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THE 
 
 MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 
 
 OF THE ROMANS 
 
 BY 
 
 ALBERT HARKNESS, LL.D. 
 
 FROM HIS REVISED EDITION OF CAESAR'S COMMENTARIES 
 ON THE GALLIC WAR 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 or THE 
 I UNIVERSITY } 
 
 NEW YORK 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 
 1887 
 
a 2-5 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1886, 1887, 
 BY ALBERT BARENESS. 
 
NOTE. 
 
 THIS pamphlet contains the new matter added to the 
 recently revised edition of Harkness's CAESAR'S COMMEN- 
 TARIES, and consists of the interesting chapter on the 
 Military System of the Romans, with diagrams and plans 
 of military operations in the time of Caesar, a series 
 of valuable maps, descriptive of the Gallic Wars, and 
 colored plates, illustrating various implements of war used 
 by the Romans. 
 
 It is published separately, in order that those having 
 the former editions of Caesar may procure this new ma- 
 terial in an inexpensive form. Classes will be supplied 
 at special rates on application. 
 
 D. APPLETON & Co. 
 
 NEW YORK, January 12, 1887. 
 
 130550 
 
OFTHC 
 
 ( UNIVERSITY ) 
 or 
 
 THE 
 
 MILITAEY SYSTEM OF THE ROMANS, 
 
 1. THE Roman legion, legio^ was an organized body of 
 Roman soldiers. It contained originally 3,000 infantry and 
 300 cavalry; but its numerical strength was subsequently 
 increased. In the time of Caesar it consisted entirely of 
 heavy-armed infantry, and probably numbered from 3,500 
 to 5,000 men. 1 
 
 CAESAR'S ARMY IN GAUL. 
 
 2. Caesar's army in Gaul consisted of two distinct parts, 
 the Roman legions and the auxiliaries. 
 
 1. The Roman legions consisted of heavy-armed soldiers. 2 
 
 2. The auxiliaries, 3 consisting of foreign soldiers of vari- 
 ous nationalities, served either as cavalry 4 or as light-armed 
 infantry. 5 
 
 3. The entire force at the command of Caesar during his 
 Gallic campaigns seldom, if ever, exceeded 70,000 men. 
 Beginning his work with a single legion, the tenth, after- 
 wards so famous in the Gallic wars, he proceeded at once to 
 raise re-enforcements, and soon found himself at the head of 
 
 1 A legion whose numbers were fully up to the normal standard was called 
 legio plenissima and probably contained about 5,000 men. Veteran legions weak- 
 ened by losses in battle were'considerably below this standard. 
 
 2 In general, the legions were composed of Roman citizens. 
 
 3 Some of these were armed, equipped, and disciplined according to the Roman 
 method, while others retained their native arms. 
 
 4 Caesar's cavalry was composed chiefly of Gauls; but it contained a few 
 Germans and Spaniards. 
 
 6 Of the auxiliary infantry, the Balearian archers and the Cretan slingers 
 were the most noted. 
 
 (XXV) 
 
XXVI MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 an army consisting of six legions and a force of auxiliaries 
 nearly 20,000 strong. 
 
 4. The numerical strength of Caesar's army varied some- 
 what from year to year ; but he generally had in his service 
 about 5,000 auxiliary cavalry and from 15,000 to 20,000 
 auxiliary infantry. The following is a general estimate of 
 the forces at his command during the seven successive 
 campaigns described in the Commentaries. 
 
 1. In campaign I., 58 B. C., six legions, and about 20,000 
 auxiliaries, cavalry and infantry; in all, from 40,000 to 
 50,000 men. 1 
 
 2. In campaigns II., III., and IV., 57, 56, and 55 B. C., 
 eight legions, with the usual force of auxiliaries ; in all, from 
 50,000 to 60,000 men. 2 
 
 3. In campaign V., 54 B. C., eight and a half legions (sub- 
 sequently reduced by losses to seven), with the usual force 
 of auxiliaries ; in all, from 50,000 to 60,000 men. 3 
 
 4. In campaign VI., 53 B. C., ten legions, with the 
 usual force of auxiliaries; in all, from 60,000 to 70,000 
 men. 4 
 
 5. In campaign VII., 52 B. C., eleven legions, with about 
 25,000 or 30,000 auxiliaries; in all, not far from 70,000 
 men. 5 
 
 1 Caesar found the 10th legion in Gaul, brought the 7th, 8th, and 9th from 
 their winter-quarters, and enrolled two new legions the llth and 12th in 
 Cisalpine Gaul. His auxiliaries consisted of 4,000 cavalry and a large force of 
 light-armed infantry. The number of the latter, not definitely given in the 
 Commentaries, has been variously estimated from 15,000 to 30,000. The estimate 
 of Rheinhard is 15,000, that of General von Goler, 30,000. 
 
 2 For the second campaign Caesar enrolled two new legions the 13th and 
 the 14th. These were added to the six already in his service. 
 
 3 Napoleon III. accounts for the half legion by assuming that Caesar procured 
 several separate cohorts to serve in his fleet in his second expedition into Britain. 
 The five cohorts and almost the whole of the 14th legion were lost under Sabinus 
 ar.d Cotta, among the Eburones. See Book V., 37. 
 
 4 In preparation for the sixth campaign, Caesar levied two new legions the 
 14th and the 15th and obtained another the 1st from Pompey. The 14th 
 took the place of the 14th that was lost. 
 
 6 Caesar entered upon the seventh campaign with ten legions; but another 
 the 6th was added to the number in the course of the summer. These eleven 
 legions were the 1st, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, llth, 12th, 13th, 14th, and loth. 
 During this campaign, Caesar probably had a larger force of auxiliaries than at any 
 previous time, as he besought the Aedui to send him all their cavalry and 10,000 
 infantry, and demanded cavalry and light-armed infantry from subject states in 
 Germany. Moreover, he speaks of 22 cohorts of auxiliaries, collected from the 
 province by Lucius Caesar. See Book VII., 34 and 65. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. XXvii 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ROMAN LEGION. 
 
 5. The history of the Roman legion naturally divides 
 itself into three periods. 
 
 I. During the first period, the infantry of the legion in 
 battle-array stood in the form of a solid phalanx, probably 
 from six to eight ranks deep. 1 The division of cavalry, 300 in 
 number, belonging to the legion, was generally stationed 
 in front of the phalanx. 
 
 II. During the second period, the infantry of the legion 
 was divided into thirty maniples, 2 or companies, which, in 
 battle-array, were arranged in three lines, with intervals 
 between them, 3 as follows : 
 
 Hastati 
 
 Principes 
 
 Triarii _-_ -____-___' 
 
 1. The soldiers in the first line were called Hastati; those 
 in the second, Principes ; and those in the third, Triarii* 
 The Hastati were comparatively young men, who had seen 
 less service than the soldiers in either of the other lines ; 
 the Principes were in the full strength of mature manhood ; 
 while the Triarii were veterans in the service. 
 
 2. Each maniple in the legion consisted of two divisions, 
 or companies, called centuries, 5 each nominally under the 
 
 1 The unbroken front of this phalanx was probably about 1,500 feet long. Its 
 original depth is not known, but Marquardt and Mommsen conjecture that it 
 contained at first six ranks, Rustow and Kb'chly that in its later form it con- 
 tained eight ranks. Livy, I. 43, compares it to the famous Macedonian phalanx. 
 
 2 The change from the phalanx to the legion of maniples is supposed to have 
 been made in the early part of the fourth century before Christ. It is generally 
 ascribed to Camillus, but see Frohlich, Kriegfiihrung und Kriegskunst der 
 Romer. Berlin : 1886. 
 
 3 The interval was probably equal to the length of a maniple. The legion of 
 maniples was, doubtless, somewhat slowly developed. The form here given is 
 that described by Polybius. A legion, arranged in three lines, of 15 maniples 
 each, is mentioned by Livy. 
 
 * The origin of these terms is doubtful; but it has been suggested that Prin- 
 cipes, in its original application, probably designated the soldiers who were best 
 armed and equipped; that Hastati was a general name for all the heavy-armed 
 soldiers, though finally retained only by those in the first line, i. e., by the inex- 
 perienced soldiers; while the others had more specific and honorable titles; and 
 finally, that the Triarii, derived from tres, were so called from their place in the 
 third line, which was then the post of honor. 
 
 6 The century (centuria\ originally a hundred men, probably contained at this 
 time from 60 to 80. 
 
XXV111 MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 command of an officer, called centurion ; though the centu- 
 rion of the right century generally led the whole maniple. 1 
 In active service, the two centuries stood side by side. 
 
 3. The quota of cavalry, 300 in number, due to each 
 legion was stationed on the wings. It was divided into ten 
 companies, called turmae, which were each sub-divided into 
 three sections, called decuriae. Each decuria was under the 
 command of a decurion. 
 
 III. During the third period, including the time of Caesar, 
 the thirty maniples of the legion were combined into ten 
 groups, of three maniples each. 2 To this new military 
 body, formed by uniting three maniples, the name cohort 
 was given. The legion thus changed ordinarily stood, 
 when in battle-array, in three lines, with four cohorts 
 in the first line, three in the second, and three in the 
 third. 8 
 
 PHALANX, MANIPLES, AND COHORTS. 
 
 6. The phalanx, though it could present a front like a 
 wall to an advancing foe, was yet too unwieldy for the 
 exigencies of the battle-field. To an attempt to remedy this 
 defect the legion of maniples owed its origin ; but experi- 
 ence soon showed that the division had been carried too 
 far, and that the maniple was too small a body to stand 
 alone in the line of battle. Accordingly Marius, in re- 
 organizing the army, proceeded at once to reunite every 
 three maniples into a single company, called a cohort. The 
 value of the change was soon apparent. The legion of 
 cohorts, as organized by Marius, and perfected by later gen- 
 erals, while it avoided the special evils of the phalanx and 
 of the legion of maniples, was found, in actual practice, to 
 unite in a large measure the advantages of both. 
 
 7. The post of honor in the phalanx was awarded to 
 wealth and station ; in the other forms of the legion, to 
 military achievement and experience. In the legion of mani- 
 
 1 He was called the first centurion (centurio prior): in his absence, the second 
 centurion commanded. 
 
 2 This change was made by Marius, about one hundred years before Christ. 
 
 3 For a full account of this order of battle, see 28. In the time of Caesar the 
 cavalry had ceased to form a part of the legion. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. xxiX 
 
 pies, however, the tried veterans were stationed in the third 
 line as a reserve, to be summoned into action only in cases 
 of special emergency; but in the legion of cohorts, they 
 occupied the forefront, and received the first shock of bat- 
 tle. 1 The Romans had at length learned how much de- 
 pended upon the first onset. 
 
 ARMS OP LEGIOXARY SOLDIERS. 
 
 8. All legionary soldiers were armed with swords and 
 with spears (hastae) 2 or javelins (pila). The defensive 
 armor, both in the phalanx 3 and in the legion of maniples, 
 consisted of a coat of mail, a helmet, greaves, and a shield. 
 
 9. In the time of Caesar, the essential articles in a sol- 
 dier's equipment were as follows : 
 
 1. A plain woollen tunic (tunica)^ with very short 
 sleeves, which scarcely covered half of the upper arm. This 
 was the main article of dress ; it extended to the knee, and 
 was girded about the loins. 
 
 2. A coat of mail (loricci). This was sometimes a simple 
 coat of leather, 4 as represented on the light-armed soldiers 
 in plate I. ; and sometimes it was covered with metal, as 
 seen in the figures of the legionaries in the same plate. 
 Observe that flexible bands of steel or bronze encircle the 
 waist ; that similar bands extend over the shoulders ; and 
 that the upper part of the chest is protected by metallic 
 plates. 
 
 3. A thick woollen cloak, or shawl, the sagum, some- 
 times worn by soldiers when not in action. It was thrown 
 over the shoulders in such a manner as to leave the 
 arms comparatively free. It was generally secured by 
 a clasp. 
 
 The corresponding garment for the general and the 
 
 1 In the legion of cohorts, the post of honor was the post of danger, while in 
 the legion of maniples it was a place of comparative security. 
 
 2 In the legion of maniples, the light-armed soldiers (velites), carried a very 
 light spear (hasta velitaris). 
 
 3 In the phalanx, only the front ranks appeared in full armor. The othera 
 heing exposed to less danger, dispensed with the coat of mail. 
 
 * This seems to have been made, originally, of strips of sole-leather put to- 
 gether in the most substantial manner. Moreover, a metallic breast-plate, 9 or 
 10 inches square, was sometimes worn under it. 
 
XXX MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 higher officers was the paludamentum, which differed from 
 the sagum in the fact that it was of larger size, of finer 
 texture, and of more brilliant color. The paludamentum of 
 the commande/r-in-chief was of purple. For the manner in 
 which the sagum and the paludamentum were worn, see 
 plates I. and II. 
 
 4. Sandals, or shoes. Of these, there were two or three 
 varieties. The solea merely protected the sole of the foot ; 
 the calceus was an ordinary shoe ; the caliga was a military 
 shoe, or boot, which covered the whole foot and a part of 
 the ankle. See plates. 
 
 5. A helmet, either of bronze (cassis\ or of leather bound 
 with bronze (galea). For the general form and style, see 
 plates I., II., and III. The helmets of the higher officers 
 were generally adorned with plumes of feathers or of 
 horse-hair. 1 
 
 6. Greaves of bronze (ocreae). Usually, however, only 
 one was worn, as the left leg was sufficiently protected by 
 the shield. 2 
 
 7. A large rectangular shield, the scutum, four feet 
 long and two and one-half wide, slightly curved, as seen in 
 plate I., on the arm of one of the legionary soldiers. It 
 was made of wood; but it was covered with leather, and 
 was bound around the edges with iron. It was furnished 
 with a metallic boss (wribo), a knob or projection, which not 
 only imparted strength and beauty to the shield, but often 
 caused missiles to glance off from it. 3 
 
 Shields were ornamented with various devices, as winged 
 thunderbolts, eagles, and laurel wreaths. The name of the 
 soldier and the number of his cohort were sometimes 
 inscribed on the inside. 4 
 
 1 Even soldiers of the rank and file are occasionally represented with plumes. 
 
 s Soldiers sometimes protected their legs, in cold weather, by wearing strips 
 of cloth, fasciae, wound about them. In plate I., they are represented with 
 tight-fitting breeches, braccae, reaching a little below their knees. Whether 
 these were in use in the time of Caesar is very doubtful. 
 
 3 For a general view of the arms of the cavalry and of the light-armed 
 infantry, see plate I. 
 
 4 Upon the march, the shield was protected from rain and dust by a leathern 
 case drawn over it for the purpose. This was removed before going into battle. 
 See Book II., 21. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. XXXI 
 
 8. The so-called Spanish sword (gladius Hispanus), the 
 only sword used by the legions of Caesar. It had a two- 
 edged pointed blade, about two feet long and 
 almost four inches wide, well adapted both for 
 thrusting and for striking, though ordinarily 
 used for thrusting. It was generally worn on 
 the right side, suspended from a belt (balteus) 
 passing over the left shoulder, as seen in plate 
 I. ; but the higher officers wore it on the left 
 side, suspended from a girdle (cingulum.) The 
 sheath and hilt w T ere sometimes richly orna- 
 mented. 
 
 9. A heavy javelin (pilum). This weapon, 
 intended for hurling, not for thrusting, was 
 about six feet and a half long. 1 It consisted 
 
 Sword, , ic, -i < i ,1 i Sword 
 
 gin- of a wooden shaft, upwards of an inch thick % n 
 dlus ' and about four feet long, from which projected sheath ' 
 an iron, from two to three feet long, terminating in a steel 
 head. The pilum and the sword were the weapons with 
 which the Roman legions conquered the world. 2 
 
 1 The pilum as described by Polybius was 6 feet and 9 inches long, but, from 
 researches recently made, it seems probable that the pilum in the time of Caesar 
 was about 6 feet long. The shaft was either round or square. The momentum 
 of the weapon, when hurled by the strong hand of a legionary soldier, was very 
 great. It crushed through the shields of the enemy, and, bending under the 
 weight of the blow, could be drawn out only with the greatest difficulty. In no 
 event could it be hurled back upon the legions. It has been estimated that a 
 pilum hurled with ordinary force would cut through an oak board half an inch 
 thick, lined with sheet iron, and that it would undoubtedly penetrate both the 
 shield and the coat of mail. For the effect of the pilum, see Book I., 25. For a 
 full account of this weapon, see Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, vol. ii. 
 pages 328 to 332; Jahns, Geschichte des Kriegswesens, pages 199 to 201; Guhl und 
 Koner, Das Leben der Griechen und Homer, page 710 ; and Lindenschmit, Tract 
 und Bewaffnung des Komischen Heeres. 
 
 2 The corresponding weapons of the Gauls were the gaesum and the sword. 
 The former was a heavy javelin or spear, used mostly as a missile. See Book 
 III., 4. 
 
 The Gallic swords were very long, but without points ; well adapted for 
 striking but not for thrusting. Livy, XXII. 46, characterizes them as gladii 
 perlongi ac sine mucronibus. 
 
 The Gallic helmet, with its large bushy plume, was intended to give the 
 wearer the appearance of superhuman size. Sometimes, according to Diodorus, 
 horns or frightful figures of beasts or birds projected above it. 
 
 The Gauls wore breastplates or coats of mail, and carried shields, which are 
 described as very Jarge (vasta scuta) though not very wide (ad amplitudinem 
 corporum parum lata). 
 
 For the arms and the general appearance of Gallic soldiers, infantry and 
 cavalry, see plate IV. 
 
XXXli MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 MILITARY SERVICE. PAY OF SOLDIERS. 
 
 10. Originally the Roman army was simply the state 
 temporarily in arms. Each citizen armed and supported 
 himself as he was merely doing his own work. Campaigns 
 in those days were of short duration ; and the citizen, after 
 having discharged the duties of the soldier for a few weeks, 
 returned to his home. Afterwards, military service was 
 regarded as a tax which every citizen might occasionally be 
 called upon to pay to the state, for the protection of life 
 and property. But about 400 B. C., when Rome began to 
 be involved in more protracted wars, a small allowance was 
 made from the public treasury to furnish the army with 
 supplies. In the time of Caesar, however, service in the 
 army, which had previously been an occasional duty re- 
 quired of all citizens, had become a permanent profession. 
 Young men of vigor and enterprise entered the army either 
 to become professional soldiers or to qualify themselves for 
 the high offices of state, for which only those were eligible 
 who had served a definite number of campaigns. The sol- 
 diers received regular pay, 1 fully equal to that of laborers in 
 Rome; while their perquisites, in the form of booty and 
 presents, were by no means unimportant. 
 
 11. The soldiers received their pay once in four months, 
 from which a small deduction 2 was made, for supplies fur- 
 nished them by the state. 8 
 
 12. The recruit was required to bring to the service a 
 sound and vigorous body ; but no definite stature seems to 
 have been prescribed. He entered at once upon a long and 
 severe course of professional training. The success of the 
 Roman arms was due largely to discipline and military drill. 
 
 1 The legionary soldier probably received, per annum, about 240 denarii, a little 
 less tlian 50 dollars. The pay of the centurion was twice as much as that of the 
 common soldier. 
 
 2 The deduction in the time of Polybius was only one-thirtieth part of the 
 pay, and though, in consequence of the higher price of grain, it was somewhat 
 larger in the time of Caesar, it was still very inconsiderable. Thus the pay of a 
 Roman soldier was much higher, relatively to the cost of living, than that of a 
 soldier in a modern European army. The auxiliaries received army-rations, but 
 their pay came from their own people. 
 
 3 The regular allowance of wheat, per month, for each man in the rank and 
 file was a bushel, 4 modii ; for a centurion, two bushels. Supplies were furnished 
 twice a month, half the monthly allowance at a time. For a discussion of the 
 general subject of supplies for the army, and the pay of soldiers, see Sonklar, 
 Abhandlung Uber die Heeresverwaltung der alten Romer. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. XXXin 
 
 THE LEGION IN THE TIME OF CAESAR. 
 
 13. In the time of Caesar, the regular or normal strength 
 of a Roman legion when mustered into service was prob- 
 ably about 5,000 men. 1 The actual numerical strength of 
 Caesar's legions in Gaul, after years of hard service, was, of 
 course, far below this standard. Indeed, it is doubtful 
 whether the muster-roll of some of the veteran legions in 
 the later Gallic campaigns would much exceed 2,000. 
 Rtistow estimates the average numerical strength of the 
 legions in Gaul at 3,600. 2 
 
 14. The legion consisted of ten cohorts. To understand, 
 therefore, the organization and action of the legion as a 
 whole, we must first get a clear idea of the size, form, and 
 movements of the cohort, which is the tactical unit on 
 which everything depends. 
 
 15. It seems safe to assume that the standard numerical 
 strength of the cohort was about 500 ; but that the actual 
 strength of Caesar's cohorts in Gaul did not upon the aver- 
 age much exceed 360. 
 
 16. It will be remembered that the cohort was formed by 
 uniting three maniples, and that each maniple consisted of 
 two centuries, each under the command of a centurion. 
 "When the cohort was in battle-array, the men probably 
 stood in rank and file as follows : 
 
 III. II. I. 
 
 EHBBBBBBBHHB E BHHHHETETOTWHH E BHBHBHEHBHBB H 
 
 E EI EI EI m m a m m m B a EHBBBBEBBBBB EBBBBBBBBBBEI 
 
 EEBBBBBEBBBB EBBBBBBBBBaB EBBBBBBBBBBB 
 
 EEBBBBBBEBBB EBBBEBBBBBBB EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI 
 
 EBEBBBBBBBEB BEBBBBEEBBBB EI EI EI H EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI 
 EBEBBEBBBBBBE EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI B EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI H EI E 
 
 EBBBEIBBEBBBB EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI El EI EI EBBBBBBBBBBEI 
 
 EBBBBBEBBBBB EI El EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI El 
 
 EEBBBBBBBBBB El EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EEBHBBBBBBBB 
 
 EEBBBBBBBBBB EI EI EI EI EI EI EI EI H EI EI El EI H B EI El EI H H B EI EI EI 
 
 Cohort in Line of Battle. Front 120 feet, depth 40 feet. 
 
 1 This is the estimate of Lange and of General von Goler. Mommsen esti- 
 mates a full legion in the time of Marius at 6,000. Napoleon III. gives the same 
 estimate for the legions engaged in the battle near Bibracte. For Caesar's 
 account of this battle, see Book I., 24-26. 
 
 2 Kraner's estimate is a little lower, from 3,000 to 3,COO, and Mommsen's con- 
 siderably higher, from 3,500 to 5,000. 
 
XXXIV MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 17. Here I., II., and III. represent the three maniples 
 united to form the cohort. Number I., on the right wing, 
 is the veteran maniple of the cohort, and holds the post of 
 honor ; maniple II., in the centre, consists of soldiers who, 
 though in mature manhood, have not yet attained the rank 
 of veterans; while maniple III. contains those who have 
 seen the least service of all. Originally, maniple I. was 
 designated by the name Triarii, or Pilani; II., by the 
 name Principes ; and III., by the name Hastati 1 ; but as 
 these names do not occur in the Commentaries on the Gallic 
 War, and as they have all lost their original signification, 2 
 the simple numerals, first, second, and third, seem to be the 
 most appropriate designations of the maniples, especially as 
 they indicate their true rank and order. 
 
 18. Each maniple contained 120 men, arranged in ten 
 ranks of twelve men each. 3 The space allowed to a soldier 
 was three feet wide and four feet deep. 4 The first five 
 ranks formed the first century, 5 the last five the second 
 century. The two centurions occupied positions at the 
 right of the centuries which they commanded. For their 
 use the space of four feet was left at the right of each 
 maniple, as indicated in the figure under 16. The centurion 
 at the extreme right in front was the chief centurion of the 
 cohort. He not only led his own century, but was also 
 charged with the general command of the entire cohort. 
 
 19. The length or front of the maniple, occupied as it 
 was by twelve men and one centurion, was 40 feet, 6 while 
 the depth, or file, occupied by ten men, was also 40 feet. 6 
 Thus the maniple was 40 feet square, and three such squares 
 
 1 Thus it appears probable that Marias, in organizing the cohort, took one 
 maniple from each of the three lines in which the legion had previously been 
 marshalled for battle, naturally awarding the post of honor, on the right wing, to 
 the veteran maniple, the Triarii, also called Pilani; the centre to the Principes, 
 and the left wing to the Hastati. See 6. 
 
 2 These ancient names could not fail to be misleading to the learner, if 
 applied to the maniples in the cohort ; as Hastati, for instance, means armed 
 with the hasta, while the third maniple, to which it was applied, was armed not 
 with the hasta, but with the pihim; again, Principes means holding the first 
 place or rank, and yet the second maniple did not hold either the first place or 
 the first rank. 
 
 3 In other words, each rank contained 12 men, and each file 10. 
 
 4 That is, each file occupied 3 feet, and each rank 4 feet. 
 
 6 The century, originally called centuria, is called ordo in the Commentaries. 
 6 That is 12X3+4 = 40, and 10X4 = 40. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 XXXV 
 
 placed side by side formed the cohort, which was accord- 
 ingly 120 feet long and 40 deep. 1 
 
 20. The following figure represents a cohort in various 
 positions, 2 as in line of battle and on the march : 
 
 1. ABCD represents a cohort 360 strong in line of battle. 
 
 2. abed, the same cohort marching in column of centuries, with 
 the first maniple in front. 
 
 3. abed, the same column with the third maniple in front. 
 
 4. efgh, the cohort in column of centuries of half the usual width 
 and twice the usual length, with the first maniple in front. 
 
 5. efyh, the same column with the third maniple in front. 
 
 0. ijkl, cohort in column of maniples, with the first maniple in front. 
 7. ijkl, the same column with the third maniple in front. 
 
 1 The arrangement here given, in which the three maniples stand side hy 
 side in the cohort, while the second century stands directly behind the first in 
 each maniple, has been quite generally accepted, but General von Goler places the 
 two centuries, two ranks deep, side by side in the maniple, and stations the first 
 maniple at the head of the cohort, the second directly behind the first, and the 
 third directly behind the second. 
 
 2 A rectangle with a diagonal across it may represent any company or body of 
 
XXXvi MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 21. In ' abed ' and ' abcdj the column is called a column of 
 centuries, because it consists of the six centuries of the 
 cohort, placed one directly behind another. The column 
 thus formed was 40 feet wide and 120 feet long. The 
 column of centuries was the usual order of march, and 
 w r as formed from the line of battle in two ways, as 
 follows: 
 
 1. The right wing, or maniple I., marched straight 
 forward ; maniple II. fell directly in the rear of I., 
 and maniple III. in the rear of II. This movement gives 
 'abed,' alreadv mentioned, as a cohort marching in col- 
 
 > o 
 
 umn of centuries, with the right wing, or maniple I., in 
 front. 1 
 
 2. The left wing, or maniple III., marched straight for- 
 ward, maniple II. fell directly in the rear of III., and 
 maniple I. in the rear of II. This movement gives c abcdj a 
 cohort marching in column of centuries with the left wing, 
 or maniple III., in front. 
 
 . 22. It will be observed that the column of centuries is 
 40 feet wide, having exactly the width of a maniple. This 
 seems to have been the favorite column on the march 
 through an open country, or upon highways of sufficient 
 width. Caesar's famous bridge over the Rhine was 40 feet 
 wide, and thus exactly adapted to the width of an army 
 marching in column of centuries. Many roads in Gaul, 
 however, were not more than 15 or 20 feet wide. In what 
 form could a Roman army march over such roads ? In the 
 regular column of centuries, the 60 men belonging to a 
 century were arranged in 5 ranks of 12 men each; but the 
 century was sometimes arranged in 10 ranks of 6 men each. 
 Such an arrangement is represented in c efgh.' Here each 
 century, each maniple, and the entire cohort have only half 
 the usual width, but twice the usual length. The column 
 has only 6 men abreast, and is only 18 feet wide, or, includ- 
 ing the centurion, 22 feet. By adopting a close order, the 
 
 soldiers, as a century, maniple, or cohort. In this figure it represents a century. 
 The diagonal is drawn from the right of the front to the left of the rear. 
 
 1 That is, the maniple which in battle-array formed the right wing of the 
 cohort, became the head of the column. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. XXXV11 
 
 width could be reduced in case of need to 18, or even 15 
 feet. 1 
 
 23. In 'ijkl' and HjkV the column is called a column of 
 maniples, because it consists of the three maniples of the 
 cohort placed one directly behind another. Here the two 
 centuries of each maniple stand abreast. In c ijkl' the cohort 
 is said to be marching by the right flank, because in forming 
 this column from the line of battle, each man turns, or faces 
 to the right, and thus the file which formed the right flank 
 in battle-array becomes the front rank of the column. In 
 ' ijkl? the cohort is said to be marching by the left flank, 
 because in forming this column, each man turns or faces to 
 the left. 2 
 
 24. It will be observed that the column of maniples 
 will be considerably longer than the column of centuries, as 
 it contains more ranks. 3 In this column, each maniple, as it 
 has 12 ranks, will be 48 feet long, or, if we allow 4 feet for 
 the centurion, who probably kept his place at the head of 
 his century, it will be 52 feet long. This gives 156 feet as 
 the length of the cohort marching in a column of maniples. 
 As this column was formed from the line of battle by sim- 
 ply facing to the right or left, the depth of the cohort, 40 
 feet, naturally became the width of the column, but in 
 marching, as there were only 10 men abreast, the width was 
 often reduced to 30 feet. Upon narrow roads the column 
 of maniples, like the column of centuries, was sometimes 
 reduced to one-half its usual width by doubling its length. 
 Such a column had only 5 men abreast, and could without 
 difficulty march over a road 15, or even 12, feet wide. In 
 forming this column from the regular column of maniples, 
 one of the two centuries in each maniple marched straight 
 on while the other fell in its rear. 
 
 1 The regular or normal width of Koman roads was 18 feet. See Jahns, 
 Geschichte des Kriegswesens, page 304. 
 
 2 When the cohort marches by the right flank, the right wing, or maniple T., 
 becomes the head of the column ; when it marches by the left flank, the left 
 wing, or maniple III., becomes the head. 
 
 3 The learner should carefully distinguish between a column of centuries, as 
 seen in ' abed' and ' abed* and a column of maniples, as seen in ' ijkl ' and ' ijkl. 9 
 In the former, the column is an unbroken series of centuries, arranged one 
 behind another ; while in the latter, the two centuries of each maniple stand 
 abreast. 
 
XXXviii MILITARY SYSTEM! 
 
 25. The following summary gives the length and width 
 of the cohort in different positions : 
 
 FROXT. DEPTH. 
 
 1. Cohort in line of battle 120 feet. 40 feet. 
 
 2. Cohort in column of centuries . . 40 ' 120 ' 
 
 3. Cohort in column of centuries, with 
 
 6 files* 18 to 22 240 ' 
 
 4. Cohort in column of maniples 2 . . 30 to 40 " 144 to 156 ' 
 
 5. Cohort in column of maniples, with 
 
 5 files 15 to 20 " 288 to 300 " 
 
 26. As an army on the march was liable to attack, it 
 was often necessary to form the line of battle from the line 
 of march. If the enemy appeared on the flank, this was 
 most easily effected from the column of maniples marching 
 in loose order, i.e., with 40 feet front. The simple com- 
 mand, " Halt, front," was all that was needful. 3 If, however, 
 the enemy appeared in front, the line of battle was most 
 readily formed from the column of centuries. 4 
 
 LEGION IN LINE OF BATTLE. 
 
 27. As a legion is only an aggregate of ten cohorts 
 properly arranged, we may now apply to the legion what 
 we have already learned in regard to the cohort. A legion 
 in line of battle consists simply of ten cohorts, each in its 
 proper position and in battle-array ; a legion on the march, 
 of ten cohorts marching in due order, and with the proper 
 intervals between them. 
 
 28. But we have already learned 5 that in a legion in 
 battle-array, the ten cohorts were arranged in three lines, 
 
 1 The full allowance would be 22 feet, 18 for the 6 files, and 4 for the cen- 
 turion, reduced in case of need to 18 or less. 
 
 2 In loose order, 40 feet ; but this gives each man 4 feet ; if we reduce the 
 allowance to 3 feet, the front of the column becomes 30 feet. 
 
 3 Thus if an enemy appeared on the right flank of a column of maniples, as 
 represented by ' ijkl,' it was only necessary for each man to face to the right to 
 place the cohort in line of battle ; but if the enemy appeared on the left flank, it 
 was of course necessary for the men to face to the left. 
 
 * Thus if the enemy appeared in front of the column of centuries represented 
 by 'abed,' maniple I. halted, maniple II. placed itself at the left of I., and 
 maniple III. at the left of II. 
 
 See 5, III. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 XXX IX 
 
 with four cohorts in the first or front line, three in the 
 second, and three in the third, as follows l : 
 
 Legion in Line of Battle. 
 
 29. Observe that the cohorts are arranged with intervals 
 between them, that the cohorts in the second line are 
 directly behind the intervals in the first, and that the 
 cohorts in the third line are directly behind the intervals in 
 the second. 2 The cohorts are numbered from 1 to 10, 
 according to the rank and military experience of the centu- 
 rions and soldiers. 8 A position in the front line is more 
 honorable than in either of the others, while in either line a 
 position on the right wing is more honorable than on the 
 left. The first cohort, holding the post of honor, is on the 
 
 1 This order of battle is generally supposed to be the acies triplex, so often 
 mentioned by Caesar, but General von Goler claims that the acies triplex refers, 
 not to the three lines of cohorts, but to the three great divisions of an army, viz., 
 the main body or the central division, and the two wings. 
 
 2 As the third line was held as a reserve, and was not often called into action, 
 the exact position of the cohorts seems not to have been as definitely determined 
 as in the other lines. The order here given has been adopted from llustow. 
 Goler arranges the cohorts as follows : 
 
 4321 
 
 10 
 
 3 Thus promotions both of centurions and of men were from the tenth cohort 
 to the ninth, from the ninth to the eighth, from the eighth to the seventh, and so 
 on through all the cohorts to the first. 
 
Xl MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 extreme right of the front line, while the tenth, holding 
 the lowest rank in the legion, is on the extreme left of the 
 third line. 
 
 30. The interval between the cohorts in each line was 
 120 feet, the length of a cohort, but the interval between 
 the lines was probably 240 or 250 feet. Thus the front or 
 length of a legion in battle-array was 840 feet, 1 while its 
 depth from the front of the first line of cohorts to the rear 
 of the third line was from 600 to 620 feet. 1 
 
 31. When an army consisting of several legions was 
 marshalled in order of battle, each legion was arranged in 
 three lines, as already described, and the several legions 
 were separated by intervals, probably varying in length 
 with the nature of the ground, but seldom less than 120 
 feet, the length of a cohort. If we assume that this inter- 
 val was 120 feet, we shall find that the front of Caesar's 
 line of battle on the Axona, with six legions, was 5,640 2 feet 
 and its depth, 600 feet. Thus the line of battle of an 
 army of six legions, numbering in all about 25,000 men, 
 was considerably more than a mile long and almost an 
 eighth of a mile deep, and occupied upwards of 75 acres 
 of ground. 
 
 OFFICERS IN A ROMAN ARMY. 
 
 32. In a Roman army engaged in an important work 
 like the conquest of Gaul, the regular officers were the 
 commander-in-chief, the lieutenant-generals, the quaestor, 
 the military tribunes, the centurions, the praefects, and 
 the decurions. 
 
 33. The commander-in-chief, called dux 'belli or imper- 
 ator, had m his own province almost unlimited military 
 power. He was clothed with the full measure of authority 
 which belongs to a commander-in-chief in modern warfare. 
 
 34. The lieutenant-generals, legati, were the highest 
 officers in the army under the commander-in-chief. They 
 
 1 The front, or length, of the legion was made np of the length of four co- 
 horts and of three intervals, each 120 feet. It was therefore 7 X 12 = 840 feet. The 
 depth was made up of the depth of the three lines of cohorts, each 40 feet, and 
 two intervals, each 240 or 250 feet, i.e., it was 120 + 480 or 500 = 600 or 6:10 feet. 
 
 * That is 6 X &40 + 5 X 120 = 5,040 + 600 == 5,640 feet. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. xli 
 
 were all of senatorial rank and received their appointment 
 from the senate. In the absence of the commander-in- 
 chief, they assumed his duties. They were sometimes placed 
 in command of important detachments detailed for special 
 service. In the battle with Ariovistus, Caesar placed one of 
 his legions under the command of his quaestor and each 
 of the other five under the command of one of his lieu- 
 tenants. 
 
 35. The quaestor had charge of the military chest, and 
 was the quartermaster of the army. He had the rank of a 
 lieutenant-general, legatus, and was sometimes entrusted 
 with a command in battle. 
 
 36. The special officers of the separate legions were the 
 military tribunes and the centurions. 
 
 37. Each legion had six military tribunes, tribuni mill- 
 turn, who formerly commanded in rotation, two at a time 
 for a period of two months. 1 In the army in Gaul, how- 
 ever, the tribunes were mostly young men of wealth and 
 social position whom Caesar, from personal friendship or 
 political considerations, had selected from the equestrian 
 order and placed upon his staff. They had little military 
 experience or knowledge, and were accordingly incompetent 
 to take the general command of a legion in battle, 2 though 
 they were sometimes entrusted with the command of small 
 detachments detailed for special service. In general, they 
 administered the internal affairs of the legion. They served 
 as staff-officers to the commander-in-chief and as adjutants 
 to the lieutenant-generals and the quaestor. 
 
 38. Each legion had also 60 centurions. 3 These officers 
 were in general men of large military experience, who had 
 been promoted from the ranks, as a reward of good service. 
 They were the real commanders, not only of centuries, but 
 also of maniples and cohorts, and, in a certain sense, under 
 the legatus, of the legion as a whole. The two centurions 
 in each maniple differed from each other in rank ; the first, 
 
 1 The two tribunes commanded by turns, each for one day. See Marquardt, 
 Romische Staatsverwaltung, Vol. II., p. 352 ; also Jalms, Geschichte des Kriegs- 
 wesens, p. 225. 
 
 2 See Book I., 39. 
 
 3 According to Goler, there were 120 centurions in each legion, but he includes 
 iu this number the 60 assistant centurions, called optiones. 
 
Xiii MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 called centurio prior, commanded the maniple, while the 
 second, called centurio posterior, served as his adjutant. 
 The first centurion of the first maniple commanded the co- 
 hort, and the first centurion of the first maniple of the first 
 cohort, called primi pili centurio, or primipilus, 1 was the 
 chief centurion of the legion, and had much to do with the 
 general command. 
 
 39. The Romans in their military system seem to have 
 aimed to stimulate ambition and reward fidelity. An enter- 
 prising recruit who on entering the service took his place at 
 the very foot of the legion, in the second century of the 
 third maniple of the tenth cohort, had before him a long 
 career of advancement in the rank and file of the army, and 
 if, by bravery and fidelity, he succeeded in attaining the 
 coveted office of centurion, the prospect of promotion was 
 still before him. He might hope to rise from maniple to 
 maniple, and from cohort to cohort, until, in the end, having 
 passed through all the grades of honor, he should become 
 the chief centurion, the primipilus of the legion. This 
 was the height of his ambition, the goal of his aspirations. 
 
 40. The exact order of promotion is still a disputed 
 question. According to Riistow, the six centurions of each 
 cohort formed a separate class, the centurions of the first 
 cohort forming the first class, those of the tenth cohort 
 the tenth class. Thus there were ten classes, and each class 
 contained six centurions. 2 This is probably the prevailing 
 view among scholars. 3 
 
 1 See Book II., 25, and Book III., 5. 
 
 2 To determine the rank of a centurion, we must know to which cohort he 
 belonged, to which maniple in the cohort, and to which century in the maniple. 
 Thus the full designation of his rank required the use of three separate titles : 
 (1), an ordinal numeral, as primus, if he belonged to the first cohort, secundus, if 
 he belonged to the second ; (2), the word pilus, if he belonged to the first maniple 
 in his cohort, princeps, if he belonged to the second, and hastatus, if he belonged 
 to the third ; and (3) prior, if he belonged to the first century in his maniple, and 
 posterior, if he belonged to the second. Thus primus pilus prior, applied to a 
 centurion, denotes that he commanded the first century of the first maniple of 
 the first cohort, in other words, that he was the chief centurion of the legion ; 
 decimus hastatus posterior denotes that he commanded the second century of the 
 third maniple of the tenth cohort, i.e., that he was the lowest centurion in the 
 legion, while quintus princeps prior denotes that he commanded the first century 
 of the second maniple of the fifth cohort. 
 
 s According to Goler, however, the first centurion of each cohort belonged to 
 the first class, the second to the second class, the third to the third class, and so 
 
OF THE ROMANS. xliii 
 
 41. The centurions of the first class, called sometimes 
 primorum ordinum centuriones^ and sometimes simply 
 primi ordines? enjoyed certain honors and privileges not 
 often accorded to the other centurions. As a general rule, 
 they alone of the centurions were invited by the commander 
 to seats in all councils of war 2 in company with the lieu- 
 tenants and the military tribunes. 
 
 42. The praefects, praefecti^ commanded divisions of 
 auxiliaries, either infantry or cavalry. The praefects in the 
 army of Caesar in Gaul were mostly young men who had 
 seen little military service. 3 . 
 
 43. The decurions commanded small companies of cav- 
 alry. Each company, or troop, called turma, numbering 
 thirty horse, was divided into three sections, called decuriae^ 
 each under the command of a decurion; but the first, or 
 senior, decurion commanded not only his own decuria, but 
 also the entire turma. 
 
 ORDER OF MARCH. 
 
 44. The usual order of march was either the simple 
 column, agmen pilatum,OY the line of battle, acies instructa. 
 The square, agmen quadratum, was resorted to only in 
 extreme cases. 
 
 LEGIONS MARCHING IN COLUMN Agmen Pilatum. 
 
 45. A cohort in column of centuries, as we have already 
 seen (25), has a front of 40 feet, with a depth of 120 feet. 
 If the column was formed from the right, the first cohort 
 led, and was followed by the others in the order of their 
 numbers, but if the column was formed from the left, the 
 tenth cohort led and was followed by the others in the 
 inverse order of their numbers, i.e., the ninth, eighth, etc. 
 
 on until all the centurions were classified. Thus each class consisted of ten cen- 
 turions, one from each cohort, and there were as many classes as there were 
 centurions in a cohort, i. e., there were six classes of the regular centurions, 
 While, therefore, Riistow divides the 60 regular centurions of a legion into ten 
 classes, of six centurions each, Goler divides them into six classes, of ten each. 
 In the same manner, Goler divides the 60 assistants or sub-centurions, optiones, 
 into six classes, of ten each, making in all twelve classes. 
 
 i See Book V., 28 and 30 ; Book VI., 7. 
 
 a See Book I., 41, and Book V., 28. 
 
 See Book I., 39. 
 
xliv MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 46. On the march, the cohorts are supposed to have 
 been separated from each other by an interval of 20 or 30 
 feet. Assuming an interval of 20 feet, we find that a legion, 
 marching in column of centuries, with a front of 40 feet, 
 was 1,400 feet long, and with a front of 20 feet, 2,600 feet 
 long. 1 
 
 47. In general, every Roman soldier carried his own 
 personal baggage. The different articles, consisting of 
 clothing, cooking utensils, and rations for one, two, or more 
 weeks, weighing, probably, in the aggregate, from 30 to 50 
 pounds, were carefully put up in packages, sarcinae, and 
 firmly secured to a rod, as represented in plate I. On the 
 inarch, the rod was carried on the shoulder. 2 
 
 48. The general baggage of the army, called impedimenta, 
 comprising tents, tools, and supplies of various kinds, was 
 carried by beasts of burden, jumenta. According to Rus- 
 tow's estimate, 3 the length of the baggage-train of a legion 
 marching in a column of centuries of full width, was 650 
 feet, and that of a legion marching in a column of centuries 
 of half the usual -vidth, 1,300 feet. 
 
 49. We have just seen (46) that a legion without bag- 
 gage-train, in a column of centuries of full width, was 1,400 
 feet long, and in a column of half the usual width, 2,600 feet 
 long. Including the baggage-train, therefore, the entire 
 length of the column of full width must have been about 
 2,050 feet, or two-fifths of a mile, and the entire length of 
 the column of half the usual width, about 3,900 feet, or 
 almost four-fifths of a mile. 4 
 
 50. Before the battle of the Sabis, Caesar had eight 
 legions on the march. 5 The length of a column of centu- 
 ries, containing such a force, would be 16,400 feet, upwards 
 
 1 The length of a column of full width was 10 X 120 feet-f 10X20 feet = 1,400 
 feet, and the length of a column of half the usual width was 10 X 2io * eet 
 + 10X20 feet = 2600 feet. This estimate includes the interval of 20 feet 
 between the last cohort of the legion and the first cohort of the next. 
 
 2 This arrangement for the convenience of the soldier, introduced by Marius, 
 was called from him mulus Marianus, the "mule of Marius." It was simply a 
 primitive knapsack. 
 
 3 This estimate allows to each legion 520 beasts of burden, arranged in 
 Co full ranks, with 8 animals in a rank, and gives 10 feet to each rank. 
 
 * The column of maniples of any given force would be about one-fifth longer 
 than the column of centuries. 
 
 6 See Book II., 19 to 27. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 xlv 
 
 of three miles, if the column was of full width ; and 31,200 
 feet, upwards of six miles, if the column was of half the 
 usual Avidth. 
 
 MARCHING IN LINE OF BATTLE Acies Instructa. 
 
 51. A legion marching in line of battle was usually 
 arranged in three parallel lines of cohorts ; but these lines 
 might be formed in two different ways, as follows: 
 
 1. The three lines of cohorts which constituted the usual 
 order of battle, the triplex acies, formed the three parallel 
 columns. Thus cohorts 1, 2, 3, and 4 formed the first 
 column, 5, 6, and 7 the second, and 8, 9, and 10 the third, 
 as seen in figure 2, below. 
 
 Fiy.3. 
 
 Ef 
 
 
 
 IZf 
 
 Fit/ I. 
 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 tar 
 
 Figure 1 represents a legion in order of battle. 
 
 Figure 2, a legion marching in order of battle, with its cohorts in 
 column of maniples. 
 
 Figure 3, a legion marching in order of battle, with its cohorts in 
 column of centuries. 
 
xlvi 
 
 MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 In forming these columns, each man faced to the right or 
 left, and marched by the right or left flank. Each cohort 
 marched in column of maniples. In an army of several 
 legions, marching in this order, the second legion w r as 
 placed directly in the rear of the first, the third directly in 
 the rear of the second, and so on to the end of the column. 
 Thus the whole army marched in three parallel columns of 
 maniples. If the enemy appeared on either flank, the col- 
 umns halted, each man faced to the right or left, as the case 
 required, the cohorts separated, and the whole army was in 
 battle-array. This order of march was usually adopted 
 when the enemy was expected on the flank. 
 
 2. When the enemy was expected in front, the legion 
 marched straight forward with its cohorts in column of 
 centuries : the three cohorts on the right wing of the le- 
 gion, viz., 1, 5, and 8, fell into line and formed the right 
 column, the central cohorts, 2, 6, and 9, formed the middle 
 column, and the left cohorts, 3, 4, 7, and 10, the left column, 
 as seen in figure 3, above. In an army of several legions, 
 marching in this order, the legions were all placed abreast, 
 and there were three times as many columns as there were 
 legions. Thus an army of 6 legions marched in 18 parallel 
 columns. To form the line of battle from these columns, it 
 was only necessary for each cohort to arrange its own mani- 
 ples in order of battle, as already described (26, foot-note), 
 and then take its proper station in the line. 
 
 52. The square, the agmen quadratum, was adopted on 
 the march only in the presence of an over- 
 whelming force of the enemy. In regard 
 to its exact formation, there is some 
 diversity of opinion. According to Rtis- 
 tow, the ten cohorts of each legion 
 formed a rectangle enclosing the bag- 
 gage, as seen in the accompanying figure. 
 
 Cohorts 1, 2, and 3, in column of centuries, 
 formed the vanguard; cohorts 8, 9, and 10, 
 also in column of centuries, formed the rear- 
 guard; while 5 and 6, in columns of maniples 
 
 of 5 files, formed the right wing, and 4 and 7, also in column of 
 
 maniples with 5 files, formed the left wing. 
 
 Agmen Quadratum. 
 
OF THE ROMANS, xlvii 
 
 53. In an army on the march, we recognize three parts, 
 more or less distinct : 
 
 1. The vanguard, the head of the column, primum ag- 
 men. 1 
 
 2. The main body of the army, exercitus, omnes copiae. 1 
 
 3. The rear-guard, the rear, novissimum agmen. 1 
 
 54. The special organization of the different parts of the 
 column, and indeed the entire order of march, depended 
 largely upon the direction of the movement in relation to 
 the enemy. 
 
 OEDEE OF MAECH IN ADVANCING. 
 
 55. In advance movements in the Gallic campaigns, the 
 vanguard of Caesar's army ordinarily consisted of cavalry 
 and light-armed infantry, together with the tribunes, centu- 
 rions, and legionaries entrusted with the duty of selecting 
 and measuring off the ground for the camp. It was its 
 special duty to reconnoitre the country, to take note of all 
 hostile preparations, to gain tidings of the enemy, 2 and in 
 due time to select a suitable place for the camp. 
 
 56. The main body of the army followed the van at a 
 convenient distance. It marched in column of centuries, 
 each legion with its baggage directly behind it ; but the last 
 legion probably detailed a few cohorts to protect its bag- 
 gage, and in that event the cohorts thus detailed formed 
 the rear-guard of the army. In this order of march, the 
 legions, thus separated by their baggage, were exposed in 
 case of an attack to great peril ; they were accordingly said 
 to be impeditae? entangled or impeded by baggage, impedi- 
 mentum. 
 
 57. In advancing in the presence of the enemy the 
 legions marched either in column of centuries, with collected 
 
 - baggage, or in order of battle. With the first arrangement, 
 the main body, consisting of three-fourths of all the legions, 
 followed close upon the advance-guard, and was itself imme- 
 
 1 For the use of these terms, see Book I., 15 and 23 ; Book II., 19 and 26. 
 
 2 From the van, detachments of cavalry were sent out in various directions, 
 sometimes to great distances. It was by means of such reconnoitring parties 
 that Caesar obtained tidings of the movements of Ariovistus, while he was yet 
 twenty-four miles distant. See Book I., 41. 
 
 8 See Book III., 24. 
 C 
 
xlviii MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 diately followed by the collected baggage-train of the army. 
 The few remaining legions formed the rear-guard of the 
 column. In this order of march, the legions were compara- 
 tively ready for action, and were said to be expeditae, disen- 
 tangled, or free from encumbrance ; l but the individual 
 soldiers were still impediti, and in case of an attack, they 
 required time to dispose of their personal baggage, 2 to 
 remove the coverings from their shields, to put on their 
 helmets, to adjust their field-badges, 3 and, in a word, to 
 prepare for action. 4 In such an emergency, it was the 
 special duty of the advance-guard to secure for them the 
 needful time by engaging the enemy, and thus retarding 
 his movements. 
 
 58. Sometimes in advancing in the immediate presence 
 of the enemy, if the ground permitted, the several legions 
 marched abreast, each in three parallel columns in order of 
 battle. 5 For the special formation and arrangement of the 
 columns, see 51. In this order of march, every soldier, 
 free- from his baggage, and fully armed and equipped, 
 was expedituS) ready for immediate action. 
 
 ORDER OF MARCH IN RETREAT. 
 
 59. The order of march in retreat was usually the simple 
 column of centuries with collected baggage. The van- 
 guard, consisting of a legion or more, started in advance, 
 with the entire baggage-train of the army ; at a suitable dis- 
 tance behind marched the other legions, followed by the 
 rear-guard, consisting of cavalry, archers, and slingers. 
 
 60. In cases of extreme peril, the agmen quadratum, 
 already explained (52), was adopted in retreat. In such an 
 emergency, all the legions of the army were sometimes 
 massed around their baggage in a single square or rectangle, 
 and sometimes each legion enclosed its own baggage, as 
 explained in 52. The cavalry, archers, and slingers, remain- 
 ing outside of the squares, served as skirmishers. 
 
 ad 
 
 See Book II., 19 ; Book V., 2 ; Book VII., 40. 
 See Book I., 24, sarcinas in unum locum conferri. 
 
 See Book II., 21, ad galeas induendas scutisque tegimenta detrudenda; also 
 insignia accommodanda. 
 
 See Book VII., 18, sarcinas conferri, arma expediri,jussit. 
 See Book IV., 14. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. xlix 
 
 ORDER OF MARCH IN FLANK~~MOVEME:NTS. 
 
 61. Flank inarches 1 were always made in order of battle. 
 The legions generally marched in three columns of maniples. 
 For- the formation of these columns, see 51, 1. In an open 
 country, the cavalry, archers, and slingers, marched on the 
 flank toward the enemy, while the baggage-train was sta- 
 tioned on the other flank. In special cases, each legion was 
 followed by its own baggage. 
 
 62. The day's march of a Roman army in the field began 
 at four or five o'clock in the morning and continued till 
 about mid-day. Most of the afternoon was occupied in 
 fortifying the camp and in attending to various duties con- 
 nected with camp-life. The distance usually accomplished 
 in a day does not seem to have differed much from an ordi- 
 nary day's march of modern armies. The average distance 
 was probably about fifteen or sixteen miles. Forced marches 
 (magna itinerd) were, of course, much longer. In one in- 
 stance, 2 Caesar marched about fifty miles in a little more 
 than twenty-four hours ; but this was an exceptional achieve- 
 ment, accomplished under the pressure of a military necessity. 
 
 ROMAN CAMP. 
 
 63. In the military history of Rome the camp has a 
 degree of importance without a parallel in modern warfare. 
 It was the soldier's home, a place of rest and security after 
 the labors and dangers of the day; in it was the altar at 
 which he worshipped. It was always fortified, even when J 
 intended for a single night. Indeed, it was like a fortified 
 city, encompassed and protected by ramparts and a moat. 
 A Roman general seldom went into battle without a forti-^ 
 fied camp directly in the rear. In modern warfare, those 
 who are defeated in battle are exposed to all the perils of a 
 disorderly retreat ; a Roman army, on the contrary, after a 
 defeat, retired in comparative safety to a well fortified camp. 
 
 64. In the Roman camp, each legion, cohort, and mani- 
 ple, had a definite space assigned to it ; and this space was 
 bounded on all sides by a street of greater or less width. 
 
 1 An army is said to make a flank movement when it passes near the flank of 
 the enemy or marches in a direction parallel to his line of march. 
 * See Book VII., 40 and 41. 
 
1 MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 Each maniple occupied a rectangle 108 feet long and 48 feet 
 wide, surrounded by a street, 12 feet wide. Accordingly, 
 the entire space assigned to a maniple, including half the 
 
 width of the streets which sep- 
 *a ....... <fr ............. -f. arated it from the adjacent 
 
 1 D QQQ'DQ'Q Q \ maniples, was 120 feet long and 
 ^ ' : 108*' 48 |i : *0 feet wide, as seen in the ac- 
 
 companying %ure ' 
 
 ABCD, the entire space assigned to 
 a maniple, including half the street. 
 
 abed, the smaller rectangle, 108 feet long and 48 wide, actually 
 occupied by the maniple. Along the side ' ab, J in this last rectangle, 
 were placed eight tents for the first century; and along the side *dc' 
 eight tents for the second century. The tents were 10 feet square, and 
 were separated from each other by intervals of 4 feet. 1 They were 
 all placed with the front to the street ; accordingly, the two rows faced 
 in opposite directions. The beasts of burden were placed in the rear 
 of the tents. 
 
 65. As a cohort contained three maniples, it would re- 
 
 20 quire for its accommoda- 
 
 ja ........................ ......... b ti n three such rectangles 
 
 : QQ'Q'QQO QD I as we have now described. 
 
 Manipu I . I j Acc . ordin gb r > the space oc- 
 
 : : cupied by a cohort in camp 
 
 iJU. Qn.Qn.Q.Q.D i was 180 feet long and 120 
 
 a : wide, as seen in the accom- 
 
 j P'UUUOnUq j panying figure. 
 
 I.' I Maniple 11 
 
 o ; ! ABCD, the space occupied by 
 
 ~:r~ir~]r~inr~!rir~iri ' one collort including one half 
 "!<J; Ji-J-L-J l-k\ the widt]l of the gtreets which 
 
 : a j i- 1 1-| r-i r-j 1-| r- ( ,--| i b: separate it from the other co- 
 iLJLJLJUULJULJ: horts. 
 
 Maniple III abcd the S P aCe OCCU P ied b Y 
 
 each maniple for tents, arms, 
 
 nnnnnnnrl : and beasts f burden. 
 
 i d ^';__;:~;_;_;_;:rci In the arrangement of the 
 
 ~"c three maniples of the cohort, 
 Cohort in Camp. the &*** was P^ced nearest to 
 
 the wall of the camp. 
 
 1 The tents were covered with the skins of animals or with leather ; hence the 
 expression subpellibus, in tents, in camp. See Book III., 29. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 li 
 
 66. Ten rectangles, 180 feet long and 120 feet wide, 
 would furnish quarters for a legion ; fifty such rectangles 
 for five legions ; but a camp for a Roman army must pro- 
 vide quarters not only for the legions, but also for the aux- 
 iliaries. The following plan, taken, with slight modifica- 
 tions, from Rtistow, shows the general arrangement of a 
 Roman camp for an army consisting of five legions, with the 
 usual force of auxiliaries : 
 
 Praetoria. 
 
 Decumana. 
 Plan of a Roman Camp. Length, 2,100 feet. Width, 1,400 feett 
 
 1 The Roman camp was either a square, or a rectangle whose width was two- 
 thirds of its length. The plan represents the latter form. The ancient authori- 
 ties on the camp are Polybius, who lived in the second century, B.C., and a 
 certain Hyginus, who, in the opinion of Marquardt, lived about the beginning of 
 the third century, A.D. 
 
 The size of the camp must, of course, be adapted to the size of the army to 
 be quartered in it. Riistow gives the following formula to determine in feet the 
 length and breadth of a camp for an army of any given size : 
 
Hi MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 1. There were four gates, one in each side: (1) the Porta Praeto- 
 ria, in front, marked Praetor ia in the plan; (2) the Porta Decumana, 
 on the opposite side, marked Decumana; (3) the Porta Principalis 
 Dextra, on the right side, marked Dex. ; and (4) the Porta Principa- 
 lis Sinistra, on the left side, marked Sin. 1 
 
 2. Legat. Trib. = Legati et Tribuni. 
 
 3. Aux.= Auxilia. 
 
 4. The figure |}^| represents the space occupied by cavalry. 
 
 5. The figure |/| the space occupied by the general and staff, 2 
 together with troops devoted to their personal service. 
 
 6. The figure | | the space occupied by the archers and slingers. 
 
 7. The rectangles with numerals represent the spaces occupied by 
 the separate cohorts. 3 
 
 67. When a battle was anticipated, the camp was placed 
 with its front to the enemy ; in other cases, it faced in the 
 direction in which the army was marching. It was divided 
 internally into three nearly equal parts by the two principal 
 streets, both parallel to the front the Via Principalis and 
 the Via Quintana. The first or front part was called the 
 Praetentura, the second or middle part the Latera praetor ii, 
 and the third Retentura. The Via Praetoria^ another 
 important street, led from the Porta Praetoria to the Via 
 Principalis^ dividing the Praetentura into two equal parts. 
 On a line with the Via Praetoria were situated (1), in the 
 middle division of the camp, the Praetorium, the head- 
 quarters of the army, 4 and (2), in the Retentura, the 
 
 /= 200v/c and s = 1% times /. 
 
 In which/ equals the length of the front, c the number of cohorts in the army, 
 and s the length of the side. 
 
 The camp represented in the plan is intended to accommodate five legions, or 
 fifty cohorts. Here c = 50. Hence / (th front)= 206 </5Q = 200 X 7 = 1,400 feet. 
 s = \V* times 1,400 = 2,100 feet. 
 
 1 Observe that the corners of the wall are rounded so as to be more easily 
 defended. 
 
 2 Except the lieutenants and tribunes. 
 
 s The upper numeral is the number of the legion*; the lower numeral the 
 
 number of the cohort. Thus 
 
 represents the space occupied by the fifth 
 
 cohort of the second legion. 
 
 4 The Praetorium extended in length from the Via Principalis to the Via 
 Quintana, and was from two hundred to three hundred feet wide. In it were the 
 quarters of the general, the altars of the gods, and the tribunal, or judgment-seat, 
 of the army. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. liii 
 
 Quaestorium, the quarters of the quaestor and his 
 staff. 1 
 
 68. In the plan of the camp, observe (1) that between 
 the wall and the tents was left an open space, probably from 
 one hundred to two hundred feet wide, extending entirely 
 around the camp, and (2) that the forces were distributed 
 as follows : 
 
 1. In the Praetentura were stationed (1), sixteen of the 
 fifty cohorts ; (2), the lieutenants and tribunes; (3)> one-half 
 of all the cavalry; and (4), all the archers and slingers. 
 
 2. In the Middle Division of the camp, called Latera, 
 praetorii, were stationed, besides the commander-in-chief, 
 who occupied the Praetoriwn (1), twelve of the fifty 
 cohorts ; (2), one-half of all the cavalry ; and (3), the entire 
 staff of the commander-in-chief, except the lieutenants and 
 the tribunes, together with the troops devoted to their per- 
 sonal service. 
 
 3. In the Retentura were stationed, in addition to the 
 quaestor and his staff, (1) twenty-two of the fifty cohorts, and 
 (2) the auxiliaries, except the cavalry, archers, and slingers. 2 
 
 69. In a camp intended for winter-quarters, wooden huts, 
 thatched with straw, took the place of ordinary tents, and 
 sheds were erected to protect the beasts of burden from 
 wind and weather. Moreover, the space allowed to the 
 different parts of the army was doubtless somewhat more 
 ample than in a summer camp. 
 
 70. The fortifications of the camp consisted of a wall, 
 vallum, and a ditch, or fosse, fossa. The wall seems to 
 have been ordinarily about 6 feet high, and 6 or 8 feet 
 broad at the top, the ditch about 9 feet wide at the top, 
 and 7 feet deep. 3 Doubtless, in fortifying a permanent 
 camp, castra stativa, in a hostile country, the ditch was 
 
 1 The Quaestorium furnished quarters, not only for the quaestor and his staff, 
 but, also, for foreign ambassadors, and for hostages and prisoners. In it were 
 also stored the supplies and the booty. 
 
 2 Observe in the internal arrangements of the camp that the auxiliaries, both 
 cavalry and infantry, are stationed near the general and his staff, and that they 
 are completely surrounded by the legionary soldiers. 
 
 3 Vegetius, Book I., 24, says that the ordinary ditch was either 9 feet wide 
 and 7 feet deep, or 12 feet wide and 9 feet deep. In these dimensions, it has been 
 observed that the width, as 9 or 12, is divisible by 3, and that the depth is 
 obtained by adding one to | of the width, as width 9, depth f of 9+ 1 = 7, or 
 
liv MILITAKY SYSTEM 
 
 made wider and deeper, and the wall higher and broader. 1 
 It was sometimes surmounted with a breastwork of pali- 
 sades, lorica? and in special cases wooden towers were erected 
 on it at convenient intervals. Each gate was probably 40 
 feet wide, and was defended within and without either by 
 a transverse or by a tambour, as seen in the above plan. 8 
 
 71. The following figure represents a vertical section of a 
 wall and ditch, the former surmounted with a breastwork 
 of palisades: 
 
 Vertical Section of a Wall and Ditch. 
 
 abed represents a ditch, fossa fastigata, 9 feet wide and 7 feet deep. 
 Imno, a wall or rampart, vallum, 6 feet high, and 6 feet wide at the 
 top, furnished with steps on the inside, i.e., on the side ' rnrsn.' 
 pp, palisades, 
 ff, fascines imbedded in the work, to strengthen it. 
 
 width 12, depth | of 12 -f- 1 =9. Rustow infers that these instances are illustra- 
 tions of a law, and that having the width of any ditch, we can thus at once 
 obtain the depth. As a matter of fact, Caesar generally gives only the width. 
 
 In opposition to the view of Riistow, Goler thinks that the normal depth of a 
 ditch, whatever its width, was 9 feet, and that Caesar specifies the depth only 
 when it does not conform to the ordinary standard. 
 
 1 It has been observed that when Caesar gives the height of a wall with the 
 width of the accompanying ditch, as ditch 9 feet wide, wall 6 feet high ; ditch 
 15 feet wide, wall 10 feet high ; ditch 18 feet wide, wall 12 feet high, the height 
 of the wall is f of the width of the ditch. This Riistow believes to be the regular 
 law. Indeed, some such relation as this between the dimensions of the ditch 
 an i the wall seems natural, as the earth thrown out of the former was used in 
 constructing the latter. 
 
 2 The breastwork was usually made by driving green stakes into the ground, 
 and by binding them firmly together by intertwining their branches. The 
 general height of the breastwork was four or five feet, but in some instances 
 pinnacles, pinnae, projected above it two or three feet, as seen in the figure in 71. 
 
 3 The Gauls and the Germans fortified their camps, not by permanent works 
 like the Romans, but by arranging their chariots and wagons in a circle, and 
 using them as a rampart. After a defeat, they often retreated to these tempo- 
 rary defences. See Book I., 26. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. lv 
 
 72. The side of the ditch nearest to the wall is called 
 the scarp, and the opposite side, the counterscarp. A ditch 
 with sloping sides, as in the figure, was called fossa fasti- 
 gata ; with vertical sides, fossa directis lateribus, and with 
 sloping scarp but vertical counterscarp, /bssa punica. 1 
 
 73. The wall was constructed largely from the earth and 
 stone taken from the ditch, but to give the structure greater 
 firmness and strength, branches of trees, bushes, stakes, and 
 fascines were imbedded in it. When the sides of the wall 
 were quite steep, they were usually covered with sods or 
 with brush in the form of fascines. Sometimes logs were 
 used for the same purpose. Moreover, these logs and 
 fascines could be arranged in steps, so that from within the 
 bank or wall could be easily ascended. See figure in 71. 
 The selection of the place for the camp was a duty which 
 required skill, judgment, and experience. 2 Accordingly, this 
 important trust was generally committed to a tribune, or to 
 some other officer of the staff, at the head of a detachment 
 of centurions and legionaries. They marched in advance of 
 the main body of the army, under the protection of the van- 
 guard, and were expected to have the outlines of the camp 
 well defined on the arrival of the legions. 
 
 74. For Roman soldiers, marching through a hostile 
 country, no small part of each day's work was the fortifica- 
 tion of the camp, but they shrunk from no labor, and w r ere 
 scarcely less expert with the pick and the spade than with 
 the spear and the sword. With such laborers, three or four 
 hours, in the judgment of Riistow, would be ample for the 
 complete fortification of the camp. 
 
 75. But Roman camps in a hostile country were not only 
 strongly fortified, but also carefully guarded. In cases 
 requiring only ordinary vigilance, the duty of keeping 
 guard during the night-watches was entrusted to five 
 cohorts detailed for the purpose from different legions. 
 
 1 The first form was generally used by Caesar, though the second also occurs. 
 See Book VII., 72. 
 
 2 It was of vital importance that the camp should be pitched, if possible, on a 
 gently sloping hillside of sufficient extent, within easy reach of a good supply of 
 wood and water. It was also important that it should not be near any hill from 
 which an enemy could reconnoitre it, or near any dense forest in which he could 
 be concealed. 
 
Ivi MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 The tattoo, the signal for setting the night-watches, was 
 sounded at nightfall. A cohort was stationed at each gate, 
 and sentinels were posted on every part of the wall. A 
 fifth cohort was detailed for guard duty in the quarters of 
 the general and quaestor, while every cohort had its own 
 sentry. In cases of unusual peril, the guard was greatly 
 strengthened ; sometimes two or three cohorts guarded each 
 gate. 
 
 As the night was divided into four equal watches, the 
 guard was divided into four reliefs, each one of which was 
 on duty during one-fourth of the night. The three reliefs 
 not on duty slept upon their arms, as a sort of picket- 
 guard. 
 
 76. The reveille was sounded at daybreak. If the march 
 was to be resumed, three successive signals were sounded. 
 At the first signal, the tents were struck ; at the second, the 
 beasts of burden received their loads ; and at the third, the 
 column moved. If, however, a battle was imminent, the 
 march was not resumed ; the tents were left standing, and 
 the camp was committed to the care of a strong guard. 1 
 Then the soldiers, disencumbered of their knapsacks, and 
 armed and equipped for action, truly expediti, marched out 
 of the camp, and were at once marshalled in line of battle. 
 
 77. Roman generals made it an unfailing rule to take 
 every possible advantage of position. For them an open 
 plain was not a good battle-field. The Roman mode of 
 attack required an elevated position, from which the heavy 
 javelins could be hurled into the ranks of the enemy with 
 the greatest effect. 2 
 
 MILITARY STANDARDS AND MARTIAL Music. 
 
 78. The general standard of the army was the banner, 
 vexillum^ of the commander-in-chief. When displayed from 
 the general's tent in the Praetorium, it was a signal to 
 
 1 This guard sometimes consisted of four or five cohorts, detailed from sepa- 
 rate legions, and sometimes of one or more legions recently enrolled. See 
 Book III., 26 ; Book II., 8. 
 
 2 For Caesar's own description of his favorite position for marshalling his 
 army for battle, see Book II., 8. From this description, we see how very impor- 
 tant it was that the camp should be pitched upon a hillside of sufficient extent to 
 enable the general to marshal his army for battle near his camp, if not in front 
 of it. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. Ivii 
 
 prepare for immediate action, and when waved before the 
 legions advancing in order of battle, it was the signal for 
 the charge, incur sus. It contained the name of the general 
 and of the army, inscribed in large red letters on a white 
 ground. 
 
 79. Each legion had its own standard, which was en- 
 trusted to the special care of the chief centurion, iheprimi- 
 pilus of the legion. 1 It was an eagle of the size of a dove, 
 generally of silver, though under the empire sometimes of 
 gold. The eagle was represented with uplifted wings, as 
 seen in plate I., 9. Sometimes a small banner, vexillum, on 
 which was embroidered the number of the legion, was placed 
 directly below the eagle. 
 
 80. The ten cohorts 2 of the legion had their special 
 standards, signaf which were of various forms, sometimes 
 very simple 4 and sometimes more elaborate. For specimens 
 of the latter, see plate L, 5. 
 
 81. The standards carried by the cavalry, by the light- 
 armed infantry, and by detachments detailed for special 
 service, were simple banners, vexilla. 5 For the general ap- 
 pearance, form, and size of the vexilla, see plate I., 5, and 
 plate II., 8. 6 
 
 82. The chief musical instrument in a Roman army, and 
 indeed the only one mentioned in the Commentaries on the 
 Gallic war, was the trumpet, tuba. 1 This was a wind in- 
 strument of brass in the form of a modern trumpet. The 
 only musicians mentioned by Caesar, in either of his works, 8 
 
 1 The loss of a standard was a calamity and a disgrace, both, to the standard- 
 bearer and to the legion. 
 
 2 Goler thinks that the maniples had standards, and that the standard of the 
 first maniple was also the standard of the entire cohort, but Riistow rejects this 
 view as utterly untenable. 
 
 3 The general name for a standard was signum, and for a standard-bearer 
 signifer, but the more specific names aquila and aquili'er were generally used to 
 designate the standard and the standard-bearer of the legion. The bravest and 
 strongest soldiers were selected as standard-bearers. See Book IV., 25 ; also 
 signiferi in plate II., 5. 
 
 * A standard was sometimes simply the figure of an open hand upon a staff, 
 and sometimes the figure of an animal, as a wolf or an ox. 
 
 6 See Book VI., 36. 
 
 e Observe in plate II., 5, that one of the elaborate standards has a vexlllum at 
 the top. 
 
 7 Goler thinks that every century had at least one tuba. 
 
 * See Book II., 20, Book VII., 47 ; and Civil War, Book II., 35. 
 
Iviii MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 are the tubicines and the bucinatores? both of whom are 
 represented with their instruments in plate II., 6 and 7 ; but 
 the lituus, a modification of the trumpet, curved near the 
 end was doubtless used in the cavalry. 2 
 
 ROMAN MODE OF ATTACK. 
 
 83. When the Roman general had secured his favorite 
 position on the gentle declivities of a range of hills with the 
 enemy sufficiently near in the plain below, he ordered the 
 signal to be sounded with the trumpet. The legions 
 advanced slowly and steadily in order of battle until they 
 were within five hundred or six hundred feet of the enemy, 
 when the standard of the com mandei -in-chief was displayed, 
 and the united blasts of the horn and the trumpet sounded 
 the signal for the charge. From this point, the legions, with 
 poised javelins in their front ranks, pilis infestis, advanced 
 upon the run until the hostile lines were within forty or 
 fifty feet of each other, when a salvo of javelins from the 
 front of the legions carried consternation and death into 
 the ranks of the opposing phalanx. 3 Then, with drawn 
 swords, the Roman soldiers charged the broken ranks of 
 the foe. 4 
 
 84. Thus all along the front line a deadly conflict was 
 waged hand to hand, a series of duels, as Riistow ex- 
 presses it. 5 For the moment, it was of course impossible to 
 
 1 It seems probable that the bucinator used not only tbe bucina, but also the 
 cornu, the horn, a wind instrument made generally from the horn of a wild ox, 
 and furnished with a silver mouth-piece, but sometimes made from brass. 
 According to Goler, the various military evolutions were first signalled by the 
 horn, and then proclaimed throughout the army by the trumpet. The classicum, 
 which, on the field of battle, was the signal for the charge, was made by the 
 united blasts of the horn and the trumpet. 
 
 2 Lucan, Pharsalia, I., 237, characterizes the notes of the lituus and the tuba 
 in these words : stridor lituum clangorque tubarum. 
 
 3 The pila which penetrated the hostile shields often stuck fast in them, thus 
 rendering the men unfit for action. Sometimes three or more shields in the 
 dense phalanx were pinned together by these weapons. See Book I., 25. 
 
 * This onset of the Roman legions with pilum and sword has been compared 
 to a volley of musketry, instantly followed by a bayonet-charge. 
 
 It is not probable that all the men in the front rank charged with the sword 
 at the same time, as they stood too close together in rank and file to allow the 
 free use of that weapon. Rustow conjectures that the odd numbers in the front 
 rank sprang forward, while the even numbers kept their places in the line, and 
 that thus each man secured ample room for the charge. 
 
 6 In this account of the Roman mode of attack, we have followed Riistow. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. lix 
 
 preserve unbroken ranks in the front of the cohorts thus 
 engaged. Along the front line, the whole of the first 
 century of each maniple participated, 'either directly or 
 indirectly, in the terrible struggle. While the first two 
 ranks bore the brunt of the battle, the other three, as oppor- 
 tunity offered, hurled their javelins over the heads of the 
 combatants into the hostile ranks in the rear, and held 
 themselves in readiness to rush to the relief of their com- 
 panions in case of need. Meanwhile, the second century of 
 each maniple, remaining firm and immovable, gave stability 
 to the line. 
 
 85. Thus far the cohorts of the second line had taken no 
 part in the battle ; but soon they, too, were seen to be in 
 motion, and, advancing quickly in battle-array through the 
 intervals of the first line, they hurled their javelins into the 
 ranks of the bewildered foe, and then with drawn swords 
 rushed into the thickest of the fight. The exhausted 
 cohorts, thus timely relieved, retired to reform their shat- 
 tered line, and to recover breath and strength for a new 
 onset. Thus the first and second lines continued the con- 
 flict, alternately relieving each other, 1 until the enemy, 
 exhausted and demoralized, yielded to the repeated onsets 
 of the Roman cohorts. The third line formed the reserve, 
 and was summoned to the front only in cases of special need. 2 
 
 ROMAN METHOD OF TAKING FORTIFIED PLACES. 
 
 86. The Romans recognized three different methods of 
 taking fortified places : 
 
 1. By Storm, Assault oppugnatio repentina. 
 
 2. By Investment, Blockade obsidio. 
 
 3. By Siege, with active operations oppugnatio oper- 
 ibus. 
 
 1 In the opinion of Rustow, a line of Roman cohorts seldom remained in active 
 conflict more than fifteen minutes at a time. 
 
 2 The Gallic mode of conducting a battle was wholly unlike the Roman. 
 The Gauls staked the issue largely on the first onset. Raising their fearful 
 battle-cry, they advanced against the enemy in solid phalanx, and strove to over- 
 whelm him by the mere momentum and weight of moving masses. 
 
 The unit in the German line of battle was the solid wedge, the cuneus, so 
 celebrated in* the early history of Germany. The different tribes were massed 
 separately. The charge on the field of battle was an impetuous onset in masses. 
 See Book I., 51. 
 D 
 
Ix 
 
 MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 87. In attacking fortified towns, the Romans often 
 employed certain engines which corresponded to artil- 
 lery in modern warfare. They were designated by 
 the general name tormenta, from torqueo, to twist, as 
 their motive power was derived from the torsion of 
 firmly twisted ropes ; but they were of several varieties. 
 
 1. The Scorpion 
 scorpio was a large 
 cross-bow, resting on 
 a standard, as seen 
 in the accompanying 
 
 Scorpion. 
 
 figure. 
 
 2. The Catapult 
 catapulta was an 
 engine for hurling 
 heavy javelins or oth- 
 er missiles. This was 
 also a modification of 
 the cross-bow ; but the arms of the bow were straight sticks 
 of timber, and its elasticity, or its power of recoil, was pro- 
 duced by the torsion of a large rope, or cable, made from 
 hair or sinews twisted to the greatest possible tension. 1 The 
 construction of the catapult, and the mode of working it, are 
 seen in the following figure : 
 
 Catapult. 
 
 1 Only the very strongest hair was used for this purpose ; and Jahns suggests 
 that it was probably subjected to a special process to increase its strength. The 
 sinews and tendons from the necks of bulls and from the legs of goats, were 
 especially prized for this purpose. 
 
 Observe that the two sticks of timber, ' a* and *b, J are inserted in two large 
 ropes, or cables, and that their ends, like the ends of a bow, are connected 
 together by a strong cord. In working the catapult, the middle of this cord was 
 drawn back by means of a windlass, 'cd.' Practically, therefore, the catapult 
 was a bow of immense power. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. Ixi 
 
 3. The Ballista was an engine for hurling balls, stones, 
 and even heavy sticks of wood. In principle the motive 
 power was the same as in the catapult, from which it dif- 
 fered mainly in the fact that it hurled missiles at an angle 
 of 45 degrees. For the mode of working the ballista l see 
 figure 5 in the foreground of plate Y. 
 
 4. The Onager was a modification of the catapult. It had 
 only one arm, and that arm worked vertically, while the 
 arms of the catapult worked horizontally. See figure 4 in 
 the foreground of plate V. 2 
 
 88. The Turris ambulatoria was a movable tower, often 
 used by the Romans in attacking fortified cities. It was, of 
 course, of various sizes ; but ordinarily it consisted of ten 
 stories, and was about ninety feet high, twenty-five feet 
 square at the base and twenty at the top. 3 Each story had 
 an outer gallery, extending entirely around it. See plate V., 1 . 
 
 89. The tower, which was moved forward by means of 
 rollers worked from within, was supplied with one or more 
 drawbridges, which, on being let down upon the wall, fur- 
 nished the attacking party a passage to the enemy's works. 
 The lower story was usually supplied with a battering-ram ; 
 while the upper stories were occupied with the engines of 
 war the tormenta. The turns ambulatoria^ armed with 
 the battering-ram and the tormenta^ and well supplied with 
 archers and slingers, was a movable battery of great power. 
 
 90. The Vinea, used to protect soldiers and workmen 
 during siege operations, was a movable shed or arbor, rest- 
 ing on rollers. According to Vegetius, it was usually 16 
 
 1 According to Rustow und Kochly, Geschiclite des griechischen Kriegswesens, 
 Book IV., 3, the ballista had such remarkable projectile force that it threw heavy, 
 missiles, on an average, a quarter of a mile, and that it sometimes reached twice 
 that distance. 
 
 In the Commentaries on the Civil War, Book II., 2, Caesar tells us that beams, 
 or poles, 12 feet long, pointed with iron, hurled from ballistae, passed through 
 four rows of hurdles, probably in the form of vineae (90), or plutei (92), and 
 planted themselves in the earth. 
 
 The ballista is sometimes compared to the modern mortar. It was capable of 
 throwing missiles of great weight. Stones weighing from one hundred to one 
 hundred and thirty pounds were at times hurled by it. See Rustow uud Kochly; 
 also Schambach, Geschutzverwendung bei den Romern. Altenburg : 1883. 
 
 2 Observe that the arm is drawn down by means of a windlass, and that it flies 
 back with great violence as soon as it is released. 
 
 3 Atheuaeus, the author of a work, irtpi M/7xa''y^ara>', written, probably, about 
 200 B. C., mentions a tower 180 feet high and 35 feet square at the base. 
 
Ixii 
 
 MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 Vinea. 
 
 feet long, 7 wide, and 8 high. The roof was of timber, or 
 
 thick plank, supported by 
 upright posts; the sides 
 were of strong wicker-work. 
 It was sometimes entirely 
 open at both ends, and 
 sometimes partially closed. 
 The roof and sides were 
 covered with raw hides, as 
 a protection against fire. 
 
 91. The Musculus was a variety of the vinea. It was of 
 
 smaller size than the ordinary 
 vinea, but of much greater 
 strength, as it was intended to 
 be used in the immediate vi- 
 cinity of the enemy's works, 
 especially to protect sappers 
 and miners in undermining 
 the wall. 1 See the accom- 
 
 Musculus. . /> 
 
 panying figure. 
 
 92. The Pluteus was a movable breastwork, or screen, 
 
 Plutei. 
 
 1 Caesar, in his Commentaries on the Civil War, Book II., 10, has described 
 the kind of musculus which he used in the siege of Massilia. It was so strong 
 that blocks of stone hurled from the top of the wall fell harmless upon it. The 
 roof was made of sticks of timber two feet thick, overlaid with brick and mortar, 
 covered with raw hides. 
 
OF THE KOMANS. Ixiii 
 
 resting on rollers. It was usually seven or eight feet in 
 height, and was supplied with loop-holes, through which 
 archers could discharge their arrows. It was of various 
 .forms, as seen in figures 1, 2, and 3. 
 
 93. The Testudo arietaria, also used in storming cities, 
 consisted of a movable shed, like a vinea, in which was sus- 
 pended a battering-ram (aries), in the form of a heavy stick 
 of timber, from sixty to a hundred feet long, armed with a 
 large head of bronze or iron. It was worked by men under 
 the cover of the testudo, and was used to effect a breach 
 in the wall. For the general appearance of this machine, 
 and the mode of working it, see the testudo arietaria bat- 
 tering the tower in the background of plate V. 1 
 
 THE STORMING OF CITIES Oppugnatio repentina. 
 
 94. This method of attack was usually adopted when 
 there was a reasonable prospect of immediate success with- 
 out great loss, especially in proceeding against cities which 
 were well supplied with provisions, but were neither 
 strongly garrisoned nor defended by formidable works. 
 
 95. Aided by his engines of war, a Roman general who 
 could lead veteran legions to the attack sometimes found 
 the capture of a walled town a comparatively easy task. 
 
 96. Archers and slingers, protected by plutei, and sharp- 
 shooters with catapults and ballistae, drove the enemy from 
 his works. Some filled the moat, while others, under the 
 cover of musculi, strove to undermine the wall, or to set 
 fire to the gates ; the tower was moved slowly forward, the 
 battering-ram began its work ; numerous storming columns, 
 
 i Caesar seems to have made little use of the battering-ram. The Gallic 
 walls, according to his description, Book VII., 23, were so substantially con- 
 structed, of large beams, stones, and earth, that they could not be destroyed 
 either by tire or by the battering-ram. The following figure is from Goler : 
 
 
 Vertical Section of Gallic Wall. 
 
Ixiv 
 
 MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 forming the testudo, with their shields close-locked over 
 their heads, as seen in plate V., ad- 
 vanced to the attack ; the ladders were 
 quickly applied ; the sharpshooters, arch- 
 ers, and slingers, redoubled their ef- 
 forts ; the walls were scaled ; the gates 
 were thrown open, and the legions 
 entered. 
 
 INVESTMENT, BLOCKADE OF CITIES 
 Obsidio. 
 
 97. The Romans sometimes compelled 
 hostile cities to surrender, by enclosing 
 them so completely within a continuous 
 line of strong fortifications, that neither 
 supplies nor succor could reach them. 
 This plan was adopted when the place 
 was too strongly fortified and too strong- 
 ly garrisoned to be taken by storm, es- 
 pecially if the population was large, arid 
 the supply of provisions limited. To 
 ensure success, it was sometimes neces- 
 sary to construct a second line of works 
 at a suitable distance from the first, and 
 outside of the investing army, as a pre- 
 caution against attack from without, in 
 case any attempt should be made to re- 
 lieve the city. 
 
 The most remarkable instance men- 
 tioned in the Commentaries of this 
 method of taking fortified towns, was 
 the investment of Alesia. The town 
 was garrisoned by a force of 80,000 
 Gauls ; Caesar invested it, and for forty 
 days he lay intrenched before it be- 
 tween two concentric lines of almost 
 impregnable works ; a mighty array of 
 confederate Gauls, 250,000 strong, ar- 
 rived in the rear of his intrenchments ; 
 
OF THE KOMANS. Ixv 
 
 but Roman valor triumphed, and Alesia surrendered to the 
 conqueror. 
 
 98. The works with which Caesar enclosed this stronghold 
 of the Gauls were in some respects among the most remark- 
 able mentioned in Roman history. The figure on the pre- 
 ceding page, from Napoleon and Goler, represents a vertical 
 section of the inner line of works, called in modern phrase- 
 ology, contra vallation. 1 
 
 SIEGE OF FORTIFIED PLACES Oppugnatio Operibus. 
 
 99. With the Romans, a formal siege involved, not only 
 the use of all the ordinary engines of war, but also the long 
 and tedious labor of constructing an agger. It was resorted 
 to only in difficult cases, when a simple investment would 
 be inadequate and when a direct assault without special 
 preparation would promise little success. The agger was a 
 mound, or rampart, beginning several hundred feet from 
 the wall of the besieged city, and extending directly toward 
 it, until it finally reached and overtopped it, and thus fur- 
 nished a broad highway, on which a storming column could 
 advance directly to the highest part of the enemy's works. 2 
 
 100. An agger of the ordinary dimensions, 400 or 500 
 feet long, 50 or 60 feet wide, and from 50 to 80 feet high, 3 
 required for its construction an enormous amount of timber, 
 stones, earth, and brush. The trunks of trees from 20 to 40 
 feet in length, and from 1 to 2 feet in thickness, were of the 
 first importance ; indeed the words of Lucan must have been 
 at times almost literally true 4 : 
 
 "Procumbunt nemora et spoliantur robore silvae." 
 
 1 In modern phraseology, the inner line, or that which invests the city, is 
 called contravallation, that outside of the investing army, circumv dilation. 
 
 This line of works was 11 Roman miles in length, and 400 feet in width. 
 Observe that on the side toward the city was a ditch 20 feet wide ; that on the 
 opposite side, 400 feet from this ditch, was a rampart 12 feet high, and that 
 between these two points were arranged (1) two ditches, each 15 feet wide; (2) 
 five rows of trunks of trees, with branches sharpened to a point, so planted in 
 the earth that only the branches were in sight, called cippi ; (3) eight rows of 
 small pits 3 feet deep, each with a sharpened stake firmly set in its centre, called 
 lilia, lilies, and (4) an indefinite number of short stakes entirely sunk in the 
 earth, to which iron hooks were attached, called stimuli, spurs. 
 
 2 In some cases the agger did not reach the top of the wall, but was sur- 
 mounted by one or more towers, which, on being moved up to the enemy's 
 works, secured the necessary height for the storming party. 
 
 8 The agger at Avaricum was 80 feet high. See Book VII., 24. 
 * Lucan's Pharsalia. III., 395. 
 
Ixvi MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 101. To aid the learner in understanding the more impor- 
 tant steps in a formal siege, we add the following illustra- 
 tions. Fig. 1, page lix, Ground Plan of Siege Operations: 
 
 1. ABCD represents the enemy's wall. 
 
 2. abed, the space to be occupied by the agger. 
 
 3. mm, musculi, protecting laborers levelling the ground. 
 
 4. VV, the line of vineae, forming a covered way through which 
 materials were brought for the agger. 
 
 5. PP, a line of plutei, protecting the men while building the first 
 section of the agger. 
 
 6. TT, turres ambulitoriae, armed with tormenta, and supplied 
 with archers and slingers. 
 
 7. pppp, a continuous line of plutei, nearly parallel to the enemy's 
 wall, protecting archers and slingers. 
 
 8. w, vv, two lines of vineae, parallel to the agger, forming each 
 a covered way by which soldiers passed to the towers and to the lines 
 ofplutei. 1 
 
 9. cdef, a horizontal section of a part of the first story of the 
 agger, showing how the logs were arranged, with intervals between 
 them, and in layers at right angles with each other, showing also an 
 open gallery or way through the middle. 
 
 102. An agger, 80 feet in height, usually consisted of 
 eight or ten stories. On each floor was an open gallery, or 
 hall, 10 or 12 feet wide and 8 or 10 feet high, extending the 
 whole length of the agger. The work of construction 
 began at a distance of 400 or 500 feet from the enemy's wall, 
 from which most of its defenders had been driven by the 
 archers and slingers behind the line of plutei y and by the 
 artillery-men in the towers. The materials were brought 
 through the covered way formed by the line of vineae ' W,' 
 while those who were engaged in the actual work of con- 
 struction were protected by the phitei, * PP.' First, large 
 logs were placed firmly upon the ground parallel to each 
 other and at suitable intervals; upon these was placed a 
 second layer of logs at right angles with them, as seen in 
 figure 1. The open spaces between the logs were then 
 filled with earth, stones, sods, brush, etc. Through the 
 middle was left a passage, or open gallery, 10 or 12 feet 
 wide, as stated above. The work continued in this way 
 
 1 The line of plutei, parallel to the enemy's works, and the lines of vineae 
 leading to it, are sometimes compared to the parallels and approaches in modern 
 warfare. 
 
OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 Ixvii 
 
 
 
 \ / a 
 
 
 
 
 h \ / 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 ra. 
 
 ^f^ 
 
 r/7 ^~"~* p 
 
 
 
 
 P^r-'-" \T 
 
 f? ^^""""-^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^rir-1' P" 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q v 
 Q 
 Q 
 Q 
 Q 
 
 f n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f Q 
 
 p^ 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 11 '11 l|" 
 
 
 ii ii ii 
 n 'T, 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 ,H II .1 
 
 ii n n 
 
 
 TTll II 
 
 u n tr 
 ji n n 
 
 m^^ 
 
 D 
 
 LlULk 
 
 Q 
 
 Q 
 n 
 
 D 
 
 v 
 D 
 
 
 D 
 D.v 
 
 
 
 Figure 1. Ground Plan of Siege Operations. 
 
Ixviii 
 
 MILITARY SYSTEM 
 
 ? 
 
 m 
 
 
 ; i 
 
 o 
 
 =E 
 A- 1 
 
 i- . 
 !-'-/ 
 
 i 
 
 & 
 cS 
 
 ^3 co 
 
 ^5 
 
 - 
 IE IS 
 
 fl o M o - 2 
 
 1 
 
 8 " 
 
 O 
 
 II 
 
OF THE ROMANS. Ixix 
 
 until the sides reached the height of 8 or 10 feet, when the 
 open passage was covered overhead with a layer of timbers 
 placed across it. Thus was finished the first section of the 
 first story of the agger. 
 
 103. The plutei) <PP,' were next moved forward 30 or 40 
 feet, and under their protection the second section of the 
 first story was constructed in the same style and manner as 
 the first section. 1 A line of plutei, * P,' as seen in figure 2, 
 was then placed across the front of the second floor, and the 
 building of the first section of the second story was begun. 
 The materials were all brought through the vineae and up 
 the stairs, * s,' to the landing, c on,' which was a platform ex- 
 tending the whole width of the agger, thus affording easy 
 access to the gallery, or hall, on the second floor. 
 
 104. As soon as the second section of the first story was 
 finished, the plutei were again moved forward, and the third 
 section was begun. At the same time, the plutei on the 
 second floor, ' P,' in figure 2, were moved forward, and the 
 second section of the second story was begun. Plutei, c P,' 
 were then placed on the third floor, and the first section of 
 the third story was begun. This, like the second, was reached 
 by stairs, leading to the landing, which furnished access to 
 the hall, or passage, on this floor. 
 
 105. Thus the construction of the agger went on ; one 
 section after another was added, one story after another, 
 until BCDE was finished. 2 The part nearest to the enemy, 
 ABEF, still remained to be filled as best it might. Then 
 through all the halls on the different floors were brought 
 logs, stones, brush, fascines, sods, and the like, and were 
 hurled into one confused mass, until the space was filled. 
 The top of the heap was next hastily levelled off and made 
 passable. The decisive moment, for which all this elaborate 
 preparation had been made, had at length arrived. The 
 archers and slingers redoubled their efforts, and the heavy 
 
 * The timber and other materials were brought first through the vineae, ' VV,' 
 and then through the covered gallery in the first section. 
 
 2 The enemy often attempted to prevent the completion of the agger, either 
 by setting it on fire, or by undermining it (Book VII., 22 and 24) ; but, if he 
 failed in this, he ordinarily lost courage, and surrendered before the completion 
 of the works. Thus the Aduatuci surrendered when they saw the tower ap- 
 proaching the wall : see Book II., 31. 
 
1XX MILITARY SYSTEM. 
 
 artillery swept the walls with its missiles, as the storming 
 column advanced over the agger, and planted the Roman 
 eagle upon the enemy's works. 
 
 SHIPS OF WAR Naves Longae. 
 
 106. Caesar had no organized navy during his Gallic 
 campaigns, but he built ships as occasion required, and 
 manned them with his legionary soldiers. 1 His veteran 
 legions could fight either on land or sea. 
 
 107. The Roman ships of war were seven or eight times 
 as long as they were wide, and were accordingly called 
 
 'naves longae, in distinction from the transports, naves 
 onerariae* which were much shorter in proportion to their 
 width. They were armed in front with a formidable beak 
 (rostrum), with which they often pierced and sunk the 
 enemy's ships. Though provided with sails, they were pro- 
 pelled chiefly by oars. They carried the usual engines of 
 war, the tormenta, were furnished with grappling-irons, and 
 sometimes had towers on their decks. The most important 
 varieties were the triremes* with three banks of oars, and 
 the quinqueremes, with five banks. 4 See plate VI. 
 
 1 Rowers and sailors could be readily obtained. See Book III., 9. 
 
 * The naves onerariae were transports, or ships of burden. They were four 
 times as long as they were wide ; they were propelled chiefly by means of sails, 
 although supplied with oars to be used in case of need. 
 
 3 According to Graser, a trireme was 149 feet long, with a deck 18 feet wide, 
 and carried 232 tons burden. Without the use of sails, it had 24 horse-power, 
 and its rate of speed was 10 knots an hour. The oars were arranged in tiers or 
 banks, those in the upper bank being 13 feet long, those in the middle bank 10J, 
 and those in the lower bank 7|. 
 
 The regular complement of men for a trireme seems to have been 225, of whom 
 31 were officers and soldiers, 20 sailors, and 174 rowers ; for a quinquereme, 375, of 
 whom 310 were rowers ; but we learn on the authority of Polybius that the 
 Romans increased the number of soldiers, and that the quinqueremes in the 
 Punic wars generally had each 120 soldiers on board. 
 
 * The naves actuariae and the naves speculatoriae, also called (Book TV. 26) 
 specula'.oria naviyia, were small light vessels constructed for speed. 
 
PLAT.E I. 
 
 7. Fuitditor. 2. Ltvis Armatwne- Pcdites . 3.JI*cgi<>nariiMilites. 
 4- Sarcijiac . 3 . Equites-. 
 
PLATE H. 
 
 1. Inwemtor. 
 
 6.Biicinator. 
 
 7. 
 
 3.Centurio. 4*.Lictf>r 5 Signifert,. 
 8. Vexilhim . 
 
PLATE nr. 
 
 J. Mater t a nt/ Casfra Miini&tcUtcdtriportatur. 2, Captivi. 
 
PLATE TV. 
 
 , 1 . 
 
 , 2. Pzdes, 3. Siynifer, 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
OF THE 
 
 ( UNIVERSITY ) 
 
Plate VII. VICTORY OVER THE HELVETII. I. 2427, 
 
 EXPLANATION. 
 
 1. Romans in line of battle with the Helvetii(a, a) in front of them. 
 
 2. The first two of the Roman lines after they had driven hack the Helvetii (6, b) 
 
 to the neighboring hill. 
 
 3. The third line with the Boil and Tulingi (c) in front of it. 
 U. Two new legions with auxiliaries. 5. Roman camp. 
 
 a. Helvetii, first position, b. Helvetii, second position, c. Boii and Tulingi. 
 d. Helvetian camp defended by wagons, chariots and baggage. 
 
 mm^mmmm Romans. mmm 
 
Plate VIII. VICTORY OVER ARIOVISTUS. I. 4251. 
 
 MliHLHAUSEN/; 
 
 EXPLANATION. 
 1. Caesar's large camp. 
 #. Caesar's small camp, 
 a. First camp of Ariovistus. 
 I). Hill on which Caesar and Ariovistus met. 
 c. Second camp of Ariovistus. 
 
 Romans. Germans. 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
THE 
 
 ! UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
or THE 
 { UNIVERSITY 
 w 
 
Plate XL 
 
 SIEGE OF OPPIDTJM ADUATUCORUM. II. 2933. 
 
 EXPLANATION. 
 This stronghold of the Aduatuci occupied the hill, on the right bank 
 
 of the Sam&re, which now forms the citadel of Namur. 
 A. Roman Agger. 
 T. Turris ambulatoria. 
 
 C, C. Roman contra vallation with numerous redoubts. 
 C,R. Castra Romana. 
 
 D. Double wall before the city. 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 

 
 
 
 i 
 
 I S | 
 
 - * 
 
 fl O) ? 
 
 I 
 
 Sfe 
 
 o 
 
 53 
 Q 
 
 -S "3 S S S 
 
 -2 fe 5 | a 
 
 o o ^ - o H 
 
 pfl c ^ ^ 03 C 
 
 C m " 
 
 IS 1 I 
 
 I 
 
 c3 
 
 d 
 
 
 12^3 
 
Plate XV. 
 
 EXPEDITION AGAINST LUTETIA. VII. 5762. 
 
 o v a c i 
 
 Dammartin 
 
 EXPLANATION. 
 
 Lutetia, Paris; Melodunum, Melun; Agedincum, Sens 
 Sequana, The Seine; Matrona, The Marne; Castra Rom. 
 Castro, Romana; Castra Gall., Castra Qallica. 
 
Plate XVI. VICTORY OVER VERCINGETORIX. VII. 66, 67. 
 
 EXPLANATION. 
 A., A. Roman column on the march. 
 
 B. Baggage of the Romans. 
 
 C. Roman camp the night before the battle. 
 
 D. Roman camp the night after the battle. 
 e. Caesar's cavalry in three divisions. 
 
 E. German cavalry in Caesar's service. 
 g. The enemy's cavalry. 
 
 G. The enemy's infantry in line of battle. 
 V. The three camps of Vercingetorix. 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 _ OF 
 
TITLES OF WORKS CITED 
 
 ON THE MILITARY SYSTEM OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 FROHLICH, F. Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Kriegsfuhrung und Kriegs- 
 
 kunst der Homer. Berlin, 1886. 
 GOLER, A. VON. Caesars gallischer Krieg und das romische Kriegswesen, 
 
 Freiburg, 1884. 
 
 GKASER, B. De Veterum Re Navali. Berolini. 
 GUHL UND KONEK. Das Leben der Griechen und Homer nach antiken 
 
 Bildenverken. 
 
 HYGINUS. Liber de munitionibus castronlm. 
 
 JAHNS, M. Handbuch einer Geschichte des Kriegswesens. Leipzig, 1880. 
 KOCHLY UND RUSTOW. GriecJiische Krieg sschriftsteller. 
 LANGE, C. C. L. Historia Mutationum Rei Militaris Romanorum. 
 LINDENSCHMIT, L. Trticht und Bewaffnung des romischen Heeres. 
 LIYY, The Works of. 
 
 MARQUARDT, J. Romische Staatsverwaltung. 
 MOMMSEN, T. History of Rome. 
 NAPOLEON III. History of Julius Caesar. 
 NISSEN, H. Das Temphnn. 
 POT.YBIUS, The Works of. 
 
 RHEINHARD, H. Caesaris Commentarii deBello Gallico. Stuttgart, 1885. 
 RHEINHARD, H. Griechischc und romische Krieg salterthumer. 
 RUSTOW UND KOCHLY. Geschichte des c/riechischen Kriegswesens. 
 RUSTOW, "W. Heerwesen und Kriegfiihrung Casars. 
 SONKLAR, R. A. Abhandlung uber die Heeresverwaltung der alien Romer. 
 SHAMBACH. Einige Bemerkungen uber die Geschiitzverwendung bei den 
 
 Homern, besonders zur Zeit Caesars. Altenburg, 1883. 
 VEGETIUS. Epitoma Rei Militaris. 
 
 Ixxi. 
 
PROFESSOR HARKNESS'S LATIN TEXT- 
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