireside. When a department store speaks of " springtime kimonos like those the musemes wear " we get a breath of the Orient. We do not know what " musemes " are, but that does not mat- ter. Other words suggest the footlights, the cafe, the senate chamber, the office, or the factory. When a breakfast food advertisement speaks of its "crisp PENALTY OF LEADERSHIP 1 IN every field of human endeavor he that is first must perpetually live in tho white light of publicity. ^Whether the leadership be vested in a man or in a manufactured product, emulation and envy are ever at work 11 art- m literature, in music, in industry, the reward and the punishment are always the same. ^The reward is widespread recog- nition, the punishment, fierce denial and detraction HWhen a man's work becomes a standard for the whole world, it also becomes a target for the shafts of the envious few ^If his work be merely mediocre, he will be left severely alone if he achieve a masterpiece, it will set a million tongues a-wagging. HJealousy does not protrude its forked tongue at the artist who produces a commonplace painting. ^Whatsoever you write, or paint, or play, or sing, or build, no one will strive to surpass, or to slaader you. unless your work be stamped with the seal of genius. 'Long, long after a great work or a good work has been done, those who are disappointed or envious continue to cry out that it can not be done. ^Spiteful little voices in the domain of art were raised against our own Whistler as a mountebank, long after the big world had acclaimed him its greatest artistic genius. ^Multitudes flocked to Bayreuth to worship at the musical shrine of Wagner, while the little group of those whom he had dethroned and displaced argued angrily that he was no musician at all. IThe little world continued to protest that Fulton could never build a steamboat, while the big world flocked to the nver banks to see his boat steam by UThe leader is assailed because he is a leader, and the effort to equal him is merely added proof of that leadership. ^Failing to equal or to excel, the follower seeks to depreciate and to destroy but only confirms once more the superiority of that which he stnves to supplant. HThere is nothing new in this. Hit is as old as the world and as old as the human passions -envy, fear, greed, ambition, and the desire to surpass. ^And it all avails nothing. ^If the leader truly leads, he remains the leader ^Master-poet, master -painter, master- workman, each in his turn is assailed, and each holds his laurels through the ages. ^That which is good or great makes itself known, no matter how loud the clamor of denial. ^That which deserves to live lives. 1 Cadillac Motor Car Co. Detroit, Mich. Figurative language is here used effectively but the lack of paragraph separation makes it hard to read. The marginal space is poorly distrib- uted and the base is weak 235 236 ADVERTISING COPY granules combined with the most digestible of all fats, cream " it brings in an atmosphere that is not favorable to our early morning appetites. We may allow this matter of atmosphere to rest with a dis- cussion of the synonyms for the word smell. Smell itself is ordinarily neutral to many minds negative or unpleasant. It covers the whole broad field. Odor is more dignified, but still general. Fragrance suggests delicacy and the atmosphere of flowers grown in the fields or gardens. Scent suggests a heavy, powerful smell, perhaps of the Orient, perhaps of per- fumes, perhaps of hot-house flowers but certainly not the fragrance and delicacy of out-of-doors. Aroma suggests things to eat or drink or smoke, the kitchen or the dining-room, but not flowers of any kind. To go deeply into the question of atmosphere of words would require a consideration of practically the whole field of lan- guage and psychology. There is no way to determine with positiveness the atmosphere our words will carry to our readers. \Ye can, however, make sure that the atmosphere shall not be negative or unpleasant and that it shall be close to the experience of the majority of our readers. If we do this we shall bring them into close touch with us and make a re- sponse more certain. Coined Words The question of coined words is one of the most difficult connected with advertising copy. It is important, however, in considering the name to be chosen for an article, and there are a few principles that help in it. Coined words should be short and easily pronounced. This is necessary in order to economize the attention of the reader in grasping it and in remembering it. Glycothymoline is too long, though its suggestion is otherwise good. The word should be apt. It should belong to this article SMALLER UNITS OF ADVERTISING COPY 237 rather than to others. The word Usit, applied to a new glue, is bad. The word should be new. It should not be imitative or reminiscent of competitors. After Uneeda came Iwanta and Takhoma, and other like combinations. It should be euphonious; yet have enough friction to grasp and hold the attention. Words with a z, or k, or x, combined with liquid O sounds, are particularly good. This is not only because they are easily pronounced and because the unusual letters attract attention, but because their very sound com- bines the two parts of euphony. Such words are Coca-cola, Calox, and Onyx. The word should be suggestive of the article and its other suggestions should be pleasant. In the case of furniture polish the ending ol or ola would suggest oil. The manufacturers of Vinol were compelled to advertise that it contained no oil, because the word suggested oil to the minds of most people. Words like scratchoff have an unpleasant suggestion. The word should not be silly. Few people would want to ask for Ziggie, or Maker-nu, any more than they would want to ask for Netherwear when buying underclothes. Sentence Unity In sentence structure, as in diction, usage is more important than rules. The writer's business is to impress his thought forcefully and with the greatest economy of the reader's at- tention. Grammatical rules are useful only because they pro- vide a standard. There are many idioms that cannot be justified by gram- matical rules ; yet it is not only safe to use them, but really wise, for they give force and vitality to expression. The writer should not hesitate to say " You had better " or " No one else can, either." These idioms convey his idea. " Nothing is superior to this " is another good idiom that means one thing 238 ADVERTISING COPY in our language and quite a different thing in some foreign languages. On the other hand, there are many grammatically correct constructions that sound a\vk\vard and pedantic because they are not commonly used in every day life. The following will serve as examples: Athletes must have sound teeth the kind that is kept sound by Pebeco. Give this to whoever you think will like it. Such constructions should be avoided, because they distract the reader from the thought to the medium in which the thought is conveyed. It would be better to use the following forms : Athletes must have sound teeth the kind that are kept sound by Pebeco. Give this to whomever you think will like it. These are grammatically incorrect, perhaps, but they sound right, and they have abundant sanction in the usage of the gen- eral public and even in that of many writers of reputation. The critics who delight in pointing out these " faults " in the work of prominent authors merely testify to their wide-spread acceptance and hence their justification. For usage is the standard of language. As an alternative to the use of a form that may be regarded as incorrect the writer can recast his sentence. For example : Athletes must have sound teeth the teeth that are kept sound by Pebeco. Give this to anyone you think will like it. In cases of doubt, this is the better practice. Under no circumstances should the writer use sentence forms that will draw attention to themselves and away from the message. Fortunately correct grammar is common enough so that it SMALLER UNITS OF ADVERTISING COPY 239 usually passes unnoticed. Incorrect structure is more likely to be the cause of distraction. Because of the greater license allowed the writer of adver- tising copy, and the general desire for brevity, it is easy to fall into the habit of writing fragmentary sentences which are not really sentences, but mere groups of words. A sen- tence must contain a complete idea. There is little justifica- tion for such pieces of copy as the following: All work hand-laundered. Prompt service. Quality is our motto. Fairest prices always. No charge for mending. Collars and cuffs our specialty. Satisfaction guaranteed. A trial will convince. The use of a few more words to make these sentences gram- matically complete would add greatly to their effectiveness. If space were not available for more words, it would be better to omit some of the ideas. There are cases in which sentences may be mutilated to get them in the space, but this should be the last thing done. The principle of unity, as applied to the sentence, requires that it contain one main thought, with its closely modifying thoughts and only one. Obviously a sentence that is in- complete grammatically cannot be a unit. Another frequent fault is the practice of taking a modifying idea from its main idea and giving it the dignity of a sentence. More dangerous, and equally common, is the fault of writing several unrelated ideas in one sentence. Long, involved sen- tences of this kind are ineffective, because they tend to confuse the reader. Often he has to go over a sentence several times before he can grasp its meaning, and naturally, he will turn aside in disgust. In point of fact, most selling messages should be written in short sentences. If a hundred successful advertisements are chosen at random and analyzed it will be found that their sen- tences average not more than fifteen words in length. This 240 ADVERTISING COPY length may safely be taken as a standard. Long sentences are sometimes necessary; occasionally they are advisable for the sake of dignity. In any case, however, they must be unified. Sentence Coherence Coherence in the sentence demands proper order, construc- tion, and connection. The order should be the normal one, except when transpositions are desirable for the sake of em- phasis. Modifiers should be as close as possible to the words they modify. Particular care should be taken to see that ad- verbial modifiers, such as only, are in their right places. The construction of the sentence should be as simple as possible. In complex or compound sentences, the subject should not be changed unnecessarily, nor should the verb be changed from active to passive, from subjunctive to impera- tive, or in any other unnecessary way. Wherever possible the parallel construction should be used. This means that similar ideas should be cast in similar form. Correlatives always demand the parallel construction; thus if not only is followed by a verb, but also should be followed by a verb. A special form of parallel construction is found in the balanced sentence, which is a compound sentence cut ex- actly in half, with the two clauses similar in form, and either similar or contrasting in thought. The balanced sentence is particularly useful in slogans, for it is easily remembered. The following are a few examples : We would build them better, but we can't; we could build them cheaper, but we won't. No time like the present ; no present like the time. We couldn't improve the powder; so we improved the box. Proper connection within the sentence demands that un- equal ideas should not be co-ordinated. And is a loose con- nective at best; the writer should examine his compound sen- tences closely to see whether one main clause should not be SMALLER UNITS OF ADV^tlSING COPY 241 subordinated to the other. He should also see that his sub- ordinating connective expresses the right relation between the clauses. When and while are frequently missused for then and although. Pronouns must always refer to a definitely ex- pressed, not an implied antecedent. This antecedent must be near enough the pronoun to be unmistakable. Participles are a fruitful source of incoherence. A par- ticipial clause that begins a sentence must modify the subject of the sentence. " Divided up into sections, you can quickly refer to any part of this book," should read " Divided up into sections, this book is convenient for quick reference." Or, better still, such a sentence should be recast, with a subordin- ating conjunction and a definite verb used in place of the parti- ciple. The absolute participle, " it being very cheap " should always be avoided, for it does not show the true relation be- tween the idea it contains and the idea of the main clause. Sentence Emphasis The most important devices in securing emphasis in sen- tences are compression, repetition, suspense, and climax. As a rule the sentence should be as brief as it can be with full and exact expression of the thought. Verboseness is fatal to em- phasis. Sometimes, however, the repetition of a word, if the important word, is helpful. The following example illus- trates : It is a glove of marked distinction distinction in fit and style distinction in quality and feel distinction in all the little niceties of workmanship that are demanded by the par- ticular woman. The beginning and end of a sentence are its most important places and should be occupied by important words. Negative and unpleasant words should not be placed there. In the sentence, " Among so many investments it is hard to tell which would pay and which would lose," it would be better to trans- 242 ADVERTISING COPY pose the words lose and pay so as to end with the positive, pay. Connectives and parenthetical expressions should, if possible, be placed within the sentence. Since the sentences on street car cards and posters ordinarily stand alone, it is especially important that they be constructed according to the principle of emphasis. One street car card reading, " The pages of history will record the great war just as the Evening Post today tells the story," failed to emphasize the important contrast between history and the present day and did emphasize the unfortunate word story. Revised ac- cording to the principle of emphasis, it would read : " His- tory will tell the story of the great war just as the Evening Post tells it today.'' The periodic sentence, because of the fact that its idea is incomplete until the end and it therefore holds the reader in suspense, is especially emphatic. Inversions of order and transpositions, if not used to excess, are likewise valuable. It must be remembered that not every sentence can be empha- sized. The normal order should be followed unless there is good reason for change. Climax is a most valuable means of emphasis. When three clauses of similar form are used together they make a strong impression. This is especially true if they follow Herd's principle of having the shortest first and the longest last. The principle of climax applies to words and phrases as well as to clauses. Three is the best number; if more than this be used the form becomes monotonous and loses force. Paragraphs A paragraph is a group of sentences that form a single step in the progress of the complete advertisement. Its construc- tion is not entirely a matter of revision, because it can be planned in advance. However, it is frequently necessary in revision to change the paragraphing of the copy. SMALLER UNITS OF ADVERTISING COPY 243 The paragraph was designed for the convenience of the reader. Its whole history shows this. In order to rest the eye and mind of the reader it is necessary that the black mass of type material should be broken up, and the most effective method of breaking it up is by means of white space. It nat- urally follows that the shorter the paragraphs are, the more attractive the copy will be to the eye. The whole tendency today is toward very short paragraphs. The very short paragraph especially the single sentence paragraph is not suitable in all cases. It has great attention value and invites reading. It lacks dignity, however, and fre- quently lacks conviction. Used to excess, it is very tedious. Then, too, it is not suitable for subjects that require the per- suasion of a fe\v rather than the attention of many, or sub- jects that must be kept free from any suggestion of cheapness and commonness. Regardless of length, the paragraph should contain the whole of one phase of the message and only one. The copy should be so divided that each paragraph marks a logical step forward in the progress of the thought conveyed. In other words, the paragraph should be unified. The other structural principles apply to paragraphs. The sentences should be in logical order. They should have no unnecessary changes in construction or in point of view and should make free use of parallelism. They should be so closely connected in thought that few, if any, expressed con- nectives are needed. If connectives, or " word-bridges." are necessary to span the gap between ideas they should be exact, and unobtrusive in position. Emphasis in the paragraph demands that the important ideas be given the best positions and greatest proportion of space. This would apparently mean that the last sentence should con- tain the most important idea and be longest. In point of fact, however, many good paragraphs end with short sentences. 244 ADVERTISING COPY Occupying tnis important position they have an effect like the crack of a whip. It has not been possible, in the limits of this chapter, even to touch upon all the principles that are useful in the construc- tion and revision of paragraphs, sentences, and words. Only those of most value to the writer of advertising copy have been mentioned. CHAPTER XIX COPY AS AFFECTED BY MEDIUM Classification of Media The writer of an advertisement must always govern his copy to some extent by the medium in which it is to be placed. Most advertisers give careful thought to the selection of media, for they realize that their messages are of no value unless they reach the people for whom they are intended. Unfortunately they do not always realize that a message in the right medium may not be read by the right people unless it is properly adapted to its purpose. The newspaper has very different require- ments from those of the monthly magazine. An advertise- ment that would be read and responded to in one might be ineffective in the other. For that reason we must consider here some of the factors that affect the construction of adver- tisements in the various important classes of media. It is unnecessary to give an exhaustive list of media. Any- thing that carries the advertiser's message may be considered an advertising medium. This definition would include labels on packages, samples, booths in fairs, floats in street parades, and even such indirect media as restaurants and nurseries in the department stores. We need consider only the media in which a written message would be placed. The following list is reasonably inclusive : 1. Newspapers 2. Weeklies and flat periodicals 3. Standard monthly magazines 4. Women's publications 245 246 ADVERTISING COPY 5. Farm publications 6. Religious, educational, and other class publications 7. Technical publications 8. Trade journals 9. House organs 10.. Programs 11. Circulars and other mailing pieces 12. Street-car cards 13. Bill-boards and outdoor displays. 14. Specialties (calendars, blotters, and the like) Each of these classes has its own special problems, which are considered in Part V of this volume. Here we are inter- ested only in their influence upon the copy. The influence of the special class audience will be considered separately in the next chapter. Circulars and mailing-pieces are not discussed at all in this volume. Their problem is so different that it comes more properly within the field of salesmanship and sell- ing literature. The types of media listed above, however, do not in all cases differ because of the class of readers. They differ because of method of distribution, length of time given to them, reason for reading them, attitude of reader toward them, and many other factors. Hence it is fair to say that the nature of the copy is affected by the medium as well as by the audience, and to separate the two influences. In both cases the principle to remember is that an advertisement must be adapted to the readers if it is to " get across " in other words, to make an impression and secure a response. Newspapers National Advertising It is commonly recognized that the newspapers reach more kinds of people than the monthly and weekly periodicals. Their appeal is practically universal. On the other hand, they are read more hastily than the more costly periodicals and are COPY AS AFFECTED BY MEDIUM 247 shorter lived. All these differences indicate that in the news- paper the chief tasks are to get attention and to stimulate ac- tion. The national advertiser who tells his story with a fair degree of completeness in the magazines, must usually boil it down for the newspapers. National advertisements in newspapers demand bold, dis- tinctive display. There are likely to be many other adver- tisements competing for attention, to say nothing of the news and editorial columns for which the paper was bought. Many readers glance over the day's news and then toss the paper away. Strong attractive power is therefore a necessity. Clever and original stunts are possible in the newspaper that would be out of place, even if permitted, in the magazine. It should be remembered, too, that the range of possibilities in illustration is narrowed by the cheap and coarse paper, which prohibits the use of fine half-tones. The attraction must be secured by simple methods. Since each message must be brief (it is estimated that thirty seconds is the average amount of time given to an ad- vertisement) continuity of impression is essential. The ad- vertisements are usually inserted in a series, only a few days apart. This demands that they have a similarity of form. Trade-marks, slogans, or other identifying characteristics, are usually featured. A good-sized illustration of the package which is to be bought is especially important, for the news- paper is seen by people when they are close to the store or source of supply; and, moreover, newspaper advertisements are used to influence the dealer as well as the consumer. In general, it may be said that the display should be such as to command attention, recall to the memory previous advertising of the article, and impress upon the mind the characteristics of the product in such a way that buying action would be easy and natural. The text should be governed by the same considerations. 248 ADVERTISING COPY It must be remembered that the newspaper is not selective. Men and women of all classes and professions read it. There is, of course, some difference between the one cent paper and the three cent paper, between the home paper and the sporting paper but these differences are too numerous to be analyzed here. Ordinarily the text should have material that appeals to the largest possible number of those who may become buyers. As there is no connection between wealth and education, this means that the arguments should be clear and fairly obvious and the language simple, even in advertisements for expensive articles. As newspaper advertisements must usually be brief and gain their effect largely through repetition, assertions can frequently be substituted for reasons. An assertion, if repeated often enough, gains belief. Whether assertions take the place of reasoning or not, the copy should be terse, vigorous, and snappy in tone. Sentences and paragraphs should usually be short, and the diction should be colloquial and journalistic. The news quality should permeate the newspaper advertisement. The point of contact with the reader is frequently his inter- est in the news. This does not mean that when war is the dominant factor of news interest, the copy should always con- tain references to the war. If this were done too much it would become tedious, and it is likely to lead to straining for effect. But an advertisement on the sporting page may well feature the testimonial of some famous ball-player or other athlete. Some of the interest in the personality is trans- ferred to the advertised article. This is only one example of the many ways in which copy in newspapers may use the inter- est in the news to gain attention. Newspapers Department Store Advertising The advertisements of department stores depend largely upon the news interest and indeed partake of the character Whistler, the artist, could put a touch of color ia the one right spot in his picture and give a new value to all the rest* So the Automobile Show at the Grand Central Palace is enhanced and made more valuable by the pres* ence of the New York Sales: Harrolds Motor Car Co. 333 West 54th Street New Jersey Sales: Ellis Motor Car Co. 416 Central Ave., Newark Concise, distinctive newspaper copy for nationally advertised product 249 250 ADVERTISING COPY ThisMan hasn't heard the news yet But he's priching up his ears, at all wise men do,, at the suggestion that the John Wanamaker men's Store has tome news for him. Watch his expression Monday evening when the news will begin to develop. "Teaser" copy preced- ing a department store bargain announcement. of news. Many women read the latest announcements of the stores as regularly as men read the quota- tions on the market and financial pages. One Philadelphia newspaper is said to have lost 20,000 circula- tion when it lost the Wanamaker advertising. Often these department store advertisements are set up in columns like the news columns. Their chief purpose is to give infor- mation that is interesting and up-to- date. The bargain appeal is most uni- versal and most extensively used by department stores. Figures are ex- act and are slightly below round numbers (as $4.98 instead of $5, $2.49 instead of $2.50, and the like) in order to further the impression of saving. But it must be remembered that a low price is less appealing than the reason for the low price. Fre- quently the reason has to do with the element of time, as a pre-inven- tory sale, an after-the-holidays sale, and the like. This has added value in that it contains the news-element. Sometimes the reason is that a large purchase has been made on fortunate terms. Here the time element enters only through the suggestion that the articles will be sold out quickly, and prompt action is therefore necessary. Great! That was his simple comment when he heard the news of what the JOHN WANAMAKER MEN'S STORE was going to do. This much of the news you may know tonight : $355,585 represents the regular value* $226,013.75 the selling price $129,571.25 the savings. in, the greatest Sale in the history of Men's Clothing which opens Wednesday morning of this week at Broadway and Ninth. Every man will be interested. Prices will fit every pocket-book. All about it tomorrow evening. Second " teaser " preceding a department store bargain announcement 251 THE JOHN WAN4MAKER STORE THE MEN'S STORE OPENS AT 7:30 TOMORROW (WEDNESDAY I TO USHER IN The Greatest Sale in the History of Men's Clothing Join Wuamaket Unusual Linens in Thi Sale of White u*ry Sale .1 Linens |rin Mid *r ' >' *"* ' H'lVr?" '",JTl, "" *' I *r .MiitF 'It inly I * TT I uJ . slut t ' l, ,. *,, ,M ,.,. .:r CurfauM HALF PRICE !^,;TVI. > CV{1'~ '.'' I ttijjjr TS. * < **">f "1 ' J'-'l ** I There are 6,223 Suits ) i!!;;!!i t; r ';":;^ .: $11.50 ^ ;:,' w :ir: ;:":! $1850 ^ii?^^fM^! | There are C,420 Overcoats . On r/le Burlington Aictdt Hoot On -lit Barllaf ron Arcade oo Four. 1 ! 4'enu^ Entf S.oarfw.). <( Black and Oitord Overcoats i J, 11 /^.^;^. ^ . _- same shoe I have been wearing? Doubt is the most expensive factor the retailer has to deal mutt come through holding your trade from year to year, "th. When you handle an un-named shoe, what have you to offer When the customer questions, the salesman has to explain. that y ur competitor cannot duplicate? In other words. That means a loss of time. But what is more important, it what guarantee have you that the customers you have care- means that there is no connecting link in the customer's mind fu "y worked up this year will not be worked away from you between the goods she bought last year at your store and next y ear b y what she may get this year. A trade marked shoe such as the Dorothy Dodd overcomes completely this difficulty Therefore, it sells with less effort and less expense in time and advertising, and holds your cus- tomers from year to year If you analyze your cost closely you know that $5.00 is not e high price to pay fo ry firil sale. Your profits >mpeting attraction probably price? Every customer made by Dorothy Dodd dealers is like a new link forged in the chain of success. This is just one feature of many that makes the Dorothy Dodd shoe proposition attractive. Think this over then ask for full details about the shot and the selling plan. DOROTHY DODD SHOE COMPANY 101 B1CKFORD STREET, BOSTON Trade paper copy showing familiarity with, the dealer's problems 264 COPY AS AFFECTED BY AUDIENCE 265 are interested in articles mainly from the standpoint of sales and profits. Technical publications are usually addressed di- rectly to the consumer, who is not interested in the article for resale. In trade advertising, therefore, the copy usually pre- sents the merits of the article from a sales standpoint; the illustration shows the goods in large size or in detail and calls attention to their selling value. The text shows the selling advantages, the profits to be made, and the like. Frequently it also shows by reproduction or otherwise the advertising that is being done in general publications to stimulate a consumer demand. In general, the advertising is informatory and con- tains a good deal of the news element. Its language is fre- quently colloquial even slangy and " mere cleverness " is apparently effective at times. Copy for Farmers The farmer as a rule reads fewer publications than the average business or professional man and, consequently, reads them more thoroughly. He is inclined to deliberate carefully before deciding upon a purchase. These general considera- tions make several important differences in the nature of the copy written to appeal to him. Display is of minor impor- tance, not only because the periodical is read carefully from beginning to end, but also because the quality of paper and printing does not allow the use of a fine quality of illustra- tions. It is doubtful, moreover, whether esthetic considera- tions weigh very heavily in the farmer's decision. Legibility rather than beauty is to be sought. For the same reasons the text may contain a large amount of material, provided it is in the nature of useful facts. Hu- man interest is sometimes possible, but the stress should be laid upon reasons and a reason appeal. Many advertisements, of course, perform all the functions of selling, arousing the emotional desire as well as convincing the purchaser. Con- 266 ADVERTISING COPY viction is always necessary. The arguments that convince are more especially those which deal with the qualities of dura- bility and economy. The price appeal is usually valuable. Details in the construction of the article, even to the number of coats of paint used and side-by-side comparisons with com- peting articles, are frequently helpful. In fact, it may be said that all exact information about an article has weight with the farmer. It is unnecessary to concentrate upon the single talking point that is most distinctive. The evidence chosen should be of a kind to arouse confi- dence. Testimony, if used, should be that of other farmers, expressed in their own language so far as possible, even though this may be slightly ungrammatical. An important kind of evidence is in the form of guarantees, either by the advertiser or by the publication. Many farm publications have adopted the policy of standing back of their advertisers and agreeing to straighten out any difficulties which may be caused by dis- satisfaction with purchases made as a result of their advertise- ments. The personal point of view, in which the advertiser uses the word / liberally, is especially good for farm advertising. In all cases the language should be simple, without the sug- gestion of pretentiousness. It is possible sometimes to go to the extreme of colloquialism and, since most farm papers have a sectional distribution, localisms are not objectionable. Anal- ogies and figures of speech from the farmer's experience lend force as. for example, " Buy your tires as you buy your binder," or, " The bed of the wagon is only hip-high.'' In connection with this point, however, it is well to add a warn- ing that the so-called " Rube language " is likely to be fatal to success. The farmer of today is usually an intelligent per- son with a fair degree of education and resents any tone of patronage or implication of inferiority. It is well to consider him as an unusually careful business man who is not in a hurry COPY AS AFFECTED BY AUDIENCE 267 and who wants a sound business reason for anything he is urged to do or to buy. Copy That Appeals to Women Generalizations about advertising to women are peculiarly difficult because the first generalization is that a woman does not care to be treated simply as a member of a general class. She prefers to be treated as an individual. This fact should be remembered in writing copy, and wherever possible her judgment should be appealed to. (See page 271.) There are, however, certain general class characteristics which dis- tinguish women as a whole from men and influence the nature of the copy that should be used in women's publications. The first important distinction is that women as a whole are more suggestible than men. They are more easily influenced by their emotions, and by the ideas which are associated with, but not directly conveyed by, the illustrations, words, and other symbols used in an advertising message. For this, rea- son human-interest copy and the liberal use of illustrations, especially those which tell the story, are especially desirable in advertising to women. Text is relatively less important, for it is not easy to make a strong appeal to the emotions by means of words. The esthetic sense is more highly developed in women than in men. Proper balance, harmony, and all other things which make for artistic beauty are almost essential. It is only neces- sary to contrast the advertising pages of such a publication as Vogue, or The Ladies Home Journal, with those of System, or The Iron Age, to see the absolute necessity of an artistic appearance in advertising to women. Hand lettering, liberal white space, and the like, to mention only a few, are among the valuable means of appealing to women. For the same reasons the language used in the text should be absolutely correct, with a slight leaning toward formality More for Your Money Quaker Oats is put up also in a 25-cent size, nearly three times as large as the lo-cent size. By savingin packing it offers you 10 per cent more for your money. See how \onf it lasts. Do You Know the Wealth of That Lies in Quaker Oats? There is one grain in which Nature stores an exuberance of vim. Fed to mankind or to animals, it breeds spirit and vitality. For ages men have known this. Among the intelligent, children all the world over are being brought up on this grain. Quaker Oats presents this grain in its most delicious form. It brings it to you in large, luscious flakes, matchless in taste and aroma. The result is, children love it. They eat an abundance. And even,' energy-laden taste be- comes a new source of vivacity. That's why the mothers of a hundred nations now send here for Quaker Oats. Is Vim-Food Made Delightful We and 25c per Package Except in Far West and South Copy poorly adapted to high-class woman's publication, because of exaggerated language and sensational tone 268 A wide selection of Quaker Laces reflecting inspired Euro- pean styles, unquestioned taste, conceded beauty! Quaker Laces in the newest motifs, freshest notes all crystallized in authoritative American styles! Quaker Laces suited .to Russian Tunic Effects, to over-drapes, to flounces, to ruffles! Also Quaker Lace novelties flesh- colored laces, delicate Chantillys, 42- inch flounces, \Iargot flounces, Com- bination Camisole flounces! We have anticipated Fashion's trend created new Quaker designs in American styles ready for the moment. The moment is now The " fascinating feminine " has but to choose! Simply let her look for the blue card with the Quaker head atop. That adds authority to her selection. QJJAKER LACES QUAKER LACE COMPANY Refined and charming; very nearly ideal for high-class woman's publication 269 2/0 ADVERTISING COPY and dignity. Colloquialisms, slang, technical lingo, are alike dangerous. On the other hand, figurative expressions that bring to the mind pleasant associations increase the effective- ness of the appeal. " Reason- Why " Copy for Women If reason-why copy is used and in some cases it is appro- priate the arguments that appeal most are those in which health, beauty, pride, style, the maternal instinct, cleanliness, or economy are dominant. Evidence of facts and figures is ordinarily useless. In selling such a food product as beans, for example, it does not help the cause to give copious statistics as to the number of bushels of beans used yearly, or the num- ber of tin cans required to pack a month's supply. Such evi- dence harms rather than helps, because the associations of thou- sands of tin cans is not pleasant and, incidentally, takes away from the individuality of the appeal. A better kind of evi- dence is that of authority the testimony of some prominent man or woman, such as Anna Pavlowa or Dr. Wiley. A large proportion of women, of course, are influenced by the bargain appeal, as is evidenced by the advertising of retail and department stores. Premiums, likewise, are useful as an inducement. Even the coupon system of the United Cigar Stores Company exists largely for the benefit of women, as may be ascertained by a casual survey of the catalogue of premiums, or by an inspection of the premium departments of these stores. It has also been found valuable to feature samples, booklets, and the like in the copy, as an inducement to response. Free gifts have been responsible for the success of many articles advertised to women. A distinction, of course, should be made between the differ- ent classes of women's publications, but this distinction is not one caused by the functions of the publications, but rather by their social class determined by the price. From the would you Kqve cKosen in tins ffirfume Test ? IHE test was made by 103 representative women, comparing six perfumes- three of which were the most popular foreign perfumes and three were domestic, made by Colgate & Co. Over 3 A of the 103 women chose JJ Colgate's in preference to the imported. Before making the test 61 of the 103 said they preferred a foreign perfume, yet when the influence of a foreign label was removed 41 of these 61, or % of them, chose Colgate's first. Every woman will be interested in the story' of this test It shows very clearly that selecting a perfume because it has a foreign label does not necessarily result in a woman's getting what she . really prefers. The test was conducted as follows by two impartial judges (Mr. F. N. Double- day of Doubleday. Page & Co.: Mr. S.Keith Evans of the Woman's Home Com- panion). They purchased three of the most popular imported perfumes and three Colgate perfumes all in origi- nal unopened bottles. The judges poured the perfumes into six plain bottles, numbered from one to six, and kept a record by which they alone knew which number represented each perfume. From 'time to time strips of Perfumers' Blotting Paper were scented from the numbered bottles under the su- pervisionofthejudges.andthesewereusedinmakingthetest. The 103 women represented business women, the stage, the editorial staffs of two wom- en's magazines and college women. Each was asked to name the perfume she was in the habit of using and was then given 6 strips of the scented paper numbered 1 to 6 corresponding to the num- bers on the bottles. She was asked to make a first choice, a second, a third, etc. Rec- ord was kept of all selections. When the tests were com- pleted the judges took the record, and inserted the names of the perfumes in place of the numbers from the key which they alone had. The result was then announced to Colgate & Co. It was a daring test in- spired by the confidence which we had in the superiority of our perfumes. How is your choice of perfumes determined? By what you really prefer or by a foreign label ? Is it not possible that a domestic label is keeping you from the enjoy- ment of the particular perfume you would naturally select? This is the Way They Chose Hole Ibese lilttt itoriii ofwomtn wbo baj ban buying a labtl ratbtr Iban a ptrfumt: ett, who lud previously Three Smllli Collate firls In like r ncfi P'rlume, winch hip. piswd by Ilieir unlibtlcd atautd Choi s test, placed thai perfume two chose Splendor, one Eclal. :,:!'! v-'-i her favorite cliose Colgate's Sple^J T eluded in the test, which she put in seconc Would You like to make the Test for yourself? If so, we will send you three Perfumers' Testing Strips, three miniature vials of the Colgate Perfumes Florient, Splendor and Eclat and an extra strip of paper so that you can make a comparison between Colgate's and the perfume which you may now be using. This test will not only be valuable to you but can be used as an interesting form of entertainment for your friends. We will send full instructions as to how to make the test. Your name and address and a 2c stamp for mailing will receive prompt attention. Write today for details showing liaw to make tlie lest yourself COLGATE & CO., Perfume Contest, Dept. 45. 199 Fulton Street. New York Effective reason-why appeal to women 271 PACKARD BEAUTY is a human necessity. Taste is the faculty of discerning it. Every time we make a selection for our- selves, our home or our friends, we are revealing our true selves, and putting ourselves on record as possessing taste or lacking it. As we read the story of the ages we are re* minded that certain qualities which men have woven, and carved, and infused into their works have lived because they have satisfied human demands; and while it is true that some will manufacture the things the 'many require, it is also true that the many will demand better things. Prestige of the producer increases in direct ratio as raw material is advanced from the level of mere utility to the higher one that seeks also to beautify and convey esthetic satisfaction. Ask the man who owns one PACKARD MOTOR CAR COMPANY DETROIT The perfect balance and restraint of this copy and its arrangement wins confidence 272 COPY AS AFFECTED BY AUDIENCE 273 thirty-five cent publications, like Vogue, to the ten cent, like McCall's, and to the even cheaper publications, like Comfort, with their circulation lodged in the small villages, a large pro- portion of the space is taken up with fashions; the remainder with household suggestions and stories of a sentimental char- acter. The differences between the publications are largely social, not functional. The appeal is the same except that in the more expensive publications the appeal of style, beauty and exclusiveness is greatest; whereas in the cheap publica- tions, the bargain appeal takes first place. In the cheaper publications, too, the language may be sim- ple and approach more nearly the language of farm paper advertising. In the high-priced publications, on the other hand, whole sentences are given in French, frequently with- out translation. Only a small proportion of the readers prob- ably understand what is said, but all of them feel the compli- ment. It is simply an extreme case, illustrative of the fact that suggestion is more important than direct meaning in the text of advertisements to women. Miscellaneous Copy Problems The classes discussed above are by no means all those which are reached by special publications. There are chil- dren's magazines, religious periodicals, sporting and theatrical papers and innumerable others, each with its own special copy problem. It can generally be solved, however, if the writer will take the trouble to gain a fair knowledge of the charac- teristics of the class and then write the copy from their stand- point. Only when this is done can advertising reach its high- est point of efficiency. The too general practice of construct- ing an advertisement for a general magazine and then insert- ing it with practically no change in children's magazines, busi- ness magazines, and women's magazines is wasteful. While it may be true that the buyers are the same people, no matter ~ aoiaw uno oarnwrotoucno doleaauicQ a La toilette waumna. Do you know the charm of Frenclvmade talc? Of all talcum powders it is the finest the smoothest the most refined. Djer-Kiss Talc is French-made talc at its best, delicately scented with Djer-Kiss, the famous French perfume. J ;V.. : -- 1 >'>~ IIP The chief merit of this copy lies in its suggestive power. Note the use of French 274 COPY AS AFFECTED BY AUDIENCE 275 where they see the advertisement, there is a vast difference in their mood and attitude in reading different publications and that attitude is carried over from the reading pages into the advertising copy. All advertising copy in class publications of whatever type should be built according to the Golden Rule of adaptation to the reader. CHAPTER XXI COPY AS AFFECTED BY DISPLAY Relative Importance of Display and Text The message of an advertisement is conveyed by various symbols. By general consent they are divided into two classes : words, or the " copy " or " text " ; and illustrations, color, type, ornament and texture, or the " display.'' Few copy-writers are able to execute the display ; fewer artists are able to write the copy. The matter of combining the two so as to reach their greatest effectiveness is therefore difficult. Three methods are in common use. The first, and poor- est, is to have an artist arrange the display and then have a copy-writer build the text to accompany it. Copy written under such conditions is likely to be " a hole in the advertise- ment filled with words." A better method is to write the copy first and then have it properly displayed by an artist. Best of all is the method of having both text and display han- dled together by the copy-writer, even though an artist may later be asked to execute the finished illustration and layout. At any rate the writer of the copy should be in control of the advertisement and see that text and display are properly re- lated. An advertisement should be a unit. Unless its text and display work together in harmony a large part of its effect is bound to be lost. The builder of the advertisement should visualize it as it will appear in the pages of the publication. Many copy-writers never write a word of the text until they have made rough layouts in the size and shape demanded and with sufficient detail of illustration and display elements to 276 COPY AS AFFECTED BY DISPLAY 277 enable them to work intelligently with the finished product always in mind. They follow this practice whether they want an advertisement that consists largely of illustrations and other display elements, or an advertisement that is wholly or almost wholly text. People are interested in advertisements by very much the same elements that interest them in books or magazine articles. These are, roughly speaking, the subject, the advertiser, the picture, and the headline. When a man is interested in buy- ing a motor boat he will, of course, pay particular attention to advertisements of motor boats and engines. So with any other article. That is one reason why publications that have obtained a large amount of advertising of some particular type of article find it easier to get others. Buyers naturally look to this publication to find the latest announcements of differ- ent firms in the field, and thus get as large a basis as possible for comparison. As the people who are interested in the subject are the best of all possible prospects, a bulky advertising section, which lessens the attention value of any individual advertisement, frequently counterbalances the loss by an increased interest value. Readers turn to this section as they turn to the market section of a city, where most of the stores of the kind in which they are interested are grouped. It sometimes happens that a publication of no intrinsic merit for a certain field has acquired it through the advertising of different firms in that field, and has become a good medium for automobile adver- tising, for educational advertising, for sporting goods adver- tising, and so on. The Factors That Attract Some readers are interested in the name of the advertiser. This is true, however, only of a small percentage of adver- tisers and those of commanding importance in their fields. 278 ADVERTISING COPY The names of Tiffany, Colgate, Pillsbury, or Waterman, have some value in attracting readers, a value that has been built up by a long process of advertising or long experience in doing business. There was a time when the advertisements signed by Seymour Eaton or Thomas W. Lawson were read because of the author's name, just as the stories of Jack London, Rob- ert W. Chambers, or George Randolph Chester invited read- ing simply because of the author's reputation. Many adver- tisers who have not this reputation or any past history to fall back upon adopt the same method with poor results. The names of Jackson, Lee, and Jones bring no particular sug- gestion to the average mind. It is, therefore, inadvisable for such an advertiser, or any new advertiser, to place his name in the most prominent position in the advertisement, or to make it in any way the dominant factor in the display. It does not attract readers. Unless readers are interested in the subject or in the name of the advertiser the attraction must come either through the illustration or through the headline. By illustration, of course, we mean not merely a picture, but also any display factor which is in itself alluring. As a rule, however, people are interested most in pictures. More than half of the people who read a magazine story look at its illustrations first. Only those maga- zines which appeal to the cultured, discriminating reader can afford to dispense with illustrations. In just the same way, only those advertisements which have their appeal largely to intelligence can afford to neglect this important factor of at- traction. Publicity Copy In advertisements that exist largely for publicity, i.e., for getting the attention and interest of as large a number of read- ers as possible, the illustration may be the dominating feature. The artist should be allowed the greatest amount of space and COPY AS AFFECTED BY DISPLAY 279 the best opportunities. The picture is all-important; in fact, sometimes it tells the whole story. This method of adver- tising is especially good for the commoner food products, such as prepared cereals. The Kellogg Toasted Corn Flake Company once held a competition for artists with a first prize of $1,500. The pic- tures were simply to deal with child-life in such a way as to advertise Kellogg Toasted Corn Flakes. It was the theory of the advertiser doubtless the correct theory that an attractive illustration of child-life, with a taste suggestion, would do more to sell his products than any amount of text. His main object, therefore, was to get these attractive illus- trations, and for that purpose he was willing to pay a large sum to have the work done by the best artists that could be secured. The advertisements of Cream of Wheat likewise are almost entirely illustration only the name of the article and some caption are usually added. Such a method is, of course, ideal for these cases. It would not be good, however, for some article of less common use or less extensive distribution. Inquiry Copy \Yhere the purpose of the advertisement is to get direct or- ders or inquiries, the picture and other display elements are much less important. The text is the all-important thing. Many advertisements of this type are shockingly bad in ap- pearance, full of closely printed matter, broken up into small, ugly-shaped chunks, unbalanced, full of smudgy lines the kind that have been aptly called " eye-killers." Yet frequently they produce an astonishing volume of business. Regardless of their form they contain the facts the reader wants. This type of advertisement is frequently called the mail-order type, because it is used in the great majority of mail order proposi- tions. Even where the picture is used in mail order copy, fre- 280 ADVERTISING COPY quently it is not wholly or even mainly for attraction. Often it is the illustration of the article to be sold, or of the booklet to be sent upon request. It is rarely that the whole story should be told in the picture and it should usually be subordi- nated in size and in other ways to the text. Between the extremes of pure publicity advertising and mail order advertising are all gradations. Most advertise- ments combine the purposes of publicity and inquiry-getting. From the stress laid upon these two purposes, roughly speak- ing, depends the relative importance of display and text. Other factors, of course, enter, such as the degree of educa- tion and culture of the class appealed to and the size and im- portance of the advertiser. These, however, have already been sufficiently considered. In general, the small unknown adver- tiser should place his reliance upon text rather than display. In advertisements that exist mainly for the sake of direct inquiries and orders, and in most other advertisements that de- pend largely upon a reason appeal, copy is more important than display. Frequently it is only necessary to see that the dis- play does not detract from the message in words. Even if it does detract, the advertisement may pay, because of suffi- cient strength in the copy and thus lead the advertiser to the erroneous conclusion that artistic quality is of no impor- tance. Good copy often succeeds in spite of poor display; it succeeds better when coupled with good display. Type Display The simplest form of display is created by setting impor- tant points of the copy in bold-face type. There should not be more than three points emphasized in this way ; otherwise there will be too many things competing for attention at once. Moreover the continuous use of a single method of emphasis nullifies its value for its purpose. Three display lines work well together. Two are often enough. COPY AS AFFECTED -BY DISPLAY 281 These display lines should be in proper position and se- quence. The theoretically ideal form is to have the most important one at the top, as a headline ; the second at the optical center; and the third at the bottom. Taken together the three display lines give the gist of the message. This theoretically ideal form is found in a surprisingly large num- ber of advertisements, and is capable of many effective varia- tions. There are, however, other arrangements of display lines that are equally effective. Headlines In a large proportion of advertisements the headline is relied upon to secure attention and interest. Even where display first draws the eye, a headline is frequently necessary as a secondary attraction to secure a reading of the copy. The difference between two headlines has often been the difference between success and failure in an advertisement. It is said that the simple change of a headline from " Cold Feet '" to " Warm Feet " greatly increased the productiveness of a medical advertisement. For this reason it is wise to study some of the fundamental requirements of good headlines. A headline may be regarded somewhat in the light of a title to a magazine story or a newspaper item. There is a slight distinction to be made, however, between headlines for inquiry-getting advertisements, and headlines for publicity ad- vertisements. In the latter case the headline, like that of a newspaper article, may tell the whole story, or the most im- portant part of it. In the former case, since results depend upon complete reading, the headline is more like that of a magazine story ; it aims to stimulate curiosity. In either case it should be short, specific, apt, original, and interesting. These requirements are not of equal importance, nor is it possible to make every headline conform to all of them. Any one of them may be sacrificed for good reasons. They are, 282 ADVERTISING COPY however, good working principles, which may be followed in the majority of cases. Headlines Brevity Brevity is an obvious necessity, for reasons that have been made clear in the section of this volume that deals with psy- chological factors. Four words are about all that the average eye and mind can grasp at a single glance. This does not mean that no headline should contain more thar four words. It means that undue length should be avoided. Such a headline as " The Thrill of Leading a Great Orchestra in Great Music is Yours " might profitably be contracted to " The Thrill of Leading a Great Orchestra is Yours." In the revised head- line there are more than four words, but only four word- groups. The advantage of brevity may also be seen by comparing such a cumbersome headline as " Ask the Man in the Street what he thinks of the Chalmers Automobile" with the crisp headline actually used, " Ask Bill." If the headline must contain more than four words it is wise to put only four or five on one line. For example : Build a $5,000 Business of Your Ozvn Be Independent or A Summer Without Rent and Houseivork Only Play It should be noted that the second line should be shorter than the first. To accomplish this it may be necessary to set the second line in smaller type than the first. Headlines Specificness The headline should be specific. Such generalities as Wis- dom, The Truth, Character and Reputation, Easy Economies, COPY AS AFFECTED BY DISPLAY 283 or Cheapest and Best have little value for the average reader. The broad, sweeping statement passes over his head where some definite fact, such as " $200 Buried " or " Average Profit $2.90 per tire " would catch his attention instantly. Labora- tory tests of the reading of advertisements have proved con- clusively that a specific headline is much more certain to lead to a reading of the advertisement than a headline that is vague and general. This fact can be seen also from a comparison of the following two headlines for the same automobile: Best two passenger automobile 'in the world at anywhere near the price. This chain of evidence proves Saxon worth. Or again compare the two following headlines : Here are two favorites; take your choice. I want you to choose betzueen these two shapes. The latter headlines were each used with a piece of mail order copy for cigars, which were the same in display and sub- stantially the same in text. Each illustrated two shapes of cigars. The second advertisement proved far more success- ful than the first and the success was due largely to the more specific command of the second headline. Headlines Aptness Closely connected with the requirement of having the head- line specific is the requirement of having it apt. " Blind " headlines such as "Burglars" for a breakfast food; "Off Key " for a coffee substitute ; " How Very Comfortable " for soap are of no particular value. Even though they may lead to reading of the advertisement they do so by deceit and do not strengthen the power of the copy. Many others, such as " Safety " for revolvers, or " A Narrow' Escape " for insur- ance, while they have a certain amount of appropriateness for 284 ADVERTISING COPY White sheep give more wool than black sheep there are more of them. PEMINGTON P..OIC o! the world 1 stenographers [her All the world knows why there ire n REMINGTON u the machmi deuce and the machine whichf p 12,500,000 Remington letters mailed.m the United States every business day in the year the article advertised are still lacking in aptness because they are equally appropriate for many other articles. " White sheep give more wool than black sheep there are more of them " is not only faulty in its extreme length, but in its total lack of apt- ness for a typewriter, which was the article advertised. The deficiency of such blind headlines is all the more apparent when we consider such apt headlines as " Get a full measure of light " or " Three lamps for the price of one." If it is impossible to have apt headlines otherwise, the R^mincrl-nn name of the article or of C J H I U . the advertiser may well be used, as for example, " An eight cylinder Cadillac." This may be deficient from some other standpoints, but there is no question as to its aptness. Probably it would be sufficiently interesting to attract the attention of the best prospects. Headlines Originality The requirement of originality in a headline is not based on ethics, although it is obviously unfair for an advertiser to appropriate to his own uses a headline formulated and suc- cessfully used by somebody else. Original headlines are neces- sary because most headlines that have been used to any extent emi ngton Typewriter Company New York- and Everywhere " Blind " headline COPY AS AFFECTED BY DISPLAY 285 have lost their power to attract attention. Such headlines as " Do you know?' "Are you interested?" and the like are obviously worn out. " Safety First " has recently been used too extensively ; likewise " A Christmas gift the zchole family will appreciate." The headline " Always Young " was used for two advertisements in a single issue of the same publica- tion. Many other instances could be cited of headlines that lack originality and therefore attractive power. Headlines Interesting Nature As has been indicated already, there are several possible sources of interest in the advertisement. So far as the head- line is concerned, the three possible types of interest are: sub- ject interest, advertiser interest, and reader interest. The latter is normally of greatest value. A headline with the word you in it, especially if it contains an appeal to some funda- mental human emotion, such as ambition, curiosity, or desire to save, is likely to appeal. The following will illustrate : "Are your hands tied?" "Will yon drive six screws to save $11.25?" "Build your own house in two hours." Obviously the word " you " cannot be used in all headlines. The requirement of originality sometimes suggests some other form as preferable. How and Why titles have a strong factor of human interest, as for example : How a world-wide business grew from this old kettle. Such forms have the added advantage that they appear to be the beginning of an answer to an implied question; therefore the reader will go on without appreciable pause. It is frequently desirable to have some word in the head- line that will automatically select the right class of readers. The word pipe, for example, would attract smokers, as in the 286 ADVERTISING COPY Is Your Wife Helpless or Dangerous in these times when more idlers make more burglars and brutes ? THESE times make more idlers. More idlers mean more Burglars and Brutes. Burglars and Brutes break your house ; shock your wife into permanent hysteria and mark your children with a horrible fear for life. A ten shot, easy-to-aim Savage Automatic converts your helpless wife into a dangerous defender of her children more dangerous to face than a mother grizzly bear. Fathers, it is a serious duty in these times to arm your home by day and by night with a Savage Automatic the one arm which every Brute and Burglar fears. They fear its IO lightning shots, 2 to 4 more than others; they fear the novice's power to aim if as easy as pointing your finger. Therefore take pains that you get the Savage the one the thugs fear. As harmless as a cat around the house, because it is the only automatic that tells by glance or touch whether loaded or empty. Take home a Savage today. Or at least send for free booklet, "If You Hear a Burelar," written by a famous detective. A Brand New Savage Rifle This .12 Tububr Repeater has all the original Savage features hammerlcss trom- bone action, solid breech, solid top, side ejection, etc. Price $12.00. Send for circular. SAVAGE ARMS CO., 75 SAVAGE AVENUE, UTICA, NEW YORK. THE @ SAVAGE AUTOMATIC Negative headline of doubtful value headline, " A hot letter from a pipe smoker," " The man with fifteen pipes and what he said," or " The smuggled Cala- bash." "Rani your college expenses" would automatically pick out students. There is one special phase of self interest which might per- haps be mentioned in this connection. Aside from the funda- COPY AS AFFECTED BY DISPLAY 287 mental emotions and instincts of human nature there are fre- quently temporary interests induced by current events, by the approach of holidays, or by some other outside stimulus. This temporary interest is frequently made use of to good effect: " The War How Will It Affect You? " " War- in the Encychpcedia Britannica," and the like, are headlines that make use of this temporary interest of the reader. There is one further requirement of headlines that applies to publicity advertising and to some extent to inquiry-getting advertising. A headline should ordinarily be positive. If the headline " Decayed Teeth " were seen in connection with the name of a dentifrice the association of ideas would be unpleas- ant unless the whole of the copy were read. Of course, the whole copy is read only in a small percentage of cases. For this reason we should avoid such headlines as " Is your re- frigerator poisoning your family?" or "A man would die in the first alcove " unless the advertising exists almost entirely for purposes of inquiry-getting. Even in cases of this kind they are dangerous on account of the unpleasant, negative suggestions they contain. Tying Up Display Lines to Text Headlines and other display lines should be regarded as integral parts of the copy and as such should be tested accord- ing to the principle of coherence. The headline should be closely connected in idea and tone with the copy that follows ; otherwise the interest it secures is not transferred to the smaller type of the text matter. The text that follows the headline should either explain it, or relate to it in such a way that the reader's attention is led from the one to the other without strain. If he is at- tracted by the headline but finds that the first paragraph of the text is not closely related to it, he is not likely to read far. For example, in the headline, " Balanced Heating Guaran- ~1 O/x/y Years f Knowing How Our Evening Dress Clothes Men's and Young Men's are the very finest that our Sixty Years of Knowing Hoiv can produce. Stefn-'Bloch Smart Clothes are sometimes called dear but when rightly estimated they really are the cheapest. The Stein-Eloch.Co. Rochester, N. Y. There is no connection between illustration and headline. The advertise- ment attempts to do too many things at once 288 COPY AS AFFECTED BY DISPLAY 289 teed," the stress is laid upon the word " guaranteed." The text that follows should, therefore, explain not only what " balanced heating " means, but also how this furnace " guar- antees " it. Again, in the headline, " This Roofing Never Costs a Cent for Maintenance," we have a direct, positive statement. If the first paragraph of the text begins nega- tively, " It's false economy to put your money in a cheap roofing/' something of the attention-value of the headline is lost. The headline and the beginning of the text should have the same point of view. The name of the article, or other display line, should not be inserted at the optical center unless it can logically be connected with the ideas in the text that precede and follow. Tying Up Text with Illustrations Much the same principles apply to the connection of the text with illustrations. There should be no doubt in the read- er's mind as to the aptness of the illustration when he reads the text. Yet oftentimes we find in advertisements text that has nothing whatever to do with the illustration that drew our attention. It indicates lack of team work between the artist and the copy-writer, which could have been obviated had the man who wrote the copy made himself responsible for the layout and illustration as well. The harmony between illustration and text should not be merely in the matter of the direct connection of ideas. It should be in their tone or style as well. No argument is neces- sary to show that a fine line drawing does not belong with the rough, colloquial, slangy text of Prince Albert tobacco, or that heavy crayon or charcoal drawings do not belong with the dainty descriptions of silverware. Vigorous, argumentative copy should not be set in dainty or frivolous type. On the other hand, copy with an appeal to the senses or sentiment should be displayed with some dignity and refinement. Chel- KVDIANTis the woman in wliose body and heart and soul there is health; pitiable she whose body is sick. Health means happiness, and happiness charms even the birds of the air. For a quarter of a century has spelt Health and Happiness to many thousands rf women who were sick and unhappy. The rich, wholesome malt and tonic hops are Nature's own restorative in the most concentrated and effective form. It builds the body into strength, beauty and usefulness. Vbur grocer and druggist have it Mall Nulrino.tt'hrnmurd unih inilVor JpjrHmj wjirr. mikfi a Jrmk. Mali Nuuinr dbrcd by US. Revenue Dtoulnirn tw* in aU-ohdic bcvrrjge. Conl.iim \^\ pet tci null wliji - 1 qo [^or cci ANHEUSEI\-DUSCH- ST. LOUIS, U.S.A. oe Shop The first element of the cathedral, the chair, even the paint- ing, is that of fitness to use, or function, as we shall call it. When a chair meets all the requirements of a thing to sit upon in the circum- stances for which it is made, it expresses the first element of its artistic ne- cessity. When an adver- tisement expresses perfect fitness between its idea and the commodity, and then between the selection and arrangement of all the ma- terials used in the advertis- ing display, the advertise- ment has the first element of art present in it. If this is not true; if, further, the advertisement is inefficient in its power to sell, it loses a portion of one of the two elements to be reckoned with in the art concept. On the other hand, in- herent in the nature of man is the desire for beauty. He wants it because he's made that way. And when he doesn't produce it and use it, it is only because he has a mistaken viewpoint as to wha': beauty is and as to how to express in his materials the beauty idea. This makes even beauty somewhat a matter of science, because the laws of choice and arrangement in any materials in which beauty is expressed may be fairly clearly stated and 4 West 38th St. Store Floor Separate Stare, A Sttf frnm F'ftk Avrnue Important Sale (Today) Friday Men's Shoes Mahogany. Tan or Black Ruula Calf Short. ultH Tan or Crag Cloth or Leather Topv alto fatenf Colt. ulth Black Cloth or Leather Top*. 3.75 Regular Prior tSM Men's Baqister Shoes All Stylet and Leathert, 6.50 filial $T30 Value Men's Thomas Cort Shoes BENCH-MADE. HAND-SEWED All Styles and Leathert, 8.50 Viual HIM Value Jfranfclfn Sfmon & Co. Fifth Avenue, 37th and 38th Sts. Newspaper advertisement monot- onous in arrangement, wasteful in blank space arrangement, unorgan- ized in form, unpleasant in use of many types FUNCTIONS AND ELEMENTS OF DISPLAY 303 if followed will result at least in the training to ap- preciate the general com- binations which result in beautiful creation. Beauty then is not a matter of pure feeling, but a matter of feeling, or emotions, plus intelligence, or intellect. Persons who recognize that both of these powers are active in beauty development will be able to create in the advertising field results that are beau- tiful as well as suited to the purpose. Beauty, in- deed, becomes a distinct selling feature, since the Two Article! That Every One Should Read i. THEODORE ROOSEVELT on "The International Posse Comitatus" Prof. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART of Hairard Umvenity "Turkey and the War" in NEXT SUNDAY'S TIMES Order next Sunday'* Time* today of your newt- dealer. The Timea if alwaya .old oat early. GE O.C.FLINT Co. _ _ __ and R..J.HOR.NE.R. Co. SUBSTANTIAL REDUCTIONS 10% TO 50% Will be offered during the month of August at the combined two' stocks of FURNITURE DECORATIONS RUGS make it imperative that they be greatly re- duced to make room for our New Fall Styles arriving daily. Flint & Horner Co. inc. 20-26West36th.St New \fcrk Advertisement showing exceedingly bad distribution of copy as related to blank space. Lack of organization destroys interest and convincing power Uninteresting, unorganized and badly placed copy, lacks interest desire or appetite for it is as clearly defined in the individual as the desire for companionship or the ap- petite for food or drink. It is a well-known fact that a man is more ap- proachable in a business proposition after a good meal than before it. He is also more approachable when commodities are put before him in a beautiful form than when ugliness, unattractiveness or disor- 304 ADVERTISING DISPLAY ganization of material is the component accompaniment of the article. Men convey their ideas one to another through some form of language sometimes by words, sometimes by actions, at other times by pictures. In these various ways ideas are ex- pressed which have somewhat the same meaning to all persons who understand these symbols and their relationships. The Elements of Advertising Display Advertising display is a language through which and by which the maker or seller of any commodity presents its qual- ities in a convincing way to the prospective buyer or consumer. So far as printed advertising is concerned at least, and in window dressing and many allied forms of display, the same laws of choice and arrangement of material obtain, modified only in part by local or special conditions. Since advertis- ing display is a language, it has both a scientific and an artistic side, each of which must be somewhat understood to make the language effective. It is a common error to suppose that " copy " is the only form of language in display and that all other material used in the make-up of car cards, posters, newspaper and magazine ads, etc., is merely a matter of whim and personal desire. Copy is only the first element of the language of display. It has been shown in Part III that copy has distinctly in mind a sequence of ideas which it is presenting to the public for consideration, arranged in such a way that certain definite quality conditions will be created and certain definite results expected. But this is just as true of the other elements of the advertising display language. There are five distinct elements to be considered besides copy and each of these has its own clearly defined scope and meaning, conveying some ideas even clearer than words can do. It is a sad thing when an illustration creates one impres- FUNCTIONS AND ELEMENTS OF DISPLAY 305 sion and sets in motion one set of associated ideas in the read- er's mind, while the copy in its choice, arrangement, and se- quence declares at the same time an entirely different condi- tion and set of ideas. The situation becomes even more con- fusing if the other elements in the display each asserts itself in its own particular way in irrelevant lines to either of the aforementioned elements of the language. i. Color The first and probably the most abused of all elements is that of color. It should be clearly recognized at the outset that every tone of color is scientifically and artistically capable of expressing and does express its own definite idea. For example, if on a very cold night one finds his room unendurably chilly and sees before him two robes, each of heavy wool and equal in weight, one of Good distribution of blank space for ,, .. , . , , , attention value them a light, clear blue, the other a deep, rich red, which will he instinctively use to create the feeling of warmth? Surely not the blue one. If instinc- tively red is chosen to create the atmosphere or condition of warmth of spirit or exaggerated action, it is worth using in exploiting those ideas in advertising. If, on the other hand, one finds that the color blue increases the initial coolness, puts a damper on action, lulls and soothes the excited nerves, in ad- vertising we can well afford to take cognizance of this fact and use blue to express these ideas of coolness, restraint, restful- ness, etc. This not only strengthens the copy which uses these .deas by repeating the impression, but also sometimes reduces essentially the amount of copy required to carry an idea. THE MITCHELL VANCE COMPANY 8j6 AND 838 BROABWAT AT THIRTTINTH STREET Sale Announcement RARE BARGAINS IN ELECTRIC FIXTURES In order to reduce Si large ro T U *H C DAID W^l^ *%iii?i*i>. ' ">> PHILADELPHIA Letter-head showing unorganized mass. No structure, no definite space allotment, uninteresting and difficult to read NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF COMMERCE ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE New YOKK ClTV PHILLIPS & VAN BRUNT CO, PRINTING AT PROPER PRICES Well organized letter-heads From this illustration we may derive the first principle of form, which is called the " Principle of Consistent Struc- tural Unity." 316 ADVERTISING DISPLAY Lord Help Apprentices depending on foremen to teach them anything! exclaimed a Craftsman at our November meeting. There's more truth than jest in that statement. It brings to mind one of the most important, and also one of the most neglected, problems of the printing business. How are you superintendents and foremen of New York printing plants "breaking in" the apprentices? -How many boys are running around your shop subject to anybody's beck or call? What personal effort have you made to improve the alleged "system" under which your apprentices are "learning their trade" ? Any ? Whether you have or not, this problem will be turned inside out at our next meeting by a man who through years of hard work and special study has more than made good in this particular endeavor The Apprentices: Training Those Who Are to Succeed Us. Dr. J. L. Elliott, of Hudson Guild, will make a straightforward, interesting presentation on the every- day work of a "man on the job." Dr Elliott knows his problem thoroughly from center to circumference and will tell us all about the system that has 1 made his efforts so successful. This talk will surely prove a vigorous spur to a greater and more personal effort on the part of all earnest Craftsmen in helping the apprentices under their charge to become better and more efficient printers, not necessarily from a humanitarian standpoint, but because it pays and because it pays big. Charles Francis, President of the New York Printers' League, says "Dr. Elliott is doing a work single handed that the Master Printers should be doing themselves." Charles McCoy, Business Manager Print- ing Trade News, says: "The work Dr Elliott is doing is so thorough, its benefits so great to the trade, that he should receive unstinted encourage- ment." Many others speak just as enthusiastically of the doctor's work. Be sure to come and hear Dr Elliott and try to bring a guest. Put a memo on your calendar under date of December 19 to be at the Broadway Central Hotel, 673 Broadway (between 3rd and 4th Sts.) at 7:30 p.m. Members $1.50. Guests $2.00. For tickets, address J. Dowling, 419 Lafayette St., New York Page illustration showing perfectly consistent, structural, well margined page and well distributed sizes of type matter Consistent Structural Unity The general plan or shape of all advertising space is either square or oblong generally the latter. Sometimes the ob- THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM American Machinist 317 THE LUMEN BEARING CO. offer the services of an organiza- tion trained to the manufacture and sale of non-ferrous castings and ingots. The foundry experience of years is made effi- cient by the constant guidance and control of a well equipped and carefully directed laboratory. The products are sold with a view to intelli- gent specification for each customer's service. The details ol our various products may b< easily ascer- tained from the following booklets sent upon request! Bearings for Gasoline Engines Ideal Trolley Wheels Bushings A Proper Prmng Kit Oil Grooves Fitting Up Bearings Copper Castings of Highest Conductivity White Metal Pie Castings Pro- THE LUMEN BEARING COMPANY BUFFALO Brass Founders TORONTO Technical magazine cover page showing good structure, well distributed cony, interesting organization, dignified arrangement and well distributed margins long is vertical, as in the single column newspaper or whole magazine page advertisement. Sometimes the space is hori- zontal, as in the car card or letter-head. In either case the form is very much the same as the fagade of the house or the ADVERTISING DISPLAY WESTERN UNION has greatly reduced the cost of cabling abroad through the introduction of CABLE LETTERS Over-night service to Europe at a minimum charge. Example: A twelve-word cable letter from New York to London costs only 75 cents. Alk for rate* from your city. THE WESTERN UNION TELEGRAPH CO Newspaper advertisement, structur- ally good, good margins, border a little too strong inside wall space of a room. The structure is rectangu- lar. The boundary is com- posed of straight lines. This determines the gen- eral feeling of all well ar- ranged material within this enclosed space; that is, the edges of paragraphs as well as the lengths of the lines themselves should be so ar- ranged as to give the. gen- eral feeling of right angu- lar form, in harmony with the edge line of the enclos- ing space. Let us illustrate. Tra- dition has decreed that each paragraph should have a slight inset to call attention to the fact that a new group of ideas is recorded. This is merely a traditional form of expression however. It will be seen that if the first line of the paragraph be begun flush with the fol- lowing lines and each par- agraph be dropped one line below the last, the para- graph is emphasized and the structural edge be- comes harmonious with that of the space limit or paper edge. At once this Today and tomorrow the last two days of this Sale of Men's Silk Scarfs at 45c <5 The biggeft opportunity you ever had in scarfs is passing. You have just two days more, includ- ing this one, in which to take advantage of the most important offering of fine silk neckwear in 'years. And we cannot urge you too strongly to avail yourself of what is substantially an exhi- bition of the smartest conceits in cravats. They are positively wonderful countless designs and forty varieties of silks stripes, figures, checks, plaids and solids not a hackneyed pattern fn the selection-rr-but all of them new as November; and) of that iiberahty/of fold which is ever character- istic of an aristocratic four-in-hand. Broadway at 34th Street Newspaper advertisement with body well formed, head and foot badly spaced and badly arranged Two Spindle Adjustable And You Get the Other One FREE Capacity If -in. to 8f-m. between centers. Note the extra strong construc- tion, casing of all gears (they run in an oil bath). Drills instantly and posi- tively locked in any position. The coupon brings you complete details. Send it to us TODAY. Nelson-Blanck Manufacturing Co., Detroit, Mich. Nelson-Blanck Mfg. Co. Detroit, Mich. Please send me details on "Drilling the Other Hole Free." No obligation to me. Name. . . Firm. . . . Address. . Trade paper page, showing unrelated shapes. Splendidly placed, well distributed, interesting and convincing 319 320 ADVERTISING DISPLAY Combine Pleasure with Business GOTO Philadelphia See some of the most beautiful scenery in New Jersey Ride in comfort in a perfectly equipped train over a perfectly smooth roadbed. Enjoy a bountiful breakfast, luncheon or dinner, promptly and courteously served Hard Coal No Smoke No Tunnels Your Watch Is Your Time Table Evtrr Hour en the Hour fast trains leave Liberty Street from 7 A. M to 10 P. M. weekdays. 8 A. M. 10 11 P. M. Sundays. Midnight (rain daily . Sleep- ers ready 10 P M. (Leave West 23d St. 10 minutes of the hour (or all trains.) Newspaper column adver- tisement. Lower two-thirds structural and well distrib- uted. Upper one-third loose, non-structural and badly han- dled produces an effect of organiza- tion, dignity, security, and places lines more nearly of the same length. This last situation makes reading simpler, since the eye by habit swings from left to right across the page. Particularly is it easier to read when every line begins directly under the one above it. The right-hand edge of the material should also be kept structurally in harmony with the edge, in so far as pos- sible. The foregoing plan is being widely adopted in certain phases of advertising and should obtain not only in the printed page but also in the written one. Even where the body is well formed, however, one often finds the leading head display lines or the foot display in extraordinarily bad form. The head should be constructed in as nearly horizon- tal oblong feeling as possible : the foot as well. If either of these must vary, better the head than the foot. This is because it is essential that the page have a sufficient foundation so that ma- terial upon it may seem to be well supported. Weakness at the end of anything is unpleasant. It is THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM 321 particularly so when a structure seems to rest upon a weak foundation. Consistent Shapes and Sizes The second principle of form is called " Consistent Shapes and Sizes." Let us consider the first part of this alone. Shape or form is seen because of bounding edges. The circle, which is a plane figure bounded by a curved line changing its direction equally at every point, and the square, which is a plane figure bounded by four straight lines of equal length and having four right angles, illustrate two forms as inhar- monious as two can be. This is because they have nothing in common so far as bounding lines are concerned. Because this is so, it is difficult indeed to place the circle in the square, or oblong, adjacent to each other with any appearance of har- mony in so doing. The placing of a round clock within an oblong space upon the wall, or placing a round picture next to a square or oblong one, creates an ugly, discordant and inartistic spotting. To place the round cut in the oblong space, or to use a curved line trademark adjacent to straight lines of print or paper edges, has precisely the same effect. Some one will doubt- less say, " But the trademark is used for the purpose of at- tracting attention and should be of a different shape from any other material within the enclosing form." or, perchance, will say, " The cut is designed to call special attention to it." This is true, but again it is not essential to create an ugly condi- tion to attract attention. There are ways and means amply sufficient to emphasize any point without violating flagrantly the laws of form and color. When cuts or trademarks are bounded by curved or erratic lines they must be placed through an understanding of the law of balance and the optical center in such a way that when they are supported by type or other material their vicious contrast is less noticeable. Illustrations GAS ENGINES Absolutely AVithout Cost GJAjS Thi b tie b Qt inl*r* t LMUM of Powe) This will announce to the public The Meria Process by means of which steam can be gene the ordinary gas engine. This process has recently been demon- strated and tested before various engineering organizations and prominent engineers; the tests showing in excess of 4 Ibs. of water evap- orated into steam at 25 Ibs. pressure fo: each horsepower hou delivered by the en Several installa- ' tions of this process [j MELRIAM STEAM PROCESS ticability of the process and tlie perfection of mechanical equipment. From the few, how- ever, who have seen demonstrations, orders are already coming in. Merlam Steam Process is applicable to all internal combustion engines, whether op- ited on natural gas. ire already in opera- tion and are showing almost unbelievable No public announcement has previous- ly been made by The Bruce-Macbeth Engine Co. or the inventor, Mr. J. B. Meriam, as it was their desire to first be absolutely positive regarding the prac- n.il city ga., Full particula-_ ._ .garding tiui new de- velopment will be rna'led to any reader of If interested in a combined plant, which affords the advantages of a steam plant with the wonderfully low operating cost of a gas plant, write us plant, write us for estimate. The flruce-Macbeth Fnqine (a Page showing badly placed illustrations, badly cbosen type, badly arranged copy, too much border and too much illustration for one page THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM 3 2 3 of the right and wrong uses of these things may be found in the accompanying advertisements. The second part of this principle, which is known as " Con- sistent Sizes," should have, perhaps, a more thorough explana- tion than the foregoing, because upon a clear understanding of it depend largely the relationships in size which will exist in the advertisement matters of margins, blank spaces, ar- rangement, blocks of copy, size of illustrations, width of bor- ders, proportions of initials. It is the clear understanding of such matters as these that secures pleasant relationships in sizes in any material with which we deal. The Greek Law of Areas The Greeks, more than any other people that have ever lived, made their life ideal the study of intellectual, imper- sonal form. Through centuries of mental and physical train- ing they developed the most nearly perfect human figures that have ever been known. They also evolved a simple, consistent, and sincere intellectual architecture and ornament which have been the source or well-spring of inspiration for all succeeding schools except, perhaps, the Gothic. The chief fact in this whole development was the evolution of the most subtle sense of proportion in areas and lengths which has ever been found. By measuring, comparing, and deducing, scholars have solved or made a general expression of the proportion through which this subtlety was gained. In an elementary way it may be stated thus : The Greek avoided exact mechanical divisions wherever possible. He never made a thing twice, three times, or four times the size of another. Second, he was as careful not to use two areas which the mind found it difficult to compare as he was to avoid using exact multiples. An area of three square inches is not comparable with one of twenty-five square inches, but one of three square inches and one of five square The Rage of a Spring Freshet Could Not Harm These American Ingot Iron Culverts Sweeping down from the hills, the waters of a spring freshet tore out a road tossed broken pavement like chips and cannonaded the culverts with debris. The Culverts were Armco American Ingot Iron. They were not injured in any way. Strains that ruined the concrete bulkheads were withstood stresses of every kind endured. Armco Iron Culverts prove their worth in service. Under conditions that would be fatal to most culverts, these stand up triumphantly and, if forced away from their places, as in the cas2 above, may readily be' hauled back and re-installed, upon which they are ready to give good service 'again. ArkaniM. LI California Wr.t CftUlomu Corr Colorado. Dn*q Goofala. Atlanta Ul.l- Culvert A Mewl Illlnoll. Bloomlnllon Armco Culverts have strength, natural ability to withstand severe wear and the forces of corrosion, and the flexibility to conform to a shifting bed. Their cor- rugations enable them to readily adjust themselves to expansion and contraction. These are the culverts for the difficult places. Write the nearest manufacturer for par- ticulars and prices on American Ingot Iron Armco Culverts, Sheets, Plates, Roofing and Formed Products. New Hampahlr*. Tb Ohio Comioud cv UIU't"ivt"A 11 Mex*l I Showing bi-symmetric placing of trade-mark, well placed illustration and well balanced copy. Margins bad; illustration too large for so much copy 324 THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM 325 inches are easily comparable. The Greek avoided such com- binations as the first case. The law of his practice may be stated in general in these terms: Distances or areas are subtle and pleasing together when one of them is between one-half and two-thirds the length or area of the other. This leaves quite a play or differ- ence in length or size as circumstances develop that need in- dividual treatment, but at the same time avoids bringing to- gether crude and incomparable lengths and sizes. This law should be considered in connection with one other Virginia T. Odom and Emily Rushmore Interior Decorators and Advisory Bayers 100 Bui .r. .nlh BlrMI New York C*y Well balanced bill head with proper structure and proper allotment of blank space important point before its concrete applications are made. Every student is familiar with what is known as the " Law of Optics." The exact center of a page is not the apparent center, the apparent center always falling a little above the real or exact one. Because this is so, the weight or strength of the display should appear above the real center of the advertising space. This prevents the feeling of dropping from the top, or sagging, as it may be called, either of which feel- ings not only destroys the artistic merit but. with no apparent artistic sense, creates an uncomfortable mental situation on the part of the reader. 326 ADVERTISING DISPLAY This Greek law of proportion is sometimes crudely stated as the ratio of 5 to 7 to n. This is somewhere near correct and perhaps near enough to work with. In applying this ratio to the margins of a page it will be clearly seen that the widest margin or 1 1 should appear at the bottom, the next widest or 7 at the top, and 5 the narrowest should appear alike on either side in all vertical compositions of space. In horizontal compositions the widest margin should still appear at the bottom, the middle size at the right and left, and the narrowest at the top. This is so that the general form of the display within the composition shall pre- serve the same ratio as is found in the enclosing space itself. Not only should the Greek law of areas be applied to mar- gins, but also, when pos- sible without interfering with the meaning of the copy, it should apply to the width and strength of the various parts or paragraphs of the copy within the space. When it is possible to do this, the effect is doubly pleasing. There is also often a chance to apply these proportions to the blank space between differ- ent parts of the copy dis- play. When it is possible to do so, this has an added value. Xot enough attention is paid to the relative widths of these blank spaces. Blank space is often more eloquent than copy. A helpful thought may be given here as to how wide blank spaces may be between parts of the same copy composition. Take, for example, a paragraph explaining the display head- SYNOL p .~) t *. det.r i r Newspaper advertisement showing well placed material except last three lines which should be moved to left and two last lines should be reset THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM 329 sibilities, but is less dignified, less formal, less simple, and sometimes less restful. If one will look at the end of a large building with a gable, conceive a line to be drawn from the center of the gable to the ground through the center of the end, and then look on either side of this line for windows, doors, or other mate- rials which are the same distance from the center, are of the same sizes and of the same general arrangement, he will sense at once the bi-symmetric balance. Place upon a mantel piece in the exact center some statue or other object. On either end equi-distant from the end and from the center object place two large candle sticks exactly alike. The mantel piece has a bi-symmetric arrangement. Dignity, repose, simplicity, easy solution of the arrangement is the result. Again, on the same mantel piece place a large vase near the center but not in it. Attempt with two very different objects to balance on either side, one larger and one smaller, so that there shall seem to be exactly the same amount of attraction on one side of the vertical center as on the other. You will see at once how difficult it is to place these objects so that the mantel piece does not seem to dip down, one end or the other. Notice that if the central object is a little to the left of the center, the smaller of the two remain- ing objects must go at the "Temporary Investment" Funds idle afety and at the sam if they are placed v, of Deposit. These b payable on, demand, : in perfect i Certificates s date. fe, easy, profitable wy to iporarily, until a favor- BANKERS TRUST COMPANY Newspaper advertisement with il- lustration and copy well balanced ex- cept last two lines which should be moved to the right in structure with body. Bad interior margins left and the larger at the right. This is the solution of the law. Equal attractions balance each other at equal distances 330 ADVERTISING DISPLAY from the center, while unequal attractions balance at unequal distances from the center, and further, unequal attractions balance each other at distances which are in inverse ratio to the power of their attraction. With this in mind it is well to practice arranging in other fields than the display field and then make the applica- tion to one's personal prob- lems. Take the full newspaper page, for example. Draw a vertical line through the center, cut out portions of any Sunday advertisement dealing with some specific thing that is to be featured the following week. At- tempt to place this on the vertical line, or either side of it, with illustrations and type matter in such a way that there is perfect balance, either bi-symmetric or oc- cult, and you will find how much more readily some ar- rangements read than others Local newspaper ad illustrating and h W valuable is balance well balanced material, good strnc- ill the distribution of the ma- ture and movement through arms and ferial unon the na"e coat This same problem may be tried with the magazine page, or a portion of it, with the layout of the car card or the poster, or in any field in which copy, illustration, and other material may be used with pleasing effect. The suit and the price are both as light as reliability will permit. Two-piece of- course, unlined, but careful tailoring, and firm fabrics make it hold its shape. Gravs have the coolest look, but the darker colors if you prefer. A saving of $3. to $5. on every suit you buy. The World's Foremost Builders of TANKS and WOOD PIPE And it's on that basis we solicit your orders with equip- ment, facilities and experience unequaled. If it's a tank you need, our Redwood and Douglas Fir Tanks will more than measure up to your requirements No iron or steel tank will resist the corrosive elements of water, which have absolutely no effect upon wood tanks made of these materials. If it's pipe you are considering, also consider well the 1 life of our wood pipe (Redwood and Fir). It lasts for ages. ' It has 20% more carrying capacity than cast iron pipe. It is 50% cheaper. Our line iiKluilcs pt.im tai^js and pat- Machine Banded Pipe > 300 fool head. It is always buil and other material being delivered to th pipe line in knock-down form. The staves arc milled from clear, well seasoned or kiln-dried, redwood or fii The ends of the staves are connected by tongue which pr "ed with individui ebj The pipe is banded ed round ' ' leablc or ul- requ :l furnished a,k for the book, "Wooden Pipe It* Many Adaantafei," PACIFIC TANK & PIPE CO. Technical journal page, well formed using two illustrations in opposite movement, well placed holding the attention within the inclosing form and directing the eye to parts of the individual advertisement 33i 332 ADVERTISING DISPLAY Balance, then, is the principle of form through which even circles and other erratic forms may be distributed through- out the space in such a way that a sequence of ideas is real- ized and organization is simple enough for the reader easily to get the thought. Movement If a series of spots is arranged along a line and the atten- tion is directed to one of these spots, it instinctively follows to the next, the next, and so on to the end of the sequence. If in place of the spots a line is drawn, the observer is still more inclined to follow the line to its limit. If the spots change from the horizontal position downward, then upward, \ve find ourselves jumping with the spots but continuing our search for the end of the material arranged. The effect of this is seen in the bunches of flowers which sometimes appear on the side walls of rooms where wall paper is used. It is a familiar experience to hear persons speak of having counted the number of bunches from the top of the room to the bot- tom, crosswise between windows, diagonally from one side of the space to the other, and so on, showing how unconsciously one is led in any moment of cessation from directed thought to compute these spots until interrupted by some more inter- esting object presented to the mind. It is impossible to imag- ine the amount of good energy that goes into counting wall paper spots in one day. One often sees people doing the same thing with spots in a rug pattern, the boards of a floor, bill-boards in the field, and in various and sundry ways proving that the eye tends to follow lines and spots extending for some time in one direction until the end of the sequence is reached. The creation of this situation is brought about through a principle called the " Principle of Movement." This term had its origin in the word action or motion, which is the term THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM 333 MEN'S FALL AND WINTER STYLES Calf lace boot, English last. low heel, brood shank. Hand made $1000 Same in tan CM l.-icc boot, slightly less conservative than the Eng- lish last, narrower toe, full- er extension. $8 00 Same in tan. J. & 3. SLATER NEW YORK Tan russia lace, medium toe. New model. Medium or dark shade. Hand made. $9.00 Same in black. Tan oil grain bluclier, double sole, leather lined. Com- fortable walking toot last. Regular cut. ' $8.00 High cut. $9.00 Well balanced placing of illustrations type bi-symmetrically placed ; head display lines too weak applied to the human figure in any position in which absolute rest is not the idea. The position of the figure in throwing a ball, jumping, running, etc., is called the position of action. This is because the lines of the figure are neither strictly ver- tical nor strictly horizontal in harmony with the laws of grav- 334 ADVERTISING DISPLAY itation. When this principle of motion or direction is cre- ated in the abstract idea, it is termed movement. Movement, then, is that principle which leads the eye consecutively through the parts of a composition or a design. If the prin- ciple is correctly used, the reader of a page, a card, or a cover, sees in sequential order the things one wishes him to see, with final emphasis upon the thing desirable to see last. Movement is used, then, to point out the things in adver- tising display that the creator of the display wishes particu- larly to feature. The simplest and most hackneyed methods are the use of the arrow and the dart, the pointing of the finger, etc., but there are other phases to be reckoned with. Objects themselves sometimes terminate in the height of a line. Take the shoe, for an example. If I am featuring shoes and use the cut of one in a single column next another man's advertisement, and place my shoe toward the bottom of my space with the toe out, I can easily point the toe at the other man's ad in such a way that he alone gets the benefit of my shoe because the motion directs the attention to his copy material instead of mine. Any other illustration may be placed in such a way that the same results obtain. Movement may be obtained by line, as in the case of the arrow; by a sequence of spots, like the use of small illustra- tions one after the other, or of different size type growing from larger to smaller or vice versa; by the single object, whose very form indicates line or direction ; and by what is known as gaze movement, which is a very important phase in relation to the use of cuts. It often happens in posters and car cards that the figure used stands or sits with back toward the text or copy and faces either the wall, or vacancy, or another man's advertisement. Manifestly this is a waste of illustration and an aid to the other man. Instinctively the observer of a human being in picture form is interested in what that picture form is looking at, and the eyes of the per- THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM 335 son in the illustration should either be looking at the observer or at the thing in the illustration that is of paramount value. This matter of gaze movement is as essential as any other point of form, if not more essential. Movement Structural or Rhythmic Movement may be said to be either structural or rhyth- mic. Structural movement is the movement in which one direction comes at a sharp angle against another direction. This always forms a juncture point where the observer is bound to look. Draw a straight line on a blank paper at right angles to another straight line until they meet. See how quickly the eye goes to the meeting point. In creating forms within the display surface use care that this structural or opposition movement does not occur except at such places where you want very Just think of everything you've ever read in a cloth- ing sale advertisement and apply it to this salewe won't disappoint you. Here's a bunch of this sea- son's suitsall Al, 0. K. and 99 7 /&% pure~$5 cut off the price of $20 suits. From $2, to $7. cut on the others. Showing excellently placed matter and vigorous movement connecting parts of display emphatically to focus public attention. The other type of movement, known as rhythmic, is that movement in which the same general direction is indi- cated without violent opposition. I might be looking at and pointing my finger at the same thing. These movements are rhythmic with each other. I might point my ringer or look 33 6 ADVERTISING DISPLAY and have an arrow pointed in the same direction with these movements crossing each other. Rhythmic movements are accessories each of the other; that is, one repeating or empha- sizing exactly the same idea as the other ; while movements in opposition conflict at a certain point for the express purpose of creating a turmoil so that all may see that particular point. Movement is the exact opposite of balance. Balance cre- ates rest, repose, formality, dignity, simplicity and clearness. Movement creates motion, unrest, informality, complexity, and often destroys clearness. It is of the utmost importance in the use of this principle as a test of arrangement not only that it be clearly understood but that its use in excess be dis- countenanced. Some one will probably say, perhaps using the advertisements of spearmint gum as an argument, that its violent, distracting use has been successful. Possibly. But that is no proof that a decent, well-organized, restrained, dignified and intelligent use of motion would not have been equally successful had this been used in place of what has been used. Use movement temperately, with a complete knowledge of why and where, and it becomes one of the strongest factors in producing the sequence desired in all effective advertising display. The creation of the sequence of ideas, that is, deciding upon the most important thing to feature and then correlating with this the subordinate ideas in the order of their importance, is a strong feature in effective display. To make this sequence clearer the principle of emphasis or stress is employed. In conversation importance is given to various words, phrases, or sentences, by their being spoken lower, softer or slower, as the case may be. In music this effect is produced by tempering the voice or instrument in much the same manner. In advertising display the effect is procured, but by different means. THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM 337 Emphasis Stress or emphasis is the principle of arrangement whereby the attention is directed to particular things in regular order of procedure. Emphasis in copy may be produced by change of type, italics being the change usu- ally employed. The use of italics is simply traditional. As a matter of fact it does not strengthen it weakens by its very form. But weak- ening is one of the ways of calling attention to the fact that the order has changed. The same effect may be pro- duced by underlining, by writing the word in caps or a bolder face, or any other variations. Many times it seems best to use the under- line, or caps, or some other method of emphasizing the idea rather than eternally following the traditional italic change. This form of "Step lively please." It will pay you to hurry and select before the assortment is picked over. Silk shirts of the $-- family now $-- .(not many). But a plenty of the fine striped madras. The $2.50 kind now $-- Silk and linen, fine as silk and durable as linen, now $-- Movement through motion and gaze emphasis is, of course, a change in shapes. The change in shape of the entire display is another way of securing emphasis. If we have been following the struc- ture edge quite closely, dropping one paragraph below another to indicate paragraph change while the edges are kept straight at right and left, the mere act of indenting one whole para- graph a little at the left and right makes a change in order 338 ADVERTISING DISPLAY and, therefore, secures attention. If a cut or ornament is of different form from the general copy outline, of course this emphasizes the erratic object at once. A most violent illus- tration of this idea would be the changing of the direction of lines of type from horizontal to oblique. This is an impos- sible use of emphasis except in case of extraordinary emer- gency, as it creates an uncanny, unstable, unattractive lay- out. Sometimes an effective emphasis may be had by changing the size of type or contrasting sizes in cuts. This contrast of size is based on the law that a small thing seems smaller when compared with a large one and a large thing larger because of its comparison with a smaller. . Emphasis of color or tone is perhaps the most frequent type of all. In colored plates emphasis is secured through discreet changes in hue, value, and intensity, one or two of these qualities being employed to produce the emphatic idea. (The terms hue, value and intensity are explained in the next chapter.) The change in face of type is a familiar illustration of the use of color value, as is also the tendency to use borders in gray and tinted gray backgrounds, with cuts, etc. Perhaps there is no better illustration of the emphasis through inten- sity than that seen in the use of color in clothes. A man would scarcely think of wearing a brilliant red suit, but he might, under right conditions, chance a red necktie, the tie by its intensity and placing calling attention through itself to the face of the man rather than his feet. Again, the interior wall of a house need scarcely appear in intense red or blue, while a sofa pillow or lamp shade or a bit of bric-a- brac that is to be picked out as a single idea may well be clothed in an emphatically intense color. If the scheme of a room is almost wholly in greens, a blue jar, an orange rug, a yellow lamp shade, easily become the THE PRINCIPLES OF FORM 339 only things noticed in the room, because of their color em- phasis. It should be clear that in the use of color, whether it be hue, value or intensity, there must be a pretty clear conception in the mind of the user as to what he wants the public to see, why he wants them to see it, and then he must use his knowl- edge of color to make emphatic the right things. Much money, time, space, physical energy and mental power are wasted through the lack of knowledge on the part of the man who makes the layout of how to use effectively the principle of emphasis. It has been the purpose of this section to show the power of form and arrangement in creating an advertising display which by its qualities should appeal naturally to the reading public. A display is efficient or successful when the money returns satisfy one, but there is a certain qualification which comes through right usage that must not be overlooked. In the evolution of a race or type of civilization people gradually learn to form habits out of instincts which make them in time superior to most brutes. The time is coming when any con- structed thing to be convincing must at least have the qualities of organization, simple dignity, sane form construction, rest- ful formality or informality, and a logical intellectual appeal. If the principles of form are studied, sensed, and applied, they contribute to this end. It must be clearly borne in mind, however, that no one problem in any field can be successfully solved by slavishly following every law involved in its solution. To follow one principle is often to modify another. This is because each principle exists to create positive qualities. It is often de- sirable to modify these qualities. To do so one must know the law of modification and the effect of it. Let no man then suppose that in any problem he can follow every law of form and be most effective. On the other hand, let him not think 340 ADVERTISING DISPLAY that he can afford to ignore any principle of form and yet hope to reach his highest degree of efficiency. " A little knowledge is a dangerous thing," but truth is permanent, and intelligence in the use of truth is the criterion of a man's power. CHAPTER XXIV COLOR Source and Nature Color is light ; it exists because light exists. A> light fades at night or in a stormy day colors change grow duller, feebler ; and as darkness comes they disappear. The brighter the day the brighter the color. Many simple experiments prove the source of color to be in light. An analysis of light by the chemist or physicist results in three elements, each of which, standing by itself, may con- vey an idea; but the confusion of this scientific division of light with the pictorial idea of pigment as a representation in material form of these ideas is very probable. The term pigment may be applied to water colors, oils, dye stuffs, printers' inks, and like materials, which seem to give certain color tones to objects upon which they are placed. It is extremely important that one realize in the discussion of color from the standpoint of pigment that scientific light and color pigment are two things, and that the representation of the thing may have another name, or even, perhaps, a slightly different appearance from the original of which it is a pic- ture. This is because of limitation in materials. For general purposes and in view of the present develop- ment of the pigment idea it is best to divide pigment study into its three elements yellow, red and blue. These ele- ments of pigment fused together in their proper ratio pro- duce what is known as a pure neutral gray. This neutral gray has no apparent color in it. Each of the elements has destroyed or helped to destroy the individuality of the other 342 ADVERTISING DISPLAY two, the color has been neutralized or annihilated, and neu- tral gray is the result. In pure light the union of the three elements produces white. With pigments, the result is gray, because of the sediment, or non-transparent quality, of the pigment itself. The proof of neutralization or composition is there because of the neutral gray result. The term " spectrum " has been given to these three ele- mentary tones with their intermediate steps, as will be seen later on. The spectrum circuit has these tones arranged in circular form. Spectrum Colors and Their Meaning Yellow, red, and blue are called primary colors. They are primary because they are elemental; that is, each is a single thing or single idea, and perhaps may seem to express but a single quality. Yellow expresses light, cheer, vivacity, pleasure. This is so because it looks nearest like the sun, the moon, or artificial light. The beneficial effect of the sun upon plants and upon the physical welfare of human beings is well known. The color yellow has a similar effect, because of the mental asso- ciation with light itself and the effects of light in human experience. This color brings the qualities of light and cheer- fulness wherever it is used and carries those qualities in dis- play as a method of creating an atmosphere in which these are prominent. Experiment has been made in dark corri- dors and inside sleeping rooms and it has been found that yel- low wall paper and hangings produce a light, cheerful effect which finds an immediate reaction in the occupants' lives. Yellow is the color most luminous, therefore most penetrating. These facts should be borne in mind in choosing color for display to be seen in moderately dark places or to be seen mostly in the open sunlight. It should also be apparent that yellow can be used to express individual ideas also. COLOR 343 Red is the color of human interest. It looks like fire. It is that which stirs human action, causes the blood to move more rapidly, thereby exciting to greater mental activity, arousing passion, expressing force, and kindling the feeling of warmth. It is called a " hot " color and in its fullest bril- liancy is the strongest, the most irritating, and the most ag- gressive of all colors. Civilized women with some rudiments of good taste would never think of wearing this color in mid- July under the hot sun, out of respect for their fellow men who must look upon it. Why should the advertising man inflict it upon the general public in huge areas in public places as bill-board backgrounds? Why use an acre to express an idea that a square inch will adequately tell ? Blue is restraint, is almost the opposite of red in its feeling. It soothes, constrains, sometimes almost repels because of its very nature. It is called the " cold " color. Sometimes the so-called steel blue gives almost the sensation of freezing. Because this is so blue expresses its own idea or quality which no other color can express for it. It must be understood that these colors, being elements, should be carefully considered before any of their modifica- tions are thought of, in the same way that the elements of any language should. If equal forces of yellow and red are combined, orange is the result. Equal forces of yellow and blue produce green, while like forces of blue and red produce what is known as violet or purple. These three color tones are called binary colors because each is made of two distinct elements. The binary colors have a double significance. Orange is light and heat. That makes a conflagration and is destructive to public consciousness when seen in large quantities misapplied. A little fire is a good thing, but a big one may do much dam- age. Green is light and coolness. Nothing is more agreeable, 344 ADVERTISING DISPLAY particularly in summer, than a light, cool spot in a heated car, or in other places where display ideas most abound. Do you notice that the grass and trees are green when the sum- mer is hot and that the sky is blue ? These are the antidotes for excessive heat. They produce upon the mind qualities which become permanent in consciousness, so that in every generation is bred the feeling of a quality belonging particu- larly to each color. Violet or purple is an equal union of fire, or coals of fire, and coolness, or ice. Ashes must result. This is the color which is used to express shadow. It is the opposite of yellow, its complement, its destroyer. It neutralizes cheer, dispels light, creates gloom, brings on the night. This quality of feeling has been associated with purple for many ages. Roy- alty uses this color for masquerading all that it needs to masquerade; the church to express the ideas of mysticism, humility, and devotion. The modern person clothes herself in it to express half as much sorrow as she felt when she wore black only. The use of this color bears not only a relation to the idea to be expressed, but it bears a relation to the amount of light in which the display must be exposed. Color Terms Defined Tone Perhaps at this point, for the sake of a common under- standing, it is well to define some terms in color that are inaccurately used. ' Tone " is the term which applies to any color note whatsoever, including black, white and gray. It is so general that when you are in doubt " tone " is per- fectly safe. It should be borne in mind that this word should be used instead of " shade," to mean anything and everything in the whole realm of color expression. The term " neutral " is applied to tones in which no color is apparent. Black, white and gray are neutral. Black is the absence of color and white the union of all colors. Black, therefore, absorbs color, while COLOR 345 white is saturated with it and does not. This is the reason why white as a background shows things stronger than black, so far as the color itself is concerned. The question of value, however, may change this effect, as will be seen later in the dis- cussion. Normal colors are the spectrum colors at what is known as their maturity point. When these become lighter or darker, change their hue or become less intense, they are no longer nor- mal. This standardization of the normal color makes it pos- sible to have a reckoning point in all color tones from which to compute color quality. A shade of color is a tone which is darker than the normal tone. It is made by adding black or. a darker pigment of the same color. A tint is a color tone which is lighter than the normal color. This is produced by adding white or water. The tint then is weaker than the normal color, because it is diluted; the shade is stronger as to body but weaker as to color also, because it is likewise diluted. The normal color is the strongest color note possible of any given color. It will be seen that red and blue may have more tints than shades ; that yellow, green and orange have more shades than tints ; that yellow has more shades than violet ; that violet has more tints than yellow. It is most desirable that the terms " tint " and " shade " be clearly understood and that these terms be not misapplied. Shade indicates the normal color going towards shadow or darkness ; tint means the normal color going towards light or whiteness. Every color tone has three distinct qualities. It is some- what difficult to see these qualities each distinct from the other, but the full force of color cannot be understood until this is done. This is because contrasts in the use of these qualities are the real power of color whereby the intensity of the idea expressed is varied. 346 ADVERTISING DISPLAY Hue The first of these qualities is known as hue. This is the general name given to the change which a color undergoes in moving from one binary in either direction towards a primary. All of the possible tones which are produced by putting a primary into a binary are the hues of that binary color. Let us illustrate. The color orange is a fixed fact. It is made by putting yel- low and red together in equal force. As soon as I begin to put yellow into red, red changes and moves toward yellow. Any tone which is produced before the red becomes a pure orange is known as red orange. It is orange as soon as it leaves red. It is red orange because there is more red in it than yellow. On the other hand, if I begin by putting red into yellow, the color becomes orange as soon as it leaves yel- low, but it is yellow orange all the way until it reaches orange. It is yellow orange because there is more yellow present than red. When these forces become equalized it becomes normal orange. If I start with yellow and blue, putting yellow into blue, the color becomes green instantly it leaves pure blue. As long as it is more blue than yellow it is blue green. When the forces are equalized it is green. The moment there is more yellow than blue the tone is yellow green and so remains until no blue is present, when once again it appears to the eye as normal yellow. In the same way, if red is put into blue the color becomes violet with a preponderance of blue. This is blue violet until the point violet is reached. \Vhen more red is present than blue the tone is red violet, until no blue remains ; then the color tone is normal red. These intermediate tones on either side of a binary color, before the color reaches the primary stage, are known as hues. The hues are yellow orange, red orange, red violet, blue violet, blue green and yellow green, and there may COLOR 347 be as many of them as the eye detects in the introduction of one color into the other. Value The second color quality is known as " value." Value is the light and dark in color ; that is, the proportion of white or of black, without relation to the color intensity itself. Refer- ence to a color chart will show that green is lighter or nearer white than violet or red, that normal blue is darker or nearer black than orange or yellow. To take value and separate it from intensity is to understand how to produce color con- trasts which are most effective and most efficient in conveying ideas in their strongest ways. A color may have as many value steps as can be detected between white and black; but, for convenience sake, we usually scale a color into nine steps, called white, high light, light, low light, middle, high dark, dark, low dark, black. This division makes it possible to see colors in their value relations. To judge them accurately we must partially close the eyes and try to eliminate the color from them and see them as grays instead of as colors. Intensity The third quality of color, and perhaps the most important quality for the advertising field, is known as intensity, or bril- liancy. Intensity in color is that quality of self ness or person- ality which names it. When a red is as red as it can be got, it is in its fullest intensity. As soon as it is weakened in any way it loses some of that quality. Intensity is the quality which gives power, individuality and personal appeal. It is the qual- ity which is most abused, least understood, and most prodigally exploited. Yellow and violet, blue and orange, red and green, are said to be complementary colors. They are called complementary because each has the power to neutralize or destroy the other. 348 ADVERTISING DISPLAY Put red into green and the green begins to lose itself, becomes softer, grayer, less ferocious, tamer, and more usable in large quantities. Put green into red and the same effect is seen. Orange neutralizes or softens blue, and blue produces a like effect upon orange. Purple neutralizes yellow and yellow, purple. This is a fundamental fact in choice of colors in har- mony and also a fundamental fact in the use of any colors in backgrounds and objects to be shown against them. When a color has lost half its force or strength, it is said to be half neutralized, that is, half as powerful or aggressive as the normal color. Full intense, normal colors are the most primitive, childish, strongest, crudest, and most elementary ex- pressions of color ideas. Neutralized colors are softer, more refined, more subtle, soothing, livable. These quality effects are important in our further discussion. As has been said, it is absolutely important to realize each of these qualities as dis- tinct from each of the others; that one may make use of con- trasts and likenesses in his choice and arrangement of color in any form of display in which color is a factor of expression. Harmony Harmony is concord. It is the relationship of agreement in regard to certain qualities possessed by objects or things. Musical composition is based upon the scientific laws of these relationships. Sound, being produced by vibrations, has been scaled and each tone standardized, so that the selection of tones based on relationship makes the study of harmony a compara- tively easy task. Violate these relationships and harmony is destroyed. Color is produced by the vibrations of light and the tonal impressions of consciousness through the sense of sight, in the same way as the tonal impressions of sound enter it through the sense of hearing. Less attention has been paid to the standardization of color tones than to that of sound tones, but enough has been clone to give an approximately clear COLOR 349 idea of what the line of development will be and the qualities upon which harmony in this realm depends. Qualities of Likeness In the development of color harmony it is necessary to con- sider two sets of qualities: first, the qualities of likeness; and, second, those of contrast. Color harmonies are based on these two sets of ideas. From the spectrum circuit it will be seen that green which is half yellow and half blue is by nature of its composition half related to each, as orange is to yellow and red, as violet is to red and blue. This establishes a rela- tionship called a relationship of family likeness. Into green two of the three primary elements enter. These two elements are found also in yellow green and blue green, although in different proportion. This makes yellow, yellow green, blue and blue green a family harmony, a harmony of likeness, or, as it is sometimes called, an analogous harmony. Blue, blue green, green and yellow green are also a family group, but yel- low, which is an element, is not found in blue. Yellow, yellow orange, orange, and red orange form a group ; red, red orange, orange, and yellow orange another. About violet two other groups are formed. The first includes red, red violet, violet and blue violet ; the second blue, blue violet, yellow violet, and red violet. One of these sets, or any two or more of one of these sets, will form a related harmony. By the nature of their composition these colors, whether in their full intensity or otherwise, are more or less related to begin with ; in some cases the relation is closer than in others, but all have common elements. It will perhaps be noted that while yellow, yellow green, green, and blue green form a family, yellow orange which is nearer to yellow than blue green is not included in this family. This is because yellow orange introduces red, which is the third of the three elementary colors. The combination 350 ADVERTISING DISPLAY of yellow orange and yellow green in their full intensity, or of red violet and red orange, or of blue green and blue violet, is not possible in these family groups. The law of selection is that in selecting the analogous scheme the primary color must not be crossed. When this is understood a reason is seen for the bad combination made when so-called crimson and scarlet - that is red violet and red orange or when blue green and blue violet chance to enter the same combination in juxtaposi- tion to each other. Nothing is more unpleasant than scarlet and crimson combined, nor more impossible, particularly in intense colors. Qualities of Contrast The harmony of contrasts starts with an entirely different premise. It will be remembered that violet and yellow, red and green, orange and blue, are complementary colors, that these colors are complementary because no part of one is found in the composition of the other. Take, for instance, blue and orange. Orange is made of red and yellow in equal force. These two primary colors leave but one unused, namely, blue. Blue mixed with orange produces a neutral gray, as, in fact, does violet mixed with yellow, or green mixed with red. The reason in each case is the same. The three primary colors are combined in equal force and each is destroyed. The destruc- tion of each is the proof that they are complementaries. If any apparent color remains in the gray, the colors are not true complements. It must be distinctly borne in mind in this connection that many of the manufactured pigments have not been made with a sufficiently scientific understanding to produce absolute complementary relationships. This is perhaps more true of printing inks than it is in any other field of pigment relation- ships. Inks should always be based on some scientific knowl- edge of tone production. If they were, the necessity for INERS AKEUP Guaranteed By Est HENRY C, MINER, inc. Established 1864 Illustration showing a right relation of intense color to its background in position, but exaggerated in proportion. You Can Buy a Home In The Country Within The City; 18 Minutes From New York Business, Shopping and Theatres. Beautiful Colonial Brick House, 7,250. Little Cash Down, Balance $50 Monthly. See Samuel Knopf, 220 W. 42d St., N.Y Illustration showing wrong use of an intense color in relation to copy. COLOR 35 1 drawing or touching up any reproduction would be entirely overcome. Orange and blue in their fullest intensity are inharmonious in fact, but the choice is the basis for producing a harmony in the following manner. The introduction of blue into orange is made, and of orange into blue, until each color reaches the half neutral point. These colors are harmonious at this point. A certain area of full intense blue may be used with a larger area of half neutralized orange, or vice versa. If one of the colors is further neutralized, a larger area of the complement may be used in a more intense form. The harmony relation- ship lies in the " keying " of one color into the other to produce elements of likeness. The more the colors are keyed, the closer and more symphonic becomes the harmony ; the less they are keyed, the more dispersed and cruder the harmony. When the full intense colors are reached on both sides with no tones of neutralized color, or pure neutrals, harmony is destroyed. Full, intense, complementary colors may never be used touch- ing each other. If, as in the case of stained glass, such tones are used, they must be separated by strong bands of a neutral. These two methods of producing color harmony are suf- ficient for general use. Law of Backgrounds This idea of neutralization is perhaps the most important law of color choice in any field of expression. A wall paper that is more than half intense destroys the possibility of seeing people, furniture or pictures in anything like a fair relation- ship to the background or to adjacent objects. The average person, with average color of skin, can ill afford to wear a suit of contrasting color in its full intensity. It is as absurd to try to show cuts, ornament, copy, and the like, upon a full intense background. The background upon which objects are to be shown is not the important thing, or it would have had 35 2 ADVERTISING DISPLAY another name than background. The senseless waste of color on the plea that it is necessary to attract attention is in direct opposition to the known law in any other field of color use. Far away hills seem to be less intense in color than the flowers and grass under one's very feet. Probably the difference would disappear if one had them actually under his feet also. The general law of background may be stated thus: Back- grounds should always be less intense than objects shown upon them. This is to give the objects at least a fair chance to assert themselves for what they may be worth. Closely associated with this may be the corollary, " the larger the area in any design the less intense the color should be," and conversely, " the smaller the area the more intense the color may be." It is not the background of the out-of-door sign, or car card, or the catalogue cover, that demands full in- tense color; it is the objects or facts which are to be presented on this background that should receive the strength which pure color contains. Catalogue covers and book covers, car cards, and bill-boards, show perhaps the most violently bad taste in this regard of any form of expression used. Upon the qualities of color we must depend, then, for our intelligent choice of color as a. vehicle of expression. It has been seen that each fundamental tone in the spectrum is meant to convey a set cvf special ideas or qualities, that the presenta- tion of these colors should arouse the feeling for these qualities in consciousness, the same as color tones arouse conscious qual- ity feelings. If intelligent choice were adopted in every field, general comprehension of the significance of colors would come within a generation. It is valuable then yes, essential - that advertising recognize the power of individual color in quality expression. It has been seen that 'diluted colors, or tints, possess less strength, more playfulness, youth, instability, than shades or darker tones. This fact makes it possible to select such color COLOR 353 relations as will convey the quality idea which the advertised article purports to possess. The relating of objects of whatever nature to the back- ground idea is the third important truth to realize from color quality. Each quality in color makes it possible to choose two tones with wide or close contrasts, as the case may be. If one will study these possibilities, crude color combinations will disappear. For example, one will choose normal yellow at high light, in full intensity, and half neutral violet at low dark, in one-fourth intensity. This is terrific in its contrast. Its value contrast is almost as great as can be obtained. Its con- trast in hue has the widest range, the colors being complements of each other. The intensities are forced apart, one being full and the other but one-fourth. It very seldom happens, except under very abnormal conditions, that one needs to use violent contrasts between each of the three qualities which color tones possess. Even as brief a discussion as this of color should place it in the mind of the reader among the most important, even the most interesting, of all the elements possible in conveying ideas. Color makes an appeal to everybody who sees it. It is natural that it should be so, because the eye, or sense of sight, recognizes color immediately CHAPTER XXV ILLUSTRATION The Place of Pictures in Advertising The term " illustration " is broad in its significance. Some persons understand facts and qualities easily and clearly through their description in words. To others words are almost meaningless symbols, and seem to convey little or no idea unless accompanied by some supplementary method of human expression. We find persons who respond to panto- mime activity easily without word accompaniment. Others sense the meaning of musical composition more acutely without word or action. To some people all three are essential to any conception of the meaning of either. Pictures are a common language. The world over, where words from one language mean nothing to persons speaking another, pictures convey to all persons, in a quite similar way, detailed facts of thought, action, and effect. The pictorial expressions of the Chinese or Japanese, while differing in al- most every essential from occidental types, convey to us some- thing of the idea intended. So do ours to them. In occi- dental consciousness pictures mean much the same thing in their elementary fact and quality expressions. In the finer sense of esthetic relationships, of course, this is not true. Because of these facts illustrations have come to be a very important normal and natural adjunct to advertising display language. Their use and abuse is a matter of common specu- lation with everybody and a matter in which men interested in the scientific development of this subject are taking an acute interest. Just when to illustrate and when not to, just how 354 ILLUSTRATION 355 form of language, under gen- just what types of illustration Only 5 Days Left Big Wartime Piano Sale THE BOTTOM HAS DROPPED OUT OF PIANO PRICES much space may be given to this eral conditions and specific ones, make certain kinds of ap- peal, just what treatment they permit in order to be most efficient, these and many other questions are daily argued and daily ex- perimented with. Illustrations may be said to include line drawings, wash drawings, photographs, prints, posters, naturalistic paintings, and all those things which approach the pictorial idea. The very term illustration implies that these forms have something to say. Just what they have to say and what they do say may not always be clearly apparent. The Functions of Illustra- tion The first function of the illustration proper is to sup- plement, make stronger, clearer, or more attractive, something which the copy fails to present successfully. This, of course, gives a basis, and a fundamental one, for classification in the illustration field. Perhaps the problem is the exploitation of hose. A When We S r "Hurrr," It li for Four <>u-n Good Hallet & Davis Piano Store lw H.n,i * [>..u BoUhi . is t.. i 4M 5ir~i ....^.-r.r.-rr.-;.-.^... Too many illustrations, destructive placings, badly cut up copy and gen- eral chaos 356 ADVERTISING DISPLAY certain firm gives half of its car card space to the face, bust, or figure, of what they presume to be a pretty girl. Perhaps she was before they treated her to the car card reproduction process; she is not always so after the process. When asked what is the object of this head or bust, the reply gen- erally is " to attract atten- tion," or " a pretty woman gets the public," or " every- body is interested in a pretty woman.'' Every one of these answers defeats the end of the illustration in itself. The classification based on these ideas may be said to be rele- vant and irrelevant. In the first place, if the pretty wom- an is used to get the public Excellently balanced and showing attention the device has NEWBRO'S HERPICIDE Tbt Original Germ-Remedy for Dandruff. Maku hair toft and fluffy. Slops itching of the scalp. DON'T BLAME YOUR MIRROR silent witness to needless hair destruction. Day after day they see beauty and attrac- tiveness despoiled by the removal of great combfuls of slightly diseased hair that could be saved. If your mirror could talk iuld plead with, you to "save your lusterless hair, also dandruff and falling hair. Correct this and the hair's natural luster and abundance will return. Almost extraordinary results. An exquisite hair dressing. Send 10 cents In stamps to The Herplcido Company. Dept. 107 B. Detroit. Michigan, for sample aod booklet. Two Sizes SO cents snd 11.00. Sold and When ,01 csll for Hcrpicide. do not accept a substitute. Applicslions st prominent Barber Shoos. how by attractive placing repellent fa}led m a j percentaRe illustrations seem to be almost good of cases to get the public at- tention to the thing for which the display exists, namely, hose. In the second place, if the " pretty woman gets the public " and the public is got, the chances are that the public is not thinking about hose or the qualities which this particular hosiery wishes to exploit. If, in the third place, " everybody is interested in a pretty woman," they are not so because she wears any kind of hosiery in particular, or because she wears any hosiery at all, and the possibility of creating a set of associated ideas on the hosiery question is very remote in this type of illustration. One should refer to his knowledge of the laws of attention, interest, association, and the ideas of apperception to judge the relevancy of an illustration of this type. Whenever a set of ideas is set in motion by suggestion and ZA NASI 5AMO5TATN05T! HRRNAVRAHA! ZADEMOKRACII! CE5KO5LOVENSKA ARMADA This illustrates the use of one intense color on a neutral background, with a strictly decorative technique in form, line, and color. The color appeal is strengthened by the decorative appeal. Attention is called to the fact that the message of realism is in no wise weakened by the sub- stitution of the decorative for the naturalistic treatment and that the former is simpler and more direct. ILLUSTRATION 357 urged to continue by further suggestion, the probability of changing the association or forming a new one with an entirely new set of ideas seems absurd. More time, space, money, and mental effort are spent in the sentimental viewpoint of the pretty picture, particularly of the pretty girl, than one can afford to spend in illustration as an efficient factor in advertising dis- play. Whenever there is a question in the mind of the user as to whether an illustration is absolutely relevant to the idea he is exploiting he should ask himself "For what am I using this illustration? - Can I afford for the sake of public attention to interest the public in something which is en- tirely foreign to the thing I wish them to consider? " If our plea is human in- The drawers are on ball-bearing- slides Let as lhr you a brand-new Idea In iteel filing wblneti a perfected elide which per- mits tne drawers to be pulled out and pushed in with tittle effort and lets DOlse. It does Its work astonishingly well. Drawers nay be chock-a-block with papers that weigh hundred pounds, yet out they come and In they go without sagging, sticking or banging. Other things which we should Uke you ta examine arei Steel card eaMneta. Sttet counter uoiu combinations of card and filing cabinet! forming a perfec*'y practicable- counter. Steel iterate shelving fot vtolu and storerooms. Steel record ailea for bousing ledger*, etc. Please don't tell us, "! am not In the market (or any office equipment at present " YOU WILL BE, SOON Library Bureau Card aa4 flMna ayt*tn. Unit cabinet* in wood and nL Sit Broadway, New York Suggestive treatment of illustra- tion, emphasizing only one feature described terest, the only possible connection can be the fact that if one arouses pity, or admiration, or affection, in the mind of the observer, he may consider him in a better state of mind to open his pocket- book without question. This is the only possible argument, it seems, for such illustration waste. Thousands of cases may be cited all over the country in which this almost illiterate and childish admiration of pictures has led great manufacturing firms to expend millions on useless 358 ADVERTISING DISPLAY Our interest-bearing Certificates of Deposit are a good "temporary in* vestment" While a good opportunity for safe and profitable permanent in- vestment is awaited, money can be earning interest at a fair rate and be perfectly safe by placing it with us on Certificates of Deposit. The money will be subject to demand, or payable at a convenient future date. stuff. Granting that the firm has in some cases tound these advertisements to yield a satisfactory result, there is no proof that even a better result would not have been yielded had they been omitted. There is every reason to believe that a higher state of public appreciation would long ago have been reached if this sort of thing in car cards, catalogues, magazines, and calendars in the country had been ta- booed, as any other useless waste and pernicious ten- dency has been treated. C*II' upon oar D0c*n or writ* to BANKERS TRUST COMPANY 16 W.I! Str~t, N.w York CtT CwlUl, 10.000,000 Sorptu^JlO.000.000 Naturalistic Illustration Showing badly placed illustration, unbalancing page A further classification of illustrations seems to be ad- visable at this point. Pic- tures should convey facts as to form, shape and action, and they should also convey ideas of certain qualities which may be classed quite apart from the idea of facts. This refers to such qualities as refinement, strength, dignity, frivolity, firm- ness, and the like, as well as the quality of pleasure which is aroused by a sense of esthetic relationships. The picture that is like an old-time photograph, seeking in its idea to reproduce with positive accuracy the smallest facts of detail, important and unimportant, is called naturalistic treat- ment. This naturalistic treatment in pictures may be com- pared to the realistic epoch of acting in which the drama sought to portray in the most realistic way every fact connected with the birth, growth, and maturity of the plot. The old-time audience listened in martyred complacency while realism, with all its joys and horrors, was told in the most naturalistic pos- sible manner before their eyes. In modern times this seems ILLUSTRATION 359 childish and ludicrous. Only the most flagrantly ignorant de- sire to have the bold truth with all its actual details of setting. The public is imaginative it has rudiments at least of intel- lect, it desires to judge for itself, mentally to create something, to let imagination play some part in creation. The suggestion is all the public wants now in plays, problematical as they are. This is the modern state of consciousness. It appears in lit- erature, on the stage, in music. It must appear in one's judg- ment of pictures. To a student familiar with the history of painting, even casually, there is a great lesson to be learned in this regard. Epochs of painting that produced masterpieces are not those that produced in each masterpiece every technical fact. The more realistic a school may grow, the softer and more ephem- eral become its types and the less decorative the fin- This is no run on a bank, but you can bank on a run on these suits at $-- Yes, all this season's make, all up to our regular standard. Instead of spending the money in big newspaper space we're giving you the money--$3. to $5. saving to you on every suit. ished product. In current times it has been quite a custom in us- ing, for example, the pretty girl before referred to, or any other similar thing, to retouch and work over de- tail after detail, taking out character and putting in softness and artificiality. The result which this treatment tends to produce is the failure of the illustration to fulfil its function altogether. The illustration has become a statement of fact, and suggestion, clogged by the fact, has degenerated into a secondary, senseless pretense, which is not art. Poster treatment of illustration ; vigorous motion for attention value and interest 360 ADVERTISING DISPLAY Decorative Illustration The other method of using illustration is the one with which facts, or at least minor facts, are subordinated to the decora- tive idea. This type seeks by the choice and arrangement of the facts to be shown, the colors used, the forms and lines em- ployed, to show a decorative plan suggesting facts and quali- ties at the same time. In addition to facts and general quali- ties, it seeks further to create an atmosphere of esthetic pleas- ure through its choice and arrangement. This is the ideal type of illustration as to treatment. Broadly speaking, it is called the poster idea. This is a somewhat incomplete term, since it may be applied to other things. At any rate it is a type in which flat tones or design takes precedence over un- important fact. A very important modern exposition of this type is seen in recent Austrian and German poster work. A few places in this country are educating students now to the power of appre- ciation as well as production in this field. When illustrations are properly comprehended, this form of treatment will sup- plant the former one and mere pretense, with its sentimental associations, will pas into the background. Relation of Illustration to Other Elements A word should be said in regard to the placing of the illus- tration in its relation to other matter within the display. Let us illustrate with the car card. If we consider the car card divided into two equal parts by a vertical line, left and right hand parts, it is sometimes the custom to place the illustration at the left, facing out. This calls attention, by gaze, to the ad next the one in which the illustration i 4 s found, and is bad form. On the other hand, it sometimes happens that the illustration is placed in the right hand half. If it faces out, it is still worse. If it faces in, it is better, but very often takes attention entirely from the copy at its left and the CzECHOSlOVAKSf JOIN o URCREEOLORS! I Here is a particularly interesting and convincing use of intense color on a neutral background, with areas so distributed as to accomplish not only a decorative arrangement, but an emphasis on the top symbol through color area. The appeal of abstract color is increased by that of patriot- ism. Attention is directed particularly to the fine feeling for balance and strength given to the page by the use of black at the bottom in producing this effect. ILLUSTRATION 361 observer, who naturally reads from left to right and whose attention is carried in that direction, passes from this illustra- tion to the next card without ever seeing the copy. What is true of the car card is true in other fields under similar circumstances. If the function of the illustration is to attract attention, stimulate interest and bring conviction, it must be placed where it will as nearly as possible accomplish these three things. In magazine and newspaper layout, cuts frequently appear too low down, or after the points have been made. This means that either they are not needed, because the points have been made, or that they may, unless very carefully chosen, lead the observer into another field of thought and destroy the sequence. Sometimes when the illustration is suggestive enough or strong enough in idea, quality, and art feeling, it is possible by its proper use to lessen the amount of copy needed. It fre- quently occurs that fewer words may be used because of the illustration's appeal, and sometimes fewer illustrations may be used because words a-re sufficient. There is much discussion as to what part of advertising space should be used in the cut as compared with the whole amount to be used. Of course, there is no definite rule that can be given in this regard. Sometimes a poster cut may tell in itself, through its statement of facts, actions, and qualities, nearly all one needs to say. This is probably truer of out-of-door post- ers than of any other fields. On the other hand, it very often happens that a mere suggestion of some quality, or style, or fact, is sufficient with the copy to make the idea clear, attrac- tive, and convincing. While there can be no way of stating the exact proportion of the illustrative idea, it seems that it may be fairly safely stated that in general work one-fifth the space is not too much. Sometimes, of course, much more may be allotted, and probably sometimes less. If the function and type of illustration are understood a reasonably definite con- Foote-Burt Independent Feed Drills THIS is one of the nine six.es of this type machine we build. The Independ- ent Feed feature makes it pos- sible to drill a number of holes in one piece at varying centers in a straight line, thereby eliminat- ing the excessive handling and expense and insuring accurate work. While the above is the main feature of the machine, yet the drilling of single pieces can Feed, as the operator and ma- No. 4 Four Spindle Independent Feed Drill .hinc has a capacity of 2-inch drills in solid steel mm center distance of 8 inches or a maximum ancc between outside spindles of 75 inches. ndle has independent feed with automatic knock- itch for stopping and starting in order to change out stopping the whole machine. The spindles arc adjustable on the rail while the machine is running or at rest. Three changes of geared power feed are provided through <|lilck change gear device, any one of which is instantly avail- able by simply shifting a lever conveniently located. The weight of this machine is 10,000 Ibs. Write for new circular specifying No. 4-5. The Foote-Burt Co., Cleveland, Ohio D.'lrolt Office 1127 KorJ Milwuuket. - 4.t(, Wells Bldg. Magazine page with illustration too large in proportion to copy 362 The use of neutralized color in background form is admirably shown in this illustration. The qualities of refinement and distinction are well brought out in the choice and arrangement of a finely keyed complemen- tary color scheme. Attention value is secured through the treatment ot the car in the lower foreground and a perfect balance is obtained through the size and the placing of the name at the top left. This adds a dignified quality in harmony with the goods advertised. ILLUSTRATION 363 elusion may be arrived at in each of the various fields of dis- play. Functions of Illustration Summarized To summarize a moment the function of the illustration is to convey fact, quality, and create a mental condition through suggestion. Suggestion should play a much more important part than statement of fact in all places where quality is of any importance. Generally speaking, words are about as effective in conveying abstract ideas as pictures are; this is an import- ant point. Under ordinary circumstances the first use of the illustration is to supplement the copy and in order to do so, in any sense, it must be relevant to the copy. The second reason for the use of the illustration is based on the psychology of human appeal. People are more interested in persons than in things. " Persons," however, is not a sex term. The advertising of face powder, hose, paving stones, and caskets by means of a female head or a female figure, as an attention getter, should not be regarded as illustrating human- interest appeal. The third function of the illustration, is to make a more gen- eral and far-reaching appeal than words can. Because of the impersonality of words, because of their abstract similism, they cannot, except in very rare instances, stir the emotions with the same vigor and zeal that pictures do, and it is, of course, the emotions that create the mental atmosphere desired in much of our advertising display. The difference between the way the intellectual faculties of the mind act and the mental activities of the human being is a matter for psychological discussion. The sections on those subjects should be carefully studied in relation to this section on illustration. Atmosphere is indeed an indefinite word, but it is not so difficult to describe in this connection when it is seen in this way. Anything which is presented to consciousness through 40% Greater Capacity Patented Removable ./"led Arnu~ air-cooled arms of th sbofl Furnace arc hollow gh them a forced draught of air lated from the central shaft. Besid taining the strength of the effects the preheating of ai bunion. Thus is the te of the BoasiiniQrer at. No slagging ^k J pany knows the ^^i n ^ For Meiallur$cal and Chemical Furnaoey Made In Varioo/i/izey' Wrile_/r HERRESHOFF FURNACE DEPARTMENT B 25 Broad Street Now York, N. Y. PACIFIC FOUNMiDMPANY !6^ar,J lUniron ./Vetl-i- J\>n Fru^uxo Cl/omi Pacific CofLr/ Aqcni/* Magazine page, material badly selected, badly grouped, badly placed, too mixed in kinds 364 ILLUSTRATION 365 the senses, if sensed at all, creates a mental state of pleasure, pain or indifference. It is rarely wise in advertising to create the condition of pain, or fear, except indirectly in the case of patent medicines and other articles that are bought only be- cause of fear. It is generally wise to create as pleasant a mental condition as possible. Some persons find pleasure in one thing and some in another. The intelligent use of the illustration in creating atmosphere is its use in creating mental states which really are the at- mosphere of the individual. For we are pretty nearly what we think we are at the time and we do somewhat nearly what we feel like doing when we can. This mental state, created by the presentation of qualities to consciousness, is atmosphere. It is a mistake to think, because people are poor, somewhat un- cultivated, and apparently unrefined, that they buy things more readily which are as poverty-stricken and illiterate-looking, or badly formed, as they themselves believe they are. People like to be thought better than they are, and the atmosphere that recognizes this fact is more likely to produce results than the one which believes that everybody must be met on the exact ground on which he seems to be to the man who is judging him. People are often much better than they seem and often understand and enjoy much better things than they appear to do. CHAPTER XXVI ORNAMENT Ornament Defined The term ornament is applied to certain forms which have been evolved, or are being evolved, with decorative intent. The aim of ornament is to strengthen or define structural lines and to add beauty through a unity with the thing upon which the ornament is applied. Every period in history has evolved its own ornament types, with the same sense of desire for beauty and belief that ornaments would realize this end. Sometimes beauty has been the result, sometimes the most in- tense ugliness has come out of both the making of the orna- ment and the bad use of it after it has found expression. Decoration as Distinguished from Ornamentation The first step in understanding ornament is the clear dis- tinction between the terms " decoration " and " ornamenta- tion." The ornament itself may be good and the result of its use bad; or, the ornament itself may be fairly good and the result of its use extremely pleasing. There are then two dis- tinct things to realize when ornament is itself beautiful and when it is decorative in its use. The term decoration implies two things : first, the defining or strengthening construction or structural lines. This presup- poses a made thing upon which decoration is to be placed. Ornament existing without this idea cannot be a decoration. Bands or stripes around a rug define its edges and sometimes add beauty to the rug. They break the surface, occasionally 366 ORNAMENT 367 introduce pleasing shapes and sizes, vary the color, and alto- gether add charm to the rug. This is a decorative use of orna- ment Curtains which hang at the windows, straight, in har- A Few Border Arrangements conducted by FRANK ALVAH PARSONS under the man- agement of the New York Advertising Men's League Composed and Printed by WILLIAM GREEN 627 West 43d17reet, N Y A succession of borders in several lines 1. A fairly adequate support 2. Lines become distracting and conflict with copy 3. Lines dominate mony with the window casings, door casings, and other vertical structural lines, have a pleasing color and pattern, form a dec- orative window idea. Two long candlesticks on either end of a mantel, in harmony with the structure of the mantel, making For Holiday Gifts The PopullI Shop Prcienll The Followinj SujjeKiov Mu r.ds nd Odd P Joseph P. McHugh & Son For Holiday Gifts Joseph P. McHugh & Son For Holiday Gifts Joseph P McHugh & Son A succession of borders inclosing a well arranged copy 1. Line too weak 2. Line too strong 3. Line about adequate stronger the structural lines because of repeating them, cause a decorative effect. Carving, restrained or confined between certain lines, may add strength and beauty to the structure of 368 ADVERTISING DISPLAY a cabinet or a chair, or, by loose and unintelligent placing, may weaken the structure and make a chaos instead of a chair back or cabinet front. For Holiday Gifts Th. r.p.l.r Stop f,.-..n U. K,a,.-,,;| Su4|MidB ' 1 For Holiday Gifts i' The Fllow.o{ SufJfUioll For Holiday Gifts Tb> Pop.l.r Sbnp Prc>l> The HI1s ^.u p ,:;7^ w'uft siVnd"n!..-,.,. 1..... ^,ri ,.,.,.,^., ; ...r.,i.^,....^M.. Joseph P McHugh & Son Joseph P. McHu{h & Son r Joseph P Mcllush & SOD A succession of border lines 1. Showing how placing of strong line leads attention both out and in 2. Showing placing of strong line so as to direct attention in only 3. Showing lines too far apart and their scattering effect Often it happens that one admires a piece of bric-a-brac, curtain material, a pattern in a rug, or a bit of historic orna- ment, and imagines that he can place this where he likes, For Holiday Gifts Th, Popular Sb.-p Pr,, u For Holiday Gifts ibJ rlik,i', n ?"<" AlMlo'Slr;,,""," At l 10 '5 J;;',^'?',,; ^i"t. B B' k .U'c. V n7"H?j"l! ?"., ";",;,'C. V V."M ;>:; M.lf.nSurfi.^CXM r.,,.,. u.itii sued, ud o r u i,.,, Joseph P McHujh & Son Joseph? McHuCh i Sun TI r ii ft \ For Holiday Gifts The Pop. !> Shop Prclcnn AI M to 's ^iv,^ ?.'.,:: Joseph? MclIujhiSon Showing set of borders 1. With corners too strong detracting from copy 2. Better balanced, but corners in line form a different motif and by contrast remain too strong 3. Showing how wavy line contrasting with copy demands the whole attention as he likes, with anything he likes and the result is decora- tion. This is not so. This is ornamentation. It is the ex- ploitation of ornament for the sake of showing the ornament. ORNAMENT 39 The result is usually in bad taste. Perhaps this may be briefly stated in these terms. Decoration exists to strengthen struc- ture and make more beautiful the object upon which it is placed. Ornamentation exists to exploit itself at the expense AAAAAAAAAAAAM TTTTTTTTYTTTM < For Holiday Gifts fc For Holiday Gifts * j For Holiday Gifts The Popul.r Sb..p P.tu.ii The P.p.l.r Shop Pt..,.i *\ J b ' r '"'" Sh f P'"" The FollD.mf. Su((iino Tk Follows* Sylio ^ I Ihe rallowinf iu((,.,io., + > 41 4 At no D s i^zr^ 1 .,;: >- I*- At '' ' D 15 olio":.,;" -4 ^ Joseph P McHugh & Son ^ ^ Joseph P. McHugh & Son ^ \ iT^w reHtJ"^f?! ^ ^ ^ ^ * -4 > >- < TTTTTTTTTTTTM MAAAAAAAAAAAAB A set of borders in which one shows the distracting effect of movement outward. Two shows the concentrating effect of movement inward. Three shows the use of the French motif and its decorative effect badly used to express general merchandise of the objects with which it is associated. It would be well, by the way, if persons knew this in arranging the interior of their houses, selecting materials for their clothes, as well as in the question of advertising- display. Sources of Ornament There are two distinct sources, or fields, from which orna- ment is drawn the field of nature and the field of abstrac- tion. Naturalistic ornament is ornament which proposes to express some thing in nature as nearly like the original thing as is possible to the medium of its reproduction. At various times in the history of art development the extravagant love of nature or the belief in its beauty under all circumstances has led people to exaggerated ideas of the importance of represent- ing nature in all places, in all materials, for all purposes. This seems ridiculous on the face of it. While it might be possible to tolerate a wax rose, it is unendurable to think of a hair one or a shell one. Tin and iron scarcelv lend themselves to the Matchless THE OSTER "Matchless" threads all sizes from 1 in. to 2 in. on one set of narrow, receding dies. There is not an easier cutting die-stock made and none so light with the same range. Its Protected Leader Screw is an exclusive feature. Oster Tools are on display in 525 Cities of the United States and Canada. No. 306B is one of three sizes we build of this type. The gears made from solid metal, cut on costly automatic machines and the pinions cut from solid steel forgings place these tools in a class with the finest ma- chinery made. This tool in the corner cf your shop will take care of all your pipe, bolt and nipple thread! Pipe-threading today is Easy and Cheap THE fact that this is so is due in a large measure to the persistence of this con- cern for twenty odd years in concen- trating on orts Bovls in large variety. FARTI1 LARTl BOOTMAKERS FOR ME! AMD WNEM 1 East 35th St., New York variety. 3SI make it structural, and make An arrangement showing border, sides and bottom well sustained, con- sistent though a little strong. Top inconsistent in line motif and feeling 376 ADVERTISING DISPLAY it appear to belong together and also to the edge of the paper. In this the border has done a great work. The second function, unless the border is a purely abstract one like a line or a Saracenic motif, is to express an idea. It sometimes happens that a fact which is expressed in copy or illustration may be repeated in border form, thereby strength- ening the appeal. Often a border creates a mental state the quality of which is exactly the one you wish to have under- stood by your illustration or your copy. Take, for instance, the Louis XV border and the vanity box. The very shapes and sizes of the ornament suggest powder puffs, frizzes, mir- rors, and the like. When a border can do this successfully it is well used. This is really, then, expressing a fact or creating an atmosphere. Allowing this to be true, there are certain cautions which it is necessary to observe in the use of borders, or their efficacy is destroyed. Since the border is used to harmonize the copy with the edge, sustain it and make it stronger, it must in no case be itself stronger than the copy. This is the same prin- ciple as that of the picture frame. Whenever a picture frame makes a stronger appeal than the picture, the frame is bad. Few persons indeed there are whose taste is so depraved that they would care to admit their desire to exploit picture frames on their living-room walls. Most persons, even with bad pic- ture frames, think they are framing pictures to show the pic- ture. If the advertising copy is of any account, let it seem so by being stronger than the border which surrounds it. Furthermore, unless the border can be made to express the same idea that the rest of the display expresses, it is very de- sirable that it be kept purely abstract, that is, in line or shape without the suggestion of historic style or of a natural unit. An irrelevant border is as bad as an irrelevant illustration and sometimes even in worse taste, because ignorance as to the meaning of ornament is less excusable than one's undying be- ORNAMENT 377 lief that he must love pictures of anything whatever. We have inherited that tradition. Initials and Other Applications of Ornament A second use of ornament is seen in the disposition to use extravagantly what are known as ornamental initials. The treatment of initial letters should have a chapter by itself. They are of all shapes, sizes, periods, colors, and forms, and represent in their ag- gregate probably the most atrocious combinations the market affords. Whenever the ornament becomes more attractive than the letter it- self, so that it is difficult for the mind not only to select the letter but to connect it with the rest of the word, the use is not in good taste. It seldom happens that an initial letter which occupies more than three lines of space, from top to bottom, can be successfully used. The letter itself should be, of course, near the top, so that its top is horizontal with the first line of print. Great care should be taken that the initial used is not too large, too long, or too disconnected. Arrangement whose border in style These are not supposed to be and feelin ^ is in keeping with goods advertised. A little too strong for decorative. Function pre- text fcC {Founded 1S86V Oriental Rugs |7 Rugs whose au- 1 thenticity is vouched for by the great importing house of Kent-Cos- tikyan, Inc. fll Thousands Ml Small Rugs of and hundreds of Rotm Size Rugs and Rugs In extraordinary di- mensions selling at less than wholesale prices. Mall Orders Pilled. KENT-COSTIKYAN Incorporated 8 West 38th St. New York City FAIRMONT GOAL MINE EQUIPMENTS Slippery Tracks Bad Brakes Don't Affect Fairmont Railroad Car Retarders T W tin >le at all times complete trol of the cars to be loaded, chance of runaways if have a Fairmont, es you money, too. Klim- les' spilling cars arc fed ularly makes a lx-ttcr- king load. th the Fairmont there is chance for accidents. The Jo not have to ride cars Tin rder dc the tipple s it all This device is easy to install and operate. Effects a sav- ing in labor, often enabling owners to dispense with the You will find this installation a paying investment. Let us send you a bulletin NOW. Fairmont Mining MachineryCo. Fairmont West Virginia Showing how qualities of the merchandise may he used effectively in border arrangement, at the same time illustrating the ideas exploited. Good arrangement of copy as to blank space 3/8 ORNAMENT 379 cedes looks in its importance, in the field of advertising display as in other fields. We are not bound by tradition to accept and use any and all forms of decorative initials even though they were developed by the monasteries in medieval days. There was plenty of time for such things in those days and the object for which these things were designed was entirely dif- ferent from the object of their use in present day problems. Head and Tail Pieces The third important use of ornament concerns what we shall call head and tail pieces and " space fillers." It has been the custom to select pieces of ornament, frequently triangular, turn them upside down, and attempt to fill out a page half filled with copy. Worse practices are prevalent, of dropping in a clover leaf, a dot, a small rose, a trefoil perhaps repeating it to fill out a line. These practices of introducing ornament hetero- geneously to fill out space are distracting and tawdry and in bad taste. Silence is golden. Blank space is equally eloquent. Good form demands dignity, and the copy should ordinarily speak for itself. The most pernicious use of ornament is in its introduction into spaces of this kind and on pages otherwise unblemished. Ornament is effective only when it is needed and when it bears a distinct relation to the other materials with which it is used. CHAPTER XXVII TYPE PRINCIPLES Line Meanings Words are abstract symbols having meanings only as we have so decreed by choice and use. Lines have much the same history. Primitive races, in their hieroglyphics and other language forms, used lines to express ideas of both fact and quality. The Egyptians expressed a regiment of soldiers standing at rest, by a row of vertical lines. Grain and for- ests undisturbed by wind were represented in the same way. Flat objects, such as a river, prairie, or the ocean, have often been represented by straight horizontal lines : \vhile waving grain, ocean waves, persons in motion, and other activities, are often recorded in oblique lines. The seemingly inherent ten- dency to use lines to represent various quiet and active posi- tions has led to a feeling for these expressions in persons see- ing such line forms. Lines may be said to be of two kinds, straight and curved. The straight line is the shortest distance between two points and, as the definition signifies, it is direct, forceful, structural, determinate in its character and feeling. The curved line, which changes its direction at each point, is less direct, non- structural, and decorative in its character. Furniture con- structed on curved lines has not the same feeling of security as that built on straight lines. This is equally true in architec- tural construction except in the case of the arch. Straight Lines A straight line in a vertical position was used by primitive people to express such qualities as growth, unrest, aspiration, 380 TYPE PRINCIPLES 381 repose in gravitation, and dignity of position. The same line when horizontally placed has indicated rest, repose, sleep, death, and has represented water level, flat land, and the like, in con- crete forms. A human figure, erect, in line with gravitation, has the same significance as the vertical straight line, while the same figure horizontally placed will bear the same interpretation as the horizontal straight line. If, however, the figure is in a slant- ing position, bending forward as if to catch something, or half bent in rapid walking or running, it is at once said to be in ac- tion. There is no repose, less dignity, and the feeling of unrest is present at once. Out of this feeling of action has grown the term " motion." The oblique straight line has rep- resented action. It has the feeling of unrest, instability, and creates the idea of lack of harmony with the law of gravita- tion. The structural lines of the average room are vertical an-d hor- izontal, its angles right angles. Strength, dignity and form are the result. A picture whose frame has horizontal and vertical lines appears harmonious upon the wall and if wires are ex- tended from the top corners in a vertical position to two picture hooks upon the molding these vertical lines are in harmony with the picture frame, doors, windows, and structural lines of the room. If, on the other hand, one wire is used, starting at the corners of the picture, and meeting at a point with one hook at the wire, a triangle is created w'hose lines give the idea of motion or action and destroy the unity of the wall. They call attention to themselves because of their unlikeness to the situation in which they find themselves. Curved Lines Curved lines are of three classes, which should be studied carefully that one may feel at once the significance and possi- bility in each of the curves whenever it enters into the con- 382 ADVERTISING DISPLAY tour of any made thing. Curves seem easier to grasp in their meaning in pottery and porcelain than in any other field, al- though they are active, of course, in the structure of any and all kinds of type with which we have to deal. The circle is a plane fig- ure bounded by a curved line, every point of which is equally distant from a point within called the cen- ter. An arc in this bound- ing line is the most mo- notonous curve we have. Wherever it is taken, how- ever great its magnitude, it changes its direction at every point in exactly the same way that it does at every other point. Some- times, of course, this is de- sirable, but for decorative purposes and subtlety of feeling the curve of the circle is less desirable than the other types. The Supple men ting display* of late Pi American ideal exhibited only m lhar ow jvenue al 46'*dtrett ork. Bad taste in mixing many types. Main body of type well chosen to express fashion's frivolities bounding curve of the el- lipse changes its direction differently from one ex- treme of the minor axis to the adjacent extreme of the major axis, but changes in a like manner between the same extreme of the minor axis and the other extreme of the major axis. This curve is less monotonous than that of the circle; therefore more subtle. The oval is bounded by a curve which changes its direction differently at every two points between TYPE PRINCIPLES 383 one extreme of the major axis and the other. This gives a curve of exceeding grace, subtlety and interest, and is the curve upon which the most interesting and beautiful curved line objects are built. This discussion of lines has been given in the hope that we may see its relevancy to the structural form of type faces, the abstract symbols used to convey our thought. Standard and Decorative Types The supreme importance of having a knowledge of form as a medium for expressing ideas has been already discussed. In no field is there a greater chance for exploitation of this idea than in the field known as " type forms." Every letter of every type should convey in itself not only a feeling of fact but a feeling for quality, which no other type of any kind could exactly express. In discussing this subject, let us first see type, or letters, divided into two classes, the first class of which we shall call " fixed forms." By this we mean such type as has been stand- ardized and cast and is used in general book, newspaper, maga- zine, and catalogue work. Perhaps those in the most common use may be said to be Roman, Caslon, Cheltenham, John Han- cock, and Gothic, and other simple styles which are known to every printer. Because these are fixed' in form and abstract in their nature they are, of course, standardized in shape. Being standardized in shape they are also standardized in quality. The Roman impresses one as angular, blocked, structural, somewhat scientific in its shape. Speaking of a medical book or a book on electricity, one instinctively feels Roman type. Caslon and Cheltenham are capable of a more decorative treat- ment. The various faces of each of these types give rise to still greater possibilities in feeling expression. Inasmuch as straight, horizontal and vertical lines are used, the feeling for 384 ADVERTISING DISPLAY these lines should appear in the type. Where slant lines appear in any number the feeling is changed. The kind and quality and number of curves involved materially change the feeling. It should be clearly seen that a sub-division in thought is neces- sary here into structural, or scientific, and decorative styles. When working out a display in which the idea, either in object or in atmosphere, requires a decorative quality, even these fixed forms of type lend themselves splendidly to the possibility of such expression. Hand-Made Type If the problem is one in which the letters may be hand-made or particularly made for this special problem, the situation is infinitely more interesting. In advertising the frivolous ob- jects in theatrical make-up, or woman's lingerie, letters may be constructed uniting straight and curved lines in such propor- tions that on the presentation of the word lingerie, or theatrical make-up, or false hair, one is obliged by very virtue of the letter form to visualize the object advertised. A book treat- ing of wading birds should not present its cover and title page in short, thick letters that might be suited to Dutch tiles or paving stones. The effort to design type which shall perfectly suggest the idea has been the reason no doubt for many new types which have been put on the market in the last few years. It should be remembered, however, that not all things new are decorative, nor is it desirable to over-decorate anything, even the page on which type is the decorative feature. And it must further be borne in mind that the same formula which expresses frivolity, insincerity, and change, cannot express stability, dignity and repose. Historic and Modern Type A further division of type may be made into what may be called the historic and modern styles. The term historic re- TYPE PRINCIPLES 3^5 i Strength N E B R CHEAPNESS E T common sense femininity Severity A N T i o -o i T Y DIGNITY Showing how styles in type suggest by their form the prime quality which they represent. (By courtesy of Benjamin Sherbow.) lates to periods already passed in which type forms have been used to express certain strong ideals or activities in much the same way that ornament has been developed. Old English type, for example, is the decorative Anglican church ideal of word expression, as it relates to events, incidents, or occasions in the religious life of the time in which it was developed. No- 386 ADVERTISING DISPLAY tice in what points it. is similar to the Old German and in what it is different. It will be found to be similar as to curves, in number and kind, to have a more vertical feeling and generally a somewhat thinner line. Take any historic type you know best and you will see by comparing it with the ornament of its time that it bears a somewhat similar relation to ornament in its meaning. This is always true to a greater extent when the ornament is largely abstract instead of naturalistic. The impersonality of orna- ment created out of lines is, therefore, related to the imperson- ality of type created out of the same lines and expressing the same general ideas of feeling. Modern types, like most modern forms of expression, are somewhat mixed in their meaning. It is not an uncommon thing to see a large building in a city with Classic, Gothic, Romanesque, and even Byzantine features entering into its con- struction. In fact, you may occasionally see a house in which there is a succession of gables and arches in one tower repre- senting five distinct architectural schools. This is not only bad fcrm, but an ignorant conglomerate. Care should be taken in selecting type to see that it is consistent with the sub- ject it purports to represent and also that it is consistent in itself, part for part. The question of cost, of course, enters into the use of hand-type. When there is a possibility of us- ing this form of display it is a most desirable thing to do. Under this head the question of italics as a means of em- phasis naturally presents itself. Tradition has declared that italics shall be used to make stronger or more forceful a word or phrase. It seems well at first to see in what other ways the same effect may be obtained. A word may be effectively underlined when this is not done too often. It may, how- ever, happen so often that the page becomes a spotted mass. Sometimes a stronger type face may be used, thereby empha sizing the important word. If this occurs many times the TYPE PRINCIPLES 387 page becomes unbalanced, or is likely to express the same spotted appearance as in the use of underlining. Capital let- ters throughout the word produce the same effect, sometimes pleasantly and sometimes awkwardly. When any of these three forms of emphasis is used, however, greater strength is certainly obtained. In each case the word actually appears stronger for the change. When italics are used, however; the result is quite different. The word which is italicized is ac- tually weakened, not strengthened, by the change of type. It will be noted, by the way, that if very many italicized "CRAFTSMAN" (Tntt Jferfe H.iiutffW it V. a. Pnt OfM) Furniture -^ Metal-work Furnishings Jrej| Leathers Fabrics Needlework arc on sale at the warerooms of our associates in the Illustrating a type whose feeling in form is similar to the idea expressed. Trade-mark well placed but underlining unessential words appear on the page the effect is much the same as one sees on a pond with very thin ice and many holes made by stones or other missiles. The page as a whole is greatly weakened by the general use of italics. It will be seen from this discussion, surely, that an extrava- gant use of any form of type emphasis is bad taste and that there may at least be a variation from the accepted form of italic use. 388 ADVERTISING DISPLAY Relation of Initials to Other Type It is desirable at this point to consider the use of initial let- ters in connection with other type. Decorative initials, or initials which are considerably larger than the rest of the word, have been considered in the previous chapter. Initial letters out of all proportion to the rest of the page are not only a waste of space and material but often result in supreme ugli- ness. It is well to think back to the Greek law of areas and see if there cannot be some initial devised which bears a compar- able relation to the rest of the type used. This inordinate dif- ference in sizes is emphasized and made worse by the extrava- gant use of ornament surrounding such an initial. The initial becomes less inappropriately decorative if it is made of straight lines and rather formal in appearance than when it is sur- rounded by a mass or maze of curved line ornament. This large area of forestlike ornamental stuff also unfits the observer to see and sense with any degree of satisfaction the decorative quality of the type style with which it is used. Initials should be in good size relation to the rest of the type, say two or three lines in height; perhaps a very little larger than this, if deco- rative material is used with them. It is the purpose of this section to awaken a keener interest in the possibility of the selection of type when expressing fundamental ideas of quality in objects. Too long has type been as color has been just a matter of like and dislike. Too long have people worshiped at the shrine of the indi- vidual who created the type. And far too long have printers ignored the possibility of this form of abstract language ex- pression. If one becomes interested to work out the possible qualities which type may express he at once sees its supple- mentary power as an element in advertising display. Surely a larger harmony exists in any advertising layout when the copy, the form, the color, the illustrations, the ornament, and the type, speak the same thing at the same time. Here then TYPE PRINCIPLES 3^9 are five distinct elements of the language of advertising dis- play, each element of which is capable of its own ideas and functions and each capable of supplementing the ideas and functions of each of the others. Type is no less important than color or form, CHAPTER XXVIII UNITY, THE FINAL TEST OF ADVERTISING DISPLAY Unity of Ideas A unit may be defined as that to which nothing can be added and from which nothing can be taken without destroying the idea. This makes the problem of unity in advertising display of the utmost importance when seen from any viewpoint what- soever. The advertising manager or the firm whose goods are under consideration invariably says the test of an advertisement is the return in dollars and cents which is realized from its use. This at least may be said to be one of the tests of the quality of an advertising display. But even this must be seen from at least two distinct viewpoints. First, the fact that a given advertisement has yielded a certain result is no proof that some other or better one would not have yielded a greater result. Neither is it proved that the form of display used for a par- ticular advertisement was better than some other form because a certain commercial return has resulted. This makes the question of the real value of any display always an open one and one which the fair-minded man will admit is worthy of consideration. In the second place, advertising display is a language to be used and understood by everybody. Not all persons speak the English language with the same intelligence: neither do all persons understand the meaning and arrangement of its vari- 390 THE FINAL TEST UNITY 391 ous word and phrase forms exactly alike. Education alone makes understanding clear, and association makes terms ex- pressive of similar ideas. Because this is so, a universal un- derstanding of the meaning of each element of advertising display is quite essential to a perfectly intelligent use of it in the commercial world. While it is true that not all people understand color, type forms, illustrations, ornament, in their full and natural import, it is equally true that each of these has a distinct and fixed place in the expression of ideas and that many persons under- stand, both by feeling and intelligence, some one or more of these language elements. Some people know color, its source, its meaning, its tonal arrangement, its harmonies, its discords, its qualities, and their relationships. These persons under- stand this language when correctly used and are shocked at the ignorance of persons who use it incorrectly. Another class of persons speak the English tongue with some considerable degree of accuracy and some measure of under- standing. They, in their turn, wonder at the indefinite jumble sometimes called advertising copy. People of refinement and culture know by inheritance and by study the source and mean- ing of ornament as it expresses and has expressed the ideas in history for which it stands. Association has made ornament talk. These persons, cannot understand why there is so little intelligence used in the selection in this field when ornament so adequately expresses the idea to be conveyed. Illustrators, painters, and many other people, find in picture language their keenest representation of truth and quality. Why this lan- guage should be mutilated by the whim of advertising artists or by the ignorance of the man who directs them is beyond their comprehension. Finally, the sense for texture as a means of receiving ideas is not to be ignored in estimating the. value of language elements. In short, it must be clear to any reasoning man that a thorough 39 2 ADVERTISING DISPLAY knowledge of the power of each of these language elements is essential before we can compute or attempt to compute the effect any advertising display will have on any person or any class of persons to whom we wish to appeal. Psychological Reasons for Unity A knowledge of psychology or a knowledge of how human beings think and act in different conditions, under different cir- cumstances, is the closest possible accessory to an understand- ing of the field of display. Display exists for persons. It ex- ists for the mind. It attempts to present ideas in such a way that the mind will behave as we desire to have it behave. It is evident, then, that a knowledge of the mind is as essential as the knowledge of display. A closer correlation of the prin- ciples of choice and arrangement with the study of psychology is the only way to use either effectively. One of the greatest faults with modern advertising in any form, from the short newspaper ad to the largest window dis- play, is the attempt to express too many ideas at one time, in too small a space. The multiplicity of ideas in a short adver- tisement in a small place and the exaggerated heaps of rubbish that appear in our window displays are but evidences of the fact that few recognize the importance of isolating ideas we wish to have the human being grasp. Neither facts nor quali- ties can be grasped by a human being when they appear in del- uges. This is particularly true of the class of persons to whom the deluge is usually presented. Some there are, indeed, who have sufficient sense not to do this in high-class advertising. Few there be, however, who have seen far enough to be con- vinced that the so-called lower classes have probably no more power of immediate comprehension or present isolation than the so-called upper classes. Just why people who are herded together in droves in dirty tenements should be obliged to re- ceive all their information from the outside world through THE FINAL TEST UNITY 393 Hail Craftsmen! Ever and anon, and sometimes oftener. the Club of Printing House Craftsmen foregather in friendly fashion for the good of their craft and the preservation of their immortal souls Tomorrow Thursday. Nov- ember 21 is the next date and you will be there or forfeit all right to your hope of a cool hereafter You will strip off your dignity, forget all your troubles, side-step your cares and be real happy In plain New York you'll have a good time And to get just the proper effect of light and shade, shadow and substance, you 11 listen to a Man with a Message. He is Frank Alvah Parsons president of the New York School of Fine and Applied Arts author of 'Principles of Advertising Arrangement . " lecturer before the Advertising Men s League of New York City and Craftsman of High Degree His message concerns The Meaning and Importance of Choice and Arrangement of Material in Printing And while the title is involved, the And buries deep some pet hobbies that message will be straight plain and have ruled too long in printing and pub* pointed, delivered in Mr Parsons in hshing shops mutable *tyle- , , heir p|ac( , he put$ ^ deap Which gets across and sticks in ihe straight, sane ideas constructive criti- mmd ol the hearer to his lasting benefit cism of the highest character Mr Parsons puts the kibosh on over You'll like Parsons, you'll like ana display unbalanced arrangement mis- learn from his talk, you'll meet the fel- directed emphasis, unrelated and ir- lows again, you'll certainly like the relevant ornamentation, underscoring dinner, the smokes and the good music. Why say Craftsman you are going to have the evening of your life' Unless you re the old original tight wad. you'll loosen up to the tune of $2 00 per and you 11 make some friend happy by bringing him. too. Tomorrow (Thursday) Evening, Cafe Boulevard Second Avenue and Tenth Street, at 7:30 o'Clock A perfect arrangement of material well placed in sequence following to a logical conclusion the principles of consistent structural arrange- ment, balanced placing and consistent shapes correspondingly unclean channels is impossible to understand. Even " poor folks " can appreciate a clean spot, a clearly ex- pressed idea, and a decent arrangement of it. Many of them 394 ADVERTISING DISPLAY are forced into their present condition and their intelligence is superior to their physical surroundings. If more than one idea is presented, at least there must be a close relationship between these ideas. One idea must be of supreme importance and all others presented in a logical way, in a perfect sequence, with no distracting ones which operate to destroy the order for which the whole advertisement exists. Selection of Elements It has been shown in each section of this part how possible it is even with co-ordinated ideas to destroy this co-ordination by a wrong choice and an injudicious arrangement of things chosen. Let it be remembered that not every element of ad- vertising display is essential to any one advertisement. Many times copy is sufficient. Frequently copy and illustration are a plenty. Very often copy, illustration and color are final. In short, do not use every known element to express every one idea, but judiciously choose which of these elements is best suited to the idea and most emphatic and convincing in its use to express the idea. Having decided what elements to use, let these elements be in perfect unity each with the other. Also let these elements be in unity with the idea to be expressed. This forms a logical arrangement with which human con- sciousness can deal in a normal manner. Too much cannot be said in favor of a knowledge of the principles of form in advertising display. No matter in what field a man \vorks, the best of intentions are often wrecked in the process of use. It is true too that the choice in any field of material may be excellent and the arrangement entirely un- successful. Too well we all know how easily a room may be made a pandemonium by the wrong arrangement of furniture or pictures on the wall. There is even more hopeless confusion often in the working out of electric signs, and bill-boards, and THE FINAL TEST UNITY 395 Newspaper page with an ideal arrangement for attention, interest, space distribution and such mixed erratic placings as are found in some magazine and newspaper advertising. The Economic Necessity of Form and Arrangement The slightest knowledge of life makes clear the positive necessity for organization and arrangement in any material thing. Let a man who doubts this investigate any field, and he finds himself unable to grasp or explain the situation unless there is an apparent organized arrangement of everything which is presented to him. In no other field is this more essen- tial than in that of advertising display. This is the one field in \vhich we expect persons of all degrees of intelligence easily to grasp, be deadly interested in, and positively convinced of our At Radical Price Reductions For This Week 250 Round Double Roasters PRINCESS OUTFITS STANDARD OUTFITS REGAL OUTFITS Three Booms '65 ".:, Four Rooms '125 SX& Five Rooins """ 7k Tfeek Puts This Combination High Grade Coal and Gas Range, Big Warming Closet as Shown, in Vour Home U-Ptect GrulleHirc Set tree with in> Stove it SIS ^ This is the unorganized page with illustrations in excess of ideas Two arrangements on opposite pages in a Sunday paper. See the geneous conglomerate 396 Advertising Does Not Add to the Retail Cost of Goods Intelligently Applied to Business, It Reduces the Selling Price of Merchandise and Increases the Profits of the Advertiser Once upon a time not so many years ago a certain merchant kept a sign in his window stating that he could afford to sell his goods at lower prices than his. neighbors because he did not spend money for advertising That was nothing more nor less than an admission that he did not know how to intelligently apply advertising to his business For years he seemed successfully to defy the march of advertising progress He stubbornly insisted that advertising was an expense. Eventually, others handling the same lines of goods crowded in about him. He felt secure because his store had been estab- paper advertising as much as he and his father Ushed since before the stirring days of the Civil before him had accomplished in half a century War Hehadalargefollowingthatwasapparently Although he turned a deaf ear to the advertising loyal to him But his new competitors were keen. men who approached him. and lost his temper on persistentadvertisers Inthecourseofafewyears. occasions, the pressure became too great and he some of them did as much business as he. Their was finally forced to yield. He became an merchandise was as good as his and they actually advertiser Andne regrets that he did not BUT- met his prices Sometimes they annoymgly went render years before at a time when newspaper below his figures. It is a fact that they accom advertising began to be recognized as an agent of plished in five years, by the use of intelligent news- economy in business instead of an added expense Who Pays for the Advertising? Advertising eoS*J money of course, and there must b some An Associated Press dispatch trom Cambridge Mast sajt easily ui ' itdMtfl fcitetligentnwspaper advert is irg describes desirable mercnan- prospert> follows ppmg ne h... nas goods to sell co the retailer and" & goodi u> sell to th public The Plain Dealer With Iti Great Army of Thrifty Readers Is Invaluable to the Merchant or Manufacturer Who Want* to Advertise Intelligently in Cleveland The Plain Dealer First Newspaper of Cleveland. Sixth City The organized and structural page, readable and understandable effect of an established, dignified arrangement in contrast to a hetero- 397 39 s ADVERTISING DISPLAY viewpoint, whatever it may be. Granting this, it is not difficult to see how important are the principles of advertising arrange- ment. It must be remembered too that not all principles in any field are alike operative at the same time, and that the slavish or unintelligent following of principle results sometimes in defeat. It must also be remembered, that in the judicious choice and application oi principle is success, and that violations can only be safely made by him who understands how to follow the very rules he violates. If the final test of display is the commercial return, advertis- ing display is an economic question. It is desirable to save space, material, time, and also the mind power used in prepar- ing the display offered the public. Whatever, therefore, con- tributes to redundancy, where simplicity will do the work, is an economic waste. Whatever appears that is not absolutely essential in matters of appeal, interest and conviction, is worse than useless and therefore an economic as well as a psycholog- ical fault. Whatever is not wisely chosen as the best method of expressing ideas will fail to give the most perfect results; therefore, this badly chosen material is economically wrong. Human intelligence is fairly busy in these strenuous days tak- ing ideas, assimilating them, and attempting to use them in life's activities. It needs the most careful consideration as to what these ideas are, what will best express them and how this expression can best be presented to consciousness. A knowl- edge of this is a knowledge of advertising display. PART V THE PHYSICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING CHAPTER XXIX ADVERTISING MANAGER AGENT PUBLISHER Advertising Manager As has been said previously, advertising is not a funda- mental science, neither does it use any new fundamental prin- ciples. It is a compound, assembling the factors of a number of old principles in some new combinations so that it repre- sents a new application and condition. Under these circumstances it is obvious that the advertising man who would be well grounded in regard to all the require- ments of his work, needs a breadth of training which will in- clude all the fundamentals represented in the new applications he is obliged to make and which will enable him to survey some- what carefully a wide field. Considering the importance of advertising in establishing good-will, the discussion which goes on from time to time as to the way in which it is valuable in this direction should be considered in estimating the influence of advertising upon mar- keting in general, and the influence of markets upon advertis- ing. The economics of distribution and of competition must be understood, as well as the importance of the human nature appeal. A sympathetic understanding as to the position of the sales department is required. In fact, it is obvious that the preliminary training of the advertising man should be almost as wide as marketing itself. It should, therefore, take up the fundamental principles of all branches of business and in addition provide something of the fundamentals of mass psychology, of written expression, and of art arrangement. 401 402 PHYSICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING This is no small matter and needs a training at least as severe as that required for any other profession. Literary Requirements It is evident that the man who must depend for his entire success upon his ability to influence large masses of people at the same time, must have a knowledge of the art of written language. This, in fact, is one of the items in connection with the advertising business in regard to which the information of the advertising man must be detailed and specific. Only so much value can be taken out of the advertising campaign as can be put into the expression of the advertisements. The advertising man, as a matter of fact, has a most difficult lit- erary task in front of him. He must take what are to him commonplace items, and invest them with an interest second only to the interest of the reading pages in conjunction with which they are to be seen. As the competition between ad- vertisements grows keener, the advertising page which hopes to attract attention will be obliged to develop an interest beyond the 'interest developed by the reading pages. The advertising man, however, must be prepared to do this without the liberty as to space, subject, etc., which are accorded the fiction and special writer. He is confronted with a space already defined, frequently inadequate, and at any rate, admit- ting of no change. His subject is determined for him, and, in fact, even the arguments which he must use. With these diffi- culties he must be able to impress the imagination of the hearer so as to induce action. Editorial Capacity Allied to the literary or writing capacity, the advertising man must have the editorial capacity which enables him to judge of the merits of the different methods of presentation and arrangement, their harmony and applicability, and in this ADVERTISING MANAGER 403 respect, again, the requirements of his business are much greater than those of any other writer. All writers in other fields are permitted and expected to pass their manuscripts into some other hands for editing, and the editor is not expected to becloud his own judgment by con- stant writing. In the case of the advertising man, however, he must write and then judge what he has written. Even when he ceases to write the actual copy, he must produce the argu- ments, the limitations, the general situation, and then judge of their validity. Further, the editorial requirements of his work necessitate thorough familiarity with limitations of make-up, typography, space, with the requirements of the engraving, etc. He must be thoroughly familiar with the attitude of the audience he wants to reach. He must be able to sense the applicability of the particular article, piece of copy, or other written message to the purpose he has in view. Closely allied and tied down to an organization, either from the manufacturing, agency or publishing standpoint, he must be able to project himself into the other side of the case and measure the possibilities of his work in terms of the public interest. Not only is this true, but he must be prepared for the criticism which is accorded to any public work, inasmuch as his own mistakes cannot be concealed, his errors of judgment are made at large, and he cannot at any time hope to escape for long the public consequences of his own act. Artistic Perception It is not enough, however, for the advertising man to be an expert at written language ; with the foregoing difficulties, he must also possess trained judgment as to the artistic surround- ings of the message and the character of the illustration which must be used in connection with it. He must thoroughly un- derstand the principles of arrangement, the history, general 404 PHYSICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING character and purpose of the ordinary means of decoration, border, etc., the different methods of engraving and their ar- tistic limitations. He must know definitely the association of ideas between certain types, borders, methods of decoration, and illustration and must be equally familiar with the subject matter which can go with them. Considering the universality of the picture, a knowledge of the art surroundings is second only to the knowledge of written expression in connection with the advertising man's work. Lack of judgment upon this point may indeed destroy the value of the written message by taking the interest away from the message or destroying it. Analytical Work As though the foregoing requirements were not sufficient for one average human being to become proficient in, the ad- vertising man must add to these a capacity for analysis, which is rarely to be found in combination with the previously men- tioned talents. The economic side of advertising governs his operating side and he must be prepared to analyze the funda- mental business conditions, possibilities, and returns, before he can determine the value of his own work or hope to repeat it successfully. This part of the work is somewhat removed from the requirements previously stated and is naturally the part of the work for which the writer, the editor, and the psychologist are least prepared. As a consequence of this lack of technical preparation, the business man has generally considered the advertising man to be lacking in business knowledge just as the advertising man has considered the business man as devoid of imagination. As a matter of fact, the business man is accustomed to speak in the language of economics, whereas the writer and editor are accustomed to speak in the language of human nature inter- est. The business man has not yet begun to realize the eco- ADVERTISING MANAGER 405 nomic effect of the human nature factors, so that he cannot translate the things which are spoken in that language into his own; and it must be said of the advertising man that he has usually been so little trained in economics that he has been unable to translate the business man's statements into his own language. There has thus far been an incompatibility between the busi- ness end and the advertising end, due not so much to a lack of appreciation of values, as to the lack of understanding arising from the difference in the expression and points of view. In- asmuch as the advertising man's is the newer department of business, it is necessary for him to become acquainted with the older and standard language of business, the language of eco- nomics and analysis, so that the work (which he knows can be accomplished by the human nature interest) is translated into the factors which the business man understands and to which he will pay attention. If there has been one point more than another in regard to which the advertising man has failed to fulfil the requirements of his position, it has been in the analysis of the various fac- tors entering into his work and their translation into charts, figures, and economic data which can be understood by any business man. Executive Powers The popular conception of the man who is able to command the written expression, to exercise judgment upon art. etc , does not give him much credit for talent in the direction of execu- tive capacity, and yet the advertising man who would grow beyond a subordinate position must of necessity possess execu- tive powers and be able to use them thoroughly. It is necessary for him to have learned the handling of men, so that he will be able to organize his subordinate?, to main- tain discipline among them, and at the same time to hold to tb~ 406 PHYSICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING atmosphere of democratic co-operation which is so necessary to the proper development of the particular kind of talent re- quired in an advertising organization. Furthermore, he must possess the capacity for relieving himself of the detail necessary to the accomplishment of a piece of work, and know when to forget the matter. His judgment must extend over all the things which his subordinates are required to do, so that he can with equal justice determine their value in respect to all operations. He must be able to analyze the units of his organization so that his control of it is not based upon mere assumptions, snap judgment, or occasional examinations, but is based upon a continual knowledge of what is being done and to what extent it is valuable. Response to Public Sentiment All the work of the advertising man is based upon the estab- lishing or the crystallizing of public sentiment in respect to a particular proposition. Only in so far as this is accomplished can the work of the advertising man show in the economic con- dition of the business. This means that of all the studies which must form a part of his work, the most vital is the study of public sentiment. In this connection it is of the utmost importance that he should not only sense the possibilities of change or fixity in the sentiment of the public in regard to his proposition, but he must know these things in a sufficiently analytical way to make it possible for him to refer back to the analysis for the solution of other problems. Every man who has a capacity for written expression and editorial judgment possesses in a greater or lesser degree the sense of public sentiment and the demand of the public interest. If this sense be used in an analytical way and the results of its use determined with corresponding analysis, it is possible to control the matter so that the factors already demonstrated can ADVERTISING MANAGER 407 be used in connection with almost any problem of the case. It is somewhat important that this matter of response to public appeal, which is the kernel of the whole advertising busi- ness, should be examined in a more scientific way, so that it can be controlled more definitely. When the value of each in- dividual piece of advertising varies so widely, it is evident that the control is very indefinite and uncertain. Duties The advertising manager in the manufacturers' organization or his equivalent in any other organization, is the man who has charge of all operations of the selling forces which lie outside those used by the salesmen. The advertising manager, there- fore, is the man who is using the machine method of selling as against the hand method necessary to the sales organization. He is the man who must treat selling in the mass, and his work partakes of the duties and responsibilities of such treatment. To put the matter briefly, the advertising manager is re- sponsible for the estimation, the planning, and the carrying out of the advertising necessary in connection with any business, including the economic considerations which enter into the esti- mate and plan, the knowledge of media, copy, art work, make- up, returns, etc., which enter into the operation; he must have the knowledge of selling which will adjust these to the sales organization and the consideration of the results which are ob- tained therefrom. The requirements which have been previously stated prac- tically illustrate the duties which devolve upon him. In many cases these requirements have not been thoroughly understood or the exponent of the matter has fallen short so that his work has been limited to very much narrower outlines than those suggested. In some organizations the duties of the advertising man are confined to the consideration of media, the writing of copy, the 408 PHYSICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING carrying out of the schedule and the placing of the advertising contracts. This, however, is incidental to the growth of busi- ness and as the value of advertising forces is understood more thoroughly, so that their fundamental requirements are deter- mined more exactly, the duties of the advertising manager will be correspondingly increased to cover all the items stated. Advertising Agencies Nothing so illustrates the recent growth in the advertising field as the change in the position, the functions, the character and the size of the advertising agent. The advertising agent occupies what might be termed a dual position in the advertis- ing field. In respect to one of his functions, he is a broker, jobber or commission agent. He collects or takes care of or- ders from a number of customers, clears them through his own organization, and passes them out again to a number of other people, as do commission agents in other well-established busi- nesses in merchandizing. In another part of his organization, he acts as a service bureau, operating to take care of his clients' interests by means of special services for which he makes no charge excepting the charge contained in the commission he is allowed by the publisher. This position is a natural outgrowth of the original position of the advertising agent. In the beginning the advertising agent was merely a space broker ; in other words, he was a free lance commission man who was able to secure advertising; he was a salesman, carrying a number of lines a number of pa- pers and securing the advertising for all the different papers with which he had connections. As this commission agent, this space broker, passed on his rounds, striving to induce the reluctant manufacturer to adver- tise, he discovered that the manufacturer when he could adver- tise to some extent did not know what to do with the space how to get the value of it. The space broker, coming in con- ADVERTISING AGENCIES 409 tact with many conditions, accumulated ideas as to copy and space; so he gave the customer his own experience on these lines. He found it worth while to express opinions upon the mediums to suggest this medium instead of that. In con- nection with the space brokerage, therefore, there grew up an added service on copy and medium ideas for which he made no charge. This was very valuable, as few manufacturers at that time had any one in their employ specializing upon that particular subject. As time went on, the service department of the advertising agent began to be his big talking point; so much so that the agency has to some extent lost sight of the fact that it is paid by the publisher, and it now makes its great play upon its serv- ices to the advertiser. Functions As a matter of fact, the advertiser is not the client of the advertising agent in the generally accepted term. The client of the lawyer is the man who retains him and pays his bill. The man who selects his advertising agent does not pay his bill except indirectly ; the agent is paid by the commission from the publisher. In giving the service which has grown up with the space brokerage the agent has accumulated valuable data. He has a knowledge of media. He has acquired this knowledge through the conducting of many different campaigns, and each cam- paign has added a little to his experience and information, so that if he has recorded it there is no reason why he should not possess valuable information on the point. Because of the fact that the advertising agency has been called upon by competition to provide certain items of service for the advertiser, he has developed an organization which would take care of such items with the least possible expendi- ture compatible with the required results. The most important 410 PHYSICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING parts of his organization are, of course, the copy or production department, the rate and checking department and the business getting department. Service theories have been evolved in respect to the agency organization which have all the appearance of being accurately built to fit the final conditions, but which have little relation to the precise reasons for the organization development. There has been a good deal of discussion of late years as to the rela- tive merits of the large agency organization and the small agency organization. The small agency argues that the service is a matter between the particular parties and the advertiser, and consequently is only to be determined properly from the small organization standpoint, where two or three individuals do all the work. On the other hand, the large organizations say that service is not an individual matter but is better undertaken by the ac- cumulation of experience and education secured by the num- bers of individuals found in the larger agencies. Both sides claim that the theories on organization were the governing ideas which induced them to develop or restrict the tendency in their own business. As a matter of fact, the agency organizations are the result of the conditions in the business. At best, the theories were formulated after the or- ganizations were finished. The first demand for service and still the greatest demand for service made upon the agent is the demand for copy. This copy, as it is represented by the aver- age requirement of the manufacturer who is dealing with an article of general consumption and with little or no technical appeal, is secured most cheaply and probably most effectively by the employment of a number of men who are more effective along certain specified lines of copy than in other fields. Furthermore, so long as the service is to be confined largely to copy, the profits of an advertising agency lie very distinctly along the lines of a large organization. Consequently, many ADVERTISING AGENCIES 411 of the better known and most successful advertising agencies have large organizations. Of late years as the advertising competition has increased, and as the competition among agencies has increased, the de- mand for service has grown more and more until it has become necessary for the agent to add to copy work merchandizing ideas, suggestions, and information in order to retain his busi- ness. Men who have been successful in this advisory capacity have started in business as advertising counsel, and frequently ended by combining with other similar individuals to make a small agency, because the money in the agency business does not as yet lie in the fees for counsel but in the profits from the commissions. This has led to the small organization w r hich lays its stress upon the personal service given by the different individuals composing it, each of whom is supposed to be an expert in his particular line. These developments of the advertising organ- ization have a considerable bearing upon the position of the agency today. The call for more effective advertising has de- manded a specializing of copy for many media, corresponding more closely to the purposes and requirements of the medium and its audience. This specializing of copy is particularly necessary for media reaching audiences of a distinct occupa- tional or business character. It requires a very much finer degree of study and application to the media and the subject and is one of the points used by the small service agency as a point of value. Service The matter of service to be given by the advertising agency is a matter of considerable controversy between advertisers and agencies, and publishers and agencies. There is no doubt that considerable dissatisfaction exists in the advertising field with the service rendered by many advertising agencies, for it is 412 PHYSICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING felt that the amount of money paid the agent by the pub- lisher as commission would justify his giving more service than he has so far undertaken to do. The consequence is that further service is being demanded from the agency by some publishers and advertisers and it is a general opinion that the agent should be capable of advancing more information from his experience and the work which he has done in other direc- tions. The service w r hich the agent is giving may be classified as follows : A knowledge of the media which comes from the experi- ence with a great many different campaigns in connection with the media. A production of copy, which probably is the most important part of a service. Without question, some of the finest copy service depart- ments in the advertising fields are in the hands of agencies. They have spent years in accumulating the best copy-writers, artists, and layout men all that is necessary to the making of copy, the agent attracts and keeps. He has the advantage of working on a great many different campaigns, and each of them gives him a view of human nature and types, the way to approach these and the way to produce results with the least expenditure of money and effort. He knows how to arrange copy to suit space, or space to suit copy, and should be able to produce the most economy in this respect. The third item of information is the question of rates. While there is a tendency all along the line to standardize rates so that there will be one rate for all advertisers, some classes of media have no certain method of making rates, and the ad- vertiser who is absolutely certain he is getting rock bottom prices in such a case is little short of a miracle The agency, because of its use of these media for a great many conditions, has an insight into the rate question which the advertiser is hardly able to gain unless he is spending an enor- ADVERTISING AGENCIES 413 mous amount of money. Some of the large companies have undoubtedly some of the best rate departments in the field, but as a general rule the advertising agency is better posted on the matter of rates and discounts than is the average adver- tiser. The question of economical distribution of advertising is very important, and it is possible to waste a great deal of money through lack of knowledge of the question of rates and discounts. There is no doubt that the wide experience of the agent has given him valuable selling ideas, or merchandizing ideas, suf- ficiently so to be worth handing out to his customers. How- ever, it is rarely possible that the agent is able to give very expert counsel on the marketing to the manufacturer where the manufacturer has studied his market as he should do, because there is a tendency for a man on the outside to be somewhat superficial in his considerations. In connection with the mar- keting of any proposition, the line from the man on the outside, however, will have a value if it is considered in connection with the expert development. The agent, however, can submit new selling ideas, and his experience in this regard is good. Scientific laws are based on one thing the accumulation of the experience of thousands of people gathered together. Advertising is in its formative stage no\v, when experience is the only real guide. There is not enough experience accumulated for a sufficient length of time to make it possible to lay down many laws. Some laws regarding the general action of groups of humanity, certain typographical rules, certain rules regarding copy, illustration, color harmony and the like, can be defined. In many respects it is not possible to lay down rules of advertising or the laws of selling ideas. Experience is the thing that counts, and the ex- perience of the agent covering the results of his work with a number of advertisers as a general rule gives him a flow of 414 PHYSICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING selling ideas which are valuable, though they are not all appli- cable to any one particular business. Advantages The advantages of the agent from the publisher's standpoint lie in his possibilities for the creation of new business. The agent, because he is allowed to work as an unrestricted free lance, is naturally required to create advertising possibilities out of a number of non-advertising firms or to increase the adver- tising of those who are already doing such work. The publish- ers, whether rightly or not, give the advertising agency credit for a large part of the advertising business of the last twenty years ; and there is no doubt that they have been responsible for the production of a great deal of new business. There is no doubt that, from the publisher's standpoint, the commission to the agent is thoroughly justified. The advertiser, particularly the man who has not previously advertised, frequently requires service of one kind or another in order to make his advertising possible, and consequently the service department of the agency is a necessity from the publisher's standpoint. Viewed from the standpoint of the advertiser, the agent has a number of advantages. His work on numerous campaigns and numerous sales problems has provided him (if he is worthy of his hire) with an immense amount of information as to what is of value and what is not of value in connection with certain sales matters, so that he is able to get information to the advertiser from an entirely outside angle which will am- plify and correct the advertiser's viewpoint. There is no doubt that the counsel, the merchandising ideas, the copy work, the information on rates and discounts, etc., possessed by the agency, are of the utmost value to the advertiser who is able to take advantage of them. But as the advertiser does not pay for them directly, it is pretty hard for him to control the amount of the service he will get. ADVERTISING AGENCIES 415 Weaknesses It may be found that with the agent, service means getting out twelve or twenty-six or thirty pieces of copy and suggesting a booklet or two to go with the copy, and some minor details of that kind. On the other hand, he may have some selling ideas, some advertising ideas, some suggestions as to media. But as to how much of that service can be secured, it is hard to determine. When you retain a lawyer, the fact that his payment depends absolutely upon your satisfaction makes it possible to hold him closely. \Yhen you secure a doctor the same condition holds good. But as the agent is paid from the publisher and his pay is not primarily dependent upon the extent of his service, it is harder to control this service, especially for the man unin- formed upon advertising. The fact is that the agent is most valuable as an ally to the advertiser only w T hen acting in con- nection with a specialized department in the advertiser's own organization, which can check up, amplify and modify the agent's work so as to make it of the utmost service. Where the manufacturer relies upon the advertising agent to carry his business, as is done in some cases, there is no check upon the agent and the discounts which should be placed upon his particular angle are not made. The check and investiga- tion which should be carried out independently to serve as a conservative balance on the agent are missing, and the tendency then is for the agent to determine many things which he alone is hardly competent to judge, causing expenditures which would have been unnecessary if the proper checks had been applied in the first place. When you consider the value of the agent, you must always remember that by his very position paid by the publisher. of the magazines, newspapers or other space, paid on the business he brings in which is based on the amount of space he can secure his tendency is to get as much as possible. His very 416 PHYSICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING remuneration depends upon his getting you to spend as much as he can. Of course, the wise agent figures that if he can put out your money carefully one year, next year you will become a larger customer, but i f he induces you to spend more in this or in other ways than is necessary, next year you may go else- W 7 here. This is on the basis that a satisfied customer is better than a dissatisfied one. Just the same, we find that the agent is like the salesman. You know, salesmen have a tendency to write a nice long order on the books if they can, without figur- ing too nicely on its necessity to the customer. There is the same tendency on the part of the advertising agent. It is not human nature for a man to be two things equally well at the same time, and the advertising agent as advertising counsel and the agent as commission man, are apt to have a little fight with each other. They compromise, and the com- promise is never anything but a degree or two less than the best. The Publisher The place of the publisher in advertising may be considered analogous with the place of the man \vho leases the theater and produces the plays, putting his time and money and organiza- tion into securing an audience. The periodical is produced be- cause the public wants something to read. The writers and the editorial make-up of the periodical represent the staging and organization of the play and the writer of it. The audi- ence are readers interested and attracted because of the titles of the pieces, the name of the periodical, the value of the reading matter, and the names of the waiters. Unlike the play, however, the periodical can figure on a definite minimum audi- ence for each of its offerings. The custom of requiring yearly subscriptions in connection with a good many periodicals, the tendency for the reading of certain publications to develop into a habit, and the general tendency of a publication to acquire an atmosphere which attracts the same audience continually, make THE PUBLISHER it possible for the publisher of the periodical to secure and re- tain an audience which will be carried over successive issues of the same publication for months or years, or even decades. So far as the advertising man is concerned, however, the pub- lisher does nothing more than provide an audience, more or less interested in the reading matter which he puts out, and consequently a public which is more or less interested in the signs and announcements which may appear, in addition to the reading matter, between the covers. This is very well exemplified by a little examination of the history of periodicals, which shows that in the earlier days of printing, the periodicals disliked to give up any portion of the paper for advertising, limited the amount of space which could be secured for such advertising, and left it out if the reading matter covered more space than was allowed for. As a matter of fact, the publisher in the early days had the advertising forced upon him by the merchant who grasped the possibilities of bringing his announcements to the people in this simple manner, and offered inducements to the publisher which were sufficiently strong to engage him to give up a small portion of his paper to such announcements. It was a very long time after the introduction of advertising into periodicals before the publisher began to see the possibilities of his medium in con- nection with business. Practically all that the publisher has learned about the v.alue of periodical media for advertising has been secured by the in- sistence of the merchant in his uses of this method of extending his market. Today, of course, the \vhole situation is changed. The demand of the public in respect to reading matter, the price at which the publications must be sold in the face of competi- tion, and the revenue which the last thirty years has demon- strated can be secured through advertising, have made the ad- vertising the important part of the periodical from the stand- point of immediate revenue. In very few cases does the peri- 418 PHYSICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING odical sell for such a price as would pay for the cost of pro- duction. Usually there is an increasing loss upon the subscrip- tion price as the circulation increases. The only thing which has made it possible to get up a news- paper such as is represented by the New York Times, Tribune, Chicago Tribune, Springfield Republican, or any of the larger newspapers that sell for one or two cents, is because the adver- tising possibilities of the medium are such that the advertising revenue will take care of the loss in production above the sub- scription price and produce the necessary profit. On account of this the business department of the modern publication is a very important department, representing as it does the market- ing end of the organization. The publication lives only through its advertising revenue. Space and Service It is customary, because of convenience, for the publisher to sell to the advertiser space in his periodical, this space being represented by a certain number of lines or a certain area in the periodical. Actually, however, the publisher is not en- gaged in selling space, neither is the advertiser buying space ; the publisher is selling an advertising service. He is selling to the advertiser an opportunity to speak to the audience which the publisher has gathered together, and the advertiser by the amount of space he takes confines himself to what might be compared with the one-minute, five-minute, fifteen-minute or half -hour speeches, which would be given to such an audience were it gathered together in one place. It is evident that the publisher, in order to be of any service to the advertiser, therefore, must first secure his audience, and it is further evident that this audience must be to some extent interested in the subjects presented to it. It is obvious that the editorial department remains the most important and govern- ing department in the publication because of the fact that upon THE PUBLISHER 419 the work of the editorial department will depend the value and the interest of the audience which the advertiser secures. Circulation When advertising began to provide a large portion of the publisher's revenue, and when the demands of competition in- creased the cost of production so that the advertising became the only revenue, the publisher discovered that the circulation which w r ould naturally accrue to a publication because of its interest and without any special efforts to bring it to the atten- tion of the people, was not sufficient for his purpose and was far too slow in its accumulation. He consequently began to introduce a selling department to sell the publication to the people who could buy it, and this selling department and its conduct have an important bearing upon the value of the pub- lication to the advertiser. In the competitive situation \vhich developed, and in the wild attempts to secure circulation at any cost and by any means, all sorts of selling methods were devel- oped ; premiums of all kinds, prize packages of books, clocks, household furniture, etc., were given away with the publication, and all sorts of stimulation was applied in order rapidly to accumulate the circulation which would show tremendous gains and large totals. The fallacy of this proposition becomes evident when we go back to the analogy of the audience. If the subject matter of the evening brings in only a half-filled hall, it may be possible to go out on the streets and by other inducements fill the rest of the hall. The man who is to talk upon the subject may have the pleasure of talking to a larger number of people, but it is scarcely likely that he will impress more people or make more disciples than he would have done with the smaller audience. The trouble was that the publisher was selling two ways he was selling his publication to a list of people who might read, and he w-as selling the value of that circulation to the 4^0 PHYSICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING advertiser. It was a long time before he made any effort to co-ordinate those two selling propositions so that they should agree and provide additional strength, instead of additional weakness, to his position. In fact, it may be stated that the recent improvements which have occurred in this regard have practically been forced upon the publisher by the insistent demand of the advertiser for a larger efficiency in circula- tion. Inasmuch as periodical media take the principal portion of the money which is spent upon advertising in the United States each year, it is obvious that the efficiency of this branch of ad- vertising is of the utmost importance and the position of the publisher something which must be thoroughly understood and appreciated. The publisher has been under considerable difficulties in attempting to provide something for the advertiser which would agree with his technical requirements and suggestions, and which at the same time would fit in with the necessity of his circulation conditions. The circulation of the publisher represents his list of the buyers of his actual production. Nat- urally enough, for a long time the publisher considered that this list of buyers was his own private business and that it was not incumbent upon him to disclose to the advertiser any informa- tion in regard to it. Furthermore, the advertiser himself was not clear as to just what he wanted to know. Advertising is not very well understood even today and the advertiser demanded so many things from the publisher which were obviously absurd or impossible for the publisher to fur- nish that he had many reasons and excuses for refusing to fur- nish those things which would have advanced his own position. Today, however, practically all the large publications of any importance in the newspaper or magazine field are willing to provide the advertiser with all the circulation information which is necessary under ordinary circumstances. THE PUBLISHER 421 The Audit Bureau of Circulations The tendency for the publisher to make his circulation state- ment look as large as possible and the impossibility of keeping irresponsible publishers within reasonable bounds, started the advertiser many years ago to demand much information about circulation. A number of years ago an association was formed for the purpose of making audits of circulations in certain fields for the benefit of its members. This association was known as the Association of American Advertisers and its work was the pioneer effort in this line. In an entirely different field the Technical Publicity Association was working out with the publishers of technical and trade papers the question of stand- ard forms of contract and standard forms of preparing circu- lation statements. Later the Association of National Advertisers took up the matter and developed the work upon somewhat broader lines. There came a demand upon the part of the advertiser for reli- able statements as to the circulation of the different publica- tions, and a demand that these statements be checked. For a long time these demands took in only the questions of quantity and territorial distribution of the circulation. The first at- tempt to determine the character of circulation was made by the Technical Publicity Association in its work with the tech- nical journals in which methods were laid out for the stand- ardizing of an occupational analysis along certain lines. As the value of audience became the subject of deeper study the necessity for some understanding of the quality of circula- tion became more and more generally understood. It is cus- tomary now to analyze circulation by occupational or buying power in the case of publications of more or less specialized character, and to analyze the methods of acquiring the circu- lation in the case of publications with a general appeal. Along with this demand for more accurate information came a more insistent demand for an adequate check upon the circu- 422 PHYSICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING lation figures as given by the publisher. The publisher was therefore burdened with the necessity of getting up special information for scores of advertisers and advertising agencies and the need for some standard method of attaining these re- sults became apparent. The matter was again agitated by the Association of National Advertisers and in connection with the developments produced by the old Association of American Advertisers, crystallized into the Audit Bureau of Circulations. This was the first really systematic attempt to standardize methods of checking the publishers' circulation statements and also the form in which the advertiser should receive them. This work has now been going forward for some years and has become strongly established. Before long it may be ex- pected that its work with perhaps some further modifications will be accepted in the advertising field as the standard of report and information on this subject. Necessarily this work has called for some definition of the terms used by advertisers and publishers in technical senses, and this matter of defining terms so as to indicate their exact technical meaning will undoubt- edly be the most important feature of the movement. This movement toward standardizing of circulations is so important that it is of value to consider the forms used in connection with it, as they are employed today. A set of the forms is accord- ingly appended. THE PUBLISHER 423 AUDIT BUREAU OF CIRCULATIONS VENETIAN BU'LDiNG CH'CAOO AVERAGE NET PAID MT-1 2. dty. 4. Year OUOTEB 6 Report for- " 7. Date exami 8 Average circulation (or period covered bu. Section 6. above -months ending. J9l_ J9l_ Mail Subscribers (individual) . . Net Sales through Newsdealers . _ .... _ BROUGHT FORWARD . . Advertising Agencies ..... _ _ __ TOTAL NET PAID Si"gie Issue Saies -n Bulk TOTAL NET PAID INCLUD G BULK o espo^ TOTAL FORWARD . . ... ._ TOTAL DISTRIBUTION 10 Net paid circulation by states based on issue of. STATE STATE Indiana .... " A Illinois .... Iowa NEW ENG STATES Missouri .... New York . . . .... North Dakota . . New Jersey . . . - Nebraska . . . Pennsu>an a . . - Kansas .... Mar^'and .... MIDDLE STATES D.st o Columba . Montana. . . . N AT STATES . Wyoming "... Colorado ........ - ... .... - .... - New Mexico . . _ ... _. ._. .... _ .._ .... Utah FioT.da .... Nevada .... ._ SO E STATES . 1 Idaho Kentucky . . . ... .... Oregon .... West V.Tgm.a . . California . . . Tennessee . . . WEST STATES . Unclassified . . Louisiana. . . . UNITED STATES Texas Ok'ahoma . . . Alaska & U S Poss. Arkansas .... Foreign .... SO. W. STATES . Miscellaneous(a) . Oh'o ,.. GRAND TOTAL . | 424 PHYSICAL FACTORS IN ADVERTISING 12. State percentage of subscription circulation based on issue of in cities of 100,000 and over