n n_/v ' CC > o cc ~ cc OQ U u I O CO (T * "1J U U 1 A HANDBOOK FOB CHEMISTS OF BEET-STJGAE HOUSES AND SEED-CULTURE FARMS. CONTAINING SELECTED METHODS OF ANALYSIS, SUGAR- HOUSE CONTROL, REFERENCE TABLES, ETC., ETC. BY GUILFORD L. SPENCER, D.Sc., OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Author of "A Handbook for Sugar Manufacturers." FIRST EDITION. FIRST THOUSAND. NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY & SONS. LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED. 1897. Copyright, 1897, BY G. L. SPENCER. EGBERT DRUMMOND, KLKCTROTYPER AND PRINTER, NEW YORK. PREFACE. AT the time the writer's "Handbook for Sugar Manu- facturers" was published, 1889, the sugar industry of the United States was confined almost exclusively to the cane sections of the South. Sorghum was attracting attention in the North, with some prospect of success ; the beet in- dustry was represented by two factories in California and dismantled factories in several other States. The condi- tions at this time are quite different. The beet-sugar in- dustry bids fair to attain enormous proportions, and sor- ghum, for the present, at least, has given up the struggle. Under these changed conditions there appears to be an opening for a book devoted exclusively to the sugar-beet, hence this work. In the preparation of this book it is assumed that the reader is familiar with many of the ordinary chemical manipulations, but the fact is recognized that on account of the short manufacturing season many factories are com- pelled to employ assistants whose chemical knowledge is somewhat limited. In order to avoid repetition, methods of sampling are de- scribed in a special chapter. It is appropriate to mention here some of the men through whose efforts the sugar-beet has been successfully introduced into the United States. Among these are Dr. William McMurtrie, who visited the beet-sugar districts of Europe in 1880 and published a very complete report on the industry. Dr. H. W. Wiley, Chemist of the U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, has labored incessantly for the promotion of sugar-manufacture in this country, and has iii IT PREFACE. published many able and exhaustive reports upon the sub- ject. Mr. E. H. Dyer, after repeated disappointments which would have discouraged the bravest advocates of the sugar-beet, succeeded in establishing the Alvarado factory in California, the pioneer of the successful American beet- sugar houses. Mr. Claus Spreckels, through his large in- vestments in the Watsonville, Cal., works, and the prestige of his renown as a successful sugar-manufacturer, has given the advocates of the industry great encouragement. The work of Mr. Henry T. Oxnard gave renewed impetus to beet-sugar manufacture, and has been of material value in demonstrating its financial success when backed by thoroughly scientific and systematic preparations. Many others have done much to encourage the culture of the sugar-beet. Among these may be mentioned Mr. Lewis S. Ware, of Philadelphia, who has for several years pub- lished a journal devoted to the sugar-beet without other compensation than the satisfaction of encouraging a new and promising industry. I take this opportunity of acknowledging many refer- ences to methods and suggestions given me by Mr. Ervin E. Ewell, Assistant Chemist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and of thanking him for many courtesies. G. L. SPENCER. WASHINGTON, D. C., 1897. TABLE OF CONTENTS. References are to pages. SUGAR-HOUSE CONTROL. General Remarks, i. The Basis of Sugar-house Control, 2. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. System of Weights, 3. Net Weight of the Beets, 4. Measurement of the Juice, 5. Automatic Recording Apparatus, 5. Various Methods of Measuring the Juice, 7. Calculation of the Weight of the Juice, 7. Auto- matic Determination of the Weight of the Juice, 8. Measurement and Weight of the Sirup, 9. Measurement and Weight of the First Massecuite, ii. Measurement and Weight of the Second Massecuite, etc., 12. Sugar Weights, 13. ESTIMATION OF LOSSES OF SUCROSE. Division of the Season into Periods, 14. Loss in the Exhausted Cos- settes, 15. Loss in the Waste-water, 16. Estimation of the Losses in the Diffusion, by Difference, 17. Loss in the Filter Press-cake, 18. Loss in the Evaporation to Sirup, 18. Loss in the Vacuum-pan, 18. SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. The Polariscope, 20. Half-shadow Polariscope, 20. Triple-field Polari- scope, 23. Laurent Polariscope, 24. Transition-tint Polariscope, Soleil- Ventzke-Scheibler, 26. General Remarks on Polariscopes, 27. Manip- ulation of a Polariscope, 27. The Polariscopic Scale, 29. Reading the Polariscopic Scale, 30. Preparation of Solutions for Polarization, 31. Adjustment of the Polariscope, 32. Notes on Polariscopic Work, 33. Error due to the Volume of the Lead Precipitate, 35. Scheibler's Method of Double Dilution, 37. Sach's Method of determining the Volume of the Lead Precipitate, 38. Influence of Subacetate of Lead and other Sub- stances upon the Optically Active Non-sugars, 38. SUGAR ANALYSIS. CHEMICAL METHODS. Determination of Sucrose by Alkaline Copper Solution, 41. Determina- tion of Sucrose in the Presence of Reducing Sugars, 42. SAMPLING AND AVERAGING. General Remarks on Sampling and Averaging, 43. Sampling Beets in the Field, 44. Subsampling of Beets in Fixing the Purchase-price, 45. Sampling Beets at the Diffusion-battery, 47. Sampling the Fresh Cos- settes, 48. Sampling the Exhausted Cossettes, 49. Sampling Waste- V Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS. ANALYSIS OF LIME. Determination of the Calcium Oxide, 159. Unburned and Slaked Lime 159. Calcium Oxide, Degener-Lunge Method, 159. Complete Analysis 160. ANALYSIS OF SULPHUR. Estimation of Impurities, 161. ANALYSIS OF COKE. Preparation of the Sample, 162. Determination of the Moisture, 162. Ash, 162. Sulphur, 162. LUBRICATING OILS. Tests applied to Lubricating Oils, 164. Cold Test, 164. Viscosity Test, 164. Tests for Acidity and Alkalinity, 165. Purity Tests, 165. ANALYSIS AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. Characteristics of Suitable Water, 167. Analysis, 167. Purification, 171. SEED-SELECTION. General Remarks, 174. Distribution of the Sugar in the Beet, 177. Methods of removing the Sample for Analysis, 177. Analysis of the Sample, 179. Pellet's Continuous Tube for Polarizations, 183. Polari- scope with Enlarged Scale, 184. Pellet's Estimate of Laboratory Appa- ratus and Personnel required for a Seed-farm, 185. Chemical Method for the Analysis of Beet-mothers, 187. SEED-TESTING. Beet-seed, 190. Sampling, 190. Moisture, 191. Proportion of Clean Seed, 191. Number of Seeds per Pound or Kilogram, 191. Germination Tests, 192. Characteristics of Good Seed, 195. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. Cobaltous Nitrate Test for Sucrose, 197. Test for Sucrose, using a- Napthol, 197. Nitrous Oxide set free in Boiling Sugar, 198. The Precipi- tate formed in heating Diffusion-juice, 198. Spontaneous Combustion of Molasses, 198. Calorific Value of Molasses, 198. Fermentation, 199. Melassigenic Salts, 201. Chemical Composition of the Sugar-beet, 201. List of Reagents suggested for the Treatment of Beet-juice, 203. SUGAR-HOUSE NOTES. Diffusion, 207. " Gray " Juice, 208. Carbonatation, 208. Sulphuring, 210. Filter-pressing, Difficulties, 210. Lime-kiln, 211. Granulation of the Sugar in the Vacuum-pan, 214. Second and Third Massecuites, 215. Gray Sugar, 215. SPECIAL REAGENTS. Alkaline Copper Solutions, 216. Normal Solutions, 217. Pure Sugar, 222. Subacetate of Lead, 223. Bone-black, 223. Hydrate of Alumina, 223. Indicators of Acidity and Alkalinity, 224. REFERENCE TABLES, 226. BLANK FORMS FOR USE IN SUGAR-HOUSE WORK, 301. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIGURE PACK 1. Sugar-beet, showing Method of Topping 4 2. Automatic Recording Apparatus, Horsin-D^on 6 3. Automatic Scale, Baldwin 8 4. Diagrams showing Operation of Baldwin's Scale 9 5. Apparatus for determining the Weight of a Unit Volume of Massecuite n 6. Half-shadow Polariscope . . . . 21 j. Double Compensating (Shadow) Polariscope 22 8. Triple-field Polariscope 23 9. Diagram illustrating Triple-field Polariscope 24 10. Laurent Polariscope 25 11. White-light Attachment for Laurent Polariscope 25 12. Soleil-Ventzke-Scheibler Polariscope 26 13. Lamp for Polariscopic Work 29 14. Polariscopic Scale 30 15. Weighing Capsule 31 16. Filtering Apparatus 32 ij. Control-tube 35 18. Diagram showing Method of Removing a Sample from a Beet. 46 19. Boring-rasp , 46 20. Details of Boring-rasp 46 21. Automatic Sampler, Coombs 51 22. Automatic Sampler, Horsin-D^on 53 23. Sugar-trier 54 24. Automatic Apparatus for Density Determinations 56 25. Brix Hydrometer sj 26. Method of reading a Hydrometer 57 27. Westphal Balance 59 28. Pyknometer 60 29. Soxhlet-Sickel Extraction Apparatus 63 30. Knorr's Extraction-tube 63 31. Pellet and Lomont Rasp, side view 65 32. Pellet and Lomont Rasp, end view 65 33. Pellet and Lomont Rasp, view from above 66 34. Section, showing Method of Sampling a Sugar-beet 66 35. Sugar- flask 66 36. Cylindro-divider 70 ix LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. IGURE PAGE 37. Neveu and Aubin's Rasp 71 38. Pulp-press 72 39. Special Pipette for Use in Sucrose Determinations 75 40. Filtering-tube 79 41. Apparatus for controlling the Current in Electrolytic Depo- sitions 80 42. Automatic Zero Burette 85 43. Wiley and Knorr Filter-tubes 86 44. Muffle for incinerating Sugars 91 45. Muffle for incinerating Sugars 91 46. Muffle for incinerating Sugars 91 47. Vacuum Drying-oven 94 48. Vivien's Tube for Control Analyses in the Carbonatation 98 49. Vivien's Apparatus for Crystallized Sugar Determination 114 50. Kracz Apparatus for Crystallized Sugar Determination . . 114 51. Pellet's Apparatus for Marc Determinations 129 52. Doolittle's Viscosimeter 131 53. Engler's Viscosimeter. ... . 133 54. Orsat's Apparatus for Gas Analysis 143 55. Knorr's Carbonic Acid Apparatus 154 56. Schroetter's Alkalimeter 155 57. Vilmorin's improved White Beet 176 58. Klein wanzlebener Beet 176 59. Diagram showing the Distribution of the Sugar in the Beet 177 60. Diagram showing the Distribution of the Sugar in the Beet 177 61. Diagram showing the Distribution of the Sugar in the Beet 177 62. Lindeboom's Sound. 178 63. Details of Boring-rasp , 179 64. Hanriot's Apparatus., 180 65. Sach's-Le Docte Apparatus for Determination of the Sucrose in the Beet... ' lgl 66. Automatic Pipette 182 67. Pellet's continuous Polariscope-tube 183 68. Polariscope for use in Seed Selection 185 69. Enlarged Scale for a Polariscope 186 70. Filtering Apparatus 186 71. Numbered Clamp . > 186 72. Automatic Pipette 189 73. Seed Sampling-disk 190 74. Apparatus for Seed-testing 195 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. SUGAR-HOUSE CONTROL. 1. General Remarks. The control of sugar-house work requires the analysis of the various products at each stage of the manufacture, and the tabulation of the results. From the data supplied by the analyses, the weights and measures of the raw material and the products, the chemist endeavors to trace the losses. The sugar received by the factory, in the beets, is charged on one side of the account, and that in the products and known losses is credited on the other side. The two sides of this account never balance owing to small unavoidable inaccuracies in methods, and to losses which cannot be located or measured. The question of the detection, location, and estimation of the losses of sugar in the processes of the manufacture is often very complicated, and its solution requires the highest degree of skill on the part of the chemist. As the processes become more complicated through efforts to extract the uttermost grain of sugar from the beet, the difficulties which beset the chemist increase. In many houses it is impossible to trace the losses quan- titatively, through lack of tank-room, etc. The slightest analytical error will sometimes result in figures of negative value and necessitate their rejection. The so-called "losses from unknown sources," "undeter- minable losses," and " mechanical losses," are probably in 2 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. many cases the result of unavoidable errors in weights and measures or in sampling and analysis. If an apparent loss be too large to be attributable to a reasonable allowance for error, it is well to view its exist- ence with doubt, until it is verified by repeated observations. The work of the chemist is further complicated in sugar- houses which treat the molasses by a saccharate process, es- pecially a lime process in which the saccharate is used in liming the juice. The adjustment of the analytical instruments should be frequently verified. The calibration of graduated ware should be checked. (See pages 231 and 250.) The chemical control of a sugar-house does not end with the tracing and location of losses; it is also necessary to control the processes of manufacture. Each product should be studied, and the influence of each of the processes on the yield of the sugar noted. Slight modifications in the treatment of the material at various stages of the manu- facture are often suggested by the work of the chemist, and result in an increased yield of sugar. Analytical data should be promptly obtained and tabu- lated, also all manufacturing data. Blank forms are given in pages 302 et seq, for permanent records for the chemist's use. The comparison of the data obtained in one period with those of another will always raise the questions, "Why is the yield of sugar smaller in one period than in the other?" and " Why are the losses greater or less this week than last ?" The writer has always made it a practice, in the control of sugar-house work, to divide the season into periods of one week each, and estimate the yield and losses, so far as practicable, in each. (See 14.) 2. The Basis of Sugar-house Control. It is evident that sugar-house control must begin at a stage where the amount of sugar entering the factory can be accurately determined. In order to include the diffusion it must begin with the weight of the beets. The weight of the beets cannot be deduced with accuracy from the aver- age volume of a definite weight of cuttings as measured in the diffusers. SUGAR-HOUSE CONTROL. 6 The objections to the use of the net weight as determined by the deduction of the estimated tare from the gross weight are (i) the element of uncertainty due to an estimate, and (2) that portions of the beet, for which a deduction is made in the tare, reach the diffusion-battery. In those countries where the clean beets are weighed as they enter the cutters, by the government officials, the con- trol should begin with the cuttings. This affords the only strictly reliable method of checking the work of the diffusion- battery, since the losses at this stage must be the difference between the weight of sucrose in the beets, as determined by analysis of the cuttings, and that in the diffusion- juice. In the absence of the weights of the beets as indicated above, the control of the general work of the factory must begin with the weight of the diffusion-juice. It is very probable that the so-called "losses from un- known sources," "mechanical losses," and "undetermined losses" are largely due to errors in weights and measures, and inaccuracies in sampling and analysis, rather than to actual losses. This suggests that all instruments and graduated ware be carefully checked, and that weights of the raw material be adopted, instead of gauging, where practicable. Claassen, 1 a prominent German authority, recommends the automatic scale constructed by Reuther & Reisert, Hennef, Germany, for weighing the beets immediately before they are sliced. He states that this scale is prefectly reliable. The eminent French sugar engineer Charles Gallois has devised an apparatus which insures accurate weights. This apparatus is so arranged that the small car in which the roots are weighed cannot leave the scale unless it contain the correct weight of beets. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 3. System Of Weights. In view of the fact that all chemists employ the metric system in their analvtical work, i Zeit. RUbenzucker- Industrie^ 1895, 1084. HANDBOOK FOK SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. and that manufacturers in this country still adhere to the English, it is necessary in a work of this kind to use both systems of weights and measures. 4. Net Weight of the Beets. The beets as re- ceived at the factory have been topped with more or less care, and have variable quantities of earth and pebbles ad- hering to them. These conditions necessitate the careful determination of an allowance for tare. As nearly an average sample of the roots as is practicable is selected. This sample should consist of as many beets as can be conveniently taken, the larger the number the FIG. i. better. This number may afterwards be reduced by sub- sampling by the method of " quartering." The roots are weighed, then thoroughly washed, using a brush to remove adhering soil and rootlets, and are then dried. A cloth may be used for drying them, but where many samples are to be examined it is usually more con- venient to dry the roots by exposure to a free circulation of the air for a short time. SUGAR-HOUSE CONTROL. 5 The next operation is the removal of the neck or crown, i.e., that portion of the beet from just below the lowest leaf- bud. The cut should be made at the line shown in Fig. i. The roots are again weighed, the difference between this weight and the first being recorded as the tare. The number of beets included in the sample and their average weight should also be recorded. The beets, which have been employed in determining the deduction for tare, conveniently serve as a sample for analy- sis when the roots are purchased upon a basis of their sugar content. These roots, however, would not be a satisfactory average for calculating the sugar entering the factory. 5. Measurement of the Juice. At the present time, the diffusion process has replaced all others in the ex- traction of the juice from the beet. This process requires that definite volumes of juice be drawn from the battery for definite quantities of beets. The juice is drawn into a measuring-tank which is alter- nately filled and emptied. If this measurement be made with accuracy and reliable samples of the juice be drawn, a basis is supplied for subsequent control work. Unfortu- nately this measurement as usually made is only an appro^:- imation. Errors are introduced through variations in tWe temperature of the juice and the difficulty of closing the inlet-valve at the proper instant. Hence special apparatus is essential to accurate measurement. This apparatus should be so arranged that it is wholly or partly automatic in its functions. Whatever the system of tank measurements, it is essen- tial that the measuring-tank be carefully calibrated by means of a known volume of water rather than by calcula- tion. A slight error in the calibration is multiplied many times before the end of the manufacturing season. 6. Measurement of the Juice Automatic Re- cording' Apparatus. The errors mentioned above may be reduced to a minimum by a careful supervision of the battery temperatures, the use of automatic recording apparatus, and overflow pipes. The apparatus illustrated in Fig. 2, the invention of HANDBOOK FOB SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 9. Automatic Determination of the Weight of the Juice. It is preferable to determine the weight of the juice by actual weighing when practicable. The automatic scale shown in Fig. 3 and in the diagrams (i, 2, FIG. 3. 3, and 4), Fig. 4, is the invention of John Paul Baldwin, and was devised especially for sugar-house purposes. The machine consists essentially of a revolving drum mounted upon a suitable scale. The liquid enters through the central pipe and flows into one of the compartments of the drum. When the weight of liquid for which the scale is set has entered the compartment, the liquid is automat- ically diverted to the se-cond compartment, the lad in SUGAR-HOUSE CONTROL. which soon revolves the drum so that the weighed liquid runs into the receiver beneath. The drum continues to re- volve until it assumes its original position. FIG. 4 . A counter records the number of weighings. A cup removes a small sample of the liquid from each load and stores it in a bottle, as shown in Fig. 3. 1C. Measurement and Weight of the Sirup. The sirup is pumped from the multiple-effect evaporator to storage-tanks. It is not always easy to obtain accurate measurements of the sirup in these tanks. Rectangular tanks should be thoroughly stayed with rods. In case the tanks are bulged or uneven, it may be necessary to calibrate them by running in a measured volume of water. If the tanks are of uniform sectional area from top to bottom, they may be fitted with gauge-glasses similar to the water- HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 9. Automatic Determination of the Weight of the Juice. It is preferable to determine the weight of the juice by actual weighing when practicable. The automatic scale shown in Fig. 3 and in the diagrams (i, 2, FIG. 3. 3, and 4), Fig. 4, is the invention of John Paul Baldwin, and was devised especially for sugar-house purposes. The machine consists essentially of a revolving drum mounted upon a suitable scale. The liquid enters through the central pipe and flows into one of the compartments of the drum. When the weight of liquid for which the scale is set has entered the compartment, the liquid is automat- ically diverted to the second compartment, the lead in SUGAR-HOUSE CONTROL. which soon revolves the drum so that the weighed liquid runs into the receiver beneath. The drum continues to re- volve until it assumes its original position. FIG. 4. A counter records the number of weighings. A cup removes a small sample of the liquid from each load and stores it in a bottle, as Lshown in Fig. 3. 1O. Measurement and Weight of the Sirup. The sirup is pumped from the multiple-effect evaporator to storage-tanks. It is not always easy to obtain accurate measurements of the sirup in these tanks. Rectangular tanks should be thoroughly stayed with rods. In case the tanks are bulged or uneven, it may be necessary to calibrate them by running in a measured volume of water. If the tanks are of uniform sectional area from top to bottom, they may be fitted with gauge-glasses similar to the water- 12 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. instant the water reaches the tube, it rises some distance by capillarity, and affords prompt means of ascertaining when the vessel has been filled to a certain point. If water slightly colored with phenolphthalein be used, the ris-e of the water may be observed with ease. The difference between the volume of the cylinder to the capillary tube and the volume of water added is the required volume of the massecuite. It is evident that this method can only be used in a build- ing free from vibrations. Under proper conditions, a measurement to within two or three tenths of a cubic centi- metre can be made by this method l in a large cylinder. A convenient-sized cylinder is 8 centimetres in diame- ter by 25 centimetres in depth, holding approximately 1500 grams of massecuite. In houses where the massecuite is run into large rectan- gular tanks or into small portable tanks, the volume may be roughly approximated by the above method; but where the various forms of " crystallizers with movement " are used, or the massecuite is run directly into the mixer, the weight can only be calculated from the analysis and the volume of the lower products. In order to estimate approx- imately the loss of sucrose at this stage when " boiling in " is practised, the analysis and volume of the molasses used must be known. It is not possible to do more than closely approximate the loss without knowing the actual weight of the massecuite. 12. Measurement and Weight of the Second Massecuite, etc. With modern methods of boiling first- sugar, i.e., "boiling in" molasses on first-sugar, there is comparatively little of the lower grades of massecuite made. Such massecuite is boiled to "string-proof," and may be easily sampled as it flows to the crystallizing-tanks. The weight of a definite volume may be determined as in 11. The measurement may be made in the tank after the massecuite attains approximately the temperature of the hot-room. A correction for expansion should be made, or 1 This method of measurement is given in Moor's Titrtmethode, The author used it several years, supposing it to be original with himself. ESTIMATION OF LOSSES. 13 the weight of a measured volume at the hot-room tem- perature should be determined. 13. Sugar- weights. The sugar-weights should be reported to the chemist for tabulation and for his use in calculating the yield and losses. ESTIMATION OF LOSSES AND THE DIVISION OF THE MANUFACTURING SEASON INTO PERIODS. 14. Division of the Season into Periods. In factories which suspend manufacturing operations every Sunday, it is a simple matter to divide the season into periods of one week each, but in other factories it requires a systematic scheme of estimates to do this. The following plan has given excellent results in the hands of the author, and is suggested : Sunday is a conven- ient time for beginning a period; for example, let each period begin at 6 A.M. that day. At six o'clock the chemist and his assistants pass through the sugar-house and meas- ure and estimate the quantities of material in the different stages of manufacture. The cossettes in the diffusion- battery are estimated as equivalent to a certain weight of beets, and the juice in the tanks is also calculated to terms of the beet. The sum of these estimates is subtracted from the weight of the beets as reported by the weigher, to obtain the weight of the beets worked. An estimate of the quan- tity of sirup in the multiple-effect and a measurement of that in the storage-tanks are made. The weight of beets equivalent to the cossettes in the battery and the quantity of sirup in the multiple-effect may be considered constant quantities, and the same numbers be used from week to week. The volume of the sirup in the tanks should be cal- culated to a volume of a standard density (see table, page 242), and from the average yield of sugar per 100 units of volume, as indicated by experience, its sugar value may be determined, or the sirup may be calculated back to juice, then to terms of the weight of beets, and this weight deducted from the beets charged to the factory. If a practice be made of allowing the vacuum-pan-man a certain volume of sirup per strike, i.e., equivalent to a 14 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. certain volume of a standard density (225), it is easy to calculate the quantity of massecuite in the pan by difference and its equivalent in sugar or beets. If it be the practice to " boil in" molasses on first-sugar, the quantity of this product must be determined and its sugar value estimated. The practice of "boiling in" molasses complicates the cal- culation. The lower grades of sugar are estimated from the quantity of massecuite, and the first-sugar is actually weighed. It is difficult, if at all possible, to carry the sep- aration of the work into periods beyond the first-sugar. 15. Loss of Sucrose in the Exhausted Cos- settes (Pulp). In the analysis of the exhausted cossettes, the percentage of sucrose is expressed in terms of the cossettes. In order to calculate the loss of sucrose, it is necessary to know the weight of exhausted cossettes per loo pounds of beets. This number can only be accurately determined by actually weighing the cossettes from a defi- nite weight of beets. This is manifestly impracticable, hence the chemist must necessarily base his calculations upon the average of a few weighings made each season. It is also evident that different diffusion-battery condi- tions result in differences in the percentage of exhausted cossettes. The depth of the diffuser, the working temper- ature, the condition of the beets, the thickness of the cos- sette, and the use of water-pressure only or water-pressure and compressed air, all have their influence upon the weight of exhausted cossettes produced. In general, it is usually considered that 100 pounds of beets, when working by water-pressure only, produce ap- proximately go to 100 pounds of well-drained exhausted cossettes, and working with compressed air, 100 pounds of beets produce approximately 80 to 85 pounds of exhausted cossettes. 16. Loss of Sucrose in the Waste Water. It is not practicable to measure the waste water in the diffu- sion process. In order to figure the loss of sucrose at this stage of the manufacture it is necessary that this quantity be known; hence, being unable to ascertain it by actual measurement, it must be determined approximately by calculation. ESTIMATION" OF LOSSES. 15 ?'he total volume of the diffuser and its connections must be known, also the weight and specific gravity of the ex- hausted cossettes. It is more convenient to use the metric system in these calculations. Calculation. Let x = the required volume of waste water in hecto- litres; D = specific gravity of the exhausted cossettes; W = the weight of the exhausted cossettes per diffuser in kilograms; V = the net volume of the diffuser in hectolitres, i.e. , the volume between the upper and lower strainers; W x = V -- the waste water in the net diffuser in hectolitres. To obtain the total volume of the waste water, add the calculated volume of the "dead space," i.e., the space above and below the strainers and of the parts of the pipes which drain into the diffuser. Example. (A diffusion-battery using water-pressure only.) Volume of the diffuser (net), hectolitres .......... 30 Weight of the exhausted cossettes per diffuser, kilograms ................................... 1300 Weight of fresh cossettes per diffuser, kilograms.. 1530 Specific gravity of the exhausted cossettes ........ 0.984 Per cent sucrose in the waste water .............. .05 Volume of the " dead space," hectolitres ......... 2.5 x = V --- = 30 --" = 3 13.2 = 16.8 hectolitres, looZ) 98.4 and 16.8 4- 2.5 = 19.3 hectolitres total waste water. This water contains so little solid matter in solution that its specific gravity may be considered to be i, hence 19.3 hecto- litres of the waste water weigh 1930 kilograms or -- X 100 ; 126 kilograms per 100 kilograms of beets. 126 X .05 -5- 100 14 HANDBOOK FOE SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. certain volume of a standard density (225), it is easy to calculate the quantity of massecuite in the pan by difference and its equivalent in sugar or beets. If it be the practice to " boil in" molasses on first-sugar, the quantity of this product must be determined and its sugar value estimated. The practice of "boiling in" molasses complicates the cal- culation. The lower grades of sugar are estimated from the quantity of massecuite, and the first-sugar is actually weighed. It is difficult, if at all possible, to carry the sep- aration of the work into periods beyond the first-sugar. 15. Loss of Sucrose in the Exhausted Cos- settes (Pulp). In the analysis of the exhausted cossettes, the percentage of sucrose is expressed in terms of the cossettes. In order to calculate the loss of sucrose, it is necessary to know the weight of exhausted cossettes per loo pounds of beets. This number can only be accurately determined by actually weighing the cossettes from a defi- nite weight of beets. This is manifestly impracticable, hence the chemist must necessarily base his calculations upon the average of a few weighings made each season. It is also evident that different diffusion-battery condi- tions result in differences in the percentage of exhausted cossettes. The depth of the diffuser, the working temper- ature, the condition of the beets, the thickness of the cos- sette, and the use of water-pressure only or water-pressure and compressed air, all have their influence upon the weight of exhausted cossettes produced. In general, it is usually considered that 100 pounds of beets, when working by water-pressure only, produce ap- proximately 90 to 100 pounds of well-drained exhausted cossettes, and working with compressed air, 100 pounds of beets produce approximately 80 to 85 pounds of exhausted cossettes. 16. Loss of Sucrose in the Waste Water. It is not practicable to measure the waste water in the diffu- sion process. In order to figure the loss of sucrose at this stage of the manufacture it is necessary that this quantity be known; hence, being unable to ascertain it by actual measurement, it must be determined approximately by calculation. ESTIMATION" OF LOSSES. 15 The total volume of the diffuser and its connections must be known, also the weight and specific gravity of the ex- hausted cossettes. It is more convenient to use the metric system in these calculations. Calculation. Let x = the required volume of waste water in hecto- litres; D = specific gravity of the exhausted cossettes; W the weight of the exhausted cossettes per diffuser in kilograms; V = the net volume of the diffuser in hectolitres, i.e. , the volume between the upper and lower strainers; W x V -- - = the waste water in the net diffuser iooZ> in hectolitres. To obtain the total volume of the waste water, add the calculated volume of the "dead space," i.e., the space above and below the strainers and of the parts of the pipes which drain into the diffuser. Example. (A diffusion-battery using water-pressure only.) Volume of the diffuser (net), hectolitres .......... 30 Weight of the exhausted cossettes per diffuser, kilograms ................................... 1300 Weight of fresh cossettes per diffuser, kilograms.. 1530 Specific gravity of the exhausted cossettes ........ 0.984 Per cent sucrose in the waste water .............. .05 Volume of the " dead space," hectolitres ......... 2.5 x V - = 30 ^~- = 30 13.2 = 16.8 hectolitres, and 16.8 4- 2.5 19.3 hectolitres total waste water. This water contains so little solid matter in solution that its specific gravity may be considered to be i, hence 19.3 hecto- litres of the waste water weigh 1930 kilograms or - X 100 1530 ; 126 kilograms per 100 kilograms of beets. 126 X .05 -r- 100 16 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. = .063 kilogram of sucrose lost per 100 kilograms of beets or .063 pound of sucrose per 100 pounds of beets. The quantity of sucrose in the waste water is so small that a very considerable error in figuring the volume of the waste water has but little influence. With a battery employing compressed air, the volume of the waste water is very small, and is determined by deduct- ing the volume of diffusion-juice drawn from the volume of the waste water as calculated above. In the above example, assuming a " draw " of 115 litres of diffusion-juice per 100 kilograms of beets, using com- pressed air, the volume of the waste water would be calcu- lated as follows : 15.3 X H5 = 1759.5 litres = 17.595 hectolitres of juice drawn and 19.3 17.595 = 1-705 hectolitres of waste water = 170.5 kilograms, or n.i kilograms per 100 kilograms of beets. The loss of sucrose would be n.i X .05 -4- 100 = .0056 kilogram per 100 kilograms of beets or .0056 pound per 100 pounds of beets. 17. Estimation of the Losses of Sucrose in the Diffusion by Difference. If it were always practicable to ascertain the exact weight of the beets enter- ing the diffusers, the simplest method of estimating the loss of sucrose in the diffusion would be by deducting the su- crose obtained in the diffusion-juice from that present in the beets, as ascertained by direct analysis. There are several probable sources of error in this method when not based upon the actual net weight of the beets. The tare (3) includes that part of the neck of the beet which should be removed in the field, but which has been left through care- less topping ; this passes into the diffusion -battery and contributes its sugar to the juice. This sugar increases the quantity in the juice without being charged to the beet supplying it. In brief, except in houses where the beets are weighed immediately before they are sliced, the only method of de- termining the losses in the diffusion is by direct gauging and analysis of the waste products. It is always advisable to make these analyses. Many chemists consider that there is usually some loss ESTIMATION OF LOSSES. 17 through decomposition of sucrose in the battery. Such loss has not been clearly proven. There is probably not often an appreciable inversion of sucrose in the diffusion of beets, except when there are long delays. In the event of inversion the loss may be calculated by the formulae used in cane-sugar-houses, which were first proposed by Dr. Stubbs of Louisiana (263). 18. Loss of Sucrose in the Filter Press-cake. The weight of the press-cake per ton of beets X per cent sucrose in the press-cake -f- 100 = pounds of sucrose lost per ton of beets. In sugar-houses in which it is not con- venient to weigh the press-cake the approximate weight may be estimated by the following method : Weigh several entire press-cakes and figure the average weight; multiply the average by the number of cakes per press. A record must be kept of the number of presses emptied. The average weight should occasionally be verified. 19. Loss of Sucrose in the Evaporation to Sirup. An examination of the ammoniacal waters from the multiple-effect apparatus will sometimes reveal the presence of sucrose. It is practically impossible to esti- mate this loss from the analyses of these waters, since tthe weight of the water is unknown and the percentage of su- crose small. The quantity of sucrose lost is best determined by the difference between the weight of sucrose in the purified juice and that in the sirup. To obtain the weight of sucrose in the purified juice otherwise than by direct analysis, the loss in the filter press-cakes and at the mechanical filters must be deducted from the weight of sucrose entering the house in the diffusion-juices. The following are some of the sources of loss of sucrose in the evaporation : Priming, i.e. , juice entrained with the vapors ; caramelization and decomposition of the sugar. The liquors should always be alkaline, hence there is no loss from inversion. 20. Loss of Sucrose in the Vacuum-pan. The estimation of the loss in the granulation of the sugar in the vacuum-pan is difficult. The sources of loss are the same as those in the multiple-effect. If the weight of the masbo- 18 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. cuite can be accurately ascertained (11), the loss can be de- termined with certainty, as the weight of sucrose in the sirup should balance that in the massecuite. The "boiling in" of molasses with first-sugar complicates the determina- tion in so far as it requires that the quantity and analysis of such molasses be known. The weight of sucrose in the massecuite can be ascertained indirectly when boiling* "straight strikes " from the weight of sugar obtained and the volume of molasses produced, the weight of sucrose in the "wash" used in the centrifugals being deducted. In the event of its not being convenient to gauge the molasses, the measurement may be made after concentration to sec- ond massecuite, the loss indicated being that of the two boilings. SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 19 SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. APPARATUS AND MANIPULATION, 21. The Polariscope. The instrument employed in the optical methods of determining cane-sugar and other sugars is termed a polariscope, or saccharimeter. This instrument depends in theory and construction upon the action of sugar upon the plane of polarization of light. Polariscopes may be divided into two general classes, viz., shadow and transition-tint instruments. The shadow instruments may be subdivided into polariscopes employing white light, as from an ordinary kerosene lamp, and those employing monochromatic light, supplied by a sodium lamp. The principal instruments in use are the half-shadow, triple-field and the transition-tint polariscopes. The shadow instruments are constructed for use with white light and with the yellow monochromatic light. The former are usually employed in commercial work, and the latter in scientific investigations. The transition-tint instruments are being rapidly dis- placed by the shadow polariscopes, since these latter leave little to be desired in the matter of accuracy and conven- ience. The reader is referred to the manuals of Wiley and others for the theory and construction of polariscopes. A brief description of the polariscopes in general use will suffice for the purposes of this book. 22. Half-shadow Polariscope (Schmidt and Haensch). The optical parts of this instrument are in- dicated in Fig. 6. At O there is a slightly modified Jellet- Corny Nicol prism, at G is a plate of dextrogyratory quartz, at E is a quartz wedge, movable by means of the screw M, and at F is a quartz wedge, fixed in position, to which is attached the vernier. The scale is attached to the 20 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. movable wedge. These quartz wedges are of laevogyratory quartz. The parts G, , and /^constitute the compensating apparatus, i.e., the apparatus which compensates for the deviation of the plane of polarization due to the influence of the solution of the optically active body placed in the observation-tube as shown in the figure. At H is the ana- lyzer, a Nicol prism. Aty is the telescope used in making the observation, and K is the telescope and reflector for reading the scale. The two lenses, shown in the diagram at the extreme right, are for concentrating the rays of SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 21 light from the lamp and transmitting them in parallel lines to the polarizing Nicol prism. The instrument above described is of the single compen- sating type. The double compensating instrument is shown in Fig. 7. This polariscope differs from the single compensating in- strument in having two sets of quartz wedges of opposite optical properties and two scales and verniers. The field of vision of the above instruments when set at 22 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. the neutral point is a uniformly shaded disk. If the milled screw controlling the compensating wedge be slightly turned to the right or left, one half the disk will be shaded and the other light. It is from this half-shaded disk that this type of instruments takes its name. 23. Triple - Field Polariscope (Schmidt and Haensch). This instrument differs from the preceding in having two small Nicol prisms placed in front of the polar- izer, as shown in Fig. 8. The field of the instrument is divided into three parts, i, 2, and 3 of the diagram, Fig. 9. This figure shows the arrangement of the Nicol prisms (I, II, III) and a diagram of the field of observation. SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. When the scale is set at the zero point, no optically active body being interposed, the field is uniformly shaded ; in other posi- tions i is shaded and 2 and 3 are light, or vice versa. This arrange- ment permits a very high degree of accuracy in the adjustment of the field in polariscopic observations. Ac- cording to the experiments of Wiley 1 this instrument is extremely sensitive and is capable of results but little in- ferior to those with the Landolt Lippich apparatus. It is probably the superior, in point of accuracy, to other instruments designed for industrial work. 24. Laurent Polariscope. The Laurent polariscope (Fig. 10) is a half-shadow instrument. It was originally designed for use with a monochromatic flame, but these in- struments, as now made, are provided also with compen- sating apparatus for use with white light. In the Laurent polariscope the analyzer is revolved by means of a milled screw, to compensate for the deflection of the plane of polarization by the sugar solution. The angular rotation is measured by means of a scale and ver- nier. This instrument is also provided with a second scale, termed the cane-sugar scale, on which the per cents may be read directly. As stated above, the Laurent polariscope is also often provided with a compensating apparatus (Fig. u), which permits the use of white light. A distinctive feature of the Laurent instrument is the adjustable polarizer. This Nicol prism may be rotated through a small angle, thus permitting the sensitiveness of the instrument to be varied. The polarized light is passed through a disk of glass, Agricultural Analysis. 3, 91. 24 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. FIG. ii. SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 25 one half of which is covered with a thin plate of quartz, thus producing the half-shadow feature of the instrument. 25. The Transition-tint Polariscope. Soleil- VentZke-Scheibler. The tint polariscope, Fig. 12, resembles in appearance the half-shadow instrument of Schmidt and Haensch. It differs from this in being pro- vided with an additional Nicol prism at A and a quartz plate B, which produce the color. The tint is varied by means of a spur-wheel and pinion, revolved by a rod with a milled head, L. The optical parts at the front end of the 26 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. instrument are the same as in the Schmidt and Haensch half-shadow polariscope. The field is colored, and when the instrument is set at the neutral point the tint is uniform. The sensitive tint for most eyes is a rose-violet. 26. General Remarks upon Polariscopes. The Laurent polariscope is very extensively used in France, and to but a limited extent in other parts of Europe and in this country. The tint instruments were formerly used almost exclusively, but have been largely replaced by the various forms of half-shadow polariscopes. Tint instru- ments, obviously, cannot be used by persons who are color-blind. All polariscopes are made to receive observation-tubes of various lengths. The standard length is 200 millimetres. There are several forms of polariscopes in addition to those described, but for industrial work it is unnecessary to mention others. 27. Manipulation of a Polariscope. Having dis- solved the normal weight (28)of the material under examin- ation in water, clarify the solution as described in 3D. Fill the observation-tube with a portion of the clarified solution, and pass the light from a suitable lamp into the instrument. The observer, with his eye at the small telescope J of the Schmidt and Haensch instruments, Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 12, or the corresponding part of the Laurent, will notice that one half the disk is shaded or more deeply colored, according to the kind of polariscope, provided the instrument is not set at the neutral point. The vertical line dividing the half-disks should be sharply defined; if not, the ocular should be slipped backwards or forwards until a sharp focus is obtained. Turn the milled screw until the field appears uniformly shaded or tinted on both sides of the vertical line, and then read the scale (2O). A little prac- tice will enable the observer to detect very slight differ- ences in the depth of the shadow or color and to attain great accuracy in this manipulation. The manipulation of the triple-field polariscope is as described above except as to the position of the shadows (23). SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 27 In polarizing very clear solutions with the shadow polariscope, the light may dazzle or fatigue the eye, mak- ing it somewhat difficult to obtain concordant readings. In such cases substitute the eyepiece, fitted with a plate of bichromate of potash, for the ordinary ocular of the obser- vation-telescope. It is also well to check the adjustment of the zero point after changing the eyepiece. The Laurent instrument is fitted with a device for vary- ing its sensitiveness. This is convenient in polarizing dark-colored solutions, since a slight change in the position of the lever which rotates the polarizer will increase the intensity of the light, though at the same time decreasing the sensitiveness of the instrument; and vice versa in polar- izing very clear light-colored solutions, the rotation of the polarizer in the opposite direction, through a small angle, increases the sensitiveness. The double compensating Schmidt and Haensch polari- scopes are provided with two scales, one graduated in black and the other usually in red. The black scale is operated by a black milled screw, and the red scale by a brass screw. For ordinary work, set the red scale at zero and equalize the field with the black screw. To check the readings, remove the observation-tube and equalize the field with the brass screw. The readings on the two scales should agree. To make a reading with laevorotatory sugar, set the black scale at zero, and use the brass screw and red scale. The manipulations of the tint instruments, as explained, are similar to those of the shadow polariscopes, except that a uniform tint must be obtained. The intensity of the tint varies with the position of the analyzer. The color is varied by turning the milled screw on the horizontal rod which revolves the regulator. The Schmidt and Haensch shadow polariscopes, the Laurent with special attachment, and the tint instruments require a strong white light. A kerosene-lamp with duplex burner is usually employed. A gas-lamp such as shown in Fig. 8 is very convenient in many localities. The kerosene-lamp should be provided with a metal chimney. Dr. Wiechmann uses the Welsbach light in his labo- 28 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ratory at the Havemeyer & Elder refinery, Brooklyn, and finds it very satisfactory. Dr. Wiley of the U. S. Department of Agriculture has investigated the use of the light from acetylene gas for polariscopic purposes, and states that the readings obtained are very accurate and that the light is espe- cially convenient when polarizing very dark-colored solutions. This gas is readily and economically produced, in the small quantities required for polariscopic purposes in sugar-works, by the decomposi- tion of calcium carbide in water, in a suitable gas-holder. A special gas- tip is required in burning this gas. In the author's experience, the Wiley 1 constant-flame sodium gas- lamp is the best yet devised for those instruments requiring a mono- chromatic light. This lamp gives a sodium flame of constant intensity for hours at a time, if required. Other lamps for monochromatic light are the Laurent gas-sodium FlG - I3< and the Landolt gas-sodium lamps, and the Laurent eolipyle, burning alcohol. M. Dupont' 2 has recently experimented with various sodium salts for use in monochromatic lamps. He finds that sodium chloride and tribasic phosphate of sodium, melted together in molecular proportions, give excellent results and are in every way superior to sodium chloride alone. 28. The Polariscopic Scale. The Normal "Weight. The scales of polariscopes for use in industrial work are usually so divided that if a certain weight of the 1 Agricultural Analysis, H. W. Wiley, 3, 85. 2 Bulletin de F Association des Chimistes de France, 14, 1041. SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 29 substance be dissolved in water and the solution diluted to 100 cc., and observed in a 20-centimetre tube, the read- ing will be in percentages of sucrose. This scale is termed the "cane-sugar scale," and the weight of material re- quired to give percentage readings is termed the "normal weight," or sometimes the " factor of the instrument." In commercial work the divisions of the scale are often termed "degrees," especially in the polarization of sugars. The normal weight for the German instruments is 26.048 grams, and for the Laurent 16.29 grams. The number given for the Laurent polariscope is that adopted by the 2 e Congres International de Chimie Appliqu^e, 1896. 29. Reading the Polariscopic Scale. Having equalized the shadow or tint as directed in 27, examine the scale through the reading-glass. For example : Let the scale and vernier have the positions shown in Fig. 14. 20 30 40 FIG. 14. The zero of the vernier is between 30 and 31; record the lower number; note the point to the right at which a line of the vernier, the small scale, corresponds with a line of the scale, in this case at 7; enter this number in the tenths place. The completed reading is 30.7. The portions of the scale and vernier to the left of the zeros are used in the polarization of laevorotatory bodies. If the zero of the ver- nier correspond exactly with a division of the scale, the reading is a whole number. If the normal weight of the material have been dissolved in a volume of TOO cc. 1 and a 20-centimetre observation-tube have been used, the reading on the cane-sugar scale is the percentage of sucrose in the substance, provided other op- tically active bodies than sucrose are absent. The read- 1 The flasks should be graduated to hold 100 grams of distilled water at 17! C., and not to true cubic centimetres, for the S. and H. instruments, but to true cc. for the Laurent. 30 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ings must be corrected for other Aveights of the substance than the normal, for other volumes than 100 cc., and for other tube lengths than 20 centimetres. 3D. Preparation of Solutions for Polariza- tion. Dissolve the normal or other convenient weight of the material in water. Add sufficient subacetate of lead l to clarify the solution. It is difficult to specify the amount of the lead salt to use. If too little or too much be used, the solutions usually filter with difficulty and become turbid. With juice from immature beets the filtered solution will sometimes be perfectly clear and colorless when first ob- tained and in a few moments become too dark to polarize. In such cases the juice should be thoroughly mixed with the lead solution and stand some time before filtration. Usually 10 cc. of the dilute solution of subacetate of lead (2O7) or 2-3 cc. of the concentrated solution (2O8) will be sufficient for 100 cc. of beet juice. Sugars of high grade require only a few drops of the reagent. After adding the lead salt dilute to 100 cc., mix thoroughly and filter. Reject the first few drops of the filtrate. Fill the observation- tube with a portion of the filtrate, and polarize as described in 27. In sugar analysis the materials to be examined are most conveniently weighed in a nickel or German-silver capsule such as is shown in Fig. 15. A convenient filtering ar- rangement is illustrated in Fig. 16. A is a stem- less funnel; B is a quar- ter-pint precipitating jar; C is a small cylinder. The stemless funnels may FIG. 15. be made of tinplate or thin copper, planished. The latter, while more expensive, are preferable, as they are more durable, A plain cylin- 1 The subnitrate and nitrate of lead have been used to some extent as clarifying agents. Their use would require the adoption of new con- stants in the inversion methods (89 et seg.), and, so far as present experi- ence indicates, without material advantage. SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 31 der is preferred by some chemists, as the funnel makes a close joint with the edge. The advantage of the metal stemless funnels and the heavy glass precipitating jar or the lipped cylinder is the ease with which they may be washed and dried. The jar or cylinder is also a very convenient support for the funnel. Stammer and Sickel advise the addition of at least four times the weight of the sucrose in the massecuite or mo- FIG. 16. lasses, of strong alcohol in preparing solutions for polariza- tion, and if the substance be alkaline to acidulate with acetic acid. 1 Herzfeld, as the result of his experiments, gives the same advice. 2 Other equally prominent chemists con- sider the use of alcohol unnecessary and liable to lead to error. 31. The Adjustment of the Polariscope. The scale of the polariscope is the only part which is liable to get out of position. Fill an observation-tube with water and make an observation. If the scale be properly adjusted the reading should be zero. The method of adjusting the instrument to read zero under the above conditions is the same with all the Schmidt 1 Revue Universelle de la. Fabrication du Sucre, 26. year, 578. 8 Deutsche Zuckerind., 1886, No. 24. 32 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAit-HOUSE CHEMISTS. and Haensch polariscopes. A micrometer-screw, turned by means of a key, is arranged to move the vernier a'short dis- tance. The field is equalized as usual by manipulating the milled screw. The micrometer-screw is then turned until the zeros of the scale and vernier coincide. The scale is moved through several divisions and the field then equal- ized as before. If after several trials the zeros be found not to coincide, the adjustment must be repeated, turning the micrometer-screw very little. It usually requires several trials to set the instrument to read zero. This adjustment is very fatiguing to the eye, which should be rested a few seconds between readings. In adjusting the Laurent polariscopes to read zero, the lever U, Figs. TO and n, is lifted to the upper limit; the oc- ular O is next focused on the vertical line which divides the field into halves ; the zeros of the scale and vernier are made to coincide by the screw G. The field should then be uniformly shaded if the instrument is in adjust- ment ; if not in adjustment, equalize with the screw F. This adjustment should be tested as with the Schmidt and Haensch polariscopes, and repeated until satisfactory. All parts of the instrument should be kept very clean, especially the exposed parts of the lenses. Chamois-skin is con- venient for cleaning the metal parts and pieces of clean old linen for the lenses. All the crown-glass lenses should be occasionally removed from the instrument and cleaned with alcohol and wiped with old linen. The Nicol prisms should not be removed from the instrument or disturbed. The micrometer screw near H, Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 12, is for adjusting the analyzer, should the field be unevenly shaded. This adjustment should be left to an experienced workman. Should the prisms, etc., require adjustment owing to an accident to the instrument, it is advisable to send the polariscope to the dealer that he may have it re- paired by an expert. 32. Notes on Polariscopic Work. When solu- tions do not filter readily, the funnel employed should be covered with a glass plate to prevent evaporation. The screw-caps of the observation-tubes should not bear heavily upon the cover-glasses, since glass is double- SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 33 refracting under these conditions. It is preferable to use caps held with a bayonet-catch rather than screw- caps. In making an observation, the eye should be in the optical axis of the instrument, and should not be moved from side to side. The cover-glasses should be of the best quality of glass, perfectly clean and with parallel surfaces. A glass may be tested by holding it in front of a window and looking through it at the window-bars ; on turning the glass slowly, if the bars appear to move the surfaces of the cover are not parallel and the glass should be rejected. Old glasses which have become slightly scratched by repeated wiping should not be used. The planes of the ends of the observation-tube should be perpendicular to the axis of the tubes. This may be tested by placing a tube, containing a sugar solution, in the instrument and making an observatiop. On revolving the tube in the trough of the polariscope, should the readings in different positions vary, the ends of the tube have not been properly ground. The manufacturers of polariscopes have attained such precision in their methods that errors in the adjustment of the instruments or accessories are rarely found. The polariscope should be used in a well-ventilated room from which all light, except that from the polariscope-lamp, is excluded. It is an excellent arrangement to have the lamp in an adjoining room and pass the light through a glass screen to the instrument. Late models of the Ger- man polariscopes have mirrors arranged to reflect the light to the scale. When the instrument is in a room adjoining the lamp-room, obviously the- above arrangement cannot be used. A small gas-jet or a candle should never be used for lighting the scale. A convenient source of light is a half- candle-power incandescent electric lamp mounted near the scale and switched into the circuit by an ordinary push- button. The lamp may be operated by a two-cell accumu- lator or in circuit with a 32-candle-power incandescent lamp, the latter being outside the polariscope-room. Ordinary 34 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Leclanche cells are cheap and will answer for several hun- dred polarizations. The instrument should be occasionally tested with pure sugar (2O6), or more conveniently with standardized quartz plates, to be obtained of the makers. Messrs. Schmidt and Haensch construct a control-tube, Fig. 17, with which all parts of the scale may be tested. The sugar solution is poured into the funnel T and flows into the tube as it is lengthened by turning the milled screw. The tube length is read on the scale N. The figure describes the tube sufficiently. Errors which may occur in the polarization, but not through faulty manipulation of the instrument, are indi- cated in the following paragraphs. FIG. 17. 33. Error Due to the Volume of the Lead Precipitate. The lead precipitate, formed in the clarifi- cation of the solutions, introduces errors in the polarization, some of which are probably offset by compensating errors, notably in the analysis of low w -grade products. An important error is that due to the volume of the lead precipitate. This question has been studied by a number of chemists, notably by Scheibler in Germany and Sachs in Belgium. Scheibler devised a simple method for the cor- rection of this error, which is commonly termed the " method of double dilution." It was noticed by Rafey, Pellet, Commerson, and others that in low-grade products, the saline coefficient of which is large, there is apparently SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 35 no error due to the volume of the precipitate, which is very large. They attributed this fact to an absorption of sucrose by the precipitate at the moment of its formation. Sachs 1 published an exhaustive paper on this question some years since, and demonstrated that there is no absorption of su- crose. He attributed the results with low products to the influence of acetates of potassium and sodium, formed with the acetic acid set free in the decomposition of the lead salt, upon the rotatory power of the sucrose. This view is strengthened by the fact that there is a very perceptible error, in the polarization of juices, due to the precipitate. The precipitate in juices contains but little of the acetates of potassium and sodium, whereas these salts are formed in considerable quantities in molasses and low products. Sachs* experiments were made by increasing the concen- tration of the solutions instead of by dilution as practised by Scheibler. Sachs dissolved x grams of molasses in water, added sufficient subacetate of lead for clarification, completed the volume to 100 cc. and polarized as usual. The quantity x increases from experiment to experiment by practically equal increments. Since the quantity of molasses is increased with each experiment, the volume of the precipitate must increase in the same ratio. An in- crease in the volume of the precipitate, if this were the only disturbing influence, should increase the polarization, since the volume of the solution is decreased and the con- centration is increased. Letting x = the weight of molasses, and^ = the polari- y scopic reading, the ratio should increase with each incre- ment of molasses if there be an error due to the volume of the precipitate, not compensated for by other influences. Sachs employed quantities of.njftliasses ranging from 5 to 35 grams in loocc., and substituting the values of x and y in the ratio and reducing, obtained the following figures : ist series : 1.906, 1.900, 1.900, 1.906, 1.896; 2d series : 2.14, 2.13, 2.14, 2.14 1 Revue Universelle de la Fabrication du Sucre, 1, 451, 36 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. y The practically constant value of - shows that a minus oc error or errors have fully compensated for that due to the volume of the precipitate. Sachs' deductions are given above. A similar experiment with beet-juices gave the follow- y ing values of : ist series: 0.5446, 0.5474, 0.5480, 0.5497; 2d series : 0.5800, 0.5830, 0.5842, 0.5860. It is thus shown that there is an increase in the ratio and an error due to the volume of the precipitate in the analy- sis of juices. The volume of the lead precipitate from 100 cc. of normal juice is approximately i cc. It is not improbable that at least to some extent the so- called "losses from unknown sources" in sugar-house practice are due to errors in analysis which, with our present information, are unavoidable. 34. Error Due to the Volume of the Lead Precipitate Scheibler's Method of Double Dilution. The error due to the volume of the lead precipitate may usually be determined by Scheibler's 1 method. To 100 cc. of the juice add the requisite quantity of subacetate of lead, complete the volume to fjto cc. and polarize as usual; a second portion of 100 cc. of the juice is treated with lead as above, diluted to 220 cc. and polarized. Calculation. Multiply the second reading by 2, subtract the product from the first reading, multiply the remainder by 2.2, and deduct this product from the first reading. The remainder is the required per cent sucrose. 1 Zeit., Rubenzucker -Industrie, 35, 1054. SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 37 Example. Degree Brix of the juice 18. First polariscopic reading (no cc.) 57.6 Second polariscopic reading (220 cc.). ...... 28.7 2 X 28.7 = 57-4; 57-6 - 57-4 = -2; 2.2 X .2 = .44; 57-6 - .44 = 57.16, = the corrected reading. By Schmitz' table, as described on page 76, we have 15-18 03 .02 15.23 = required per cent. In the application of this method to other products using the normal or multiple-normal weight, calculate as follows: ist volume, 100 cc.; 2d volume, 200 cc. Multiply the second polariscopic reading by 2 and sub- tract the product from the first reading; multiply the re- mainder by 2 and subtract the product from the first reading. This remainder is the required per cent sucrose. It is evident that this method requires extreme care in the polarization, since an error is multiplied. 35. Sachs' ' Method of Determining the Vol- ume of the Lead Precipitate. Clarify 100 cc. of juice with subacetate of Ij^d as usual, using a tall cylinder instead of a sugar-flask, v^ash the precipitate by decanta- tion, first using water and finally hot water. Continue the washing until all the sucrose is removed. Transfer the precipitate to a loo-cc. sugar-flask and add the one-half normal weight (13.024 grams) of pure sugar, dissolve and dilute to 100 cc., mix, filter, and polarize, using a 4OO-mm. tube. Op. cit., 1, 451. 38 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Calculation. Let P the per cent of sucrose in the sugar; P' =. the polarization of the solution in the presence of the lead precipitate; x = volume of the lead precipitate. IOOP' IOOP Then x = . Example. Let P = 99.9; P' = 100.77. Then x = I0 X iQQ.77 - ioo X 99-9 100.77 = .86 cc., the volume of the lead precipitate. 36. Influence of Subacetate of Lead and Other Substances upon the Sugars and Optically Ac- tive Non-sugars J in Beet Products. Sucrose. The rotatory power of sucrose in aqueous solution is not modified by subacetate of lead under the conditions which usually obtain in analysis. In the presence of a very large excess of the lead salt there is a slight diminution in the rotatory power; there is a decided diminution in alcoholic solution in the presence of the lead salt. Farnsteiner 2 made the following observations relative to the influence of certain inorganic salts: " With a constant relation of sugar to water, the chlorides of barium, strontium, and calcium cause a decrease in the rotation which continues to decrease as the salt is increased; calcium chloride causes a decrease, but when the salt reaches a maximum further addition causes an 1 The beet and beet products contain other substances which are opti- cally active in addition to those given here, but the quantities present are exceedingly small and would not appreciably influence the analytical results. The following optically active substances are also present : tar- taric acid, leucine, coniferine, and cholesterine. 2 Berichte deut, chem. Gesel., 33, 3570; Journ. Chem. Soc., 60, 283. SUGAR ANALYSIS. OPTICAL METHODS. 39 increase which finally exceeds that of the pure sugar solution. " If the relation of the sugar to that of the salt be kept constant, it is found that the addition of water causes in all cases an increase in the specific rotatory power, i.e., the action of the salts is lessened. The specific rotatory power is almost unaffected by varying the quantity of sugar with a constant relation between the salt and water. The chlorides of lithium, sodium, and potassium behave in a similar manner. "An examination of the action of the same quantities of different salts shows that in the case of strontium, calcium, and magnesium the depression varies inversely with the molecular weight, and that the product of the two quanti- ties is approximately a constant. Barium chloride does not act in the same manner, but the chlorides of the alkalis show a similar relation. The relation, however, only holds good within each group of chlorides and not for two salts belonging to different groups." The rotatory power of sucrose in water or alcohol solu- tion is not modified by the presence of nitrates of sodium and potassium even when the quantity of the nitrate amounts to as much as 50 per cent of the sucrose (E. Gravier). In investigating the influence of the lead precipitate (33), Sachs found that the presence of acetate of potas- sium very perceptibly diminished the rotation. The diminu- tion was also noticeable with the sulphates of potassium and lead, but was not so marked with the corresponding sodium salts. Sachs also states that he has demon- strated that citrate of potassium, carbonate of sodium, and several other salts have an influence analogous to that of the acetates. The presence of free acetic acid reduces this influence in part. Sachs, in the same paper, urges that the use of tannic acid in decolorizing solutions is very objec- tionable, on account of the volume of the precipitate formed with the lead. Dextrose. The rotatory power of dextrose is not modi- fied, or, if at all, but very slightly, under ordinary analytical 40 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. conditions by either the subacetate or the neutral acetate of lead. See also Invert-sugar. Levulose. The rotatory power of levulose is very greatly diminished by the presence of subacetate of lead. Under certain conditions, a levulosate of lead is probably formed. This levulosate is precipitated in the presence of certain chlorides, in quantities more or less considerable according to the relative proportions of the salts, lead, and levulose. There is no precipitation by the normal acetate of lead (Pellet). Invert-sugar. Dextrose and Levulose. In the presence of the salts formed in the decomposition of the subacetate of lead, dextrose and levulose are precipitated in part (Pellet, Edson). The influence of the basic lead salt on the rotatory power of levulose {see above), or the formation of a levulosate of lead of little optical activity, gives undue prominence to the dextrose and results in a plus error. In 1885 the author recommended the acidulation of solutions containing invert-sugar with acetic acid. This restores the normal or nearly the normal rotatory power to the levu- lose. Acetic acid slightly lowers the rotatory power of invert- sugar; hydrochloric acid has an opposite effect. Sodic acetate and sodic chloride increase the rotation (H. A. Weber and Wm. McPherson). Sulphuric and hydrochloric acids increase the rotation; oxalic acid has no effect. The rotation increases as the quantity of mineral acid is increased. 1 Raffinose. The rotatory power of raffinose is greatly diminished in concentrated solution by subacetate of lead in large quantity, and not at all in dilute solution, especially in the presence of sucrose. The normal rotation is restored by slight acidulation with acetic acid (Pellet). Raffinose is precipitated by highly basic subacetate of lead as readily as with ammoniacal acetate of lead solution (Svoboda). Asparagine. Not precipitable by subacetate of lead, but is rendered dextrorotatory, instead of Isevorotatory, by the 1 Gubbe, Bulletin Assoc. Chimistes de France, 3, 131. SUGAR ANALYSIS. CHEMICAL METHODS. 41 lead salt. Asparagine is insoluble in alcohol, and in the presence of acetic acid is inactive (Pellet). In neutral and alkaline solution, laevorotatory; in presence of a mineral acid, dextrorotatory; in the presence of acetic acid the rotation is diminished and with 10 molecules of the acid becomes o, and with additional acid dextrorotatory (Degener). Aspartic Acid. From asparagine by the action of lime; the lime salt is soluble. In alkaline solutions aspartates are laevorotatory, and acid solutions dextrorotatory ; aspar- tic acid is precipitated by subacetate of lead. Glutamic acid is dextrorotatory, and in the presence of subacetate of lead it becomes laevorotatory. Not precipi- tated by lead acetate except in the presence of alcohol. Malic acid is laevorotatory. The artificial malic acid is optically inactive. Malic acid is precipitated by subacetate of lead. Pectine and parapectine are dextrorotatory and are both precipitated by subacetate of lead, and the latter by normal acetate of lead. CHEMICAL METHODS. 37. Determination of Sucrose by Alkaline Copper Solution. Dissolve a weighed quantity of the material in water and dilute to 50 cc. Invert by means of hydrochloric acid as described in 89. Transfer to a litre flask, cool, neutralize with caustic soda, and dilute to looo cc. The quantity of material to be used depends upon the method of further procedure selected. It is, however, convenient to use 5 grams or a multi- ple of 5 grams and to dilute to a multiple of 100 cc. in order that the table of reciprocals on page 294 may be used for the calculations if a volumetric method be selected. Determine percentage of invert-sugar by one of the methods in 72 or 73. Multiply the per cent invert-sugar by .95, since sucrose on inversion yields invert-sugar in the ratio 100 : 95. 42 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 38. Determination of Sucrose in the Presence of Reducing Sug'ars. Determine the reducing sugar before inversion and after, as indicated in 37. Calculation. Per cent reducing sugar after inversion per cent reducing sugar before inversion X -95 = the required per cent sucrose. SAMPLING AND AVERAGING. 43 GENERAL ANALYTICAL WORK. SAMPLING AND AVERAGING. 39. General Remarks on Sampling and Averaging- Accurate sampling is essential to successful chemical control. The samples must be strictly represent- ative of the average composition of the substance or sub- sequent analytical work will be wasted. The method of sampling should be by aliquot parts. This consists in drawing a definite quantity from each lot of the material, which must be the same aliquot part in each case. Example. Given four lots of sirup, A t B, C, and D , from which an average sample is to be drawn. Let A 1000, B = 800, C 500, and D 200. Each of these lots differs in analysis. Manifestly a mixture of equal parts of A, B, C, and D would not be a true average sample, but a mixture of 10 parts of A, 8 parts of B, 5 parts of C, and 2 parts of D would be a representative sample. In calculating an average analysis from a large number of analyses the same principle must be applied. Example. Given the following per cents of sucrose, representing the analyses of the beets each day for a week: I5#; 14$; 13$; 14- 5#; 15$; 15. 5#; 16$. The following num- bers of diffusers of beets were worked each day : 168; 144- 140; 150; 165; 160; 145 a total of 1072. Required the mean percentage of sucrose in the beets. Multiply each analysis by the number of diffusers of beets it represents, and divide the sum of the products by the total number of diffusers worked. 44 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 15 X 168 = 2520 15,806 _ 14 X 144 = 2016 1,072 13 X 140 = 1820 the mean per cent 14.5 X 150 = 2175 sucrose for the week. 15 X 165 = 2475 15.5 X 160 =2480 16 X 145 = 2320 1,072 15,806 It is obvious that the weight of juice obtained per day, or the weight of the beets worked, may be used as a factor in the above calculation and strictly accurate averages secured. Usually, however, if the diffusers receive practically uniform charges of beets, the average analysis, as calcu- lated above, will approximate the true mean very closely. 4O. Sampling Beets in the Field. Beets grow- ing side by side may differ greatly in sugar content; the same is true of beets grown within a few feet of one an- other as well as from widely different parts of the field. This indicates the difficulty if not impossibility of selecting a strictly representative sample. In point of fact, samples selected in the field only approximately represent the general average. A convenient plan for sampling in the field is as follows: When drawing the beets to the factory, take a definite number at random from each load until all the beets have been hauled; unite the subsamples and proceed as indicated farther on. If the sample is to be taken after the beets have been lifted and placed in piles, select a number of beets from each pile as above, or from every second or third pile, etc., and unite the subsamples. If the roots be still in the ground, lift a beet at definite intervals in the row, from every second, third, or fourth row as may be deemed best, and unite the subsamples as before. The importance of the sample and the size of the field must determine the number of beets to be drawn, but this number should in any case be as large as practicable. Having selected the beets, they should be sorted into three or four classes according to size and ranged in rows SAMPLING AND AVERAGING. 45 in a convenient place, protected from the rays of the sun. The number of beets is now reduced by subsampling, tak- ing from each row in proportion to the number of beets in the row. For example, take every fifth or every tenth beet in the row. If the number of beets drawn in this way be too large, the subsample should be rearranged in rows and again subsampled. 41. Subsampling of Beets for Analysis in Fix- ing the Purchase Price. As will be shown (p. 177), the sucrose is not uniformly distributed throughout the beet, and further the juice obtained by pressure from the same sample varies in composition with the pressure exerted and the state of division of the pulp. The more finely divided the pulp, and the heavier the pressure, the nearer the juice obtained approaches the mean juice in composition. The proportion of juice in the beet varies from sample to sample, and often materially from the average (95/9 ; hence the practice of employing a coefficient, e.g. .95, to calculate the percentage of sucrose in the beet from the analysis of the juice, should be discouraged. In the course of an en- tire season this may be just to the manufacturer, but un- doubtedly is an injustice in many cases to the producer of the beets. If the indirect method of analysis be employed, the same models of rasp and press should be used by the chemists of the buyer and the seller. Further, the conditions of sam- pling and analysis should be the same in both laboratories. The beets should be divided longitudinally into quarters or eighths, and an entire segment should be rasped. This insures the reduction of a portion of the beet in propor- tion to its size. In many factories it is the custom to remove a small plug or cylinder from each beet for the analysis. Owing to the unequal distribution of the sugar in the beet this method cannot be depended upon to give a strictly repre- sentative sample, but experience has shown that the varia- tions from the true average sample are not great, provided the cylinder be taken in the proper direction. The method and direction of removing the cylinder are indicated in Fig. 18. The boring-rasp (Keil and Dolle) is well adapted for 46 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS, removing a sample of pulp from each of a number of beets. FIG. 18. This machine, which is shown in Fig. 19, may be used in Pellet's instantaneous diffusion method (62). FIG 19. The beet is pressed carefully against the rasping-tool, which revolves at the rate of 2000 revolutions per minute. FIG. 20. An opening in the rasp, which is shewn in detail ia Fig. 20, permits the pulp to pass into the tool, whih is hollow, and SAMPLING AND AVERAGING. 47 thence to the box shown in the figure. Practice is neces- sary in using this machine in order to produce a suitable pulp. The pulp from the first perforation should be re- jected. It is evident that this machine does not remove a portion of pulp bearing a fixed relation to the size of the beet. This is essential in order that the analysis may represent the mean composition of the roots. The following method of sampling has been proposed by Kaiser 1 to obviate this difficulty. The form of the beet is a cone the height of which is approximately three times the radius of the base, hence its volume is calculated by the formula Ttr* = volume ; in other words, the volume of the beet increases as the cube of its largest radius. For example, we have three beets whose radii are 4 : 5 : 6; their volumes are then in the ratio 4 3 : 5 3 : 6 8 , or 64 : 125 : 216. The beet whose radius is 4 should be per- forated once ; the second, whose radius is 5, should be per- forated (V? 5 ) 2 times, and the third, having a radius of 6, should be perforated (V^ 6 ) 3 times, and so on. Kaiser uses a scale which indicates the number of perforations to be made in each beet. Such a scale may easily be made which will show at a glance the number of times each beet should be perforated. This method of sampling gives approximately correct re- sults, even if the relation between the greatest radius of the beet and its length be different from Kaiser's numbers. If the number of beets in the sample be small enough to permit, it is advisable to divide the beets longitudinally and reduce an entire segment of each to a pulp suitable for a^irect method of analysis. After the sample of washed beets is received in the lab- oratory its weight should be noted, that a correction may be made for the loss of weight by drying prior to the an- alysis. 42. Sampling Beets at the Diffusion-battery. Samples of beets can be drawn at the battery with mod- erate certainty of obtaining a fair average. In the various 1 Deutsche Zuckerindustrie^ Nov. i8g6. 48 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. manipulations from the field to the factory, including the transport and washing, the beets are pretty thoroughly mixed ; hence if a beet be taken at random at regular and frequent intervals, the united subsamples so drawn will be very nearly of the mean composition of the beets entering the sugar-house. It is not usually necessary to sample beets in this way, since the method given in the following para- graph is simpler and the sample drawn is more satisfactory. 43. Sampling- the Fresh Cossettes at the Diffusion-battery. The proper time to sample the beets is after they have been sliced. A handful of the cos- settes should be taken from the elevator or drag at regular intervals and stored in a covered receptacle. Large granite- or agate-ware pails are very convenient for the purpose, as they can be easily inspected as to their cleanliness. It is not advisable to use a mechanical device to divert a part of the cossettes to the pail, since the sample so obtained is not usually a fair average. The samples should be drawn at very frequent intervals, if practicable every two or three minutes. In practice it is more convenient to take a small portion of the cuttings shortly after they begin to fall into the diffuser, a second when the diffuser is half filled, and a third before directing the cuttings into the next diffuser. The sample obtained in the manner described should be taken to the laboratory for immediate treatment. It is perfectly reliable, and if the beets be weighed immediately before entering the cutter, it may enter into the chemical control of the diffusion. It is necessary to keep the sample-pails scrupulously clean, using boiling water in washing them ; they should be large enough to contain the subsamples from two or three hours' work. 44. Sampling the Exhausted Cossettes. The exhausted cossettes should be sampled in a similar manner to the fresh cuttings. This sample may be taken from the elevator leading to the pulp-presses, and should be stored in a covered galvanized-iron pail having the bottom per- forated for drainage. 45. Sampling Waste Waters. A definite volume of the waste water should be drawn from each diffuser SAMPLING AND AVERAGING. 49 and these subsamples stored in a loosely stoppered bottle, with corrosive sublimate as a preservative. 46. Sampling Diffusion-juice, etc. In sampling diffusion-juice, a definite volume should be drawn from each measuring tankful. This volume once decided upon should not be changed during the sampling period except there be a change in the volume of juice drawn into the tank, and then the sample should be changed in a like proportion. This is not easily accomplished, except by the use of an automatic sampler. In sampling purified juices the same method should be observed. 47. Sampling Filter Press-cake. In sampling the press-cake, small portions should be taken systemati- cally from different parts of the press, bearing in mind that parts of the cake contain more moisture than others, according to the kind of press. The number of presses filled should be recorded for use in estimating the weight of the press-cake and in averaging the analyses. A very simple and satisfactory instrument for sampling filter press-cake is made from a small brass tube with a cutting edge at one end. Several cork-borers of the same diameter are more convenient than a single brass tube for this purpose. In using this instrument small cylinders of the press-cake are cut out in precisely the same manner as one would bore a hole through a cork. The subsamples are left in the tubes until a sufficient quantity of material has been col- lected. Each subsample pushes its predecessor farther into the tube. 48. Sampling Sirups. A method is recommended in 1O for the measurement of sirups. In this method gauge-tubes, similar to the water-gauges on steam-boilers, are used. The sirup should be thoroughly mixed in the tanks before admitting it to the tubes. If several tanks be used, a volume of sirup should be drawn from each in- cluded in the analytical- period, as advised in 1O. 49. The Preservation of Samples. The sample of diffusion-juice is effectually preserved from fermentation by the addition of subacetate of lead. It maybe preserved 50 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. in this way several weeks or even months without percepti- ble change in the sucrose conte'nt. The most convenient preservative is mercuric chloride, i part to 10,000 parts of juice. It is not advisable to store juices treated with mer- curic chloride for a longer period than 24 hours. The advantage of the mercuric chloride is that it permits the usual determinations, viz., sucrose, total solids, ash, etc., to be made with the same sample, thus obviating the neces- sity of drawing a second sample as is usual when subacetate of lead is used. In many houses it is the practice to store the samples a week before analysis, uniting those drawn from day to day. In such cases it is advisable to determine the density, solids, and ash from day to day, and store a portion of the juice with subacetate of lead for the sucrose determination. The use of mercuric chloride simplifies the work, and as it is used in such minute quantities it does not perceptibly affect the accuracy of the results. When subacetate of lead is employed as a preservative, it should be added in the proportions required for the clari- fication of the juice, i.e., about 2-3 cc. of the concentrated solution (2O7). It is convenient to use the concentrated lead solution, and, when preparing for the polarization, to measure the mixed juice and lead solution and add suffi- cient water to increase the volume to nofc that of the juice. The per cent sucrose is then readily calculated by the use of Schmitz' table(p.285)from the degree Brix" of the juice and the polariscopic reading. The preservative must be thoroughly mixed with juice as each portion is added. This is easily accomplished when an automatic sampler is employed by letting the de- livery-tube dip to the bottom of the storage-bottle. The mouth of the bottle should be loosely plugged with cotton. When the sampling is by hand, it is advisable to use a wide- mouthed jar, provided with a cover, for the storage of the juice, and mix frequently. This facilitates the collection of the subsamples without the use of a funnel. No preservative is required for sugar-house products other than the waste waters, juices, and sirups. i>0. Automatic Sampling of Juices. Automatic SAMPLING AND AVERAGING. 51 samplers have for their object not only the relief of the chemist from this duty, but the drawing of samples which are probably more reliable than those obtained in any other way. This problem is not a simple one in the case of sampling diffusion-juices at the measuring-tank. It is evident from the method of conducting the diffusion, that the juice re- ceived into the measuring-tank is not of uniform composi- tion. A sample drawn from the bottom of the tank will differ slightly from one drawn at the centre or near the top. Coombs' Automatic Sampler. The apparatus shown in Fig. 21 is the invention of Mr. F. E. Coombs, Chemist of JUICE PIPE A. \ TO | INCH VALVE. B, STRONG RUBBER TUBE CON- NECTING PIPE LEADING FROM 'A"wiTH C, A GLASS T-TUBE-|TO- INCHES INSIDE DIAMETER. D, SHORT ARM OF T, FROM WHICH THE SAMPLE IS TO BE LED INTO AN APPROPRIATE RECEIVER. FIG. 21. the Shadyside Plantation, Louisiana, and of the Esperanza Estate, Trinidad, B. W. I., through whose courtesy this de- scription and illustration were supplied the author. This apparatus is applicable to the sampling of liquids which are not too viscous to flow through small pipes. It may be used in sampling juice and sirup, and has proved quite reliable in practical work. It has the advantage of 52 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. being quickly set up wherever there is provision for re- turning a small quantity of overflow liquor to the tank. Attempts to draw continuous samples of liquor from pipes by means of a small valve, depending upon the valve to regulate the flow of the sample, have usually failed, since the valve must be so nearly closed that fine pulp in the juice or, in the case of sirup, a mere change from a low to a high density clogs the opening and stops the sampling. The flow must be sufficient to keep the valve free from obstruction. By the use of a T-tube, as shown in the figure, a strong current of liquor can be kept flowing through the pipe, and at the same time a small, continuous, easily regulated drip can be diverted into the sample- bottle. In the figure, the apparatus is shown as arranged for drawing a sample of juice as it passes from the measuring- tank to the carbonatation. It is advisable to pass the juice through a distributing-tank in which the sampler is lo- cated, otherwise an arrangement must be provided for con- ducting the overflow to the carbonatation-tanks. The sample-bottle at D rests upon a wooden shelf hung inside the tank by hangers of strap-iron which hook over the edge. It is apparent that when D , the short arm 01 the T-tube, is in its lowest position it will give its maximum discharge. By rotating the T-tube, which is of glass, in the strong rubber connecting-tube B to the position D' t the drip will cease, all the liquor passing out at C. The posi- tion giving a sample of the required volume is readily ascertained by experiment. The sample, if juice, is pre- served as indicated in 49 ; sirups require no preservative. With well-strained juice the drip is regular and there is rarely trouble from clogging. It is evident, from the arrangement of the sampler, that the samples drawn, whether of juice or sirup, may be de- pended upon as being representative of the composition of the entire volume of the liquor. It is necessary to connect the small pipe at the under side of the juice or sirup main, to insure a continuous flow, even when but little liquor is passing. The main should be tapped at its highest level, or on the discharge side of SAMPLING AND AVERAGING. 53 that level, to avoid drawing liquor left in the pipe when the flow is temporarily stopped. The valve on the sampling- pipe should be placed as close as possible to the point where the main is entered. The valve A should always be opened as widely as pos- sible to prevent clogging, but this must be regulated so that the currentthrough the main arm of the T-tube shall not be too swift, since it will then act as an aspirator. For this reason it is advis- able to avoid extending the discharge-tube D below the level of the sample in the bottle, otherwise the entire contents may be lost. Horsiti'Deon'' s Automatic Sampler. This apparatus, shown in Fig. 22, consists of a three-way cock for con- necting a small standpipe alternately with the measur- ing-tank and the sample- bottle, and is operated by a suitable float. This sampler is placed in- side the measuring-tank. It is so arranged that the volume of the sample drawn is proportionate to the quantity of juice in the tank. The discharge-pipe from the diffusion-battery should enter the measuring-tank at the bottom. The inlet to the sampler should be di- rectly over the inlet from the battery, if practicable, projecting into the pipe. If this precaution be not ob- served the sample drawn will not be a fair average. 54 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. It is obvious that this sampler is not applicable in sam- pling sirups. 51. Sampling' Sugars. Sugars are best sampled by means of a "trier" or sound (Fig. 23). This in- FIG. 23. strument is so constructed that it may be plunged into a quantity of sugar and, on withdrawal, remove a sample representative of the sugar through which it has passed. The trier should be long enough to pass from end to end of the package of sugar, diagonally if necessary. The chemist must be guided largely by the grade of the sugar and the method of packing in drawing the sample. A portion should be drawn from every third, fifth, etc., package according to the size of the lot. The large sample should be well mixed, and all lumps broken, then subsam- pled by quartering. DENSITY DETERMINATIONS. 59 heavier than water, and have the values .1, .01, .001, and .0001, respectively, when placed on the corresponding graduations of the beam, and for other graduations .300, .030, .003, .0003, etc. Each rider is provided with a hook FIG. 27. from which additional weights may be suspended in the case of more than one falling upon the same graduation. The method of using the balance is as follows : Dissolve a weighed portion of the material in water and dilute to a measured volume at 17^ C. ; for example, 25 grams to 100 cc. Suspend the bob of the balance, as described above, in this solution, and weight the beam with the riders until the balance is in equilibrium. Read off the specific gravity from the position of the weights on the beam. Example : 25 grams material dissolved and diluted to 100 cc. Position of the riders : 60 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. (1) at point of suspension of the bob = i.ooo (2) not on the beam. (3) at 7 =0.07 (4) at 9 = 0.009 Specific gravity = 1.079 The degree Brix corresponding to 1.079, *'-. the per cent solids in this solution, is 19, as given in the table, page 275. To obtain the weight of the solution, multiply 1.079 by 100 = 107.9 hence the weight of solids in the solution is 107. 9 X ig-j- 100 = 20.5 grams = the weight of solid matter in 25 grams of the material. The per cent solids in the material, i.e., the degree Brix = 20.5 -f- 25 X 100 = 82, and the corresponding specific gravity, obtained from the table, is 1.4293. See 85 relative to the ac- curacy of this determination of the degree Brix. 57. Py kilometers. Pyknome- ters are bottles so constructed that they may be filled with a definite volume of liquid. Knowing the we^ht of this volume, it may be compared with the weight of an equals-volume of water, from which the density of the liquid is calculated. It is rarely necessary to use a pyknometer in the sugar in- dustry, the more rapid density deter- X^*T N T** > \. mination by the spindle being usually / \ sufficiently accurate. Pyknometers are made in a great variety of forms. One of the most convenient of these is shown in Fig. 28. The stopper is a fine thermom- eter ground into the neck of the bottle. The side tube provides an outlet for the excess of liquid when the stopper is put in place. The bottle should be filled at a somewhat lower temperature than that at which the density is to be determined. As the temperature DENSITY DETERMINATIONS, 61 gradually rises to the desired point, the excess of liquid is blotted off. At the required temperature, the cap is placed in position, and receives any further liquid, which may be expelled from the bottle, as the temperature rises to that of the room. There is a minute opening in the cap for the escape of the air. In sugar work, the specific gravity should be determined at 17$ C. for reasons already stated. The weight of the corresponding volume of water may be determined at room temperature and a correction be made to reduce it to the standard temperature, the tables on page 251 being used for this purpose. It is customary to express specific gravities as follows : f -^, 1.0795; the numbers above and below the line being the temperatures at which the bottle was filled with water and the substance respectively. Recently boiled and cooled distilled water should be used in density determinations. To calculate the density of a liquid, divide the weight of a definite volume of it by the weight of an equal volume of water. I 62 HANDBOOK FOB SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ANALYSIS OF THE BEET. 58. The Direct Analysis of the Beet. The Methods for the direct analysis of the beet may be divided into two general classes, according to the solvent used, viz. : (i) methods employing alcohol ; (2) methods employing water. The alcoholic methods have found most favor in Germany, and the aqueous methods in France. Certain modifications of the Scheibler alcoholic method and Pellet's aqueous methods, hot and cold, are the most important of their classes, and are the only ones which will be described in this book. It is probable, judging from the published statements of many chemists, that these meth- ods are equally accurate if the instructions of their invent- ors be implicitly complied with. The alcoholic methods are usually considered the most scientific. 59. Scheibler's Alcoholic Method with Sox- hlet's Extraction Apparatus. VariouMpodifications of Soxhlet's apparatus are used to such an extent in chem- ical laboratories that an illustration, Fig. 29, and a brief description of it will suffice. The apparatus is so arranged that the vapors of the solvent, which is boiled in the flask by means of a hot-water bath, pass up through the tube B to the reflux condenser, and the solvent falls back into the extractor in which the material is placed. When a suffi- cient quantity of the solvent accumulates in the extractor, it is siphoned into the flask by the tube shown at the right. The substance is thus extracted with successive portions of the solvent. A very convenient and efficient modification of this ap- paratus is the siphon extraction-tube devised by A. E. Knorr, shown in Fig. 30. The connections with the flask and condenser are made with corks as in the Soxhlet apparatus. Knorr's apparatus, as arranged for general purposes, dispenses with corks, but requires a special flask, which is not convenient for sugar analysis. The siphon-tube S is sealed into the bottom of the tube ANALYSIS OF THE BEET. 63 A, and lies close to the wall so as to permit the insertion of the tube B containing the material. The lower end of B is closed with a perforated disk. A spiral of copper wire, C, pre- vents the tube A from closing the tube D. This apparatus has the ad- vantage of extracting the su- crose with a hot solvent. Other convenient modifications of Soxhlet's appara- tus are described by Wiley in his Agri- cultural Analysis. In the direct an- alysis of the beet with the Soxhlet- Sickel apparatus, Fig. 29, proceed as follows for the ex- traction of the su- crose: Place a plug of absorbent cotton in the bottom of the tube, then introduce 26.048 grams of the pulped beet, or 2 X 16.29 grams, accord- ing to the polari- scope in use, press- ing the pulp lightly with a rod. Very small fragments of FIG. 29. FIG. 30. the beet may be used instead of pulp. Connect the extractor with the reflux condenser as shown. Place 75 cc. of 95 per cent alcohol in the flask and connect with the extractor as indicated in the figure; heat the flask in the water-bath and continue the extraction from half an 64 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. hour to two hours or more, according to the state of division of the sample. Use somewhat weaker alcohol if only 16.29 grams of pulp be taken. Cool and remove the flask, substituting a second containing 75 cc. of 75 to 80 per cent alcohol, and continue the extraction to ascertain whether the first -extraction were complete. Fill the first flask to the 100 cc. mark, after treating the sample with two or three drops of subacetate of lead solu- tion. Mix the contents of the flask, filter, and polarize. Having extracted the normal weight of pulp, the polari- scopic reading is the per cent of sucrose in the sample. The extract in the second flask should also be polarized as a check upon the extraction. Great care is essential in the polarization of alcoholic solutions. The least quantity of subacetate of lead, that will clarify the solution, should be used. The solution must be protected from evaporation during the filtration by a cover-glass. Avoid irregularities in the temperature of the solution in the observation-tube, due to the warmth of the hands; since the density of the solution in different parts of the tube will vary under such conditions, striae will form, rendering an accurate reading impossible. The Scheibler method, as above described, differs from the original only in a few minor details, especially in the arrangement of the extraction apparatus. The Soxhlet ex- traction apparatus is much more effective than Scheibler's original instrument. OO. Stammer's Alcoholic Digestion Method. 1 This method differs from that of Pellet described in Oii in details of manipulation and in the use of alcohol instead of water. The pulp must be reduced to a cream, in fact should be as finely divided as is required in the Pellet method (62). Wash 26.048 grams of pulp into a flask graduated at 100.55 cc - with 92 per cent alcohol, add subacetate of lead for clarification, and dilute to the mark with the alcohol. The least quantity of the subacetate that will effect clarifica- tion should be used. Acetic acid is not required. Mix thor- oughly, and after allowing a few minutes for the digestion, 1 Zeit, Riibenzufker-Industne^ 33j 206, ANALYSIS OF THE BEET. 65 filter and polarize, observing the precautions given in 59 relative to the polarization of alcoholic solutions. A method similar to this, Rapp-Degener, employs hot digestion in a flask fitted with a reflux condenser. 61. Pellet's Aqueous Method. Hot Digestion. Any good rasp may be used in the preparation of the pulp for this method. Pellet recommends the conical rasp FIG. of Pellet and Lomont, as illustrated in Figs. 31, 32, and 33. There is frequently a depression in the side of the beet, as shown in section in Fig. 34. Since the segments OA and OB are not of equal sugar con- tent, two segments should be reduced to pulp, or, if the sam- ple include a large number of beets, a single segment of each may be pulped, taking care to present alternately the large and the small diameters of the beets to the rasp. The special flasks shown in Fig. 35 are convenient for use in this method. Transfer 26.048 grams of the pulp to the flask, using a little water to wash the weighing capsule and funnel, or, for the Laurent, employ 32.58 grams of pulp, i.e., 2 X normal weight. The flasks are graduated to contain 2X>i-35 cc. for the Schmidt and Haensch and 201.7 cc. for Fici. 32. 66 HANDBOOK FOR S^GAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. the Laurent. V>oBariscopes, in order to compensate for the FIG. 33. volume of the marc and the lea< Add 5 to io cc. subacetate of lead solution of 54.3 Brix (2O7) for the clarification. Approxi- mately 6 to 7 cc. are required per 26 grams of beet-purp. This reagent should be run into the flask in advance of the beet-pulp. Add a few drops of ether to beat down &he foam, then sufficient water volume of the solution to Heat to 80 C. in a water- this temperature about flask a circular move- file air from the pulp. Lion from time to time the opera- of water volume of th. to increas( about 190 FlG - 34- bath and m; 30 minutes, occasionally givii ment to facilitate the escape^ Increase the volume of the during the heating, so that wl tion is completed only a few will be required to complete the solution to the mark. After approxi- mately 30 minutes' heating, cool, the flask and contents and add strong acetic acid to the solution to acidity, dilute to the graduation, mix and filter. The state of division, of the pulp will govern the time of heating 1 . In polarizing the filtrate, use a 4OO-mm. observa- tion-tube, thus directly obtaining the per*?*ent sucrose in the beet with the Schmidt and Haensch polariscope, or double this percentage if the Laurent instrument be used. ^^ FIG. ANALYSIS OF THE BEET. 67 Pellet uses a special water-bath in this process that admits a considerable number of flasks at one time. The flasks are held in a rack and may all be removed from the bath at one time and plunged into cold water. ' p he solutions should be carefully protected from evap- oration by covering the funnel during filtration. There has been much controver^ relative to this method, especially among the German chemists. Many claim that it gives results that are too high, and other chemists of equal prominence and experience contend that it gives cor- rect results. Le Docte, 1 in a series of experiments, obtained percentages by hot digestion a few one-hundredths higher than by the cold Diffusion method described below. The following method, using cold water, is usually preferred, provided a sufficiently fine pulp can be produced. 62. Pellet's Instantaneous Aqueous Diffu- sion Method. The method as described by Pellet will be given first, and then a few of the various modifications. The author prefers 'the Sachs-Le Docte modification given on page 181, which combines rapidity and accuracy. Pellet's Original Method. In following Pellet's original method tfte specifications as to the condition of the pulp and the quantity used must be strictly complied with in order to obtain satisfactory results. For polariscopes whose normal weight is 26.048 grams wash this weight of pulp, with water, into a flask graduated to hold 201.35 cc., or 25.87 grams into a 2OO-cc. flask. Run 5 to 7 cc. of subacetate of lead solution of 54.3 Brix (2O7) into the flask before washing in the pulp, and then thoroughly mixed with the latter. Add several small portions of ether to beat down the foam. Rotate the flask to facilitate the escape of the air-bubbles. Add a few drops of acetic acid to acidulate the solution, complete the volume to the graduation, mix, filter, and polarize, using a 4OO-mm. observation-tube. The polariscopic reading is the per cent sucrose in the beet. With the Laurent instrument, use the normal weight of .pulp and a flask graduated to hold 200.85 cc - The polariscopic reading, 1 Sucrerie Beige, 35, 245, 273, 309. 68 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. using a 4OO-mm. observation-tube, is the per cent sucrose in the beet. Success with this method demands (i) that the pulp shall be in a suitable state of division, neither too coarse nor too fine; (2) that no more pulp shall be used than indicated in the description of the method. If there be difficulty in removing the air occli^ed by the pulp, notwithstanding repeated additions of ether, the pulp is too fine. This may be remedied by altering the speed of the rasp. The occluded air is the source of error that requires greatest care to avoid. Kaiser-Sachs Modification. This method and the Sachs- Le Docte modification practically eliminate errors from the Pellet instantaneous diffusion method. Use flasks holding a little more than 200 cc. Also use the same quantities of pulp as indicated in the description of the original Pellet method. Run 5 cc. of subacetate of lead solution into the flask, then counterpoise the flask and contents on a balance. Wash the pulp into a flask and add sufficient water to make a total of 172 grams of water. Mix thor- oughly, filter, and polarize the solution in a 4OO-mm. tube. The polariscopic reading is the per cent of sucrose in the beet. According to Pellet, acetic acid should always be added. This agrees with the author's experience. Sachs-Le Docte. This method, which is fully described on page 181, differs from the above in adding the water and subacetate of lead from an overflow or automatic pipette. This insures a very accurate measurement, with extreme rapidity. The finest attainable pulp should be used with both the Sachs-Le Docte and the Kaiser-Sachs methods. 63. Determination of the Reducing Sugar in the Beet. Herzf eld's Modification of Claassen's Method. Digest no grams of finely divided pulp, or preferably creamed pulp, in a 5oo-cc. flask with 10 to 15 cc. of dilute subacetate of lead solution, 3 grams of precipitated carbon- ate of calcium, and sufficient water to nearly fill the flask. Digest 45 minutes at a temperature of 75 to 80" C. Cool and complete the volume to 500 cc., mix, and filter. If necessary, clarify 100 cc, of the filtrate with an additional ANALYSIS OF THE BEET. 69 portion of subacetate of lead ; add carbonate of sodium in small excess to precipitate the lead, dilute to uocc., and filter. Determine the reducing sugar in the filtrate by one of the methods given in 72 and 73. The percentage of reducing substance in the beet is so small that no correc- tion need be made for the volume of the marc. 64. Notes 011 the Direct Methods of Analysis. With the exception of Scheibler's alcoholic method, it is necessary to make an arbitrary allowance for the volume of the marc in the direct analysis of the beet. Pellet has based this allowance upon the mean of a large number^f marc determinations, made under practically the conditions which obtain in his cold diffusion method. The error intro- duced through an arbitrary allowance for marc is very small, and even in extreme cases may be neglected. There should be no delay in the analysis of the pulp. As soon as it is obtained it should be thoroughly mixed and protected from the air. 65. Rasps and Mills for the Reduction of the Beet. The Cylindro-divider , Keil (Gallois and Dupont, Paris). This machine, Fig. 36, as indicated by its name, consists esssentially of two deeply grooved cylinders which revolve in opposite directions. Nearly all of the pulp adheres to the cylinders, but little dropping into the drawer. The particles which fall, if too large, should be returned to the mill and the grinding should be continued until the pulp is uniformly divided. The mill should be driven at 120 revolutions per minute, either by hand or power. Should the beets be unripe or unsound, the juice may separate and collect in the drawer. In this event, the pulp, when fine enough, should be removed from the cylinders and thoroughly mixed with this juice. The pulp will absorb the juice, and may then be sampled as usual. This mill is designed for grinding cossettes and fragments of beets, and produces a pulp which may be analyzed by Pellet's instantaneous method. Pellet and Lomonfs Conical Rasp. This machine as illus- trated in Figs. 31, 32, and 33 is fitted with saw-blades and is not applicable in the instantaneous diffusion method. The 70 HANDBOOK FOE SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. machine is also constructed with a cast-steel disk, which may be briefly described as a rotary file as cut for rasping wood. FIG. 36. This form is applicable in the above-mentioned diffusion method. A little practice is necessary in the manipulation of this and certain other rasps in order to produce a suitable pulp. and Aitbin's fiasf.^ This rasp may be used in the 1 Bulletin de F Association des Chimistes, 13, 311. ANALYSIS OF THE BEET. 71 reduction of beets, but not cossettes, to an extremely fine pulp for use in any of the direct methods of analysis or in the indirect method. The construction of the machine is shown in Fig. 37. It is driven by hand or power from 75 to 400 revolutions per minute. FIG. 37. Additional rasps, designed especially for use in seed selection, are described in 16O and 161. 66. Indirect Analysis of the Beet. The indirect analysis, i.e., the analysis of the juice and calculation to terms of the weight of the beets, cannot be depended upon to supply data for the control of the factory. In order to calculate th.e analysis of the beet from that of the juice, it is necessary to assume that the juice extracted by the press is of the same composition as the average of all the juice contained in the beet. Experience has shown that this is 72 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. not true, and that the juice obtained by moderate pressure differs materially from that obtained by heavy pressure. It also varies with the state of division of the pulp. There is also reason to believe that the beet contains water in which there is little, if any, sugar in solution. Further, in order to render an indirect method practicable, it is necessary to assume that the beet contains an average of a certain percentage of juice, and employ this percentage as a coefficient in reducing to terms of the beet. The fact FIG that the content of marc varies within rather wide limits is an argument against this method of analysis. The indirect method is still employed in a large number of sugar-houses, hence is described in this book. The following is the usual method of procedure : The sample is finely rasped by a suitable machine, such as a special rasp or an efficient horseradish grater. The pulp is placed in a small cotton bag and the juice is ex- ANALYSIS OF THE BEET. 73 pressed by means of a powerful press, such as that shown in Fig. 38. In operating the press as heavy pressure as possible is exerted by turning the upper wheel, then locking with the ratchet as shown in the figure, and completing the expression of the juice by means of the lower wheel. This press exerts a maximum pressure of nearly 2000 Ibs. per square inch. In order to closely approximate the true mean composi- tion of the juice, it is essential that the pulp be very finely divided and that as much pressure be exerted in expressing the juice as is practicable. The analysis is made as indicated in B7 et seq. In the indirect analysis, it is customary to assume that the beet contains a mean of 95 per cent of juice ; therefore to calculate the percentage to terms of the weight of the beet, multiply the per cents on the weight of the juice by 95 and divide by 100. This method permits an approximate determination of the coefficient of purity of the juice which is not possible with a direct method and which is often of value. 74 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. O7. Determination of the Density. The density is usually determined by means of a Brix spindle. The degree Brix may be converted into terms of the specific gravity for use in calculating the weight of the juice by means of the table, page 275 ; or a Baume spindle may be used and the readings converted into Brix and specific gravity by the above-mentioned table. A cylinder is filled with a sample of the juice and is set aside for the escape of air-bubbles and to permit mechani- cal impurities to subside or rise to the surface. This time varies from a few minutes to half an hour. Care must be observed not to let the juice stand long enough for fermen- tation to set in. Those impurities which rise to the surface should be brushed off, and the spindle then floated in the juice. After allowing sufficient time for the spindle to reach the temperature of the juice, the scale is read as directed in 5o and illustrated in Fig. 26, and the tempera- ture of the juice is noted. To correct for temperatures above or below 17^ C., the standard temperature at which these instruments are usually graduated in Germany and the United States, con* suit the table on page 282. It is advisable that the tem- perature of the juice when spindling be as nearly 17^ C. as practicable. It is necessary that the density be determined with great care, since the result obtained is employed in calculating the weight of the juice at an important stage of the control work. Other methods of determining the density are indicated in pages 55 to 61. 68. Sucrose Determination . Special Pipette for Measurements. The method of preserving the samples will, to some extent, influence the preliminary work of the analysis. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. The method of analysis indicated in 69 is usually more convenient when subacetate of lead is used as a preservative. If, however, mercuric chloride be employed in the sampling, the special pipette devised by the author is convenient, since the polariscopic reading is a multiple of the per- centage of sucrose. This pipette is shown in Fig. 39. It is so gradu- ated that one need simply note the degree Brix of the juice, then fill the pipette to the corresponding degree marked on its stem. The graduations in- dicate the volume of juice, of corresponding den- sities, which weighs 52.096 grams, i.e., two times the normal weight. The pipettes are usually graduated for ordi- nary work from 5 to 25 degrees Brix in tenths. It is recommended that, for control work, the / \ pipettes be graduated with only a small range on each, and that there be an additional graduation as shown in the figure. The tubing should be of small internal diameter that the tenths may be the more easily read. vThe pipette as ordinarily made, without the additional mark near the outlet, should be graduated with a solution of approximately the viscosity of a sugar solution, of the mean de- \ / gree Brix within the limits of the scale. V / One should not blow into the pipette while emptying it, nor should the last portions of the juice be expelled in this way. To calculate the percentage of sucrose, divide the polariscopic reading, with the German instru- ments, by 2. Pipettes for the Laurent instrument are graduated to deliver three times the normal weight (3 X 16.29 grams), hence the reading should be divided by 3. The juice should be measured at the temperature at which the degree Brix was determined. C>9. Sucrose in the Juice . General Method. The necessity of using 1 a preservative in sampling, especially if the preservative be sub- FIG. 39. 76 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. acetate of lead, complicates the weighing of the norma weight of the juice ; consequently measurements are used almost exclusively in this analysis. The sample may be weighed, however, when mercuric chloride is used, as the quantity of this substance employed is too small to appreciably influence the results. When subacetate of lead is used, and this preservative is necessary when samples are accumulated for a period of several days, the following is a convenient method of pro- cedure : Measure the entire sample and then add sufficient water to dilute to no per cent of the original volume of the juice; calculate the sucrose by Schmitz' table, page 285. Example, showing methods of calculation : Degree Brix of the juice as determined in duplicate sam- ples = 12.2. Measure the day's sample, plus the lead sub- acetate solution, subtract the number of cubic centimetres of the lead solution, and calculate the water to be added as shown below: Volume of juice and lead solution. . . . 3750 cc. Volume of lead solution 75 " Volume of juice 3675 " Ten per cent of volume of juice = one tenth of 3675 367.5 cc. Volume of lead solution =75 " Volume of water required = 292.5 " The total volume, i.e., 3750+ 292.5 = 4042.5 cc. = no per cent of the volume of the juice (3675 cc.). Having diluted the juice and lead solution to 4042.5 cc., mix and filter off a few cubic centimetres, and polarize in a 20-centimetre tube: Polariscopic reading = 38.3. In Schmitz' table, in the column headed 12, the nearest degree Brix to the observed degree, and opposite 38, the integral part of the polariscopic reading, note the number 10.36; in the small table at the bottom of the page, opposite .3, the decimal part of the polariscopic reading, note the number .08, and add this to the number obtained above for ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 77 the completed percentage: 10.36 + .08 = 10.44, the per cent sucrose in the juice. Example including a storage period of seven days: Each day's sample of juice is diluted as described in the preceding example, thoroughly mixed, and a volume pro- portionate to the day's work is measured into a storage- bottle. If a uniform volume of juice, per 100 Ibs. of beets, have been drawn at the diffusion-battery, the amount of juice to store each day may be a certain number of cubic centimetres for each diffuser, as follows: r,f T)\f Cubic Centimetres of Juice, Drawn leaded and diluted to "*. to 3rawn. 1 ............ 160 16. 2 ............ 155 15-5 3 ............ 148 14-8 4 ............. 135 13-5 5 ............ 165 16.5 6 ............ 163 16.3 7 ............ 158 15.8 Total io8.4cc. If, as is the practice in some houses, the volume of juice drawn per diffuser be changed with the variations in the rich- ness ot the beets, the storage sample must be based on the volume of the juice and not upon the number of diffusers. At the close of the sampling period, the united samples are thoroughly mixed, and a portion of the juice is filtered off and polarized, the calculations being made by Schmitz' table. When mercuric chloride is employed as a preservative, samples of the juice obtained from day to day may be stored for a longer sampling period by the addition of 10 per cent, by volume, of diluted subacetate of lead solution (2O7). It is not advisable to depend upon preservation with mercuric chloride for a longer period than 24 hours. 7O. Notes on the Clarification of" Samples for Polarization. Too little subacetate of lead solution or a decided excess in the clarification may result in cloudy fil- trates, or solutions which filter too slowly. Experience will soon enable one to estimate the proper amount of the lead solution to use. Sufficient of the lead salt must be used, not 78 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. only to produce a clear filtrate, but to precipitate all the matter precipitable by this reagent. This is essential, since the beet contains other optically active bodies than sucrose (36). 71. Remarks on the Reducing 1 Sugars in Beet Products. Beet juices and products, under normal con- ditions, do not usually contain more than traces of reducing sugars. There is a reducing substance present in small quantity, however, of which little is known. It is usually termed " Bodenbender's substance," from the name of the chemist who first reported its presence. There is little probability of inversion in the processes of manufacture, except at the diffusion-battery, since the liquors are always more or less alkaline. There is probably rarely any inver- sion in the diffusion process, except during very irregular work or in treating unsound beets. In view of these facts, the beet-sugar chemist is not often called upon to make reducing sugar determinations, except in the estimation of sucrose by the chemical inversion method. The methods of estimating reducing sugars are given quite fully in the following pages, for use in any work in which chemical methods may be required. 72. Determination of Reducing Sugars (Glu- cose, etc.). Gravimetric Methods. In selecting a method for reducing sugars, the analyst should be guided by the probable composition of the material under examination. Gravimetric Method for Material containing I per cent or less of Invert-sugar J and a High Percentage of Sucrose. Dis- solve 20 grams of the material in nearly loocc. of water. If necessary, clarify with subacetate of lead (see 74), precipi- tate the excess of lead by means of sodium carbonate in small excess, complete the volume to 100 cc. , mix thoroughly and filter. This clarification is usually advisable. Place 50 cc. of Soxhlet's solution (192) in a beaker and add 50 cc. of the sugar solution. Heat slowly, taking about four minutes to reach the boiling-point, and boil two minutes. 1 hese directions should be strictly complied with. After the completion of the two minutes' boiling add 100 cc. of cold re- 1 The reducing sugar of the beet and beet products is probably the re- sult of inversion of sucrose. The methods described for invert-sugar are applicable. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 79 cently boiled distilled water. Determine the copper, in the precipitate, by one of the following methods : (i) Filter im- mediately under pressure, using the filter-tube described below. The filter-tube, Fig. 40, consists of a 6-inch hard glass tube about f inch in diameter, into one end of which is sealed a tube about 3 inches long and of con- venient size for inserting into the stopper of the filtering apparatus such as that shown in Fig. 49. A perforated platinum disk A, A' is sealed into the bottom of the large tube as a support for an as- bestos felt filter. To prepare the tube for filter- ing, place it in position in the stopper of the fil- tering apparatus, start the filter-pump, then pour water containing finely divided asbestos in suspen- --i A sion upon the disk. The asbestos forms a film or felt; dry and weigh. Moisten the felt before commencing the filtration. A funnel should be used in pouring the liquid and precipitate into the filter-tube, to prevent the cuprous oxide from adhering to the walls of the tube, near the top. FlG - 4- Transfer all of the precipitate to the filter and wash thoroughly with hot water. After washing with water pass a few cc. of alcohol through the filter and finally a little ether. Dry the precipitate. Pass a continuous current of pure, dry hydrogen through the tube, at the same time gently heating the cuprous oxide, with a Bunsen burner, until it is completely reduced to the metallic state; cool in a current of hydrogen and weigh. (2) Filter immediately after the reduction is completed, using a Gooch crucible. Wash the beaker and precipitate thoroughly with hot water, but without any effort to transfer the entire precipitate to the crucible. Wash the asbestos film and the adhering cuprous oxide back into the beaker, using hot dilute nitric acid. After the copper is all in solution, filter through a Gooch crucible, using a very thin asbestos film, and wash thoroughly with hot water. Add 10 cc. of dilute sulphuric acid, containing 200 cc. acid of 1.84 specific gravity, per litre, to the filtrate and evaporate it until the copper salt has largely crystallized. Heat care- fully on a hot iron plate or a sand-bath until the evolution 80 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. of white fumes. Add 8 to 10 drops of nitric acid, specific gravity 1.42, and rinse into a platinum dish of 100 to 125 cc. capacity. Precipitate the copper on the dish by electrolysis. Wash the copper thoroughly with water before breaking the current ; remove the dish from the circuit, wash with alcohol and ether successively, and dry at a temperature that can easily be borne by the hand, cool and weigh. A beaker may be substituted for the platinum dish, the copper being deposited upon a platinum cylinder. When a direct current is used in lighting the sugar-house, it is the most convenient source of electricity for the deposi- tion of the copper. The current must be passed through a resistance or regulator in addition to the lamp. A convenient and durable regulator is shown in Fig. 41. C is a glass tube partly filled with water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid ; the wire A connects with a platinum wire sealed into the tube ; B is a glass tube through which a copper wire extends and connects with a platinum wire E sealed into this tube. The tube B may be slipped up or down, thus regulating the distance between the wires E and A and regulating the current. The twin wire Mis separated, severed, and one end, D, connected with the platinum dish in which the copper is to be deposited, and the other with the regulator B, thence through the acidulated water and A with the platinum cylinder suspended in the copper solution. Suffi- cient current for a large number of dishes, arranged in sets of four, will pass through a 16 C. P. or 32 C. P. lamp. The copper should be deposited very slowly. Usually, if the apparatus be connected when the lights are turned on in the evening, all the copper will be deposited before they are FIG. 41. turned off in the morning. Having determined the weight of copper reduced by one ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 81 of the above-described methods, ascertain from Herzfeld's table the per cent of invert-sugar corresponding to the weight of copper. HERZFELD'S TABLE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF INVERT- SUGAR IN MATERIALS CONTAINING i PER CENT OR LESS OF INVERT-SUGAR AND A HIGH PERCENTAGE OF SUCROSE. Copper reduced by 10 Grams of Invert- Sugar. Copper reduced by 10 Grams of Invert- sugar. Copper reduced by to Grams of Invert- sugar. Material. Material. Material. Milligrams. Per Cent. Milligrams. Per Cent. Milligrams. Per Cent. 50 0.05 1 2O 0.40 190 0.79 55 0.07 125 0-43 195 .0.82 60 0.09 130 0.45 2OO 0.85 65 O.II 135 0.48 205 0.88 70 0.14 140 0.51 2IO 0.90 75 0.16 145 0-53 215 0-93 80 0.19 150 0.56 2 2O 0.96 85 O.2I 155 0-59 225 0.99 90 0.24 1 60 0.62 230 1.02 95 0.27 I6 5 0.65 235 1.05 IOO 0.30 170 0.68 240 1.07 105 0.32 175 0.71 245 I.IO no 0.35 180 0.74 H5 0.38 185 0.76 Gravimetric Method for Materials containing more than I Per Cent of Invert-sugar. Prepare" a solution of the material to be examined, in such a manner that it contains 20 grams in TOO cc. ; clarify and remove the excess of lead with a small excess of sodium carbonate (see 74). Prepare a series of solutions in large test-tubes by adding i, 2, 3, 4, etc., cc. of this solution successively. Add 5 cc. of the Soxhlet solution (192) to each, heat to boiling, boil two minutes and filter. Note the volume of sugar solution that gives the filtrate lightest in tint but still distinctly blue. Place twenty times this volume of the solution in a loo-cc. flask, dilute to the mark and mix well. Use 50 cc. of this solution for the determination, which is conducted as under the preceding method, for materials containing i per cent or less of invert-sugar, until the weight of copper is 82 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. obtained. For the calculation of the result use the follow- ing formulae and table of factors of Meissl and Hiller : Let Cu = the weight of copper obtained; P = the polarization of the sample; W = the weight of the sample in the 50 cc. of the solution used for the determination; F = the factor obtained from the table for conver- sion of copper to invert-sugar; - = approximate absolute weight of invert-sugar Z X -777 = approximate per cent of invert-sugar = looP = R, relative number for sucrose; 100 J? = /, relative number for invert-sugar; CuF W = per cent of invert-sugar. Z facilitates reading the vertical columns; and the ratio 1? to /, the horizontal columns of the table, for the purpose of finding the factor, F, for the calculation of the copper to invert-sugar. Example. The polarization of the sugar is 86.4, and 3.256 grams of it, W % are equivalent 100.290 gram of copper. Then IOO IOO x = ' I45 x = 4 ' 45 =y ' 100/1 864 P+y 86.4+4-45 loo K loo 95.1 = I = 4.9; By consulting the table it will be seen that 150 mg. in the vertical column are nearest the value of Z, 145 mg., and ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 83 the horizontal column headed 95 : 5 is nearest the ratio fi to /, 95.1 14.9. Where these columns meet we find the factor 51.2 which enters into the final calculation: CuF .290 X 51.2 = 4.56 per cent of invert-sugar. W 3-256 MEISSL AND KILLER'S FACTORS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MORE THAN 1 PER CENT OF INVERT-SUGAR. Ratio of Sucrose to Invert-sugar = Ril. 0: 100 10: 90 20:80 30:70 40:60 50:50 60:40 70 : 30 80:20 90:10 91 :9 95:5 96:4 97:3 98:2 99:1 Approximate Absolute Weight of Invert-sugar = Z. 200 Milligr. 175 Milligr. 150 Milligr. 125 Milligr. 100 Milligr. 75 Milligr. 50 Miliigr. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. Per Ct. 56.4 55.4 54.5 53.8 53.2 53.0 53.0 56.3 55.3 54.4 53.8 53.2 52.9 52.9 56.2 55.2 54.3 53.7 53.2 52.7 52.7 56.1 55.1 54 2 53.7 53.2 52.6 52.6 55.9 55.0 54.1 53.6 53.1 52.5 52.4 55.7 54.9 54.0 53.5 53.1 52.3 52.2 55.6 54.7 53.8 53.2 52.8 52.1 51.9 55.5 54.5 53.5 52.9 52.5 51.9 51.6 55.4 54.3 53.3 52.7 52.2 51.7 51.3 54.6 53.6 53.1 52.6 52.1 51.6 51.2 54.1 53.6 52.6 52.1 51.6 51.2 50.7 53.6 53.1 52.1 51.6 51.2 50.7 50.3 53.6 53.1 52.1 51.2 50.7 50.3 49.8 53.1 52.6 51.6 50.7 50.3 49.8 48.9 52.6 52.1 51.2 50 3 49.4 48.9 48.5 52.1 51.2 50.7 49.8 48.9 47.7 46.9 50.7 50.3 49.8 48.9 47.7 46.2 45.1 49.9 48.9 48.5 47.3 45.8 43.3 40.0 47.7 47.3 46.5 45.1 43.3 41.2 38.1 The above methods have been taken, with a few changes in the wording and with additions, from Bulletin No. 46, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Gravimetric Method using SoldainV s Solution.^ Place 100 to 150 cc. of Soldaini's solution (193) in an Erlenmeyer it^ (T Analyse des Matieres Sucrees, D. Sidersky, p. 148. 84 HANDHOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. fiask; boil five minutes; add a solution containing 10 grams of the material previously clarified with subacetate of lead, if necessary, the excess of lead being removed with small excess of carbonate of sodium (see 74); boil five minutes. In boiling always use the naked flame. Having completed the reduction, remove the flask from the flame and add 100 cc. cold distilled water. Filter immediately through a Gooch crucible and determine the copper in the precipitate by the electrolytic method, or collect the precipitate in a filter-tube, Fig. 40, and reduce in hydrogen. These methods are described on page 79. The weight of metallic copper X 0.3546 -f- weight of the material used in the determination X 100 = per cent invert- sugar. It is claimed that this method is very exact and that invert-sugar can be determined to within .01 per cent with certainty. 73. Determination of Reducing Sugars (Glu- cose, etc.). "Volumetric Methods. A Modification of Violette's Method. This is the rapid method used very generally in cane-sugar-houses. If always conducted under the same conditions as to dilution, method, and time of heating, the results are approximately correct and are comparable with one another. Take a definite weight of the juice, a multiple of 5 grams is most convenient, varying this quantity with the amount of reducing sugar present, clarify with subacetate of lead, precipitate the excess of lead with small excess of carbon- ate of sodium (see 74), and dilute to 100 cc. ; mix and filter. A sufficient quantity of the juice should be taken, if prac- ticable, to give a reading on the burette of approximately 20 cc. in the titration to be described. In seed selection, as will be explained, it is unnecessary to adhere strictly to these specifications, but in using this method with other products they should, as far as practicable, be complied with. It is convenient in this work to use an automatic, zero burette, in measuring the copper solution. Such a burette as designed by Squibb is shown in Fig. 42. This burette is filled by suction, as with a pipette, applying the suc- tion at the mouthpiece shown at the end of the rubber ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 85 tube. The reagent is drawn into the burette to a point a little above the zero mark, the mouthpiece is then released and the liquid siphons back into the reservoir, leaving the burette filled to exactly zero. A wash-bottle containing caustic soda solution should be connected with the air-inlet near the reservoir to prevent the entrance of carbonic acid. This is one of the most conven- ient of the many forms of auto- matic burettes. These burettes may be used with advantage in nearly all the measurements required in volumetric analysis, in the sugar-house laboratory. Measure 10 cc. of Violette's modification of Fehling solution (195) into a large thin glass test-tube, 1.5 X 9 inches and di- lute it with an equal volume of water. If the alkaline copper re- agent be prepared with the cop- per in one solution and the alkali in a second, use 10 cc. of each solution and omit the addition of the 10 cc. of water. Heat the reagent in the tube, over the naked flame of a lamp, to the boiling-point, then add a few cubic centimetres of the sugar solution, and boil two minutes. A sand-glass is convenient for use in timing the boiling. Repeat these operations until the blue color almost disappears, taking care to add the juice very gradually as this point is approached. After the first boiling, it is only necessary to boil the liquid a few seconds each time. Now add the juice, a drop or two at a time, until the blue color disappears. Filter off a small portion of the liquid, using a Wiley or Wiley-Knorr filter- tube, and proceed as described farther on. FIG. 86 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Wiley's filter-tubes, Fig. 43, a, are made from glass tubing about one fourth inch in diameter and about ten inches in length. One end of the tube is softened in the flame of a lamp and then pressed against a block of wood to form a shoulder ; a piece of washed linen is stretched over this end and is held in place by means of a strong thread. In using these tubes the filter end is dipped into water in which very finely divided asbestos is sus- pended, and by suction, with the mouth, the cloth is covered with a film of this substance. Knorr's modification of these tubes is very convenient, and is preferred by many chem- ists. These filter-tubes, Fig. 43,, are of small diameter and are tipped with platinum-foil. The asbestos is applied as with the Wiley tubes. With the Wiley filter, the filtrate must be poured from the tube ; with the Knorr tube, the liquid is expelled through the platinum tip, after wiping off the asbes- tos with a cloth. These tubes should be dipped in dilute acid after use, then thor- oughly washed. Many chemists prefer to remove a drop of the solution and place it on a piece of quan- titative filter -paper. The precipitate re- mains in the centre of the moistened spot with the filtered solution around it. A drop of ferrocyanide of potassium solution acidu- lated with acetic acid is placed adjacent to the first drop. There will be a coloration wkere the two solutions touch one another if there be still copper in solution. If a portion of the solution be filtered off in one of the tubes above described, pour it into a few drops of acetic acid, to acidity, in a depression in a white porcelain test-plate ; the acid discharges the color from the solution and neutralizes the alkali of the Violette's solution. Add a drop of a dilute solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, FIG. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 87 yellow prussiate of potash ; a brown coloration shows the copper has not all been reduced, and that more juice must be added. The juice must be added very carefully as the test reaction diminishes in intensity, until finally all the copper is reduced, there being no further brown colora- tion. The burette reading is now made. It is advisable to make a preliminary test to guide in the dilution of the juice and to show within a few tenths of a cubic centimetre the volume of juice required for the re- duction of the copper, and then add nearly all the sugar solution at one time in a final test. A porcelain dish may be substituted for the large test- tube, but on account of the small surface exposed for evaporation, the latter is preferred. Calculations. W = the weight of juice in I cc. of the solution ; B = the burette reading ; 0.05 X ioo Per cent reducing sugar = x = . When W is .05 gram the formula reduces to x = > or x = reciprocal of the burette reading multiplied by ioo. A table of reciprocals is given on page 294 to simplify these calculations. If a multiple of 5 grams of juice be diluted to loocc. for this determination, the reciprocal of the burette reading multiplied by ioo is the same multiple of the percent of re- ducing sugar. If 5 grams in loocc. should prove a too-concentrated solu- tion, dilute to 200, 300, etc., and multiply ioo times the reciprocal of the burette reading by 2, 3, etc. If 5 cc. or a multiple of 5 cc. of juice be used for the an- alysis, the above-mentioned method of calculation may be employed, but the value of x must be divided by the spe- cific gravity of the juice to reduce it to terms of the weight of the juice. On account of the very small percentage of reducing sugar in beet-juices a much higher burette reading than 20 cc. may be necessary, even using the undiluted juice; fur- ther, for the same reason, it may be necessary to use only 88 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 5 cc. of Violette's solution. It is preferable in such cases to use a gravimetric method. The accurate determination of reducing sugar by this method requires rapid work and considerable practice. Sidersky' s Volumetric Method, using Solda'ini's Solution.* Standardize the Soldaini solution by means of a solution of invert-sugar containing 5 grams of the reducing sugars per litre. Proceed as in 73, except that the end reaction is judged by the disappearance of the blue color instead of by the ferrocyanide test. The method described in 73 is probably applicable, though Sidersky was guided solely by the disappearance of the blue color. This method has the advantage of freedom from the source of error, due to the presence of sucrose, in the older method of Violette. For highly colored products, such as molasses, etc., Sidersky has modified his method as fol- lows: Dissolve 25 grams of the material in water, add suf- ficient subacetate of lead for clarification (see 74), dilute to 200 cc., mix and filter. To 100 cc. of the filtrate add 25 cc. of a concentrated solution of sodium carbonate, mix and filter; of this filtrate use 100 cc., corresponding to 10 grams of the material, for the reduction. Boil 100 cc. of Soldaini's solution five minutes in a flask over a naked flame, then add the sugar solution, little by little, continuing the heat- ing an additional five minutes. Remove the flask, add 100 cc. cold distilled water, and collect the precipitate upon an asbestos felt in a Gooch crucible, with the assistance of a filter-pump. Wash the precipitate with hot water until the wash-waters are no longer alkaline. Three or four washings are usually sufficient. Wash the cuprous oxide into an Erlenmeyer flask and add 25 cc. normal sulphuric acid (199) and two or three crystals of chlorate of potas- sium, then heat gently until the cuprous oxide is completely dissolved. Titrate the solution with a standard alkali solution (2O1), determine by difference the volume of the acid saturated, and from this the amount of copper re- ^ duced. It is preferable to use a half-normal solution of ammonia (2O1) for this titration, letting the sulphate of copper act as an indicator. Check the ammonia solution 1 Traite d' Analyse dcs Mutieres Sucrees, D. Sidersky, p. 150. ANALYSIS OP THE JUICE. 89 against the normal sulphuric acid, using 2 cc. of a concen- trated solution of sulphate of copper as an indicator to 25 cc. of the ammonia. Continue the addition of the acid until the blue color disappears. In making the titration proceed as follows: Cool the sulphate of copper solution, resulting from the treatment of the cuprous oxide with the normal sulphuric acid and chlorate of potassium, add 50 cc. half-normal ammonia solu- tion and titrate back with the normal sulphuric acid. The blue color disappears with each addition of the acid, but re- appears on stirring the solution so long as any unsaturated ammonia remains. When all the ammonia is saturated the color of the solution is no longer blue, but a faint green. Note the burette reading. Each cc. of the sulphuric acid is equivalent to .0317 gram of copper. Multiply the weight of copper by .3546, Bodenbender and Scheller's factor, to obtain the weight of reducing sugar (invert-sugar), or multiply the burette reading by .1124 to obtain the per cent reducing sugar. Volumetric Permanganate Method.^ The saccharine strength of the solution should be approximately one per cent. The solution should be clarified as usual, and the excess of lead removed (74). Ten cubic centimetres of this solution are placed in a porcelain dish with a consider- able excess of copper solution (192). If the saccharine solution contain no sucrose, heat to the boiling-point and maintain this temperature until the reducing sugar is oxi- dized. When sucrose is present the temperature should not exceed 80 C., and the heating should be continued longer than at the higher temperature. There should be enough of the copper solution used to maintain a strong blue coloration at the end of the reaction. Ervin E. Ewell 2 advises using the following modification of the method of determining the weight of copper reduced: Collect the precipitate on asbestos in a Gooch crucible, with the as- sistance of a filter-pump, and wash thoroughly with hot recently boiled distilled water. Transfer the asbestos, with 1 Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis, H. W. Wiley, 3, 1 3* 2 Op. cit., 136. 90 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. as much of the precipitate as possible, to the beaker in which the precipitation was made, beat it up with 25 to 30 cc. of hot recently boiled distilled water, and add from 50 to 75 cc. of a saturated solution of ferric sulphate in 20 per cent sul- phuric acid; pour this solution through the crucible to dis- solve adhering portions of the cuprous oxide. The precipi- tate must be well beaten up with the water to break all large lumps or there may be difficulty in effecting solution with the ferric salt. After the solution is complete, titrate with per- manganate of potassium of such strength that i cc. is equiv- alent to .01 gram of copper (2O3), or decinormal perman- ganate solution (2O2) may be used. In addition to stand- ardizing the permanganate solution with metallic iron or oxalic acid, a-s is usual for general purposes, it should be standardized, for this- method, by titrations with copper, reduced by solutions of invert-sugar which have been stand- ardized by the gravimetric method (72). The invert-sugar value of i cc. of the permanganate solution is thus ascer- tained for use in calculating the percentage of reducing sugar in the material. Ewell's modification of the permanganate method of determining the amount of reduced copper, is also recom- mended for use in the methods in 72. 74. Notes on the Determination of Reducing Sugars. Edson, Pellet and other chemists have shown that a part of the reducing substances in certain sugar- house products is precipitated by subacetate of lead, but not at all or to a very small extent with the normal acetate. Edson advises that the solutions be acidulated with acetic acid before filtering off the lead precipitate, and finds that acidulation practically obviates this source of error. The author's experience confirms Edson's observations. Born- trSger ] states that sodium sulphate is preferable to sodium carbonate for the precipitation of the excess of lead. Ac- cording to his experiments, an excess of the sulphate is less objectionable than of the carbonate. The carbonate is almost exclusively used by sugar-house chemists for the removal of the excess of lead. 1 Zeit, Angew. Chent.^ 1892, 333. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 91 = per cent normal 75. Determination of the Ash. Sulphated Ash. Dry 10 grams of the juice in. a tared platinum dish. Add a few drops of concentrated Sulphuric acid to moisten the residue, and heat over the ffeme of a lamp or in a muffle at low redness until the organic matter is charred, then in- crease the temperature to bright redness and heat until all the carbon is consumed. In the event of too high a tem- perature, the ash will melt and thus may vitiate the results. The ash so obtained is termed the " sulphated ash," since certain of the mineral constituents are converted into sulphates by the acids. It is estimated that the average increase in the weight of the ash, due to the formation of sulphates instead of carbonates, is 10 per cent, hence a correction of one tenth is customary to reduce the sulphated ash to terms of the normal or carbonated ash. Calculation. Weight of ash X 9 = per cent normal ash. It is usually more convenient to measure 10 cc. of the juice than to weigh 10 grams. In such cases calculate as foil 'Weight of sulphated ash X 9 Specific gravity of the juice The above method of incineration is usually employed, since there is usually -difficulty in the direct inciner- ation of saccharine materials. Normal Ash. The normal or car- bonated ash may be obtained by Boy- er's method, as follows : Dry 10 grams, or 10 cc., of the juice in a platinum dish, then heat carefully to caramelize the sugar, but not enough to char it; add 2 cc. benzoic acid solution, 25 grams benzoic acid in 100 cc. of 90 % alcohol, and warm gently to expel the alcohol. Char the sugar at a low heat, at the same time volatilizing the acid ; incinerate at a low red heat. The ash consists largely of alkaline carbonates, which, on exposure to the air, quickly absorb moisture. Cool the ash in a desiccator and weigh quickly. 92 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. The weight of the ash -f- the weight of the juice X 100 = per cent ash. The following described muffle, devised by Schweitzer and Lungwitz, 1 is effective, and may be cheaply constructed for sugar purposes. In a French clay muffle a narrow slot is cut the length of the bottom, Fig. 44, a, b ; holes are drilled in the walls at c, d, Fig. 45, and heavy platinum wires are inserted. These wires are supports for a trough of platinum-foil, Fig. 45, ?.', x,y, z, iipon which the dishes rest during the incineration. A hole is cut in the dome of the muffle at /, Fig. 46. The muffle is placed on a support and is heated by wing-top burners. 76. Determination of the Total Nitrogen Albuminoids. The beet contains, in addition to albu- minoid matter, several nitrogenous substances classified as amido-compounds. Some of these substances may be read- ily separated, others require complicated analytical proc- esses. For an extended study of the nitrogenous bodies in agricultural analysis, Wiley's Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis is recommended. Allen gives methods for several of the amido-compounds in Vol. Ill, Part III, Commercial Organic Analysis. E. O. von Lippmann has published a very exhaustive study of the nitrogenous con- stituents of the beet-juice \n.Berichteder deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 21), 2645. A translation of this paper is pub- lished in Bulletin de I' Association des Chimistes de f ranee, 14, 6qT and 8iq. See also this book, page 201. It has long been customary in plant analysis to multiply the per cent of total nitrogen by 6.25 and term the product the per cent of "albuminoids." The figures obtained in this way are often of value in sugar-house work. A modification of Kjeldahl's moist combustion process 2 may be conveniently employed for nitrogen determinations : (i) The Digestion. Ten cc of the juice, dried in a small capsule, are brought into a 55o-cc. digestion-flask with approximately .7 gram of mercuric oxide and 20 cc. of 1 Journ. Am. Chem. Soc.^ 16, 151 8 Adapted from Bulletin 46, Div. Chem., U. S. Dept. Agric. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 93 sulphuric acid. The flask is placed on a frame in an in- clined position, and heated below the boiling-point of the acid for from 5 to 15 minutes, or until frothing has ceased. If the mixture froth badly, a small piece of paraffine may be added to prevent it. The heat is then raised until the acid boils briskly. No further attention is required till the contents of the flask have become a clear liquid, which is colorless, or at most has only a very pale straw color. The flask is then removed from the frame, held upright, and, while still hot, potassium permanganate is dropped in care- fully and in small quantity at a time, till, after shaking, the liquid remains of a green or purple color. (2) The Distillation. After cooling the contents of the flask, add about 200 cc. of water, then a few pieces of gran- ulated zinc and 25 cc. of potassium-sulphide solution, 40 grams commercial potassium-sulphide in 1000 cc. water, shaking the flask to mix its contents. Next add 50 cc. of a saturated caustic-soda solution, free from nitrates, or suf- ficient to make the reaction strongly alkaline, pouring it down the side of the flask so that it does not mix at once with the acid solution. Connect the flask with the con- denser, which should be of block-tin, mix the contents by shaking, and distil until all the ammonia has passed over into the standard acid. The first 150 cc. of the distillate will generally contain all of the ammonia. This operation usually requires from 40 minutes to one hour and a half. The dis- tillate is then titrated with standard ammonia, using cochi- neal as an indicator, and the calculations are made as usual. Previous to use, the reagents should be tested by a blank experiment with sugar, which will partially reduce any nitrates present, which might otherwise escape notice. 77. Determination of the Total Solids. The degree Brix is usually considered as representing the total solid matter in solution. An accurate determination of the total solids can only be made by actually drying the juice in an oven. The problem of drying saccharine materials, to a constant weight, is not as simple as may appear at first glance. A number of methods have been devised for this purpose, two of which are given. 94 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Carr and Sanbprn's Method for Drying Siigar-house Prod ucts. This is a modification of the ordinary pumice-stone method. Prepare pumice-stone in two sizes. One size should pass a i-mm. sieve and the other should pass a 6- mm. sieve, circular perforations. Place a layer 3 mm. thick of the finer pumice-stone on the bottom of a small metal dish, and a layer of the coarse, 6 mm. to 10 mm. thick, upon the first layer, and dry and weigh. Tin caps for bottles are inexpensive and well adapted for use in this determination. FIG. 47 . Each dish is used but once, then thrown aside. Distribute about 5 grams of juice over the pumice-stone, weighing it accurately from a weighing-bottle. Dry this juice to a constant weight in a water-oven or in a vacuum-oven at 70 C., making trial weighings at intervals of two hours. Calculation : Weight of solid matter -r- weight of juice em- ployed X 100 = per cent total solids. Method of Drying Employing a Vacuum Apparatus. This method was suggested to the author by that of Courtonne, J from which it differs in several important particulars, no- tably in the construction of the oven and drying-bottles. Courtonne heats the bottles by immersion in hot water. 1 Manuel- Agenda des Fabricants de Sucre, MM. Gallois and Dupont, 1891, p. 215. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 95 The oven and bottles are shown in section in Fig. 47. The walls of the oven are double and are filled with plaster of Paris, C; the bottom is also double, the space being filled with air. A fan, D, driven by a toy engine, or other suit- able means, agitates the air inside the oven and insures a strictly uniform temperature in all parts. The drying-bottles, A, are connected by means of short tubes with a central vacuum-pipe, E, which is in turn con- nected with an ordinary filter-pump or the third pan of the triple-effect. Each bottle may be removed by closing the cock G without disturbing the others. A small trap, //, of glass, shown also in detail at the right of the oven, pre- vents any moisture which may condense in the tubes from falling back into the bottle. The following procedure is advised : Place a quantity of small fragments of pumice-stone sufficient to absorb 5 cc. of juice, in a weighing-bottle, dry in the oven, cool, insert the glass stopper and weigh ; distribute a definite weight of the juice, approximately 5 grams, upon the pumice-stone. Insert the stopper, provided with the trap, in the bottle, and connect with the vacuum-pipe. A vacuum of 20 inches is usually all that is required, and in fact is preferable to a higher vacuum. The drying is usually complete in one hour; it is advisable to dry to a practically constant weight, weighing at intervals of one hour or more as may be con- venient. The calculations are made as in the preceding method. This apparatus may also be used for drying in an inert gas. The per cent total solids by the spindle, the degree Brix, and the per cent total solids by drying, are employed in calculating the purity coefficients or quotients (1O6). 78. Acidity of the Jllice. The normal juice of the beet and the diffusion-juice are always acid. This acidity is due to a number of organic acids. It is not often neces- sary to determine the acidity of the juice. This determi- nation is made by a titration with a decinormal alkali solution (2O1). It is somewhat difficult to determine the end reaction, since the color of the juice obscures the color of the indicator to some extent. Phenolphthalein is usually employed as the indicator. Collier recommended the 96 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. use of logwood solution as an indicator in determining the acidity of sugar-cane juices, and in the author's experience it has been satisfactory. The acidity may be expressed in terms of the number of cubic centimetres of normal alkali solution required to neu- tralize the juice or, for comparative purposes, more conven- iently as cubic centimetres of normal alkali per 100 grams of sucrose or 100 degrees Brix. 79. Analysis of Carbonated Juices. The methods of analysis of the purified juices are the same as for the raw juice, except that the carbonated juice must receive an additional treatment with carbonic acid to pre- cipitate all of the calcium. This is evidently necessary, since these analyses are made in part for the purpose of comparing the purity of these juices with that of the diffusion-juice before treatment. 80. Alkalinity of the Juice. It is occasionally necessary to determine the total alkalinity of the juice after liming and before carbonatation; it is also necessary at very frequent intervals to determine the total alkalinity of the carbonated juices, in the control of the carbonatation process. In many factories an alkalimetric method is employed in ascertaining when to shut off the carbonic acid gas in the carbonatation of each tankful of juice. The total alkalinity is usually expressed iri terms of the grams of lime (CaO) per litre of juice, although the alkalinity is in part due to the presence of caustic alkalis. Methods are usually employed, in the control of the car- bonatation of the juice, which are very rapid and well adapted to the use of unskilled employes, but which yield only moderately accurate results (81). It is advisable that the rapid methods indicated be occa- sionally checked in the laboratory. This is necessary in order to know to what extent the results vary from the truth, that the carbonatation may be the more satisfactorily controlled. 81. Rapid Methods of Moderate Accuracy for the Alkalinity of Juices. (i) Standard Acid Solution. Prepare a standardized solution of sulphuric acid contain- ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 97 ing 35 grams of the monohydrated acid (H 2 SO 4 ) in 1000 cc. (See 2OO.) The strength of this solution is such that I cc. will neutralize 0.02 gram of lime (CaO). This solution is used for limed juices and juice from the first carbonatation. A more dilute acid is employed for the titration of juice from the second carbonatation. This acid is prepared by diluting 100 cc. of the above standard acid to 1000 cc., and contains 3.5 grams of sulphuric acid in 1000 cc. Indicators. As great accuracy is not necessary in this determination, indicators which are more or less affected by carbonic acid may be employed. Among those most commonly used are neutralized corallin, phenolphthalein, cochineal, etc. A few drops of the solution of the indicator are added to the juice, or in this class of analyses, with cer- tain indicators, more conveniently to the acid solution, when standardizing it, and before completing the volume to 1000 cc. (5^213.) Titration. Measure 20 cc. of the juice into a porcelain dish or into a small Erlenmeyer flask. If the flask be used, it should be placed over a sheet of white paper or a por- celain slab during the titration. Except in the case of the limed juice, before carbonata- tion, the liquor should be filtered. Add a few drops of the indicator to the juice, if it be not already contained in the standard acid, and deliver the acid cautiously from a burette. Note the point when the alkalinity is saturated by the change in the color of the indicator, and read the burette. Calculation. i cc. of stronger acid solution neutralizes 0.02 gram of lime (CaO); hence for each cc. of acid used there is an alkalinity corresponding to 0.02 gram of lime per 20 cc. of juice, or to o.i gram per 100 cc. of juice, or i gram per litre of juice. Example. 20 cc. of juice required 2.2 cc. of the acid. .'. 0.02 X 2.2 X 50 = 2.2 grams lime per litre of juice, or the number of cc. of acid used = grams of lime per litre. The calculations are the same when using the weaker acid with second carbonatation juices, except that i cc. of the acid corresponds to 0.002 gram of lime. 98 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 25 (2) Vivien's Method. This exceedingly convenient and simple method is employed very generally in France. Like the preceding method, it only gives approximately correct results. Vivien employs a solution of sulphuric acid con- taining a small quantity of phenolphthalein, of such strength that one volume of this acid will neutralize one volume of juice containing .05 gram of lime per litre, i.e., total alkalinity expressed as lime (CaO). A specially graduated tube shown in Fig. 48 is used with this method. This tube is divided into six parts of equal volume. Each part except the bottom one is subdivided into five parts. Acid Solution. Prepare a standardized solu- tion of sulphuric acid containing 0.875 gram of the monohydrated acid (H 2 SO 4 ) in 1000 cc. ; add a small quantity of phenolphthalein to the solu- tion before completing the volume to 1000 cc. Standardize by titration against decinormal alkali solution; 10 cc. of the alkali should neutralize 56 cc. of this solution. Manipulations. Fill the tube, Fig. 48, to the zero mark with juice; add the standardized acid cautiously, placing the thumb over the mouth of the tube and agitating from time to time. The solution turns red at the first addition of the acid, provided it be not added in excess; finally, when the acid is in very slight excess, the color disappears. The reading on the scale is next made. Every ten divisions correspond to an alkalinity due to i gram of lime per litre of juice, FIG. 48- anc j eac h division to o.i gram of lime (CaO.) per litre. For second carbonatation juice, use a much more dilute acid; for example, one half or one fifth the strength of the above. In this case every ten divisions of the scale cor- respond to 0.5 gram or 0.2 gram of lime per litre. It is evident that these methods are susceptible of many modifications, but for the purposes of this book those described are sufficient. These methods must be used with caution in analyzing ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 99 the juice from the second carbonatation, for the reasons given below. It is the practice in the second carbonatation to saturate all the lime; hence this process is often termed the " saturation." If this point be passed, the caustic sodium and potassium, which remain as such in the presence of the caustic lime, are converted into carbonates. This is wrong, from manufacturing considerations, and farther it would be objectionable to leave lime unprecipitated. It is thus apparent that a process should be employed which will show the exact moment at which all the lime has been combined with the carbonic acid. In practice it is usual to ascertain, in the laboratory, approximately the alkalinity the juice should have when the lime has all been precipitated, and be guided by this in the control of the carbonatation. The use of phenacetoline is said to be an advantage in this test. It is used in the cold. Degener recommends the use of a few drops of a I per cent solution of phenace- toline in alcohol. 82. Methods for the Determination of the Total Calcium in the Juice. Gravimetric Method. To 100 cc. of the juice add an excess of ammonium hydrate, heat to the boiling-point and filter, should there be a pre- cipitate. Wash the filter with hot water, add an excess of oxalate of ammonium to the filtrate, boil two hours, and let stand several hours ; collect the precipitate in a small quantitative filter and wash with dilute ammonia. The filter and contents are next transferred to a tared platinum crucible, partly dried and the filter charred at a low tem- perature, then ignited until the carbon is removed. Add a small quantity of sulphate of ammonia solution containing chloride of ammonia (see 136), dry at a moderate heat, and ignite at a high temperature. The residue consists of sul- phate of calcium (CaSO 4 ). Cool in a desiccator and weigh. The weight of the calcium sulphale multiplied by .41158 is the weight of calcium oxide (lime) per 100 cc. of juice. This number is practically the percentage of calcium oxide (CaO) by weight in the juice, or the correct percentage is this number divided by the specific gravity of the juice. 100 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Fradiss' Volumetric Method. 1 Treat 100 cc. of juice as described under the preceding method. Decompose the oxalate of calcium with warm dilute sulphuric acid. The acid combines with the calcium and sets the oxalic acid free. The oxalic acid is determined by means of a i/io normal solution of permanganate of potassium (2O2). Titrate the solution without filtering, maintaining a tem- perature of 60 to 80 C. The addition of the permanganate solution should be continued until a permanent pink color is produced. Calculation, Multiply the burette reading, the cc. per- manganate solution, by 0.0028 to obtain the weight of cal- cium oxide (CaO), or by 0.002 to obtain the weight of cal- cium (Ca). The numbers so obtained are the per cents by volume of the juice. Divide by the specific gravity of the juice to obtain the corresponding per cents by weight. Soap Method. This is an application of Clarke's soap test, used in estimating the hardness of water. The total percentage of calcium as calcium oxide (CaO) may be rapidly and closely estimated by this method. As used by the French it is more convenient for sugar-house purposes than the English method. Chloride of Calcium or Barium Solution. Dissolve 0.25 gram of pure chloride of calcium or 0.55 gram of pure crystallized barium chloride (BaCl 2 -f- 2H 3 O) in water and dilute to i litre. Special Burette. The burette is so graduated that 2.4 cc. correspond to 23 divisions. The zero of the graduation is placed at the second division to allow for the quantity of soap solution required to produce a permanent lather with 40 cc. of distilled water; the 22 divisions correspond to o.oi gram of chloride of calcium dissolved in distilled water; hence a division or i corresponds to 0.00045 gram of the chloride in 40 cc., or 0.0114 gram per litre. Special Bottle. This bottle is graduated at TO, 20, 30, and 40 cc. Only two of these graduations, viz., at 10 and 40 cc., are used in sugar work. Method of Making the Test. Introduce 40 cc. of the cal- cium chloride or barium chloride solution into the special 1 Bulletin de I'Assoc. des Chimistes de France, 14, 22. ANALYSIS OF THE JUICE. 101 bottle, and add the soap solution (see 186) little by little, with agitation, until a foam 5 mm. deep forms and persists during 5 minutes. The solution must be vigorously agi- tated by shaking the stoppered bottle after each addition of the soap. If the soap solution be of the correct strength, a volume corresponding to 22 divisions of the burette is required. The burette should always be filled to the division above the zero mark, and the reading should be from zero. If the reading be not 22, add sufficient cold, recently boiled distilled water to dilute it to this strength. To 10 cc. of the juice in the special bottle, add sufficient cold, recently boiled distilled water to dilute it to 40 cc. Proceed as above, using the standarized soap solution. Multiply the number of "degrees " read on the burette by 0.0228 to calculate the lime (CaO) per litre of juice. This method may be applied to the sirup, massecuites, and molasses, using i gram of the material diluted to 40 cc. See page 171 relative to the influence of magnesia in this test. The presence of magnesia, resulting from dolomite in the limestone, may vitiate the results obtained. Parallel determinations by the soap and the gravimetric methods, or an examination of the lime, will show whether sufficient magnesia is present to render this process unavailable. This method is not applicable to the juice from the first car- bonatation. 83. Free and Combined Lime and Alkalinity Due to Caustic Alkalis. Pellet's Method. 1 A. Determine the total alkalinity by titration with sul- phuric acid, using litmus as an indicator. The titration must be made at the boiling-point of the juice. Calculate the alkalinity as lime per 100 cc. of juice. B. Add an equal volume of strong alcohol to a measured portion of the juice; the "free" lime is precipitated as an insoluble saccharate of lime; filter and determine the alka- linity of the filtrate operating upon an aliquot part; calcu- late as lime per zoocc. of juice. This alkalinity is, however, due to sodium and potassium hydrates, but is expressed as lime for comparative purposes. 1 Fabrication du Sucre, Beaudet, Pellet, etc., 2, 305. 102 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. C. The total lime is determined by one of the methods in 82, and is also expressed as lime per TOO cc. of juice. The following example illustrates the calculations: Example \ As Lime per ioocc. (A} Total alkalinity 0.027 gram. (?} Alkalinity due to soda and potassa 0.021 " (C) Total lime, including organic salts 0.023 " Free lime (A B) 0.006 " Combined lime, i.e., lime salts (C \_A B~\}.. 0.017 " ANALYSIS OF THE SIRUP. 84. Analysis of the Sirup. The analysis of the sirup is conducted as that of the juice (67 to 83); the same determinations are made, the only variations being in the quantities of the material used for the analysis. All the portions used for analysis should be weighed, not measured. This is necessary on account of the viscos- ity of the sirup. ANALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES AND MOLASSES. 85. Determination of the Density. The deter- mination of . the density of massecuites presents certain difficulties which cannot well be avoided, and which com- pel the acceptance of results which are not strictly accurate. As has been explained, the degree Brix of a solution is the percentage, by weight, of pure sugar which it contains, but it is usually taken as the percentage of solid matter in the solution. The use of a spindle or pyknometer for the determination of the degree Brix, assumes the impurities in the solution, or the non-sucrose, to have the same specific gravity as sucrose. This assumption, unfortunately for the convenience of the chemist, is far from true, especially in the denser products and in those from which a part of the sugar has been removed, viz., the second, third, etc., mas- ANALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES AND MOLASSES. 103 secuites and the molasses. The mineral impurities influ- ence the specific gravity very materially, since they differ so widely in specific gravity from the sugars. Since the proportion of inorganic non-sugar increases as one passes from the products of high purity to those of low purity, the difference between the apparent percentage of total solids, as indicated by the density, and the true percentage of total solids, becomes greater. From this, it is apparent that calculations of the total solids in massecuites, etc., from the density of the product, must be accepted with caution, and then only for compara- tive purposes, when uniform conditions of analysis are maintained. The methods by dilution and spindling are given in this book for calculating approximate coefficients, etc., and must not be assumed to give strictly accurate results. It is customary to terrir-the degree Brix, as deduced from the specific gravity of the material, the "apparent degree Brix," or simply the "degree Brix"; the term "true or real degree Brix " is sometimes applied to the percentage of total solids, when this number is determined by actually drying the material in an oven. 8G. Determination of the Density by Dilu- tion and Spindling. Apparent Degree Brix. Dissolve 250 grams of the massecuite or molasses in water and dilute to 500 cc. Transfer a portion of the solution to a cylinder and determine its degree Brix. Calculate the degree Brix of the product used by the following formula : Sp. Gr.KBKV Apparent degree Brix - , in which B is the degree Brix (corrected) of the solution, Sp. Gr. the specific gravity corresponding to the degree Brix of the solution before correction, V the volume of the solution, and ff-the weight of massecuite used. The above formula reduces to the following if the weight and volume specified have been used : Apparent degree Brix = 2 X Sp. Gr. X B. The following is a very convenient modification of the above method : 104 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Dissolve a definite weight of massecuite in an equal weight of water, mix the solution thoroughly, and spindle. The degree Brix of the massecuite is two times the degree Brix of the solution. (See also 88, Weisberg's method.) 87. Determination of the Total Solids or Moisture by Drying 1 . The method of Carr and San- born, and the vacuum method given in 77, are recom- mended. In the latter case use I gram of the massecuite, and in both methods, after weighing the material, dissolve it in a small quantity of distilled water, in order to dis- tribute it evenly. In the Carr-Sanborn method, dilute the sample to content of about 20 to 30 per cent dry matter, using a weighed portion of water. Add such quantity of the diluted material to the pumice-stone, in the tared dish, as will yield approximately i gram dry matter. 88. Approximate Determination of the Total Solids and Coefficient of Purity of Massecuite, etc., by Dilution and Spindling-. Weisberg's Method. 1 This is the ordinary method by dilution and spindling, but conducted under certain definite conditions, under which a table of coefficients, deduced by Weisberg from a very large number of experiments, is used. Weigh three times the normal weight, or any convenient multiple of the normal weight, of the massecuite and dissolve it in water; transfer the solution to a 3Oo-cc. flask, or to a flask corresponding to the multiple of the normal weight of massecuite used, and dilute to the graduation. Mix the solu- tion thoroughly and determine its degree Brix, using a spin- dle graduated to twentieths of a degree. Transfer 50 cc. of the solution, corresponding to the half-normal weight of the massecuite, to a flask, clarify with subacetate of lead, dilute to 100 cc., mix and filter. Polarize the filtrate, and multiply the polariscopic reading by 2 to compensate for the dilu- tion. This gives the percentage of sucrose in the masse- cuite. In materials containing notable quantities of raffin- ose, etc., use the method of Creydt (89) to ascertain the per cent of sucrose in the massecuite. The methods of calculation are most conveniently explained by an example. 1 Bui. Assoc. Chimistes de France, 14, 978. ANALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES AND MOLASSES. 105 Example and Formula for Calculations. Weight of massecuite (2* times the normal) = 65.12 gram Volume of the solution = 250 cc. Degree Brix of the solution = B = 22 Specific gravity corresponding to the degree Brix (see table page 275) = D = 1.09231 Polariscopic reading X 2 = R = 55. Constant (normal weight **- 100) = .26048 (i) R X o . 26048 D = per cent sucrose in the diluted solu- tion, S; (2) X ioo = apparent coefficient of purity (1O6) of the > solution and of the massecuite. WEISBERG'S TABLE OF COEFFICIENTS. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. Coefficients. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. Coefficients. 57 .054 78 .021 57.5 .052 79 .020 58 .050 80 .019 58.5 .048 81 .018 59 .046 82 .017 60 .044 83 .016 61 .042 84 .015 62 .040 85 .014 63 .038 86 .013 64 .036 87 .012 65 .034 88 .011 66 .033 89 .010 67 .032 90 .009 68 .031 91 .008 69 .030 92 .007 70 .029 93 .006 71 .028 94 .005 72 .027 95 .004 73 .026 96 .003 74 .025 97 .002 75 .024 98 .002 76 .023 99 .001 77 1 .022 100 .000 106 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. The letters have the values indicated in the statement of the example and in equation (i). (3) Multiply the apparent coefficient of purity by the co- efficient corresponding to it in Weisberg's table to obtain the true coefficient of purity of the massecuite. (4) The true per cent total solids of the massecuite is deduced by dividing its percentage sucrose by the true co- efficient of purity and multiplying by 100. Substituting the values of R and D in formula (i) we have R X 0.26048 _ 55 X 0.26048 D 1.09231 " ' and substituting the values of B and S in formula (2) we have S 13.12 -X 100=-^- X ioo = 59.64, apparent purity of the massecuite; and from (3), 59.64 X 1.045 = 62.32, the approximately true purity of the massecuite. 2T> From (4), X 100 88.25, the approximately true per cent of total solids in the massecuite. In checking this method by actual drying of the above massecuite, Weisberg obtained a true purity of 62.02. This sample was a very severe test of the method owing to the low purity of the massecuite. Weisberg constructed his table from experimental data, obtained in the examination of massecuites produced with- out " boiling in " molasses, as is now practised to a consider- able extent. With massecuite obtained by "boiling in" molasses on first-sugar, it is possible that the method may not give as satisfactory results as indicated in the example. 89. Determination of Sucrose and Raffiiiose. Creydt's Formulae. This is the official German method ; l it is that of Clerget, as published by the German Govern- ment, except that the acidulation of the solution for direct polarization is recommended. This method is not applicable in the presence of optically active bodies other than sucrose and raffinose. Percentages of raffinose less than 0.33 cannot be determined with certainty by the inversion methods. 1 Zeit. Rubcnzucker -Industrie^ 38, 867. ANALYSTS OF THE MASSECUITES AND MOLASSES. 107 Dissolve the normal weight of the material in water, clarify as usual, and dilute to 100 cc. Filter, and polarize the filtrate at 20 C. Record the polarization as the " direct reading." It is recommended that this solution be slightly acidulated with acetic acid before diluting to 100 cc. Dissolve 13.024 grams of the substance in 75 cc. of water, in a loo-cc. flask, and add 5 cc. hydrochloric acid containing 38.8 per cent of the acid, mix the contents of the flask by a circular motion, and place it on a water-bath heated to 70 C. The temperature of the solution in the flask should reach 67 to 70 C., in two and one half to three minutes. Maintain a temperature of as nearly 69 C. as possible for seven to seven and one half minutes, making the total time of heating ten minutes. Remove the flask and cool the contents rapidly to 20 C., and dilute the solution to 100 cc. If necessary treat th,e solution with i gram of dry bone-black (189) to decolorize it. Polarize in a tube provided with a lateral branch for the insertion of a thermometer. A tube, provided with a jacket, through which a current of water of 20 C. circulates, should be used. The invert reading should be made at 20 C., and be multiplied by 2. If a preliminary cal- culation, using the formula, per cent sucrose =0.7538 X algebraic sum of the direct and invert readings, give a per- centage which is more than i per cent higher than the direct reading, raffinose is probably present, and the following for- mulae by Creydt should be used in making the calculations : P the direct reading, i.e. , the polarization before in- version ; / = the invert reading , multiplied by 2. S = the percentage of sucrose ; R = the percentage of anhydrous raffinose. _c.5i88/ > - / _-P-S 0.845 1.85 It is very important in this process that the time and temperature conditions be strictly complied with. The amount of material used should be varied, according to the nature of the substance, that the invert solution may have a concentration of approximately 13.7 grams in 100 cc.,, i.e., the invert-sugar produced in the inversion of 13.024 108 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. grams of sucrose. The value of the constants varies con- siderably with the concentration (j267). 9O. Determination of Sucrose and Raffinosc. Lindet's Inversion Method as Modified by Courtoniie. Courtonne 1 has slightly modified the method of Lindet 2 in order to facilitate the manipulations. Dissolve the normal weight of the material in water and dilute to 100 cc. Transfer 50 cc. of this solution to a 5o-cc. flask and add sufficient dilute subacetate of lead solution (2O7); acidulate with acetic acid; mix, filter, and polarize the filtrate. Increase the polariscopic reading one tenth and record as the direct reading (A). Transfer 20 cc. of the original solution of the material to a SQ-CC. flask, and add to it 5 grams of zinc-dust. The dust must be weighed. Heat the flask and contents by immer- sion in boiling water or in the steam from a water-bath. Add 10 cc. of dilute hydrochloric acid, in portions of about 2 cc. at a time, being careful that none of the liquid is lost through a too rapid addition of the acid. The portions of acid may be added as frequently as convenient. The dilute acid is prepared by adding an equal volume of distilled water to pure hydrochloric acid of 1.2 specific gravity. In the original method of Lindet, it is specified to heat the contents of the flask on the boiling-water bath about 20 minutes. In the modified method, it is only necessary to heat a few minutes after the last addition of acid. The quantity of acid is so gauged that a portion of the zinc is left undecomposed and occupies a volume of .5 cc., for which a correction must be made in the calculations. After the inversion is completed, cool the solution, either by immersing the flask in cold water or by setting aside to cool slowly. When the temperature reaches 20 C. com- plete the volume to 50 cc., mix and filter. Polarize the filtrate in an observation-tube provided with a lateral branch for the insertion of a thermometer. Multiply the reading by 2.475 if a 20-centimetre observation-tube were used. This factor includes a correction for the volume of the excess of zinc used. The polarization should be made 1 Bui. Assoc. Ckimistes de France, 7, 232. 2 Op. cit., supra, 7, 432. ANALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES AND MOLASSES. 109 It 20 C. Caculate the percentages of sucrose and raffinose by the following formulae : A the direct reading, i.e., before inversion ; B = the invert reading, corrected to terms of the nor- mal weight ; C = the algebraic sum of the direct and the indirect reading ; S = the per cent sucrose ; ft = the per cent raffinose. The first set of formulae is for the Laurent polariscope, instruments whose normal weight is 16.29 grams, and the second set for the Schmidt and Haensch polariscope, in- struments whose normal weight is 26.048 grams : Set No. i : Set No. 2 : 0.827 i-57 1.298 In the formulas, A* is the percentage of hydrated raffinose. To obtain the percentage of anhydrous raffinose substitute 1.84 for 1.54 in the denominator in the first set of formulae and 1.85 for 1.57 in the second set. The invert solutions by this method are perfectly colorless and require no bone-black or other treatment preparatory to polarization. This process is only applicable to materials containing no optically active bodies other than sucrose and raffinose. As beet products, under normal conditions, rarely contain reducing sugars, this process is generally applicable in all beet work. The formulae given in the set No. I are those of Creydt, modified by Lindet. The correction for the space occupied by the undecom- posed zinc-dust, is based upon the fact that only enough hydrochloric acid is used to decompose a certain quantity of zinc. If the quantities of acid and zinc indicated be used, there will be sufficient excess of zinc to occupy a vol- ume of nearly .5 cc. 110 HANDBOOK FOE SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. The author prefers to use a solution of hydrochloric acid, standardized by means of a normal alkali solution. The acid should be measured from a burette. It is conducive to accuracy to use a flask graduated at 50.5 cc., and an obser- vation tube 50 centimetres long. To insure an observation at 20 C. a tube, provided with a water-jacket, through which water of that temperature flows, is necessary. The great advantage claimed for Lindet's method is that it permits the inversion at the boiling-point of water with- out decomposition of the resultant products. Further, the matter of the time element is very much simplified, since while the inversion is complete in less than twenty minutes, there is no perceptible decomposition of the invert-sugar on heating a much longer time. This method, in common with other inversion methods, has been the subject of much investigation and discussion. The evidence appears to be largely in favor of the methods of inversion given in 89 and 92. 91. Determination of Sucrose and Raffiiiose in the Presence of Reducing' Sugars. J. Wortman ' recommends the following method for this determination : The reducing sugar is determined by the method with alkaline copper solution on page 81, using the following formulae for the calculation : N = per cent reducing sugar; Cu = the weight of copper reduced; q = the weight of material employed; q The value of TV is substituted in the following equations: I. Per cent sucrose S = II. Per cent raffinose = R = 1.5648 P 5+0.3103^ 1.85 in which P is the direct polarization and P' is the invert reading. These formulae are based upon the work of Herzfeld and are for the normal weight of 26.048 grams. 1 Zeit. Riibenzucker -Industrie, 39, 766. 1NALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES A3STD MOLASSES. Ill The inversion, as far as concerns time, temperature, and acid, is made as in section 89. 92. Determination of Sucrose in the Pres- ence of Reducing- Sugars. Clerget's Method. In this modified method of Clerget, as adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, the direct and invert readings are obtained as in 89. The' readings, especially if much reducing sugar be present, should both be made at very .nearly the same temperature. This temperature should not vary more than two or three de- grees from 20 C. The readings should be made at 20 C. if practicable, in which case the following formula is used : 1006" Per cent sucrose = ^ __ y = 0.75386", in which S is the algebraic sum of the direct and invert readings. Should the temperature (/) vary from 20 C., use the fol- lowing formula : 1006" Per cent sucrose . 142.4 - \t Certain important precautions are given in 89 in con- nection with this method. Since beet products obtained under normal conditions rarely contain appreciable quantities of reducing sugars, and the very low products probably always contain raffi- nose, the methods of Creydt, preferably, or of Lindet (89, 9O) are usually employed. All inversion methods are usually spoken of as " Clerget's method," from the chemist who devised the original proc- ess of which all are slight modifications. 93. Determination to be made in the Analy- sis of Massecuites and Molasses. All the determina- tions required in the analysis of the sirups are also to be made in the massecuite and molasses. The methods for sucrose and raffinose are those given in 89 to 92. The scheme given in the next paragraph is convenient for use in this class of work. 94. Scheme for the Analysis of Massecuites and Molasses, Adapted from Sidersky's Method. 112 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. In order that Weisberg's table of coefficients may be available (see page 104), the quantity of material he advises should be used. Dissolve 78.144 grams of massecuite in distilled water, dilute the solution to 300 cc., and use portions of it for the various determinations. Determine the per cent sucrose, the apparent and true coefficients of purity (1O6), and the apparent and true de- grees Brix by Weisberg's method (88)% For the determination of the ash, evaporate 19.2 cc. of the solution (5.0012 grams of the material) nearly to dry- ness. Multiply the corrected weight of the ash by 20 to obtain the per cent of ash, The slight excess of material used over 5 grams does not introduce an appreciable error even in low-grade molasses. For the determination of the alkalinity, use a measured volume of the solution, remembering that each cubic centi- metre corresponds to 0.26048 gram of the material. Use the methods in 95. 95. Alkalinity of Massecuites and Molasses. It is often necessary to determine the alkalinity of masse- cuites, and occasionally of the molasses. These products are often very dark, rendering it difficult to employ a volumetric method. The following method devised by Buisson l gives satisfactory results in very highly colored products: Transfer 25 cc. of a solution of the material to be titrated, to a glass-stoppered flask, add one drop of a neutral solution of corallin and 10 cc. of washed ether. The ether must be neutral. After each addition of the standard acid (see 81 et seq.), agitate thoroughly and wait a few seconds for the ether to separate and rise to the surface. The slightest excess of acid reacts upon the corallin and colors the ethereal solution yellow. This reaction is very sharp. The alkalinity is calculated as lime (CaO), percentage by weight. The methods given in 8O to 83 are also applica- ble to these products. 96. Estimation of the Proportion of Crystal- lized Sugar. Many of the methods of estimating the 1 Bulletin de V Assoc. des Chimistes de France \ 9, 597. ANALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES AND MOLASSES. 113 proportion of crystallized sugar, in sugars and massecuites, were suggested by Scheibler's modification of Payen's method for estimating the refining values of raw sugars. In this method the crystals, in the weighed sample, are washed with successive portions of the following solutions: (I) 85 per cent alcohol containing 50 cc. acetic acid per litre and saturated with sugar; (II) and (III) 92 and 96 per cent alcohol, respectively, saturated with sugar; (IV) absolute alcohol; and (V) one third ether and two thirds absolute alcohol. The residual sugar is washed into a sugar-flask and its content of sucrose determined by the polariscope. This method is no longer used, but is given in outline for historic reasons and because it suggested other methods which are in use. Pellet devised a somewhat similar method, using first a saturated solution of pure sugar and afterwards saturated alcoholic sugar solutions, of increasing alcohol content, to wash the crystals. The sugar crystals are finally dried and weighed. FIG. 49 . The following described methods, of which the author prefers Dupont's, are the most practical: Vivien's Method. Place a weighed quantity of masse- 114 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. cuite in the funnel , Fig. 49, of the pressure filtering apparatus ; for example, 200 grams. The funnel is fitted with a perforated filtering-cone, as indicated by the dotted line. Connect the apparatus with a filtering-pump, Chap- man's or other simple model, by the tube V. Wash the crystals with a cold solution of sugar containing 2 parts of pure sucrose to i part of distilled water. The pressure is regulated by raising or lowering the tube A, which dips into mercury in the cylinder B. The material in the funnel should always be covered with the wash-liquor. Continue the washing until all the crystals are free from molasses, then transfer them to a tared dish, mix thoroughly and weigh. Determine the moisture in 10 grams of the crystals by drying as usual in an oven. Since the wash-liquor contained i part water and 2 parts of sucrose, the loss in weight on drying multiplied by 3 gives the weight of the liquor adhering to the crystals. Example and Calculations. Weight of massecuite 200 grams Weight of moist crystals 176.5 " Moisture in 10 grams of the crystals. 0.56 " Then =9.884 grams water in the moist crys- tals, and 9.884X 3 = 29.652, the weight of the wash-liquor adhering to the crystals. 176.5 29.652 = 73.43 grams of dry, crystallized sugar in 100 grams of massecuite. Kracz' Method.^ This method, as applied to raw sugar, consists in dissolving the adhering molasses in pure anhy- drous glycerine and filtering off a portion of the solution for polarization. The polarizations of the raw sugar and of the glycerine solution supply the data for the calcula- tions. The apparatus shown in Fig. 50 is used for the filtration. The application of the method to massecuite is given farther on. Since anhydrous glycerine is very hygroscopic, it must 1 Zeit. Rube nzucker- Industrie i 31, 500, ANALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES AND MOLASSES. 115 be protected from the moisture in the air at each stage of the analysis. Weigh 30 to 50 grams of the sugar and transfer to a glass dish contain- ing an equal weight of glycerine. Mix intimately with a glass rod, and place in a desiccator containing fused calcium chloride or concen- trated sulphuric acid. Repeat the mixing from time to time, until the crystals are well separated and the molasses uniformly distributed in the glycerine solution. This requires fifteen minutes and upwards. Place a plug of dry filtering-cotton in the funnel of the apparatus (Fig. 50), transfer the mixture to the funnel, and replace the cover. Filter under pressure, using a filter-pump. The mixture is protected from moisture, during filtration, by chloride of cal- cium tubes, as shown in the figure. FIG. 50. Polarize the normal weight of the filtrate. Kracz' 1 for- mula has been shown to be inexact; hence the corrected formula is given. Formula for the Calculations. x = sucrose in the molasses attached to the crystals ; P = per cent sucrose in the raw sugar ; / = per cent sucrose in the glycerine filtrate ; x~ p. and P x = the percentage of crystal- 100 - p lized sugar. Example. Polarization of the raw sugar = 95.6 ; polari- zation of the filtrate 6.75. x= ' X 6. 75 =7. 55, and 95.6 7.55 = 88.05, the IOO u. 75 percentage of crystallized sugar. 1 Zeitschrift f. Zuckerinduftrit Bohem,. Jan. 1895. 116 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Perepletchikow 1 recommends the following procedure with massecuites : Transfer the normal weight of the massecuite treated with an indefinite quantity of pure anhydrous glycerine, as described above, to the funnel of Kracz' apparatus, and filter off the glycerine solution. Wash the crystals with repeated portions of glycerine, until the filtrate is no longer colored. Remove the funnel from the apparatus and wash the crystals into a sugar-flask, dissolve, and polarize. The polariscopic reading is the percentage of sugar crystals in the massecuite. Perepletchikow made comparative tests of the various methods, with the results given in the following table : /Crystals per cent > Time required MofVir>ri Massecuite. for Making Massecuite Massecuite the Analysis. No. I. No. 2. Minutes. 1 Washing with sugar) 71 fi fi2 4( - solution f ' ' 2. Pellet 69.8 60.7 60 3 Washing with glycerine . 70 60.8 60 4. Dupont 71.1 61.6 45 5. Sidersky* 71 61.5 150 6. Kracz 70 60.6 60 7. Perepletchikow 70.1 61.3 30 Actual percentage of I 7n 4 fi1 1 crystals present f ' ' Duponfs Method.' 1 ' Heat a quantity of massecuite of known polarization, 500 grams, for example, to 85 C. and centrifugal in a small machine, such as is constructed for laboratory purposes. The wire sieve of the centrifugal machine should be covered with thin flannel. Dry the sugar as thoroughly as possible. Determine the percent- age of sugar in the molasses with the polariscope. Calcu* late the percentage of crystallized sucrose by the following formula, in which a = the polarization of the massecuite : p = polarization of the crystals ; /' = polarization of the 1 Zapiski, 1894, 18, 346; Abstract in Bulletin de V Association des Chi- mistes^ 1/J, 407. 2 x : zoo = a : 6, in which x sugar adhering to the crystals; a = per cent ash (sulphated) in the massecuite; b = per cent ash in the molasses, obtained by filtration ; 100 x per cent crystallized sugar in the massecuite. 3 Manuel- Agenda des Fabricants de Sucre ', 1891, p. 293. ANALYSIS OF THE MASSECUITES AND MOLASSES. 117 molasses ; and x = the weight of crystallized sucrose in a unit of the massecuite : x . and loox = the per cent of crystallized sucrose P-P in the massecuite. Example. Polarization of the massecuite = 84.5 = a Polarization of the molasses = 60.6 =/' The crystals may be considered to be pure sugar; hence p = 100. Substituting in the formula, we have 84.5 60.6 100 60.6 = 0.6066, and loox 100 X 0.6066 = 60.66, the percentage of crystals in the massecuite. Dupont's formula is applicable to the calculation of the crystallized sugar in the massecuite, on the basis of the data obtained by the analysis of the massecuite, and of the molasses flowing from the sugar-house centrifugals, pro- vided the sugar is not washed in the machines. Further, it is necessary to filter the molasses through flannel, to remove fine crystals which may have passed the centrif- ugal sieves. The above is one of the most practical methods yet pro- posed for the estimation of the proportion of crystallized sugar in massecuites. 97. Notes 011 the Estimation of the Crystal- lized Sugar. This estimation is of great practical value in the control of the vacuum-pan work and the centrif- ugals. The reduction in the yield of first-sugar in many sugar-houses, through careless centrifugal work, or by sugar-crystals passing into the molasses through holes in the sieves, "too small to amount to anything," is undoubt- edly often quite large. Dupont's method affords an easy control of this part of the manufacture, and should be systematically applied. Loss in the centrifugals may also be due to a very fine grain. 118 HANDBOOK FOB SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ANALYSIS OF SUGARS. 98. Analysis of Sugars. The usual determinations to be made in sugars are the percentages of sucrose and ash. The latter is determined as in 75. The moisture is occasionally required. It is determined as usual by dry- ing a weighed portion of the sample, in an oven, to constant weight. For high-grade sugars the temperature of the oven may be 105 C., and for very low grades 100 C., or, preferably, these sugars should be dried in the vacuum- oven, page 94, at a temperature below 95 C. White sugars can be polarized without clarification of the solutions ; filtration is necessary, however, to remove dust and mechanical inipurities. Raw -sugar solutions must be clarified with a few drops of dilute subacetate of lead solution. Aluminic hydrate will sometimes facilitate the clarifica- tion of low-grade sugars. With compensating instruments the polarization of sugars should be effected at moderate temperatures. The Schmidt and Haensch instruments give correct percentages, when the normal weight of the sugar is contained in 100 Mohr's cubic centimetres of the solution, and is observed in a 2OO-mm. tube at 17^ C. With the Laurent apparatus, the normal weight of the sugar should be contained in 100 true cubic centimetres. Creydt's method, 89, should be used with low-grade sugars. The chemist is occasionally called upon to estimate the refining value or " titrage " of a raw beet-sugar. The method adopted in Germany for this calculation is as fol- lows : Deduct 5 times the per cent of ash from the polari- zation of the sugar to obtain the titrage. If a saccharate process have been used, an additional allowance of I per cent of the titrage, as calculated above, is made. This ANALYSIS OF SUGARS. 119 method is not entirely satisfactory to the refiners, who claim that with modern methods of raw-sugar manufacture the allowance is too small. They suggest that 2 times the per cent of non-sugar be deducted. The French deduct 4 times the per cent of ash and 2 times the per cent of reducing sugar from the polarization. For white first sugars, the deduction is 5 times the percent of ash. Fractions in the polarization are not counted. The French Government, in its calculations, uses only the per cent soluble ash and not the total ash. These methods are purely arbitrary and are based solely upon refining experience. 99. Notes on the Analysis of Massecuites, Sugars, and Molasses. In the event of obtaining very dark-colored solutions which are difficult to polarize, shake the solution with about one gram of finely powdered dry bone-black, and filter. To avoid an error, due to the ab- sorption of sugar by the bone-black, it is advisable to use the latter in small quantity, or to filter the solution through a very small quantity of bone-black, rejecting the first half of the filtrate. In the clarification of the solution with subacetate of lead, the reagent should be added as long as a precipitate forms. In solutions which contain invert-sugar or raffinose acetic acid should be added to restore the normal rotatory power. Since the rotatory power of raffinose is modified by subacetate of lead, it is advisable that the direct polari- zation, in the inversion methods, be made in a solution acidulated with acetic acid as advised by Pellet. There is much room for improvement in the existing methods for the analysis of the low products, especially of molasses. 120 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ANALYSIS OF FILTER PRESS-CAKE. 100. Determination of Moisture. Dry 5 grams of the press-cake at 100 C. to constant weight. The loss in weight X 20 = percentage of moisture. 101. Determination of the Total Sucrose. The sucrose in the press-cake is partly in combination with the lime, as a saccharate, and partly in water solution. The saccharate must be decomposed and the sucrose set free. Several processes for the decomposition of the saccharate, in this analysis, have been suggested, a few of which are given in the following methods : Stammer's Method. Place 100 grams of the press-cake in a mortar and beat to a smooth cream with water ; transfer to a large tared Erlenmeyer flask, and add suffi- cient water to make about 200 cc., including that used in beating up the press-cake. Treat with an excess of car- bonic acid ; raise the temperature to the boiling-point, and expel the excess of carbonic acid. Cool the flask and con- tents, place it upon a scale, and add sufficient water to com- plete the quantity to 200 grams. Mix the water and press- cake thoroughly, filter off 50 cc. of the solution, add 5 cc. subacetate of lead for clarification, and filter. Polarize the filtrate, using as long an observation-tube as the instrument will admit, and increase the reading by i/io, to correct for the dilution. Example indicating the Calculations. Weight of press-cake used 100 grams. Water in the sample as determined by drying. . 40 per cent. Polariscopic reading, 4oo-mm. observation-tube, cor- rected for the i/io dilution (Schmidt and Haensch polariscope) 4 Water in the press-cake = 100 X 40 40 grams. Water added 200 " Total water 240 ' ' The volume of the total water therefore is 240 cc. ANALYSIS OF FILTER PRESS-CAKE. 121 Formula. Let R = polariscopic reading in a 2OO-mm. tube; V = total volume of water added and the water in the press-cake; F = the normal weight divided by 100. ~, F X R X V _ j the per cent of sucrose in the press- 100 ( cake. Substituting the values of R, V, and F\\\ the formula, .26048 X 2 X 240 _ j 1.25, the per cent of sucrose in the 100 ( press-cake. The saccharates of lime may be decomposed by one of the methods given below. There is an inappreciable error in this method in con- sidering the volume of the water added and that of the water in the press-cake as the volume of the sugar solution in Mohr's units. Sidersky' s Method. This is one of the most convenient methods for the analysis of well-formed press-cake. It is based upon the fact that the volume of the insoluble mat- ter in 26.048 grams of press-cake is approximately 5 cc. Beat 25 grams of press-cake, 15.7 grams for the Laurent polariscope, and a small quantity of cold water to the con- sistence of a cream, using a glass mortar and pestle, and transfer the mixture to a loo-cc. flask. Add a few drops of a solution of phenolphthalein as an indicator, then sufficient dilute acetic acid, drop by drop, to discharge the color. Clarify with subacetate of lead, filter and polarize. It is advisable to use a 4OO-mm. or soo-mm. observation-tube for the polarization, and divide the polariscopic reading by 2 or 2.5 to obtain the per cent of sucrose. Various Methods. Other methods usually differ from Sidersky's in the reagent used for the decomposition of the saccharates of lime. Among these reagents may be mentioned boracic acid, carbonate of sodium, bicarbonate of magnesium and sulphate of magnesium. The object of this treatment is to decompose the saccharates without decomposing salts of optically active bodies which may be present in the press-cake. Herzfeld does not consider magnesium sulphate suitable for this purpose. 122 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 102. Determination of the Free and Com bined Sucrose. Proceed by one of the above methods for the sucrose in press-cakes, except to use neither acetic acid nor other reagent which will decompose the sac- charates. Add a few drops of acetic acid to the solution before polarizing. This gives the free sucrose. The combined sucrose, i.e. , the sucrose in the saccharates, is obtained by deducting the free from the total sucrose. ANALYSIS OF RESIDUES FROM THE ME- CHANICAL FILTERS. 103. Composition and Analysis. The composi- tion of the residues from the sirup filters is quite variable, and, aside from the sucrose, is of interest on account of incrustation in the multiple-effect and the difficulty some- times experienced in the filtration. The composition depends somewhat on the quality of the stone andcoke used in the lime-kiln, and upon the method of conducting the carbonatation and the saturation. The difficulties in the filtration may often be traced to the presence of gelat- inous silica. The important constituents of the residues are sucrose, oxide, carbonate, sulphite and sulphate of calcium, iron, alumina and silica. The moisture and sucrose are determined by the methods in sections 1OO and 1O1. After the removal of the organic matter, by ignition, the inorganic constituents may be determined by the methods given for the analysis of limestone, page 148. ANALYSIS OF WASH AND WASTE WATERS. 123 ANALYSIS OF WASH AND WASTE WATERS. 1O4. Determination of the Sucrose. The sucrose is usually the only determination required in wash and waste waters. The water used in washing the filter press-cake is ana- lyzed in the same manner as carbonated juices. The waste waters from the diffusion-battery contain exceedingly small quantities of sucrose. The determina- tion may be made either by the optical or the chemical method. In the former add one or two drops of concen- trated subacetate of lead solution (2O7) to 100 cc. of the water, mix and filter. Polarize in 4OO-mm. or soo-mm. observation-tube. Obtain the percentage of sucrose by inspection, from the following table (Schmitz): Tenths of the Polari- scopic Reading. Per Cent Su- crose. Tenths of the Polari- scopic Reading. Per Cent Su- crose. 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.11 0.12 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.15 0.17 0.20 0.22 The chemical method (37) is applicable to all waste waters, especially to those containing little more than traces of sucrose. Proceed as follows: Concentrate a measured volume of the water to small volume, invert with hydrochloric acid, neutralize with caustic soda, and determine the reducing sugar by one of the methods in 72 or 73. Multiply the percentage of reducing sugar obtained by .95 to obtain the percentage of sucrose. Tartaric acid may be added to the water before the concentration, thus inverting the sucrose and dispens- ing with the hydrochloric acid. In the examination of the ammoniacal waters from the multiple effect, by the chemical method, the ammonia should be driven off by boiling. 124 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. ANALYSIS OF THE EXHAUSTED COS- SETTES. 1O5. Indirect Method. Cut the sample of well- drained cossettes into very small fragments by means of a meat-chopper, or, preferably, reduce to a cream with a mill. This machine should be one which will not press the cossettes and whose construction permits easy access for cleaning. Express the thin juice from the cossettes with a powerful press. It is essential that as great pressure as practicable be exerted, in order that a fairly representative sample of the juice may be obtained. Several models of powerful presses are made for this purpose, one of which is shown in Fig. 38. To loo cc. of the juice, in a sugar-flask, add sufficient subacetate of lead for the clarification, dilute to no cc. and filter. Polarize the filtrate, using as long an observation- tube as the instrument employed will accommodate. Cal- culate the percentage of sucrose by Schmitz' table, page 285. In order to calculate the percentage of sucrose upon the weight of the exhausted cossettes and then to terms of the weight of the beets, it is necessary to know the per- centage of water in the cossettes and the weight of the latter per 100 pounds of beets. The water is determiner 1 ' by the usual method, of drying a sample to constant weight in an oven. The weight of cossettes per cent beets is ascertained by actual experiment. The well-drained exhausted cossettes, when working by water-pressure, contain approximately 95 per cent of thin juice; hence the percentage of sucrose in the thin juice X 95 -=- loo = the percentage of sucrose in the cossettes. Direct Method (Stammer's slightly modified}. Grind a sample of the well-drained exhausted cossettes to a cream ANALYSIS OF THE EXHAUSTED COSSETTES. 125 in a cylindro-divider, Fig. 36, or other suitable milling device. To 300 grams of the cream add 10 cc. dilute solution of subacetate of lead for clarification, mix thor- oughly, and filter. Polarize the filtrate, using as long an observation-tube as the polariscope will accommodate. Example and Calculation. Three hundred grams of the creamed cossettes, containing 90 per cent of water, were treated as above described. The polariscopic reading, Schmidt and Haensch instrument, was 1.6, corrected for tube length. Whence 300 X 90 = 270 grams of water in the cream = 270 cc., and 270 cc. -f- 10 cc. subacetate of lead solution = 280 cc., the total volume of the solution, exclusive of the marc (113), and 1.6 X .26048 = 0.417 gram of sucrose per 100 cc. of the solution; 0.417 X 280 -f- 100 = 1.168 grams, the sucrose in 300 grams of the exhausted cossettes ; 1.168 ** 300 X 100 = 0.39, the per cent sucrose in the exhausted cossettes. The error due to calculating the percentage of water as the percentage of thin juice in the cossettes is inappreciable. 126 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. DEFINITIONS OF THE COEFFICIENTS AND TERMS USED IN SUGAR ANALYSIS. 106. Coefficient of Purity, True and Appa- rent. The true coefficient of purity is the percentage of sucrose contained in the total solid matter in the product, and is calculated by dividing the percentage of sucrose by the percentage of total solids, as determined by drying, and multiplying the quotient by 100. The apparent coefficient of purity is calculated as above, except that the degree Brix, as determined by spindling or from the specific gravity, is substituted for the percentage of solids, as ascertained by drying. This coefficient is also often termed the " quotient of purity," the " degree of purity," or the "exponent." The calculations may be much simplified, by the use of Kottmann's table, page 295. It will be noticed that this table advances by .2 per cent sucrose. Intermediate values may be obtained by interpolation. This is sufficiently ac- curate for all calculations based upon the degree Brix as ascertained by spindling, since this degree itself only ap- proximates the true percentage of solids. 107. Glucose Coefficient, or Glucose per 1OO Sucrose. This coefficient is frequently termed the "glu- cose ratio." Calculation. Per cent reducing sugars j the glucose (reducing Per cent sucrose ( sugars) coefficient. This coefficient is useful in detecting inversion. An increase in the glucose coefficient at different stages of the manufacture, provided there has been no removal of sucrose or decomposition of reducing sugars, shows that a portion of the sucrose has been inverted. 108. Saline Coefficient. The saline coefficient i:; the quantity sucrose per unit of ash. DEFINITION'S OF THE COEFFICIENTS. 127 Calculation. Per cent sucrose = saline coefficient. Per cent ash 109. Proportional Value. This coefficient is em- ployed in comparing the manufacturing value of different samples of beets. Calculation. Per cent sucrose X coefficient of purity = proportional value. 110. Apparent Dilution. The apparent dilution is the amount of water added to the normal juice to in- crease its volume to that of the diffusion-juice. This is expressed in percentage terms of the normal juice. 111. Actual Dilution. The actual dilution is the proportion of water added to the normal juice to reduce its percentage of sugar to that of the diffusion-juice; hence the actual dilution represents the evaporation necessary, per cent normal juice, to remove the added water. In calculat- ing the dilution we use either the percentage of sucrose or the degree Brix. In figuring coal consumption all state- ments should be based on the actual dilution. The nearer we approach a perfect extraction, the nearer the apparent dilution approaches the actual. 112. Coefficient of Organic Matter. This co- efficient is the quantity of sucrose per unit of organic matter other than sucrose. The true coefficient and the apparent coefficient are calculated as follows, using the solids by drying for the former and the degree Brix as the per cent solids in the latter: Per cent sucrose Per cent total solids (per cent sucrose -f- per cent ash) ~~ coefficient of organic matter. The apparent coefficient of organic matter is of doubtful value. 128 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. DETERMINATION OF THE MARC. 113. Determination of the Marc. The marc is that portion of the sugar-beet which is insoluble in water. Direct and indirect methods are used for its determina- tion. In the direct methods, the soluble matter is removed with water, under certain temperature conditions. The in- direct methods assume that a juice can be obtained, by heavily pressing the pulp, which has the mean composition of all the juice in the beet. The investigations of distin- guished chemists indicate the presence of water that holds little if any sugar in solution, and which is termed, by the Germans, " Colo'id-wasser." In view of this fact, indirect methods cannot be depended upon for other than approxi- mate results, hence are not given in this work. Method of von Lippmann. Place 20 grams of the finely ground sample in a basket of wire netting. The mesh must be very fine, and any portions of the pulp which pass it, in the subsequent operations, must be returned. Insert the basket in a current of water heated to 65 to 70 C. for 30 to 35 minutes, or until the pulp yields no more soluble matter. Drain the exhausted pulp, then complete the washing with a mixture of alcohol and ether. This last washing is for the displacement of part of the remaining water, and thus facilitates the drying. Dry the exhausted pulp, at first slowly at a temperature of 80 to 90 C., and then complete the drying at 100 C. to constant weight. Cool in a desiccator and weigh quickly. Weight of residue -*- 20 X ioo = per cent marc, and 100 per cent marc = per cent juice contained in the beet. Method of Pellet. For convenience in the manipulations, DETERMINATION OF THE MARC. 129 Pellet uses the apparatus shown in section in Fig, 51 ; Dolle). This machine differs from SEED-SELECTION. 179 that shown in Fig. 19 only in the method of removing the pulp. The rasps of the two machines are interchangeable, thus making but one machine necessary for both classes of work. The rasp, as shown in Fig. 63, is provided with a rod, carrying a disk which fits snugly inside the tool. The method of fastening the rasp to the body of the tool FlG - 63 ' is the same in both machines. .The pulp passes through the opening shown in Fig. 20, and is held by the disk. The machine is stopped, the rasp unfastened, and the pulp withdrawn by means of the rod and disk. Except in very careful work, it is not necessary to wash the apparatus after each perforation. Each sample pushes any remaining portion of its predecessor against the disk, where it is usually well denned by slight differ- ences in appearance. The rejection of about one-fifth of the cylinder of pulp insures the removal of all portions of the preceding sample. 161. Analysis of the Sample. The pulp may be analyzed by any of the direct methods, or by the indirect method, i.e. , analysis of the expressed juice and calcula- tion to terms of the weight of the beet. The cylinder may be reduced to a pulp in Hanriot's apparatus, or in the cylindro-divider (Fig. 36), and analyzed by the instantane- ous-diffusion method. The cylinder may also be rasped and the juice expressed for analysis, if desired. The direct methods require so little time and labor, and so excel in accuracy, that it is advised that one of them be used, preferably the instantaneous-diffusion method. In using Hanriot's apparatus (Fig. 64), one fourth the normal weight (6.512 grams or 4.075 grams) is cut from the cylinder and placed in the feed-tube of the apparatus ; the lever L is depressed, and the sample is forced against the rasp, which is driven at 2,000 revolutions, and is reduced to a fine pulp. The rubber bulb P contains about 80 cc. of water, with which the pulp is washed into the sugar-flask. The volume of this flask should be sufficient to allow for 180 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. the volume of the marc, as explained in 64-, i.e., for the one fourth normal weight (6.512 grams), 50.300. The flask is removed, and the analysis is completed by Pellet's in- FIG. 64 stantaneous-diffusion method, 62. A 4OO-mm. Pellet con- tinuous tube should be used in making the polarization. The polariscope reading must be multiplied by 2 to obtain the per cent of sucrose in the beet. The apparatus is ready for a second polarization without further washing. Pellet and Hanriot have further improved this method of analysis, as regards speed, by the use of a two-bladed knife SEED-SELECTION". 181 for cutting the required weight of material from the cylinder. This knife has parallel adjustable blades, and removes the required weight with sufficient accuracy for seed-selection, thus doing away with the use of a balance. The knife should be adjusted to cut a cylinder of the required weight from a beet of average density (1.038) ; a few trials will soon effect this adjustment. In an experi- ment made by Pellet, sixteen cylinders were cut ; the dif- ference between the extreme weights was 0.15 gram, cor- responding to a difference of 0.35 per cent sucrose in a beet containing 15 per cent sucrose, and a mean error of 0.15 to 0.2 per cent. These results are sufficiently accurate for the purpose. The cylinder is placed upon a grooved block when using the knife, and should not be washed or otherwise treated before placing it in the Hanriot apparatus. Modification of Pellet's Direct Method. FT. Sachs J and FIG. 65. A. Le Docte of Brussels, acting upon the suggestions in the published experiments of a number of chemists, have very materially improved Pellet's diffusion method, as 1 Paper read before Congrts Internationale de Chintie Appliqude, Paris, 1896. 182 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. follows : The normal weight (26.048 grams) of the finely rasped pulp is weighed directly in the planished copper capsule, shown in Fig. 65, the bottom of which is flat, and the corners rounded. The capsule containing the pulp is held under the overflow pipette D (Fig. 66) ; a quarter-turn of the stop-cock K admits subacetate of lead solution from the reser- voir through B to the pipette ; when this reaches the 5-cc. mark, a further quarter-turn admits water through the tube C ; the instant the water overflows at //a further quarter-turn is given the stop-cock, and the accurately measured contents of the pipette are discharged into the capsule. The capsule is then covered with a glass disk enclosed in a rubber cap, and is held as shown in Fig. 65, and agitated vigorously. The sugar is uniformly distributed throughout the solution within three minutes. The disk is smeared with vaseline previous to placing it upon the capsule. In re- moving the cover, it should be slipped to one side, not lifted, thus leaving it in readiness for another determination. For the German polariscopes, the normal sugar-weight of which is 26.048 grams, the pipette should deliver 177 cc.; for the Laurent instrument it should deliver 171.4 cc., twice the normal weight of pulp being used for the determi- nation. It is not advisable to deviate from these propor- tions of pulp and water, otherwise the diffusion is slow and the results may be uncertain. Pellet advises acidulating the solutions with acetic acid, and in the opinion of the author this should not be omitted. Sachs' method would be somewhat further sim- plified by using only one liquid, viz., water containing 3 per cent by volume of subacetate of lead solution of 54.3 Brix. FIG. 66. SEED-SELECTION". 183 An ordinary automatic or overflow pipette with a three- way cock can be used if the solution be prepared as indi- cated above. These pipettes deliver the specified volume of liquid with accuracy and rapidity. The Sachs-LeDocte modification reduces the possible errors in Pellet's method to a minimum, and permits extremely rapid work. 162. Pellet's Continuous Tube for Polariza- tions. One of the most important improvements that has been made in several years in polariscopic apparatus is Pellet's continuous observation-tube. This tube permits the rapid polarization of solutions without its removal from the instrument, each solution being displaced by that fol- lowing it. The first descriptions of this tube which came into the author's hands were very meagre, and a number of ex- periments were made before a satisfactory tube was con- structed. These experiments were not made with a view to improving the construction of the tube as made for Pellet, but to construct a tube for immediate use. The displacement of the solutions was studied by means of colored liquids in a tube having brass heads and a glass body. The form shown in Fig. 67 was finally accepted as FIG. 67. in every way satisfactory. The funnel delivers the solu- tion into an annular canal, which connects by separate openings with each of the four grooves shown at the end of the tube. This arrangement insures the equal distribu- tion of the displacing solution. At the opposite end the construction is the same, except that an outlet-lube carries off the waste solution. In very rapid work, Pellet substitutes a siphon-tube for the funnel. While the chemist is making an observation 184 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. the assistant dips the inlet-tube into the fresh solution ready for the next polarization. The opening of a pinch- cock permits the old solution to flow out and the fresh one to take its place. Owing to differences in the density of the two solutions, striae form where they come in contact with one another, rendering it impossible to make a clear observation so long as any of the old solution remains in the tube. When the day's work is finished the last solu- tion should be displaced with pure water, and the tube should be left filled with water ready for the next day's work. There is usually some difficulty in filling the tube the first time on account of air-bubbles. This difficulty may be overcome by passing a strong current of water from the hydrant through the tube, until the bubbles are removed. The author has tested this apparatus with a great variety of solutions, many varying but slightly in density from one another, and has always obtained identical results with the Pellet and ordinary tubes. The Pellet tube permits extremely rapid work. An ex- pert observer, using a good half-shadow polariscope, can easily make 500 polarizations per hour. This number may even be increased under favorable conditions. An assist- ant makes the entries in the note-book. Pellet advises that the diameter of all continuous tubes should be 5 millimetres, thus reducing the quantity of the solution required for displacement to a small volume. 163. Polariscope with Enlarged Scale. Schmidt and Haensch make a polariscope especially for use in seed-selection (Fig. 68). The instrument is of simple construction, and is well adapted to the purpose. The scale is graduated from o to 35 per cent. The enlarged scale, by the same makers, shown in Fig. 69, is exceedingly convenient for this class of work. The percentages may be easily read to tenths at a distance from the instrument, thus enabling an assistant to relieve the observer of this portion of the work. Hanriot has arranged a system of electric bells which are rung by turning the milled screw of the polariscope. If the sample be of a certain richness, a bell rings automatically. SEED-SELECTION". ]85 1 64. Pellet's Estimate of the Laboratory Ap- paratus and Personnel Required for a Seed- farm. The following estimate is based upon the analysis of 2500 to 3000 beet-mothers per day of 10 hours: I boring-rasp ; i motor (gas, electric, etc.); i polariscope ; 200 capsules, numbered, for pulp ; 4 balances ; 8 nickel weighing capsules ; 4 ^-normal weights ; 4 nickel funnels ; 4 wash-bottles or one large bottle with 4 tubes ; 500 5O-CC.-55-CC. sugar-flasks ; 186 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 500 funnels ; 500 test-glasses for filtered solutions (see Fig. 70) ; 200 numbered clamps, for numbering sugar-flasks and test- glasses ; FIG, 69. 1 polariscope (half-shadow) ; 2 continuous polariscope-tubes, 400 mm. each ; 3 baskets divided into compartments for carrying solu- tions to the polariscope ; 6 dropping-glasses for ether ; 6 dropping-glasses for acetic acid. The Sachs-LeDocte apparatus may be conveniently substituted for the sugar-flasks (see page 181) and the filtering arrangement FIG. 70. FIG. 71. shown in Fig. 70, for the funnel-racks. The numbered SEED-SELECTION. 187 clamps (Fig. 71) are made of copper or brass, and are transferred from the sugar-glass to the test-glass after filtration. The personnel varies with the convenience of the labora- tory arrangements. Exclusive of employes who sort and carry the beets to the laboratory, the following are usually necessary with the above equipment : i laborer at the rasp ; i assistant to arrange the samples in order ; i assistant to rasp the beets ; 1 laborer to distribute the capsules of pulp to the balances ; 4 weighers at the balances ; 4 assistants to transfer the pulp to the flasks ; 4 assistants to clarify the solutions and complete the vol- ume to the mark on the flasks ; 2 assistants for filtrations ; 2 observers (polariscopic); 2 assistant observers ; 2 charwomen. When using the Hanriot apparatus and Pellet's double- bladed knife, the number of laborers is much smaller for a given amount of work, and 3 balances, etc., may be dis- pensed with. The following is the personnel with this method for making 4000 to 5000 analyses per day: i laborer at the sound (Lindeboom) ; i " sounder "; 1 cutter ; 2 laborers at the rasps; 2 laborers to carry the cylinders, cut from the beets, to the rasps ; 2 assistants to clarify, etc., the solutions ; 2 assistants for filtrations ; 2 observers ; 2 assistant observers ; 2 charwomen. With this method, seventeen employes can accomplish nearly double the number of analyses that twenty-one can with the borer-rasp and balances. 165. Chemical Method for the Analysis of Beet-mothers. The chemical method of analysis of 188 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. beet-mothers is used in a number of laboratories. This application of the alkaline-copper method is due to Vio- lette. The process is very simple, and is well adapted to seed-farms of moderate size which would not justify the outlay for the expensive apparatus described in the preced- ing pages. Cut a small cylinder from the beet with a sound (Fig. 62), or on a small scale with a cork-borer ; remove the skin and rapidly cut the cylinder into small fragments. Transfer 5 grams of the fragments to a roo-cc. sugar-flask, add ap- proximately 40 cc. water and 10 cc. normal sulphuric acid (199), mix, and heat upon a water-bath, at the boiling-point, cool, add 10 cc. of a normal solution of caustic soda (2O1 ), to neutralize the solution and complete the volume to 100 cc. The sucrose is inverted by the acid treatment and converted into invert-sugar. Determine the percentage of invert- sugar by Violette's method given in 73. Multiply the percentage of invert-sugar by .95 to obtain the percentage of sucrose. In seed-selection, it is unnecessary to determine the sucrose with great accuracy, hence the analyst may be guided entirely by the disappearance of the blue color, in- stead of using a test solution to ascertain the end of the reaction. In this work the burette readings will vary between 5 and 8 cc. If, for example, the beets are to be divided into three classes, viz., (i) those containing 15 per cent or more of sucrose, (2) those containing between 13 and 15 per cent, and (3) those containing less than 13 per cent, the following is a convenient method of procedure: Heat xocc. of Violette's solution (195) in a test-tube to boiling, add 6.3 cc. of the invert-sugar solution, and boil ; a complete disappearance of the blue color shows that the beet contains more than 15 per cent of sucrose; if the blue color persist, continue the addition to 7-3cc. and boil ; a disappearance of the blue color shows that the beet contains 13 per cent sucrose, or more, and less than 15 per cent ; if the blue color persist, the percentage is below 13. The following table may be conveniently used in calculating the percentages to the nearest tenth ; SEED-SELECTION". 189 Burette Reading. Per Cent Sucrose. Burette Reading. Per Cent Sucrose. Burette Reading. Per Cent Sucrose. 5 19.0 6.0 15.8 7.0 13.6 1 18.6 .1 15.6 .1 13.4 2 18.3 .2 15.3 .2 13.2 3 17.9 .3 15.1 .3 13.0 4 17.6 A 14.8 .4 12.8 5 17.3 .5 14.6 .5 12.7 6 17.0 .6 14.4 .6 12.5 7 16.7 14.2 .7 12.3 8 16.4 !a 14.0 .8 12.2 9 16.1 .9 13.7 .9 12.0 In the application of this method upon a large scale a number of labor-saving devices may be used with advantage : A large sand-bath or a hot plate may be used in making the inversions. The alkaline-copper solution, preferably Violette's modification (195), and the sul- phuric-acid and soda, are most conveniently measured from an automatic pipette (Fig. 72). The pipette for the Violette reagent should be graduated with that solution, and not with water. This is necessary on account of the viscosity of the reagent. The so- lutions may be measured with great rapidity and accuracy with this pipette. Several burettes should be arranged in a rack over a correspond- ing rack holding the large test-tubes containing the copper solution. These latter are heated by an easily adjustable multiple-burner lamp, Lecq l uses a revolving rack having four arms, each carrying five burettes and five test-tubes. An arm of the rack is revolved to a position over the lamp, and the contents of the tubes are heated, the sugar solutions are added and heated to boiling, and then a second arm is brought into position. By the time a complete revolution is made, the sub- F' G - T 2 - oxide of copper in the first set of tubes will have settled, and the color of the supernatant liquid may be noted with ease. Much labor may be economized by the use of a boring- rasp, Fig. 19, for removing the sample from the beet. 1 Aime Girard \\\ Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, 1883, 10. 190 HANDBOOK FOE SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. SEED-TESTING. 166. Beet-seed. The "seed" of the beet, as it is commonly termed, is, properly speaking, the fruit of the plant, and is usually called the " seed-ball" by seedsmen. Each ball contains from one to five embryos. For brevity, the expression " ball " or " seed " will be used. 167. Sampling. The seed should be sampled with a trier or sound, similar to that shown in Fig. 23, designed for use with sugars. The trier for seed-sampling should be provided with a cover, which may be revolved into po- sition before removing the instrument from the sack of seed, and thus retain the entire sample. A quantity of seed should be drawn systematically from the lot, removing a portion from each sack, or from every second sack, etc., according to the amount of seed to be sampled. The large sample should be thoroughly mixed, distribut- ing the impurities through the seed as uniformly as pos- sible. A convenient method of subsampling is that of Maercker, of the experiment station Halle/a/Saale, Ger- many, as follows : Cut a disk of cardboard to fit easily inside of a crystallizing-dish. The dish should have verti- cal walls and a flat bottom. Cut slots A, A, A, A, as shown in Fig. 73, in the cardboard, and place it on the bot- tom of the dish. Two wires should be attached to the disk, to lift it vertically from the dish without jarring. Cover the disk to a uni- I form depth with the sample of seed, then lift it by means of the wires ; the required subsample will pass through the slots and remain in the dish. A few experiments will deter- mine convenient shape and dimen- Should an experiment require less seed FIG. 73 . sions for the slots. SEED-TESTING. 191 than it is convenient to remove in this way, further reduce the quantity by quartering. 168. Moisture. Dry an entire subsample, removed as above described, and containing approximately 10 grams. The balls should be distributed evenly in a large flat dish and dried in an oven at 105 C. The loss in weight -4- weight of the sample X 100 = percentage of moisture. Care must be observed in cooling and weighing the dry seed, since it quickly absorbs moisture from the air. 169. Proportion of Clean Seed. It is difficult to determine the proportion of clean seed, largely through difficulty in distributing the impurities and in removing the foreign matters. Remove approximately TO grams of seed from the large sample, as described in 167; weigh, and transfer to a sheet of paper. Hold each seed in a pair of forceps, brush care- fully, and remove foreign matter. Weigh the clean seed; this weight divided by the gross weight and multiplied by 100 is the percentage of clean seed. This determination should be made in duplicate or triplicate, since it is difficult to obtain concordant results. 170. Number of Seeds per Pound or Kilo- gram. Beet-seed is sold by the pound or ton in this coun- try. It is, however, more convenient to make the calcula- tions on a metric basis and afterwards reduce them to the customary weights. In the determining the proportion of clean seed (169) time may be economized by counting the balls into the weighing-capsule. The number of seeds per 10 grams is then readily calculated to terms of a kilogram, and thence to pounds (22O). The seed should next be placed in a sieve of T \ inch square mesh. The balls which pass this sieve are termed "small," and those which remain, "large." The number of large seeds and small seeds per kilogram and pound is calculated as before. This is a purely arbitrary classification, and is an out- growth of the various opinions of authorities relative to the value of large and small seeds. It is generally conceded that the large, heavy balls are of 192 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. greater value than the small ones, so far as germinative power is concerned, and many investigators consider that the heavy seed-balls produce more thrifty plants and beets richer in sugar. It has also been observed that germina- tive ability varies directly as the size of the seed-balls. The larger the percentage of small or medium-sized balls, however, the larger the number of plants that will be pro- duced, and the more evenly the rows will be filled. As in other experiments with beet-seed, it is advisa- ble to make the tests in duplicate or triplicate and report the mean of the results. 171. Germination Test. There are two methods of making this test, viz. : (i) determination of the weight of the seed that germinates in a given weight; (2) determina- tion of the number of seed-balls per 100 which germinate. In view of the wide variations in the size of the seed-balls, and the fact that beet-seed is bought by weight, in is the opinion of many authorities that the test should be by weight and not by count. Both methods have their ad- vocates, and probably a large proportion of the tests is made by count. The simplicity of this method is in its favor. The plan adopted by Vivien ] is one of the simplest for testing by weight. Sift 4 or 5 grams of the seed in a sieve of 5 mm. (Y^ inch ca.) mesh ; count the number of large and of small balls; weigh and calculate the mean weight. Soak the seed two days in a 5-per-cent solution of sodium nitrate. Sift fine soil into a flat-bottomed dish of porous e'arthen- ware to a depth of approximately I cm. (| inch ca.); place a piece of wire netting of approximately I cm. (f-inch ca.) mesh on the earth, and in each mesh place one large ball. Press the earth slightly, and cover with 2 to 4 mm. ( T \ to inch ca.) of soil. The small seed-balls are similarly planted, using a part of the same dish, and separating one lot from the other by suitable means. The dish is placed in a hothouse, or in a warm place in the laboratory, i Bulletin de FAssoc. des Chimistes de France, 13, 13. SEED-TESTIKG. 193 and is occasionally watered with a fine spray of rain or dis- tilled water. From day to day, as the plantlets appear, the seeds are re- moved from the soil and counted; it is also usual to count and record the number of embryos which show signs of vitality. A splinter of wood or a piece of a match is sub- stituted for each seed removed. The average weight of each size of ball is taken into ac- count in calculating the percentage by weight of seed that germinates. Example, Per 100 kilos. Large seed 22.29 kilos, corres. to 1,311,000 seeds. Small seed 73-67 kilos, corres. to 5,262,000 seeds. Foreign matter 4.04 kilos. Average weight of the large seeds 0.017 gram. Number per gram 13.11 Average weight of the small seeds. 0.014 gram. Numbei per gram 52.62 4 grams were used in the germination test, correspond- ing to 3.84 grams of clean seed: 13.11 X 4 = 52 large seeds, weighing 0.89 gram. 52.62 X 4 = 211 small seeds, weighing 2.95 grams. 3.84 grams. At the end of the test 48 large and 182 small seeds had germinated i.e., 92.3 large seeds per 100 seeds, and 86.24 small seeds per 100 ; to reduce these numbers to percent- ages by weight (referring to the statement of the example), we have: Per 100 kilos. 22.29 X 92.3 = 20.57 kilos large seed germinated. 73.67 X 86.24 63.53 kilos small seed germinated. (By difference) 11.83 kilos worthless seed. 4.04 kilos foreign matter. Substituting the word "pounds" for "kilos," we have the percentages in the customary weights of this country. (2) In the second method 100 seeds are selected at ran- dom, and the number which germinate is counted. In 194 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR HOUSE CHEMISTS. the above example it is easy to calculate that this method would give 87.65 per cent of good seed instead of 84.1 per cent, as determined by weight. Authorities differ as to the advisability of soaking the seed prior to the test. The question of the use of sand, soil, or other material, or of the necessity of sterilization of the culture-bed, is not discussed by Vivien in the paper cited. In the methods adopted by the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations 1 blue blot- ting-paper is used. In supplementary tests, sand which has been heated to destroy organic matter, and sterilized pre- vious to use, is recommended. In sand tests, the sprouts which appear above the ground are counted. The sand and blotters should be kept well moistened with water, but not saturated, during the test. Only potable water of a temperature approximating that of the seed-beet should be used. The temperature should be kept at 20 C. eighteen hours out of each twenty-four, and should in no case fall below 15 C. or rise above 32jC. The seed should be kept in a dark place during the germination test. Pieters, 2 of the Division of Botany, describes a con- venient apparatus for testing seed on a small scale in a report published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture: " Use a large dripping-pan or an ordinary frying-pan. Paint it to prevent rusting. Put four supports in the pan (inverted porous saucers are good), and place a tin or wire frame upon them, as shown in Fig. 74. The seeds are laid between folds of blotting-paper or cloth, which are then placed on the frame. A flap of paper or cloth hangs down into the water, which half fills the tray and keeps the folds moist. " If glass can be had to put over the pan, evaporation will not be so rapid; otherwise the water will need replen- ishing frequently. " The tin or wire tray need not be expensive, and can be 1 Circular 34, Office of Experiment Stations, U.S. Department of Agri- culture. 8 Yearbook , 1896, p, 183. SEED-TESTING. 195 replaced by anything the operator may have. It is only necessary that a flap should dip into the water to provide moisture. " In testing seed some trouble will be experienced from the growth of mold. If the cloths and dishes are used many times this trouble will become worse, unless the spores FIG. 74. of the fungi are killed. This can easily be done by boiling all cloths and washing the dishes in boiling water after each test." 172. Characteristics of Good Seed. The seed should be clean, containing as much as 95 per cent of clean balls. As much as 75 per cent by weight of the gross seed should germinate in the testing-apparatus within 15 days. As much as 85 per cent of extra good seed will germinate in this time. The following are the German sugar-manufacturers' specifications relative to beet-seed : A kilogram of seed should produce 70,000 sprouts; of this number, 46,000 should appear within six days. Seventy- five per cent of the seed (by count), at least, should germi- nate. Seed containing up to and including 14 per cent mois- ture may be considered normal; that containing 14 to 17 per cent may be accepted, but a deduction will be made for the excess of moisture above 14 per cent. Foreign matter to the extent of 3 per cent is admissible, and seed containing up to 5 per cent may be accepted, but a deduction will be made for the quantity in excess of 3 per cent. Seed not fulfilling all of these conditions may be rejected. Pro- vision is made for check-analyses in the event of disagree- ment. 196 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. In Austria, seed is considered normal, as regards mois- ture-content, which, after 24 hours' exposure in an open flask at a temperature of 18 C. to air of 52 per cent rela- tive humidity, contains 10 per cent of water. It is usual to state that in good seed 50 to 80 embryos per gram should show signs of vitality, and 80 to no em- bryos in extra-good seed. This is manifestly not a fair test of the quality of the seed, since, for example, in a lot containing 50 seeds per gram 25 seeds may contain more than 100 germs and the lot be rated as extra good, whereas the seed is poor. After thinning out the plants, but 25 beets would be produced from seed that this method would rate high. There can be no question, however, but that it is an advantage for the seed to contain a large number of vital embryos, thus insuring greater certainty of having the rows well filled. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 197 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 173. Colmltous Nitrate Test for Sucrose. 1 To about 15 cc. of sugar solution add 5 cc. of a 5 per cent solution of cobaltous nitrate. After thoroughly mixing the two solutions, add 2 cc. of a so-per-cent solution of sodium hydrate. Pure sucrose gives by this treatment an amethyst-violet color, which is permanent. Pure dextrose gives a turquoise-blue color which soon passes into a light green. When the two sugars are mixed, the coloration produced by sucrose is the predominant one, and one part sucrose in nine parts dextrose can be distinguished. If the sucrose be mixed with impurities, such as gum-arabic or dextrine, treat with alcohol or subacetate of lead before applying the test. 174. Test for Sucrose, Using- a-Naplithol. Mix the solution supposed to contain sucrose in a test-tube with 2 to 3 drops of an alcoholic solution of a-naphthol; then, by means of a pipette or other device, let concentrated sul- phuric acid flow to the bottom of the tube without mixing with the solution. In the presence of sucrose a violet zone appears at the line of demarkation of the two liquids and gradually spreads. A solution containing r part of sucrose in 10,000,000 parts of water shows a pale lilac col- oration. When more than 0.2 per cent sucrose is present the sugar is charred by the acid. 2 A similar method of making the test, and probably the original method, was described by H. Molisch. 3 Also the following : Thymol used instead of cr-naphthol in the above test yields a deep- red coloration, which, on dilution with water, gives at first a fine carmine, then a carmine flocculent, precipitate. 175. Nitrous Oxide Set Free in Boiling 1 Agricultural Analysis, H. W. Wiley, vol. in. p. 189. 2 Rapp and Besemfelder, Deutsche Zucker.^ 1892, 538. 3 Monatsch Chem., 6, 198, abstract injourn. Chemical Society \ Abs. 5O, 923- 198 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. Sugar. Maumene called attention to the non-decomposi- tion of nitrates in general when boiled with sugar, and to the exception that nitrate of ammonium is decomposed under these conditions, with the evolution of nitrous fumes. He observed this phenomenon in boiling sugar, in the vacuum-pan, and also that sugar is decomposed in the presence of nitrate of ammonium, or of other salts of am- monium with nitrates in general. Ewell made similar observations in evaporating sorghum-cane juice in the multiple-effect in a Kansas factory. 176. Relative to the Precipitate Formed 011 Heating 1 Diffusion-j nice. The precipitate obtained by heating diffusion-juice contains 10 to 20 per cent of the weight of the dry matter of proteids, also large quantities of pectous substances, fatty acids, oxalic acid, lime, magnesia, and occasionally phosphoric acid. It contains no optically active bodies, though they are probably originally present. 1 177. Spontaneous Combustion of Molasses. The feeding of cattle with a mixture of molasses and forage is extending in beet-sugar countries. The storage of the mixtures is attended with some risk of fire, as ^is indicated by the following : Two heaps of a mixture of i part molasses and 2 parts palm-oil cake were stored in a sugar-house. The heaps were several metres apart. After some time an odor similar to that of chicory was noticed, and upon investigation the material in both heaps was found to be carbonized. The temperature of the interior of the heaps was fully 120 C. 2 Crawley, of the Hawaiian experiment station, states that a quantity of cane-molasses stored in a cistern in a cane-sugar house on one of the islands, boiled violently, and after twelve hours only a charred mass was left. 3 178. Calorific Value of Molasses. Three experi- ments were made with molasses, using a Mahler calorim- eter, and the following results were obtained : 4 1 Herzfield, Zeit. Riibenzucker-Ind., 43, 1065. 2 Bulletin de P Association des Chemistes de France, 14, 712 3 Journ. Arn. Ckem. Soc. 19, 238. 4 Camilla Martignon, Bulletin de r Association des Chemistes de France, 14, 3 66. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 199 (1) Beet-molasses 3000 calories (2) Cane-molasses 2675 " (3) Cane-molasses from Louisiana . . 2646 " A number of Cuban sugar-houses burn the molasses for the production of steam. 179. Fermentation. Ferment. Any substance ca- pable of producing fermentation. Vinous or Alcoholic Fermentation. Liquid disturbed; rise in temperature and increase in volume; carbonic acid es- capes, forming peculiar bubbles on the surface of the liquid. A temperature between 15 and 18 C. is favorable to this fermentation; between 18 and 30 the fermentation proceeds very rapidly; it is checked below 15 C., and ceases entirely below 12 C. Acetic Fermentation. The favorable temperatures are between 20 and 35 C. The liquid becomes turbid, and is filled with a ropy substance. Finally, the solution clears up and acetic acid is formed. Use lime to check this fer- mentation. Putrid Fermentation. This fermentation follows the acetic stage. The solution becomes turbid and viscous; ammonia is set free, and a sediment deposits. The fetid odor is repulsive. Viscous Fermentation. The solution becomes thick, slimy, ropy; and starchy matters and sugar are transformed into gummy substances. A mucilaginous appearance is characteristic. Small quantities of carbonic acid and hy- drogen are liberated. Wash the tanks with a dilute sul- phuric-acid solution to eliminate this ferment (5 per cent solution of 66 acid). Lactic Fermentation. This fermentation may exist in the presence of the viscous ferment. Odor acid, taste very disagreeable. This ferment is checked by acidity ; hence, use sulphuric acid in washing the tanks. Mucous Fermentation. Sugar-beet juices are attacked by this ferment in the presence of nitrogenous bodies and the air. Mannite, gum, and carbonic acid are formed. The liquid becomes thick and ropy. "Frog-spawn." Called '' frais de grenouillcs" by the French and Froschlaischpih by the Germans. The juice 200 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. assumes a jelly-like or gelatinous state; this is usually attributed to Leuconastce mesenteroides. F. Glaser J has shown that another bacterium, which differs from the above in not flourishing in 10$ neutral molasses, can produce this phenomenon. This organism is known as Bacteri um gelati- nosum bet(E, and grows rapidly in sugar-beet juice gelatine. As stated, this organism does not thrive in 10$ molasses, but if the slimy precipitate obtained by the addition of alcohol to the juice or its ash be added, development takes place. Part passu with this gelatinous formation the sucrose is inverted and alcohol is produced. The gelatinous mass is similar to the beet gums. This substance is insoluble in cold water, and with diffi- culty in cold acids, but almost completely soluble in hot acids and alkalis. A Pectiliar Fermentation of Beet-juice. The juice occa- sionally becomes mucilaginous. This is due to a fer- mentation the products of which are dextrose, manitol, and nonvolatile organic acids. There is also an organic substance formed which is not precipitable by subacetate of lead. 2 Soil-ferments as a Cause of the Formation of Gas in the Diffusers. The evolution of gas in the diffusers is attrib- uted by Neitzel to the action of soil-ferments upon the beet. The gases examined in an experiment, and drawn from the second and eighth diffusers, contained, respectively, 11.4 to 51.5$ carbonic acid, o to 57.8$ hydrogen, and 10.8 to 68% nitrogen. Free oxygen was rarely found. 3 Fermentation of the Massecuites in the Hot-room. Accord- ing to Horsin-Deon, the " foaming " or " boiling up " of the massecuite in the hot-room tanks is due to a viscous fer- mentation in which the sugar is transformed into mannite, gums, carbonic acid, and water without the formation of glucose. The mannite combines with the organic acids and disappears, leaving gums which render the massecuite 1 Cent. Bl. Bacter., 1895, 2 abth., 1, 879; Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 15, 200. 2 Anderlik. Zeit. Zucker.-Ind., Bdhm.. 18, 90 8 Neitzel, A". Zeit. Riibenzucker-Ind., 1895, 35, 22; Journ. Soc. Chem. /enzucke>-ln = .05181 " SrO' = .07672 " BaO. SPECIAL REAGENTS. 219 198. Standard Oxalic Acid. This is the simplest of the normal solutions to prepare, and when strictly pure oxalic acid can be obtained it may be used in the prepara- tion of all the standard alkali and acid solutions. Repeatedly crystallize the purest obtainable oxalic acid, from water solution. Dry the crystals thoroughly in the air at ordinary temperatures. Reject all crystals that show indications of efflorescence. Dissolve 63.034 grams of this acid in distilled water and dilute to icoo cc. to prepare the normal solution, or, preferably, dry the powdered acid at 100 C. to constant weight and use 45.018 grams in pre- paring the normal solution. It is advisable to employ weaker solutions, usually the one-tenth normal acid. This should be prepared from the normal solution as required, since the latter keeps better, provided it is not exposed to direct sunlight. i cc. normal oxalic acid = .06303 gram H 2 C 2 O4.2H 2 O. 199. Standard Sulphuric Acid. Add approxi- mately 28 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid to distilled water, cool the solution, and dilute to 1000 cc. Standard- ize by titration with normal alkali. i cc. normal sulphuric acid = .049043 gram H 2 SO 4 = .02804 " CaO = .05181 " SrO = .07672 " BaO. 200. Standard Sulphuric Acid for the Con- trol of the Carbonatation. Add approximately 21 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid to distilled water, cool the solution, and dilute to 1000 cc. Titrate this solution with a normal soda or potash solution, using phenolphtha- lein as an indicator. Dilute the acid so that 14 cc. [will be required to neutralize 10 cc. of the normal alkali (201). i cc. this standard acid = .035 gram H 2 SO 4 .02 " CaO. It is usual to add the phenolphthalein to this solution before dilution to 1000 cc. 201. Standard Alkali Solutions. Ammonium 220 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. hydrate (NH 4 HO), caustic soda (NaHO), and caustic potash (KHO) are used in preparing the alkali solutions. The normal soda or potash solutions are used, but the ammonia should be weaker, preferably decinormal, or, for Sidersky's method for reducing-sugars, half-normal. Dissolve 42 grams of chemically pure caustic soda in water, in preparing the normal reagent, cool the solu- tion, dilute to 1000 cc., and standardize by titration, against a normal acid. In preparing the potash solution, use 58 grams of chemically pure caustic potash. The table, page 274, is convenient for use in standardizing the ammonia solution. Dilute the ammonia to approximately the re- quired strength, and standardize by titration with deci- normal or half-normal acid, as may be required, using cochineal as an indicator, or for Sidersky's method for reducing-sngars, use sulphate of copper as an indicator, as directed on page 88. i cc. normal caustic-soda solution = .0401 gram NaOH = .03105 " Na 2 O i cc. normal caustic potash solution = .056 " KHO = .04711 " K^O i cc. half-normal ammonia solution = .00853 " NH 3 = .01754 " (NH 4 )HO i cc. decinormal ammonia solution = .00171 " NH 3 = .00351 " (NH 4 )HO Phenolphthalein cannot be used as an indicator with ammonia. 2O2. Decinormal Permanganate of Potas- sium. Dissolve 3.16 grams of chemically pure and dry permanganate of potassium (KMnO 4 ) in distilled water, and dilute to 1000 cc. This solution is conveniently checked by titration with decinormal oxalic acid. To 10 cc. of deci- normal oxalic acid add several volumes of water and a few cc. of dilute sulphuric acid. Warm the solution to approxi- mately 60 C., and add the permanganate solution little by little. Discontinue the addition of the permanganate as soon as the solution acquires a faint pink- or ro&e-color. The temperature of the solution must be maintained at SPECIAL REAGENTS. 221 approximately 60 C., and a little time must be allowed for the reaction. In reducing-sugar determinations, check the permanganate, as indicated on page 90. Permanganate of potassium solution should be preserved in a tightly stoppered bottle, and should be checked from time to time. The appearance of a sediment indicates a change in the solution. It is simpler to determine a factor from time to time, rather than attempt to maintain the solution strictly decinormal. i cc. decinormal permanganate of ) = .0316 gram KMnO 4 potash j = .00636 " Cu. 203. Permanganate Solution for Reducing- sugar Determinations. This solution should be of such strength that i cc. is equivalent to .01 gram of copper. Dissolve 4.9763 grams of permanganate of potas- sium in distilled water and dilute to 1000 cc. This solu- tion should be checked by a reducing-sugar determination in material of known composition. 204. Invert-sugar Solution. Borntrager 1 recom- mends the following method of preparing an invert-sugar solution for checking the reagents used in reducing-sugar determinations : Dissolve 2.375 grams pure sucrose in water, dilute to 100 cc., and add 10 cc. hydrochloric acid of 1.188 specific gravity. Let the mixture stand overnight in the cold. Neutralize with sodium hydrate and dilute to 1000 CC. 20 cc. of this solution contains .05 gram invert-sugar, and should reduce the copper in 10 cc. of Violette or Fehling solution. The inversion may also be conducted under the tem- perature conditions given in 89 in preparing invert sugar; or pure dextrose may be substituted for it in standardizing the alkaline copper reagents. 205. Soap Solution for Clark's Test and Alka- linity Determinations. Courtonne recommends the following method of preparing the soap solution, which he states is quite permanent : To 28 grams or 33 cc. of olive-oil or oil of sweet almonds add 10 cc. caustic soda 1 Zeit. Angew. Chem^ 1892, 333. 222 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. solution of 35 Baume, and 10 cc. 90 to 95 per cent alcohol ; heat the mixture a few minutes on the boiling water-bath to saponify the oil, then add 800 to 900 .cc. of 60 per cent alcohol and agitate to dissolve the soap. Filter the solu- tion into a 1000 cc. flask, cool, and complete the volume to i litre with 60 per cent alcohol. The solution should be standardized as directed in 82. Sidersky recommends the following solution : Dissolve 50 grams of white Marseilles soap in 800 grams of 90 per cent alcohol, filter and add 500 cc. distilled water. Standard- ize as in 82. The following is Clark's method as described by Sut- ton : " Rub together 150 parts lead plaster (Emplast. Plumbi of the druggists) and 40 parts dry potassic carbonate. When fairly mixed add a little methylated spirit and tritu- rate to a uniform creamy mixture. Allow to stand some hours, then throw on a filter and wash several times with methylated spirit. Dilute the strong soap solution with a mixture of one volume of distilled water and two volumes of methylated spirit (considering the soap solution as spirit) until 14.25 cc. are required to form a permanent lather with 50 cc. standard calcic chloride, the experiment being performed as in determining the hardness of water. To prepare the calcic chloride solution : Dissolve 0.2 gram pure crystallized calcite in dilute hydrochloric acid in a platinum dish. Evaporate to dryness on the water-bath, dissolve with water and again evaporate to dryness, repeat- ing this several times. Lastly, dissolve in distilled water and complete the volume to 1000 cc." 2O6. Preparation of Pure Sugar. With sugar from the cane proceed as follows : Powder the purest sug- ar obtainable. Wash thoroughly with 85 per cent alcohol, and, finally, once with absolute alcohol. Dry, in a thin layer, over sulphuric acid in a desiccator. If the sugar be of beet or unknown origin, purify it by the following method recommended by Wiley: Dissolve 70 parts of sugar in 30 parts of -water, then precipitate the sugar from this solution at 60 C. with an equal volume of 96 per cent alcohol. Decant the supernatant liquor while still warm, and wash the sugar with strong warm SPECIAL REAGENTS. 2^3 alcohol. The raffinose is removed in the alcohol solution. Finally wash the sugar with absolute alcohol and dry over sulphuric acid in a desiccator. 207. Subacetate of Lead. Dilute Solution. Heat, nearly to boiling, for about half an hour, 430 grams of neu- tral acetate of lead, 130 grams of litharge, and 1000 cc. of water. Cool, settle, and decant the clear solution and re- duce this to 54.3 Brix with cold, recently boiled, distilled water. This 5s the solution recommended for use with Pellet's aqueous methods for the direct analysis of the beet. Concentrated Solution. Proceed as above, except use only 250 cc. of water. Late investigations show that highly basic solutions of subacetate of lead should not be employed. 208. Preparation of Bone-black for Decolor- izing* Solutions. Powder the bone-black obtained from the sugar-house filters, or otherwise, and heat it several hours with hydrochloric or nitric acid to dissolve the min- eral matter. Decant the acid and wash the bone-black with water until the washings no longer turn blue litmus- paper red. Dry the powdered char in an air-bath, at about 150 C. Preserve in a tightly stoppered bottle. Vivien advises digesting the bone-black, reduced to a fine powder, with a large excess of acid during several days; the char is then thoroughly washed with water, and finally with dilute ammonia, and thoroughly dried. The dry char is calcined in a vessel from which the air is ex- cluded. 209. Preparation of Hydrate of Alumina. Hydrate of alumina, frequently termed "alumina cream," may be used instead of lead for decolorizing sugar solu- tions or for removing an opalescence. To a moderately concentrated solution of common alum in water add am- monia in slight excess. Wash the resulting precipitate by decantation until the wash-water no longer reacts acid with litmus-paper. This precipitate is employed in a moist state. After adding the hydrate of alumina to the solu- tion to be examined, it should stand a few minutes, with 224 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. frequent shaking. A little lead may sometimes be advan- tageously employed with the alumina. 210. Litmus Solution. Powder the litmus and treat it several times with boiling-hot 8o-per-cent alcohol to separate the coloring matter soluble in this reagent. Reject the alcoholic solution, boil the residue with distilled water, and filter. Divide the filtrate into two equal parts ; carefully neutralize one with sulphuric acid, then mix the two portions together. Again divide into two parts, neutralize one, and mix as before. Repeat these opera- tions until the solution is exactly neutral; preserve in an open bottle. 211. Lilt ill US-papers. Take a portion of the above solution and divide into two parts. To one part add suffi- cient sulphuric acid to render it faintly acid ; to the other portion add caustic-soda solution to faint alkalinity. Soak strips of Swedish filter-paper in these solutions, using the acid for red paper and the alkaline for the blue. Dry the strips in a room free from acid or alkaline vapors. Pre- serve in an unstoppered 1 bottle, out of contact with strong sunlight. 212. Turmeric-paper. Treat the finely powdered turmeric first with water, to dissolve out impurities, then with alcohol, to extract the coloring matter. Soak strips of Swedish filter-paper in the alcoholic solution, and dry them out of contact with the laboratory fumes. Preserve the papers in a stoppered bottle. 213. Pheiiolphthaleiii Solution. Dissolve igram of phenolphthalein in 100 cc. of dilute alcohol. This solu- tion is colorless when acid and red in the presence of al- kalis. It should be neutralized with dilute caustic soda or potash. Phenolphthalein is not applicable in the presence of ammonia. This indicator is considered the most suitable for beet-sugar work by Herzfeld, Claassen, and Henke. 1 214. Corallin or Rosolic Acid Solution. Digest equal quantities of carbolic, sulphuric, and oxalic acids to- - An extensive paper on indicators for sugar-house purposes is published by Henke in Cent. Blatt.f. d. Zuckerind., 1894, Nos. n and 12 ; abstract in Bulletin de P Association des Chtmistes, 13, 492. SPECIAL REAGENTS. 225 gether for some time at 150 C ; dilute the mixture with water, saturate the free acid with calcium carbonate, and evaporate the mixture to dryness ; extract the color with alcohol and nearly neutralize the solution (Sutton): or, pre- pare a saturated solution of commercial corallin in 90$ al- cohol, and nearly neutralize with an alkali. This solution is more permanent than litmus, but otherwise has no advan- tages over the latter. 215. Cochineal Solution. Extract 3 grams of pul- verized cochineal with 50 cc. strong alcohol and 200 cc. water, with occasional agitation, for a day or two. Filter off, and neutralize the extract. 216. Pheiiacetoliii Solution. Dissolve 2 grams of the reagent in 1000 cc. of strong alcohol. 217. Nessler's Solution. Dissolve 62.5 grams of potassium iodide, KI, in 250 cc. of water. Set aside about 10 cc. of this solution ; add to the larger portion a solution of mercuric chloride, HgCl 2 , until the precipitate formed no longer redissolves. Add the 10 cc. of the iodide solution ; then continue the addition of mercuric chloride very cautiously until a slight permanent precipitate forms. Dissolve 150 grams of caustic potash in 150 cc. water, cool, and add gradually to the above solution. Dilute the mix- ture to i litre. 226 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. REAGENTS. 818. TABLE SHOWING THE IMPURITIES PRESENT IN COM- MERCIAL REAGENTS ; ALSO, THE STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS, ETC., RECOMMENDED. NAME. SYMBOL. IMPURITIES. STRENGTH OF SOLUTION, ETC. Sulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol). H a S0 4 . Pb, As, Fe, Ca, HNO 3 , N,O 4 . Concentrated and dilute. To dilute pour 1 part acid by measure into 9 parts distilled water. Use por- celain dish. Nitric Acid. HN0 3 . H a S0 4 , HC1. Concentrate and dilute. To dilute add 1 part acid to 9 parts water. Hydrochloric HOI. 01, Fe a CI, Concentrated and dilute. Acid H a S0 4 , S0 2 , Dilute = 1 part acid to 9 (MuriaticAcid). As. parts water. Nitro-hydro- chloric Acid. Prepare when required by adding 4 parts hydro- (Aqua regia.) chloric to 1 part nitric acid. Use concentrated acids. Acetic Acid. H 4 C a O a . H a S0 4 , HC1, Concentrated and dilute. Cu, Pb, Fe, Ca. Dilute = 1 part pure gla- cial acetic acid to 1 part water. Sulphurous H a SO 3 . To charcoal, in a flask, Acid. add concentrated H 2 SO 4 . Boil, wash the gas gen- erated by passing it through water, and finally pass it into very cold water. Preserve the so- lution in tightly -stoppered bottles. Oxalic Acid. H,C 2 4 . Fe, K, Na, Ca. Dissolve 1 part of crys- tallized acid in 9 parts dis- tilled water. Sulphuretted Hydrogen. H 2 S. Use in gaseous state or in water solution. Wash the gas. Sodic Hydrate NaHO, Al, SiO 2 , phos- Dissolve the stick soda or Potassic Hydrate. KHO. phates, sul- phates, and chlorides. or potash in 20 parts wa- ter. (Soda is less expen- sive, and will usually an- swer for most purposes in place of potash.) Ammonic Hy- drate. NH 4 HO. Sulphate, chlo- ride, carbon- Stronger water of am- monia (.96 specific gravity) ate, tarry and above strength. matters. Baric Hydrate. BaO,H a . Dissolve 1 part of the crystals in 20 parts water ; filter, and preserve in stoppered bottle. REAGEKTSe 227 REAGENTS. Continued. NAME. SYMBOL. IMPURITIES. STRENGTH OF SOLUTION, ETC. Calcic Hydrate. CaO 2 H a . Slake lime in water, filter off the solution, and preserve out of con- :act with the air. Sodic Ammo- nic Hydric Na(NH 4 )HP0 4 . Dry and powder the salt. It may be made as Phosphate. 'ollows: Dissolve 7 parts (Microcosmic Salt.) disodic hydric phosphate (Na 2 HPO 4 ) and 1 part ammonic chloride in 2 aarts boiling water, fil- ;er, and separate the re- quired salt by crystalli- zation. Purify by recrys- tallization. Sodic Biborate. Na a B 4 O 7 . Heat to expel water of crystallization and powder. Sodic Carbonate. Na a CO 3 . Chlorides, phosphates, Use the powdered salt or dissolve in 5 parts sulphates, water. silicates. Ammonic Sul- (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 . Dissolve 1 part in 5 phate. parts water. Ammonic Chloride. (NH 4 )C1. Fe. Purify the commercial Dissolve 1 part in 5 parts water. salt by the ad- dition of am- monia; filter. Neutralize fil- trate with HCl; concentrate and recrystallize. Ammonic (NH 4 )NO,. Saturated solution. Nitrate. Ammonic (NH 4 ) 2 C 2 4 . Purify by re- Dissolve 1 part in 20 Oxalate. crystallization . parts water. Ammonic (NH 4 ) a C0 8 . Pb, Fe, Dissolve 1 part in 4 Carbonate. sulphates, parts water, and add 1 chlorides. part ammonia, specific gravity .880. Ammonic mo- Dissolve the salt in lybdate. strong ammonia, decant the clear solution slowly into strong nitric acid, stirring thoroughly till the precipitate redis- solves. Ammonic sul- (NH 4 ) a S. Saturate 3 parts am- phide. monia with H 2 S, then Yellow Ammonic Sul- (NH 4 ) 9 S a add 2 parts ammonia. Prepared by dissolving sulphur in ammonic sul- phide. phide. Potassic Sul- K a S0 4 . Dissolve 1 part in 10 phate. Potassic KI. lodate, car- parts water. Dissolve 1 part in 50 Iodide. bonate. parts water. 228 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. REAGENTS. Continued. NAME. SYMBOL. IMPURITIES. STRENGTH OF SOLUTION, ETC. Potassic Chromate. K 3 Cr0 4 . Sulphates. Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Potassic Bi- K 2 Cr 2 7 . Dissolve 1 part in 10 chromate. parts water. Potassic Ferri- cyanide. K 6 Fe Q Cy za . Dissolve 1 part in 12 parts water. Better to prepare solution when re- quired. Potassic K 4 FeCy 6 . Dissolve 1 part in 12 Ferrocyanide. parts water, or, for glu- cose work, 1 part in 30 parts water. Baric Chloride. BaCl 2 . Purify the Dissolve 1 part in 10 commercial parts water. salt by passing HS through it and crystallizing. Baric Nitrate. Ba(N0 3 ) 2 . Dissolve 1 part in 15 parts water. Baric BaCO 3 . Add water to the pow- Carbonate. dered carbonate and pre- serve in salt-mouthed bot- tle. Calcic Chloride CaCl a . Fe. Dissolve 1 part in 5 parts water. Calcic CaS0 4 . Dissolve as much of the Sulphate. salt as possible in water (in the cold), filter, and preserve the filtrate. Magnesic MgS0 4 . Dissolve 1 part in 10 Sulphate. parts water. Ferrous FeS0 4 . Dissolve 1 part in 10 Sulphate. parts cold water. Ferric Chloride Fe 2 Cl 6 . Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Cobaltous CO(N0 3 ) 2 . Fe, Ni, etc. Dissolve 1 part in 10 Nitrate. parts water. Cupric Sulphate. CuSO 4 . Fe, Zn. For sugar work purify by repeated crystalliza- tions. Even the so-called " C. P." salts cannot al- ways be depended upon. For Fehling solution see page 216. For ordinary work dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Mercuric HgCl a . Dissolve 1 part in 20 Chloride. parts water. Mercurous Hg 4 (N0 3 ) a . Dissolve 1 part in 20 Nitrate. parts water acidulated with 1.2 part nitric acid. Filter into a bottle con- taining a little metallic mercury, ATOMIC WEIGHTS. 229 REAGENTS. Continued. NAME. SYMBOL. IMPURITIES. STRENGTH OF SOLUTION, ETC. Platinic Chloride. PtCl 4 . Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Argentic Nitrate. AgNO 3 . Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Stannous Chloride. SnCl 3 . Dissolve pure tin in strong HC1 in the presence of platinum. Dilute with 4 volumes dilute HC1. Keep granulated tin in the bottle. 219. ATOMIC WEIGHTS-PARTIAL LIST. (The Constants of Nature Frank Wigglesworth Clarke.) NAME. SYM- BOL. ATOMIC WT. NAME. SYM- BOL. ATOMIC WT. H = 1 = 16 H= 1 0= 16 Aluminum. Al 26.91 27.11 Lead Pb 205.36 206.92 Antimony.. Sb 119.52 100.43 Magnesium. Mg 24.10 24.28 Arsenic ... As 74.44 75.01 Manganese.. Mn 54.57 54.99 Barium... Ba 136.39 137.43 Mercury Hg 198.49 200.00 Bismuth . . . Bi 206.54 208.11 Nickel Ni 58.24 58.09 Boron B 10.86 10.95 Nitrogen N 13.93 14.04 Bromine... Br 79.34 79.95 Oxygen 15.88 16.00 Calcium . . . Ca 39.76 40.07 Phosphorus P 30.79 31.02 Carbon C 11.92 12.01 Platinum.... Pt 193.41 194.89 Chlorine.. . Cl 35.18 35.45 Potassium . . K 38.82 39.11 Chromium. Cr 51.74 52.14 Silicon Si 28.18 28.40 Cobalt Co 58.49 58.93 Silver Ag 107.11 107.92 Copper .... Cu 63.12 63.60 Sodium Na 22.88 23.05 Fluorine... Fl 18.91 IS. 06 Strontium.. . Sr 86.95 87.61 Gold An 195.74 197.23 Sulphur S 31.83 32.07 Hydrogen.. H 1.00 1.008 Tin Sn 118.15 119.05 Iodine I 125.89 126.85 Zinc Zn 64.91 65.41 Iron Fe 55.60 56.02 228 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. REAGENTS. Continued. NAME. SYMBOL. IMPURITIES. STRENGTH OF SOLUTION, ETC. Potassic K a Cr0 4 . Sulphates. Dissolve 1 part in 10 Chromate. parts water. Potassic Bi- K a Cr a 7 . Dissolve 1 part in 10 chromate. parts water. Potassic Ferri- K 6 Fe 2 Cy ia Dissolve 1 part in 12 cyanide. parts water. Better to prepare solution when re- quired. Potassic K 4 FeCy 6 . Dissolve 1 part in 12 Ferrocyanide. parts water, or, for glu- cose work, 1 part in 30 parts water. Baric Chloride. BaCl 2 . Purify the Dissolve 1 part in 10 commercial parts water. salt by passing H S S through it and Baric Nitrate. Ba(N0 3 ) a . crystallizing. Dissolve 1 part in 15 parts water. Baric BaC0 3 . Add water to the pow- Carbonate. dered carbonate and pre- serve in salt-mouthed bot- tle. Calcic Chloride CaCl a . Fe. Dissolve 1 part in 5 parts water. Calcic CaS0 4 . Dissolve as much of the Sulphate. salt as possible in water (in the cold), filter, and preserve the filtrate. Magnesic MgS0 4 . Dissolve 1 part in 10 Sulphate. parts water. Ferrous FeSO 4 . Dissolve 1 part in 10 Sulphate. parts cold water. Ferric Chloride Fe 2 Cl 6 . Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Cobaltous CO(N0 3 ) 2 . Fe, Ni, etc. Dissolve 1 part in 10 Nitrate. parts water. Cupric Sulphate. CuSO 4 . Fe, Zn. For sugar work purify by repeated crystalliza- tions. Even the so-called " C. P." salts cannot al- ways be depended upon. For Fehiing solution see page 216. For ordinary work dissolve 1 part in 10 parts w r ater. Mercuric HgCl 2 . Dissolve 1 part in 20 Chloride. parts water. Mercurous Nitrate. Hg,(N0 3 ) a . Dissolve 1 part in 20 parts water acidulated with 1.2 part nitric acid. Filter into a bottle con- taining a little metallic mercury, ATOMIC WEIGHTS. 229 REAGENTS. Continued. NAME. SYMBOL. IMPURITIES. STRENGTH OF SOLUTION, ETC. Platinic Chloride. PtCl 4 . Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Argentic Nitrate. AgN0 3 . Dissolve 1 part in 10 parts water. Stannous Chloride. SnCl 2 . Dissolve pure tin in strong HC1 in the presence of platinum. Dilute with 4 volumes dilute HC1. Keep granulated tin in the bottle. 219. ATOMIC WEIGHTS-PARTIAL LIST. (The Constants of Nature Frank Wigglesworth Clarke.) NAME. SYM- BOL. ATOMIC WT. NAME. SYM- BOL. ATOMIC WT. H= 1 = 16 H= 1 0= 16 Aluminum. Al 26.91 27.11 Lead Pb 205.36 206.92 Antimony.. Sb 119.52 120.43 Magnesium. Mg 24.10 24.28 Arsenic As 74.44 75.01 Manganese.. Mn 54.57 54.99 Barium. .. Ba 136.39 137.43 Mercury Hg 198.49 200.00 Bismuth . . . Bi 206.54 208.11 Nickel Ni 58.24 58.09 Boron B 10.86 10.95 Nitrogen.... N 13.93 14.04 Bromine. .. Br 79.34 79.95 Oxygen 15.88 16.00 Calcium . . . Ca 39.76 40.07 Phosphorus P 30.79 31.02 Carbon C 11.92 12.01 Platinum.... Pt 193.41 194.89 Chlorine... Cl 35.18 35.45 Potassium . . K 38.82 39.11 Chromium. Cr 51.74 52.14 Silicon Si 28.18 28.40 Cobalt Co 58.49 58.93 Silver Ag 107.11 107.92 Copper .... Cu 63.12 63.60 Sodium Na 22.88 23.05 Fluorine... Fl 18.91 19.06 Strontium... Sr 86.95 87.61 Gold Au 195.74 197.23 Sulphur S 31.83 32.07 Hydrogen.. H 1.00 1.008 Tin . . Sn 118.15 119.05 Iodine I 125.89 126.85 Zinc Zn 64.91 65.41 Iron Fe 55.60 56.02 230 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 230. COMPARISON OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. MEASURES OP WEIGHT. POUNDS AVOIRDUPOIS. OUNCE AVOIRDUPOIS. TROY GRAINS. Milligram 01543 Centigram 15433 Decigram 1 54332 Gram Decagram .002204 .022047 .0353 .3527 15.43316 Hectogram .220474 3 5276 Kilogram 2 204737 35 2758 . MEASURES OF LENGTH. INCHES. FEET. Millimetre 03937 003281 Centimetre 39371 032809 Decimetre 3 93708 328090 Metre 39 37079 3 280899 Decametre Hectometre 393.70790 3937 07900 32.808992 328 089917 Kilometre 39370 79000 3280 899167 Myriametre 393707 90000 32808 991667 inch = 2.53995 centimetres^ 1 foot = 30.47945 centimetres. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. CUBIC INCHES. GALLONS (231 cu. in.). Millilitre (cubic centimetre). . Centilitre .06103 .61027 .000264 002641 Decilitre 6 10270 026414 Litre (cubic decimetre) Decalitre 61.02705 610 2705 .26414 2 6414 Hectolitre 6102 705 OR 414 Kilolitre..:'.".".:."..'.'.'.:::.'..::: 61027.05 2Hr Myrialitre 610270 5 2641 4 1 cubic inch = 16.3862 cubic centimetres. 1 cubic foot 1 gallon (231 cu. in.) = 3.785 litres. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 28.3153 litres. SQUARE FEET. ACRES. Centiare, square metre Are, 100 square metres Hectare, 10,000 sq. metres. . . 10.7643 1076.4293 107642.9342 .000247 .024711 2 471143 RELATIVE VALUES OF DIFFERENT FUELS. 231 221. RELATIVE VALUES OF DIFFERENT FUELS.- (HASWELL.) i. Slri &* 3g o |l 4 s p^S > feS S-Sfi 'S.-2 *s DESCRIPTION. |2o tc ^^ t&t i s e&l |i 1 d 111 2 05 P3"5 li s 111 I Anthracites. Peach Mountain Pa 10 7 .. 1 505 633 725 Q4K Beaver Meadow 9 88 923 982 207 748 g Bituminous. Newcastle 8 66 809 776 595 887 346 904 Pictou 8 48 792 738 588 418 1 876 Liverpool 7.84 7 34 .733 686 .663 616 .581 1 984 .333 578 .852 848 Scotch 6 95 649 625 521 499 649 909 Pine wood dry 4.69 .436 .175 16.417 222. Testing a Burette. The method of testing a burette as described by Payne 1 may be applied with ad- vantage in a sugar-house laboratory and contribute its share to the reduction of the " undetermined losses." Payne's article is given here in full, with the exception of the preliminary statements and the abridgment of the tables to an upper limit of 40 C. The author urges the adoption of Payne's suggestion relative to the standard temperature. " Most makers choose 15 or 16 as the standard tem- perature, and many graduates are so marked; but we may preferably take a somewhat higher temperature, one nearer the average working temperature of our room, and in this way secure less actual deviation from the truth. Several temperatures have been proposed from 15 to 25, and the highest of these seems to be the best. " Having selected a standard temperature for our burette, the next point to consider is the standard unit of volume. By definition, ' The kilogram is the vacuum weight of 1000 cc. of water at its temperature of maximum density, about 4.' Reversing this, the volume occupied by i kilo Journal of Anal, and Applied Chemistry 6, 327. 232 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. of water at 4 (weighed in vacuo) is the volume of 1000 cc. or i litre. Since we are obliged to weigh in air, and for convenience at temperatures greater than 4, we can only arrive at the correct litre by knowing the conditions of our experiment and making the proper corrections therefor. " The true litre is independent of the expansion of water by heat, and out of respect for the authors of the metric system, as well as from a regard for uniformity, it may well be retained as our actual standard. "Our first correction depends upon thevariation in weight of i litre of water under a change of temperature. This has been determined by several experimenters, and a care- ful comparison of their best results will give us a very accurate table. The following has been compiled from the latest determinations, plotted into a curve of expansion and corrected by the method of second differences. (See Table I.) " At our standard temperature, 25, the true weight of i litre of water is seen to be 997.27 gms. The apparent TABLE No. 1. Degrees C. Density or Grams in 1 Litre. Volume or Centime- tres cu. in 1 Kilo. Degrees C. Density or Grams in 1 Litre. Volume or Centime- tres cu. in 1 Kilo. 999.86 1000.14 21 998.18 1001.82 1 999.91 1000.09 22 997.97 1002.03 2 999.95 1000 05 23 997.74 1002.26 3 999.98 1000.02 24 997.51 100-2.49 4 1000 00 1000.00 25 997.27 1002.: s 5 999.97 1000.03 26 997.02 1002.98 6 999.94 1000.06 27 996.76 1003.24 7 999.90 1000.10 28 996.48 1003.52 8 999.85 1000.15 29 996.19 1003.81 9 999.79 1000.21 30 995.89 1004.11 10 999.72 1000.28 31 995.58 1004. 42 11 999.64 1000.36 32 995.25 1004.75 12 999.55 1000.45 33 994.92 1005.08 13 999.44 1000.56 34 994.58 1005.42 14 999.3-2 1000.68 35 994.23 1005 77 15 999.19 1000 81 36 993.87 1006.13 16 999.0. 1000.95 37 993.50 1006.50 17 998.90 1C01.10 38 993.12 1006.88 18 998.74 1001 .26 39 992.73 1007.27 19 998.57 1001.43 40 992.32 1007.68 20 998.38 1001.62 TESTING A BURETTE. 233 weight of i litre of water at 25 as weighed with brass weights in air at the same temperature and at 760 mm. barometric pressure would be less than this by an amount equal to the weight of air displaced by the difference in volume between the water and the weights. With brass at a sp. gr. of 8, and water at I, the difference in volume equals f of the volume of the water or of i litre. I litre of air at 25 and 760 mm. B. weighs 1. 1845 gms. and | of this 1.0364 gms. Hence the litre under these circumstances weighs or at least counterbalances weights equal to 996.23 gms. This correction for loss of weight in air varies with the barometer, but for any pressure between 730 and 780 mm. a change of less than .05 cc. per litre is occasioned, which for our purpose may be entirely disregarded. The temperature of the air will be approximately the same as that of the water, a maximum difference of 5 modifying the result by only .02 cc. per litre, and by subtracting the correction from the previous table we get the following : TABLE No. 2. APPARENT WEIGHT OF 1 LITRE OF WATER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES, AS WEIGHED WITH BRASS WEIGHTS IN AIR. Temp, of Water, Degrees C. Apparent Weight. Temp, of Water, Degrees C. Apparent Weight. 15 998.1 28 995.4 16 998.0 29 995.2 17 997.8 30 994.9 18 997.7 31 994.6 19 997.5 32 994.2 20 997.3 33 993.9 21 997.1 34 993.6 22 SB 996.9 QQfi 7 35 Ofi 993.2 QQO Q 3EO 24 yyo. t 996.5 oO 37 yy-i.y 992.5 25 996.2 38 992.1 26 996.0 39 991.7 27 995.7 40 991.3 " This table at 25 gives the apparent weight of one litre of water as measured by our burette. The expansion or con- traction of the glass above or below this temperature will modify the other figures by an amount equal to .023 cc. for each degree, and this amount must be subtracted below 25, 234 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. and added above 25, to the figures of the table. Hence we have a final table giving the apparent weight of i litre of water under ordinary circumstances as above stated. As most of our volumetric glassware is marked as standard at 15, we give a table for this temperature also, although the difference amounts to only .02 per cent. TABLE No. 3. APPARENT WEIGHT OF 1 LITRE OF WATER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES, AS WEIGHED WITH BRASS WEIGHTS IN AIR. CORRECTED FOR EXPANSION OF GLASS. Temperature. Apparent Weight. Apparent Volume. Degrees C. Standard at 15. Standard at 25. Standard at 15. Standard at 25. 15 998.1 997.9 1001.9 1002.1 16 998.0 997.8 1002.0 1002.2 17 997.9 997.7 1002.1 1002.3 18 997.8 997.5 1002.2 1002.5 19 997.6 997.4 1002.4 1002.6 20 997.4 997.2 1002 6 1002.8 21 997.3 997.0 1002.7 1003.0 22 997.1 996.8 1002.9 1003.2 23 996.9 996.6 1003.1 1003.4 24 996.7 996.4 1003.3 1003.6 25 996.5 996.2 1003.5 1003.8 26 996.2 996.0 1003 8 1004.0 27 996.0 995.8 1004.0 1004.2 28 995.7 995.5 1004.3 1004.5 29 995.5 995.2 1004.5 1004.8 30 995.2 995.0 1004.8 1005.0 31 994.9 994.7 1005.1 1005.3 32 994.6 994.4 1005.4 1005.6 33 994.3 994.1 1005.7 1005.9 34 994.0 993.8 1006.0 1006.2 35 993.7 993.5 1006.3 1006.5 36 993.4 993.2 1006.6 1006.8 37 993.0 992.8 1007.0 1007.2 38 992.6 992.4 1007.4 1007.6 39 992.3 992.1 1007.7 1007.9 40 991.9 991.7 1008.1 1008.3 " This table is accurate to probably .1 cc. in a litre or to .01 per cent., which is about the limit of error in an ordinary analysis. " In testing a burette or other graduate , the conditions of the operation should be as nearly as possible the same as those of actual use. The burette should be read after a lapse TESTING A BURETTE. 235 of teme equal to the time of an ordinary titration. We have found that in a 100 cc. burette on drawing the contents out rapidly the liquid will run down from the sides about as follows : .1 cc. in | minute. .2 cc. in 2 minutes. .3 cc. in 5 minutes, and .4 cc. in 15 minutes. "Water, acid, and salt solutions about the same, but al- kalies a little more slowly. As a careful titration takes usually more than 2 minutes and less than 15, we are accus- tomed to read the burette after 5 minutes standing. " Select water at the same temperature as the balance- room. A convenient vessel for holding the water while weighing is a good-sized weighing-bottle or a glass-stop- pered 100 cc. flask. A solution of bichromate of potash in moderately strong sulphuric acid used warm is an excellent agent for removing grease or other foreign matter from a burette-tube. " The following example of 2 burettes purchased recently will show the method of testing and also exhibit the quality of graduated glassware to be found in the market. With two or three tested burettes and flasks in a laboratory we may readily compare others and make them equivalent. 25 cc. BURETTE. Empty Weighings. H 2 O. True cc. Burette. Difference. 25.120 0.00 32.931 7.8ll 7.84 7.82 7.82 41,452 8.521 8.55 16.37 8-55 49-252 7.8OO 7.83 24.21 7.84 24.22 SAME BURETTE AGAIN FOR TOTAL CAPACITY. WATER AT 25. Weighings. Burette. Empty 25.084 o.oo 49.946 24.94 24.862 = 24.96 cc. error, .02 cc. 236 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. DUPLICATE. WATER AT 25. Burette. Empty 25.086 49.983 o.oo 24.897 = 25.00 cc. 24.97 error, .03 cc. " Burette readings were taken to T ^ cc., but the error of such a reading would amount to probably .03 cc. The re- sults of the above test show the burette to be highly accu- rate. It will be noticed that duplicate determinations give concordant results, the variations being less than the prob- able error of any single reading. This fact alone will indi- cate the general accuracy of the method. 75 cc. BURETTE. MARK K. WATER AT 26. Burette. Errors. Weighings. H 2 O. True cc. Difference. Successive. Total. Empty 25.005 0.00 32.587 7.522 7.55 7.57 7.57 4- .02 40.083 7.496 7.53 15.10 7.53 .00 4- .02 47.573 7.490 7.52 22.63 7.53 + .01 4- .03 54.954 7.381 7.41 30.00 7.37 - .Oi - .01 62.501 7.547 7.58 37.59 7.59 4- .01 .00 70.0*2 7.521 7.55 45.17 7.58 -f- -03 4- .03 77.692 7.670 7.70 52.88 7.71 4- .01 4- .04 25.129 32.940 7.811 7.84 60.70 7.82 - .02 4- .02 40.461 7.521 7.55 68.25 7.55 .00 4- .02 45.740 5.279 5.30 73.65 5.40 4- .10 4- .12 Empty 73.53 73.65 " The test points to a probable inaccuracy in the lower part of the burette. This fact was proven by a duplication of the weighings for the lower part of the burette, and also by a direct comparison of this burette with the 25 cc. burette marked B t and an error of .1 cc. was discovered between the 70 and 75 cc. marks." In graduating apparatus to Mohr's units, instead of to true cubic centimetres, proceed as described in 233, page 250. When the normal weight, 26.048 grams, is used with Schmidt and Haensch polariscopes, the flasks should be graduated to Mohr's units ; with the Laurent polariscope, the flasks should be graduated to true cubic centimetres. EVAPORATION TABLE. 237 333S3 33335 5SSSS SSSS2 S^SSS 8S8 SS8S8 S38S8 S8S553 SSSS2 o? 10 os c* so o co t>- 1 * 10 SO Tf O I- CO O D W O5 lO Sooooooooo 1 SSSSS _S "^S88 ^fe^^" ,_; ^4 ' o o o oi X) ao QO go co oo i- GOOOGOOOOO OOOOi-'-t > -^- t-c*ooe>3( SSS^ ^SS^i |lO^D{*OCOi -rHOJCO^^O t-QOCiO< j O iO O lO O O 1-1 O rH O i-. O i-i I- ( i-l Ot CO Tf O t- OO OS loiooin'io OIOIOD< oq o _ TH ot D 50 t> t^ Z> OJT^COQO OTf?DOO os oj os oj o> o o o d d 238 HANDBOOK FOB SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. VD fcgggg ggffSS egggg csrrrgg 3 O -J' l~ I TJ GO 0(D OlOi-ieOTji JOJOt-OOOS pO oo T* o < r-1 80 TJ< rH 00 TT T-. L-- TJJ T-t i- 1~ <- o d eo STS8S3 iS^ SSS8S OOl>COa> moo 10 10 co 10 in ** Tf< eocos*^S3 f 30CGCOO OOGCGCGCGO ill cSc38S8 S25S8S Sg * -h SO OJ C* T-I 'OS5 OOGOOOCOOO GOOOGOt^ Ci, IcOGoSl^S t^tSSi??! "^It^SS OOTOOO M occo >o S m io o n ^-r _ liii II- Tl -* 00 1-H I o> oj oJ o d d TH i EVAPORATION TABLE. 241 38S8SS S g2 :13b >l j* !S?^^S ^ 00 5SSSS S ilil I <0dp rH 1-1 TH 5 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 225. TABLE FOR THE REDUCTION OF THE WEIGHT OR VOLUME OF A SIRUP OF A GIVEN DEGREE BRIX OR BAUMfi TO A SIRUP OF 54.3 BRIX OR 30 BAUME.-(G. L. SPENCER.) Initial Density. Equivalent Sirup of 54 3 Brix or 30 Baume. Initial Density. Equivalent Sirup of 54.3 Brix or 30 BaumS. .2 -2 *, . !jj a 3 1*1 !ij || 1*1 I*! I 8 2" u o r !* & * o3 > 35.0 19.6 64.46 59.19 39.0 21.8 71.82 67.10 .1 19.65 64.64 59.38 .1 21.3 72.00 67.30 .2 19.7 64.83 59.58 .2 21.9 72.19 67.51 .3 19.8 65.01 59.77 .3 21.9 72.37 67.71 .4 19.8 65.19 59.96 .4 22.0 72.55 67.91 .5 19.9 65.38 60.16 .5 22.05 72.74 68.12 .6 19.9 65.56 60.36 .6 22.1 72.92 68.32 .7 20.0 65.74 60.56 .7 22.2 73.10 68.52 .8 20.0 65.93 60.75 .8 22.2 73.29 68.72 .9 20.1 66.11 60.94 .9 22.3 73.47 68.92 36.0 20.1 66.30 61.14 40.0 22.3 73.66 69.12 .1 20.2 66.48 61.33 .1 22.4 73.84 69.32 .2 20 25 66.67 61.53 .2 22.4 74.02 69.52 .3 20.3 66.85 61.72 .3 22.5 74.21 69.73 .4 20.4 67.03 61.92 .4 22.5 74.40 69.93 .5 20 4 67.2'2 62.12 .5 22.6 74.58 70.14 .6 20.5 67.40 62.31 .6 22.6 74.76 70.34 .7 20.5 67.59 62.50 22.7 74.94 70.54 .8 20.6 67 77 62.70 .8 22.8 75.13 70.74 .9 20.6 67.95 62.91 .*9 22.8 75.31 70.94 37.0 20.7 68.14 63.11 41.0 22.9 75.50 71.15 .1 20.7 68.32 63.31 .1 22.9 75.68 71.35 .2 20.8 68.50 63 51 .2 23.0 75.87 71.55 .3 20.9 68.69 63.70 .3 23 76.06 71.75 .4 20.9 68.87 63.90 .4 23.1 76.24 71.95 .5 21.0 69.06 64.10 .5 23.1 76.42 72.16 .6 21.0 69.24 64.30 .6 23.2 76.60 72.37 .7 21.1 69.42 64.49 .7 23.25 76.78 72.58 .8 21.1 69.61 64.69 .8 23.3 76.97 72.79 .9 21.2 69.79 64.89 .9 23.4 77.16 73.00 38.0 21.2 69.98 65.09 42.0 23.4 77.34 73.21 .1 21.3 70.16 65.29 .1 23.5 77.52 73.41 .2 21.35 70.34 65.49 .2 23.5 77.70 73.61 .3 21.4 70.53 65.69 .3 23.6 77.89 73.81 .4 21.5 70.72 65.90 .4 23.6 78.08 74.01 .5 21.5 70.90 66.10 .5 23.7 78.26 74.22 .6 21.6 71.08 66.30 .6 23.7 78.44 74.43 .7 21.6 71.26 66.50 .7 23.8 78.62 74.64 .8 21.7 71.45 66.70 .8 23.8 78.81 74.86 .9 21.7 71.63 66.90 ,9 23.9 79.00 75.08 TABLE FOR REDUCTION OF WEIGHT OF SIRUP. 24' TABLE FOR THE REDUCTION OF THE WEIGHT OR VOLUME OF A SIRUP, ETC. Continued. Initial Density. Equivalent Sirup of 54.3 Brix or 1 30 Baume. Initial Density. Equivalent Sirup of 54.3 Brix or 30 Baum6. VE S ^ 5 * VCD g S 6 00 S S J w, "O y I s 14 !*! |M 1* v ^ ft & > | ! & * J5 >. OH 43.0 23.95 79.19 75.29 47.0 26.1 86.55 83.76 24.0 79.37 75.49 .1 26.2 86.73 83.97 .2 24.1 79.55 75.69 .2 26.2 86.91 84.18 .3 24.1 79.74 75.89 .3 26.3 87.10 84.39 .4 24.2 79.92 76.10 .4 26.3 87.29 84.60 .5 24.2 80.11 76.31 .5 26.4 87.47 84.82 .6 24.3 80.29 76.52 .6 26.4 87.65 85.04 .7 24.3 80.47 76.73 .7 26.5 87.83 85.26 .8 24.4 80.66 76.95 .8 26.5 88.02 85.48 .9 24.4 80.85 77.17 .9 26.6 88.21 85.70 44.0 24.5 81.03 77.38 48.0 26.6 88.39 85.92 .1 24.55 81.21 77.59 .1 26.7 88.57 86.13 .2 24.6 81.39 77.80 .2 26.75 88.75 86.35 .3 24.65 81.58 78.01 .3 26.8 88.94 86.57 .4 24.7 81.77 78.22 .4 26.9 89.13 86.79 .5 24.8 81.95 78.43 .5 26.9 89.13 87.01 .6 24.8 82'. 13 78.64 .6 27.0 89.49 87.23 .7 24.9 82.31 78.85 .7 27.0 89.67 87.45 .8 24.9 82.50 79.06 .8 27.1 89.86 87.67 .9 25.0 82.69 79.27 .9 27.1 90.15 87.89 45.0 25.0 82.87 79.49 49.0 27.2 90.24 88.11 .1 25.1 83.05 79.70 .1 27.2 90.42 88.33 .2 25.1 83.23 79.91 .2 27.3 90.60 88.55 .3 25.2 83.42 80.12 .3 27.3 90.78 88.77 .4 25.2 83.61 80.33 .4 27.4 90.96 88.99 .5 25.3 83.79 80.54 .5 27.4 91.16 89.21 .6 25.4 83.97 80.75 .6 27.5 91.35 89.43 .7 25.4 84.15 60.96 .7 27.6 91.54 89.65 .8 25.5 84.34 81.18 .8 27.6 91.72 89.87 .9 25.5 84.53 81.40 .9 27.7 92.90 90.09 46.0 25.6 84.71 81.61 50.0 27.7 92.08 90.31 .1 25.6 84.89 81.82 .1 27.8 92.26 90.53 .2 25.7 85.07 82.03 .2 27.8 92.45 90.75 .3 25.7 85.26 82.24 .3 27.9 92.63 90.97 .4 25.8 85.45 82.45 .4 27.9 92.82 91.19 .5 25.8 85.63 82.66 .5 28.0 93.00 91.41 .6 25.9 85.81 82.87 .6 28.0 93.19 91.63 .7 25.95 85.99 83.09 .7 28.1 93.37 91.85 .8 26.0 86.18 83.31 .8 28.1 93.55 92.07 .9 26.1 86.37 83.53 .9 28.2 93.73 92.30 244 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. TABLE FOR THE REDUCTION OF THE WEIGHT OR VOLUME OF A SIRUP, ETC. Continued. Initial Density. Equivalent Sirup of 54.3 Brix or 30 Baum6. Initial Density. Equivalent Sirup of 54.3 Brix or 30 Baum6. * S *J Z u VD 2 ~ 1 * 0>S it 1*1 1 l^f Irf fl. i * tM & > f f! t- S. & * > 61.0 28.2 93.92 92.53 66.0 30.4 101.28 101.61 .1 28.3 94.10 92.75 .1 30.4 101.46 101.84 .2 28.35 94.29 92.97 .2 30.5 101.64 102.07 .3 28.4 94.47 93.19 .3 30.5 101 .83 102.30 .4 28.5 94.65 93.41 .4 30.6 102.01 102.53 .5 28.5 94 84 93.63 .5 30.6 103.20 102.76 .6 28.6 95.02 93.85 .6 30.7 102.38 102.99 .7 28.6 95.20 94.07 .7 30.7 102.56 103.22 .8 28.7 95.39 94.30 .8 30 8 102.75 103.45 .9 28.7 95.58 94.53 .9 30.8 102.94 103.68 52.0 28.8 95.76 94.77 66.0 30.9 103.13 103.92 .1 28.8 95.94 94.99 30.9 103.31 104.15 .2 28.9 96.13 95.21 '.2 31.0 103.49 104.38 .3 28.9 96.31 95.43 .3 31.05 103.68 104.61 .4 29.0 96.50 95.65 .4 31.1 103.86 104.84 .5 29.0 96.68 95.87 .5 31.2 104.05 105.07 .6 29.1 96.87 96.09 .6 31.2 104.23 105.30 .7 29.15 97.05 96.32 .7 31.3 104.41 105.54 .8 29.2 97.23 96.55 .8 31.3 104.60 105.78 .9 29.2 97.42 96.79 .9 31.4 104.78 106.02 63.0 29.3 97.60 97.02 57.0 31.4 104.97 106.26 .1 29.4 97.79 97.25 .1 31.5 105.15 106.49 .2 29.4 97.98 97.48 .2 31.5 105.34 106.72 .3 29.5 98.16 97.71 .3 31.6 105.52 106.95 .4 29.5 98.34 97.94 .4 31.6 105.70 107.18 .5 29.6 98.52 98.17 .5 31.7 105.89 107.41 .6 29.6 98.70 98.40 .6 31.7 106 07 107.65 .7 29.7 98.89 98.63 .7 31.8 106.25 107.89 .8 29.7 99.07 98.86 .8 31.8 106.44 108.13 .9 29.8 99.26 99.08 .9 31.9 106.62 108.37 64.0 29.8 99.44 99.30 68.0 31.9 106 81 108.61 .1 29.9 99.62 99.53 .1 32.0 106.99 108.84 .2 29.9 99.81 99.76 .2 32.0 107.17 109.08 64 3 30.0 100.00 100.00 .3 32.1 107.35 109.32 .4 30.05 100.18 100.22 .4 32.15 107.54 109.56 .5 30.1 100.36 100.45 .5 32.2 107.73 109.80 .6 30.2 100.55 100.68 .6 32.3 107.91 110.04 .7 30.2 100.73 100.91 .7 32.3 108.09 110.28 .8 30.3 100.91 101.14 .8 32.4 J08.3S8 110.52 .9 30.3 101.09 101.37 .9 32.4 108.47 110.76 TABLE FOR REDUCTION OF WEIGHT OF SIRUP. 245 TABLE FOR THE REDUCTION OF THE WEIGHT OR VOLUME OF A SIRUP, ETC. Continued. Initial Density. Equivalent Sirup of 54. 3 C Brix or 30 Baume, Initial Density. Equivalent Sirup of 54.3 Brix or 30 Baume. vD . S 9 . . w ^ t| CD S fef x * sa ? P 3 0) >>bD 0^'S !*! |fl * & > & & > 69.0 32.5 108.65 111.00 60.0 33.0 110 49 113.39 .1 32.5 108.83 111.23 .1 33.0 110.68 113.63 .2 32.6 109 02 111.47 .2 33.1 110.86 113.87 .3 32.6 109.20 111.71 .3 33.1 111.04 114.11 .4 32.7 109.38 111.95 .4 33.2 111.23 114.35 .5 32.7 109.56 112.19 .5 33.2 111.41 114.59 .6 32.8 109.75 112.43 .6 33.3 111.60 114.83 .7 32.8 109.93 112.67 .7 33.35 111.78 114.97 .8 32.9 110.12 112.91 .8 33.4 111.96 115.21 .9 32.9 110.30 113.15 .9 33.45 112.14 115.45 The above table is for use in calculating sirups within the usual range of densities, to a standard degree Brix or Baume, for purposes of comparison. A convenient check on pan and centrifugal work is a statement showing the analysis of the sirup and the pounds of first sugar yielded per 100 Ibs., or per 100 gallons of sirup of 54.3 Brix (30 Baume). The volume or weight of sirup at 54.3 Brix (30 Baume) is obtained by multiplying the measured volume or the weight by the number in the per cent column in the table corresponding to the observed degree Brix or Baum6 and pointing off as in other percentage calculations. 246 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 226. TABLE SHOWING THE VOLUMES OF JUICE, IN LITRES, YIELDED IN THE DIFFUSION OF 100 KILOGRAMS OF BEETS OF VARIOUS DENSITIES. (F. DUPONT.) See page 207. Density of the Diffusion. . juice. * Density of the Normal Juice of the Beet. . 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 3.8 4 42 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7 7.2 125 118 113 137 124 117 112 148 143 134 127 122 116 111 161 152 144 138 132 126 121 116 111 173 163 155 147 141 135 130 124 120 115 111 184 174 165 157 150 145 138 132 127 122 118 114 110 193 185 176 167 160 153 147 141 135 130 126 121 117 114 110 206 19 5 186 177 170 162 156 149 143 138 132 127 124 120 117 114 110 218 206 196 187 178 170 163 157 151 145 140 135 131 127 123 119 115 112 109 I jitres c >f juic< 5 per 1 30 kilos, beets 1. 1 The degrees given in this table are according to the French. To con vert into specific gravity, prefix 10 and move the decimal point two places to the left. Example : 3.6 = 1.036 specific gravity = 9 Brix. FORMULA FOR CONCENTRATION AND DILUTION. 247 227. Formulae for Concentration and Dilu- tion. (1) Having two solutions of known degrees Brix (B and B'), to determine the degree Brix of a mixture composed of the volumes Fand V of these solutions. VB+VB' x = degree Brix required = ' , . (2) Formula for the calculation of the water required (per cent by weight) to reduce a sugar solution of a given density to any required density. x = per cent of water required; B = initial degree Brix ; rt r 1 An pi b degree Brix after dilution; = E, and _ = x, the per cent required. (3) For formulae for the concentration of sugar solutions from stated densities to certain required densities, see pages 69, 71. (4) To determine the volume V of a sugar solution before concentration. b = degree Brix, s = the specific gravity of the solution before concentration ; B = degree Brix, S specific gravity after concentration to a volume of 100. WQSB w . ' . 228. TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THERMOMETRIC SCALES. (Schubarth's Handbuch der techn. Chera. III. Aufl. I. 61.) Fah- ren- heit. Centi- grade. Reau- mur. Fah- ren- heit. Centi- grade. Reau- mur. Fah- ren- heit. Centi- grade. Reau- mur. o o 212 100 80 190 87.78 70.22 168 75.55 60.44 211 99.44 79.56 189 87.22 69.78 167 75 60 210 98.89 79.11 188 86.67 69.33 166 74.44 59.56 209 98.33 78.67 187 86.11 68.89 165 73.89 59.11 208 97.78 78.22 I 186 85.55 68.44 164 73.33 58.67 207 97.22 77.78 185 85 68 163 72.78 58.22 206 96.67 77.33 184 84.44 67.56 162 72.22 57.78 205 96.11 76.89 183 83.89 67.11 161 71.67 57.33 204 95.55 76.44 182 83.33 66.67 160 71.11 56.89 203 1 95 76 181 82.78 66.22 159 70.55 56.44 202 94.44 75.56 180 82.22 65.78 158 70 56 201 93.89 75.11 179 81.67 65.33 157 69.44 55.56 200 93.33 74.67 178 81.11 64.89 156 68.89 55.11 199 92.78 74.22 177 80.55 64.44 155 68.33 54.67 198 92.22 73.78 176 80 64 154 67.78 54.22 19? 91.67 73.33 175 79.44 63.56 153 67.22 53.78 196 91.11 72.89 174 78 89 63.11 152 66.67 53.33 195 90.55 72.44 173 78.33 62.67 151 66.11 52.89 194 90 72 172 77.78 62.22 150 65.55 52.44 193 89.44 71.56 171 77.22 61.78 149 65 52 192 88.89 71.11 170 76.6? 61.33 148 64.44 51.56 191 88.33 70.67 169 76.11 60.89 147 63.89 51.11 248 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. COMPARISON OF THERMOMETRIC SCALES. Continued. Fah- ren- heit. Centi- grade. Reau- mur. Fah- ren- heit. Centi- grade. Reau- mur. Fah- ren- heit. Centi- grade. Reau- mur. 146 63.33 50.67 83 28.33 22.67 21 -6.11 -4.89 145 62.78 50.22 82 27.78 22.22 20 -6.67 -5.33 144 62.22 49.78 81 27. 2J 21.78 19 -7.22 -5.78 143 61.67 49.33 80 26.67 21.33 18 -7.78 -6.22 142 61.11 48.89 79 26.11 20.89 17 -8.33 -6.67 141 60.55 48.44 78 25.55 20.44 16 -8.89 -7.11 140 60 48 77 25 20 15 -9.44 -7.56 139 59.44 47.56 76 24.44 19.56 14 -10 -8 138 58.89 47.11 75 23.89 19.11 13 -10.55 -8.44 137 58.33 46.67 74 23.33 18.67 12 -11.11 -8.89 136 57.78 46.22 73 22.78 18.22 11 -11.67 -9.33 135 57.22 45.78 72 22.22 17.78 10 -12.22 -9.78 134 56.67 45.33 71 21.67 17.33 9 -12.78 -10.22 133 56.11 44 89 70 21.11 16.89 8 -13.33 -10.67 132 55.55 44.44 69 20.55 16.44 7 -13.89 -11.11 131 55 44 68 20 16 6 -14.44 -11.56 130 54.44 43.56 67 19.44 15.56 5 -15 -12 129 53.89 43.11 66 18.89 15.11 4 -15.55 -12.44 128 53.33 42.67 65 18. 3& 14.67 3 -16.11 -12.89 127 52.78 42.22 64 17.78 14.22 2 -16.67 -13.33 126 52.22 41.78 63 17.22 13.78 1 -17.22 -13.78 125 51.67 41.33 62 16.67 13.33 -17.78 -14.22 124 51.11 40.89 61 16.11 12.89 -1 -18.33 -14.67 123 50.55 40.44 60 15.55 12.44 ' -2 -18.89 -15.11 122 50 40 59 15 12 -3 -19.44 -15.56 121 49.44 39.56 58 14.44 11.56 _4 -20 -16 120 48.89 39.11 57 13.89 11.11 -5 -20.55 -16.44 119 48.33 38.67 56 13.33 10.67 -6 -21.11 -16.89 118 47.78 38.22 55 12.78 10.22 -7 -21.67 -17.33 117 47.22 37.78 54 12.22 9.78 -8 -22.22 -17.78 116 46.67 37.33 53 11.67 9.33 -9 -22.78 -18.22 115 46.11 36.89 52 11.11 8.89 -10 -23.33 -18.67 114 45.55 36.44 51 10.55 8.44 -11 -23.89 -19.11 113 45 36 50 10 8 -12 -24.44 -19.56 112 44.44 35.56 49 9.44 7.56 -13 -25 -20 111 43.89 35.11 48 8.89 7.11 --14 -25.55 -20.44 110 43.33 34.67 47 8.33 6.67 -15 -26.11 -20.89 109 42.78 34.22 46 7.78 6.22 -16 -26.67 -21.33 108 42.22 33.78 45 7.22 5.78 -17 -27.22 -21.78 107 41.67 33.33 44 6.67 5.33 18 -27.78 -22 22 106 41.11 32.89 43 6.11 4.89 -19 -28.33 -22.67 105 40.55 32.44 42 5.55 4.44 -20 -28.89 -23.11 104 40 32 41 5 4 -21 -29.44 -23.56 103 39.44 31.56 40 4.44 3.56 -22 -30 -24 102 38.89 31.11 39 3.89 3.11 -23 -30.55 -24.44 101 38.33 30.67 38 3.33 2.67 -24 -31.11 -24.89 100 37.78 30.22 Z7 2.78 2.22 -25 -31.67 -25.33 99 37.22 29.78 36 2.22 1.78 -26 -32.22 -25.78 98 36 67 29.33 35 1.67 1.33 -27 -32.78 -26.22 97 36.11 28.89 34 1.11 0.89 -28 -33.33 -26.67 96 35.55 28.44 33 0.55 0.44 -29 -33.89 -27.11 95 35 28 32 0. 0. -30 -34.44 -27.56 94 34.44 27.56 31 -0.55 -0.44 -31 -35 -28 93 33.89 27.11 30 -1.11 -0.89 -32 -35.55 -28.44 92 33.33 26.67 29 -1.67 -1.33 -33 -36.11 -28.89 91 32.78 26.22 28 -2 22 -1.78 -34 -36.67 -29.33 90 32.22 25.78 27 -2.78 -2.22 -35 -37.22 -29.78 89 31 67 25.33 26 -3.33 -2.67 -36 -37.78 -30.22 88 31.11 24.89 25 -3.89 -3.11 -37 -38.33 -30.67 87 30.55 24.44 24 -4.44 -3.56 -38 -38.89 -31.11 86 30 24 23 -5 -4 -39 -39.44 -31.56 85 20.44 23 50 22 -5.55 -4.44 -40 -40 -32 84 28.89 23.11 COMPARISON OF THERMOMETRIC SCALES. 249 Formulae for the conversion of the- degrees of one thermometric scale into those of another: C=*(F -&) = &. B = fCF-32) = $C. Additions and subtractions are algebraic. 329. TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THERMOMETRIO SCALES. Cent! grade Fah- ren- heit. Reau- mur. Centi- grade Fah- ren- heit. Reau- mur. Centi grade Fah- ren- heit. Reau- mur. 100 212 80 62 143.6 49.6 24 75.2 19.2 99 210.2 79.2 61 141.8 48.8 23 73.4 18.4 98 208.4 78.4 60 140 48 22 71.6 17.6 97 206 6 77.6 59 138.2 47.2 21 69 8 1G.8 96 204.8 76.8 58 136.4 46.4 20 68 16 95 203 76 57 134.6 45.6 19 66.2 15.2 94 201.2 75.2 56 132.8 44 8 18 64.4 14.4 93 199.4 74.4 55 131 44 17 62.6 13.6 92 197.6 73.6 54 129.2 43.2 16 60.8 12.8 91 195.8 72.8 53 127.4 42.4 15 59 12 90 194 72 52 125.6 41.6 14 57.2 11.2 89 192.2 71.2' 51 123.8 40.8 13 55.4 10.4 88 190.4 70.4 50 122 40 12 53.6 9.6 87 188.6 69.6 49 120.2 39.2 11 51.8 8.8 86 186.8 68.8 48 118.4 38.4 10 50 8 85 185 68 47 116.6 37.6 9 48.2 7.2 84 183.2 67.2 46 114.8 36.8 8 46.4 6.4 83 181.4 66 4 45 113 36 7 44.6 5.6 82 179.6 65.6 44 111.2 35.2 6 42.8 4.8 81 177.8 64.8 43 109.4 34.4 5 41 4 80 176 64 42 107.6 33.6 4 39.2 3.2 79 174.2 63.2 41 105.8 32.8 3 37.4 2.4 78 172.4 62 4 40 104 32 2 35.6 1.6 77 170.6 61.6 39 102.2 31.2 1 33 8 .8 76 168.8 60.8 38 100.4 30.4 32 75 167 60 37 98.6 29.6 1 30.2 - .8 74 165.2 59.2 36 96.8 28.8 -2 28.4 -1.6 73 163.4 58.4 35 95 28 -3 26.6 -2.4 72 161.6 57.6 34 93.2 27.2 -4 24.8 -3.2 71 159.8 56.8 33 91.4 26.4 -5 23 -4 70 158 56 32 89.6 25.6 -6 21.2 -4.8 69 156.2 55.2 31 87.8 24.8 -7 19.4 -5.6 68 154.4 54.4 30 86 24 -8 17 6 -6.4 67 152.6 53 6 29 84.2 23.2 -9 15.8 -7.2 66 150.8 52.8 28 82.4 22.4 -10 14 -8 65 149 52 27 80.6 21.6 -11 12.2 -8.8 64 147.2 51.2 26 78.8 20.8 -12 10.4 -9.6 63 145.4 50.4 25 77 20 330. APPROXIMATE TEMPERATURES OF IRON WHEN HEATED UNTIL IT HAS THE FOLLOWING COLORS: o F C. F. C. Faint red 977 525 Orange 2100 1150 Dark red 1292 700 White 2370 1300 Cherry -red Bright cherry-red .... 1666 1832 908 1000 Dazzling white 2730 1500 250 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 331. TABLE SHOWING THE ALTERATION OF THE VOLUME OF GLASS VESSELS BY HEAT, THE VOLUME AT 15 C. BEING TAKEN AS UNITY. (From Bailey's " Chemist's Pocket-Book. 1 ') Temp. C. Volume. Temp. C. Volume. Temp. Volume. .99961210 15 1.00000000 30 .00038790 1 .99963796 ' 16 1.00002586 35 .00051720 2 .99966382 ' 17 1.00005172 40 .00064650 3 .99968968 18 1.00007758 45 .00077580 4 .99971554 19 1.00010344 50 .00090510 5 .99974140 20 1 00012930 55 .00103440 6 .99976726 21 1.00015516 60 .00110370 7 .99979313 22 1.00018102 65 .00129300 8 .99981898 23 1.00020688 70 .0014','230 9 .99984484 24 1.00023274 75 .00155160 10 .99987070 25 1.00025860 80 .00168090 11 .99989656 26 1.00028446 85 1.00181020 12 .99992-242 27 1.00031032 90 .00193950 13 .99994828 28 1.00033618 95 1.0020C880 14 .99997414 29 1.00036204 100 1.00219810 333. COEFFICIENTS OF EXPANSION (CUBICAL) OF ORDINARY GLASS. EXPANSION PER DEGREE PROM C. to 100 C. C. to 150 C. C. to 200 C. C. to 250 C. C. to 300 C. .0000276 .0000284 .0000291 .0000298 .0000306 333. TABLE SHOWING THE APPARENT WEIGHT OF 1,000 MOHR'S UNITS (MOHR'S LITRE) OF WATER AT DIFFER- ENT TEMPERATURES AS WEIGHED WITH BRASS WEIGHTS IN THE AIR. Corrected for expansion and contraction of the glass container, for temperatures above and below 17}^ C. Based on Payne's Table, page 234. Temp. (t. Apparent Weight. Temp, C. Apparent Weight. Temp. C. Apparent Weight. Temp. i C. Apparent Weight. 15 16 17 17^ 18 Grams. 1000.3 1000.2 1000.1 1000.0 999.9 19 20 21 22 23 Grams. 999.8 999.6 999.4 999.2 999.0 24 25 26 27 28 Grams. 999.8 999.6 998.4 998.2 997.9 29 30 31 32 33 34 Grams. 997.6 997.4 997.1 996.8 996.5 996.2 The above table may be used in the graduation of sugar-flasks, burettes, etc , to Mohr's units. This unit is the volume occupied by 1 gram of water, as weighed with brass weights in the air, at 17> C., and is frequently termed " Mohr's cc." In checking a litre flask, it should be counterpoised on a good scale, and the number of grams of water corresponding to its temperature run into it. If the flask be correctly graduated, this quantity of water should fill it to the mark. The water should be at the temperature of the laboratory. The same principle is applied in checking other gradu- ated ware to Mohr's units. For methods of graduating apparatus to true cubic centimetres, see 333. EXPANSION OF WATER. 251 234. KOPP'S TABLE, SHOWING THE EXPANSION OF WATER FROM C. TO 100 C. (32 F. TO 212 F.). Temp. C. Temp F. Volume. Temp. C. Temp. F. Volume. 32 1.000000 21 69.8 001776 1 33.8 .999947 22 71.6 .001995 2 35.6 .999908 23 73.4 .002225 3 37.4 .999885 24 75.2 .002465 4 39.2 .999877 25 77.0 .002715 5 41.0 .999883 30 86.0 .004064 6 42.8 .999903 35 95.0 .005697 7 44.6 .999938 40 104.0 .007531 8 46.4 .999986 45 113.0 .009541 9 48 2 1.000048 50 122.0 .011766 10 50.0 1.000124 55 131.0 .014100 11 51.8 1.000213 60 140.0 .0*6590 13 53.6 1.000314 65 149.0 .019302 13 55.4 1.000429 70 158.0 .022246 14 57.2 1.000556 75 167.0 025440 .15 59.0 1.000695 80 176.0 .028581 16 60.8 1.000846 85 185.0 .031894 17 62.6 1.001010 90 194.0 .035397 18 64.4 1.001184 95 203.0 .039094 19 66.2 1.001370 100 212.0 .042986 20 68.0 1.001567 235. TABLE SHOWING THE EXPANSION OF WATER AND THE WEIGHT OF A UNIT VOLUME AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES. (Abridgment of F. Rossettfs Table.) C. Weight. 4-4 C. = 1. Volume. + 4 C. = 1. C. Weight. + 4 C. = 1. Volume. + 4C. = 1. + 4 1.000000 .000000 20 0.998259 1.001744 5 0.999990 .000010 21 0.998047 1.001957 6 0.999970 .000030 22 0.997828 1.002177 7 0.999933 .000067 23 0.997601 .002405 8 0.999886 .000114 24 0.997367 .002641 9 0.999824 .000176 25 0.997120 .002888 10 0.999747 .000253 26 0.996866 .003144 11 0.999655 .000354 27 0.996603 .003408 12 0.999549 .000451 28 0.996331 .003682 13 0.999430 .000570 29 0.996051 .003965 14 0.999299 .000701 30 0.99575 .00425 15 0.999160 .000841 31 0.99547 .00455 16 0.999002 .000999 32 0.99517 .00486 17 0.998841 .000116 33 0.99485 .00518 18 0.998654 .001348 34 0.99452 .00551 19 0.998460 .001542 35 0.99418 .00586 252 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. TABLE SHOWING THE VOLUME OF SUGAR SOLUTIONS AT DIFFERENT TEMPERA.TURES.-(GERLACH.) Temp.C. 10 per cent. 20 per cent. 30 per cent. 40 per cent. 50 per cent. 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 5 10004.5 10007 10009 10012 10016 10 10C12 10016 10021 10026 10032 15 10021 10028 10034 10042 10050 20 10033 10041 10049 10058 10069 25 1004S 10057 10066 10075 10088 30 10064 10074 10084 10094 10110 35 10082 10092 10103 10114 10132 40 10101 10112 10124 10136 10156 45 10122 10134 10146 10160 10180 50 10145 10156 10170 10184 10204 55 10170 10183 10196 10210 10229 60 10197 10209 10222 10235 10253 65 10225 10236 10249 10261 10278 70 10255 10265 10277 10287 10306 75 10284 10295 10306 10316 10332 80 10316 10325 10335 10345 10360 85 10347 10355 10365 10375 10388 90 10379 10387 10395 10405 10417 95 10411 10418 10425 10435 10445 1 00 10442 10450 10456 10465 10457 837. TABLE SHOWING THE CONTRACTION OF INVERT SUGAR ON DISSOLVING IN WATER ; ALSO, THE CONTRACTION OF CANE-SUGAR SOLUTIONS ON INVERSION. (From " Manuel Agenda" Gallois and Dupont.) SPECIFIC GRAVITY. Per Cent Sugar. Volume. Contraction. Cane-Sugar Solution. Invert-Sugar Solution. 1.00000 0.00000 1.0000 1.0000 5 .99863 0.00137 1.0203 1.0206 10 .99744 0.00256 1.0413 1.0418 15 .99639 0.00361 1.0630 1.0631 20 .99546 0.00454 1.0854 1.0856 25 .99462 0.00538 1.1086 1.1086 238. TABLE SHOWING THE BOILING-POINT OF SUGAR SOLUTIONS. (GERLACH.) Strength of Solution. Boiling-point, C. Boiling-point, F. Per cent. 10 100.4 212.7 20 100.6 213.1 30 101 213.8 40 101.5 214.7 50 102 215.6 60 103 217.4 70 106.5 223.7 79 112 233.6 90.8 130 266 SOLUBILITY OF LIME AND SUGAR. 253 339. TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OF LIME IN SOLUTIONS OF SUGAR. 100 PARTS OF THE RESIDUE Sugar in 100 parts water. Density of Sirup. Density after saturation with lime. DRIED AT 120 C. CONTAIN: Lime. Sugar. 40 1.122 .179 21 79 35 1.110 .166 20.5 79.5 30 1.096 .148 20.1 79.9 25 1.082 .128 19.8 80.2 20 1.068 .104 18.8 81.2 15 1.052 .080 18.5 81.5 10 1.036 1.053 18.1 81.9 5 1.018 1.026 15.3 84.7 5340. TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OF SUGAR IN WATER. (AFTER FLOURENS.) Degree Baum6 Degree Baumfi ^T^ Sugar. Per Cent. at the ob- served temper- ature. at 15 C. Temp. C. Sugar. Per Cent. at the ob- served temper- ature. at 15 C. 64.9 35.3 34.6 55 72.8 37.5 39.3 5 65 35.35 34.9 60 74 37.9 39.9 10 65.5 35.45 35.2 65 75 38.3 40.55 15 66 35.5 35.5 70 76.1 38.6 41.1 20 66.5 35.6 35.7 75 77.2 39 41.7 25 67.2 35.8 36.25 80 78.35 39.3 42.2 30 68 36 36.7 85 79.5 39.65 42 8 35 68.8 36.2 37.1 90 80.6 39.95 43.3 40 69.75 36.4 37.5 95 81.6 40.1 43.7 45 70 8 36.75 38.1 100 82.5 40.3 44.1 50 71.8 37.1 38.7 241. TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OF SUGAR IN WATER. (HERZFELD.) Temp. C. Sugar. Per Cent. Temp. o. Sugar. Per Cent. Te,np. Sugar. Per Cent. 64.18 35 69.55 70 76.22 5 64.87 40 70.42 75 77.27 10 65.58 45 71.32 80 78.36 15 66.53 50 72.25 85 79.46 20 67.09 55 73.20 90 80.61 25 67.89 60 74.18 95 81.77 30 67.80 65 75.88 100 82.97 The solubility is decreased by presence of a small quantity of organic or inorganic salts, but increased by a large quantity. 254 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 242. TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OF SUGAR IN ALCOHOL AT 17.5 C. (OTTO SCHREFELD.) (Zeit. f. Rubenzucker-Ind., 44, 970.) Alcohol Per Cent by Weight. Sucrose Per Cent. Sucrose in Grams in 100 Grams of the Mixture of Alcohol and Water Solution. 66.20 195.8 5* 64.25 179.7 10* 62.20 164.5 15 60.40 152.5 20* 58.55 141.2 25 56.20 128.3 30 54.05 117.8 35 51.25 105.3 40 47.75 91.3 45 43.40 76.6 50 38.55 62.7 55 32.80 48.8 60 26.70 36.4 65 19.50 24.2 70 12.25 13.9 75 7.20 7.7 80 4.05 4.2 85 2.10 2.1 90 0.95 0.09 95 0.15 0.01 Absolute . 0.00 0.00 4 * Calculated. 243. TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OF STRONTIA IN SUGAR SOLUTIONS. (SIDERSKY.) Per Cent Sucrose. Strontia (SrO) Per Cent of the Solution. Per Cent Sucrose. Strontia (SrO) Per Cent of the Solution. At 3 0. At 15 C. At 24 C. At 40 C. At 3 C. At 15 C. At 24 C. At 49 C. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0.45 0.53 0.62 0.70 0.79 0.87 0.96 1.04 1.13 1.21 0.65 0.75 0.84 0.93 1.03 1.12 1.21 1.30 1.39 1.48 0.70 0.83 0.96 .09 .22 .35 .48 .61 .74 1.87 1.68 1.89 2.09 2.30 2.51 2.72 2.92 3.13 3.33 3.55 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 .30 .38 .47 .55 .64 .72 .81 1.90 1.99 2.08 .57 .66 .75 .84 .94 2.03 2.12 2.31 2.30 2.39 2.01 2.14 2.28 2.41 2 55 2.69 2.83 2.97 3.11 3.25 3.75 3.96 4.16 4.37 4.58 4.79 4,99 5.20 5.41 5.61 SOLUBILITY OF BARYTA, ETC. 255 343a. TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OF BARYTA IN SUGAR SOLUTIONS. (PELLET and SENCIER, La fabrication du sucre, 1, 186.) Sucrose per 100 cc. Baryta (BaO) per 100 cc. Baryta (BaO) per cent Sucrose. 2 5 4.59 18.3 5 5.46 10.9 7.5 6.5G 8 7 10 7.96 7.7 12.5 9.41 7.5 15 10.00 6.6 20 10.90 5.4 25 12.90 5.1 30 14.68 4.9 243b. TABLE SHOWING THE SOLUBILITY OF CERTAIN SALTS IN WATER IN THE PRESENCE OF SUCROSE. (JACOBSTHAL, Zeit. Rubenzuckeriud , 18, 649; taken from Sidersky's Traite d'analyse des Matieres Sucrees, p. 11.) Solution containing 5% Sucrose. id* Sucrose. 15# Sucrose. 20* Sucrose. 25* Sucrose. Grams. Grams. Grams. Grams. Grams. Sulphate of calcium. 2.095 1.946 1.593 1.539 1.333 Garb, of calcium 0.027 0.036 0.024 0.022 0.008 Oxalate of calcium . 0.033 0.047 0.012 0.008 0.001 Phosph. of calcium . 029 0.028 0014 0.018 0.005 Citrate of calcium. . . 1.813 1.578 1.505 1.454 1.454 Garb, of magnesium 0.31T 0.199 0.194 0.213 0.284 256 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. I " O J * s .1 W j -3 Eli i"? ii i=; g ?g| III tn -a a> i 1 g g a * ^ if liii ii ! li| , S.i; fc-D i - is illl PROPERTIES OF CARBOHYDRATES. 257 da PfilFlgillWIIIIPillli, 1 Fischer heeler and nhydride. 258 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. PROPERTIES OF CARBOHYDRATES. 259 . 5 M < 'Co <= ! d ! ill! c^i^ ^o a 8 lS lljl 81 a S 3^ 0,0 ^O O I's'SrfiRtfS^.aE ^IJUlt 3 isljt'-sll Iic c .|lll4.1 11-laSsl- IllllfglPlill^IlP |^Sl^-|^^s8g ! Sfg^ O CO. - .2 I T3 C 1 j^S ^ o'a 1 ij i 5- 5 Eo a B? E -a -d 0) >i 0) .S o z* ^ 3-0 5* I 1 OS O O Tl cr T- ^ - ' | > > 4 > ! H M c 5 L ^ ;s g s : : : : : a" : : : : : | 1 o/ unknoivn nd constitution ral sugars . . 1 1 : : i ;g 'o :W :^ : o o ill^ilil ^=-2 CWA O iijiiiis-^j.ri ^"So"'5;^ t>c' N " ^ i OQ-S^ s ^ f* 260 HANDBOOK FOB SUGAK-HOUSE CHEMISTS. aassiS 3 !! II SdSg fflffe ! Ilinl ! ** fcC &JD Jj E-"tJD ^0 ^ "S d ^ h ^ c g oi P^ 5 V ^ ' i 1 | Z c" J 1 ;: : : | & H CJ 2 a Maltobiose, ptyaiose, cei Isomaltose Melihiose . . . [ f 1 1 i ! -1 Para-saccharose DERIVATIVES OP HEPTOSES Cj 3 H 24 O ia . III. TRISACCHARIDE C l8 H 3a 16 . P^ffin^oo Melitriose, gossypose, I'S < f 11 1 r i 1 I 1 J Lactosin. A sugar of the formula n.,U o . IV. POLYSACCHARID Starch (C 6 H 10 O 6 ) X . 262 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 35 | . 2 a m - -eg I t O 13 eg trioxyglutaric, c formic, and oxalic ill -, ^ OJ 1 2 l! 3 i/ "a S 2 4> s a 1 2 i a H t> K-. P 1 h : 1 d 8 *j 1 fe fc j o ^- '" od T *7 1 Sol 1 1 I"S 8 ^ m : ; P ^ i o ' $1 d g S s a J3 "5 ill 2a o a i So2 2 * : c gB-p S"|.- 3 ^ I | Us? s-.c"" ? 2 i s - * 5 5 g i 1 S : o ' O ' Q ^ :^ i W o o 2 ) D S ! | f. * is. i - \ , s 1 i JQ< 2 5 i i 1 6 268 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 245. FREEZING MIXTURES. -(WALKER'S LIST.) Parts TEMPERATUiE FALLS Centigrade. Fahrenheit. R6aumur. Ammonium Nitrate. . . 1 1 Water 1 f From 4- 4 .4 to - 15.5 From 4- 10 to - 12. 2 From -f- 10 to - 15. 5 From 4- 10 to - 19 .4 From -f 10 to - 21.7 From 4- 10 to -24. 4 From + 10 to - 16. 1 From 4- 10 to - 23. 3 From -f 10 to 40 to - 20.5 to - 24. 4 to - 27.7 to - 31.6 From to - 30. 5 From to - 32.8 From to - 34. 4 From to - 40 From to - 45.5 From to - 46. 1 From 4- 41) to -f 4 From + 50 to 4- 10 From 4- 50 to -j- 4 From -f 50 to - 3 From 4- 50 to- 7 From + 50 to - 12 From -f 50 to + 3 From 4- 50 to - 10 From + 50 to - 40 to -5 to - 12 to - 18 to - 25 From 4- 32 to - 23 From + 32 to - 27 From 4- 32 to - 30 From + 32 to - 40 From + 32 to - 50 From + 32 to - 51 From + 3.5 to -12.4 From 4- 8 to - 9. 8 From 4- 8 to -12.4 From 4- 8 to -15.5 From 4- 8 to -17.3 From 4- 8 to -I9.5 From 4- 8 to -12.9 From 4- 8 to -18.6 From 4- 8 to - 32 to - 16,4 to - 19. 5 to - 22.2 to - 25. 3 From to - 24 .4 From to - 26.2 From to - 27.5 From to - 32 From to - 36.4 From to - 36.9 Ammonium Chloride. . 5 ) Potassium Nitrate .... 5V Water 16 ( Ammonium Chloride.. 5"| Potassium Nitrate 5 ! Sodium Sulphate 8 [ Water 10 J Sodium Nitrate 3) Nitric Acid, diluted.... 2f Ammonium Nitrate. . . 1 ) Sodium Carbonate 1 V Water 1 ) Sodium Phosphate 9 ) Nitric Acid, diluted.. . 4 f Sodium Sulphate 5 I Sulphuric Acid, dilut.. 4 f Sodium Sulphate 6~) Ammonium Chloride.. 4 1 Potassium Nitrate 2[ Nitric Acid, diluted.... 4J Sodium Sulphate 6 ) Ammonium Nitrate. . . 5 > Nitric Acid, diluted.... 4) Snow or pounded ice.. 2 ) Sodium Chloride (com- V mon salt) 1 ) Snow or pounded ice. . 5") Sodium Chloride (com- mon salt) ;. . 2 f Ammonium Chloride. . 1J Snow or pounded ice. .24"| Sodium Chloride (com- mon salt) . . . . 10 } Ammonium Chloride.. 5 | Potassium Nitrate 5 J Snow or pounded ice. .12") Sodium Chloride (com- ( mon salt) 5 [ Ammonium Nitrate. . . 5 J Snow 3) Sulphuric Acid, dilu'd 2 J Snow 8 | Hydrochloric Acid. ... 5 f Snow 7 | Nitric Acid, diluted... 4[ Snow 4 ) Calcium Chloride V (Chloride of Lime) . . 5 J Snow 2) Calcium Chloride, > crystallized 3 ) Snow 3 1 Potash . . . . 4 f STRENGTH OF SULPHURIC ACID. 346. TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF SULPHURIC ACID (OIL OF VITRIOL) OF DIFFERENT DENSITIES, AT 15 CENTI, GRADE. (OTTO'S TABLE.) Per Cent of H 2 S0 4 . Specific Gravity. Per Cent of S0 3 . Per Cent of H 2 S0 4 . Specific Gravity. Per Cent of S0 3 . 100 .8426 81 03 50 1.3980 40.81 99 .8420 80.81 49 1.3866 40.00 98 .8406 80.00 48 1.3790 39.18 97 .8400 79.18 47 1.3700 38.36 96 8384 78 36 46 1.3610 37.55 95 .8376 77.55 45 1.3510 36.73 94 .8356 76.73 44 1.3420 35.82 93 .8340 75.91 43 1.3330 35.10 92 .8310 75.10 42 1.3240 34.28 91 .8270 74.28 41 1.3150 33.47 90 .8220 73.47 40 1.3060 32.65 89 .8100 72.65 39 1.2976 31.83 88 .8090 71.83 38 1.2890 31.02 87 .8020 71.02 37 1.2810 30.20 86. .7940 70.10 36 1.2720 29.38 85 .7860 69.38 35 1.2640 28.57 84 .7770 68.57 34 1.2560 27.75 83 .7670 67.75 33 1.2476 26.94 82 .7560 66.94 32 1.2390 26.12 81 .7450 66.12 31 1.2310 25.30 80 .7340 65.30 30 1.2230 24.49 79 .7220 64.48 29 1.2150 23.67 78 .7100 63.67 28 1.2066 22.85 77 .6980 62.85 27 1.1980 22.03 76 .6860 62.04 26 1.1900 21.22 75 .6750 61.22 25 1.1820 20.40 74 .6630 60.40 24 1.1740 19.58 73 .6510 59.59 23 1.1670 18.77 72 .6390 58.77 22 1.1590 17.95 71 .6270 57.95 21 1.1516 17.14 70 .6150 57.14 20 1.1440 16.32 69 .6040 56.32 19 1.1360 15.51 68 .5920 55.59 18 1.1290 14.69 67 .5800 54.69 17 1.1210 13.87 66 .5860 53.87 16 1.1136 13.06 65 .5570 53.05 15 1.1060 12.24 64 .5450 52.22 14 1.0980 11.42 63 .5340 51.42 13 1.0910 10.61 62 .5230 50.61 12 1.0830 9.79 61 .5123 49.79 11 1.0756 8.98 60 .5010 48.98 10 1.0680 8.16 59 .4900 48.16 9 1.0610 7.34 58 .4800 47.34 8 1.0536 6.53 57 .4690 46.53 7 1.0464 5.71 56 .4586 45.71 6 1.0390 4.89 55 .4480 44.89 5 1.0320 4.08 54 .4380 44.07 4 1.0256 3.26 53 .4280 43.26 3 1.0190 2.44 52 .4180 42.45 2 1.0130 1.63 51 1.4080 41.63 1 1.0064 0.81 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 347. ANTHONY TABLE FOR THE DILUTION OF SULPHURIC ACID. To 100 To 100 To 100 parts of parts of parts of Water at Water at Water at 15 to 20 C. add... parts of Specific Gravity of diluted 15 to 20 C. add... parts of Specific Gravity of diluted 15 to 20 C. add. .parts of Specific Gravity of diluted Sulphuric Acid. Sulphuric Acid. Sulphuric Acid. Acid of 1.84 Acid of 1.84 Acid of 1.84 Specific Gravity. Specific Gravity. Specific Gravity. 1 .009 130 1.456 370 .723 2 .015 140 .473 380 .727 5 .035 150 .490 390 .730 10 .060 160 1.510 400 .733 15 .090 170 .530 410 .737 20 .113 180 .543 420 .740 25 .140 190 .556 430 .743 30 .165 200 .568 440 .746 35 .187 210 .580 450 .750 40 .210 220 .593 460 .754 45 .229 230 .606 470 .757 50 .248 240 .620 480 .760 55 .265 250 630 490 .763 60 .280 260 .640 500 .766 65 .297 270 .648 510 .768 70 .312 280 .654 520 .770 75 .326 290 .667 530 .772 80 .340 300 .678 540 .774 85 .357 310 .689 550 .776 90 .372 320 .700 560 .777 95 .386 330 .705 580 .778 100 .398 340 .710 590 1.780 110 1.420 350 .714 600 1.782 120 1.438 360 .719 248. TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF NITRIC ACID (HNO 3 ) BY SPECIFIC GRAVITY. HYDRATED AND ANHYDRIDE. TEMPERATURE 15. (Fresenius, Zeitschrift f. analyt. Chemie. 5. 449.) Sp. Gr. at 15 C. 100 PARTS CONTAIN Sp. Gr. at 15 C. 100 PARTS CONTAIN N 2 9 NO 3 H N 2 5 N0 3 H 1.530 85.71 100.00 .488 75.43 88.00 1.530 85.57 99.84 .486 74 95 87.45 1.530 85 47 99.72 .482 73.86 86.17 1.529 85.30 99.52 .478 72.86 85.00 1.523 83.90 97.89 .474 72.00 84.00 1.520 83.14 97.00 .470 71.14 63.00 1.516 82.28 96.00 1.467 70.28 82.00 1.514 81.66 95.27 1.463 69.39 60.96 1.509 80.57 94.00 1.460 68.57 80.00 1.506 79.72 93.01 1.456 67.71 79.00 . 1.503 78.85 92.00 1.451 66.56 77.66 1.499 78.00 91.00 1.445 65.14 76.00 1.495 77.15 90.00 1.442 64.28 75.00 1.494 76.77 89.56 1.438 63.44 74.01 STRENGTH OF NITRIC ACID, ETC. 271 TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF NITRIC ACID. Continued. Sp. Gr. 100 PARTS CONTAIN Sp. Gr. 100 PARTS CONTAIN at 15 C. N 2 6 NO 3 H at 15 C. N 2 5 NO 8 H 1.435 62 57 73.00 .295 39.97 46.64 1.432 62.05 72.39 .284 38.57 45.00 1.429 61.06 71.24 .274 37.31 43.53 1.423 60.00 69.96* .264 36.00 42.00 1.419 59.31 69.20 .257 35.14 41.00 1.414 58.29 68.00 .251 34.28 40.00 1.410 57.43 67-00 .244 33.43 39.00 1.405 56.57 66.00 .237 32 53 37.95 1.400 55.77 65.07 .225 30.86 36.00 1.395 54.85 G4.00 .218 29.29 35 00 1.393 54.50 63.59 .211 29.02 33.86 1.386 53.14 62.00 .198 27.43 32.00 1.381 52.46 61.21 .192 26 57 31.00 1.374 51.43 60. CO .185 25.71 30.00 1.372 51.08 59 59 .179 24.85 29.00 1.368 50.47 58.88 .172 24.00 28.00 1.363 49.71 58.00 .166 23.14 27.00 1.358 48 86 57 00 .157 22.04 25.71 1.353 48.08 56.10 .138 19.71 23.00 1.346 47.14 55.00 .120 17.14 20.00 1.341 46.29 54.00 .105 14.97 17.47 1.339 46.12 53.81t .089 12. 85 15.00 1.335 45.40 53.00 077 11.14 13.00 1.331 44.85 52 33 067 9.77 11.41 1.323 43.70 50.99 045 6.62 7.22 1.317 42.83 49.97 .022 3.42 4.00 1.312 42.00 49.00 .010 1.71 2.00 1.304 41.14 48.00 0.999 0.00 0.00 1.298 40.44 47.18 * Formula : NO t Formula : NO 3 H + 3H 3 O. 249. TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF CaO IN MILK OF LIME OF VARIOUS DENSITIES AT 15 C. (FROM BLATNER'S TABLE.) Weight Weight Deg. Brix. Degree Baum6. of one litre, Milk of CaO per litre. Per Cent CaO. Deg. Brix. Degree Baume. of one litre, Milk of CaO per litre. Per Cent CaO. Lime. Lime. 1.8 1 Grama. 1007 Grams. 7.5 0.745 29 16 Grams. 1125 Gram*. 159 14.13 3.6 2 1014 16.5 1.64 30.8 17 1134 170 15 5.4 3 1022 26 2.54 32.7 18 1142 181 15.85 7.2 4 1029 36 3.5 34.6 19 1152 193 16 75 9 5 1037 46 4.43 36.4 20 1162 206 17.72 10.8 6 1045 56 5.36 38.3 21 1171 218 18.61 12.6 7 1052 65 6.18 40.1 22 1180 229 19.4 14.4 8 1060 75 7.08 42 23 1190 242 20.34 16.2 9 1067 84 7.87 43.9 24 1200 255 21.25 18 10 1075 94 8.74 45.8 25 1210 268 22.15 19.8 11 1083 104 9.6 47.7 26 1220 281 23.03 21.7 12 1091 115 1054 49.6 27 1231 295 23.96 23.5 13 1100 126 11.45 51.5 28 1241 309 24.9 25.3 14 1108 137 12.35 53.5 29 1252 324 25.87 27.2 15 1116 148 13.26 55.4 30 1263 339 26.84 272 HANDBOOK FOE SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 250. TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID (MURIATIC ACID) SOLUTIONS. TEMPERATURE, 15 C. (Graham-Otto's Lehrb. d. Chem. 3 Aufl. II. Bd. 1. Abth. p. 382.) Sp.Gr HC1. Cl. Sp. Gr. HC1. Cl. Sp.Gr. HC1. Cl. 1.2000 40.777 39.675 1.1328 26.913 26.186 .065-; 13.456 13.094 1.1982 40.369 39.278 1.1308 26.505 25.789 .0637 13.049 12.697 1.1964 39.961 38.882 1.1287 26.098 25.392 .0617 12.641 12.300 1.1946 39.554 38.485 1.1267 25.690 24.996 .0597 12.233 11.903 1.1928 39.146 38.089 1.1247 25.282 24.599 .0577 11.825 11.506 1.1910 38.738 37.692 1.1226 24.874 24.202 .0557 11.418 11.109 1.1893 38.330 37.296 1.1206 24.466 23.805 .0537 11.010 10.712 1.1875 37.923 36.900 1.1185 24.058 23.408 .0517 10.602 10.318 1.1857 37.516 36.503 1.1164 23.650 23.012 .0497 10.194 9.919 1.1846 37.108 36.107 1.1143 23.242 22.615 .0477 9.786 9.522 1.1822 36.700 35.707 1.1123 22.834 22.218 .0457 9.379 9.126 1.1802 36.292 35.310 1.1102 22.426 21.822 .0437 8.971 8.729 1.1782 35.884 34.913 1.1082 22.019 21.425 .0417 8.563 8.332 1.1762 35.476 34.517 1.1061 21.611 21.028 ; .0397 8.155 7.935 1.1741 35.068 34.121 1 1.1041 21.203 20.632 .0377 7 747 7.538 1.1721 34.660 33.724 1 1.1020 20.796 20.235 .0357 7.340 7.141 1.1701 34.252 33.328 1.1000 20.388 19.837 .0337 6.932 6.745 1.1681 33.845 32.931 1.0980 19.980 19.440 i .0318 6.524 6.348 1.1661 33.437 32.535 1.0960 19.572 19.044 .0298 6.116 5.951 1.1641 33.029 32.136 1.0939 19.165 18.647 .0279 5.709 5.554 1 . 1620 32.621 31.746 1.0919 18.757 18.250 .0259 5.301 5.158 1.1599 32.213 31.343 1.0899 18.349 17.854 .0239 4.893 4.762 1.1578 31.805 30.946 1.0879 17.941 17.457 .0220 4.486 4.365 1.1557 31.398 30.550 1.0859 17.534 17 060 .0200 4.078 3.968 1.1537 30.990 30.153 1.0838 17.126 16.664 .0180 3.670 3.571 1.1515 30.582 29.757 1 .0318 16.718 16.267 . .0160 3.262 3 174 1.1494 30.174 29.361 1.0798 16.310 15.870 .0140 2.854 2.778 1.1473 29.767 28.964 1.0778 15.903 15.474 ; .0120 2.447 2.381 1.1452 29.359 28.567 1.0758 1J5.494 15.077 1 0100 2.039 1.984 1.1431 28.951 28.171 1.0738 15.087 14.680 1.0080 1.631 1.588 1.1410 28.544 27.772 1.0718 14.679 14.284 1.0060 1.124 1.191 1.1389 28.136 27.376 1.0697 14.271 13.887 1.0040 0.816 0.795 1.1369 27.728 26.979 1.0677 13.863 13.490 1 .0020 0.408 0.397 1.1349 27.321 26.583 351. TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF CaO IN MILK OF LIME OF VARIOUS DENSITIES.-(MATEGCZEK.) 1 kilo CaO 1 kilo CaO Degree Brix. Degree Baume. per . . litres Milk of Degree Brix. Degree Baum6. per . . litres Milk of Lime. Lime. 18 10 7.50 38.3 21 4.28 20 11 7.10 40.2 22 4.16 21.7 12 6.70 42 23 4.05 23.5 13 6.30 43 9 24 3.95 25.3 14 5.88 45.8 25 3.87 27.2 15 5.50 47.7 26 3.81 29 16 5.25 49.6 29 3.75 30 9 17 5 01 51.6 28 3 70 32.7 18 4.80 53.5 29 3.65 34.6 19 4.68 55.5 30 3.60 36.5 20 4.42 SODIUM OXIDE, ETC., IN" VARIOUS SOLUTIONS. 273 253. TABLE SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF SODIUM OXIDE IN SOLUTIONS OF VARIOUS DENSITIES. (Fresenius Anl. z. quant. Analyse. V. Aufl. f. 730.) ACCORDING TO DALTON. ACCORDING TO TUNNERMANN AT 15 C. Sp. Gr. Per Cent Na 2 0. Sp. Gr. Per Cent Na 2 0. Sp. Gr. Per Cent Na 2 O. Sp. Gr. Per Cent Na 2 O. 2.00 77.8 1.4285 30.220 .2982 20.550 1.1528 10275 .85 63.6 .4193 29.616 .2912 19.945 1.1428 9.670 .72 53.8 .4101 29.011 .2843 19.341 .1330 9.066 .63 46.6 .4011 28.407 .2775 18.730 .1233 8.46B .56 41.2 .3923 27.802 .2708 18.132 .1137 7.857 .50 36.8 .3836 97.200 .2642 17.528 .1042 7.253 .47 34.0 .3751 26.594 .2578 16.923 .0948 6.648 .44 31.0 .3668 25 989 .2515 16.319 .0855 6.044 .40 29.0 .3586 25.385 .2453 15.714 .0764 5.440 1.36 26.0 .3505 24.780 .2392 15.110 .0675 4.835 1.32 23.0 .3426 24.176 .2280 14.506 .0587 4.231 1.29 19.0 .3349 23 572 .2178 13.901 .0500 3.626 1.23 16.0 .3273 22.967 .2058 13.297 .0414 3.022 1.18 13.0 .3198 22.363 .1948 12.692 .0330 2.418 1.12 9.0 .3143 21.894 .1841 12.088 .0246 1.813 1.06 4.7 .3125 21.758 1.1734 11.484 .0163 1.209 1.3053 21.154 1.1630 10.879 .0081 0.604 353. TABLE SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF POTASSIC OXIDE IN SOLUTIONS OF VARIOUS DENSITIES. (Fresenius Anl. z. quant. Analyse. V. Aufl. f . 730.) ACCORDING TO DALTON. ACCORDING TO TUNNERMANN AT 15 C. Sp. Gr. K 2 O. Per Cent. Sp. Gr. K 2 O. Per Cent. Sp. Gr. K 2 0. Per Cent. 1.68 51.2 1.3300 28.290 .1437 14.145 1.60 47.7 1.3131 27.158 .1308 13.013 1.52 42.9 1.2966 26.02? .1182 11.882 1.47 39.9 .2803 24.895 .1059 10.750 1.44 36.8 .2648 23.764 .0938 9.619 1.42 34.4 .2493 22.632 .0819 8.487 1.39 32.4 .2342 21.500 .0703 7.355 1.36 29 4 .2268 20.935 .0589 6.224 1.32 26.3 .2122 19.803 .0478 5.002 1.28 23.4 1.1979 18.671 .0369 3.961 1.23 19.5 1.1839 17.540 .0260 2.829 1.19 16.2 1.1702 16.408 .0153 1.697 1.15 13.0 1.1568 15.277 .0050 0.5658 1.11 9.5 1.06 4.7 274 HANDBOOK FOB SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 254. TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS OF AMMONIA BY SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 14 C.-(ABRIDGED FROM CARIUS' TABLE.) Per Cent Ammonia (NH 3 ). Specific Gravity. Per Cent Ammonia (NH 3 ). Specific Gravity. Per Cent Ammonia (NH 3 ). Specific Gravity. 1. 0.9959 13. 0.9484 25. 0.9106 1.4 0.9941 13.4 0.9470 25.4 0.9094 2. 0.9915 14. 0.9449 26. 0.9078 2.4 9899 14.4 0.9434 26 4 0.9068 3. 0.9873 15. 0.9414 27. 0.9052 3.4 0.9855 15.4 0.9400 27.4 0.9041 4. 0.9831 16. 0.9380 28. 9026 4.4 0.9815 16.4 0.9366 28.4 0.9016 5. 0.9790 17. 0.9347 29. 0.9001 5.4 0.9773 17.4 0.9333 29.4 0.8991 6. 0.9749 18. 0.9314 30. 0.8976 6.4 0.9733 18.4 0.9302 30.4 0.8957 7. 0.9709 19. 9283 31. 0.8953 7.4 0.9693 19.4 9271 31.4 0.8943 8. 0.9670 20. 0.9251 32. 0.8929 8.4 0.9654 20.4 0.9239 32 4 0.8920 9. 0.9631 21 0.9221 33 0.8907 9.4 0.9616 21 '.4 0.9209 33.4 0.8898 10. 0.9593 22. 0.9191 34. 0.8885 10.4 0.9578 22.4 9180 34.4 0.8877 11. 0.9556 23. 9162 35. 0.8864 11.4 0.9542 23.4 0.9150 35.4 0.8856 12. 0.9:>20 24. 0.9133 36. 0.8844 12.4 0.9505 24.4 0.9122 255. TABLE SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE OF ACETATE OF LEAD IN SOLUTIONS OF THE SALT, OF DIFFERENT DEN- SITIES, AT 15 C.-(GERLACH.) Specific Gravity. Per Cent of the Salt. Specific Gravity. Per Cent of the Salt. Specific Gravity. Per Cent of the Salt. 0127 2 .1384 20 1.2768 36 .0255 4 . 1544 22 1.2966 38 .0386 6 .1704 24 1.3163 40 .0520 8 .1869 26 1 3376 42 ' .0654 10 .2040 28 1.3588 44 .0796 12 .2211 30 1.3810 46 .0739 14 .2395 32 1 4041 48 1.1084 16 1.2578 34 1.4271 50 1.1234 18 DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME AND SP. GR. OF SUGAR. 275 256. TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THE DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME, AND OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SUGAR SOLUTIONS AT 17^ C. (STAMMER.) 1 ~ K%i bJCu Z s ^PQO5 Degree Bau m 6 (corrected). o s > 82 QO OQ .1 c SrSlS ^fflOGQ Degree Baum6 (corrected). Specific Gravity. J * M-^ c3 M M 4 M bc'S 5 3 ^MUo2 Degree Baum6 (corrected). it || fa 0.0 0.0 1.00000 3.0 .7 1.01173 6.0 3.4 1.02373 .1 0.1 1.00038 .1 1.8 1.01213 .1 3 5 1.02413 .2 0.1 1.00077 .2 1.8 1.01252 .2 3.5 1.02454 .3 2 1.00116 .3 .9 1.01292 .3 3.6 1.02494 .4 0.2 1.00155 .4 1.9 1.01332 .4 3.6 1.02535 .5 0.3 1.00193 .5 2.0 1.01371 .5 3.7 1.02575 .6 0.3 1.00232 .6 2.0 1.01411 .6 3.7 .02616 .7 0.4 1.00271 .7 2.1 1.01451 .7 3.8 .02057 .8 0.45 1.00310 .8 2.2 1.01491 .8 39 .02694 .9 0.5 1.00349 .9 2.2 1.01531 .9 3 9 .02738 1.0 0.6 1.00388 4.0 2.3 1.01570 7.0 4.0 .02779 .1 0.6 1.00427 .1 2.3 1.01610 .1 4.0 .02819 .2 0.7 1.00466 .2 2.4 1.01650 .2 4.1 .02860 '.3 0.7 1.00505 .3 2.4 1.01690 .3 4.1 .02901 .4 0.8 1.00544 .4 2.5 1 01730 .4 4 2 .02942 .5 0.85 1.00583 .5 2.55 1.01770 .5 4.25 .02983 .6 9 1.00622 .6 2.6 1.01810 . .6 4.3 .03024 .7 1.0 1.0066;? .7 2.7 1.01850 .7 4.4 .03064 .8 1.0 1.00701 .8 2.7 1.01890 .8 4.4 .03105 .9 1.1 1.00740 .9 2.8 1.01930 .9 4.5 .03146 2.0 1.1 1.00779 5.0 2.8 1.01970 S.O 4.5 .03187 .1 1 2 1.00818 .1 2.9 1.02010 .1 4.6 .03228 .2 .2 1.00858 .2 2.95 1 .02051 .2 4.6 1.03270 .3 .3 1.00897 .3 3.0 1.02091 .3 4.7 1.03311 .4 .4 1.00936 .4 3.1 1.02131 .4 4.8 1.03352 .5 .4 1.00976 .5 3.1 1.02171 .5 4.8 1.03393 .6 .5 1.01015 .6 3.2 1.02211 .6 4.9 1.03434 .7 .5 1.01055 .7 3.2 1.02252 .7 4.9 1.03475 .8 .6 1.01094 .8 3.3 1.02292 .8 5.0 1.03517 .9 .6 1.01134 .9 3.35 1.02333 .9' 5.0 1.03558 CORRECTION FOR TEMPERATURE, BRIX SPINDLE.-(F. SACHS.) Temp. C Temp. F APPROXIMATE DEGREE BRIX AND CORRECTION. 5 10 15 13 14 15 16 17 55.4 57.2 59. 60.8 62.6 .14 .12 .09 .06 .02 .18 .15 .11 .07 .02 .19 .16 .12 .08 .03 .21 .17 .14 .09 .03 -g NOTE. For temperatures 3 above 17^ C. add the cor- rection to the reading at the ,3 observed temperature ; be- oj low 17^ subtract. 18 64.4 .02 .03 .03 .03 19 66.2 .06 .08 .08 .09 20 68. .11 14 15 17 21 69.8 .16 .20 .22 24 ^ Obtain Baume corrections 22 23 71.6 73.4 .21 .27 .26 .32 .29 .35 .31 .37 -o from the corresponding de- ^ gree Brix. 24 75.2 .32 .38 .41 .43 25 77. .37 44 .47 .49 276 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THE DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME* ETC., OF SUGAR SOLUTIONS. Continued. 1 X tilt MO02 jll PI Specific Gravity. b |L| Sffgsi ^0te G <& 8t tx5 ~ M I oj? U rj ^ : 7^ * !5sa WZ s ^fflOcc Degree Baum6 (corrected). it '3 g Si S PO oT^ - 9.0 5.1 1.03599 12.0 6.8 1.04852 15.0 8.5 1.06133 .1 5.2 1.03640 .1 6.8 1.04894 .1 8.5 1.06176 .2 5 2 1.03682 .2 6.9 1.04937 .2 8.55 1.06219 .3 5.3 .03723 .3 7.0 1.04979 .3 8.6 1.06262 .4 5.3 .03765 .4 .0 1.05021 .4 8.7 1.06306 .5 5.4 .03806 .5 .1 1.05064 .5 8.8 1 06349 .6 5.4 .03848 .6 .1 1.05106 .6 8.8 1.06392 .7 5.5 .03889 7 .2 1.05149 .7 8.9 1.06436 .8 5.55 .03931 '.8 .2 1.05191 .8 8.9 1.06479 .9 5.6 .03972 .9 .3 1.05233 .9 9.0 1.06522 10.0 5.7 .04014 13.0 .4 1.05276 16.0 9.0 1.06566 .1 5.7 .04055 .1 .4 1.05318 .1 9.1 1.06609 .2 5.8 .04097 .2 .5 1.05361 .2 9.2 1.06653 .3 5.8 .04139 .3 .5 1.05404 .3 9 2 1.06696 .4 5.9 .04180 .4 .6 1.05446 .4 9.3 1.06740 .5 59 .04222 .5 7.6 1.05489 .5 9.3 1.06783 .6 6.0 .04264 .6 7.7 1.05532 .6 9.4 1.06827 .7 6.1 .04306 .7 7.75 1.05574 .7 9.4 1.06871 .8 6.1 .04348 .8 7.8 1.05617 .8 9.5 1.0()914 .9 6.2 .04390 .9 7.9 1.05660 .9 9.5 1.06958 11.0 6.2 04431 14.0 7.9 1.05703 17.0 9.6 1.07002 .1 6.3 .04473 .1 8.0 1.05746 .1 9.7 1.07046 .2 6.3 .04515 .2 8.0 1 05789 .2 9.7 1.07090 .3 6.4 .04557 .3 8.1 1.05831 .3 9.8 1.07133 .4 6.5 .04599 .4 8.1 1.05874 .4 9.8 1.07177 .5 6.5 .04641 .5 8.2 1.05917 .5 9.9 1 .07221 .6 6.6 .04683 .6 8.3 1.05960 .6 9.9 1.07265 .7 6.6 .04726 .7 8.3 1.06003 10.0 1.07309 .8 6.7 .04768 .8 8.4 1.06047 Is 10.0 1.07353 .9 6.7 1.04810 .9 8.4 1.06090 .9 10.1 1.07397 CORRECTION FOR TEMPERATURE, BRIX SPINDLE. (F. SACHS.) Temp. Temp. APPROXIMATE DEGREE BRIX AND CORRECTION. C. o F 15 20 25 30 13 55.4 .21 .22 .24 .26 g NOTE. For temperatures 14 57.. 2 .17 .18 .19 .21 a above 17^ C. add the cor- 15 16 59. 60.8 .14 .09 .14 .10 .15 .10 .16 .11 rection to the reading at the 2 observed temperature; be- 17 62.6 .03 .03 .04 .04 02 low 17^ C. subtract. 18 64.4 03 .03 .03 .03 19 66.2 .09 .09 .10 .10 fi8 17 18 18 21 22 23 69.8 71.6 73.4 .24 .31 .37 .24 .31 .38 .25 .33 .39 .25 .32 .39 TJ Obtain Baum6 corrections T3 from corresponding degree < Brix. 24 75.2 .43 .44 .46 .46 25 77. .49 .51 .53 .54 DEGREES BRIX AtfD BAUME AND SP. GR. OF SUGAR. 277 TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THE DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME, ETC. Continued. 1 X DC- V x^|. god5 Degree Bautn6 (corrected). It i! P 1 ^ till ^MOOQ Degree Baum6 (corrected). S'S II 02 .& i PC a |MO Degree Baum6 (corrected). o S> S ! 18.0 10.1 1.07441 23.0 13.0 1.09686 28.0 15.7 1.12013 .1 10.2 1 07485 .1 13.0 1.09732 .1 15.8 1.12060 .2 10.3 1.07530 .2 18.1 .09777 .2 15.8 1.12107 .3 10.3 1.07574 .3 13.1 .09823 .3 15.9 1.12155 .4 10.4 1 07618 .4 13.2 .09869 .4 16.0 1.12202 .5 10.4 1.07662 .5' 13.2 .09915 .5 16.0 1.12250 .6 10.5 1.07706 .6 13.3 .09961 .6 16.1 1.12297 10.5 .07751 7 13.3 .10007 .7 16.1 1.12345 ! 10.6 .07795 ,8 13.4 .10053 .8 16.2 1.12393 .9 10.6 .07839 .9 13.5 . 10099 .9 16.2 1.12440 19.0 10.7' .07884 24.0 13.5 .10145 29.0 16 3 1.12488 .1 10.8 .07928 .1 13.6 .10191 .1 16.3 1.12536 .2 10.8 .07973 .2 13.6 .10237 .2 16.4 1.12583 .3 10.9 .08017 .3 13.7 .10283 .3 16.5 1.12631 .4 10.9 .08062 .4 13.7 .103-29 .4 16.5 1.12679 .5 11.0 .08106 .5 13.8 . 10375 .5 16.6 1.12727 .6 11.1 .08151 .6 13.8 .10421 .6 16.6 1.12775 .7 11.1 .08196 1 .7 13.9 .10468 .7 16.7 1.12823 .8 11.2 .08240 .8 14.0 .10514 .8 16.7 1.12871 .9 11.2 .08285 .9 14.0 .10560 .9 16.8 1.12919 20.0 11.3 08329 25.0 14.1 .10607 30.0 16.8 1.12967 .1 11.8 08374 .1 14.1 .10653 .1 16.9 1.13015 .2 11.4 [08419 .2 14.2 .10700 .2 16.95 1.13063 .3 11.5 .08464 .3 14.2 .10746 .3 17.0 1.13111 .4 11-5 .08509 .4 14.3 .10793 .4 17.1 1.13159 .5 11.6 .08553 .5 14.3 .10839 .5 17.1 1.13207 .6 11.6 .08599 .6 14.4 .10886 .6 17 2 1.13255 .7 11.7 .08643 7 14.5 .10932 17.2 1.13304 .8 11.7 .08688 '.B 14.5 .10979 '.8 17.3 1.13352 .9" 11.8 .08733 .9 14.6 .11026 .9 17.3 1.13400 21.0 11.8 .08778 26.0 14.6 .11072 31.0 17.4 1.13449 .1 11.9 .08824 .1 14.7 .11119 .1 17.4 1.13497 .2 11.95 .08869 .2 14.7 .11166 .2 17.5 1.13545 .3 12.0 .08914 .3 14.8 .11213 .3 17.6 1 . 13594 .4 12.0 .08959 1 .4 14.85 .11259 .4 17.6 1.13642 .5 12.1 .09004 .5 14.9 .11306 .5 17.7 1.13691 .6 12.1 .09049 .6 15.0 .11353 .6 17.7 1.13740 .7 12.2 .09095 .7 15.0 .11400 .7 17.8 1.13788 .8 12.3 .09140 .8 15.1 .11447 .8 17.8 1.13837 .9 12.3 .09185 .9 15.1 .11494 .9 17.9 1.13885 22.0 12.4 .09231 27.0 15.2 .11541 32.0 17.95 1.13934 .1 12.5 .09276 .1 15.2 .11588 .1 18.0 1.13983 .2 12.5 .09321 .2 15.3 1.11635 .2 18.0 1.14032 .3 12.6 .09367 .3 15.3 1.11682 .3 18.1 1.14081 .4 12.6 .09412 .4 15.4 1.11729 .4 18.2 1.14129 .5 12.7 .09458 .5 15.5 1.11776 .5 18.2 1.14178 .6' 12.7 .09503 .6 15.5 1.11824 .6 18.3 1.14227 .7 12.8 .09549 .7 15.6 1.11871 .7 18.3 1.14276 .8 12.85 .09595 .8 15.6 1.11918 .8 18.4 1.14325 .9 12.9 .09640 .9 15.7 1.11965 .9 18.4 1.14374 278 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THE DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME, ETC. Continued. Degree Brix (,Per Cent Sugar). 1 \o> 'S |l! "5 o3 ft Degi-ee Baum6 (corrected). i'? CJ cj fill Degree BaurnS (corrected). 1 33.0 18.5 1.14423 38.0 21.2 1 . 16920 43.0 23.95 1.19505 .1 18.55 1.14472 .1 21.3 1.16971 .1 24.0 1.19558 .2 18.6 1.14521 .2 21.35 .17022 .2 24.1 1.19611 .3 18.7 1.14570 .3 21 4 .17072 .3 24.1 1.19653 .4 * 18.7 1.14620 .4 21.5 .17123 .4 24.2 1.19716 '.5 18.8 1.14669 .5 21.5 .17174 .5 24.2 1.19769 .6 18.8 1.14718 .6 21.6 .17225 .6 24.3 1.19822 .7 18.9 1.14767 .7 21.6 .17276 .7 24.3 1.19875 .8 18.9 1.14817 .8 21.7 .17327 .8 24.4 1 . 19927 .9 19.0 1.14866 .9 21.7 .17379 .9 24.4 1.19980 34.0 19.05 1.14915 39.0 21.8 .17430 44.0 24.5 1.20033 .1 19.1 1.14965 .1 21.8 .17481 .1 24.55 1.20086 .2 19.2 1.15014 .2 21.9 .1753-2 .2 24.6 1.20139 .3 19.2 1.15064 .3 21.9 .17583 .3 24.65 1.20192 .4 19.3 1.15113 .4 22.0 1.17635 .4 24.7 1.20245 .5 19.3 1.15163 .5 22.05 1 . 17686 .5 24.8 1.20299 .6 19.4 1.15213 .6 22.1 1 . 17737 .6 24.8 1.20352 7 19.4 1.15262 .7 22.2 1.17789 .7 24.9 1.20405 .8 19.5 1.15312 .8 22 2 1.17840 .8 24.9 1.20458 .9 19.5 1.1-362 .9 22^3 1.17892 .9 25.0 1.20512 35.0 19.6 1.15411 40.0 22.3 1.17943 45.0 25.0 1.20565 .1 19.65 1.15461 .1 22.4 .17995 .1 25.1 1.20618 .2 19.7 1.15511 .2 22.4 .18046 .2 25.1 1.20672 .3 19 8 1 . 15561 .3 22.5 . 18098 .3 25.2 1.20725 .4 19.8 1.15611 .4 22.5 .18150 .4 25.2 1.20779 .5 19.9 1.15661 .5 22.6 .18201 .5 25.3 1.20832 .6 19.9 1.15710 .6 22.6 .18253 .6 25.4 1.20886 .7 20.0 1.15760 .7 22.7 .18305 .7 25.4 1.20939 .8 20.0 1.15810 .8 22.8 .18357 .8 25.5 1.20993 .9 20.1 1.15861 .9 22.8 .18408 .9 25.5 1.21046 36.0 20.1 1.15911 41.0 22 9 .18460 46.0 25 6 1.21100 .1 20.2 1.15961 .1 2*2.9 .18512 .1 25.6 1.21154 .2 20.25 1.16011 .2 23 !o . 18564 .2 25.7 1.21208 .3 20.3 1.16061 23.0 .18616 .3 25.7 1.21261 .4 20.4 1.16111 .4 23.1 .18668 .4 25.8 1 21315 .5 20.4 1.16162 .5 23.1 .18720 .5 25.8 1.21369 .6 20.5 1.16212 .6 23. -2 .18772 .6 25.9 1.21423 .7 20.5 1 . 16262 .7 23.2') .18824 .7 25.95 1.21477 .8 20.6 1.16313 .8 23.3 .18877 .8 26.0 1.21531 .9 20.6 1.16363 23.4 .18929 .9 26.1 1.21585 37.0 20.7 1.16413 42.0 23.4 .18981 47.0 26.1 1.21639 .1 20.7 1.16464 .1 23.5 . 19033 .1 26.2 1.21693 .2 20.8 1.16514 .2 23.5 .19086 .2 26.2 1.21747 .3 20.9 1.16565 .3 23.6 .19138 .3 26.3 1 .21802 .4 20.9 1.16616 .4 23.6 .19190 .4 26.3 1.21856 .5 21.0 1 . 16666 .5 23.7 .19243 .5 26.4 1,21910 .6 21.0 1.16717 .6 23.7 .19295 .6 26.4 1.21964 .7 21.1 1.16768 .7 23.8 .19348 .7 26.5 1.22019 .8 21.1 1.16818 .8 23.8 .19400 .8 26.5 1.22073 .9 21.2 1.16869 .9 23.9 .19453 .9 26.6 1.22127 DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME AND SP. GR. OP SUGAR. 279 TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THE DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME, ETC. Continued. c l ~ C y *a cj h.2 a be $&sz Degree Baum6 (corrected). o '> * ml ^tt6w n degree BaumS corrected). If 0} S 02 S^-f %"%% OM Degree Baume (corrected). if 48.0 26.6 1.22182 53.0 29.3 1.24951 58.0 31.9 1.27816 .1 26.7 1.22236 .1 29.4 1.25008 .1 32.0 1.27874 .2 26.75 .22291 .2 29.4 1.25064 .2 32.0 1.27932 .3 26.8 .22345 .3 29.5 1.25120 .3 32.1 1.27991 .4 26.9 .22400 .4 29.5 1.25177 .4 32.15 1.28049 .5 26.9 .22455 .5 29.6 1.25233 .5 32.2 1.28107 .6 27.0 .22509 .6 29.6 1.25290 .6 32.3 1.28166 .7 27.0 .22564 .7 29.7 1.25347 .7 32.3 1 .28224 .8 27.1 .22619 .8 29.7 1.25403 .8 32.4 1.28283 .9 27.1 .22673 .9 29.8 1.25460 .9 32.4 1.28342 49.0 27- 9 .22728 64.0 29.8 1.25517 59.0 32.5 1.28400 . .1 27.2 .22783 .1 29.9 1.25573 32.5 1.28459 .2 27.3 22838 .2 29.9 1.25630 .'2 32.6 1.28518 .3 27.3 .22893 .3 30.0 1.25687 .3 32.6 1.28576 .4 27.4 .22948 .4 30 .05 1.25747 .4 32.7 1.28635 .5 27.4 23003 .5- 30.1 1.25801 .5 32.7 1.28694 .6 27.5 .23058 .6 30.2 1.25857 .6 32.8 1.28753 .7 27.6 .23113 .7 30.2 1.25914 .7 32.8 1.28812 .8 27.6 .23168 .8 30.3 1.25971 .8 32.9 1.28871 .9 27.7 .23223 .9 30.3 1.26028 .9 32.9 I! 28930 60.0 27.7 .23278 65.0 30.4 1.26086 60.0 33.0 1.28989 .1 27.8 .23334 .1 30.4 1.26143 .1 33.0 1.29048 .2 27.8 .23389 .2 30.5 1.26200 .2 33.1 1.29107 .3 27.9 .23444 .3 30.5 1.26257 .3 33.1 1.29166 .4 27.9 .23499 .4 30.6 1.26314 .4 33.2 1.29225 .5 28.0 .23555 .5 30.6 1.26372 .5 33.2 1.29284 .6 28.0 .23610 .6 30.7 1.26429 .6 33.3 1.29343 .7 28.1 .23666 .7 30.7 1.26486 .7 33.35 1.29403 .8 28.1 : .23721 .8 30.8 1.26544 .8 33.4 1.29462 .9 28.2 .23777 .9 30.8 1.26601 .9 33.45 1.29521 61.0 28.2 .23832 56.0 30.9 1.26658 61.0 33.5 1.29581 .1 28.3 .23888 .1 30.9 1.26716 .1 33.6 1.29640 .2 28.35 .23943 .2 31.0 1.26773 .2 33.6 1.2970*) .3 28.4 .23999 .3 31.05 1.26831 .3 33.7 1.2975^ .4 28.5 .24055 .4 31.1 1.26889 .4 33.7 1.29819 .5 28.5 .24111 .5 31.2 1.26946 .5 33.8 1.29878 .6 28.6 .24166 .6 31.2 1.27004 .6 33.8 1.29938 .7 28.6 .24222 .7 31.3 1.27062 .7 33.9 1.29998 .8 28.7 .24278 .8 31.3 1.27120 .8 33.9 1.30057 .9 28.7 .24334 .9 31.4 1.27177 .9 34.0 1.30117 62.0 28.8 .24390 67.0 31.4 1.27235 62.0 34.0 1.30177 .1 28.8 .24446 .1 31.5 1.27293 .1 34.1 1.30237 .2 28.9 1.24502 .2 31.5 1.27351 .2 34.1 1.30297 .3 28.9 1.24558 .3 31.6 1.27409 .3 34.2 .1.30356 .4 29.0 1.24614 .4 31.6 1.27464 .4 34.2 i. 30416 .5 29.0 1.24670 .5 31.7 1.27525 .5 34.3 1. 30476 .6 29.1 1.24726 .6 31.7 1.27583 .6 34.3 1.30536 .7 29.15 1.24782 .7' 31.8 1.27641 .7 34.4 1.30596 .8 29.2 1.24839 .8 31.8 1.27699 .8 34.4 1.30657 .9 29.2 1.24895 .9 31.9 1.27758 .9 34.5 1.30717 280 HANDBOOK FOE SUGAR- HOUSE CHEMISTS. TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THE DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME, ETC. Continued. 1 Is 11 ^MOtt Degree Baum6 (corrected). if GQ 1 & 2*a& W>'S <3 3 ^WOrc Degree Baum6 (corrected). It II cc^ b ^ tr *sS ho'C 3 (SjPQGoj Degree BaumS (corrected). It O efi gg JP 1 ~ o>t3- L? 0) >, eS fceg& M003 Degree Baum6 (corrected). o& 1! fc 78.0 42.1 1.40254 83.0 44.6 1.43614 88.0 47.0 .47074 .1 42.2 1.40321 .1 44.6 1.43682 .1 47.0 .47145 .2 42.2 1.40387 .2 44.7 1.43750 .2 47.1 .47215 .3 ' 42.3 1.40453 .3 44.7 1.43819 .3 47.1 .47285 .4 42.3 1.40520 .4 44.8 1.43887 .4 47.2 .47356 .5 42.4 1.40586 .5 44.8 1.43955 .5 47.2, .47426 .6 42.4 1.40652 .6 44.9 1.44024 .6 47.3 .47496 .7 42.5 1.40719 .7 44.9 1.44092 47.8 .47567 .8 42.5 1.40785 .8 45.0 1.44161 '.8 47.4 .47637 .9 42.6 1.40852 .9 45.0 1.44229 .9 47.4 .47708 79.0 42.6 1.40918 84.0 45.1 1.44298 89.0.,- 47.45 .47778 .1 42.7 1.40985 .1 45.1 1.44367 47.5 .47849 .2 42.7 1.41052 .2 45.15 1.44435 47.55 .47020 .3 42.8 1.41118 .3 45.2 1.44504 47.6 \ .47991 .4 42.8 1.41185 .4 45.25 1.44573 J 47.6 to. 48061 .5 42.9 1.41252 .5 45.3 1.44641 .5 47.7 f. 48132 .6 42.9 1.41318 .6 45.35 1.44710 .6 47.7 .48203 .7 48.0 1.41385 * 45.4 1.44779 .7 47.8 .48274 .8 43.0 1.41452 .'8 45.4 1.44848 .8 47.8 .48345 .9 43.1 1.41519 .9 45.5 1.44917 .9 47.9 .48416 80.0 43.1 1.41586 85.0 45.5 1.44986 90.0 47.9 .48486 .1 43.2 1.41653 .1 45.6 1.45055 .1 48.0 .48558 .2 43.2 1.41720 .2 45.6 1.45124 .2 48.0 .48629 .3 43.2 1.41787 .3 45.7 1.45193 .3 48.1 .48700 .4 43.3 1.41854 .4 45.7 1.45262 .4 48.1 1.48771 .5 43.3 1.41921 .5 45.8 1.45331 .5 48.2 1.48842 .6 43.4 1.41989 .6 45.8 1.45401 .6 48.2 1.48913 .7 43.45 1.42056 .7 45.9 1.45470 .7 48.3 1.48985 .8 43.5 1.42123 .8 45.9 1.45539 .8 48.3 1 49056 .9 43.55 1.42190 .9 46.0 1.45609 .9 48.35 1.49127 81.0 43.6 1.42258 86.0 46.0 1.45678 91.0 48.4 1.49199 .1 43.65 1.42325 .1 46.1 1.45748 .1 48.45 .49270 .2 43.7 1.42393 .2 46.1 1.45817 .2 48.5 .49342 .3 43.7 1.42460 .3 46.2 1.45887 .3 48.5 .49413 .4 43.8 1.42528 .4 46.2 1.45956 .4 48.6 .49485 .5 43.8 1.42595 | .5 46.3 1.46026 .5 48.6 .49556 .6 43.9 1.42663 .6 46.3 1.46095 .6 48.7 1.49628 .7 43.9 1.42731 ! .7 46.35 1.46165 .7 48.7 1.49700 .8 44.0 1.42798 .8 46.4 1.46235 .8 48.8 1.49771 .9 44.0 .9 46.45 1.46304 .9 48.8 1.49843 1.42866 82.0 44.1 1.42934 87.0 46.5 1.46374 92.0 48.9 1.49915 .1 44.1 1.43002 .1 46.55 1.46444 .1 48.9 1.49987 .2 44.2 1.43070 .2 46.6 1.46514 .2 49.0 1.50058 .3 44.2 1.43137 .3 46.65 1.46584 .3 49.0 1.50130 .4 44.3 1.43205 .4 46.7 1.46654 .4 49.05 1.50202 .5 44.3 1.43273 .5 46.7 1.46724 .5 49.1 1.50274 .6 44.4 1.4:3341 .6 46.8 1.46794 .6 49.15 1.50346 .7 44.4 1.43409 .7 46.8 1.46864 .7 49.2 1.50419 .8 44.5 1.43478 .8 46.9 1.46934 .8 49.2 1 . 50491 .9 44.5 1.43546 .9 46.9 1.47004 .9 49.3 1.50563 282 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. TABLE SHOWING A COMPARISON OF THE DEGREES BRIX AND BAUME^ ETC. Continued. J-jv u c o 11 if O c3 0>^4J 3 K2 C be st I P |SSa I Degree Bailing (corrected). 0-1 s "5 o ~ Weight or 1 gallon (231 cu. in.j. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 1 0'.6 62.59 8.36 28 15.7 69.84 9.33 55 30.4 78.62 10.51 1.5 0.85 62.72 8.3: 28.5 16.0 69.99 9.35 55.5 30.6 78.79 10.53 2 1.1 6-2.84 8.39 29 16.3 70.14 9.38 56 30.9 78.97 10.55 2.5 1.4 62.96 8.40 29.5 16.6 K) 29 9.39 56.5 31.2 79.15 10.57 3 1.7 63.08 8.42 30 16.8 70.44 9.41 57 31.4 79.33 10.60 3.5 2.0 63.20 8.44 30.5 17.1 70.59 9.43 57.5 31.7 79.51 10.62 4 2.3 63.32 8.46 31 17.4 70.74 9.45 58 31.9 79.70 10.65 4.5 2.55 63.44 8.48 31.5 17.7 70.89 9.47 58.5 32.2 79.87 10.67 5 2.8 63.57 8.50 32 17.95 71.04 9.49 59 32.5 80.05 10.70 5.5 3.1 63.70 8.52 32 5 18.2 71.19 9.51 59.5 32.7 80.24 10.72 6 3.4 63.83 8.53 33 18.5 71.35 9.53 60 33.0 80.43 10.75 .5 3.7 63.95 8.55 33.5 18.8 71.50 9.55 60.5 33.2 80.62 10.77 7 4.0 64.08 8.57 34 19.05 71.65 9.58 61 33.5 80.80 10.80 7.5 4.25 64.21 8.59 34 5 19.3 71.80 9.60 61.5 33.8 80 98 10.82 8 4.5 64.34 8.60 35 19.6 71.96 9.62 62 34.0 81.17 10.85 8.5 4.8 64.47 8.61 35.5 19.9 72.11 9.64 62.5 34.3 81.35 10.87 9 5.1 64.60 8.63 36 20.1 72.27 9.66 63 34.5 81 54 10.90 9.5 5.4 64.72 8.65 36.5 20.4 72.43 9 68 63.5 34.8 81 73 1Q.92 10 5.7 64.84 8 67 37 20.7 72.59 9.70 64 35.1 81.92 10.95 10.5 5.9 64.97 8.69 37.5 21.0 72.74 9.72 64.5 35.3 82.11 10.97 11 6.2 65.11 8.71 38 21.2 72.90 9.74 65 35.6 82.30 11.00 11.5 6.5 65.24 8.72 38. 21.5 73.06 9.76 65.5 35.8 82.49 11.03 12 6.8 65.38 39 21.8 73.22 9.78 66 36.1 82. 6h 11.05 12.5 7.1 65.51 876 39. 22.05 73.38 9.80 66.5 36.3 82.87 11.07 13 7.4 65.64 8- '78 40 22.3 73.54 9.83 67 36.6 83.06 11.10 13.5 7.6 65.77 8.79 40. 22.6 73.70 9.85 67. 36.85 83.25 11.12 14 7.9 65.91 8.81 41 22.9 73.86 9.87 68 37.1 83.45 11.15 14.5 8.2 66.04 8.82 41. 23.1 74.02 9.89 68. 37.4 83.64 11.17 15 8.5 66.18 8.84" 42 23.4 74.18 9.91 69 37.6 83.84 11.20 15.5 8.8 66.31 8.36 42. 23.7 74.34 9.93 69. 37.9 84.03 11.23 16 9.0 66.44 8.88 43 23.95 74.51 9.96 70 38.1 84.23 11.26 16.5 9.3 66.58 8.90 43. 24.2 74.67 9.98 70. 38.4 84.42 11.28 17 9.6 66.72 8.92 44 24.5 74.84 10.00 71 38.6 84.62 11.31 17.5 9.9 66.85 8.93 44.5 24 8 75.00 10.02 71. 38 9 84.82 11.33 18 10.1 66.99 8.95 45 25.0 75.17 10.05 72 39.1 85.02 11.36 18.5 10.4 67.13 8.97 45.5 25.3 75.34 10.07 72 39.4 85.21 11.39 19 10.7 67.27 8.99 46 25.6 75.51 10.09 73' 39.6 85.41 11.42 19.5 11.0 67.41 9.01 46. 25.8 75.67 10.11 73. 39.9 85.61 11.44 20 11.3 67.55 9.03 47 26.1 75.84 10.13 74 40.1 85.81 11.47 20.5 11.6 67.69 9.04 47. 26.4 76.01 10.15 74. 40.4 86.01 11.49 21 11.8 67.83 9.06 48 26.6 76.18 10.18 75 40.6 86.22 11.52 21.5 12.1 67.97 9.08 48. 26.9 76.35 10.20 75. 40.9 86.42 11.55 22 12.4 68.11 9.10 49 27.2 76.52 10.23 76 41.1 86.63 11.58 22 5 12.7 68.25 9.13 49. 27.4 76.69 10.25 76.5 41.4 86.83 11.60 23 13.0 68.39 9.16 50 27.7 76.87 10.27 77 41.6 87.04 11.63 23.5 13.2 68.54 9.17 50. 28.0 77.04 10.29 77.5 41.9 87.24 11.66 24 13.5 68.68 9.18 51 28.2 77.21 10.32 78 42.1 87.45 11 69 24.5 13.8 68.82 9-20 51. 28.5 77.38 10.34 78.5 42.4 87.65 11.71 25 14.1 68.96 9.22 52 28.8 77.56 10.36 79 42.6 87.86 11.74 25.5 14.3 69.11 9.24 53. 29.0 77.73 10.38 79.5 42.9 88.07 11. 7T 26 14.6 69.26 9.26 53 29.3 77.91 10.41 80 43.1 88.28 11.80 26.5 14.9 69 41 9.27 53. 29.6 78.08 10.43 80.5 43.3 88.49 11.82 27 15 2 69.55 9.29 54 29.8 78.26 10.46 81 43.6 88.70 11.85 27.5 15.5 69.69 9.31 54. 30.1 78.44 10.48 181.6 43.8 i 88.91 11.88 284 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT A*ND U. S. GALLON (231 Cu. IN.) OF SUGAR SOLUTIONS. Continued. 82 82.5 83 83.5 84 84.5 85 85.5 86 44.1 44.3 44.6 44.8 45.1 45.3 45.5 45.8 46.0 Lbs 89.13 89.34 89.55 89.76 89.97 90.18 90.40 90.61 90 83 Lbs. 11.91 11.94 11,97 11.99 12.02 12.05 12.08 12.11 12.14 86.5 87 87.5 88 88.5 89 89.5 90 90.5 46.3 46.5 46.7 47.0 47. 2 47.45 47.7 47.9 48.2 Lbs 91.04 91.26 91.48 91.70 91.92 92.14 92.36 92.58 92.80 2 Lbs. 12.17 12.20 12.23 12.26 12.28 12.31 12.34 12.37 12.40 91 91.5 92 92.5 93 93.5 94 94.5 95 48.4 48.6 48.9 49.1 49.3 49 ,6 49.8 50.0 50.3 .Sffl I- Lbs. 93.02 93.24 93.47 93 69 93.92 94.14 94.37 94.60 94.83 +3 3 Lbs. 12.43 12 46 12.49 12.52 12.55 12.58 12 61 12.64 12.67 SCHMITZ' TABLE. 285 I-H et eo TJ< in co t- GO os o *-" o* co TJ< 10 50 1> oo os or" O O O TH r- TI 1-1 O 3* SO CO CO * ** "3 1 * 1O ^ tf CO CO 8SS2SS do'd S^ C SO rH OS CO -fl< i-< OS t- ^ 1O5l>O . q cc o op r-i TJ< co os o< MS c- q co oco T-IOSO ^irjost- i-f*t-oso MS QO q ec CO CO M CO TJH T}< Tji T)< T5 ^j lO ?O CD O O C3 i- T- r- C* SO CO SO CO TJI rj T}< Tp 10 O O O i-n-H 1-1 1-1 CJ (N O O O T-l ^H rH rt O O T- i- i- TH C-3 CO CO CO Tf rr -* 10 O O O O TH T- T- TH CO t- I- t- t- QO 00 00 < t- oo oo oo oo S5SS5JS8 d d t- 1- 1- oo I o' 43 . 2 CCCDOD^ 1 . T^J -T - -^ u O O O T < ^^itT-'C'^O^ i 11 0000 00000 o 1 H c^ 1 5 o 1-IINCO-* 105t-OOOS W q. PH o o o o o'o'ooo' .2 1 11 1 SCHMITZ TABLE. 287 OldOOSIHVlOa e o o o T-n-i T-ii-H ~ / vx ^ uu r- o X "' I * ' v-^ ^ ' T T-I i t T i v< ux v* VJ VJ t.v "^^ -T ^J 1 ^r *w ^ pa m m t^- Tt* ^* co rt< T-t oo in |^ WinooococoooJS H dddT-ir-JT-ii-Iutot ^;ojcocoeoTj | oooT-n-tT-i^-KNiN ^wcococo-^TfTji-^io ,^nincoccieoj>i O i t> ^ T 1 ^ i I | O O O i-i r-i r4 r-i 01 IN ft ; Ci CO CO CO * * Tl* -^ O , in JO CD CO CD 10 1-c I ooorHrHi-iT-ic 288 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. GO 00 QO 00 OS O OS O C t- t^oocoooaoososos! OOOOOOOOSOOSOC ^g 3gg38S8g i> i> t> t^ooGOooosoicioido t- 1> t-^ c^aDodaocBoiaioioo o t~co OJTf L- oooocosooiosoo SSSS 00 00 00 05 05 OS OS ooooososoosoc oooosososooc " oo GO c c o o o o . | WOOD J5 i~ i*- J> ^odaooooiosososo'c OO 00 00 OS Os o O5 O O - o w o oo' 06 06 os oi oi o o o Jooooooooooo aooaosoosooo oo oo os os.o ooo t-i>t- .f :ooooosos os oso oo oo i- eo o odoooiososoiooo T-l t-t-t-- 'OOOOOSOSO5O5OOO o i <-ic 0* Sg g t, ^ d d o' o' o d o' d o' 1O PH^ 1 c s ^ c3 9 T-icjeoTf ocot-ooos OQ *' < o d d d o' d d d d o' M 09 5* PS D TH g 73 OOO-r-l THi-l^H^W oddd do' odd 10 o' 1 L M -2 X sl K TH 7^ CO ^ 1O CO -- OO OS m ^? dddd do' odd V a ra 38 K fl M SCHMITZ' TABLE. 289 DIdOOS -mvioa SS8Sgg sssas^ssa -ss O o i- i- i-< ojooio *oo <- co o C i-< id 10' 10' o co' - o o 06 oo i^rj-io et ' 1C C C 1C o CO CO O o' -H' TH r-i T-< o eo" co co *' iooiOi-i T-i'*io .' tei tfi ics so co cd t^ ^- r- 1- o* cj e* c* so co so - * * re o in 10 ^ CD -H T-. O C> i?? W CO gij 50 TC rr 1.0 1C i?5 10 co co rj< Tt rj in m 10 co' 55 co --o co ^ I-H - t- c o oo o o c i-KNCOTI; 10 CO t- CO OS dddd o'ddo'd 290 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. SCHMITZ' TABLE FOR THE CALCULATION OF PER CENTS SUCROSE. Continued. JSCOPIC DING. DE( }REK B R1X. 1* Q 5*5 I 20.0 20.5 21.0 21.5 22.0 22.5 23.0 23.5 24.0 li E 40 10.56 1054 10.52 1049 10.47 10.45 10.43 1041 10.38 40 41 10.82 10.80 10.78 10.76 10.74 10.71 10.09 10.67 10.65 41 42 11.09 11.07 11.04 11.02 11.00 10.97 10.95 10.93 10.90 42 43 11.85 11.33 11.31 11.28 11.26 11.24 11.21 11.19 11.17 43 44 11.62 11.59 11.57 11.55 11.52 11.50 11 47 11.45 11.42 44 45 11.88 11.86 11.83 11.81 11.78 11 76 11.73 11.71 11.69 45 46 12.15 12.12 12.09 12.07 12.05 12.02 12.00 11.97 11.94 46 47 12.41 12.39 12.36 12.33 12.31 12.28 12.26 12.23 12.21 47 48 12.67 12.65 12.62 12.60 12.57 12.54 12.52 12.49 12.47 48 49 12.94 12.91 12.88 12.86 12.83 12.81 12.78 12.75 12.73 49 60 13.20 13.18 13.15 13.12 13.09 13.07 13.04 1301 12.99 50 51 13.47 13.44 13.41 13.39 13.3(5 13.33 13.30 13.27 13.25 51 52 13.73 13.70 13.68 13.65 13.62 13.59 13.56 13.53 13.51 52 53 14.00 13.97 13.94 13.91 13.88 13.85 13.82 13.79 13.77 53 54 14.26 14.23 14.20 14.17 14.14 14.11 14.08 14.06 14.02 54 55 14.53 14.50 14.47 14.44 14.41 14.38 14.35 14.32 14.29 55 56 14.79 14.76 14.73 14.70 14.67 14.64 14.61 14.58 14.55 56 57 ! 15.06 15.02 14.99 14.96 14.93 14.90 14.87 14.84 14.81 57 58 15.32 15.29 15.26 15.23 15.19 15.16 15.13 15.10 15.07 58 59 15.58 15.55 15.52 15.49 15.46 15.42 15.39 15.36 15.33 59 60 15.85 15.82 15.78 15.75 15.72 15.69 15.65 16.62 15.59 60 61 16.11 16.08 16.05 16.01 15.98 15.95 15.91 15.88 15.85 61 62 16.38 16.35 16.31 16.28 16.24 16.21 16.18 16.14 16.11 62 63 16.64 16.61 16.57 16.54 16.51 16.47 16.44 16.40 16 37 63 64 16.91 16.87 16.84 16.80 16.77 16.73 16.70 16.66 16.63 64 65 17.17 17.14 17.10 17.07 17.03 17.00 16.96 16.92 16.89 65 66 17.44 17.40 17.37 17.33 17.29 17.26 17.22 17.19 17.15 66 67 17.70 17.67 17.63 17.59 17.56 17.52 17.48 17.45 17.41 67 68 17.97 17.93 17.89 17.86 17.82 17.78 17.74 17.71 17.67 68 69 18.23 18.19 18.16 18.12 18.08 18.04 18.00 17.97 17.93 69 70 18.50 18.46 18.42 18.38 1835 18.31 18.27 18.23 18.19 70 71 18.76 18.72 18.68 18.65 18.61 18.57 18.53 18.49 18 45 71 72 19.03 18.99 18.95 18.91 18.87 18.83 18.79 18.75 18.71 72 73 19.25 19.21 19.17 19.13 19.09 19.05 19.01 18.97 73 74 19.52 19.48 19.44 19.40 19.35 19.31 19.27 19.23 74 75 19.78 19.74 19.70 19.66 19.62 19.57 19.53 19.49 75 76 20.00 19.96 19.92 19.88 19.84 10.80 19.75 76 77 20 27 20.22 20.18 20.14 20.10 20 . 06 20.01 77 78 20.49 20.45 20^40 20^36 20.32 20.27 78 79 20.75 20.71 20.66 20.62 20.58 20.54 79 80 20.97 20.93 120.88 20 84 20.80 80 DEGREE BRIX FROM 23 TO 24. Tenths of the Polari- scopic Reading. PerCent Sucrose. Tenths of the Polari- scopic Reading. Per Cent Sucrose. 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.16 0.18 0.21 0.23 CORRECT POLARISCOPIC READING, ETC. 291 360. TABLE SHOWING THE VOLUME OF JUICE REQUIRED TO GIVE TWO OR THREE TIMES THE CORRECT POLARISCOPIC READING. (Divide the Reading by 2 for instruments whose factor is 26.048 grams, and by 3 for those whose factor is 16.19.) De- gree. Brix. Factor 26.048 gr. Required cc. De- gree Brix. Factor 26.048 gr. Required cc. De- gree. Brix. Factor 16.19gr. Required cc. De- gree Brix. Factor 16.19 gr. Required cc. 5 51.1 12.9 49.5 5 47.6 12.7 46.2 5.4 51 13.4 49.4 5.7 47.5 13.3 46.1 5.9 50.9 13.9 49.3 6.3 47.4 13.8 46 6.4 50.8 14.4 49.2 6.8 47.3 14.3 45.9 6.9 50.7 14.9 49.1 7.3 47.2 14.8 45.8 7.4 50.6 15.4 49 7.8 47.1 15.3 45.7 7.9 50.5 15.9 48.9 8.3 47 15.9 45.6 8.4 50.4 16.4 48.8 8.9 46.9 16.4 45.5 8.9 50.3 16.9 48.7 9.5 46.8 17 45.4 9.4 50.2 17.4 48.6 10 46.7 17.5 45.3 9.9 50.1 17.9 48.5 10.5 46.6 18 45.2 10.4 50 18.4 48.4 11 46.5 18.6 45.1 10.9 49.9 18.9 48.3 11.6 46.4 19.1 45 11.4 49.8 19.4 48.2 12.1 46.3 11.9 49.7 19.9 48.1 12.4 49.6 261. TABLE FOR THE ESTIMATION OF THE APPROXIMATE PER CENT TOTAL SOLIDS IN MASSECUITE, MOLASSES, ETC. (F. E. COOMBS.) (Dilution of sample = 100 grams to 500 cc.) Degrees Brix of Diluted Sample. (Corrected for Temperature.) Per Cent Solids in Original Sample. Degrees Brix of Diluted Sample. (Corrected for Temperature.) Per Cent Solids in Original Sample. 14.0 73.99 16.0 85.25 .1 74.55 .1 85.82 .2 75.11 .2 86.39 .3 75.65 .3 86.96 .4 76.22 .4 87.53 .5 76.79 .5 88 10 .6 77.35 .6 88.67 .7 77.91 .7 89.24 .8 78.47 .8 89.81 .9 79.04 .9 90.38 15.0 79.60 17.0 90.95 .1 80.16 .1 91.52 .2 80.72 .2 92.10 .3 81.29 .3 92.67 .4 81.86 .4 93.22 .5 82.42 .5 93.82 .6 82.99 .6 94.39 .7 83.55 .7 94.97 .8 84.12 .8 95.54 .9 84.68 .9 96.12 292 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 262. Table for the Calculation of the Per Cent Sucrose in Molasses, Massecuite, etc. (F. E. Coombs). A portion of the solution used in estimating the approximate total solids, equivalent to 10 grams of the material (see 261), is transferred to a 100 cc. sugar-flask, clarified, and polarized as usual. To calculate the sucrose, find the integral part of the polariscopic reading in the first column, follow the line to the right to the number under the tenths of the reading, and enter this number as the per cent sucrose in the material. Ifil Fractional Part of Polariscope Reading. s* .0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 8.0 20.84 21.10 21.36 21.62 21.88 22.14 22.40 22.66 22.92 23.18 9.0 23.44 23.70 23.96 24.22 24.48 24.74 25.01 25.27 25.53 25.79 10.0 26.04 26.30 26.56 26.82 27.08 27.34 27.61 27.87 28.13 28.39 11.0 28.65 28.91 29.17 29.43 29.69 29.95 30.22 30.48 30.74 31.00 12.0 31.26 31.52 31.78 32.04 32.30 32.56 32.82 33.08 33.34 33.60 13.0 33.86 34.12 34.38 34.64 34.90 35.16 35.43 35.69 35.95 36.21 14.0 36.47 36.73 36.99 37.25 37.51 37. n 36.03 38.29 38.55 38.81 15.0 39.07 39.33 39.59 39.85 40.11 40.37 40.63 40.89 41.15 41.41 16.0 41.68 41.94 42.20 42.46 42.72 42.98 43.24 48. PO 43.76 44.02 17.0 44.28 44.54 44.80 45.06 45.32 45.58 45.84 46.10 46.36 46.62 18.0 46.89 47.15 47.41 47.67 47.93 48.19 48.45 48.71 48.97 49.23 19.0 49.49 49.75 50.01 50.27 50.53 50.79 51.05 51.31 51.57 51.83 20.0 52.10 52.36 52.62 52.88 53.14 53.40 53.66 53.92 54.18 54.44 FORMULA FOR CALCULATION OF INVERSION. 293 263. Formulae l for the Calculation of Inver- sion in the Diffusion-battery. The author is in- debted to Lieut. A. B. Clements, U.S.N., for the following formulae, unless otherwise indicated: F* Fi (l) x = b - = inversion in the battery per cent diffusion-juice; _ per cent sucrose in the diffusion- juice ^ 1 ~~ per cent glucose in the diffusion-juice* percent sucrose in the normal juice a ~ per cent glucose in the normal juice' b = per cent glucose in the diffusion-juice; ^=1.05263. . 95 (2) x = a - - - = inversion in the battery per cent diffusion-juice; a = per cent sucrose in the diffusion-juice; _ per cent glucose in the diffusion-juice ri per cent sucrose in the diffusion-juice _ per cent glucose in the normal juice r * ~~ per cent sucrose in the normal juice ' (3) \P (100 e)P] .95 = x = inversion in the battery per cent diffusion-juice. / = per cent glucose in diffusion- juice; P= percent glucose in the normal juice -*- 100; e evaporation necessary to concentrate the diffusion-juice to the same percentage of sugars as in the normal juice. To obtain e subtract the sum of the sugars in the diffusion- juice from that in the normal juice and divide the remain- der by the sum of the sugars in the normal juice. Multi- ply the quotient by 100. This formula only gives approximate results. The error amounts to less than 15 Ibs. sucrose per 1,000,000 Ibs. of juice when the inversion does not exceed I per cent (G. L. Spencer). 1 Based upon the formula of Dr. Stubbs of the Louisiana Experiment Station. 294 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. 264. RECIPROCALS OF NUMBERS FROM 11 TO 36, ADVANCING BY TENTHS. Num- ber. I Recip- rocal. ! Num- ber. Recip- rocal. Num- ber. Recip- rocal. Num- ber. Recip- rocal. Num- ber. Recip- rocal. 11.0 .0909 16.0 .0625 21.0 .0476 26.0 .0385 31.0 .0322 11.1 .0900 16.1 .0621 21.1 .0474 26.1 .0383 31.1 .0321 11.2 .0893 16.2 .0617 21.2 .0472 26.2 .0381 31.2 .0320 11.3 .0885 ! 16.3 .0613 21.3 .0469 26.3 .0380 31.3 .0319 11.4 .0877 ! 16.4 .0610 21.4 .0467 26.4 .0379 31.4 .0318 11.5 .0869 16.5 .0606 21.5 .0465 26.5 .0377 31.5 .0317 11.6 .0862 16.6 .0602 21.6 .0463 26.6 .0376 31.6 .0316 11.7 .0855 16.7 .0599 21.7 .0461 26.7 .0374 31.7 .0315 11.8 .0847 16.8 .0595 21.8 .0459 26.8 .0373 31.8 .0314 11.9 .0840 1 16.9 .0592 21.9 .0457 26.9 .0372 31.9 .0313 12.0 .0833 17.0 .0588 22.0 .0454 27.0 .0370 32.0 .0312 12.1 .0826 ! 17.1 .0585 22.1 .0452 27.1 .0369 32.1 .0311 12.2 .0820 j 17.2 .0581 22.2 .0450 27.2 .0368 32.2 .0310 12.3 .0813 17.3 .0578 22.3 .0448 27.3 .0366 32.3 .0309 12.4 .0806 1 17.4 .0575 22.4 .0446 27.4 .0365 32.4 .0308 12.5 .0800 17.5 .0571 22.5 .0444 27.5 .0364 .0308 126 .0794 17.6 .0568 22.6 .0442 27.6 .0362 32^6 .0307 12.7 .0787 17.7 .0565 22.7 .0440 27.7 .0361 32.7 .0305 12.8 .0781 17.8 .0562 22.8 .0438 27.8 .0360 32.8 .0305 12.9 .0775 17.9 .0559 22.9 .0437 27.9 .0358 32.9 .0304 13.0 .0769 18.0 .0555 23.0 .0435 28.0 .0357 33.0 .0303 13.1 .0763 18.1 .0552 23.1 .0432 28.1 .0356 33.1 .0302 13.2 .0757 18.2 .0549 23.2 .0431 28.2 .0355 33.2 .0301 13.3 .0752 18.3 .0546 23.3 .0429 28.3 .0353 33.3 .0300 13.4 .0746 18.4 .0543 23.4 .0427 28.4 .0352 33.4 .0299 13.5 .0741 18.5 .0540 23.5 .0425 28.5 .0351 33.5 .0298 13.6 .0735 18.6 .0538 23.6 .0424 28.6 .0350 33.6 .0297 13.7 .0730 18.7 .0535 23.7 .0422 28.7 .0348 33.7 .0296 13.8 .0725 18.8 .0532 23.8 .0420 28.8 .0347 33.8 .0295 13.9 .0719 18.9 .0529 23.9 .0418 28.9 .0346 33.9 .0295 14.0 .0714 19.0 .0526 24.0 .0417 29.0 .0345 34.0 .0294 14.1 .0709 19.1 .05^3 24.1 .0415 29.1 .0344 34.1 .0293 14.2 .0704 19.2 .0521 24.2 .0413 29.2 .0342 34.2 .0292 14.3 .0699 19.3 .0518 24.3 .0411 29.3 .0341 34.3 .0291 14.4 .0694 19.4 .0515 24.4 .0409 29.4 .0340 34.4 .0290 14.5 .0690 19.5 .0513 24.5 .0408 29.5 .0339 34.5 .0289 14.6 .0685 19.6 .0510 24.6 .0406 29.6 .0338 34.6 .0289 14.7 .0680 19.7 .0508 24.7 .0405 29.7 .0337 34.7 .0288 14.8 .0676 19.8 .0505 24.8 .0403 29.8 .0335 34.8 .0287 14.9 .0671 19.9 .0502 24.9 .0402 29.9 .0334 34.9 .0286 15.0 .0667 20.0 .0500 25.0 .0400 30.0 .0333 35.0 .0285 15.1 .0662 20.1 .0497 25.1 .0398 30.1 .0332 35.1 .0284 15.2 .0658 20.2 .0495 25.2 .0397 30.2 .0331 35.2 .0284 15.3 .0654 20.3 .0493 25.3 .0395 30.3 .0330 35.3 .0283 15.4 .0649 20.4 .0490 25.4 .0394 30. 4 .0329 35.4 .0282 15.5 .0645 20.5 .0488 25.5 .0392 30.5 .0328 35.5 .0282 15.6 .0641 20.6 .0485 25.6 .0391 30.6 .0327 35.6 .0281 15.7 .0637 20.7 .0483 25.7 .0389 30.7 .0326 35.7 .0280 15.8 .0633 20.8 .0481 25.8 .0388 30.8 .0325 35.8 .0279 15.9 .0629 20.9 .0478 25.9 .0386 30.9 .0324 35.9 .0278 See page 87 for suggestions relative to the use of this table. COEFFICIENTS OF PUKITY. 295 365. TABLE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENTS OF PURITY.-(G. KOTTMANN.) PER CENT SUCROSE. PER CENT OP NON-SUCROSE = DEGREE BRIX MINUS PER CENT SUCROSE. PER CENT SUCROSE. 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.8 8.0 I 88.9 87.9 87.0 86.0 85.1 84.2 83.3 82.5 81.6 8.0 8.2 89.1 88.2 87.2 86.3 85.4 84.5 83.7 82.8 82.0 8.2 8.4 89.4 88.4 87.5 86.6 85.7 84.8 84.0 83.2 82.3 8.4 8.6 89.6 88.7 87.8 86.9 86.0 85.1 84 3 83.5 82.7 8.6 8.8 | 89.8 88.9 88.0 87.1 86.3 85.4 84.6 83.8 83.0 8.8 9.0 90.0 89.1 88.2 87.4 86.5 85.7 84.9 84.1 83.3 9.0 9.2 90.2 89.3 88.5 87.6 86.8 86.0 85.2 84.4 83.6 9.2 9.4 90.4 89.5 88.7 87.8 87.0 86.2 85.5 84.7 83.9 9.4 9.6 90.6 89.7 88.9 88.1 87.3 86.5 85.7 85.0 84.2 96 9.8 | 90.7 89.9 89.1 88.3 87.5 86.7 86.0 85.2 84.5 9.8 10.0 : 90.9 90.1 89.3 88.5 87.7 87.0 86.2 85.5 84.7 10.0 10.2 91.1 90.3 89.5 88.7 87.9 87.2 86.4 85.7 85.0 10 2 10.4 91.2 90.4 89.7 88.9 88.1 87.4 86.7 86.0 85.2 10.4 10.6 91.4 90.6 89.8 89.1 88.3 87.6 86.9 86.2 85.5 10.6 10.8 91.5 90.8 90.0 89.3 88.5 87.8 87.1 86.4 85.7 10.8 11.0 91.7 90.9 90.2 89.4 88.7 88.0 87.3 86.6 85.9 11.0 11.2 91.8 91.1 90.3 89.6 88.9 88.2 87.5 86.8 86.2 11.2 11.4 91.9 91.2 90.5 89.8 89.1 88.4 87.7 87.0 86.4 11.4 11.6 92.1 91.3 90 6 89.9 89.2 88.5 87.9 87.2 86 6 11 6 11.8 92.2 91.5 90.8 90.1 89.4 88.7 88.1 87.4 86.8 11.8 12.0 92.3 91.6 90.9 90.2 89.6 88.9 88.2 87.6 87.0 12.0 12.2 92.4 91.7 91.0 90 4 89.7 89.1 88.4 87.8 87.1 12.2 12.4 92.5 91.9 91.2 90.5 89.9 89.2 88.6 87.9 87.3 12.4 12.6 92.6 92.0 91.3 90 6 90.0 89.4 88.7 88.1 87.5 12 6 12.8 92.8 92.1 91.4 90.8 90.1 89.5 88.9 88.3 87.7 12.8 18.0 92.9 92.2 91.5 90.9 90.3 89.7 89.0 88.4 87.8 13.0 13.2 93.0 92.3 91.7 91.0 90.4 89.8 89.2 88.6 88.0 13.2 13.4 93.1 92.4 91.8 91.2 90.5 89.9 89.3 88.7 88 2 13 4 13.6 1 93.2 92.5 91.9 91.3 90.7 90.1 89.5 88.9 88.3 13.6 13.8 93.2 92.6 92.0 91.4 90.8 90.2 89.6 89.0 88.5 13.8 14.0 93.3 92.7 9-7.1 91.5 90.9 90.3 89.7 89.2 88.6 14 14.2 93.4 92.8 92.2 91.6 91.0 90.4 89.9 89.3 88 8 14.2 14.4 93.5 92.9 92.3 91.7 91.1 90.6 90.0 89.4 88.9 14 4 14.6 93.6 93.0 92.4 91.8 91.3 90.7 90.1 89.6 89.0 14 6 14.8 93.7 93.1 92.5 91.9 91.4 90.8 90.2 89.7 89.2 14.8 15.0 93.7 93.2 92.6 920 91.5 90.9 90.4 89.8 89.3 15.0 15.2 93.8 93.3 92.7 92.1 91.6 91.0 90.5 89.9 89.4 15.2 15.4 93.9 93.3 92.8 92.2 91.7 91.1 90.6 90.1 89 5 15.4 15.6 94.0 93.4 92.8 92.3 91.8 91.2 90.7 90.2 89.7 15 6 15.8 94.1 93.5 92.9 92.4 91.9 91.3 90.8 90.3 89.8 15.8 16.0 94.1 93.6 93.0 92.5 92.0 91.4 90.9 90.4 89 9 16.0 16.2 94.2 93.7 93.1 92.6 92.0 91.5 91.0 90 5 90.0 16.2 16.4 94.3 93.7 93.2 92.6 92.1 91.6 91.1 90.6 90 1 16.4 16.6 94.3 93.8 93.3 92.7 92.2 91.7 91.2 90.7 90.2 16 6 16.8 94.4 93.9 93.3 92.8 92.3 91.8 91.3 90.8 90.3 16.8 17.0 94.4 93.9 93.4 92.9 92.4 91.9 91.4 90.9 90.4 17.0 l i 296 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. TABLE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENTS OF PURITY. Continued. PER CENT SUCROSE. PER CENT OF NON-SUCROSE = DEGREE BRIX MINUS PER CENT SUCROSE. PER CENT SUCROSK. 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 8.0 80.8 80.0 79.2 78.4 77.7 76.9 76.2 75.5 74.8 8.0 8.2 81.2 80.4 79.6 78.8 78.1 77.4 76.6 75.9 75.2 8.2 8.4 81.5 80.8 80.0 79.2 78.5 77.8 77.1 76.4 75.7 8.4 8.6 81.9 81.1 80.4 79.6 78.9 78.2 77.5 76.8 76.1 8.6 8.8 82.2 81.5 80.7 80.0 79.3 78.6 77.9 77.2 76.5 8.8 9.0 82.6 81.8 81.1 80.4 79.6 78.9 78.3 77.6 76.9 9.0 9.2 82.9 82.1 81.4 80.7 80.0 79.3 78.6 77.9 77.3 9.2 9.4 83.2 82.5 81.7 81.0 80.3 79.7 79.0 78.3 77.7 9.4 9.6 83.5 82.8 82.1 81.4 80.7 80.0 79.3 78.7 78.0 9.6 9.8 83.8 83.1 82.4 81.7 81.0 80.3 79.7 79.0 78.4 9.8 10.0 84.0 83.3 82.6 82.0 81.8 80.6 80.0 79.4 78.7 10.0 10.2 84.3 83.6 82.9 82.3 81.6 81.0 80.3 79.7 79.1 10.2 10.4 84.6 83.9 83.2 82.5 81.9 81.2 80.6 80.0 79.4 10.4 10.6 84.8 84.1 83.5 82.8 82.2 81.5 80.9 80.3 79.7 10.6 10.8 85.0 84.4 83.7 83.1 82.4 81.8 81.2 80.6 80.0 10.8 11.0 85.3 84.6 84.0 83.3 82.7 82.1 81.5 80.9 80.3 11.0 11.2 85.5 84.8 84.2 83.6 83.0 82.4 81.8 81.2 80.6 11.2 11.4 85.7 85.1 84.4 83.8 83.2 82.6 82.0 81.4 80.9 11.4 11.6 85.9 85.3 84.7 84.1 83.5 82.9 82.3 81.7 81.1 11.6 11.8 86.1 85.5 84.9 84.3 83.7 83.1 82.5 81.9 81.4 11.8 12.0 86.3 85.7 85.1 84.5 83.9 83.3 82.8 82.2 81.6 12.0 12.2 86.5 85.9 85.3 84.7 84.1 83.6 83.0 82.4 81.9 12.2 12.4 86.7 86.1 85.5 84.9 84.4 83.8 83.2 82.7 82.1 12.4 12.6 86.9 86.3 85.7 85.1 84.6 84.0 83.4 82.9 82.4 12.6 12.8 87.1 86.5 85.9 85.3 84.8 84.2 83.7 83.1 82.6 12.8 13.0 87.2 86.7 86.1 85.5 85.0 84.4 83.9 83.3 82.8 13.0 13.2 87.4 86.8 86.3 85.7 85.2 84.6 84.1 83.5 83.0 13.2 13.4 87.6 87.0 86.5 85.9 85.4 84.8 84.3 83.7 83.2 13.4 13.6 87.7 87.2 86.6 86.1 85.5 85.0 84.5 83.9 83.4 13.6 13.8 87.9 87.3 86.8 86.3 85.7 85.2 84.7 84.1 83.6 13.8 14.0 88.1 87.5 87.0 86.4 85.9 85.4 84.8 84.3 83.8 14.0 14.2 88.2 87.7 87.1 86.6 86.1 85.5 85.0 84.5 84.0 14.2 14.4 88.3 87.8 87.3 86.7 86.2 85.7 85.2 84.7 84.2 14.4 14.6 88.5 88.0 87.4 86.9 86.4 85.9 85.4 84.9 84.4 14.6 14.8 88.6 88.1 87.6 87.1 86.5 86.0' 85.5 85.1 84.6 14.8 15.0 88.8 88.2 87.7 87.2 86.7 86.2 85.7 85.2 84.7 15.0 15.2 88.9 88.4 87.9 87.4 86.9 86.4 85.9 85.4 84.9 15.2 15.4 89.0 88.5 88.0 87.5 87.0 86.5 86.0 85.6 85.1 15.4 15.6 89.1 88.6 88.1 87.6 87.2 86.7 86.2 85.7 85.2 15.6 15.8 89.3 88.8 88.3 87.8 87.3 86.8 86.3 85.9 85.4 15.8 16.0 89.4 88.9 88.4 87.9 87.4 87.0 86.5 86.0 85.6 16.0 16.2 89.5 89.0 88.5 88.0 87.6 87.1 86.6 86.2 85.7 16.2 16.4 89.6 89.1 88.6 88.2 87.7 87.2 86.8 86.3 85.9 16.4 16.6 89.7 89.2 88.8 88.3 87.8 87.4 86.9 86.5 86.0 16.6 16.8 89.8 89.4 88.9 88.4 88.0 87.5 87.0 86.6 86.2 16.8 17.0 89.9 89 5 89.0 88.5 88.1 87.6 87.2 86.7 86.3 17.0 COEFFICIENTS OF PURITY. 297 TABLE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENTS OF PURITY. Continued. PER CENT] SUCROSE. PER CENT OF NON-SUCROSE = DEGREE BRIX MINUS PER CENT SUCROSE. If ii 8.0 8 2 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 8.0 8 2 74.1 74 5 73.4 73 9 72.7 73 2 72.1 72 6 71.4 71 9 70.8 71.3 70.2 70 7 69.6 70.1 69.0 69 5 8.4 75.0 74.3 73.7 73.0 72.4 71.8 71.2 70 6 70.0 8.4 8.6 75.4 74.8 74.1 73.5 72.9 72.3 71.7 71.1 70.5 8.6 8.8 75.9 75.2 74.6 73.9 73.8 72.7 72.1 71.5 71.0 8.8 9.0 76.3 75.6 75.0 74.4 73.8 73.2 72.6 72.0 71.4 9.0 9.2 76.7 76.0 75.4 74.8 74.2 73.6 73.0 72.4 71.9 9.2 9.4 77.0 76.4 75.8 75.2 74.6 74.0 73.4 72.9 72.3 9.4 9.6 77.4 76.8 76.2 75.6 75.0 74.4 73.8 73.3 72.7 9.6 9.8 77.8 77.2 76.6 76.0 75.4 74.8 74.2 73.7 73.1 9.8 10.0 78.1 77.5 76.9 76.3 75.8 75.2 74.6 74.1 73.5 10.0 10.2 78.5 77.9 77.3 76.7 76.1 75.6 75.0 74.5 73.9 10.2 10.4 78.8 78.2 77.6 77.0 76.5 75.9 75.4 74.8 74.3 10.4 10.6 79.1 78.5 77.9 77.4 76.8 76.3 75.7 75.2 74.6 10.6 10.8 79.4 78 8 78.3 77.7 77.1 76.6 76.1 75.5 75.0 10.8 11.0 79.7 79.1 78.6 78.0 77.5 76.9 76.4 75.9 75.3 11.0 11.2 80.0 79.4 78.9 78.3 77.8 77.2 76.7 76.2 75.7 11.2 11.4 80.3 79.7 79.2 78.6 78.1 77.6 77.0 76.5 76.0 11.4 11.6 80.6 80.0 79.4 78.9 78.4 77.9 77.3 76.8 76.3 11.6 11.8 80.8 80.3 79.7 79.2 78.7 78.1 77.6 77.1 76.6 11.8 12.0 81.1 80.5 80.0 79.5 78.9 78.4 77.9 77.4 76.9 12.0 12.2 81.3 80.8 80.3 79.7 79.2 78.7 78.2 44 .7 77.2 12.2 12.4 81.6 81.0 80.5 80.0 79.5 79.0 78.5 78.0 77.5 12.4 12.6 81.8 81.3 80.8 80.3 79.7 79.2 78.8 78.3 77.8 12.6 12.8 82.1 81.5 81.0 80.5 80.0 79.5 79.0 78.5 78.0 12.8 13.0 82.3 81.8 81.2 80.7 80.2 79.8 79.3 78.8 78.3 13.0 13.2 82.5 82.0 81.5 81.0 80.5 80.0 79.5 79.0 78.6 13.2 13.4 82.7 82.2 61.7 81.2 80.7 80.2 79.8 79.3 78.8 13.4 13.6 82.9 82.4 81.9 81.4 81.0 80.5 80.0 79.5 79.1 13.6 13.8 83.1 82.6 82.1 81.7 81.2 80.7 80.2 79.8 79.3 13.8 14.0 83.3 82.8 82.3 81.9 81.4 80.9 80.5 80.0 79.5 14.0 14.2 83.5 83.0 82.5 82.1 81.6 81.1 80.7 80.2 79.8 14.2 14.4 83.7 83.2 82.7 82.3 81.8 81.4 80.9 80.4 80.0 14.4 14.6 83.9 83.4 82.9 82.5 82.0 81.6 81.1 80.7 80.2 14.6 14.8 84.1 83.6 83.1 82.7 82.2 81.8 81.3 80.9 80.4 14.8 15.0 84.3 83.8 83.3 82.9 82.4 82.0 81.5 81.1 80.6 15 15.2 84.4 84.0 83.5 83.1 82.6 82.2 81.7 81.3 80.8 15.2 15.4 84.6 84.2 83.7 83.2 82.8 82.4 81.9 81.5 81.0 15.4 15.6 84.8 84.3 83.9 83.4 83.0 82.5 82.1 81.7 81.2 15 6 15.8 84.9 84.5 84.0 83.6 83.2 82.7 82.3 81.9 81.4 15 8 16.0 85.1 84.7 84.2 83.8 83.3 82.9 82.5 82.0 81.6 16.0 16.2 85.3 84.8 84.4 83.9 83.5 83.1 82.7 82.2 81 8 16.2 16.4 85.4 84.9 84.5 84.1 83.7 83.2 82.8 82.4 82.0 16.4 16.6 85.6 85.1 84.7 84.3 83.8 83.4 83.0 82 6 82.2 16 6 16.8 85.7 85.3 84.8 84.4 84.0 83.6 83.2 82.8 82 4 w'.8 17.0 85.9 85.4 85.0 84.6 84.2 83.7 83.3 82.9 82.5 17.0 298 HANDBOOK FOR SUGAR-HOUSE CHEMISTS. TABLE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENTS OF PURITY. Continued. PER CENT SUCROSE. PER CENT OF NON-SUCROSE = DEGREE BRIX MINUS PER CENT SUCROSE. PER CENT SUCROSE. 8.7 3.8 3.9 i 8.0 68.4 67.8 67.2 66.7 66.1 65.6 65.0 64.5 64.0 8.0 8.2 68.9 68.3 67.8 67.2 66.7 66.1 65.6 65.1 64.6 8.2 8.4 69.4 68.8 68.3 67.7 67.2 66.7 66.1 65.6 65.1 8.4 8.6 69.9 69.3 68.8 68.3 67.7 67.2 66.7 66.2 65.6 8.6 8.8 70.4 69.8 69.3 68.8 68.2 67.7 67.2 66.7 66.2 I 8.8 9.0 70.9 70.3 69.8 69.2 68.7 68.2 67.7 67.2 66.7 9.0 9.2 71.3 70.8 70.2 69.7 69.2 68.7 68.1 67.6 67.2 9.2 9.4 71.8 71.2 70.7 70.1 69.6 69.1 68.6 68.1 67.6 9.4 9.6 72.2 71.6 71.1 70.6 70.1 69.6 69.1 68.6 68.1 9.6 9.8 72.6 72.1 71.5 71.0 70.5 70.0 69.5 69.0 68.5 9.8 10.0 73.0 72.5 71.9 71.4 70.9 70.4 69.9 69.4 69.0 10.0 10.2 73.4 72.9 72.3 71.8 71.3 70.8 70.3 69.9 69.4 i 10.2 10.4 73.8 73.2 72.7 72.2 71.7 71.2 70.7 70.3 69.8 10.4 10.6 74.1 73.6 73.1 72.6 72.1 71.6 71.1 70.7 70.2 10.6 10.8 74.5 74.0 73.5 73.0 72.5 72.0 71.5 71.1 70.6 10.8 11.0 74.8 74.3 73.8 73.3 72.8 72.4 71.9 71.4 71.0 11.0 11.2 75.2 74.7 74.2 73.7 73.2 72.3 71.8 71.3 11.2 11.4 75.5 75.0 74.5 74.0 73.5 73! 1 72.6 72.2 71.7 11.4 11.6 75.8 75.3 74.8 74.4 73.9 73.4 73.0 72.5 72.0 11.6 11.8 76.1 75.6 75.2 74.7 74.2 73.8 73.3 72.8 72.4 11.8 12.0 76.4 75.9 75.5 75.0 74.5 74.1 73.6 73.2 72.7 12.0 12.2 76.7 76.2 75.8 75.3 74.8 74.4 73:9 73.5 73.1 12.2 12.4 77.0 76.5 76.1 75.6 75.2 74.7 74.3 73.8 73.4 12.4 12.6 77.3 76.8 76.4 75.9 75.4 75.0 74.6 74.1 73.7 12.6 12.8 77.6 77.1 76.6 76.2 75.7 75.3 74.9 74.4 74.0 12.8 13.0 77.8 77.4 76.9 76.5 76.0 75.6 75.1 74.7 74.3 13.0 13.2 78.1 77.6 77.2 76.7 76.3 75.9 75.4 75.0 74.6 13.2 13.4 78.4 77.9 77.5 77.0 76.6 76.1 75.7 75.3 74.9 13.4 13.6 78.6 78.2 77.7 77.3 76.8 76.4 76.0 75.6 75.1 13.6 13.8 78.9 78.4 78.0 77.5 77.1 76.7 76.2 75.8 75.4 13.8 14.0 79.1 78.7 78.2 77.8 77.3 76.9 76.5 76.1 75.7 14.0 14.2 79 3 78.9 78.5 78.0 77.6 77.2 76.8 76.3 75.9 14.2 14.4 79.6 79.1 78.7 78.3 77.8 77.4 77.0 76.6 76.2 14.4 14.6 79.8 79.3 78.9 78.5 78.1 77.6 77.2 76.8 76.4 14.6 14.8 80.0 79.6 79.1 78.7 78.3 77.9 77.5 77.1 76.7 14.8 15.0 80.2 79.8 79.4 78.9 78.5 78.1 i i .7 < < .3 76.9 15.0 15.2 80.4 80.0 79.6 79.2 78.8 78.4 77.9 77.6 77.2 15.2 15.4 80.6 80.2 79.8 79.4 79.0 78.6 78.2 77.8 77.4 15.4 15.6 80.8 80.4 80.0 79.6 79.2 78.8 78.4 78.0 77.6 15.6 15.8 81.0 80.6 80.2 79.8 79.4 79.0 78.6 78.2 77.8 15.8 16.0 81.2 80.8 80.4 80.0 79.6 79.2 78.8 78.4 78.0 16.0 16.2 81.4 81.0 80.6 80.2 79.8 79.4 79.0 78.6 78.3 16.2 16.4 81.6 81.2 80.8 80.4 80.0 79.6 79.2 78.8 78.5 16.4 16.6 81.8 81.4 81.0 80.6 80.2 79.8 79.4 79.0 78.7 16.6 16.8 82.0 81.6 81.2 80.8 80.4 80.0 79.6 79.2 78.9 16.8 17.0 82.1 81.7 81.3 81.0 80.6 80.2 79.8 79.4 79.1 17.0 DEGREES OF POLAKISCOPIC SCALES, ETC. 299 266. Value of the Degrees of Polariscopic Scales. Grams sugar in 100 cc. 1 scale of Mitscherlich = .750 1 " " Soleil-Dubosq =.1619 1 " Ventzke-Soleil =.26048 1 " " Wild (sugar scale) =.10 1 " " Laurent and Dubosq (Shadow) = .1619 1 scale of Mitscherlich = 4. 635 Soleil-Dubosq = 2.879 Soleil-Ventzke. 1 scale of Soleil-Dubosq = .215 Mitscherlich = .620 Ventzke-Soleil = 1.619 Wild. 1 scale of Ventzke = .346 Mitscherlich =1.608 Soleil- Dubosq = 2.648 Wild. 1 scale of Wild (sugar-scale) = .618 Soleil-Dubosq = .384 Soleil-Ventzke = .133' Mitscherlich. Circular Degrees. 1 Wild (sugar-scale) = .1328 Circular degree D. Jl Soleil-Dubosq. . . . = .2167 " " D. Jl " " .... =.2450 ' " " .;. Ji Soleil-Ventzke .. . . = .3455 " " D. Jl " " .... = .3906 " " j. 267. Clerget's Constant. Results of Rede- terminations. (A. Wohl, Zeit. fiir Zucker, Aug. 1888.) Weight of Concentration of Invert Sucrose. Invert Solution. Beading. Constant. 13.024 13.700 16.34 142.7 6.512 6.855 - 7.92 142.3 3.256 3.427 - 3.80 140.4 These numbers correspond very nearly with the mean of Landolt's determinations. BLANK FORMS FOR PRACTICAL USE SUGAR-HOUSE WORK SEASON OF BEETS AND Dates. Beets Worked. Tons. Number oJ Diffusers. Be ; j ts per Diffuser. Juice % Beets. Gals, or Litres. 302 DIFFUSION-JUICE. Max. Temp. Specific Gravity o Juice. Volume of the Juice. Gals, or Litres. "Weight of the Juice. Pounds. 303 SEASON OF BEETS AND Dates. Beets Worked. Tons. Number of Diffusers. Be^ts per Diffuser. Juice % Beets. Gals, or Litres. 304 DIFFUSION-JUICE. Max. Temp. Specific Gravity oJ Juice. Volume of the Juice. Gals, or Litres. Weight of the Juice. Pounds. 305 SEASON OF... BEETS AND Dates. Beets Worked. Tons. Number of Diffusers. Be.^ts per Diffuser. Juice % Beets. Gals, or Litres. 306 DIFFUSION-JUICE. Max. Temp. Specific Gravity of Juice. Volume of the Juice. Gals, or Litres. Weight of the Juice. Pounds. 307 SEASON OF. BEETS AND Dates. Beets Worked. Tons. Number of Diffusers. Beets per Diffuser. Juice % Beets. Gals, or Litres. 308 DIFFUSION-JUICE. Max. Temp. Specific Gravity of Juice. Volume of the Juice. Gals, or Litres. Weight of the Juice. Pounds. 309 SEASON OF... BEETS AND Dates. Beets Worked. Tons. Number of Diffusers. _, , Juice % Beets. Be-ts per Uals> or Diffuser. Litres. 310 DIFFUSION-JUICE. Max. Temp. Specific Gravity of Juice. Volume of the Juice. Gals, or Litres. Weight of the Juice. Pounds. 311 SEASON OF LOSSES IN THE Dates. SUCROSE % BEETS Fresh Cossettes. Diffusion juice. Diffusion Losses, by Difference. 312 DIFFUSION. IN THE COSSETTES, LOSSES, ETC. Dates Exhausted Cossettes. Waste Water. Total Losses. N mT' ~\ 313 SEASON OF... LOSSES IN THE Dates. SUCROSE % BEETS Fresh Cossettes. Diffusion juice. Diffusion Losses, by Difference. 314 DIFFUSION. IX THE COSSETTKS, LOSSES, ETC. Dates. Exhausted Cossettes. Waste Water. Total Losses. Not Deter- mined. 315 SEASON OF.. LOSSES IN THE Dates. SUCROSE % BEETS Fresh Cossettes. Diffusion juice. Diffusion Losses, by Difference. 316 DIFFUSION. IN THE COSSETTES, LOSSES, ETC. Dates. Exhausted Cossettes. Waste Water. Total Losses. Not Deter- mined. i 317 SEASON OF. LOSSES IN THE Dates. SUCROSE: % BEETS Tresh Cossettes. Diffusion juice. Diffusion Losses, by Difference. 318 DIFFUSION. IN THE COSSETTKS, LOSSES, ETC. Dates. Exhausted Cossettes. Waste Water. Total Losses. Not Deter- mined. 319 SEASON OF . LOSSES IN THE Dates. SEASON OF DIFFUSION- JUICE. Dates. IST CARBONATATION. SD CARBONATATION. Alkalin- ity after Sulphur- ing. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. I 330 SIRUPS. Dates. Brix or Baume. * Sucrose. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. Coefficient of Purity. -I 337 SEASON OF. DIFFUSION-JUICE. Dates. IST CARBONATATION. 2D CARBONATATION. Alkalin- ity after Sulphur- ing. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Li ire. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. I SIRUPS. Dates. Brix or Baum6. % Sucrose. Alkalinity. Grains Lime per Litre. Coefficient of Purity. 339 SEASON OF. DIFFUSION-JUICE. Dates. IST CARBONATATION. 2o CARBONATATION. Alkalin- ity after Sulphur- ing. Lime used, % Beets. i Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. Lime used, % Beets. Alkalinity. Grams Lime per Litre. 340 SIRUPS. Dates. Brix or Baume. Sucrose. Alkalinity. Grams Lirne per Litre. Coefficient of Purity. 341 SEASON OF. FIRST Dates. Apparent Brix or Baume. * Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Eaffinose. 342 MASSECUITES. - Ash. % Reducing Sugars. % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. 343 SEASOX OF. FIRST Dates. Apparent Brix or Baume. % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Kaffinose. 344 MASSECUITES. % Ash. % Reducing Sugars. % Organic Matter not Sucrose. Apparent Coefficient of Purity. True Coefficient of Purity. Saline Coefficient. 345 SEASON OF. FIRST Dates. Apparent Brix or Baume. % Total Solids by Drying. % Sucrose (Direct). % Sucrose (Clerget). % Kaffinose. 346 MASSECUITES. % Ash. % Reducing Sugars. 424 SEASON OF. LDIE-K1LN GASES. Dates.! Carbonic Acid, CO a . i Oxygen, O. Carbonic Oxide, CO. * Nitrogen, N. (By differ ence. ) % I i 1 _~4 425 SEASON OF. LIME-KILN GASES. Dates. Carbonic Acid, CO 2 . _ _ Carbonic Oxygen, O. Qxide, CO. Nitrogen, N. (By differ ence.) 426 SEASON OF. LIME-KILN GASES. Dates. Carbonic Acid, CO 2 . ! Carbonic Oxygen, O. Oxide< co . Nitrogen, N. (By differ ence.} % - 427 SUMMARY OF YIELD AND LOSSES. cc IP 02 3^ J/3 si S-jd O " O^ 3 g |li 5 _ Q -to 1 ii few h Q >H !|< s 1 OQ PP S3 2 51 - 1 H 020 < s i ! 8 1 &H | fe >* ofi 9 111 i b MJ3 1 aj Wp^ t> 02 | i ^ 8 *S) O3 6 || 1 S S oJ 1 K .1 03 B cc T3 E O _c fl "|| 1st Sugar ... 2d Sugar 1 02 S 4th Sugar 1 T i 1 1 O a Total 442 Beets worked Tons I Sucrose in the beets Pounds Juice extracted Sucrose in the juice " First massecuite, total weight " Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Sucrose accounted for in the sugars andmolasses Per cent beets . Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture " " " Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- settes u " " . Sucrose lost in the waste waters " ** " . " " by inversion in the diffu- sion-battery '* " " . Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- ence " " " . Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup " " " , Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite ** " " Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses " " " Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. " " " . " " " the filter press cake... " " " . " " " the evaporation " ' " , Other losses, sucrose " " " , Total sucrose accounted for in the losses * " " , Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. " " " . unaccounted for " " " 443 ||| ||| 1 s ft w a ^ II 1 3 Q M ^ fa Q fc g rj3 M || " CO gl tal weight. Pounds. H S 4 o PH g 5 SUGAR AND MOLASSES. 1st Sugar 2d Sugar 3d Sugar h Molasses, gallons.. 1 1 o "o 444 Beets worked - Tons Sucrose in the beets Pounds Juice extracted " Sucrose in the juice First massecuite, total weight " Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Sucrose accounted for in the sugars and molasses Per cent beets . Sucrose to be accounted for in losses in manufacture " * Sucrose lost in the exhausted cos- settes " " " . Sucrose lost in the waste waters ** ** " . u "by inversion in the diffu- sion-battery " " " . Sucrose lost in the diffusion, by differ- ence " " " . Sucrose lost in the concentration to sirup " " " . Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to first massecuite " " * Sucrose lost in the concentration, etc., from sirup to molasses " " ' Sucrose lost in overflows and wastage. " " " . " " " the filter press cake... " " ' . " " " the evaporation " " " . Other losses, sucrose " " * , Total sucrose accounted for in the losses " " " . Total sucrose accounted for in the products and losses. " u " . " " unaccounted for " " 445 ifl 02 %Z ' 19 g g ii r^ 3 1 W Jz; < 13 MO s 1 1| JH Measurement and weight 11,12 Measurement of the sirup '. 9 Meissl and Hiller's factors for invert sugar 83 Melassigenic salts 201 Mills 69 Moisture, Determination, in filter press-cake 120 in massecuites and molasses, by drying 104 Molasses, Alkalinity 112 Analysis 102, in Calorific value 198 Spontaneous combustion 198 Muffle for incinerations 91 N. Nessler's solution 225 Net weight of the beets , 3 Nitrogen determination 92 Total and albuminoid 92 Nitrous oxide set free in boiling sugar 197 Normal solutions 217 weight 28 O. Oils, Purity tests 165 Tests applied 164 Optical methods of sugar analysis 19 Organic matter, Coefficient 127 Orsat's apparatus 142 Osmosis process for molasses, Analytical work 135 Oxalic acid, Standard 219 P. Parapectine 41 Pectine 41 Pellet's aqueous method, hot digestion 65 continuous tube 183 diffusion method as modified by Sachs-Le Docte 181 instantaneous aqueous diffusion method 67 method for the alkalinity of juices 101 Permanganate of potassium, Decjnormal 220 Phenacetoline solution 225 Phenolphthalein solution 224 INDEX. 469 PAGR I'olariscope 19 Adjustment 31 Control tube 34 Double compensating 21 Enlarged scale . 184 Half-shadow. 19 lamps 27 Laurent 23 manipulation 26 room 33 Triple-field 23 Polariscopes. General remarks 26 Polariscopic scale... 28 Reading 29 work, Notes 32 Polarization, Preparation of solutions 30 Preservation of samples 49 Proportional value 127 Pulp-press 72 Pure sugar, Preparation 222 Py knometers 60 Q. Quotient of purity 126 R. Raffinose and sucrose in presence of reducing sugars no Inversion method 106 Lindet's inversion method 108 Influence of subacetate of lead on the rotary power 40 Precipitation, by highly basic subacetate of lead 40 Rasp, Boring 46,178 Neveu and Aubin 70 Pellet and Lomont 65 Rasps 69 Reagents, Special 216 Recording apparatus 5 Reducing sugars, Determination, by gravimetric methods 78 in the beet 68 Notes 9 o Gravimetric method, using SoldainPs solution 83 in beet products 7 8 Sidersky's method 88 Violette's method 84 Volumetric methods 84 permanganate method 89 Regulator for use in electrolytic deposition of copper 8q 472 INDEX. PAGE Total solids, in massecuites and molasses, by drying TO Transition tint polariscope 25 Triple-field polariscope....' 22 Turmeric paper 224 V. Vacuum drying oven 94 Violette's solution 217 Viscosimeter, Engler's 133 Flow 132 Viscosity of sirups, etc 130 Vivien's apparatus for determination of the crystallized sugar 113 control tube for use in the carbonatation 9 8 W. Waste- waters, Sampling .. 48 Water, Analysis 167 Collection of samples 167 Nitrogen of nitrates 168 Total solids if 8 Determination of chlorine 169 hardness 169 Permanent hardness 171 Purification 167, 171 suitable for sugar manufacture 167 Wash and waste, Analysis 123 Weight of the juice, Calculation 7 Weights and measures 2 Weisberg's method for total solids in massecuites 104 Westphal balance 58 Wiley-Knorr filter-tube 86 Wiley's filter-tube 86 LIST OF TABLES AND FORMULAE. CARBOHYDRATES. PAGE Chemical and Physical Properties of the Carbohydrates. Ewell 256 CALIBRATION OF GLASS VESSELS. Apparent Weight of Mohr's Unit at Different Temperatures and Calibration of Vessels to Mohr's Unit 250 Testing a Burette : Tables and Descriptive Matter. Payne 231 DENSITY. Comparison of Degrees Brix and Baume and the Specific Gravity of Sugar Solutions. Stammer 275 Corrections of Readings on the Brix Scale for Variations of Tempera- ture from the Standard. Sachs 282 DIFFUSION. Volume of Juice, in Litres, yielded in the Diffusion of too Kilograms of Beets of Various Densities. Dupont 246 EVAPORATION. Evaporation Tables. Spencer 237, 240 Formulae for Concentration and Dilution 239, 241, 247 Reduction of the Weight or Volume of a Sirup to that of a Sirup of a Standard Density. Spencer 242 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION. Alteration of Glass Vessels by Heat 250 Coefficient of Expansion of Glass, Cubical 250 Contraction of Invert-sugar on Dissolving in Water 252 Expansion of Water. Kopp 251 Expansion of Water. Rossetti 251 Volume of Sugar Solutions at Different Temperatures. Gerlach 252 473 474 LIST OF TABLES AND FOKMUL^E. INVERT-SUGAR AND INVERSION. Contraction on Dissolving in Water 252 Inversion Formulae. Stubbs and Clements 293 Table for the Determi nation of less than i per cent. Herzf eld 81 Table for the Determination of more than i per cent. Meissl and Hiller 83 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES AND FORMULAE. Atomic Weights. Clark 229 Clergefs Constant. Wohl 299 Formulae for Concentration and Dilution 247 Freezing Mixtures. Walker 268 Fuels: Relative Values. Haswell 231 Reciprocals 294 Values of the Degrees of Polariscopic Scales 299 Weights and Measures, Customary and Metric 230 Weight per Cubic Foot and U. S. Gallon of Sugar Solutions 283 REAGENTS. Impurities and Strength of Reagents 226 SOLUBILITIES. Baryta in Sugar Solutions. Pellet and Sencier , 255 Lime in Sugar Solutions. Gerlach 252 Sugar in Alcohol. Schrefeld 254 Sugar in Water. Flourens 253 Sugar in Water. Herzfeld 253 Strontia in Sugar Solutions. Sidersky 254 Solubility of Certain Salts in Sugar Solutions. Jacobsthal 255 STRENGTH OF VARIOUS SOLUTIONS, ETC. Acetate of Lead. Gerlach 274 Ammonia. Carius 274 Calcium Oxide in Milk of Lime. Blatner 271 Calcium Oxide in Milk of Lime. Mateczek 272 Hydrochloric Acid. Graham-Otto 272 Nitric Acid. Kolb 270 Potassic Oxide 273 Sodium Oxide 273 Sulphuric Acid. Otto 269 Sulphuric Acid : Table for Dilution. Anthon 270 THERMAL DATA. Approximate Temperature of Iron at Red Heat, etc 249 Boiling-point of Sugar Solutions. Gerlach 252 Comparison of Thermometric Scales 247, 249 Freezing Mixtures. Walker 268 LIST OF TABLES AND FORMULA. 475 TABLES FOR CALCULATING SUCROSE, REDUCING SUGAR AND PURITY. PAGE Approximately True Coefficient of Purity. Weisberg 105 Clerget's Constant. Wohl 299 Coefficients of Purity. Kottmann 295 Reciprocals for Calculating Reducing Sugar , 294 Schmitz' Table for Sucrose 285 Sucrose in Massecuites, etc. Coombs 291 Table for less than i per cent Invert-sugar. Herzfeld 81 Table for more than i per cent Invert-sugar. Meissl and Hiller 83 Volume of Juice required to give Polariscopic Readings which are Certain Multiples of the Percentage of Sucrose. Spencer 291 TOTAL SOLIDS. Approximate Total Solids in Massecuites, etc. Coombs 291 Coefficients for Use in Determining the Approximately True Total Solids. Weisberg 105 WATER ANALYSIS. Table for the Calculation of the Hardness of Water. Sutton 170 ADVERTISEMENTS. Vilmorin= Andrieux & Co. SEEDSMEN. 4, QUAI DE LA MEGISSERIE, 4 Paris, France. THE firm of VILMORIN-ANDRIEUX & Co. has by methodic and scientific selection, during a period of over forty years, produced a beet of perfect form and containing a juice of the greatest richness and purity. This is the well-known <; Vilmorin's Im- proved White Beet*" The keeping qualities of this beet are unsurpassed. Late au- f tumnal rains cause less dete- rioration in this than in most other varieties, and it is better adapted to black virgin soil. Messrs. VILMORIN - AN- DRIEUX & Co. also produce the seed of the Klein Wanz- lebener and of the French Very Rich beet, taking every precaution to select only the B. improved \iimorin. highest grade of seed. For full information, including circulars and cata- logues, address the firm or AUG. RHOTERT, 26 Barclay St., New York, AGENT FOR THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA. ALBERT W. WALBURN, 'RESIDENT AID TREASURER. MAGNUS SWENSON, SECRETARY AND MANAGER WALBURN=SWENSON COMPANY, CHICAGO, Engineers, Founders and Machinists, BUILDERS OF THE MOST IMPROVED Beet-Sugar Machinery, Complete Beet=Sugar Plants and Central Factories a Specialty. hicago Heights. GENERAL OFFICE ; 944 Monadnock Block, Chicago. > Kilty Manufacturing Company, AND FOUNDERS HACHINISTS, CLEVELAND, OHIO. NEW YORK OFFICE: No. 142 Times Bldg. OK Complete Machinery For Beet, Cane and Glucose Sugar Houses and Refineries. ESTABLISHED 1846. INCORPORATED i864. American Tool and Machine Co., MANUFACTURERS OF The Weston Centrifugal Sugar Machines, Mixers, Elevators and Conveyors, 30' Machines, 40 Machines. PROMPT DELIVERY, FIRST-CLASS WORK AND SATISFACTION GUARANTEED. 109 Beach St., - = = Boston, Mass. BOOKS FOR SUGAR CHEMISTS. Spencer. Sugar Manufacturers' Handbook. i2mo, morocco $2.00 Wiechmann Sugar Analysis. 8vo, cloth . . 2.50 Fresenius (Wells). Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Svo, cloth 5.00 Fresenius (Allen). Quantitative Chemical An- alysis. 8vo, cloth 6.00 Catalogue VI Chemistry, Physics, Electricity, etc. sent to any one or dt ring it. JOHN WILEY & SONS, 53 East Tenth Street, New York City. } UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW 1916 , 1918 MAY 27 1918 JUR 29 1918 AUG 171920 SOm-l/lS YA I